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Occupational
Outlook
Handbook

1984-85
Edition

U.S. Department of Labor
Raymond J. Donovan, Secretary
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Janet L. Norwood, Commissioner
April 1984
Bulletin 2205
Material in this publication is
in the public domain and may,
with appropriate credit, be
reproduced without permission.




SOUTHWEST MISSOURI STATE
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
U S DEPOSITORY COPV
JUL 2 6 1984




Foreword
Raymond J. Donovan
Secretary of Labor

The selection of an occupation is one of the most important decisions in a person’s life. For the
young jobseeker, questions abound as to what skills are required in each field, and how those skills
may be attained or refined. Furthermore, while jobseekers may be aware of their own interests and
abilities, they face the perplexing choice of selecting a field which promises the greatest economic and
personal satisfaction.
As technological advances rapidly alter the job market, it is not only the young who need current,
accurate, and comprehensive career information. The choices are no easier for persons seeking a
career change, or for those entering the labor force at later stages in their lives. The availability of
career information is vital to all jobseekers, and to our Nation as a whole.
The Occupational Outlook Handbook is an invaluable primary source of vocational guidance
information. In clear language, it describes what workers do in each job, the training and education
they need, earnings, working conditions, and expected job prospects for selected occupations
covering a wide spectrum of the economy. I am certain that the updated 1984-85 edition of the
Occupational Outlook Handbook will provide valuable assistance to everyone seeking satisfying and
productive employment.

Prefatory Note
Janet L. Norwood
Commissioner,
Bureau of Labor Statistics




Information on tomorrow’s career opportunities must be available for today’s youth and others if
they are to prepare realistically for their future in the world of work. Since the late 1940’s, the Bureau of
Labor Statistics has conducted research on employment in occupations for use in vocational guidance.
A major product of this research is the Occupational Outlook Handbook.
The Handbook presents current and comprehensive information on work today and job prospects
for tomorrow. Revised every two years, this 16th edition of the Handbook covers about 200 occupa­
tions . For each of these occupations, the Handbook discusses job duties, working conditions, level and
places of employment, education and training requirements, advancement possibilities, job outlook,
earnings, other occupations that require similar aptitudes, interests, or training, and sources of
additional information. Handbook information is based on data from a variety of sources, including
business firms, trade associations, labor unions, professional societies, research organizations,
educational institutions, and government agencies.
For some occupations, this edition of the Handbook includes recently developed information on
movements between occupations and into and out of the labor force. The Handbook also includes
information about the effect of the business cycle, defense spending, energy development, and other
economic variables on occupational employment, and cites occupations whose employment declined
during the 1981-82 recession. This edition of the Handbook also presents information on selected
occupations which are not discussed in detailed occupational statements.
Occupations are grouped according to the Standard Occupational Classification Manual, 1980
edition. The Handbook also contains an index referenced to the most recent edition and supplement of
the Dictionary of Occupational Titles.

Contributors
The Handbook was prepared in the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Division of Occupational Outlook,
under the supervision of Neal H. Rosenthal. General direction was provided by Ronald E. Kutscher,
Associate Commissioner for Economic Growth and Employment Projections.
General planning and coordination of the Handbook were directed by Michael Pilot.
Daniel E. Hecker, Anne Kahl, Chester C. Levine, and Patrick Wash supervised the research and
preparation of individual Handbook sections.
Members of the Office’s staff who contributed sections were Verada P. Bluford, Douglas J.
Braddock, Donald Clark, Conley Hall Dillon, Jr., Lawrence C. Drake, Jr., David S. Frank, Arthur J.
Gartaganis, LudmillaK. Murphy, Thomas Nardone, H. James Neary, JonQ. Sargent, Joel P. Segaloff,
and Audrey J. Watson.
Chester C. Levine coordinated the compilation and editing of tables and graphic arts material
associated with the Handbook. Max L. Carey developed the information on selected occupations
which are not discussed in detailed occupational statements. Gail M. Martin was responsible for the
gathering and editing of photographs.
Under the direction of Beverly A. Williams, word processing was handled by Vidella H. Hubbard,
Brenda A. Marshall, and Marilyn W. Queen.

Note




A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, industrial organizations, and
government agencies are able to provide career information that is valuable to counselors and
jobseekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organizations are listed at the end of
each occupational statement. Although these references were assembled carefully, the Bureau of
Labor Statistics has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organizations listed. Also,
because the Bureau does not see all the information or publications that may be sent in response to a
request, it cannot guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing of an organization,
therefore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recommendation by the Bureau or the
U.S. Department of Labor, either of the organization and its activities or of the information it may
supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue.
The occupational information contained in the Handbook presents a general, composite description
of jobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The
Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours,
the right of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job
evaluation systems.

iv

Photograph Credits
T h e B ureau o f L abor S tatistics gratefu lly a c k n o w le d g e s the co o p eration and a ssista n c e o f the m any
g o vern m en t and private sou rces that eith er contrib uted ph otograp hs or m ad e their fa c ilitie s availab le to
U .S . D ep artm en t o f L abor photograp hers. P h otographs m ay not b e free o f ev ery p o s sib le sa fety or
health hazard. D e p ic tio n o f co m p an y or trade n am e in n o w ay co n stitu tes en d orsem en t b y the
D ep artm en t o f Labor.

A - l- I n s u la t io n , A A A O rnam ental Iron w ork s,
I n c ., A l ’s G la ss S h op , I n c ., C ity o f A lexan d ria
(V a.)— S h e r iff’s O ffic e , A le x a n d r ia A n im a l
H osp ital (V a .), A lexan d ria G azette (V a.), A le x ­
andria H o sp ita l (V a .), T h e A lib i Restaurant,
A llie d In d u str ia l M a c h in e S e r v ic e s , I n c .,

lau f M fg . C o . , I n c ., B a ltim ore G as and E lectric

tion A d m in istration, First V irgin ia B an k , Dr.
Jane F o n g , G eo rg e M a so n U n iversity, G eorge
W a s h in g to n U n iv e r s i t y H o s p i t a l , G e o r g e
W a sh in g to n U n iv e r s it y — A c a d e m ic C e n tr e ,
G e o r g e ’s P u b lick H o u se , G eo rgetow n S c h o o l
o f S c ie n c e and A rts, L td ., G eo rg eto w n U n iver­
sity, G ian t F o o d s, I n c ., Dr. M . Joan G ille s p ie ,
D .D . S . , G o ld Art Jew elers, Dr. G len n G ood h an d , D . D . S . , G u lf O il C o m p a n y — Fairfax
T erm in a l (V a .), H a d le y M e m o r ia l H o s p ita l
(W a sh ., D .C .) , H ele n e S tik e ll, Dr. A . R oy H er­

C o ., B a n k o f V irg in ia , B e a co n N orth I n c ., B io ­

o n , M .D ., H om er O p tical, In c ., H o n e y w e ll,

m etric R esea rch In stitu te, B org-W arner C orp o­

In c ., H ow ard U n iv ersity L aw S c h o o l, H unter

ration, B ro b st M u sic S tu d io , C ap itol H ill H o s­

L a b , E . B a r b o u r H u t c h in s o n E le m e n t a r y

A m erica n N ew sp a p er P u b lish ers A sso c ia tio n ,
A m erica n U n iv ersity , A n to n ’s T .V ., A rlin gton
C ou n ty (V a.)— W ater P o llu tio n C on trol P lan t,
A rtech C o rp ., A to m ic Industrial F orum , B a l-

pital (W a sh ., D .C .) , C arpenter’s D istrict C ou n ­

S c h o o l (H ern d on , V a.), H ym an C on struction

c il (W ash ., D .C .) , C h esap eak e and Potom ac

C om p any, Interior D e sig n D im e n sio n s , W .S .

T eleph one C o . , T h e C hurch o f S t. T h eresa o f

Jenks and S o n , K aufm ann O ffice E q u ip m en t,

A vila, Dr. K en n eth C lark e, D . D . S . , C olorfax

K elly S e r v ic es, John F. K en n ed y C enter for the

L aboratories, I n c ., M .C . D e a n , I n c ., D e lo itte

P erform ing A rts, K h alsa C hiropractic Center,

H askin s and S e lls , U n iv e r sity o f the D istrict o f

J o h n K u y k e n d a ll P a in t in g , L & M F lo o r s ,

C olu m b ia— S p ee c h and H earin g C lin ic , D ix ie

L eesb u rg (V a.) M u n icip al A irport, L ittle Falls

H eating and S h ee t M eta l, D o w n to w n G arage

U n ited Presbyterian C hurch, Dr. Barry L o n ­

In c ., D u p lica tiv e Im p ressio n s, I n c ., E la in e ’s o f
O ld e T ow n e, Fairfax C o u n ty (V a.) H ealth D e ­

d o n , T h e M arriott C orp., U n iv ersity o f M ary­

partm ent— D iv isio n o f E n viron m en tal H ealth ,

M a ry la n d , M cL e a n B ic y c le C enter, M errill

land— D epartm en t o f E d u cation , U n iv ersity o f

Fairfax C ou n ty (V a .) P u b lic S c h o o ls, Fairfax

L yn ch P ierce Fenner and S m ith , N a ch m a n ’s,

C ou nty (V a.)— O ffice o f C o m p reh en siv e P lan ­

In c ., N ation al A eron autics and S p ace A d m in ­

n in g , T he Fairfax H o sp ita l (V a.), Fed eral A via­

istra tio n , N a tio n a l B ro a d ca stin g C o r p ., N a ­




tion al C o a l A s so c ia tio n , N a tion a l C o in M a ­
c h in e C o ., I n c ., N a tio n a l C on structors A s s o ­
cia tio n , N ation al C o u n cil o f L a R a za , N ation al
In su ra n ce A g e n c y , N o rth ern V ir g in ia C o m ­
m u n ity C o lle g e , N U S C orporation, Pacific G as
and E lec tric C o m p a n y , P ie d m o n t A ir lin e s,
P lan n in g R esearch C orporation, P o w ell O p ti­
c ia n s, I n c ., R e /M a x D is tin c tiv e P ro p erties,
K urt K u y k en d a ll, R ic e , Carpenter, and Carroway, I n c ., Sears R o eb u ck and C o .— A u to
S e r v ic e D iv is io n , Sears R o eb u ck and C o .—
S e r v ic e Center, S e v e n E lev e n F oo d S to res, Star
U p h olstery, T im e, I n c ., Top M eat M ark et, U n ­
d erw riting S p ec ia lists, I n c ., U n ited M asonry,
I n c ., o f V irgin ia, U .S . D ep artm en t o f A g ri­
culture, U .S . P ostal S erv ice— M cL ea n B ranch
(V a.), State o f V irgin ia— D iv is io n o f Forestry,
State o f V irgin ia— D iv is io n o f H ig h w a y s, U n i­
v e r s it y o f V i r g in ia , V I P T r a v el A g e n c y ,
W D V M -T V , W a sh in g to n M etro p o lita n A rea
T r a n sit A u t h o r it y , W e s t S p r i n g f i e ld H ig h
S c h o o l (V a.), W estern B ranch D ie s e l, I n c ., T he
W harf, W illia m N o r w itz C o ., W illia m s C o n ­
stru ctio n C o ., Dr. C e c ilia P u rsel W illia m s,
W illia m so n Barber S h op, W o lfb erg , A lv a rez,
Taracido and A s so c ia te s, T h e W yatt C om pany,
Yale New Haven Magazine, Y ork D iv is io n ,
Carl Z itzm an .

C o m m en ts abou t the con ten ts o f this p u b lication and su g g estio n s for im p rovin g it are w e lco m e .
P le a se add ress th em to C h ief, D iv isio n o f O ccu p ation al O u tlook , Bureau o f L abor S tatistics,
U .S . D ep artm en t o f Labor, W ash in gton, D .C . 20212.

v

Contents

1

Guide to the Handbook

1

HOW TO GET THE MOST
FROM THE HANDBOOK

13

21

ASSUMPTIONS AND
METHODS USED IN
PREPARING THE
EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS

Occupations

23

ADMINISTRATIVE AND
MANAGERIAL OCCUPATIONS

30
32
35
36
38
40
42

A cco u n ta n ts and auditors
B an k o fficers and m an agers
B u y e r s, retail and w h o le sa le trade
C on stru ctio n in sp ec to r s, p u b lic
adm inistration
H ealth and regu latory in sp ectors
H ealth se r v ic es adm inistrators
H o tel m an agers and assistan ts
P erso n n el and lab or relation s
sp ecia lists
P urch asing agen ts
S c h o o l adm inistrators
U n derw riters

44

ENGINEERS, SURVEYORS,
AND ARCHITECTS

44
45

A rch itects
S u rveyors

48
50
51
51
51
52
52
53
53
54

Mathematical scientists and systems
analysts

57
58
59
61

A ctu aries
C om p u ter sy stem s an alysts
M ath em atician s
S tatistician s

63
63
64
66
o/

Physical scientists

69
69
70
72

Life scientists

TOMORROW’S JOBS

23

23
26
27
29

NATURAL SCIENTISTS AND
MATHEMATICIANS

57

WHERE TO GO FOR MORE
INFORMATION

P etroleu m en g in eers

56

6

55

vi



Chiropractors
Dentists
Optometrists
Physicians
Podiatrists
Veterinarians

122 REGISTERED NURSES,
PHARMACISTS, DIETITIANS,
THERAPISTS, AND
PHYSICIAN ASSISTANTS
123
124
126
128
130
132
134
135

Dietitians
Occupational therapists
Pharmacists
Physical therapists
Physician assistants
Registered nurses
Respiratory therapists
Speech pathologists and audiologists

138

SOCIAL SCIENTISTS, SOCIAL
WORKERS, RELIGIOUS
WORKERS, AND LAWYERS

HEALTH TECHNOLOGISTS
AND TECHNICIANS

139

74

L aw yers

140
142
143

78
80
81
84
86

E co n o m ists
P sy c h o lo g is ts
S o c io lo g ists
U rban and region al plan ners

144
145
147
150

Clinical laboratory technologists and
technicians
Dental hygientists
Electrocardiograph technicians
Electroencephalographic technologists
and technicians
Health record technicians
Licensed practical nurses
Radiologic technologists
Surgical technicians

88
88
90

Social and recreation workers

152

WRITERS, ARTISTS, AND
ENTERTAINERS

94
94
95
97

Religious workers

153
153
155

Communications occupations
Public relations specialists
Radio and television announcers and
newscasters
Reporters and correspondents
Writers and editors

99

TEACHERS, LIBRARIANS,
AND COUNSELORS

74

Engineers
A e ro sp a ce e n g in eers
C h em ica l en g in e er s
C iv il e n g in eers
E lectrica l en g in e er s
Industrial e n g in eers
M ech a n ica l e n g in eers
M eta llu rg ica l en g in e er s
M in in g e n g in eers
N u clea r e n g in eers

111
112
114
116
119
120

C h em ists
G e o lo g ists and g e o p h y sic ists
M ete o ro lo g ists
P h y sicists

A gricu ltu ral sc ien tists
B io lo g ic a l scien tists
F oresters and con servation ists

Social scientists and urban planners

S o c ia l w orkers
R ecreation w orkers

P rotestant m in isters
R ab bis
R om an C ath olic priests

100
101
103
105
108

K in dergarten and elem en ta ry teach ers
S eco n d ary sc h o o l teachers
C o lle g e and u n iversity facu lty
Librarians
C o u n selors

111

HEALTH DIAGNOSING AND
TREATING PRACTITIONERS

156
159
161
161
163
165

Design occupations
Commercial and graphic artists and
designers
Designers
Photographers

168
168
169
171
172

Performing artists
Actors and actresses
Dancers
Musicians
Singers

VII

175 TECHNOLOGISTS AND
TECHNICIANS, EXCEPT
HEALTH
175
177
178
180
181
183
185
186

Air traffic controllers
Broadcast technicians
Computer programmers
Drafters
Electrical and electronics technicians
Legal assistants
Library technicians
Tool programmers, numerical control

188 MARKETING AND SALES
OCCUPATIONS
188
190
192
193
194
196
198
199

Cashiers
Insurance agents and brokers
Manufacturers sales workers
Real estate agents and brokers
Retail trade sales workers
Securities sales workers
Havel agents
Wholesale trade sales workers

202 ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT
OCCUPATIONS, INCLUDING
CLERICAL
202
203
205
206
208
209
211
213
214
215
217

Bank tellers
Bookkeepers and accounting clerks
Computer operating personnel
Mail carriers and postal clerks
Receptionists
Reservation agents and transportation
ticket clerks
Secretaries and stenographers
Shipping and receiving clerks
Teacher aides
Telephone operators
Typists

223 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
224
224
225
227
229

Protective service occupations
Correction officers
Firefighters
Guards.
Police and detectives, public service

231

Food and beverage preparation and
service occupations
Bartenders
Cooks and chefs
Waiters and waitresses

231
232
234

245 Cosmetologists
246 Flight attendants

317
319

250 AGRICULTURAL AND
FORESTRY OCCUPATIONS

322
323
323
325
326
327
329
330
331
332

252

M E C H A N IC S A N D R E P A IR E R S

253

Vehicle and mobile equipment
mechanics and repairers

253
255
256
258
260

A ircraft m ech an ics
A u to m o tiv e b od y repairers
A u to m o tiv e m ech an ics
D ie se l m ech an ics
Farm eq u ip m en t m ech an ics

262

Electrical and electronics equipment
repairers

262
263
265
268
270

A p p lia n ce installers and repairers
C om m u n ication s eq u ip m en t m ech an ics
C om p uter serv ice tech n ician s
L in e installers and cab le sp licers
R ad io and te le v isio n service
tech n ician s
T elep h on e and P B X installers and
repairers

271

274
274

Other mechanics and repairers

276
277
279
280
282

A ir-con d ition in g, refrigeration, and
h eating m ech an ics
C o in m ach in e servicers and repairers
Industrial m achinery repairers
M illw righ ts
M u sical instrum ent repairers
O ffice m ach in e repairers

285

C O N S T R U C T IO N A N D
E X T R A C T IV E O C C U P A T IO N S

Dental laboratory technicians
Dispensing opticians and ophthalmic
laboratory technicians
Furniture upholsterers
Hand molders
Jewelers
Job and die setters
Lithographers and photoengravers
Machinists and layout workers
Patternmakers
Photographic process workers
Shoe repair occupations
Toolmakers and diemakers

335
335
336

Plant and system operators
Stationary engineers
Water and sewage treatment plant
operators

339

Machine operators, tenders, and
setup workers
Machine tool operators
Printing press operators and assistants

339
340
343
343
344
345

Fabricators, assemblers, and
handworking occupations
Assembler occupations
Automotive painters
Welders and flamecutters

350 TRANSPORTATION AND
MATERIAL MOVING
OCCUPATIONS
350
352
354
356
357

Airplane pilots
Busdrivers
Construction machinery operators
(Operating engineers)
Industrial truck operators
Truckdrivers

Construction occupations

286
287
289
291
292
293
295
297
298
299
301
302
304
305
307
308

B rick layers and ston em ason s
Carpenters
C em en t m ason s and terrazzo w orkers
D ryw all applicators and tapers
E lectrician s
F loor co verin g installers
G laziers
Insu lation w orkers
Ironw orkers
Painters and paperhangers
Plasterers
P lum bers and pipefitters
R oofers
S h eet-m etal workers
T ilesetters

310

Extractive occupations

311

P R O D U C T IO N O C C U P A T IO N S

311

B lu e -co lla r w orkers su pervisors

313
313
314
315
316

B oilerm akers
B ook b in d ers
B utchers and m eatcutters
C om p ositors and typesetters

361

HELPERS, HANDLERS,
EQUIPMENT CLEANERS, AND
LABORERS

361

Construction laborers and helpers

364

Indexes

364 DICTIONARY OF
OCCUPATIONAL TITLES
(D.O.T.) INDEX
374 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS

236
236
237
239

Health service occupations
Dental assistants
Medical assistants
Nursing aides, orderlies, and
attendants

241
241

Cleaning service occupations
Building custodians

243
243

Personal service occupations
Barbers




383

Reprints

387

Companion Publications

387

Occupational Projections and Training
Data
Occupational Outlook Quarterly
(inside back cover)

Precision production occupations




How to Get the Most From the Handbook
H o w m u ch training d o e s it take to enter a par­
ticular occu p a tio n ? Is e x p erien ce im portant?
H o w m u ch c a n I e x p e ct to earn? Is it d ifficu lt to
find a jo b in th is field ? W h eth er y o u are prepar­
ing to enter th e w o rld o f w ork for the first tim e,
reentering th e labor fo rce after an a b sen ce , or
plan ning to retrain fo r an occu p a tio n w ith a
m ore p ro m isin g fu tu re, su ch q u estio n s arise.
F in d in g the an sw ers can b e d ifficu lt. H ow ever,
m ore reso u rces are availab le than e ver b efo re to
h elp y o u m ak e an in fo rm ed career c h o ice .
A m o n g th ese reso u rces is the Occupational
Outlook Handbook. A p p r o x im a te ly 2 0 0 o c ­
cupations are d escrib ed in the Handbook, al­
though th e total n u m ber o f occu p a tio n s in the
U .S . e c o n o m y m ay b e co u n ted in the th ou ­
sands. O ccu p a tio n s requiring lo n g period s o f
education or train in g are m o st lik e ly to appear
in the Handbook, as are sm all b u t rapidly g ro w ­
ing field s o f em p lo y m en t.
For e a c h o f a b o u t 2 0 0 o c c u p a t io n s , th e
Handbook co n ta in s a tw o - to th ree-p age state­
m ent that te lls w h at the w ork is lik e and d is­
c u sses ed u ca tio n and training req u irem en ts, ad­
van cem en t p o s sib ilitie s , earn in gs, and the jo b
o u tlo o k . A lto g e th e r , th e s e o c c u p a t io n s a c ­
counted fo r w e ll o v er h a lf o f all jo b s in the
U n ited States in 1982. Handbook statem en ts
describ e the w ork o f a p p roxim ately 8 0 percen t
o f the N a tio n ’s p r o fe ssio n a l, te c h n ic a l, and
sa les workers; 7 0 percen t o f craft w orkers; 65
percent o f serv ice w orkers; 55 percen t o f cler­
ica l w ork ers; 5 0 p ercen t o f o p era tiv es; and
sm aller p roportions o f m anagerial w orkers and
la b o r er s.
Sum m ary data for an add ition al 170 o ccu p a ­
tion s are p resen ted in tab les that can b e fou n d at
the end o f m o st chapters. For e a ch o ccu p ation
listed , y o u w ill find a d efin ition ; the num ber o f
jo b s in 1982; and a phrase d escrib in g future
em p lo y m en t g ro w th or d e c lin e . A lto g eth er,
th ese o ccu p a tio n s acco u n ted for an add ition al
2 0 percent o f the N a tio n ’s jo b s in 1982.
T he Handbook is not m eant to b e read from
beg in n in g to en d . Start b y b ro w sin g through the
table o f co n ten ts at the front o f the b o o k or the
alphabetical in d ex at the back . L o o k for o c ­
cupations that interest y o u , or for th o se that
sou nd fam iliar. O cc u p a tio n s are g r o u p e d in
clusters o f related o ccu p a tio n s, s u c h as “ e n g i­
neers, su rveyors, and a rch itects” or “ w riters,
artists, and entertainers.”
For an o v erview , read the introductory ch ap ­
ter o n T om orrow ’s Jobs. It d isc u s se s so m e o f
the broad trends that are lik e ly to sh ape the
eco n o m y and the w orld o f w ork ov er the c o m ­
ing d ecad e.

The First Step:
Examining Yourself
Im portant as it is to learn abou t the w orld o f
w ork, the first step in m ak in g a sou n d career




c h o ic e is findin g ou t abou t you rself. A n under­
stan ding o f you r v a lu es, fe e lin g s , and g o a ls w ill
h elp y o u d eterm in e w h at y o u ’re lo o k in g for in a
career. For w h en y o u m ak e a career c h o ic e ,
y o u ’re d irectly or ind irectly m ak in g d e c isio n s
abou t the ty p es o f p eo p le y o u w ill asso cia te
w ith , th e am oun t o f leisu re tim e y o u w ill h ave,
the am ou n t o f risk y o u are com fortab le w ith ,
and the im p ortan ce o f m on ey in you r life . T h e se
d e c is io n s d ep en d o n valu es y o u already h old .

About Those Numbers at the Head of
Each Statement
The numbers in parentheses that appear just
below the title of most occupational state­
ments are D.O.T. code numbers. D.O.T.
stands for the Dictionary of Occupational Ti­
tles (fourth edition), a U.S. Department of
Labor publication. Each number helps classi­
fy jobs by the type of work done, required
training, physical demands, and working
conditions. D.O.T. numbers are used by Job
Service offices to classify applicants and job
openings, and for reporting and other operat­
ing purposes. They are included in the Hand­
book because career information centers and
libraries frequently use them for filing oc­
cupational information. An index listing
Handbook occupations by D.O.T. number
may be found just before the alphabetical
index in the back of this book.

O n e w a y o f cla rifyin g you r w ork valu es c e n ­
ters around id en tify in g the satisfaction s y o u
h o p e to g et from you r jo b . D o y o u , for e x a m ­
p le , co n sid er it im portant to h elp other p e o p le ,
or to contrib ute to the w elfare o f so c ie ty as a
w h o le ? T h e health p ro fessio n s, so c ia l w ork ,
tea ch in g , urban p lan n in g, and p u b lic ad m in ­
istration are am on g a num ber o f career field s
that offer the op p ortu nity to be o f serv ice to
others.
C ou n selors and other p ro fession als trained in
hu m an beh avior can h elp y o u gain in sigh t into
you r v a lu es and g o a ls. T hey m ay adm inister
d ia g n o stic te sts, for ex a m p le, and then d iscu ss
the results w ith y o u . Furtherm ore, p u b lication s
on career d ecisio n m a k in g abou nd , and th ese
g en erally exp lain h o w y ou can a ssess you r v al­
u es and sk ills on you r o w n .
W o v en th rou gh ou t e v er y statem en t in the
Handbook is in fo rm a tio n that can h e lp y o u
m atch y o u r se lf to the w orld o f w ork. T h e fo l­
lo w in g list o f jo b characteristics sh ou ld b e kept
in m ind sin ce y o u w ill find them m en tion ed in
several d ifferen t sectio n s o f a ty p ica l Handbook
statem en t. R em em b er that the im portance o f
attributes su ch as th o se listed b e lo w varies from
jo b to jo b , as w e ll as from person to person.

—Problem-solving ability— requires the ability to
identify a problem and then decide what should be

done to correct it. Auto mechanics, who spend
much of their time fixing cars, need problem-solv­
ing ability.
— U ses to o ls, m ach in ery —takes a talent for working

with your hands. Often, knowing how machines
work is necessary, too. Toolmakers, who use ma­
chine tools and precision measuring instruments to
produce other tools and metal forms, need skill in
this area.
— In stru cts oth ers —needs

the ability to help others
learn how to do or understand something. Recep­
tionists and hotel clerks help others in this way.

— R e p e titio u s —involves

work in which the same
thing is done over and over again. An assembler
who works on a production line does repetitious
work.

— H aza rd o u s —involves the use of dangerous equip­

ment or materials or work in dangerous surround­
ings. Elevator constructors, who work at great
heights, have hazardous jobs.
— O u tdoors —requires

a major portion of time to be
spent outdoors, frequently without regard to
weather conditions. Roofers, who applying roofing
materials to the tops of buildings, work outdoors.

— P h y s ic a l sta m in a —involves

the ability to lift
heavy weights, walk long distances, stand for long
periods, or stoop frequently. Bricklayers, police
officers, and chefs all need physical stamina.

—G en era lly confined —involves staying in one place
most of the time. Truckdrivers who sit behind the
wheel for many hours and statistical clerks who do
their work at a desk for most of the day are exam­
ples.
—P recision —involves high standards of accuracy.
Accountants, air traffic controllers, and machinists
are examples.
—Works w ith d eta il —involves technical data, num­
bers, or written materials. Machinists who consult
blueprints or written specifications before making
each machined product and programmers who
write instructions for the computer are examples.
—F re q u e n t p u b lic c o n ta c t —involves day-to-day
contact with people who need information or serv­
ice. Automobile service advisers, receptionists,
hotel clerks, bank tellers, waiters, and barbers are
all examples.
—P art tim e —refers to work of less than 35 hours a
week. Waiters and waitresses and real estate agents
are examples.
—A b le to se e results —refers to jobs that produce an
actual product or accomplishment. Bricklayers,
chefs, and choreographers all see results.
—C r e a tiv ity —involves new ideas, programs, de­
signs, or products. Writers, industrial designers,
and engineers are examples of the many different
kinds of workers whose jobs require creativity.
—Influences oth ers —requires the ability to stimulate
others to think or act in a certain way. Automobile
sales workers who influence customers to buy and
teachers who inspire students to learn are exam­
ples.

1

—Initiative— demands the ability to determine on
one’s own what should be done, as well as the
motivation to do it without close supervision. Law­
yers and newspaper reporters need initiative.

—Works as part of a team— cooperation with coworkers is an integral part of the job. Instrument
makers, who work closely with scientists and engi­
neers to translate designs into models, and school
counselors, who work closely with other staff
members, are examples.

—Competition on the job— competition with co­
workers for recognition or advancement is an inte­
gral part of the job. College teachers who compete
for tenure, securities sales workers who compete
for commissions, and models who compete for
assignments are all examples.

Identifying your interests and abilities
provides another way of matching yourself to
the world of work. Do science or math interest
you? Do you like to read? Do you enjoy work­
ing with your hands and building things? The
answers to such questions can help you dis­
cover your strengths, and may suggest careers it
would be worthwhile to explore.
Suppose you have a flair for language and
want to put your talent to work in the field of
writing and publishing. You might look for a
job as a:
—Journalist
— Script writer
—Advertising worker
— Technical writer
— Greeting card writer
— Crossword puzzle writer
— Public relations worker

section on Communication Occupations, but
remember that that is only the beginning! Skim
the table of contents, or read the introductory
material at the beginning of each cluster, to
determine which other statements are worth
investigating.
Don’t limit yourself by examining only a few
occupations. You’ll want to begin with those
that interest you most, of course, but don’t rule
out others too soon. Some jobs may not appeal
to you simply because you’re not familiar with
them. They might be worth looking into. Re­
member, also, that you haven’t wasted your
time if you investigate a career only to decide
that it’s not right for you. Finding out what you
don’t like is important, too.
Career exploration isn’t something you do
just once. Taking stock of your interests is
something you’re apt to do from time to time
throughout your life. You will continue to
change as the years go by, and it is likely that
your career interests and goals will change as
well.
The Next Step:
Examining the World of Work
Once you have chosen an occupation you’d like
to learn more about, you can use the Handbook
to find out what the job is like, what education
and training are needed, what the advancement
possibilities, earnings, and job outlook are like­
ly to be, and what related occupations you
might want to explore. Each statement in the
Handbook follows a standard format, making it
easier to compare different jobs. What follows
is a description of the major sections of a Hand­
book statement, plus some hints on how to use
the information.

— Textbook editor
— Manuscript reader
— Index editor
— Literary agent
— Bookstore manager
— Publisher’s representative
— Book club sales associate
— Magazine circulation assistant

New specialties in writing have developed as
a result of increasing specialization in our mod­
em world. Science writing, business writing,
and medical writing all present possible options
to those with skills in writing.
Writing and publishing jobs aren’t the only
ones that require an excellent command of lan­
guage, however. Communication skills are vital
to many occupations, and the more skills peo­
ple have in English and language arts, the more
valuable they will be in the working world.
For example, lawyers must have topnotch
communication skills to be successful in digest­
ing and analyzing large amounts of information
and presenting their c^ses before others. Lob­
byists and fundraisers, too, must be effective
communicators, as well as those who hold po­
litical office or are in social service occupa­
tions. Librarians and teachers also need good
communication skills.
To locate Handbook statements on occupa­
tions that require language skills, start with the
Digitized for2
FRASER


Nature of the work. This section tells what
workers typically do on the job, what tools or
equipment they use, how closely they are super­
vised, and how their responsibilities fit in with
those of others in the same workplace. In prac­
tice, job duties vary a good deal, depending on
the size or type of employer. In general, people
in small organizations handle a wider variety of
tasks than those in large offices or firms, where
workers are likely to specialize in one or more
aspects of the job.
Working conditions. When considering an oc­
cupation, you may want to find out whether the
working conditions suit you. Some aspects of
the work may strike you as difficult, dirty, or
otherwise undesirable. Other aspects may ap­
peal to you. Most jobs offer a little of both. For
example, when overtime is required, em­
ployees must give up some of their free time and
be flexible in their personal lives. This is offset,
however, by the opportunity to earn extra in­
come or time off.
Evening or nightwork is part of the regular
work schedule in many jobs. Bartenders,
guards, broadcast journalists and technicians,
and some factory workers may be required to
work these shifts on a permanent basis. Work­
ers in other occupations, such as nurses and
police officers, may work nights on a rotating
basis. Still other workers may be assigned to
split shifts: Busdrivers, for example, may work

morning and evening rush hours with time off
in the middle of the day. However, some people
prefer shiftwork because they can pursue lei­
sure activities or take care of errands during
daytime hours.
Work settings vary greatly. They include of­
fice buildings, construction sites, mines, facto­
ries, restaurants, stores, ships and planes.
Some people like a quiet, air-conditioned set­
ting; others prefer the hum of machinery. By
knowing the setting of jobs you find interesting,
you can avoid working in an environment that
you would find unpleasant.
Many workers have to be outdoors some or
all of the time. Mail carriers, construction
workers, firefighters, and foresters are a few
examples. Being exposed to all types of weather
may be preferred to indoor work, however, by
those who enjoy the outdoors.
Some jobs are potentially dangerous. Cuts,
bums, and falls can occur in restaurant kitch­
ens, factory assembly lines, and forge shops,
for example. Consequently, many jobs, such as
those involving the use of nuclear materials or
radiologic equipment, require the use of spe­
cially designed equipment and protective
clothing.
Some jobs require standing, crouching in
awkward positions, heavy lifting, or are other­
wise strenuous. Be sure you have sufficient
physical strength and stamina for the work you
are interested in.
Employment. This section tells how many
jobs there were in the occupation in 1982. The
size of an occupation has a lot to do with job
prospects because the larger the occupation, the
greater the number of openings when workers
transfer to other occupations or leave the labor
force. In exceptionally large occupations—a
category that includes secretaries, typists,
bookkeepers, cashiers, registered nurses, nurs­
ing aides, janitors, and truckdrivers—employ­
ment size is the single most important determi­
nant of the very large number of jobs
anticipated through the mid-1990’s.
This section also tells whether an occupation
is concentrated in certain industries or geo­
graphic areas. Some jobs, such as secretaries,
are found throughout the country and in almost
every industry. O thers, like actors and
actresses, are concentrated in certain parts of
the country. This type of information helps you
know where to go to look for the kind of job you
want. It also is useful to those who have strong
preferences about where they live.
In addition, information on part-time em­
ployment may be included. For students, home­
makers, retired persons, and others who may
want to work part time, knowing which occupa­
tions offer good opportunities for part-time
work can be a valuable lead in finding a job.
Training, other qualifications, and advance­
ment. This section should be read carefully
because preparing for an occupation can mean a
considerable investment of time and money. If
you currently are in school, it’s a good idea to
look closely at the high school and college
courses considered useful preparation for the
career you have in mind.

Workers can prepare for jobs in a variety of
ways, including college programs leading to a
degree, certificate, or diploma; postsecondary
vocational school programs, both public and
private; home study courses; government train­
ing programs; Armed Forces training; appren­
ticeships and other formal training offered by
employers; and high school courses. For each
occupation, the Handbook identifies the pre­
ferred training. In many cases, alternative ways
of obtaining training are listed as well. Re­
member, the amount of training you have often
determines the level at which you enter an oc­
cupation and the speed with which you ad­
vance.
Today, few people spend their entire adult
lives in a single occupation. Roughly 1 worker
in 9 changes his or her occupation each year.
And most people enter, leave, and reenter the
labor force several times over a lifetime.
If a pattern of movement exists from one
occupation to another, it usually is discussed in
this part as a Handbook statement. It is helpful
to know that certain jobs are steppingstones to
others. Typist, messenger, dining room atten­
dant, dishwasher, freight handler, and con­
struction laborer are examples of entry-level
jobs that are open to people with little or no
work experience. Skills and work habits gained
at jobs such as these can lead to more responsi­
ble, higher paying jobs.
Conversely, some occupations are not open
to beginners. Management jobs such as bank
officer, restaurant manager, or regional sales
manager, for example, generally require pre­
vious experience.
The health field offers numerous examples of
career mobility, in part because there are so
many different occupations in this large and
dynamic industry. Further, health care has be­
come so sophisticated and complex that work­
ers who already are part of the system enjoy
certain advantages over those who have no
background in health care. It is not uncommon,
for example, for a registered nurse, medical
laboratory technologist, or radiographer to un­
dertake the additional training needed to pre­
pare for a more highly skilled job as a physician
assistant, nurse practitioner, or radiation
therapy technologist. Opportunities to train for
these occupations are limited, by and large, to
people who already have a health professions
background.
For some occupations, certification or licen­
sure is required. Physicians and nurses, ele­
mentary and secondary school teachers, bar­
bers and cosmetologists, and electricians and
plumbers are examples of workers who must be
licensed. This section identifies occupations
that require licensure and what the general re­
quirements are. However, States vary in their
licensing requirements. If you are considering
an occupation that requires a license, be sure to
check with the appropriate State agency about
specific requirements. Common requirements
include completion of a State-approved training
or educational program and passing a written
examination.
Because of licensure and certification re­
quirements, movement from one clinical health




career to another generally requires an addi­
tional set of credentials. For example, despite
what might be years of experience in a dentist’s
office, a dental assistant cannot advance to a job
as a dental hygienist without completing a for­
mal program in dental hygiene. This section
alerts readers interested in the prospects for
advancement in an occupation to potential bar­
riers posed by legal restrictions or standard
hiring practices.
In many other occupations, however, there
are no such barriers. People with related educa­
tion or experience enter without obtaining a
license or additional formal education. This is
the case in engineering, for example, where
some graduates in physics, chemistry, com­
puter science, mathematics, and other fields are
hired as engineers directly from college. Others
without engineering degrees transfer into engi­
neering from related scientific fields and techni­
cian occupations.

During the recent recession, for example, the
nursing “ shortage” vanished, reflecting a drop
in demand combined with an unanticipated sur­
ge in supply. Many hospitals reported a sudden
reversal in supply-demand conditions, with un­
filled vacancies giving way to waiting lists for
jobs.
The Handbook describes job outlook pri­
marily in terms of long-term employment
growth. Most statements begin with a sentence
about expected change through the mid-1990’s.
The number of jobs for typists, for example, is
expected to grow more slowly than the average
for all occupations, while the number of jobs
for physical therapists is expected to grow
much faster than the average for all occupa­
tions. The accompanying figure explains what
is meant by these and other key phrases.

Job outlook. What’s the job market like? This
is the question uppermost in many people’s
minds as they try to determine whether a par­
ticular career is worth pursuing. What con­
stitutes a “good” or “ attractive” job varies
with the individual and depends on personal
values. But because of the cost—and often the
sacrifice—involved in preparing for a career,
the likelihood of finding a suitable job is some­
thing virtually everyone is interested in.
This, in turn, depends on the relationship
between the number of openings and the
number of people seeking to fill those openings.
Jobs for dishwashers, for example, require
physical stamina and dependability, but little in
the way of formal education or vocational
skills. Since so many people fit the description,
the supply of potential dishwashers is enor­
mous. By contrast, a job as a nuclear engineer
requires scientific and technical expertise that is
gained through years of formal training; the
number of people with the appropriate back­
ground is quite small. Most jobs fall some­
where in between.
Bear in mind that in any particular occupa­
tion, demand for workers varies according to
skill level, specialty, educational background
and professional credentials, previous experi­
ence, and so forth. Moreover, the supply of
qualified jobseekers varies as well. That is why
there can be shortages in some communities or
in some specialties while qualified applicants
are a dime a dozen in others.
Mid-level personnel may be in great de­
mand, for example, while there are too few jobs
for beginners. Such is the case in law. Law
schools have difficulty attracting and retaining
established practitioners as faculty. Established
lawyers can make more money practicing law
than teaching it. The oversupply of newly train­
ed lawyers, however, creates keen competition
for starting jobs except for the graduates of top
law schools.
Whether or not the job outlook is favorable is
partly a matter of suitable openings in the com­
munity or kind of firm where you’re seeking
work. But the amount of competition from oth­
ers who are equally well qualified is the key
factor. And the amount of competition from
other jobseekers can change almost overnight.

Changing employment between 1982 and 1995

Key Words in the Handbook

If the statement
reads . . .

Employment is
projected to . . .

Much faster than
average growth
Faster than, average
growth
Growth about as fast as
average
Growing more slowly
than average
Little change

Increase 50 percent or
more
Increase 30 to 49
percent
Increase 20 to 29
percent
Increase 6 to 9 percent

Decline

Increase or decrease 5
percent
Decrease 6 percent or
more

Opportunities and competition for jobs
If the statement
reads . . .
Excellent opportunities
Very good
opportunities
Good or favorable
opportunities
May face competition
Keen competition

The demand for
workers may
be . . .
Much greater than the
supply
Greater than the supply
About the same as the
supply
Less than the supply
Much less than the
supply

Projected change is probably a more useful
guide to outlook when an occupation is grow­
ing rapidly than when it is growing slowly. If an
occupation grows rapidly, it will provide more
openings than if it grows slowly. Moreover, the
demand for talent in a rapidly growing occupa­
tion improves chances for advancement and
mobility—as anyone in the computer field can
testify. Depending on how long it takes for
training programs to respond to the heightened
demand, jobseekers’ prospects may be en­
hanced by a shortage of qualified applicants.
What can be said about job prospects when
an occupation is projected to grow more slowly
than average? There is no single answer to this
question because so many different factors are
at work. Slower-than-average growth may
mean relatively unfavorable prospects—as is

3

the case for postal workers and printing craft
workers. For one thing, com pany policies de­
signed to provide job security are likely to re­
duce opportunities for persons not already em ­
ployed by the firm. The printing trades, for
exam ple, have been revolutionized by the intro­
duction o f labor-saving technologies, and many
jobs have been lost. In firms that use advanced
typesetting computers, jobs vacated by experi­
enced com positors and typesetters generally
are not filled. And programs to retrain company
em ployees dislocated by new technologies have
the effect o f lim iting the number o f openings for
people outside the firm.
At the same tim e, such slow -grow ing o c­
cupations as typist and bookkeeper rank high
on the list o f occupations providing the largest
number o f job openings— a measure o f favora­
ble outlook. In both occupations, the negative
e ffe c t o f slow er-th an-average em p loym en t
growth is outw eighed by the sheer size o f the
occupation, thanks to replacement openings.
In virtually every occupation, regardless of
the rate o f growth, the need to replace workers
who leave their jobs generates m ost openings.
Replacement rates vary, but it is generally true
that the larger the occupation, the more open­
ings there are due to replacem ents. Thus even
slow -grow ing occupations can rank am ong
those with the most openings.
Research conducted in the Bureau has pro­
duced a new method o f estim ating replacement
needs. With increased understanding o f pat­
terns of labor force m ovem ent, it is clear that
rep lacem ents are a m uch m ore im portant
source of job openings than was previously
believed. For a brief explanation, see the chap­
ter entitled Assum ptions and M ethods U sed in
Preparing the Employment Projections.
For m ost occupations, the factors expected to
contribute to future demand for workers are
identified in the job outlook section o f a H a n d ­
b o o k statement. This is where you w ill find a
discussion o f the em ploym ent impact o f office
automation, robotics, shifting population pat­
terns, and so forth.
Some statements discuss job security. The
recent recession has made jobseekers painfully
aware o f the se n s itiv ity o f em p lo y m en t to
changes in the business cy cle, and the H a n d ­
b o o k gives information on the subject wherever
possible. But there are additional factors that
make som e jobs more secure than others. In the
building trades, for exam ple, seasonal patterns
and the volatility o f demand for new housing
make construction workers susceptible to high­
er than average rates o f unem ploym ent in good
times as well as bad.
For a few occupations, information is pre­
sented on the projected supply o f workers— in
particular, the number of new graduates or new­
ly qualified practitioners. N ew graduates are
not the only source of supply, however. Every
year, a large proportion o f job openings are
filled by reentrants or by people transferring
from other occupations. In occupations where
women traditionally have predominated, such
as librarian, reentrants play an especially im ­
portant role in supply. Similarly, people trans­
ferring from other occupations constitute a sub­
stantial portion o f the supply o f engineers.

4



When information is available, the H a n d b o o k
describes patterns o f occupational entry and
exit and explains what they mean for job out­
look.
The information in the job outlook section
should be used carefully. The prospect o f rela­
tively few openings, or o f strong com petition,
in a field that interests you should make you
take a second look at your career choice. But
this information alone should not prevent you
from pursuing a particular career if you are
confident about your ability and determined to
reach your goal.
Keep in mind that no one can predict future
labor market conditions with perfect accuracy.
M ethods used by econom ists to develop infor­
mation on future occupational prospects differ,
and judgm ents that go into any assessm ent of
the future also differ. For every occupation cov­
ered in the H a n d b o o k , an estimate o f future
em ploym ent needs is developed. These esti­
mates are consistent with a set of assumptions
about the future. For an explanation o f how
these projections are developed, see the chapter
on assumptions and methods.
Finally, it is possible that prospects in your
com munity or State do not correspond to the
description o f job outlook in the H a n d b o o k . For
the particular job you are interested in, the
outlook in your area may be better— or it may
be much worse.
Because local conditions vary so much, it is
w ise to talk with counselors, em ployers, Job
Service staff, and others about the particular
area where you want to work. State and local
chapters of labor unions and professional asso­
ciations may be able to finish useful leads. At
the end of the follow ing chapter, you w ill find a
list o f State officials who should be able to
direct you to people familiar with the job mar­
ket in a particular city or State. Addresses and
telephone numbers are given for the directors of
the State Occupational Information Coordinat­
ing Com m ittees, and for the directors o f re­
search and analysis of the State em ploym ent
security agencies.

Earnings. Many people turn to the H a n d b o o k
for the answers to such questions as, “ How
much does the average plumber earn?” or
“ What are the highest paying jobs?” or, “ Who
earns more, a secretary or a nurse?”
Unfortunately, no single statistic can ade­
quately portray the tremendous differences in
earnings o f workers in a particular occupation,
and it is very easy to be misled. Users should
look upon the earnings data presented in this
section o f a H a n d b o o k statement as a clue to an
occupation’s attractiveness and its potential for
long-term reward. But bear in mind that the
H a n d b o o k can’t predict what you might earn,
nor does it try to. Your earnings will depend on
many things, including your experience and
ability, the firm and industry you work in, and
the section o f the country where you live.
It is true that major occupational groups ex­
hibit significant differences in pay. Usual w eek­
ly earnings of managers and administators, for
exam ple, are about double those of service
workers. But there are wide disparities w i t h i n
m ost occupations as w ell. In fact, earnings

within occupations vary so w idely that in many
cases it is im possible to say w hich o f several
jobs would pay best. Engineers earn more than
drafters, on average. But the highest paid draft­
ers (those with earnings in the top 10 percent)
make more m oney than h a l f o f all engineers.
D ifferences in skill are part o f the explana­
tion. Within a particular occupation, average
salaries o f workers at the top levels may be
several tim es as high as those in entry level
jobs. The latter usually require less training,
em body simpler job functions, and carry little
or no supervisory responsibility.
G eographic variations account for som e o f
the d ifferences in occupational pay. W hile loca­
tion is an important factor for nearly all work­
ers, it is e sp e c ia lly im portant for unskilled
workers, w hose pay levels are strongly affected
by local market conditions. Earnings generally
are higher in the North Central and Northeast
regions than in the W est and the South, but
there are exceptions. K eep in mind that the
cities that offer the highest earnings are those in
w hich it is m ost expensive to live.
Differing pay scales am ong establishm ents,
unionization, seniority, and quality o f perfor­
mances are other factors that help explain why
the earnings o f individuals in the sam e occupa­
tion may vary greatly.
But the industry in w hich a job is located may
be the m ost important influence o f all. U n­
skilled jobs invariably are at the bottom o f the
pay structure in an industry. Yet unskilled work­
ers in a high-paying industry may earn more
than skilled workers in a low -paying industry.
Janitors in petroleum refining, for exam ple, are
paid m ore, on average, than workers in the
m ost sk illed production occu pations o f the
m en’s suit industry.
G row ing concern over the persistence o f
earnings differences between w om en and men
has brought the issue o f pay equity into the
lim elight. It is clear that no single factor ac­
counts for the sizable gap between m en ’s and
w om en ’s earnings. M any factors are at work.
N onetheless, the concentration o f w om en in the
lower paying occupations and industries emer­
ges as one o f the m ost important reasons that
w om en in general earn less than men. For rea­
sons that are not fully understood, the jobs that
m ost w om en hold are generally paid at lower
rates than jobs held by men.
The accom panying chart show s how w ide
the earnings spread within an occupation can
be. Based on 1982 data from the Bureau’s an­
nual survey o f profession al, adm inistrative,
technical, and clerical pay, the chart depicts the
range in annual earnings for three occupations:
A ccountants, attorneys, and ch em ists. N ote
that the chart show s six bars each for accoun­
tants and attorneys and seven for ch em ists.
T hese reflect different work lev e ls, starting
with entry level jobs and continuing up the
career ladder to the m ost com plex and responsi­
ble positions within the occupation.
The very broad earnings spread shown here
is characteristic o f creative and highly technical
jobs that require innovative thinking or special
know ledge. By contrast, the earnings spread
for som e occupational groups is relatively nar­
row. Such is the case for maintenance craft

workers including carpenters, electricians, ma­
chinists, machinery repairers, and m ill­
wrights—largely because pay rates in these oc­
cupations are commonly set by labor-manage­
ment agreements at a single rate for experi­
enced workers. The earnings spread in clerical
occupations also tends to be narrow.
The accompanying chart, based on data from
the Current Population Survey, shows the earn­
ings distribution of bookkeepers who were em­
ployed full time in 1982. Bookkeepers’ earn­
ings, like those of clerical workers in general,
cluster tightly around the median (the midpoint
in a distribution). Half of all full-time book­
keepers earned less than $13,000 in 1982 and
half earned more. Expressing the data another
way, the shaded area under the curve indicates
that one-half of all full-time bookkeepers were
in the $10,000-$16,000 earnings range in 1982,
while one-fourth earned less than $10,000 and
one-fourth earned more than $16,000. Earnings
of the lowest paid bookkeepers (the lowest 10
percent) were under $8,000, while those of the
highest paid bookkeepers (the highest 10 per­
cent) exceeded $21,000. In other words, only 1
bookkeeper in 10 made as little as $8,000 or as
much as $21,000 in 1982.
This edition of the Handbook is the first to
use these data from the Current Population Sur­
vey to show the spread of earnings within an
occupation. Many statements indicate what
median earnings of full-time workers were in
1982, and describe the earnings of the middle
50 percent of workers, the lowest 10 percent,
and the highest 10 percent. The data relate to
earnings from wages and salaries only; earn­
ings from self-employment—which tend to be
higher than earnings from salaries—are not in­
cluded.
About 9 out of 10 workers receive a wage or
salary. Often, wage and salary workers who
work overtime, irregular hours, or the night
shift receive an additional percentage of their
regular wage or salary.
Some workers, such as waiters and wait­
resses, also receive tips based on the services
they provide to customers. Automobile sales
workers and real estate agents are among work­
ers who are paid a commission—a percent of
the amount they sell. Factory workers are some­
times paid a piece rate—a set amount for each
item they produce.
About 10 percent of all workers are in busi­
ness for themselves and earn self-employment
income instead of, or in addition to, a wage or
salary. (Income from self-employment is that
amount which exceeds the expenses incurred.)
Physicians, barbers, photographers, and law­
yers are examples of workers who are fre­
quently self-employed.
Many occupations offer a chance to supple­
ment wage or salary income from a regular job
with self-employment income. For example,
electricians and carpenters often do small jobs
during evenings or weekends, and many dental
laboratory technicians “moonlight” in home
laboratories. Typists, secretaries, graphic art­
ists, and writers all have skills that permit them
to earn extra income on a freelance basis.




Within an occupation are workers whose jobs differ in complexity and
whose pay varies accordingly.
Occupation
and level

Mean monthly salaries and ranges within which 80 percent
of employees fell, March 1982
$1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
7,000

First decile

Mean

Ninth decile

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

Most workers receive a variety of employerpaid benefits in addition to pay for time
worked. Benefits such as paid vacations and
holidays, health insurance, and pensions are an
important part of the total pay package. Some
employers offer stock options and profit-shar­
ing plans, saving plans, and bonuses. Often,
the importance of employee benefits is not fully
appreciated by jobseekers entering the labor
market for the first time; for example, they may
not be aware of the dollar value of their health
insurance—what it would cost to purchase
equivalent coverage directly from an insurance
company.
Workers in many occupations receive part of
their earnings in the form of goods and services,
or payments in kind. Sales workers in depart­
ment stores, for example, often receive dis­
counts on merchandise. Some private house­
hold workers receive free meals and housing.

Flight attendants and other airline employees
often are entitled to reduced fares for them­
selves and their families. Workers in other jobs
may receive uniforms, business expense ac­
counts, or use of a company car.
Related occupations. If you find that an oc­
cupation appeals to you, you also may wish to
explore the jobs listed in this section. Usually,
the related occupations are those that require
similar aptitudes, interests, and education and
training.
Sources of additional information. The
Handbook is only one source of career informa­
tion. Many associations, government agencies,
unions, and other organizations provide useful
information on careers. In this section, names
and addresses of various organizations are
listed to help you further your research into
careers that interest you.

Half of all bookkeepers earned between $10,000 and $16,000
in 1982.
Earnings distribution of full-time workers, 1982
Pprcpnt
Median
$13,000

5

Where To Go For More Information
Whether you have questions about a particular
job or are trying to compare various fields, the
Occupational Outlook Handbook is a good
place to begin. The Handbook will answer
many of your initial questions. But remember
that it is only one of many sources of informa­
tion about jobs and careers. After reading a few
Handbook statements, you may decide that you
want more detailed information about a par­
ticular occupation. You may want to find out
where you can go for training, or where you can
find this kind of work in your community. If you
are willing to make an effort, you will discover
that a wealth of information is available.

Sources of Career Information
Professional societies, trade associations, la­
bor unions, business firms, and educational
institutions put out a great deal of free or lowcost career material. Many of these organiza­
tions are identified in the Sources of Additional
Information section at the end of every Hand­
book statement.
If you want information for an occupation
not covered in the Handbook, check the direc­
tories in your library’s reference section for the
names of organizations that may provide career
materials. There are directories that list organi­
zations, firms, and individuals in fields as di­
verse as publishing, advertising, banking, in­
surance, retailing, manufacturing, health care,
energy, the environment, performing arts, so­
cial welfare, education, training and develop­
ment, management consulting, and much
more. Since there are thousands of directories
covering a wide variety of fields, you may want
to begin by looking in the Guide to American
Directories or The Directory of Directories.
Another good starting point is the Encyclopedia
ofAssociations, a multivolume publication that
lists thousands of trade associations, profes­
sional societies, labor unions, and fraternal and
patriotic organizations.
The National Audiovisual Center, a central
source for all audiovisual material produced by
the U.S. Government, provides free lists of
material available for rental or purchase. Sub­
ject areas include jobs and careers. Contact the
National Audiovisual Center, General Services
Administration, Information Services Section,
W ashington, D.C. 20409. Phone: (301)
763-1896.
Carefully assess any career materials you
obtain. Keep in mind the date and source, in
particular, Material that is too old may contain
obsolete or even misleading information. Be
especially cautious about accepting informa­
tion on employment outlook, earnings, and
training requirements if it is more than 5 years
old. The source is important because it affects
the content. Although some occupational mate­
rials are produced solely for the purpose of



objective vocational guidance, others are pro­
duced for recruitment purposes. You should be
wary of biased information, which may tend to
leave out important items, overglamorize the
occupation, overstate the earnings, or exagge­
rate the demand for workers.
Libraries, career centers, and guidance
offices are important sources of career informa­
tion. Thousands of books, brochures, maga­
zines, and audiovisual materials are available
on such subjects as occupations, careers, selfassessment, and job hunting. Your school li­
brary or guidance office is likely to have some
of this material; ask the staff for help. Collec­
tions of occupational material also can be found
in public libraries, college libraries, learning
resource centers, and career counseling cen­
ters.
Begin your library search by looking in an
encyclopedia under “ vocations” or “careers,”
and then look up specific fields. The card cata­
log will direct you to books on particular ca­
reers, such as architect or plumber. Be sure to
check the periodical section, too. You’ll find
trade and professional magazines and journals
in specific areas such as automotive mechanics
or interior design. Many libraries and career
centers have pamphlet files for specific occupa­
tions. Collections of occupational information
may also include nonprint materials such as
films, filmstrips, cassettes, tapes, and kits.
Computerized occupational information sys­
tems enable users to obtain career information
instantly. In addition to print and nonprint ma-'
terials, most career centers and guidance of­
fices offer individual counseling, group discus­
sions, guest speakers, field trips, and career
days.
Counselors play an important role in provid­
ing career information. Vocational testing and
counseling are available in a number of places,
including:
— guidance offices in high schools.
—career planning and placement offices in colleges.
—placement offices in vocational schools.
— vocational rehabilitation agencies.
— counseling services offered by community organi­
zations, commercial firms, and professional con­
sultants.
— Job Service offices affiliated with the U.S. Em­
ployment Service.

The reputation of a particular counseling
agency should be checked with professionals in
the field. As a rule, counselors will not tell you
what to do. Instead, they are likely to admin­
ister interest inventories and aptitude tests, in­
terpret the results, talk over various pos­
sibilities, and help you explore your options.
Counselors are familiar with the job market and

also can discuss entry requirements and costs of
the schools, colleges, or training programs that
offer preparation for the kind of work in which
you are interested. Most important of all, a
counselor can help you consider occupational
information in relation to your own abilities,
aspirations, and goals.
Don’t overlook the importance of personal
contacts. Talking with people is one of the best
ways of learning about an occupation. Most
people are glad to talk about what they do and
how well they like their jobs. Have specific
questions lined up; you might question workers
about their personal experiences and knowl­
edge of their field. By asking the right ques­
tions, you will find out what kind of training is
really important, how workers got their first
jobs as well as the one they’re in now, and what
they like and dislike about the work. These
interviews serve several purposes: You get out
into the business world, you learn about an
occupation, you become familiar with inter­
viewing, and you meet people worth contacting
when you start looking for a job.

Sources of State and Local
Information
State occupational information coordinating
committees can help you locate information
about job prospects in your State or area. By
contrast, the Handbook provides information
for the Nation as a whole. The committee may
provide the information directly, or refer you to
other sources. In many States, it can tell you
where you can go to use the State’s career infor­
mation delivery system (CIDS).
These systems, currently in place in most
States, provide national, State, and local infor­
mation to individuals who are exploring careers
or searching for jobs. They serve users in a wide
variety of settings—secondary schools, post­
secondary institutions, libraries, job training
sites, Job Service offices, and vocational re­
habilitation centers.
Using a variety of delivery modes including
on-line computer, microcomputer, printed ma­
terial, needlesort, microfiche, and toll-free
hotline, these systems provide information on
occupations, educational opportunities, stu­
dent financial aid, apprenticeships, and the mil­
itary.
To find out what kinds of career materials
have been developed for your State, contact the
director of the State occupational information
coordinating committee. Their addresses and
telephone numbers are listed at the end of this
section of the Handbook.
Employment security agencies in all 50
States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto
Rico develop detailed information about the
labor market. Typically, State agencies publish
reports that deal with current and projected

employment, characteristics of the work force,
changes in State and area economic activities,
and the employment structure of important in­
dustries. Major statistical indicators of labor
market activity are released on a monthly, quar­
terly, and annual basis. To learn which studies,
reports, and analyses are available for a par­
ticular State, contact the chief of research and
analysis in the State employment security agen­
cy. Their addresses and telephone numbers are
listed at the end of this section.

Sources of Education and Training
Information
As a rule, professional or trade associations can
provide lists of schools that offer career prepa­
ration in a particular field— operations re­
search, publishing, or arts management, for
example. Whenever possible, the Sources of
Additional Information section at the end of
every Handbook statement directs you to or­
ganizations that can provide training informa­
tion.
For general information, a library, career
center, or guidance office may be the best place
to look; all of them ordinarily have collections
of catalogs, directories, and guides to education
and training opportunities. Computerized ca­
reer information systems available in many
schools, colleges, and Job Service offices gen­
erally provide information on education and
training, student financial aid, and related mat­
ters.
A number of handbooks gives pertinent in­
formation on courses of study, admissions re­
quirements, expenses, and student financial aid
at the Nation’s 2-year and 4-year colleges and
universities. School and public libraries almost
always have copies, as do large bookstores.
Remember that these directories are updated
and revised frequently; be sure to use the most
recent edition. Libraries and guidance offices
often have collections of college catalogs as
well.
Postsecondary Schools with Occupational
Programs, a publication of the U.S. Depart­
ment of Education’s National Center for Educa­
tion Statistics, lists vocational-technical in­
stitutes, trade and technical schools, business
schools, and other institutions—such as hospi­
tals—that provide career training. Dozens of
vocational areas are included—accounting, au­
tomotive mechanics, cosmetology, graphic
arts, radio and television repair, truck driving,
welding, and more. The 1982 edition may be
available in counseling centers or large public
libraries, or may be purchased for $9.50 from
the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Gov­
ernment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
20402. S pecify GPO stock num ber
065-000-00192-6.
Directory of Educational Institutions, an an­
nual publication, lists schools accredited by the
Association of Independent Colleges and
Schools (AICS). Most AlCS-accredited institu­
tions are business schools. They offer programs
in secretarial science, business administration,
accounting, data processing, court reporting,
paralegal studies, fashion merchandising, travel/tourism, culinary arts, drafting, electronics,
and more. For a copy of the Directory, write:




Association of Independent Colleges and
Schools, 1 Dupont Circle, NW., Suite 350,
W ashington, D.C. 20036. Phone: (202)
659-2460.
Allied Health Education Directory is pub­
lished annually by the American Medical Asso­
ciation (AMA) and lists programs for health
professions training that meet the standards of
the AMA Committee on Allied Health Educa­
tion and Accreditation (CAHEA). Currently,
CAHEA accredits training programs for 26 oc­
cupations including diagnostic medical
sonographer, physician assistant, medical rec­
ord administrator, nuclear medicine tech­
nologist, perfusionist, and radiographer. Order­
ing information for the current edition of the
Directory is available from: Department of Al­
lied Health Education and Accreditation, 535
N. Dearborn St., Chicago, Illinois 60601.
Information on private trade and technical
schools is available from the National Associa­
tion of Trade and Technical Schools (NATTS).
Among their many publications are Handbook
of Trade and Technical Careers and Training,
How to Choose a Career and a Career School,
and College Plus: Put Your Degree to Work with
Trade and Technical Skills. For a complete list,
contact NATTS at 2021 K St. NW., Wash­
ington, D.C. 20006. Phone: (202) 296-8892.
The National Home Study Council supplies
information about home study programs. They
distribute Directory of Accredited Home Study
Schools (free) and There’ a School in Your
s
Mail Box ($5.00, including postage). Requests
for these publications should be directed to
National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Phone (202)
234—
5100.
Labor unions and school guidance offices
can provide information about apprenticeships.
Local Job Service offices usually have at least
one counselor familiar with apprenticeship pro­
grams in the area. In some cities, Appren­
ticeship Information Centers (AIC’s) affiliated
with the U.S. Employment Service furnish in­
formation, counseling, and aptitude testing,
and direct people for more specific help to
union hiring halls, Joint Apprenticeship Com­
mittees, and employer sponsors. The local Job
Service can tell you whether there’s an AIC in
your community.

Sources of Financial Aid Information
If possible, consult a high school guidance
counselor or college financial aid officer for
advice on sources of financial aid. Don’t ne­
glect any possibility, for many organizations
offer scholarships, fellowships, grants, loans,
and work-study programs. Study the directo­
ries and guides to sources of student financial
aid available in guidance offices and public
libraries. Many career information systems
provide information on financial aid.
Particularly useful is the American Legion’s
Need a Lift?, a booklet containing career and
scholarship information for both undergraduate
and graduate students. The 1983 edition costs
$1.00 prepaid (includes postage) and can be
obtained from: American Legion, Attn: Em­
blem Sales, P.O. Box 1055, Indianapolis, Ind.
46206.

Meeting College Costs, a College Board
publication that is updated annually, explains
how to apply for student financial aid. High
school students should ask their guidance coun­
selors for the current edition. A listing of Col­
lege Board publications on student financial aid
may be obtained from: College Board Publica­
tion Orders, Dept. A, Box 886, New York,
N.Y. 10101.
The Federal Government provides several
kinds of financial assistance to students:
Grants, loans, work-study, and benefits. Infor­
mation about programs administered by the
U.S. Department of Education is presented in a
pamphlet entitled, Five Federal Financial Aid
Programs, 1983-84; A Student Consumer’s
Guide. This pamphlet is revised every year;
request the current edition by calling (301)
984—
4070, or by writing to: Pell Grants, P.O.
Box 84, Washington, D.C. 20044.
Federal financial aid for students in the
health professions is administered by the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services.
Currently, major programs include Health Edu­
cation Assistance Loans (HEAL), Health Pro­
fession Student Loans, Nursing Student Loans,
and National Health Service Corps Schol­
arships. The financial aid office at the school in
which you are enrolled, or plan to enroll, can
provide information on eligibility requirements
and application procedures. Information about
National Health Service Corps Scholarships
also can be obtained by calling (301) 443-1650
between 8:30 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. Eastern time,
Monday through Friday, except Federal holi­
days, or by writing to: NHSC Scholarships,
Plarklawn Building, Room 17A-31, 5600 Fish­
ers Lane, Rockville, Md. 20857.
Some student aid programs are designed to
assist specific groups: Hispanics, blacks, native
Americans, or women, for example. Higher
Education Opportunities for Minorities and
Women: Annotated Selections, published an­
nually by the U.S. Department of Education, is
a useful guide to organizations that offer loan,
scholarship, and fellowship assistance, with
special emphasis on aid for minorities and
women. Opportunities for financial aid are
listed by field of study, including architecture,
arts and science, business, education, engineer­
ing and science, health, international affairs,
journalism, law, political science and public
administration, psychology, sociology, social
work, speech pathology and audiology, and
theology. Educational opportunities with the
Armed Forces are also described. This publica­
tion can be found in many libraries and guid­
ance offices, or may be purchased from the
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern­
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
20402. Price for the 1982 edition is $5.00 and
the GPO stock number is 065-000-00175-6.
The 1983 edition is forthcoming.

Career and Counseling Information
for Special Groups
Certain groups of jobseekers face special diffi­
culties in obtaining suitable and satisfying em­
ployment. All too often, veterans, youth,
handicapped persons, minorities, and women
experience difficulty in the labor market. The

7

reasons for job market disadvantage vary, of
course. People may have trouble setting career
goals and looking for work for reasons as dif­
ferent as a limited command of English, a pris­
on record, or lack of self-confidence. Some
people are held back by their background—by
growing up in a setting that provided only a few
role models and little exposure to the wide
range of opportunities in the world of work.
A growing number of communities have ca­
reer counseling, training, and placement serv­
ices for people with special needs. Programs
are sponsored by a variety of organizations,
including churches and synagogues, nonprofit
organizations, social service agencies, the Job
Service, and vocational rehabilitation agencies.
Some of the most successful programs provide
the extensive support that disadvantaged job­
seekers require. They begin by helping clients
resolve personal, family, or other fundamental
problems that prevent them from finding or
keeping a suitable job. Some agencies that
serve special groups provide an array of suppor­
tive services designed to help people find and
keep jobs.
Agencies that provide employment counsel­
ing as well as other kinds of assistance are
identified in D i r e c t o r y o f C o u n s e l i n g S e r v i c e s ,
a publication that lists accredited or provisional
members of the International Association of
Counseling Services, Inc. (IACS), an affiliate
of the American Association for Counseling
and Development. The 1981-82 edition is avail­
able for $6 (including postage) from IACS at
5999 Stevenson Ave., Suite 307, Alexandria,
Va. 22304. Phone: (703) 823-9800.
Women’s centers are an excellent resource
for women seeking employment and counsel­
ing assistance. Many women’s centers are lo­
cated on college campuses. Some of these cen­
ters have a primarily academic orientation,
sponsoring historical research and policy stud­
ies, for example. Others emphasize direct serv­
ice to women in the community through out­
reach programs and counseling and job place­
ment services. Still others offer vocational
training. Women’s centers are also operated by
community organizations. Many of these cen­
ters emphasize nontraditional jobs for women,
and almost all provide information and referral
services.
Most States and many cities and counties
have commissions or councils for women,
many of which are actively engaged in improv­
ing employment opportunities for women in
their area. A number of commissions have pre­
pared resource directories for women, and a
few operate employment or counseling pro­
grams.
Resource materials for women abound. Pub­
lications of the Women’s Bureau of the U.S.
Department of Labor, for example, include J o b
O p t i o n s f o r W o m e n in t h e 8 0 ’s and A W o m a n ’s
G u i d e t o A p p r e n t i c e s h i p . Single copies of each
may be obtained, while the supply lasts, by
sending a self-addressed mailing label to:
Women’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor,
Room S-3005, 200 Constitution Ave., NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20210. Phone: (202)
523-6668.

8




W o m e n ’s H a n d b o o k , a publication of the
U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA),
describes services available for women seeking
to enter the ranks of small business owners. It is
available from SBA offices nationwide. For ad­
dresses and telephone numbers of SBA field
offices, look under “ United States Govern­
ment” in your local telephone directory. The
publication may also be requested from: Con­
sumer Information Center, Pueblo, Colo.
81009.
P r o f e s s i o n a l W o m e n ’s G r o u p s P r o v i d i n g E m ­

a 1983 publica­
tion of the American Association of University
Women (AAUW), is available for $2.00 (in­
cludes postage) from AAUW Sales, 2401 Vir­
ginia Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20037.
Phone: (202) 785-7772. AAUW issues a
number of other materials, including A J o b
H u n t e r ’s K i t , designed for women reentering
the labor force, recent college graduates, and
those interested in a mid-career change. Write
for a current publications list.

p lo y m e n t A s s is ta n c e to W o m en ,

W h e re th e J o b s A r e : S e l e c t e d C a r e e r s f o r

is published by the Business and Profes­
sional Women’s Foundation (BPW). For infor­
mation about the current edition, and a list of
other BPW materials on women and work, send
a stamped, self-addressed envelope to Publica­
tions List, BPW Foundation, 2012 Mas­
sachusetts Ave., NW., Washington, D.C.
20036. Phone: (202) 293-1200. Bibliographies
and information sheets on women’s employ­
ment issues are available free of charge from the
Marguerite Rawalt Resource Center at the same
address.
Other career resources include D i r e c t o r y c f
S p e c i a l O p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r W o m e n , published in
1981 by Garrett Park Press (Garrett Park, Md.).
The D i r e c t o r y lists sources of career training,
financial aid, and other assistance for women
entering or reentering the labor force. The pub­
lication also identifies employment-oriented
networks, programs, and organizations for
women. Look for it in a library, guidance of­
fice, or counseling center.
S u i t Y o u r s e l f . . . S h o p p i n g f o r a J o b is selfhelp publication, with tips, techniques, and
self-assessment tools for organizing a job
search. Published in 1980 by Wider Oppor­
tunities for Women (WOW), a national non­
profit women’s employment organization, it
can be purchased for $7.50 (includes postage)
from WOW, 1325 G St. NW., Washington,
D.C. 20005. WOW issues other materials as
well; request a current publications list. Phone:
(202) 783-5155.
W om en

D ir e c to r y o f S p e c ia l P r o g r a m s f o r M in o r ity
G r o u p M e m b e r s : C a r e e r I n fo r m a tio n S e r v ic e s ,
E m p lo y m e n t S k ills B a n k s ,

F in a n c ia l A id

(Garrett Park, Md.: Garrett Park
Press), now in its third edition, lists thousands
of educational, career, and other services and
programs that help minority group members in
their educational and career advancement
Career information for minority group mem­
bers also appears in specialized magazines in­
cluding T h e B l a c k C o l l e g i a n and M i n o r i t y E n ­

S o u rces

g in e e r .

The Veterans Administration issues a wide
variety of materials on career decisionmaking,

student financial aid, job search, and other em­
ployment-related topics. Contact: Department
of Veterans Benefits (232A), Veterans Admin­
istration Central Office, 810 Vermont Ave.,
NW., Washington, D.C. 20420. Phone: (202)
389-2972.
The 1981-82 edition of D i r e c t o r y c f O r g a n i ­
z a t i o n s I n t e r e s t e d in t h e H a n d i c a p p e d lists
more than 150 voluntary and public agencies in
the rehabilitation field and briefly describes
their purpose, programs, and publications.
Copies of the D i r e c t o r y , and many other print
and audiovisual materials on employment of
people with disabilities, may be obtained from:
President’s Committee on Employment of the
H andicapped, W ashington, D .C. 20210.
Phone: (202) 653-5044.
State vocational rehabilitation agencies are
an important source of career and counseling
information for people with disabilities; they
are listed in the D i r e c t o r y .
Job Opportunities for the Blind, a project of
the National Federation of the Blind in part­
nership with the U.S. Department of Labor,
operates a nationwide toll-free number:
1-800-638-7518. Services offered by the or­
ganization include recorded materials, a listing
of job openings, and seminars on employmentrelated topics for blind and deaf-blind appli­
cants.
Employment counseling and placement serv­
ices for older workers have been established in
some communities. The area agency on aging
can tell you whether there is a senior employ­
ment program in your community. Local of­
fices of the State employment service should
also be able to provide information about job
placement services for older workers. Informa­
tion about the small but growing network of
nonprofit senior employment agencies can be
obtained from the National Association of
Older Worker Employment Services, 600
Maryland Ave., SW., West Wing 100, Wash­
ington, D.C. 20024. Phone: (202) 479-1200.
Federal laws, Executive Orders, and selected
Federal grant programs bar discrimination in
employment based on race, color, religion, sex,
national origin, age, and handicap. Employers
in the private and the public sectors, Federal
contractors, and grantees are covered by these
laws. The U.S. Equal Employment Oppor­
tunity Commission (EEOC) is responsible for
administering many of the programs that pro­
hibit discrimination in employment. Informa­
tion about how to file a charge of discrimination
is available from local EEOC offices around the
country. Their addresses and telephone num­
bers are listed in telephone directories under
U.S. Government, EEOC, or from: Equal Em­
ployment Opportunity Commission, 2401E St.
N.W.. Washington, D.C. 20507. Phone: (202)
634-6922.
Information on Federal laws concerning fair
labor standards—including the minimum wage
law—and equal employment opportunity can
be obtained from the Office of Information and
Consumer Affairs, Employment Standards Ad­
ministration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room
C-4331, 200 Constitution Ave., NW., Wash­
ington, D.C. 20210.

Information on Finding a Job
These days, a well-planned job search is essen­
tial. For information on job openings, follow up
as many leads as possible. Parents, neighbors,
teachers, and counselors may know of jobs.
Check the want ads. Investigate your local Job
Service office and find out whether private or
nonprofit employment agencies in your com­
munity can help you.

W here to F in d O ut A bout Job O penings

• Job Service offices
• Civil Service announcements (Federal,
State, local)
• Classified ads
—Local and out-of-town newspapers
—Professional journals
—Trade magazines
• Labor unions
• Professional associations (State and local
chapters)
• Libraries and community centers
• Women’s counseling and employment
programs
• Youth programs
• School or college placement services
• Employment agencies and career
consultants

Merchandising Your Job Talents, a 21-page
pamphlet prepared by the U.S. Department of
Labor, offers tips on organizing your job
search, writing a resume, taking preemploy­
ment tests, and making the most of the inter­
view. The pamphlet is available at most Job
Service offices, or may be purchased from the
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern­
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
20402. Price of the 1983 edition is $2.75 and
the stock number is 029-014-00212-7.
Informal job search methods. Informal meth­
ods of job search are the most popular, and also
the most effective. Informal methods include
direct application to employers with or without
referral by friends or relatives. Jobseekers lo­
cate a potential employer and file an applica­
tion, often without certain knowledge that an
opening exists.
You can find targets for your informal search
in several ways. The Yellow Pages and local
chambers of commerce will give the names and
addresses of appropriate firms in the communi­
ty where you wish to work. You can also get
listings of most firms in a specific industry—
banking, insurance, and newspaper publishing,
for example—by consulting one of the directo­
ries on the reference shelf of your public li­
brary. Friends, relatives, and people you meet
during your job search are likely to give you
ideas about places where you can apply for a
job.
Want ads. The “Help Wanted” ads in a major
newspaper contain hundreds of job listings. As
a job search tool, they have two advantages:
They are cheap and easy to acquire, and they
often result in successful placement. There are
disadvantages as well. Want ads give a distorted
view of the local labor market, for they tend to




underrepresent small firms. They also tend to
overrepresent certain occupations, such as cler­
ical and sales jobs. How helpful they are will
depend largely on the kind of job you seek.
Bear in mind that want ads do not provide
complete information; many give little or no
description of the job, working conditions, and
pay. Some omit the identity of the employer. In
addition, firms often run multiple listings.
Some ads offer jobs in other cities (which do not
help the local worker); others advertise employ­
ment agencies rather than employment.
If you use want ads, keep the following sug­
gestions in mind:
—Don’t rely exclusively on want ads; follow up other
leads, too.
—Answer ads promptly. The opening may be filled
before the ad stops running.
—Follow the ads diligently. Checking them every
day as early as possible gives you the best advan­
tage over other applicants,which may mean the
difference between a job and a rejection.
—Don’t expect too much from “blind ads” that do
not reveal the employer’s identity. Employers use
blind ads to avoid being swamped with applicants,
or to fill a particular vacancy quietly and con­
fidentially. The chances of finding a job through
blind ads tend to be slim.
—Be cautious about answering “no experience nec­
essary” ads. Most employers are able to fill job
openings that do not require experience without
advertising in the newspaper. This type of ad may
mean that the job is hard to fill because of low
wages or poor working conditions, or because it is
straight commission work.
Public employment service. The public em­
ployment service, also called the Job Service, is
often overlooked in finding out about local job
openings. Run by the State employment se­
curity agencies under the direction of the Labor
Department’s U.S. Employment Service, the
1,700 local Job Service offices provide help

without charge. Job Service staff help job­
seekers find employment and help employers
find qualified workers. To find the office nearest
you, look in the State government telephone
listings under “ Job Service” or “ Employ­
ment.”
Job matching and referral. Upon entering a
Job Service center, an applicant is interviewed
to determine the type of work for which he or
she indicates an interest and aptitude. The inter­
viewer determines if the applicant is “job
ready” or if counseling and testing services are
needed. Applicants who know what kind of
work they are qualified for may spend some
time examining the Job Bank, a computerized
listing of public and private sector job openings
that is updated every day. The Job Bank is selfservice; applicants examine a book or micro­
film viewer and select openings that interest
them. Afterwards, a Job Service staff member
may describe a particular job opening in some
detail and arrange for an interview with the
prospective employer.
Counseling and testing. Job Service centers
also help jobseekers who are uncertain about
their qualifications and the kind of work they
want. Most centers are staffed with a specialist
who furnishes complete counseling and testing
services. Counselors help jobseekers choose
and prepare for an occupation based on their
qualifications and interests. They aim to help
individuals become aware of their job potential
and then develop it. The testing program mea­
sures occupational aptitudes, clerical and liter­
ary skills, and occupational interests. Testing
and counseling before job referral ensure a bet­
ter match between applicant and job.
Servicesfor special groups. By law, veterans
are entitled to priority in interviewing, counsel­
ing, testing, job development, and job place­
ment. Special counselors called veterans em­
ployment representatives are trained to deal
with the particular problems of veterans, who

JOB INTERVIEW TIPS
Preparation:

The Interview:

• Learn something
about the company
• Have specific job or
jobs in mind
• Review in your mind
your qualifications for
the job
• Be prepared to answer
broad questions about
yourself

• Answer each question
as well as you can
• Be prompt in giving
responses
• Be well mannered
• Use good English and
avoid the use of slang
• Be cooperative and
enthusiastic
• Don’t be afraid to ask
questions

Personal Appearance:
•
•
•
•

Well groomed
Suitable dress
No chewing gum
Only smoke when
invited

Test (if employer gives
one):
• Listen carefully to
instructions
• Read each question
carefully
• Write legibly and
clearly
• Budget your time
wisely and don’t stay
on one question too
long

Information to Take
With you:
• Social Security
number
• Driver’s license
number
• Education, which
should include school
name or number and
address; curriculum;
dates of attendance;
highest grade
completed or date of
graduation
• Previous employment
(summer, work-study,
or part-time). Include
the following for
each job; name of
employer; address of
job; job title; dates of
employment

• Hobbies or special
interests
• Special skills
• References.
Usually an
employer requires
three references.
Get permission
from people before
using their names.
If you can avoid it,
do not use the
names of relatives.
For each reference,
give the following
information: name;
address; telephone
number; occupation

9

may find it difficult to readjust to civilian life.
Although such veterans often face multiple
problems, joblessness alone is a major barrier
to resuming an ordinary life. Special help for
disabled veterans begins with outreach units in
each State, whose job it is to identify jobless
disabled veterans and make them aware of the
many kinds of assistance available.
A special effort is made to assist youth be­
tween the ages of 16 and 22— students, drop­
outs, and graduates entering the labor market.
Youthful applicants are tested, counseled, and
aided in choosing work that suits their abilities
and interests. Each year, local Job Service cen­
ters conduct a Summer Youth Program to
provide summer jobs in city, county, and State
government agencies for low-income youth. In
addition, the Job Corps, with more than 100
centers throughout the United States, provides
an opportunity for young people to learn a skill
or obtain the educational base needed to ad­
vance in society.
The Job Service also refers applicants to op­
portunities under the Job Training Partnership
Act (JTPA) of 1982, which replaces the Com­
prehensive Employment and Training Act
(CETA) as the principal Federal legislation in
this field. JTPA focuses on preparing econom­
ically disadvantaged persons for jobs in the
private sector.
Private employment agencies. In the appro­
priate section of the classified ads or the tele­
phone book you can find numerous advertise­
ments for private employment agencies. All are
in business to make money, but some offer
higher quality service and better chances of
successful placement than others.
The three main places in which private agen­
cies advertise are newspaper want ads, the
Yellow Pages, and trade journals. Telephone
listings give little more than the name, address,
phone number, and specialty of the agency,
while trade journals generally advertise open­
ings for a particular occupation, such as ac­
countant or computer programmer. Want ads,
then, are the best source of general listings of
agencies.
These listings fall into two categories—those
offering specific openings and those offering a
general promise of employment. You should
concentrate on the former and use the latter
only as a last resort. With a specific opening
mentioned in the ad, you have greater assurance
of the agency’s desire to place qualified individ­
uals in suitable jobs.
When responding to such an ad, you may
learn more about the job over the phone. If you
are interested, visit the agency, fill out an ap­
plication, present a resume, and talk with an
interviewer. The agency will then arrange an
interview with the em ployer if you are
qualified, and perhaps suggest alternative open­
ings if you are not.
Most agencies operate on a commission
basis, with the fee contingent upon a successful
match. The employer pays agencies advertising
“no fees, no contracts” and the applicant pays
nothing. Many agencies, however, do charge
applicants. You should find out the exact cost
before using the service.

10




Community agencies. A growing number of
nonprofit organizations throughout the Nation
provide counseling, career development, and
job placement services. These agencies gener­
ally concentrate on services for a particular
labor force group—women, youth, minorities,
ex-offenders, or older workers, for example.
It’s up to you to discover whether your com­
munity has such agencies and whether they can
help you. The local Job Service center should
be able to tell you whether such an agency has
been established in your community. Your
church, synagogue, or local library may have
the information, too.
College career planning and placement of­
fices. Career planning and placement offices at
colleges and universities offer valuable services
to students and alumni for a modest fee. Many
services, in fact, are free. College placement
offices operate as employment agencies,
matching applicants with suitable jobs and lin­
ing up interviews. On large campuses, for ex­
ample, they set up schedules and facilities for
interviews with industry recruiters. And many
offices maintain lists of local part-time, tempo­
rary, and summer jobs.
College career planning and placement of­
fices also provide services related to counseling
and job search techniques. They may, for exam­
ple, maintain a career resource library; admin­
ister tests that enable students to identify and
evaluate interests, work values, and skills; con­
duct workshops on such topics as job search
strategy, resume writing, letterwriting, and
effective interviewing; critique drafts of re­
sumes and videotapes of mock interviews;
maintain files of resumes and references; and
conduct job fairs.
State and Local Information. For each State,
the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, the
following list provides the title, address, and
telephone number of two principal sources of
labor market and career information: The State
employment security agency’s chief of research
and analysis, and the director of the State Oc­
cupational Information Coordinating Commit­
tee (SOICC).

Alabama
Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Indus­
trial Relations, Industrial Relations Bldg., Room
427, 649 Monroe St., Montgomery, Ala. 36130.
Phone: (205) 832-5263.
Director, Alabama Occupational Information Coordi­
nating Committee, First Southern Towers, Suite 402,
100 Commerce S t., Montgomery Ala. 36130. Phone:
(205) 832-5737.

Alaska

Arizona
Chief, Labor Market Information, Research and
Analysis, Department of Economic Security, 733-A,
P.O. Box 6123, Phoenix, Ariz. 85035. Phone: (602)
255-3616.
Executive Director, Arizona State Occupational In­
formation Coordinating Committee, 1535 West
Jefferson, Room 345, Phoenix, Ariz. 85007. Phone:
(602) 255-3680.

Arkansas
Assistant Director, Research and Analysis, Employ­
ment Security Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock,
Ark. 72203. Phone: (501) 371-1541.
Director, Arkansas State Occupational Information
Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 2981, Little
Rock, Ark. 72203. Phone: (501) 371-3551.

California
Chief, Employment Data and Research Division,
Employment Development Department, P.O. Box
1679, Sacramento, Calif. 95814. Phone: (916)
445-4434.
Executive Director, California Occupational Infor­
mation Coordinating Committee, 1027 10th Street,
No 302, Sacramento, Calif. 95814. Phone: (916)
323-6544.

Colorado
Chief, Research and Development, Division of Em­
ployment and Training, Department of Labor and
Employment, 1728 Lincoln S t., Denver, Colo.
80203. Phone: (303) 839-5833, Ext. 43.
Director, Office of Occupational Information, Colo­
rado Occupational Information Coordinating Com­
mittee, 218 Centennial Bldg., 1313 Sherman St.,
Denver, Colo. 80203. Phone: (303) 866-4488.

Connecticut
Director, Research and Information, Employment
Security Division, Department of Labor, 200 Folly
Brook Blvd., Wethersfield, Conn. 06109. Phone:
(203) 641-4280.
Executive Director, Connecticut State Occupational
Information Coordinating Committee, 90 Wash­
ington St., First Floor, Hartford, Conn. 06115.
Phone: (203) 566-2502, 2503, 5047, 5699.

Delaware
Chief, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation,
Department of Labor, University Plaza Complex Of­
fice, Chapman Rd., Route 273, Newark, Del. 19702.
Phone: (302) 368-6921.
Director, Delaware Occupational Information Coor­
dinating Committee, Drummond Office Plaza, Suite
3303, Building No. 3, Newark, Del. 19711. Phone:
(302) 368-6772.

District of Columbia

Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Security
Division, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 1149,
Juneau, Alaska 99811. Phone: (907) 465-4502.

Chief, Branch of Labor Market Information, Depart­
ment of Employment Services, 500 C St., N.W .,
Room 411, Washington, D.C. 20001. Phone: (202)
724-2414.

Coordinator, Alaska Occupational Information Coor­
dinating Committee, Pouch F— State Office Bldg.,
Juneau, Alaska 99811. Phone: (907) 465-2980.

Executive Director, D.C. Occupational Information
Coordinating Committee, 500 C St. NW., Suite 621,
Washington, D.C. 20001. Phone: (202) 639-1083.

Florida
Director, Research and Analysis, Division of Labor
and Employment Security, Coldwell Bldg., Tallahas­
see, Ha. 32301. Phone: (904) 488-1048.
Director, Horida Occupational Information Coordi­
nating Committee, 124 West Jefferson St., Tallahas­
see, Fla. 32301. Phone: (904) 224-3660.

Georgia
Director, Labor Information Systems, Department of
Labor, 254 Washington S t., SW ., Atlanta, Ga.
30334. Phone: (404) 656-3177.
Executive Director, Georgia Occupational Informa­
tion Coordinating Committee, 501 Pulliam St., SW.,
Room 339, Atlanta, Ga. 30312. Phone: (404)
656-3117.

Hawaii
Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Labor
and Industrial Relations, 830 Punchbowl St., Hono­
lulu, Hawaii 96813. Phone: (808) 548-7639.
Executive Director, Hawaii State Occupational Infor­
mation Cordinating Committee, 830 Punchbowl St.,
Room 205, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813. Phone: (808)
548-3496.

Idaho
Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Em­
ployment, P.O. Box 35, Boise, Idaho 83735. Phone:
(208) 384-2755.
Coordinator, Idaho Occupational Information Coor­
dinating Committee, Len B. Jordan Bldg., Room
301, 650 W. State St., Boise, Idaho 83720. Phone:
(208) 334-3705.

Illinois
Director, Research and Analysis Division, Bureau of
Employment Security, Department of Labor, 910 S.
Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. Phone: (312)
793-2317.
Executive Director, Illinois Occupational Informa­
tion Coordinating Committee, 217 E. Monroe, Suite
203, Springfield, 111. 62706. Phone: (217) 785-0789.

Indiana
Chief of Research and Statistics, Employment Se­
curity Division, 10 N. Senate Ave., Indianapolis,
Ind. 46204. Phone: (317) 232-7701.
Director, Indiana Occupational Information Coordi­
nating Committee, 17 W. Market St., 434 Illinois
Bldg., Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. Phone: (317)
232-3625.

Iowa
Chief, Audit and Analysis, Department of Job Serv­
ice, 1000 E. Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50319.
Phone: (515) 281-5802.
Executive Director, Iowa State Occupational Infor­
mation Coordinating Committee, 523 E. 12th St.,
Des Moines, Iowa 50319. Phone: (515) 281-8076.

Director, Kansas Occupational Information Coordi­
nating Committee, 512 W. 6th St., Topeka, Kans.
66603. Phone: (913) 296-5286.

Kentucky
Manager, Labor Market Research and Analysis, De­
partment of Manpower Services, Cabinet for Human
Resources, 275 E. Main St., Frankfort, Ky. 40621.
Phone: (502) 564-7976.
Coordinator, Kentucky Occupational Information
Coordinating Committee, 275 E. Main St., D.H.R.
Bldg. 2nd Floor East, Frankfort, Ky. 40621. Phone:
(502) 564-4258.

Louisiana
Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Labor,
P.O. Box 44094, Capital Station, Baton Rouge, La.
70804. Phone: (504) 342-3141.
Director, Louisiana State Occupational Information
Coordinating Committee, 1000 Science Hwy., Baton
Rouge, La. 70802. Phone: (504) 342-5149.

Maine

Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security
Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, Miss. 39205.
Phone: (601) 961-7424.
SOICC Director, Vocational Technical Education,
P.O. Box 771, Jackson, Miss. 39205. Phone: (601)
359-3412.

Missouri
Chief, Research and Statistics, Division of Employ­
ment Security, P.O. Box 59, Jefferson City, Mo.
65104. Phone: (314) 751-3215.
Director, Missouri Occupational Information Coordi­
nating Committee, 421 E. Dunklin St., Jefferson
City, Mo. 65101. Phone: (314) 751-3215, 3323.

Montana
Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Security
Division, Department of Labor and Industry, P.O.
Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59601. Phone: (406)
449-2430.
Program Manager, Montana State Occupational In­
formation Coordinating Committee, Room C317
Cosgrove Bldg., Capitol Complex, Helena, Mont.
59620. Phone: (406) 449-2741.

Director, Research and Analysis, Bureau of Employ­
ment Security, 20 Union St., Augusta, Maine 04330.
Phone: (207) 289-2271.

Nebraska

Executive Director, Maine State Occupational Infor­
mation Coordinating Committee, State House Station
71, Augusta, Maine 04333. Phone: (207) 289-2331.

Chief, Research and Statistics, Division of Employ­
ment, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, State
House Station, Lincoln, Nebr. 68509. Phone: (402)
475-8451.

Maryland
Director, Research and Analysis, Department of
Human Resources, 1100 N. Eutaw St., Baltimore,
Md. 21201. Phone: (301) 383-5000.

Executive Director, Nebraska Occupational Informa­
tion Coordinating Committee, 538 Nebraska Hall,
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. 68588.
Phone: (402) 472-2062.

Nevada

Executive Director, Maryland Occupational Informa­
tion Coordinating Committee, Jackson Towers, Suite
304, 1123 N. Eutaw St., Baltimore, Md. 21201.
Phone: (301) 383-6350.

Chief, Employment Security Research, Employment
Security Department, 500 E. Third St., Carson City,
Nev. 89713. Phone: (702) 885-4550.

Massachusetts

Director, Nevada Occupational Information Coordi­
nating Committee, Capitol Complex, Kinkead Bldg.,
Room 601 „505 E. King St., Carson City, Nev. 89710.
Phone: (702) 885^)577.

Director, Job Market Research, Division of Employ­
ment Security, Hurley Bldg., Government Center,
Boston, Mass. 02114. Phone: (617) 727-6556.
Executive Director, Massachusetts Occupational In­
formation Coordinating Committee, One Ashburton
Place, Room 2110, McCormack Bldg., Boston,
Mass. 02108. Phone: (617) 727-9740.

Michigan
Director, Research and Statistics, Employment Se­
curity Commission, 7310 Woodward Ave., Room
516, Detroit, Mich. 48202. Phone: (313) 876-5445.
Executive Coordinator, Michigan Occupational In­
formation Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 30015,
Lansing, Mich. 48909. Phone: (517) 373-0363.

Minnesota

Kansas

Director, Research and Statistical Services, Depart­
ment of Economic Security, 390 N. Robert St., St.
Paul, Minn. 55101. Phone: (612) 296-6545.

Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Human
Resources, Department of Labor, 401 Topeka Ave.,
Topeka, Kans. 66603. Phone: (913) 296-5058.

SOICC Director, Department of Economic Security,
690 American Center Bldg., 150 E. Kellogg Blvd.,
St. Paul, Minn. 55101. Phone: (612) 296-2072.




Mississippi

New Hampshire
Director, Economic Analysis and Reports, Depart­
ment of Employment Security, 32 S. Main St., Con­
cord, N.H. 03301. Phone: (603) 224-3311, Ext. 251.
SOICC Director, New Hampshire Occupational In­
formation Coordinating Committee, c/o Department
of Employment and Training, 155 Manchester St.,
Concord, N.H. 03301. Phone: (603) 271-3156.

New Jersey
Director, Division of Planning and Research, Depart­
ment of Labor, P.O. Box 2765, Trenton, N.J. 08625.
Phone: (609) 292-2643.
Acting Staff Director, New Jersey Occupational In­
formation Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box
C N 056, Trenton, N.J. 08 6 2 5 . Phone: (609)
292-2682.

New Mexico
Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Services
Division, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, N. Mex.
87103. Phone: (505) 841-8645.

11

Director, New Mexico State Occupational Informa­
tion Coordinating Committee, 401 Broadway, N.E.,
Albuquerque, N. Mex. 87102. Phone: (505)
841-4496.

New York
Director, Research and Statistics, Department of La­
bor, State Campus, Bldg. 12, Albany, N.Y. 12240.
Phone: (518) 457-6181.
SOICC Director, Department of Labor, State Campus
Bldg. # 1 2 , Room 559A, Albany, N.Y. 12240.
Phone: (518) 457-2930.

North Carolina

Pennsylvania
Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Labor
and Industry, 7th and Foster Sts., Harrisburg, Pa.
17121. Phone: (717) 787-3265.
Director, Pennsylvania Occupational Information
Coordinating Committee, Governor’s Office of Pol­
icy Development, 506 Finance Bldg., Harrisburg,
Pa. 17120. Phone: (717) 787-2086.

Puerto Rico
Chief, Department of Labor and Human Resources,
Bureau of Employment Security, 505 Munoz Rivera
Ave.— 15th Floor, Hato Rey, PR. 00917. Phone:
(809) 751-3737.

Director, Labor Market Information, Employment
Security Commission, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh,
N.C. 27611. Phone: (919) 733-2936.

Executive Director, Puerto Rico Occupational Infor­
mation Coordinating Committee, Poudencio Rivera
Martinez Bldg., 505 Munoz Rivera Ave., Hato Rey,
PR. 00918. Phone: (809) 753-7110.

SOICC Director, Department of Administration, 112
W. Lane St., 218 Howard Bldg., Raleigh, N.C.
27611. Phone: (919) 733-6700.

Rhode Island

North Dakota
Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security
Bureau, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, N.Dak. 58505.
Phone: (701) 224-2868.
Director, North Dakota Occupational Information
Coordinating Committee, Pinehurst Building— P.O.
Box 1537, Bismarck, N. Dak. 58505. Phone: (701)
224-2733.

Ohio

Supervisor, Employment Security Research, Depart­
ment of Employment Security, 24 Mason St., Provi­
dence, R.I. 02903. Phone: (401) 277-3704.
Executive Director, Rhode Island Occupational Infor­
mation Coordinating Committee, 22 Hayes St.,
Room 315, Providence, R.I. 02908. Phone: (401)
272-0830.

South Carolina
Director, Manpower Research and Analysis, Em­
ployment Security Commission, P.O. Box 995, Co­
lumbia, S.C. 29202. Phone: (803) 758-8983.

Director, Research and Statistics, Bureau of Employ­
ment Services, 145 S. Front St., Columbus, Ohio
43216. Phone: (614) 466-3240.

Director, South Carolina Occupational Information
Coordinating Committee, 1550 Gadsden St., Colum­
bia, S.C. 29202. Phone: (803) 758-3165.

Director, Ohio Occupational Information Coordinat­
ing Committee, State Department Bldg., 65 S. Front
St., Room904, Columbus, Ohio43215. Phone: (614)
466-2095.

South Dakota

Oklahoma
Chief, Research and Planning, Employment Security
Commission, 310 Will Rogers Memorial Office
Bldg., Oklahoma City, Okla. 73105. Phone: (405)
521-3735.
Executive Director, Oklahoma Occupational Infor­
mation Coordinating Committee, School of Occupa­
tional and Adult Education, Oklahoma State Univer­
sity, 1515 W. 6th Ave., Stillwater, Okla. 74074.
Phone: (405) 377-2000, ext. 311.

Oregon
Assistant Administrator, Research and Statistics, Em­
ployment D ivision, Department of Human Re­
sources, 875 Union St., NE., Salem, Oreg. 97311.
Phone: (503) 378-3220.
Coordinator, Oregon Occupational Information Co­
ordinating Committee, 875 Union St., N.E., Salem,
Oreg. 97311. Phone: (503) 378-8146.

12




Executive Director, Texas Occupational Information
Coordinating Committee, 15th and Congress Ave.,
Room 526T, Austin, Tex. 78778. Phone: (512)
397-4970.

Utah
Director, Research and Analysis, Department of Em­
ployment Security, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City,
Utah 84147. Phone: (801) 533-2014.
Director, Utah Occupational Information Coordinat­
ing Committee, 140 Social Hall Ave., Salt Lake City,
Utah 84111. Phone: (801) 533-2028.

Vermont
Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Em­
ployment and Training, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier,
Vt. 05602. Phone: (802) 229-0311.
Director, Vermont Occupational Information Coordi­
nating Committee, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt.
05602. Phone: (802) 229-0311.

Virginia
Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Com­
mission, P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, Va. 23211.
Phone: (804) 786-7496.
SOICC Director, Vocational and Adult Education,
Department of Education, P.O. Box 6Q, Richmond,
Va. 23216. Phone: (804) 225-2735.

Washington
Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security
Department, 212 Maple Park, Olympia, Wash.
98504. Phone: (206) 753-5224.
SOICC Director, Commission for Vocational Educa­
tion, Bldg. 17, Airdustrial Park, Mail Stop LS-10,
Olympia, Wash. 98504. Phone: (206) 754-1552.

West Virginia
Chief, Research and Statistics, Office of Admin­
istrative Services, Department of Labor, P.O. Box.
730, Aberdeen, S. Dak. 57401. Phone: (605)
622-2314.
Executive Director, South Dakota Occupational In­
formation Coordinating Committee, 108 E. Mis­
souri, Pierre, S. Dak. 57501. Phone: (605)
773-3935.

Tennessee
Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Em­
ployment Security, 519 Cordell Hull Bldg., 436 Sixth
Ave. North, Nashville, Tenn. 37219. Phone: (615)
741-2284.
Director, Tennessee Occupational Information Coor­
dinating Committee, 512 Cordell Hull Bldg., 436
Sixth Ave. North, Nashville, Tenn. 37219. Phone:
(615) 741-6451.

Texas
Chief, Economic Research and Analysis, Employ­
ment Commission, 15th and Congress Ave., Austin,
Texas 78778. Phone: (512) 397-4540.

Chief, Division of Labor and Security, Department of
Em ploym ent Security, 112 C alifornia A ve.,
Charleston, W. Va. 25305. Phone: (304) 348-2660.
Executive Director, West Virginia State Occupational
Information Coordinating Committee, 1600 1/2
Washington St., E., Charleston, W. Va. 25305.
Phone: (304) 348-0061.

Wisconsin
Chief, Labor Market Information, Department of In­
dustry, Labor and Human Relations, P.O. Box 7944,
Madison, Wis. 53707. Phone: (608) 266-5843.
Director, Wisconsin Occupational Information Coor­
dinating Committee, Educational Sciences Bldg.,
Room 952,1025 W. Johnson, Madison, Wis. 53706.
Phone: (608) 263-1048.

Wyoming
Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Security
Commission, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, Wyo. 82602.
Phone: (307) 237-3701.
Director, Wyoming Occupational Information Coor­
dinating Committee, Hathaway Bldg.— Basement,
2300 Capitol Ave., Cheyenne, Wyo. 82002. Phone:
(307) 777-7177 or 7178.

Tomorrow’s Jobs
The number and kinds of jobs needed in tomor­
row’s economy will depend on the interplay of
demographic, economic, social, and tech­
nological factors. Employment in some oc­
cupations will grow much faster than the aver­
age rate of growth; others will decline in
importance. Some jobs will emerge as a result
of new technologies; others will disappear. And
the nature of the work in most occupations will
surely undergo change. The Bureau of Labor
Statistics analyzes the changing nature of the
economy and the factors causing these changes
and develops projections of future industry and
occupational employment. Employment pro­
jections, by their nature, are imprecise and
should not be solely relied upon in career deci­
sionmaking. Nevertheless, projections can
help you assess future opportunities in the oc­
cupations that interest you.
The Handbook presents information about
the job outlook for many occupations. In this
chapter, which provides background for those
discussions, you will find information about
expected changes in the population, the labor
force, and employment in major industrial sec­
tors and broad occupational groups. Finally,
there is a brief discussion of the importance of
replacement needs in the employment outlook.

Population
Changes in population are among the basic
factors that will alter employment oppor­
tunities. Changes in the size and characteristics
of the population cause changes in the amount
and types of goods and services demanded.
These changes also alter the size and charac­
teristics of the labor force—the people who are
working and who are looking for work—which
in turn can influence the amount of competition
for jobs in an occupation. Three important pop­
ulation factors are population growth, shifts in
the age structure of the population, and move­
ment of the population within the country.
Growth.The population of the United States
has increased throughout this century.
However, the rate of growth declined until the
post-World War II “baby boom.” During the
late 1960’s, the rate of population growth began
to drop sharply and has remained at a low level
since (chart 1).
In 1982, the population was about 232 mil­
lion. It is expected to increase to about 260
million by 1995. The rate of growth will be
faster during the 1980’s (0.9 percent a year)
than during the early 1990’s (0.8 percent a
year). Continued population growth will mean
more consumers to provide with goods and
services, causing greater demand for workers in
many industries and occupations.
Age structure. Over time, the age structure of
the population changes. Shifts in the age struc­
ture affect the job market in many ways. The




low population growth of the 1960’s and 1970’s,
for example, resulted in a decrease in the
number of school age children in the 1970’s.
This decrease lowered the demand for educa­
tional services and employment opportunities
in teaching. During the 1970’s, as the large
number of people bom during the 1950’s enter­
ed the labor force, competition increased for
entry level jobs.
Through the mid-1990’s, the age structure of
the population will continue to shift and affect
the job market. The number of children under
13 will increase as the large number of people
bom during the baby boom have children of
their own. As the baby boom group ages, the
number of people age 35 to 54 will increase.
The number of people 65 and older will rise
sharply because of the relatively high popula­
tion growth before the 1930’s and increases in
life expectancy. Because of low population
growth during the 1970’s and 1930’s, the
number of 14- to 25-year-olds and 55- to 64year-olds will decline by 1995.
Increases in the number of children will
cause greater demand for elementary school
education during the 1980’s and secondary
school education during the early 1990’s. The
increase in the number of older people will add
to the demand for health services. Shifts in the
age structure of the population also will affect
the age structure of the labor force, discussed in
a later section.
Movement ofpopulation. Population growth
varies among the regions of the Nation. For
example, between the 1970 and 1980 censuses,
the population of the Northeast and North Cen­
tral regions increased by 0.2 percent and 4.0

percent, respectively, compared with 20.0 per­
cent in the South and 23.9 percent in the West.
These differences reflect the movement of peo­
ple to find new jobs, to retire, or for some other
reasons. Chart 2 shows the expected changes in
State populations between 1980 and 2000 if the
movement of people during that period is sim­
ilar to the movement between 1970 and 1980.
The West will continue to be the fastest
growing region of the country, increasing about
45 percent between 1980 and 2000. In the
South, the population will increase about 31
percent, with the largest absolute increase in
population. The North Central region is ex­
pected to increase only about 2 percent between
1980 and 1990, and to decline about 1 percent
from 1990 to 2000. The population of the
Northeast region will decline about 6 percent.
By the year 2000, the West and the South will
have about 60 percent of the Nation’s popula­
tion, compared to about 52 percent in 1980.
The Northeast region will have the oldest age
distribution; almost 15 percent of its population
will be age 65 or older. The West will have the
youngest age distribution; over 22 percent of
the population will be under age 15 and about
45 percent will be between the ages of 15 and
44. The age distribution of the South and North
Central regions will be similar to the national
average.
Geographic shifts in the population alter the
demand for and supply of workers in local job
markets. In areas with a growing population,
for example, demand for public services and
construction is likely to increase. At the same
time, more people looking for work in an area
could increase competition for jobs. Therefore,

Chart 1.

The population will grow more slowly through the mid-1990’s.
Average annual percent increase

1950-55 1955-60 1960-65 1965-70 1970-75 1975-80 1980-85 1985-90 1990-95
SOURCE: Bureau of the C e n s u s

13

employment opportunities in an occupacould differ greatly from national projecs presented in the Handbook. Sources of
Ormation about local job market conditions
be found in the section, “Where to Go for
ore Information.”

Labor Force
The size and characteristics of the labor force
determine the number and type of people com­
peting for jobs. In addition, the size of the labor
force affects the amount of goods and services
that can be produced. Growth, alterations in the
age structure, and rising educational levels are
among the labor force changes that will affect
em ploym ent oppo rtu n ities through the
mid-1990’s.
Growth. In 1982, the civilian labor force—
people with jobs and people looking in jobs—
totaled about 110 million persons. The labor
force will grow through the mid-1990’s, but at a
slower rate than in the 1960’s and 1970’s (chart
3). By 1995, the labor force is projected to be
about 131 million—an increase of about 19 per­
cent from the 1982 level.
Through the mid-1990’s, the chief cause of
labor force growth will be the continued though
slower rise in the number and proportion of
women who seek jobs. Women will account for
nearly two-thirds of the labor force growth dur­
ing 1982-95 (chart 4). Labor force growth will
be slower than in the 1960’s and 1970’s because
the low birth rates during those years will result
in few young people entering the labor force.
Age structure. Through the mid-1990’s, the
number of people age 16 to 24 in the work force
is projected to decline (chart 5). Fewer young
entrants into the labor force may ease competi­
tion for entry level jobs. In fact, employers may
have increasing difficulty in finding young
workers. The decline in the number of young
workers could be particularly important to the
Armed Forces—the single largest employer of
men in this age group.

The number of people age 25 to 54 in the
labor force is expected to increase considerably,
from about two-thirds of the labor force in 1982
to nearly three-fourths by 1995. The growing
proportion of workers age 25 to 54 could result
in higher productivity growth during this period
than in the 1970’s, since workers in that age
group generally have work experience and tend
to be more productive.
The number of people age 55 and over in the
labor force is projected to decline slightly, re­
flecting the trend toward early retirement and
the drop in the number of people age 55 to 65.
Education. Employers always wish to hire
the best qualified persons available. This does
not mean that they always choose those appli­
cants who have the most education. However,
individuals planning for a career should be
aware of the continuing rise in the educational
attainment of the work force. Between 1970 and
1982, for example, the proportion of the labor
force age 18 to 64 with at least 1 year of college
increased from 26 to 39 percent (chart 6). The
increase in educational attainment reflects both
the retirement of older workers, many of whom
had little formal education, and the influx into
the work force of young people who generally
have a high level of formal education. Among
workers age 25 to 34, for example, nearly half
have completed at least 1 year of college.
The disadvantage that less educated workers
suffer when seeking jobs is clearly shown in
their unemployment rate. In 1982, the unem­
ployment rate among 20- to 24- year- olds with
less than 4 years of high school was 32.2 per­
cent. The rate for those with 4 years of high
school was about half that, 15.5 percent. The
rates for those with 1 to 3 years of college and 4
or more years of college were only 9.6 and 5.6
percent, respectively. The connection between
higher unemployment rates and low levels of
education shows the importance of education in
a job market that increasingly requires more
training.

Chart 2.

Changes in population will vary among the States.
Projected percent change in State populations, 1980 to 2000

National average = 18%
SO URCE: Bu reau of the C e n s u s

14



□ Decline
I I Increase of up to 18%
M Increase of 19 to 36%
B Increase of more than
36%

It is also important to note that a college
degree no longer guarantees success in the job
market. Between 1970 and 1982, employment
of college graduates grew 103 percent. The pro­
portion employed in professional, technical,
and managerial occupations, however, declined
because these occupations did not expand
rapidly enough to absorb the growing supply of
graduates. As a result, 1 out of 5 college gradu­
ates who entered the labor market between 1970
and 1982 took jobs not usually requiring a de­
gree. This oversupply of graduates is likely to
continue through the mid-1990’s. Not all oc­
cupations requiring a college degree will be
overcrowded, however. Good opportunities
will exist for systems analysts and engineers,
for example.
Despite widespread publicity about the poor
job market for college graduates, a college de­
gree is still needed for most high-paying and
high-status jobs. Persons interested in occupa­
tions that require a college degree should not be
discouraged from pursuing a career that they
believe matches their interests and abilities, but
they should be aware of job market conditions.

Employment
The previous two sections discussed trends
in the population and the labor force that will
affect employment opportunities. This section
gives an overview of some other factors that
will affect the level of employment.
The number of jobs in particular industries
and occupations depends in large part on the
consumer, government, and business demand
for goods and services produced by those in­
dustries and workers. In a simple example,
there would be fewer jobs for barbers and cos­
metologists if people chose to have their hair
cut less often. However, because of the com­
plexity of the economy, the connection between
demand and employment generally is not sim­
ple, and a single change in demand can have
far-reaching consequences.
Consumer desire and government regula­
tion, for example, led to an effort by auto­
mobile manufacturers to improve the fuel effi­
ciency of cars. To do this, auto manufacturers
lightened cars by using plastic, aluminum, and
specialty steel instead of standard iron and
steel. This shift lowered the demand for goods
from the iron and steel manufacturing industry
as well as for the products of the iron and
metallurgical coal mining industries and others
that supply iron and steel manufacturers. Em­
ployment in those industries was adversely af­
fected. At the same time, demand increased for
the products of the plastic, aluminum, and spe­
cialty steel industries and the industries that
supply those manufacturers. Employment in
those industries benefited from the change.
Expansion or decline in industries affects
growth in individual occupations because in­
dustries employ different mixes of workers
(chart 7). Growth of the construction industry,
for example, would lead to increases in employ­
ment of craft workers, operatives, and laborers.
In contrast, growth in the finance, insurance,
and real estate industries would lead to an in­
crease in employment of professional, man­
agerial, sales, and clerical workers.

Changes in the manner in which goods are
produced and services are provided also affect
occupational and industrial employment. For
example, as an industry automates production,
the mix of workers is likely to change, which in
turn, will have different effects on occupational
employment growth.
Technological change is expected to affect
employment in many industries and occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. The increasing
use of automated machinery in automobile
manufacturing, for example, is one of the fac­
tors expected to limit employment growth in
that industry. The increasing use of word pro­
cessing equipment will limit growth of employ­
ment of typists. Despite widespread tech­
nological advances, however, employment
should continue to increase in most industries
and occupations during the 1980’s and early
1990’s.
Other factors affecting employment are the
fiscal policies of the Federal Government, the
monetary policies of the Federal Reserve
Board, the level of imports, and the availability
of energy. Using information on these and other
factors, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has pre­
pared three sets of projections of employment in
industries and occupations. Referred to as the
low-, moderate-, and high-growth alternatives,
the projections are based on different assump­
tions concerning growth of the labor force, un­
employment, monetary and fiscal policy, and
other factors. Each alternative provides a dif­
ferent set of estimates of employment in 1995.
The alternatives developed by the Bureau
represent only three of many possible courses
for the economy. Different assumptions would
lead to different projections of the economy.
For this reason, the alternatives should not be
viewed as the bounds of employment growth;
rather, the illustrate what might happen. Fur­
thermore, Unforeseen changes in spending pat­
terns or in technology could radically alter the
projections for individual industries and oc­
cupations.
A detailed discussion of the assumptions and
methods used to develop these alternative pro­
jections can be found in a separate chapter of
the Handbook. The employment projections
from the three alternatives were presented in the
November 1983 issue of the Monthly Labor
Review.
For ease of presentation, the discussions of
projections and outlook information in the
Handbook focus on the moderate-growth alter­
native. This alternative assumes a period of
recovery from the 1981-82 recession followed
by stable economic growth through the
mid-1990’s.

Chart 3.

Labor force growth will slow through the mid-1990’s.

Average annual percent increase

3

O

2

2
I----------- 1
1
1
1

i

:

i
i

i
1950-60

1960-70

1970-82

SOURCE: Bu reau bf Lab o r S t a tis tic s

mining, and manufacturing accounted for less
than three-tenths of the country’s jobs.
Service-Producing Industries. Employment
in service-producing industries has been in­
creasing at a faster rate than employment in
goods-producing industries (chart 8). Among
the factors that have contributed to this rapid
growth are rising incomes and living standards
that result in greater demand for health care,
entertainment, and business and financial serv­
ices. In addition, the growth of cities and sub­
urbs has brought a need for more local govern­
ment services. Further, because many services
involve personal contact, relatively fewer peo­
ple have been replaced by machines in serviceproducing industries.
Through the mid-1990’s, employment is ex­
pected to continue to increase faster in serviceproducing industries than in goods-producing

1982-90

i

n
1990-95

1

' 0

industries. In fact, service-producing industries
are projected to account for about 75 percent of
all new jobs between 1982 and 1995. Employ­
ment in these industries is expected to increase
from 66.5 million in 1982 to 86.2 million in
1995, or by 30 percent. Growth will vary
among industries within the group (chart 9).
The following paragraphs summarize recent
trends and the projections of employment in the
five industrial sectors that make up the serviceproducing industries.
Transportation, communications, and public
utilities. This was the slowest growing sector of
the service-producing industries during the
1970’s and early 1980’s. Rising employment in
trucking, warehousing, and air transportation,
was offset by declining employment in rail­
roads and slow growth in other industries in the
sector. Even in the communications industries,
where demand increased greatly technological
innovations limited employment growth.

Chart 4.

Through the mid-1990’s, women will continue to account for more
than half of the growth in the labor force.
Women as a percent of labor force growth

Industrial Profile
To discuss employment trends and projections
in industries, it is useful to divide the economy
into nine industrial sectors under two broad
groups— service-producing industries and
goods-producing industries. In 1982, about 7 of
every 10 jobs were in industries that provide
services such as health care, trade, education,
repair and maintenance, government, transpor­
tation, banking, and insurance. Industries that
produce goods through farming, construction,




SO URCE: Bu re au of Lab o r S t a tis tic s

15

Chart 5.

Through the mid-1990’s, the number of workers in the prime working
ages will g;ow dramatically.
Labor force (millions)

SO URCE: Bu reau of Lab o r S t a tis tic s

Between 1982 and 1995, employment in
transportation, communications, and public
utilities is expected to rise from 5.7 million to
6.9 million, or by 21 percent. Rising demand
for new telecommunications services resulting
from the increased use of computer systems,
and the divestiture of the telephone company
will make communications the most rapidly
growing industry in the sector. Employment in
communications industries is projected to grow
by 40 percent, from 1.4 million to 1.9 million.
More efficient communication equipment,
however, will keep employment from rising as
rapidly as output.
Although employment in railroads and water
transportation is expected to decline, it is ex­
pected to increase in other transportation indus­
tries such as air, local transit, and trucking.
Employment in transportation as a whole
should rise by about 12 percent, from 3.5 mil­
lion to 3.9 million.

Demand for electric power, gas utilities, and
water and sanitary services will increase
through the mid-1990’s as population and in­
dustry grow. Employment in industries that de­
liver these services is expected to increase from
868,000 to 1.1 million, or by 25 percent.
Trade. Both wholesale and retail trade em­
ployment have increased as the population has
grown and as rising incomes have enabled peo­
ple to buy a greater number and variety of
goods. During the 1970’s and early 1980’s em­
ployment in trade increased at about the same
rate as in service-producing industries as a
whole. Between 1982 and 1995, wholesale and
retail trade employment is expected to grow
from 20.6 million to 26.8 million, or by 31
percent. Employment will increase faster in
retail than in wholesale trade, 33 percent com­
pared with 22 percent. Employment will rise

Chart 6.

During the 1970’s, the proportion of workers with a college
background increased substantially.
Percent distribution of labor force age 18 to 64

SOURCE: Bu reau of Lab o r S t a tis tic s

16




despite the use of laborsaving innovations such
as self-service m erchandising and com ­
puterized inventory systems.
The largest number of new jobs in the trade
sector is projected to be in eating and drinking
places. Other retail firms expected to have large
increases are department stores, grocery stores,
and new car dealerships. In wholesale trade, the
largest increases will be in firms wholesaling
machinery, motor vehicles, and electrical
goods.
Finance, insurance, and real estate. This
sector grew faster than any other service-pro­
ducing sector during the 1970’s and early
1980’s, as these industries expanded to meet the
financial and banking needs of the population.
Between 1982 and 1995, employment in this
sector is expected to rise from 5.4 million to 7.2
million, or by 34 percent. Demand for credit
and other financial services is expected to grow
rapidly, but automatic teller machines and com­
puterized banking and stock transactions will
prevent employment from growing as fast as
output. However, large increases in employ­
ment are expected in banks, saving and loan
associations, security brokerages, and real es­
tate firms.
Services. This sector includes a variety of
industries, such as hotels, barber shops, auto­
mobile repair shops, hospitals, engineering
firms, schools, and nonprofit organizations.
During the 1970’s and early 1980’s, employ­
ment in this sector increased faster than in serv­
ice-producing industries as a whole. Sharply
rising demand for health care, data process­
ing, and engineering and legal services were
among the forces behind this growth.
From 1982 to 1995, employment in service
industries is expected to increase from 27.5
million to 37.2 million, or by 36 percent. These
industries will provide more new jobs than any
other industry sector. Business services, in­
cluding data processing, personnel supply, and
commercial cleaning are expected to grow
more rapidly than other industries in the sector.
Employment in health services also is expected
to increase substantially. Efforts to control ris­
ing health costs, however, could sharply lower
the employment growth in health services.
Large increases in employment also are ex­
pected in engineering, legal, social, and ac­
counting services.
Government. During the 1970’s and early
1980’s, increased demand for services provided
by government—health and welfare services,
and police and fire protection—caused employ­
ment in the government sector to rise although
at a slower rate than in service-producing indus­
tries as a whole. Employment increased more in
State and local governments than in the Federal
Government. Between 1982 and 1995, as a re­
sult of public desire to limit government
growth, employment in government is expected
to rise by only 8 percent, from 7.5 million to
8.0 million.
Goods-Producing Industries. Employment in
these industries increased duimg the 1970’s, but
the 1980 and 1981-82 recessions caused a drop
in construction and manufacturing employ­
ment. Between 1982 and 1995, employment in

goods-producing industries is expected to in­
crease from 27.1 million to 33.0 million, about
22 percent. Some of the increase reflects the
rebounding of employment in manufacturing
and construction to pre-recession levels. Sig­
nificant variation in employment growth is ex­
pected among goods-producing industries
(chart 9).
Agriculture. Employment in agriculture has
declined while farm output has increased
through the use of more and better machinery,
fertilizers, feeds, pesticides, and hybrid plants.
Domestic demand for food will increase slowly
through the mid-1990’s. World-wide demand
for food will increase because of population
growth, and U.S. food exports will increase
through the next decade. Farm productivity,
however, will continue to improve—although
more slowly than in the past—and employment
is expected to decline even as production rises.
Between 1982 and 1995 agricultural employ­
ment is projected to drop from 3.2 to 3.0 mil­
lion, or by 7 percent.
Mining. Employment in the mining sector
increased substantially during the 1970’s and
early 1980’s—faster than in any other sector.
Nearly all of this growth occurred in coal
mining and oil and gas drilling.
Through the m id-1990’s, employment
growth in the mining sector will slow dramat­
ically. Between 1982 and 1995 employment is
expected to grow from 1.1 million to 1.2 mil­
lion, an increase of only 7 percent. The con­
tinued importance of coal as an energy source
will lead to higher employment in that industry.
Employment in oil and gas extraction, however,
is expected to decline as domestic production
levels off. Other mining industries are expected
to attain their pre-recession employment levels
but have little long run growth because of lower
demand and improvements in mining tech­
nology.
Construction. Employment in construction
dropped by 550,000 between 1979 and 1982, as
high interest rates and low economic activity
limited new construction, especially housing.
Despite several economic slumps, employment
had increased during the 1970’s.
As the economic recovery continues, em­
ployment in construction is expected to rise to
pre-recession levels and continue to grow. Be­
tween 1982 and 1995, employment in the con­
struction sector is expected to increase from 3.9
to 5.8 million, or by 48 percent. Through the
late 1980’s, the demand for housing is expected
to be strong as the number of households con­
tinues to increase. During the early 1990’s, the
growth in households will slow and possibly
limit the demand for new housing. Business
expansion and maintenance of existing build­
ings will lead to higher construction activity
through 1995.
Manufacturing. Recession caused a 2.2 mil­
lion drop in manufacturing employment be­
tween 1979 and 1982, following a slight in­
crease during the 1970’s. As the economy
recovers, overall manufacturing employment is
expected to increase. By 1995, employment is
projected to reach 23.1 million, about 23 per­
cent higher than the 1982 level of 18.8 million.
Much of this employment growth will occur in



Chart 7.

Industries differ substantially in the kinds of workers they employ.
Percent distribution of wage and salary workers, 1982
Craft workers,
operatives, and
laborers
workers
Professional,
managerial, sales,
and clerical workers
Construction

Finance, insurance,
and real estate

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor S t a tis tic s

the mid-1980’s, reflecting a rebounding of em­
ployment to prerecession levels. However sev­
eral key manufacturing industries, such as auto­
mobile and steel manufacturing, are not
expected to reach previous peak employment
levels. A turnaround in demand is expected to
boost production in these industries, but for­
eign competition, productivity improvements,
and technological change will limit employ­
ment requirements.
Manufacturing is divided into two broad cat­
egories— durable goods manufacturing and
nondurable goods manufacturing. Employment
in durable goods manufacturing is expected to
increase by 29 percent as rising business invest­
ment and consumer demand lead to higher de­
mand for computers, machinery, and electronic
components. Employment in nondurable goods
manufacturing is projected to increase more
slowly, by 14 percent, reflecting the tendency of

consumers to spend less of their budget on
staples such as food and clothing as their in­
come rises.

Occupational Profile
This section gives an overview of the changes
expected in employment for 16 broad groups of
occupations. These groups are based on the
Standard Occupational Classification, which
has been adopted as the classification system
for all government agencies that collect occupa­
tional employment data.
In the following discussion, as throughout
the Handbook, the employment growth rates of
individual occupations usually are compared to
the national average for all occupations. Half a
dozen phrases are used to describe the employ­
ment growth; they are explained in the box on
page

Chart 8.

Industries providing services will continue to employ an increasing
proportion of the work force.
Workers (millions)1

'W a g e and sa la ry workers, except for agriculture, w hich in clu d e s self-e m plo ye d and unpaid
fam ily w orkers
*
NOTE: D a s h e d lin e s represent low, moderate, and high p rojection s
SO URCE: Bu re au o f La b o r S t a tis tic s

17

It is important to remember that employment
growth will vary among the occupations within
each of the 16 broad groups, and that both the
rate of growth and the size of the change in
employment are important in analyzing the job
outlook (chart 10).
Administrative and managerial occupations.
Workers in these occupations direct and control
the activities of businesses, government agen­
cies, and other organizations, or provide tech­
nical support to workers who do. In most of
these occupations, employment is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all
occupations. Although managers and admin­
istrators are employed throughout the economy,
differences in industry growth will result in
differences in the rates of employment growth
for managers and administrators. Employment
of managers in the health industry, for example,
is expected to increase much faster than the
average. Employment of managers also should
grow as fast as or faster than the average in
electronic components manufacturing, data
processing services, credit and securities firms,
automotive repairs, and social services. In con­
trast, managerial employment in government
and educational services is likely to grow more
slowly than the average due to the anticipated
modest growth of these industries.
Because of the increasing number of people
seeking managerial and administrative jobs and
the increasing technical requirements in many
of these occupations, experience, specialized
training, or post-baccalaureate study will be
heeded for many managerial jobs. Familiarity
with computers also will be helpful as man­
agers and administrators increasingly rely on
computerized information systems to direct
their organizations.
Engineers, scientists, and related occupa­
tions. Workers in these occupations design
buildings, machinery, products, and systems;
conduct research; and perform related ac­
tivities. Employment in many of the occupa­
tions in this group is expected to increase faster

than the average; in several—electronic engi­
neers, mechanical engineers, and systems ana­
lysts—it will increase much faster than the
average.
Increased military expenditures, growing
demand for computers and other electronic
equipment, expansion and automation of indus­
trial production, and development of energy
sources are some of the factors expected to lead
to higher employment in engineering occupa­
tions. The growing application of computers in
business and research will contribute to in­
creased employment of systems analysts. Re­
search to expand basic knowledge, develop
new technologies and products, and protect the
environment is expected to lead to higher em­
ployment in many scientific and engineering
occupations. However, if the rate of economic
growth and the research and development lev­
els differ from those assumed, the job outlook
in many of these occupations would be altered.
Competition in some smaller occupations that
are dependent on Government funding, such as
astronomers, will continue to be keen.
Social science, social service, and related
occupations. In these occupations, workers
provide direct social services and conduct ap­
plied research into the behavior of individuals,
groups, and society at large. Employment in
many of the occupations in the group is ex­
pected to grow about as fast as the average.
However, due to the number of people inter­
ested in these fields, competition for jobs is
expected in many social science occupations—
especially for academic positions. Generally,
prospects will be better for social scientists with
advanced degrees who seek work in applied
fields.
Competition also is likely for jobs as social
and recreation workers in public and voluntary
agencies as well as for salaried positions for
lawyers.
Teachers, librarians, and counselors. Work­
ers in these occupations help people learn, ac­
quire information, or gain insight into them­
selves. Because of anticipated enrollment

Chart 9.

Through the mid-1990’s, changes in employment will vary widely
among industries.

Projected range of employment change, 1982-95 (millions)1
-1

0 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11

Goods producing:

Agriculture
Mining
Construction
Manufacturing

Service producing:

Transportation, communications,
and public utilities
Trade
Finance, insurance, and
real estate
Services
Government
'

SO URCE: Bu reau of Lab o r S t a t is t ic s

18




W a g e an d s a la ry w o rk e rs except for agriculture,
w h ich in c lu d e s self-e m p lo ye d a n d u n p a id fa m ily w orkers.

declines and an abundance of qualified job­
seekers, competition is expected for jobs in
college and university teaching, as librarians,
in counseling, and, through 1990, in secondary
school teaching. Staff cutbacks in school sys­
tems and social service agencies will intensify
competition for these jobs.
As school enrollments start increasing after
1985, job prospects for elementary school
teachers are expected to be more favorable than
in recent years. Prospects in secondary schools
may improve in the early 1990’s, as enrollments
there begin to increase. Teachers and librarians
generally will face better job prospects in scien­
tific and technical fields.
Health-related occupations. This group in­
cludes health practitioners, nurses, health tech­
nicians and technologists, health service work­
ers, dietitians, pharmacists, and therapists.
Workers in these occupations care for the sick,
help the disabled, and advise individuals and
communities on ways of maintaining and im­
proving their health.
Employment in most of the health occupa­
tions is expected to grow faster than average as
population growth—especially in the number
of older people—increases the demand for
health care. Registered nurses, nursing aides
and orderlies, because of the large size and
anticipated growth in these occupations, will be
among the occupations providing the most new
jobs through the mid-1990’s. Despite the antic­
ipated growth in the health industry, physi­
cians, dentists, chiropractors, and veterinarians
seeking to establish practices can expect un­
precedented competition due to the large
number of newly trained practitioners each
year.
It should be noted that the projections are
based on the assumption that health care expen­
ditures will continue to increase rapidly and
that health financing will not undergo drastic
change. However, current efforts to control
health costs could result in substantial changes
in the reimbursement procedures and, thereby,
directly affect the economic incentives of sup­
pliers of health care. Such changes would be
likely to lower the projected employment levels
in many health occupations. In some, such as
health record technicians, new procedures
could lead to more growth than currently pro­
jected.
Writers, artists, and entertainers. This group
includes reporters, writers, designers, public
relations specialists, and performing artists. In
most of these occupations, employment is ex­
pected to increase as fast as the average for all
occupations. The continued importance of ad­
vertising, public relations, print and broadcast
communications, and entertainment will spur
employment growth.
Stiff competition for jobs in these occupa­
tions is likely, due to the large numbers of
people they attract. Talent and personal drive
will continue to play an extremely important
role in succeeding in these occupations. Within
individual occupations, some areas will offer
better job prospects. The best prospects for
writers and editors, for example, will be in
technical writing and in preparing business and
trade publications.

Technologists and technicians. Workers in
this group provide technical assistance to engi­
neers, and scientists, and other professional
workers as well as operate and program tech­
nical equipment independently. The continued
growth in the importance of technology to na­
tional defense, office work, manufacturing,
and other activities is expected to cause much
faster than average employment growth for sev­
eral occupations in this group, such as legal
assistants, programmers, and electrical and
electronic technicians.
Employment growth in some of the occupa­
tions will be limited by changes in technology.
Little or no change in the employment of draf­
ters is expected because of the increasing use of
computer-aided design equipment. Similarly,
little or no change in the employment of air
traffic controllers is expected due to the auto­
mation of air traffic control equipment.
— Marketing and sales occupations. Workers
"
in this group sell goods and services. Employ­
ment of travel agents, security sales workers,
real estate agents, and wholesale trade sales
workers is expected to grow faster than the
average due to the anticipated growth of indus­
tries in which these workers are employed.
A large number of part-time and full-time
openings are expected for cashiers and retail
trade sales workers due to the large size, high
turnover, and expected employment growth in
these occupations. Higher paying sales occupa­
tions, such as insurance agent and real estate
agent, tend to be more competitive than retail
salds occupations. Well-trained and ambitious
people who enjoy selling will have the best
chance for economic success.
Administrative support occupations, includ­
ing clerical. Workers in this group prepare and
record letters and other documents; collect ac­
counts; gather and distribute information; oper­
ate office machines; and handle other tasks that
help run businesses, government agencies, and
other organizations. Some administrative sup­
port occupations will enjoy much faster than
average employment growth. Employment of
computer operators and peripheral equipment
operators, for example, is expected to grow
much faster than the average due to the in­
creased use of computer systems.
The increase in office automation systems,
on the other hand, will limit employment op­
portunities in some administrative support oc­
cupations. Changes in organizational practices
also will affect employment for some of these
occupations. Despite a growing volume of
mail, little change is expected in the employ­
ment of mail carriers because of improved rout­
ing programs and more centralized mail deliv­
ery. Several occupations in this group will
provide many full- and part-time job openings
due to their large size and high turnover. These
include bank tellers, bookkeepers and account­
ing clerks, secretaries, shipping and receiving
clerks, and typists.
Service occupations. This group includes a
wide range of workers in protective, food and
beverage preparation, cleaning, and personal
services. Among the protective service occupa­
tions, guards are expected to have faster than
average growth because of increased concern




Chart 10.

When assessing future job opportunities, both the rate of growth
and the number of new jobs need to be considered.
Projected change in employment, 1982-95
Increase (percent)

Increase (thousands)

100

Computer service
technicians

Automotive
mechanics

Computer service
technicians

Automotive
mechanics

SOURCE: Bu re au of Lab o r S t a tis tic s

over crime and vandalism. However, the antici­
pated slow growth of local government spend­
ing is expected to result in slower than average
employment growth for police officers and fire­
fighters.
Rising incomes, increased leisure, and the
growing number of men and women who com­
bine family responsibilities and a job are ex­
pected to contribute to faster than average em­
ployment growth among food and beverage
preparation and service occupations. Due to the
large size, high turnover, and growth of many
food service occupations, such as bartenders
and waiters/waitresses, full- and part-time job
openings will be plentiful.
Agricultural and forestry occupations.
Workers in these occupations produce raw ma­
terials necessary to meet the country’s needs for
food, clothing, and shelter. Demand for food,
fiber, and wood is expected to increase as the
world population grows. The development and
use of more productive farming and forestry
methods, however, is expected to result in de­
clining employment in most agricultural and
forestry occupations.
Mechanics and repairers. These workers ad­
just, maintain, and repair automobiles, indus­
trial equipment, computers, and many other
types of machinery. Employment in most of
these occupations is expected to grow about as
fast as the average due to the continued impor­
tance of machines in industries and homes. In
some, employment will increase faster than the
average. The increased use of computers and
advanced office machinery, for example, will
make employment of computer service techni­
cians and office machine repairers grow much
faster than the average. For some mechanic and
repairer occupations, such as communication
equipment mechanics, improvements to ma­
chinery will lower maintenance requirements
and limit employment growth.
Construction occupations. Workers in this
group construct, alter, and maintain buildings
and other structures. Employment in most of

these occupations is expected to grow faster
than the average. Some of this growth,
however, reflects a rebounding of employment
to levels that existed before the 1980 and
1981-82 recessions. Increases in the population
and the number of households and a rise in
spending for new industrial plants are factors
expected to lead to more new construction. Al­
teration and modernization of existing struc­
tures, as well as the need for maintenance and
repair on highway systems, dams, and bridges
also will contribute to increased construction
activity.
Continued technological developments in
construction methods, tools and equipment,
and materials will limit employment growth by
raising the productivity of workers. One impor­
tant development, for example, is the continued
growth in the use of prefabricated materials.
The use of these materials limits the number of
workers needed at the construction site.
Since the construction industry is sensitive to
changes in the Nation’s economy, employment
in construction occupations may fluctuate from
year to year. Construction workers can expect
to experience periods of unemployment during
downturns in the economy which usually result
in reduced construction activity.
Production occupations. Workers in these
occupations perform tasks involved in the pro­
duction of goods. They set up, adjust, operate,
and tend machinery and equipment, and use
handtools and hand-held power tools to fab­
ricate and assemble products.
The recovery of the manufacturing industry
from the 1981-82 recession and the growth pro­
jected for this sector through the mid-1990’s
will result in average employment growth in
many production occupations. For some, such
as patternmakers and job-and-die setters, most
of the employment growth reflects a rebounding
of employment to pre-recession levels.
Changes in production techniques and the in­
creased used of automated machinery, such as

19

robots, will prevent employment in some pro­
duction occupations from rising as rapidly as
the output of goods.
Many production occupations are sensitive
to fluctations in the business cycle. Just as em­
ployment opportunities increases when the
economy is healthy, when factory orders de­
cline during economic downturns, workers
may experience shortened workweeks, layoffs,
and plant closings.
Transportation occupations. Workers in this
group operate the equipment-used to move peo­
ple and materials. Increasing economic activity
will increase the need for transport services.
This increase in demand is expected to result in
average employment growth for truckdrivers
and airplane pilots. Increased use of automated
material handling systems, however, is ex­
pected to cause slower than average growth of
employment of industrial truck operators.
Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and
laborers. Workers in this group assist skilled
workers and perform the routine unskilled tasks
required to complete a project. Jobs in these
occupations generally are expected to be plen­
tiful due to the high turnover rate. However,
economic downturns can lower the number of
openings substantially. This is particularly true
for construction laborers and other workers in

industries that are sensitive to changes in the
Nation’s economy. Over the long run, as routine
tasks are mechanized, employment in these oc­
cupations is expected to grow more slowly than
the average.
Since the employment prospects in individu­
al occupations will differ within each of the 16
groups, it is important to check the outlook for
each occupation that interests you. While the
Handbook contains information for only 190 or
so occupations, current and projected employ­
ment estimates for many more occupations—
nearly 700 in all—are presented in the 1984
edition of Occupational Projections and Train­
ing Data, 1984 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2206, a
companion volume to the Handbook.

Replacement Needs
Most discussions of future job opportunities
focus on the employment growth in industries
and occupations. Since the faster growing in­
dustries and occupations generally offer better
opportunities for employment and advance­
ment than slow growing ones, employment
growth is a good gauge of job outlook. Another
element in the employment outlook, however,
is replacement needs. Replacement openings
occur as people leave occupations. Some trans­
fer to other occupations as a step up the career

Chart 11.

Because of replacement needs, even occupations that are growing
slowly can have many job openings.
Projected growth in
employment, 1982-95 (percent)

Projected replacement
openings, 1982-95 (thousands)

school teachers
SO URCE: Bureau of Lab o r S t a tis tic s

20



ladder or to change careers. Some temporarily
stop working, perhaps to return to school or
care for a family. And some leave the labor
force permanently—retirees, for example.
These movements result in job openings.
Through the mid-1990’s, most jobs will be­
come available as the result of replacement
needs. Among occupations, however, the
number of replacement jobs and the proportion
of total job openings made up by replacement
needs will vary significantly. Factors that deter­
mine the number of replacement jobs in an
occupation include its size, the earnings and
status associated with the occupation, the
length of training required, the average age of
workers, and the proportion of part-time work­
ers. Occupations with the most replacement
openings generally are large, with low pay and
status, low training requirements, and a high
proportion of young and part-time workers.
Occupations with high replacement needs in­
clude: File clerks, cashiers, construction la­
borers, and stock handlers. Workers in these
occupations who lose their job or leave volun­
tarily often are able to find a similar job. They
also have not spent much money or time in
training for their jobs, so there is limited incen­
tive to stay in such occupations. Occupations
with low training requirements often attract
workers with limited attachment to the labor
force, such as young people working part time.
The occupations with relatively few replace­
ment openings, on the other hand, are ones with
high pay and status, lengthy training require­
ments, and a high proportion prime-working
age full-time workers. Among these occupa­
tions are architects, dentists, and dental labora­
tory technicians. Workers in these occupations
generally have spent several years acquiring
training that often is not applicable to other
occupations. These workers enjoy good pay
and high status, but would find it difficult to
change to other high-paying occupations with­
out extensive retraining.
When considering replacement needs, it is
important to note, first, that occupations with
little or no employment growth or slower than
average growth can still offer many job open­
ings (chart 11). Second, in many occupations
with a large number of replacement openings,
the pay and status are low. Many of the available
jobs are only part-time positions. These oc­
cupations, therefore, may not be suitable for a
person planning a long-term career, despite the
large number of openings. More information
about replacement needs is available in Oc­
cupational Projections and Training Data.

Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing
Employment Projections
The discussions of future employment con­
tained in the Handbook are w ritten in
qualitative terms but are based on quantitative
estimates developed using the most recent data
available on population, industry and occupa­
tional employment, productivity, consumer ex­
penditures, and other factors expected to affect
employment. The Bureau’s staff specializing in
developing economic and employment projec­
tions provided much of these data, but many
other agencies of the Federal Government were
important contributors as well.
In addition, experts from industry, unions,
professional societies, and trade associations
furnished data and supplied information
through interviews. Many of these individuals
also reviewed preliminary drafts of the state­
ments. Each statement thus reflects the knowl­
edge and judgment not only of the Bureau of
Labor Statistics staff, but also of leaders in the
fields discussed. The Bureau, of course, takes
full responsibility for the published material.
Information compiled from these sources
was analyzed in conjunction with projections of
the economy to 1995 constructed as part of the
Bureau’s projections program. Like other mod­
els used in projecting economic and employ­
ment growth, the Bureau’s system encompasses
the major facets of the economy and represents
a comprehensive view of its projected structure.
It is comprised of a series of closely related
projections of the labor force, gross national
product (GNP), industrial output and produc­
tivity, average weekly hours of work, and em­
ployment for detailed industries and occupa­
tions. The model system is essentially the same
as the one used to develop the 1990 projections.
A detailed description of the model system ap­
pears in The BLS Economic Growth Model Sys­
tem Used for Projections to 1990, Bulletin
2112.

Assumptions. The Bureau has prepared three
different scenarios of economic growth through
1995. Each alternative is based on the following
general assumptions.
—The institutional framework of the U.S. economy
will not change radically, and current social, tech­
nological, and scientific trends will continue.
— No major event such as war or widespread or longlasting energy shortages will significantly alter the
industrial structure of the economy or the rate of
economic growth.
— Federal expednitures will decline as a proportion of
GNP. Federal grants-in-aid to State and local gov­
ernments will decline.

The differences among the scenarios reflect
different sets of specific assumptions about




fiscal and monetary policy. These result in
higher or lower levels of GNP and its compo­
nents, such as investment and personal con­
sumption expenditures. While these alternative
projections give some idea of how employment
could vary under different assumptions, actual
growth could be outside the range of the alter­
natives. Furthermore, unforeseen changes in
spending patterns—for example, in defense
budgets or in consumer preferences—could
greatly alter the growth of individual occupa­
tions. Unanticipated changes in technology
which affect the way goods and services are
produced could also alter growth. Detailed in­
formation about the assumptions used in these
projections is presented in the November 1983
issue of the Monthly Labor Review.
Methods. Beginning with population projec­
tions by age and sex and race developed by the
Bureau of the Census, a projection of the total
labor force is derived using expected labor
force participation rates for each population
group. In developing participation rates, the
Bureau takes into account a variety of factors
that affect decisions to enter the labor force,
such as school attendance, retirement prac­
tices, and family responsibilities.
The projection of the GNP level and the dis­
tribution of GNP by its major components (con­
sumer expenditures, investment, government,
and net exports) is carried out using a detailed
macroeconomic model of the U.S. economy.
Based on the projected labor force and on the
various fiscal and monetary policy assumptions
mentioned previously, a consistent distribution
of real GNP by its major components and asso­
ciated estimates of employment, output per
workhour, and hours paid by major producing
sectors are arrived at. The use of a mac­
roeconomic model at this stage of the projec­
tions ensures a balanced and internally consis­
tent representation of U.S. economic condi­
tions over the projection horizon. Each of the
major GNP components is in turn broken down
by producing industry. Consumer expen­
ditures, for example, are divided among indus­
tries producing goods and services such as
housing, food, automobiles, medical care, and
education.
Once estimates are developed for these prod­
ucts and services, they are translated into de­
tailed projections of industry output, not only
for the industries producing the final product—
such as an automobile—but also for the indus­
tries that provide electric power, transportation,
component parts, and other inputs required in

the production process. Input-output tables de­
veloped by the Department of Commerce and
modified by BLS are used to estimate output.
By using estimates of future output per workhour based on studies of productivity and tech­
nological trends for each industry, industry em­
ployment projections are derived from the
output estimates. In addition, many detailed
industries are studied using regression analysis.
In these studies, equations are developed that
relate employment by industry to combinations
of economic variables, such as population and
income, that are considered determinants of
long-run changes in employment. The industry
employment projections developed through
these studies are evaluated with data generated
by the basic model to develop the final industry
employment projections. They also are used to
develop projections for industries that are not
included in the basic model.
Occupational employment projections. Pro­
jections of industry employment are translated
into occupational employment projections
using an industry-occupation matrix. The ma­
jor source of occupational staffing patterns is
the Bureau’s Occupational Employment Statis­
tics (OES) survey. The OES survey collects
data from employers on the occupational dis­
tribution of workers in all nonagricultural in­
dustries, except private households. Each in­
dustry is surveyed every 3 years.
The occupational distribution of wage and
salary workers in agriculture and private house­
holds, not covered by the OES survey, is de­
rived from the Current Population Survey
(CPS). Data on self-employed and unpaid fam­
ily workers in each occupation also come from
the CPS. Data from the matrix are available for
over 200 industries and over 600 occupations.
Staffing patterns that reflect data from the
OES surveys are projected to the target year
(1995) and, when applied to projections of total
employment by industry and summed across all
industries, yield employment projections for all
occupations in the matrix. Thus, projected em­
ployment in an occupation is determined by
changes in the proportion of workers in the
occupation in each industry, and the growth
rates of industries in which the occupation is
concentrated. For example, employment in an
occupation would be projected to grow: (1) If its
proportion of the work force increases but in­
dustry employment remains constant, or (2) if
its proportion of the work force remains con­
stant but industry employment increases.

21

In some cases, employment is projected on
the basis of its relationship to certain indepen­
dent variables rather than on its representation
in each industry. This approach is particularly
useful when projecting employment for an oc­
cupation that is affected by a unique set of
factors. For example, employment of elemen­
tary school teachers is projected based on
trends in pupil-teacher ratios applied to pro­
jected school attendance, and the projection of
automobile mechanics is based on the expected

22




stock of motor vehicles. Projections that are
developed independently are compared with
those in the matrix and revised, if necessary, to
assure consistency.
Replacement needs. In addition to projections
of employment, estimates are made of the total
number of job openings expected to occur in
many occupations. Growth in the size of an
occupation is only one source of job openings.
Employment opportunities also occur when

workers transfer to another occupation, leave
the labor force temporarily, retire, or die. Using
longitudinal data derived from the Current Pop­
ulation Survey, estimates of replacement needs
from all sources have been developed that
provide a comprehensive view of the demand
for workers in various occupations.
Detailed information on replacement needs
for many of the occupations covered in the
1984— edition of the Handbook will be pre­
85
sented in Occupational Projections and Train­
ing Data, 1984 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2206.

Administrative and Managerial Occupations
Managers and administrators achieve the objec­ the work varies, however, so does the level of
tives of their organization by planning and di­ education required. Some managers and ad­
recting the activities of others. In a very small ministrators, including school principals and
enterprise, the owner may also be the manager. hospital administrators, need at least a master’s
However, as a business or other organization degree. Positions such as these require the spe­
grows and becomes more complex, more peo­ cialized knowledge and skills obtained through
ple are needed to oversee the operations of the years of formal education. Other positions, in­
work force. Large corporations or government cluding production supervisor, retail buyer,
agencies may employ hundreds of managers, construction manager, and maintenance super­
organized into a hierarchy of administrative intendent, may not require a college degree.
People in these jobs often have worked their
positions.
Top level managers—executives—are pri­ way up in the organization. Their main
marily concerned with policymaking, plan­ qualification is a thorough knowledge of the
ning, staffing, and overall coordination. They operating procedures of the workplace. In some
direct the activities of the organization through fields— such as accounting and bank manage­
departmental or “middle” level managers. Top ment—continuing education can accelerate ca­
level managers include school superintendents, reer advancement.
On-the-job training enables workers with
police and fire chiefs, bank presidents, gover­
nors, mayors, hospital administrators, chief ex­ management potential to “learn the ropes.” Par­
ecutive officers of corporations, department ticularly in wholesale and retail trade, many
store managers, and government agency managers begin as management trainees, work­
ing under the direction of more experienced
directors.
Below the top management in a large organi­ managers. Management trainees may be hired
zation are the middle managers, who direct from outside the organization or promoted from
various departments. Middle managers may other positions within it. On-the-job training
handle a particular area, such as personnel, programs provide trainees with the specific
accounting, sales, finance, or marketing. Or knowledge and experience they need to perform
they may supervise the production process at a successfully.
Despite the differences in formal education
factory or industrial plant. Middle managers
are the people who keep things running and training, successful managers are likely to
smoothly. They organize activities at the oper­ have certain characteristics in common. Be­
cause they work with people, managers need to
ating level and provide direct supervision.
Middle managers work with the assistance of be able to get along with and motivate and
administrative support personnel who plan, influence others. They should be able to inspire
organize, analyze, and monitor activities. Sup­ confidence and respect in those who work for
port personnel include accountants, loan of­ them.
When they make plans and set goals for their
ficers, underwriters, employment interviewers,
purchasing agents and buyers, credit managers, enterprise, managers work with ideas. They
membership directors, business and promotion need organizational skills, good judgment, and
agents, and inspectors of all kinds. Jobs such as decisionmaking ability. Successful managers
these require technical expertise or a thorough have mastered the art of getting all the facts,
understanding of a particular procedure or coming to a decision, and communicating it
effectively. They need a strong sense of ini­
operation.
Managers and administrators are employed tiative to be able to work without close
in virtually every type of industrial plant, com­ supervision.
For some administrative positions, ana­
mercial enterprise, and government agency.
Large numbers are employed in finance, insur­ lytical, evaluative, and promotional skills are
ance, real estate, construction, government, essential. Accountants, purchasing agents, and
health, education, transportation, public util­ others provide the technical expertise upon
which management decisions are based. Like
ities, and business services.
Because of the wide range of establishments managers, they work closely with other people,
employing managers, job duties vary greatly. but usually in a support rather than a superviso­
For example, the manager of a fast-food restau­ ry capacity. Decisionmaking ability, good
rant performs tasks that differ substantially judgment, and the ability to relate to others are
from those of a school administrator, communi­ important for people in these occupations.
Earnings for managers and administrators
ty organization director, or construction
vary widely. They depend on the industry and
manager.
Since maturity and knowledge are essential, on the size and nature of the particular estab­
entrants to administrative and managerial oc­ lishment in which the manager is employed.
cupations are generally older and have more For example, restaurant managers earn consid­
education and work experience than entrants to erably less, on the average, than sales managers
most other occupations. Because the nature of outside retail trade. Earnings also vary with the



level of managerial or administrative respon­
sibility. For example, management trainees
may start working at salaries that are not much
higher than those of the people they supervise.
Earnings increase as managers gain experi­
ence, prove their ability to handle the job, and
take on additional responsibility. Median an­
nual earnings of full-time administrators and
managers, excluding self-employed, were
about $22,000 in 1982. The middle 50 percent
earned between $16,000 and $32,000. The top
10 percent earned about $40,000 or more.
On the whole, employment of managers and
administrators is projected to grow about as fast
as the average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. The overwhelming majority of job
openings is expected to result from the need to
replace those who transfer to other fields, re­
tire, or leave the occupation for other reasons.
The number of new jobs for managers and
administrators created as a result of employ­
ment expansion will vary by industry sector.
Government and educational services, for ex­
ample, will experience slower-than-average
growth—resulting in limited demand for addi­
tional administrators and support personnel.
Also, the large number of self-employed man­
agers and administrators is expected to decline
somewhat, as large enterprises and chain opera­
tions increasingly dominate business activity.
Projected above-average expansion in the
health services industry will generate many
new managerial and administrative support
positions in hospitals, clinics, nursing homes,
and other health-related organizations. Em­
ployment growth should also be strong among
firms involved in electronic components man­
ufacturing, computer and data processing serv­
ices, credit and securities firms, food services,
automotive repairs, automobile rental services,
and social services.
More detailed information on a number of
administrative and managerial occupations ap­
pears in the following statements.

Accountants and
Auditors
(D O T . 160 through .167-042, and .267-014; and 189.117038)

Nature of the Work
Managers must have up-to-date financial infor­
mation to make important decisions. Accoun­
tants and auditors prepare, analyze, and verify
financial reports that furnish this kind of
information.

23

24/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Four major fields are public, management,
and government accounting and internal audit­
ing. Public accountants have their own busi­
nesses or work for accounting firms. Manage­
ment accountants, also called industrial or
private accountants, handle the financial rec­
ords of their company. Internal auditors verify
the accuracy of their firm’s financial records and
check for waste or fraud. Government accoun­
tants and auditors examine the records of gov­
ernment agencies and audit private businesses
and individuals whose dealings are subject to
government regulations.
Accountants often concentrate on one phase
of accounting. For example, many public ac­
countants are employed primarily in auditing
(examining a client’s financial records and re­
ports and attesting that they are in comformity
with standards of preparation and reporting).
Others concentrate on tax matters, such as pre­
paring income tax forms and advising clients of
the tax advantages and disadvantages of certain
business decisions. Still others concentrate on
management consulting and offer advice on a
variety of matters. They might develop or revise
an accounting system to serve the needs of
clients more effectively or give advice about
various types of computers or electronic data
processing systems.
Management accountants provide the finan­
cial information executives need to make sound
business decisions. They may work in areas
such as taxation, budgeting, costs, or invest­
ments.
Internal auditing is rapidly growing in impor­
tance as top management must increasingly
base its decisions on reports and records rather
than personal observation. Internal auditors ex­
amine and evaluate their firm’s financial sys­
tems and management procedures to ensure
that accounting records are accurate and finan­
cial controls are adequate to protect against
fraud. They also review company operations,
evaluating their efficiency, effectiveness, and
compliance with laws and government regula­
tions.
Many persons with accounting backgrounds
work for the Federal Government as Internal
Revenue Service agents or in financial manage­
ment, financial institution examination, and
budget administration. Others staff the faculties
of business and professional schools as ac­
counting teachers, researchers, or admin­
istrators. Some accountants teach part time,
work as consultants, or serve on committees of
professional organizations.

Working Conditions
Most accountants and auditors work in offices
and have regular hours. Self-employed accoun­
tants, who may set up offices at home, work as
many hours as the business requires.
Tax accountants work long hours under
heavy pressure during the tax season. Accoun­
tants employed by large firms may travel exten­
sively to audit or work for clients or branches of
the firm.

Employment
Accountants and auditors held about 856,000
jobs in 1982; more than 200,000 were Certified




Public Accountants (CPA), 20,000 were li­
censed public accountants (primarily self-em­
ployed tax specialists), about 12,000 were Cer­
tified Internal Auditors (CIA), and about 4,000
were Certified Management Accountants
(CMA). About 10 percent of all accountants
were self-employed. Less than 10 percent work­
ed part time.
Most accountants do management account­
ing. Many others are engaged in public ac­
counting as proprietors, partners, or employees
of independent accounting firms. Other ac­
countants work for Federal, State, and local
government agencies.
Accountants and auditors are found in all
business, industrial, and government organiza­
tions. Most, however, work in large urban areas
where many public accounting firms and cen­
tral offices of large businesses are concentrated.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most public accounting and business firms re­
quire applicants for accountant and internal au­
ditor positions to have at least a bachelor’s
degree in accounting or a closely related field.
Many employers prefer those with the master’s
degree in accounting. A growing number of
employers prefer applicants who are familiar
with computers and their applications in ac­
counting and internal auditing. For beginning
accounting and auditing positions, the Federal
Government requires 4 years of college (includ­
ing 24 semester hours in accounting or audit­
ing) or an equivalent combination of education
and experience. However, applicants face com­
petition for the limited number of openings in
the Federal Government.
Previous experience in accounting or audit­
ing can help an applicant get a job. Many col­
leges offer students an opportunity to gain ex­
perience through summer or part-time inter­
nship programs conducted by public account­
ing or business firms. Such training is invalu­
able in gaining permanent employment in the
field.
Professional recognition through certifica­
tion or licensure also is extremely valuable.
Anyone working as a “certified public accoun­
tant” must have a certificate and a license issued
by a State board of accountancy. All States use
the four-part Uniform CPA Examination, pre­
pared by the American Institute of Certified
Public Accountants, to establish certification.
The CPA examination is rigorous and candi­
dates are not required to pass all four parts at
once. However, most States require candidates
to pass at least two parts for partial credit. Many
States require all sections of the test to be
passed within a certain period of time. Al­
though the vast majority of States require CPA
candidates to be college graduates, some States
substitute a certain number of years of public
accounting experience for the educational re­
quirement. Most States require applicants to
have some public accounting experience for a
CPA certificate. For example, bachelor’s degree
holders most often need 2 years of experience
while master’s degree holders often need no
more than 1 year. Based on recommendations
made by the American Institute of Certified

Public Accountants, a few States require or are
considering requiring CPA candidates to have
training beyond a bachelor’s degree and, in
some cases, a master’s degree. This require­
ment is expected to become more common in
the coming years.
For license or registration as a “public ac­
countant” or “accounting practitioner,” some
States require only a high school diploma while
others require college training. Information on
requirements may be obtained directly from
individual State boards of accountancy or from
the National Society of Public Accountants
(NSPA).
The Accreditation Council for Accountancy
awards accreditation in accountancy and taxa­
tion to persons who have passed a comprehen­
sive examination. Accreditation is maintained
by completing mandatory continuing educa­
tion. The Institute of Internal Auditors, Inc.,
confers the Certified Internal Auditor (CIA)
upon graduates from accredited colleges and
universities who have completed 2 years’ expe­
rience in internal auditing and who have passed
a four-part examination. The National Associa­
tion of Accountants (NAA) confers the Certifi­
cate in Management Accounting (CMA) upon
candidates who pass a series of uniform exam­
inations and meet specific educational and pro­
fessional standards.
Persons planning a career in accounting
should have an aptitude for mathematics, be
able to analyze, compare, and interpret facts
and figures quickly, and to make sound judg­
ments based on this knowledge. They must
question how and why things are done and be
able to clearly communicate the results of their
work, orally and in writing, to clients and man­
agement.
Accountants and auditors must be patient and
able to concentrate for long periods of time.
They must be good at working with systems and
computers as well as with people. Accuracy
and the ability to handle responsibility with
limited supervision are important.
Perhaps most important, because millions of
financial statement users rely on their services,

Accountants and auditors develop, analyze, and
interpret financial information.

Administrative and Managerial Occupations/25
accountants and auditors should have high stan­
dards of integrity.
A growing number of States require both
CPA’s and licensed public accountants to com­
plete a certain number of hours of continuing
education before licenses can be renewed. The
professional associations representing accoun­
tants sponsor numerous courses, seminars,
group study programs, and other forms of con­
tinuing education. Increasingly, accountants
and auditors are studying computer program­
ming so they can adapt accounting procedures
to data processing. Although capable accoun­
tants and auditors should advance rapidly, those
having inadequate academic preparation may
be assigned routine jobs and find promotion
difficult.
Many graduates of junior colleges and busi­
ness and correspondence schools, as well as
outstanding bookkeepers and accounting clerks
who meet the education and experience require­
ments set by their employers, are successful in
landing junior accounting positions.
Junior public accountants usually start by
assisting with auditing work for several clients.
They may advance to intermediate positions
with more responsibility in 1 or 2 years and to
senior positions within another few years.
Those who deal successfully with top industry
executives often become supervisors, man­
agers, or partners, or transfer to executive posi­
tions in private firms. Some open their own
public accounting offices.
Beginning management accountants often
start as ledger accountants, junior internal au­
ditors, or as trainees for technical accounting
positions. They may advance to chief plant ac­
countant, chief cost accountant, budget direc­
tor, or manager of internal auditing. Some be­
come controllers, treasurers, financial vicepresidents, or corporation presidents. Many
corporation executives have backgrounds in ac­
counting, internal auditing, and finance.

more and more on the expertise of public ac­
countants in planning their operations. In addi­
tion, increases in investment and lending also
should spur demand for accountants and
auditors.
Opportunities are expected to be favorable
for college graduates seeking accounting and
auditing jobs. Certified accountants, such as
CPA’s, should have a wider range of job oppor­
tunities than other accountants. However, com­
petition for jobs with prestigious accounting
firms will remain keen. Opportunities for ac­
countants without a college degree will occur
mainly in small businesses and accounting
firms.
The increasing use of computers and elec­
tronic data processing systems in accounting
and auditing should stimulate the demand for
accountants familiar with their operation. Op­
portunities should be particularly good for in­
ternal auditors and tax accountants.
Many employers prefer graduates who have
worked part time in a business or accounting
firm while in school. In fact, experience has
become so important that some employers in
business and industry seek persons with 1 or 2
years' experience for beginning positions.
Accountants rarely lose their jobs when other
workers are laid off during hard economic
times. Financial information must be de­
veloped and tax reports prepared regardless of
the state of the economy.

and $51,800, depending on their level of re­
sponsibility and the complexity of the account­
ing system. Chief accountants who direct the
accounting program of a company or one of its
establishments earned between $33,700 and
$67,900, depending upon the scope of their
authority and size of professional staff.
According to the same survey, beginning au­
ditors averaged $18,700 a year in 1983, while
experienced auditors’ earnings ranged between
$23,300 and $34,100. Beginning public ac­
countants employed by public accounting firms
averaged $18,700 a year, while earnings of ex­
perienced public accountants ranged from
$20,600 to $29,100.
In the Federal Government, the starting an­
nual salary for junior accountants and auditors
was about $13,000 in early 198l2. Candidates
who had a superior academic record could be­
gin at $16,100. Applicants with a master’s de­
gree or 2 years’ professional experience began
at $19,700. Accountants and auditors in the
Federal Government averaged about $30,500 a
year in 1982.

Related Occupations
Accountants and auditors design and control
financial records and analyze financial data.
Others for whom training in accounting is in­
valuable include appraisers, budget officers,
loan officers, financial analysts, bank officers,
actuaries, underwriters, tax collectors and reve­
nue agents, FBI special agents, securities sales
workers, and purchasing agents.

Earnings
According to a 1982 College Placement Coun­
cil Salary Survey, bachelor’s degree candidates
in accounting received offers averaging around
$18,400 a year; master’s degree candidates,
$21,600.
The starting salary of accountants in private
industry was about $19,500 a year in 1983,
according to a national survey. Earnings of ex­
perienced accountants ranged between $23,300

Sources of Additional Information
Information about careers in accounting and
about competency tests administered in high
schools, colleges, and public accounting firms
may be obtained from;
American Institute of Certified Public Accountants,
1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10036.

Information on specialized fields of account­
ing and auditing is available from:

Job Outlook
Employment of accountants and auditors is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-199'0’s due to the
key role these workers play in the management
of all types of businesses. Although employ­
ment growth will generate many new jobs,
most openings will result from the need to re­
place workers who leave the occupation, retire,
or die. While accountants and auditors tend to
leave the profession at a lower rate than mem­
bers of most other occupations, replacement
needs will be substantial because the occupa­
tion is large.
Financial information developed by accoun­
tants and verified by auditors is vital to business
decisionmaking. For example, plant expan­
sion, mergers, or foreign investments may de­
pend upon the financial condition of the firm,
tax implications of the proposed action, and
other considerations. As businesses grow, the
volume and complexity of information on bud­
gets, expenditures, and taxes grow as well,
increasing requirements for accountants and
auditors. Small businesses are expected to rely



The number of accounting graduates grew very rapidly during the
1970’s in response to a strong demand for accountants and
auditors.
Bachelor’s degrees in accounting (thousands)

SO URCE:

National Center for Education Statistics

26/Occupational Outlook Handbook
National Association of Accountants, 919 Third
Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022.
National Society of Public Accountants and Ac­
creditation Council for Accountancy, 1010 North Fair­
fax St., Alexandria, Va. 22314.
The Institute of Internal Auditors, P.O. Box 1119,249
Maitland Ave., Altamonte Springs, Fla. 32701.

For information on educational institutions
offering a specialization in accounting, contact:
American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Busi­
ness, 605 Old Balias Rd., Suite 220, St. Louis, Mo.
63141.

Bank Officers and
Managers
(D.O.T. 186.117-026, -038, -050, -054, -070, -074, -078;
.137-010; .167-014, -050, -054, -058; and .267-018)

Nature of the Work
Practically every bank has a president who di­
rects operations; one or more vice presidents
who act as general managers or who are in
charge of bank departments such as trust or
credit; and a comptroller or cashier who, unlike
cashiers in stores and other businesses, is an
executive officer generally responsible for all
bank property. Large banks also may have trea­
surers and other senior officers, as well as junior
officers, to supervise the various sections with­
in different departments.
Bank officers make decisions within a fra­
mework of policy set by the board of directors
and existing laws and regulations. They must
have a broad knowledge of business activities to
relate to the operations of their department.
Further, the expanding variety of financial serv­
ices requires officers with detailed knowledge

of allied industries such as insurance, real es­
tate, and securities. Besides supervising finan­
cial services, officers advise individuals and
businesses and participate in community
projects.
Because banks offer many services, a wide
choice of careers is available to workers who
specialize.
Loan officers may handle personal, install­
ment, commercial, real estate, or agricultural
loans. In the case of personal loan applications,
loan officers must evaluate an individual’s cred­
it and collateral. In the case of business loan
applications, loan officers should be familiar
with business operations and be able to analyze
a firm’s financial statements. Generally, officers
should be familiar with economics, production,
distribution, merchandising, commercial law,
and bank regulations.
Bank officers in trust management require
knowledge of financial planning and invest­
ment sources for estate and trust administra­
tion. The investment income from these ac­
counts may support families, send young
people to college, or institute a retirement
pension.
Financial service officers—whose role is
rapidly expanding—may describe the wide va­
riety of available investments and help persons
establish a suitable investment portfolio. They
help investors select an appropriate savings ac­
count and advise on the purchase of, and some­
tim es sell, real estate, securities, and
insurance.
Operations officers plan, coordinate, and
control the workflow, update systems, and
strive for administrative efficiency. Careers in
bank operations include electronic data pro­
cessing manager and other positions involving
internal and customer services.
A correspondent bank officer is responsible
for relations with other banks; a branch man­
ager, for all functions of a branch office; and an

international officer, for advising customers
with financial dealings abroad. A working
knowledge of a foreign country’s financial sys­
tem, trade relations, and economic conditions
is beneficial to those interested in international
banking.
Other career fields for bank officers are audit­
ing, economics, personnel administration,
public relations, and operations and systems
analysis.

Working Conditions
Since a great deal of bank business depends on
customers’ impressions, officers and managers
are provided attractive, comfortable offices and
are encouraged to dress conservatively, Bank
officers and managers typically work at least 40
hours a week; however, attending civic func­
tions, keeping abreast of community develop­
ments, establishing and maintaining business
contacts, participating in trade association
meetings, and similar activities may also occa­
sionally result in overtime work.

Employment
Bank officers and managers held over 424,000
jobs in 1982. The following tabulation presents
the distribution of wage and salary jobs by
industry.
Banking ...................................................
Commercial and stock savings
banks ..........................................
Mutual savings banks ..................
Federal Reserve b an k s.
2,000
Trust companies, nondeposit . . . .
Establishments closely related to
banks ..........................................
Credit agencies other than banks . . . .
Savings and loan associations . . .
Personal credit institutions .........
Mortgage bankers and brokers . .
Business credit institutions .........
Agricultural credit institutions . . .
Rediscount and financing institu­
tions ............................................

303,000
280,000
11,000
1,000
10,000
121,000
53,000
43,000
13,000
7,000
4,000
1,000

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Whether servicing loans or analyzing interbank transactions, bank officers rely on computers for the
rapid transmission of financial information.




Bank officer and management positions are
filled by management trainees, and by promot­
ing outstanding bank clerks or tellers who have
demonstrated the potential for increased re­
sponsibilities. College graduation usually is re­
quired for management trainees. A business
administration major in finance or a liberal arts
curriculum, including accounting, economics,
commercial law, political science, and statis­
tics, serves as excellent preparation for officertrainee positions. A Master of Business Admin­
istration (MBA) in addition to a social science
bachelor’s degree, which some employers pre­
fer, may provide an even stronger educational
foundation. However, banks do hire people
with diverse backgrounds such as chemical en­
gineering, nuclear physics, and forestry to
meet the needs of the complex, high-tech­
nology industries with which they deal.

Administrative and Managerial Occupations/27
Persons interested in becoming bank officers
should like to work independently and to ana­
lyze detailed information. The ability to com­
municate, both orally and in writing, is impor­
tant. They also need tact and good judgment to
counsel customers and supervise employees.
In small banks where the number of positions
is limited, advancement to an officer or man­
agement position may come slowly. In large
banks that have special training programs, pro­
motions may occur more quickly. For a senior
position, however, an employee usually needs
many years of experience.
Although experience, ability, and leadership
are emphasized for promotion, advancement
may be accelerated by special study. Banks
often provide opportunities for workers to
broaden their knowledge and skills. Many
banks encourage employees to take courses at
local colleges and universities. In addition,
banking associations sponsor numerous train­
ing programs, sometimes in cooperation with
colleges and universities. The American Bank­
ers Association (ABA) offers the most exten­
sive national program for bank officers. Each of
its dozen schools, located all over the country,
deals with a different phase of banking. Those
enrolled prepare extensively at home, then at­
tend annual sessions on subjects such as com­
mercial lending, installment credit, and inter­
national banking. ABA also sponsors annual
seminars and conferences and provides text­
books and other educational materials. Many
banks pay all or part of the costs for those who
successfully complete courses. The American
Institute of Banking, an arm of the ABA, has
long filled the same educational need among
junior bank staff. (See the statement on bank
tellers elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Bank operations have been revolutionized by
technological improvements in computers and
data processing equipment. Knowledge of their
applications is important to upgrade managerial
skills and to enhance advancement oppor­
tunities.
Because banking is an essential part of busi­
ness, well-trained, experienced officers and
managers may transfer to closely related posi­
tions in other areas of finance or to positions
within other industries, such as manufacturing,
that need individuals with banking experience.

Job Outlook
Employment of bank officers is expected to
increase faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Rising costs due
to expanded banking services will require more
officers to provide sound management and
effective quality control. Greater international
trade and investment will stimulate interna­
tional and domestic banking activities, thus in­
creasing the need for bank officers and man­
agers. Although bank officers and managers
exhibit a relatively strong attachment to thenoccupation, most job openings will result from
the need to replace those who transfer to other
fields, retire, or leave the occupation for other
reasons.



Because of the increasing number of
qualified applicants, competition for bank man­
agerial positions is expected to stiffen. Famil­
iarity with computers and other data processing
equipment may enhance one’s chances for em­
ployment. Once employed, managers and of­
ficers are likely to work year round, even during
periods of slow economic activity, because
cyclical swings in the economy seem to have
little immediate effect on banking activities.

favorable results. For the names and addresses
of banks in a specific location as well as the
names of their principal officers, consult one of
the following directories, which are published
twice each year:
T he A m e r ic a n B a n k D ir e c to r y (Norcross, Ga.,

McFadden Business Publications).
P o lk ’s W orld B ank D ire c to ry (Nashville, R.L. Polk &

Co.).
R an d M c N a lly In tern ation al B an kers D ire c to ry (Chi­

Earnings
Officer trainees at the bachelor’s level generally
earned between $1,100 and $1,800 a month in
1982. Those with master’s degrees generally
started at higher salaries. Graduates with a
Master of Business Administration were offered
starting salaries of $1,800 to $2,900 a month in
1982.
Salaries of bank officers averaged $24,500 in
1982. The salary level depends upon the par­
ticular position and the size and location of the
bank. For officers, as well as for other bank
employees, earnings are likely to be lower in
small towns than in big cities. The top 10 per­
cent of all bank officers earned over $46,800 a
year in 1982.

Related Occupations
Bank officers and managers combine formal
schooling with experience in one or more areas
of banking, such as lending, to provide services
for customers. Other occupations which re­
quire similar training and ability include busi­
ness representatives, industrial relations direc­
tors, safety council directors, city managers,
export managers, and purchasing agents.

Sources of Additional Information
General information about banking occupa­
tions, training opportunities, and the banking
industry itself is available from:
American Bankers Association, 1120 Connecticut
Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Bank Administration Institute, 60 Gould Center,
Rolling Meadows, 111. 60008.
National Association of Bank Women, Inc., National
Office, 500 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.
The Institute of Financial Education, 111 E. Wacker
Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601.

For information about career opportunities
as a bank examiner, contact:
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Director of
Personnel, 550 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C.
20429.
Federal Home Loan Bank Board, Personnel Manage­
ment Office, 1700 G St. NW., Washington, D.C.
20552.

Information on careers with the Federal Re­
serve System is available from:
Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve System,
Personnel Department, Washington, D.C. 20551, or
from the personnel department of the Federal Reserve
bank serving each geographic area.

State bankers’ associations can furnish spe­
cific information about job opportunities in
their State. And writing directly to a particular
bank to inquire about job openings can produce

cago, Rand McNally & Co.).

Buyers, Retail and
Wholesale Trade
(D.O.T. 162.117-010; .157-018 and -022)

Nature of the Work
The Americans have been invited to a private
showing of the latest fashions in Paris. Repre­
senting a major New York department store,
they sit with a select group in an elegantly
furnished room. They watch graceful models
float down the runway displaying the latest
creations by the world’s most famous design­
ers. After some consultation, they purchase
thousands, perhaps millions of dollars worth of
goods. All in a day’s work.
Behind this glamorous facade lies a complex
system of production, distribution, and mer­
chandising which caters to the multitude of
changing consumer tastes. Two important oc­
cupations in this flow of goods are wholesale
buyers and retail buyers. Buyers purchase, for
resale, the best available merchandise at the
lowest possible prices and expedite the trans­
mission of goods from the manufacturer to the ,
consumer. Wholesale buyers purchase goods <
directly from manufacturers or from other
wholesale firms for resale to retail firms or,
occasionally, other wholesale firms. Retail "
buyers purchase goods from wholesale firms os,
occasionally, directly from manufacturers, for
resale to the public. (Information about pur­
chasing agents—buyers who purchase goods
for internal use by their employing firm—can
be found elsewhere in the Handbook.).
Wholesale buyers must be familiar with hun­
dreds of domestic and foreign manufacturers in
their industry. They must be knowledgeable
about the specifications and technical charac­
teristics of the multitude of commodities they
purchase from these producers. They must sup­
ply, in a timely and cost-effective manner, pos­
sibly hundreds of retail purchasers who may be
located throughout the Nation. These retail out­
lets may range in size from giant discount or
department store chains to small “mom and
pop” stores. This requires careful assessment of
manufacturers’ productive capacity and the
minimum wholesaler inventory level necessary
to promptly fill current and future retailers’
orders. Wholesale buyers often collaborate
with retail buyers, who are in closer contact
with the buying public, to forecast changes in
consumer preferences.

28/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Retail buyers must know what motivates
consumers to buy. Before ordering merchan­
dise, they study market research reports and
past sales records to determine which products
are in demand. They keep informed about
changes in existing products and the develop­
ment of new ones. They analyze economic con­
ditions and examine industry and trade publica­
tions to purchase the best products at the lowest
possible cost. They try to anticipate trends in
consumer tastes.
Retail buyers must be familiar with the many
manufacturers and wholesale distributors in
their industry. Buyers must be able to assess the
resale value of goods after a brief inspection
and make purchase decisions quickly. They
deal with wholesale buyers and store executives
to discuss merchandising problems and with
advertising personnel to discuss sales promo­
tions. They work closely with assistant buyers
and sales workers who are in daily contact with
retail customers. This furnishes immediate in­
formation about consumer likes and dislikes
and facilitates anticipation of taste and style
changes. Retail buyers may direct assistants
who handle routine functions such as verifying
shipment orders and inventory levels.
Technological changes in computers and
other business equipment have improved
buyers’ efficiency. For example, computers
give wholesale buyers instant access to the
specifications of thousands of commodities,
their wholesale inventory records, and their
retailers’ purchase records. This expedites the
distribution of merchandise and decreases in­
ventory storage and costs. Retail buyers’ func­
tions have been upgraded. For example, cash
registers connected to a computer, known as
point-of-sale terminals, allow retail chains to
maintain centralized, up-to-the-minute sales

Shipments are regularly spot checked to see if
manufacturers maintain buyers’ specifications for
quality and style.



and inventory records. This decreases the rou­
tine bookkeeping and enables buyers to con­
centrate on complex merchandising functions
and market analysis.

Working Conditions
Wholesale and retail trade establishments are
highly competitive, and buyers often operate
under great pressure. Anticipating customers’
preferences and ensuring that goods are in stock
when they are needed is far from easy, and
mistakes can be costly. Buyers must be resour­
ceful, show good judgment, and have self-con­
fidence to make decisions and take risks.
Buyers frequently work more than a 40-hour
week because of special sales and conferences.
Substantial traveling is required and most spend
several days a month on the road. However,
many successful buyers feel that the stimula­
tion and excitement of the job more than make
up for any emotional strain.

Employment
Buyers held about 256,000 jobs in 1982. Twothirds of the jobs were in retail firms; the rest
were in wholesale establishments. Although
buyers work in all parts of the country, most are
in major metropolitan areas where wholesale
and retail stores are concentrated.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Familiarity with merchandise and with the
wholesaling and retailing business is important
for buyers, and many persons with such experi­
ence transfer into this occupation. High school
and postsecondary marketing and distributive
education programs can launch careers in
wholesaling and retailing that lead eventually to
a buyer’s position. (More information about
marketing and distributive education appears in
the statement on retail trade sales workers
elsewhere in the Handbook.) Vocational
schools, technical institutes, and community
colleges offer postsecondary training that pre­
pares students for careers in merchandising.
Many colleges and universities offer associate
degree or bachelor’s degree programs in mar­
keting and purchasing. An increasing number
of employers prefer applicants who have a col­
lege degree.
Although courses in merchandising or mar­
keting may help in getting started in wholesal­
ing and retailing, they are not essential. Most
employers accept college graduates from any
field of study for buyer trainee programs which
combine classroom instruction in merchandis­
ing and purchasing with short rotations to vari­
ous jobs in the store. This training introduces
the new worker to store operations and policies
and to the fundamentals of merchandising and
management.
Most trainees begin as assistant buyers sell­
ing merchandise, supervising sales workers,
checking invoices on material received, and
keeping account of stock on hand. They gradu­
ally assume buying responsibilities. They usu­
ally work as assistant buyers for at least a year
before becoming buyers. Experienced buyers
may advance to merchandise manager, and
some advance to executive jobs such as general

merchandise manager for distributors, depart­
ment stores, or chain stores.
Membership in professional and trade asso­
ciations is helpful in keeping abreast of im­
provements and changes in industry products
and practices and can facilitate advancement to
more responsible positions.
Buyers should be good at planning and deci­
sionmaking and have an interest in merchandis­
ing. They need leadership ability and com­
munications skills to supervise sales workers
and assistant buyers and to deal effectively with
manufacturers’ representatives and store ex­
ecutives. Because of the fast pace and pressure
of their work, buyers need physical stamina and
emotional stability.

Job Outlook
Employment of buyers is expected to grow
about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s, as the wholesale and
retail trade industries expand in response to a
growing population and higher personal in­
comes. Most job openings, however, will result
from replacement needs, because many experi­
enced buyers transfer to other occupations such
as sales or managerial positions or, temporarily,
leave the labor force to assume household re­
sponsibilities.
Competition for buying jobs is expected to
remain, keen, for merchandising attracts many
college graduates. Prospects are likely to be
best for qualified applicants who enjoy the com­
petitive, fast-paced nature of merchandising.

Earnings
Median annual earnings of buyers were
$17,300 is 1982. However, their income de­
pends upon the amount and type of product
purchased, the employer’s sales volume and, to
some extent, the buyers’ seniority. Buyers for
large wholesale distributors and for mass mer­
chandisers such as discount or large chain de­
partment stores are among the most highly
paid. The top 10 percent of all buyers earned
over $34,900 in 1982.
Buyers often earn cash bonuses based on
their performance. In addition, many firms
have incentive plans, such as profit sharing and
stock options.

Related Occupations
Workers in other occupations who need a
knowledge of marketing and the ability to as­
sess consumer demand are sales managers,
comparison shoppers, manufacturers’ sales
representatives, insurance sales agents, whole­
sale trade sales representatives, and travel
agents.

Sources of Additional Information
General information about a career in retailing
is available from:
National Mass Retailing Institute, 570 Seventh Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10018.

Information on schools that teach retailing is
available from your State Director of Vocational
Education and from:
National Association of Trade and Technical Schools,
2021 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006.

Administrative and Managerial Occupations/29
Association of Independent Colleges and Schools,
1730 M St. NW., Suite 600, Washington, D.C.
20036.

Construction
Inspectors (Public
Administration)
(D.O.T. 168.167 -030, -034, -038, -046, and -050;
.267-010, -102; and 850.387-010)

Nature of the Work
Federal, State, and local government con­
struction inspectors examine the construction,
alteration, or repair of highways, streets, sewer
and water systems, dams, bridges, buildings,
and other structures to insure compliance with
building codes and ordinances, zoning regula­
tions, and contract specifications. Construction
inspectors generally specialize in one particular
type of construction work. Broadly cate­
gorized, these are building, electrical, mechan­
ical, and public works. Inspectors usually work
alone on small jobs, but several may be as­
signed to a large, complex project.
Building inspectors inspect the structural
quality of buildings. Some may specialize—for
example, in structural steel or reinforced con­
crete buildings. Before construction, inspec­
tors determine whether the plans for the build­
ing or other structure comply with building
codes regulations and are suited to the engineer­
ing and environmental demands of the building
site. They visit the worksite before the founda­
tion is poured to inspect the positioning and
depth of the footings. They inspect the founda­
tion after it has been completed. The size and
type of structure and the rate of completion
determine the number of other visits they must
make. Upon completion of the project, they
conduct a final comprehensive inspection.
Electrical inspectors inspect the installation
of electrical systems and equipment to insure
that they function properly and comply with
electrical codes and standards. They visit work­
sites to inspect new and existing wiring, light­
ing, sound and security systems, and generat­
ing equipment. They also may inspect the
installation of the electrical wiring for heating
and air-conditioning systems, kitchen ap­
pliances, and other components.
Mechanical inspectors examine plumbing
systems including septic tanks; plumbing fix­
tures and traps; and water, sewer, and vent lines.
They also inspect the installation of the me­
chanical components of kitchen appliances,
heating and air-conditioning equipment, gas­
oline and butane tanks, gas piping, and gasfired appliances. Some specialize in inspecting
boilers, mechanical components, or plumbing.
Public works inspectors insure that Federal,
State, and local government construction of
water and sewer systems, highways, streets,
bridges, and dams conforms to detailed con­
tract specifications. They inspect excavation
and fill operations, the placement of forms for
concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, and



asphalt paving. They also record the work and
materials used so that contract payments can be
calculated. Public works inspectors may spe­
cialize in highways, reinforced concrete, or
ditches.
Although inspections are primarily visual,
inspectors often use tape measures, metering
devices, concrete strength measurers, and other
test equipment. They often keep a daily log of
their work, take photographs, file reports, and,
if necessary, act on their findings. For example,
construction inspectors notify the construction
contractor, superintendent, or supervisor when
they discover a detail of a project that does not
in comply with the appropriate codes, ordi­
nances, or contract specifications. If the defi­
ciency is not corrected within a reasonable
period of time, they have authority to issue a
“stop-work” order.
Many inspectors also investigate reported in­
cidents of “bootlegging,” that is, construction
or alteration that is being carried on without
proper permits. Violators of permit laws are
directed to obtain permits and submit to inspec­
tion.

Working Conditions
Construction inspectors work indoors and out.
They spend about half their time in an office
reviewing blueprints, answering letters or tele­
phone calls, writing reports, and scheduling
inspections. The rest of their time is spent trav­
eling to construction sites—usually in a gov­
ernment car—and making inspections.
Inspection sites may be dirty and cluttered
with tools, materials, or debris. Inspectors may
have to climb ladders or several flights of stairs,
or may have to crawl beneath buildings.

However, the work is not considered hazard­
ous.
Inspectors normally work regular hours.
However, after an accident at a construction
site, such as a partially collapsed concrete
structure, inspectors must respond immediately
and may work irregular hours to complete their
report.
Inspection work tends to be steady and year
round, unlike the seasonal and intermittent
nature of employment in many construction oc­
cupations. When new construction slows, reno­
vation generally increases, enabling con­
struction inspectors to continue working full
time.

Employment
Government construction inspectors held over
39,000 jobs in 1982. About three-fourths work­
ed for local governments, primarily municipal
or county building departments. The employ­
ment of local government construction inspec­
tors is concentrated in cities and in suburban
areas undergoing rapid growth. These govern­
ments employ large inspection staffs, including
most of the inspectors who specialize in struc­
tural steel, reinforced concrete, and boiler in­
spection.
Public works construction inspectors were
employed primarily at the Federal and State
levels. Nearly half of the construction inspec­
tors employed by the Federal Government in
1982 worked for the Department of Defense,
primarily for the U.S. Army Corps of Engi­
neers. Other Federal employers include the
Tennessee Valley Authority and the Depart­
ments of Housing and Urban Development,
Agriculture, and Interior.

Construction inspector checks an excavation project for compliance with safety regulations.

30/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
To become a construction inspector, several
years of experience as a construction contractor,
supervisor, or craft worker are generally re­
quired. Federal, State, and most local govern­
ments also require an applicant to have a high
school diploma. High school preparation
should include courses in drafting, algebra, ge­
ometry, and English.
Workers who want to become inspectors
should have a thorough knowledge of con­
struction materials and practices in either a gen­
eral area like structural or heavy construction,
or in a specialized area such as electrical or
plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or
structural steel; a significant number of con­
struction inspectors have recent experience
as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or
pipefitters.
Many employers prefer inspectors who have
graduated from an apprenticeship program,
have studied engineering or architecture at least
2 years, or have a degree from a community or
junior college, with courses in construction
technology, blueprint reading, technical mathe­
matics, English, and building inspection.
Construction inspectors must be in good
physical condition in order to walk and climb
about construction sites. They also must have a
motor vehicle operator’s license. In addition,
Federal, State, and many local governments
usually require that construction inspectors
pass a civil service examination.
Construction inspectors receive most of their
training on the job. During the first couple of
weeks, working with an experienced inspector,
they leam about inspection techniques; codes,
ordinances, and regulations; contract specifica­
tions; and recordkeeping and reporting duties.
They begin by inspecting less complex types of
construction such as residential buildings. The
difficulty of their assignments is gradually in­
creased until they are able to handle complex
assignments. An engineering degree is fre­
quently needed to advance to supervisory in­
spector.
Since they advise representatives of the con­
struction industry and the general public on
building code interpretation, construction prac­
tices, and technical developments, con­
struction inspectors must keep abreast of new
building code developments. The Federal Gov­
ernment and most State and large city govern­
ments conduct formal training programs to
broaden inspectors’ their knowledge of con­
struction materials, practices, and inspection
techniques. Inspectors who work for small
agencies that do not conduct training programs
can broaden their knowledge and upgrade their
skills by attending State-conducted training
programs or by taking college or correspon­
dence courses.
Certification enhances construction inspec­
tors’ chances for higher paying, more responsbile positions. Inspectors having substan­
tial experience and education can attain cer­
tification by passing stringent examinations on
construction techniques, materials, and code
requirements developed by the Educational



Testing Service of Princeton, N.J. in collabora­
tion with the regional building associations
listed below.

Persons interested in a career as a con­
struction inspector with the Federal Govern­
ment can get information from:

Job Outlook

U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20415.

Employment of government construction in­
spectors is expected to grow more slowly than
the average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Most job openings will arise from
the need to replace those who die, retire, or
leave the occupation for other reasons.
Employment of construction inspectors is
not always directly affected by changes in the
levels of housing and commercial building ac­
tivity. Unlike most construction occupations,
inspectors do not usually experience layoffs
when construction activity declines. In an up­
turn, new jobs for inspectors increase but not to
the same degree. The construction sector—buf­
feted recently by the effects of high interest
rates—is expected to rebound from its level
during the 1981-82 recession.
Because of the increasing complexity of con­
struction technology and the trend toward the
establishment of professional standards for in­
spectors by State and local governments, job
prospects should be best for highly experienced
craft workers who have some college education
or who are certified.

Earnings
The median annual salary of construction in­
spectors was substantial experience and educa­
tion can attain certification by $18,100 in 1982.
The lowest 10 percent earned $13,000 or less
while the highest 10 percent earned over
$31,200.
The average salary of inspectors in the
Federal Government was $24,400 in 1982. Ac­
cording to limited information, salaries for in­
spectors working for State or local governments
averaged $16,000 a year. Salaries in large met­
ropolitan areas are substantially higher than
those in small local jurisdictions. Salaries in the
North and West are slightly higher than salaries
in the South.

Related Occupations
Construction inspectors combine a knowledge
of construction principles and law with the abil­
ity to coordinate data, diagnose problems, and
communicate with people. Other occupations
involving a combination of similar skills are
drafters, estimators, industrial engineering
technicians, and surveyors.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about a career as a State or
local government construction inspector, con­
tact your State or local employment service or
the following regional building associations:
International Conference of Building Officials, 5360
South Workman Mill Rd., Whittier, Calif. 90601.
Building Officials and Code Administrations Interna­
tional, Inc., 17926 Halstead St., Homewood, 111.
60430.
Southern Building Code Congress International,
Inc., 900 Montclair Road, Birmingham, Ala. 35213.

Health and
Regulatory Inspectors
(D.O.T. 073.161-010; .261-010; .264-010; 079.117-018;
160.167-046; 168.167-010, -022, -026, -042, -062, and
-074; .261-010; .264-010; .267-018, -022, -042 through
-066, -074 through -082, -090, -098, -106, and -110;
.287; .367-018; .387-010; 169.267-030; .284-010;
379.364-010; and 620.281-014)

Nature of the Work
Protecting the public from health and safety
hazards, prohibiting unfair tradt and employ­
ment practices, controlling immigration, pre­
venting entry of prohibited matter, and raising
revenue are responsibilities of government.
Health and regulatory inspectors enforce the
laws and regulations that govern these respon­
sibilities. For a discussion of another type of
inspector, see the statement on construction in­
spectors (public administration) elsewhere in
the Handbook.
The duties, titles, and responsibilities of
Federal, State, and local health and regulatory
inspectors vary widely. Some types of inspec­
tors work only for the Federal Government
while others also are employed by State and
local governments.
Health Inspectors. Health inspectors work
with engineers, chemists, microbiologists, and
health workers to insure compliance with pub­
lic health and safety regulations governing
food, drugs, cosmetics, and other consumer
products. They also administer regulations that
govern the quarantine of persons and products
entering the United States from foreign coun­
tries. The major types of health inspectors are:
Consumer safety, food, agricultural quaran­
tine, and environmental health inspectors. In
addition, some inspectors work in a field close­
ly related to food inspection— agricultural
commodity grading.
Most consumer safety inspectors specialize
in food, feeds and pesticides, weights and mea­
sures, cosmetics, or drugs and medical equip­
ment inspection. Some are proficient in several
areas. Working individually or in teams under
a senior or supervisory inspector, they
periodically check firms that produce, handle,
store, and market food, drugs, and cosmetics.
They look for inaccurate product labeling, and
for decom position or chemical or bac­
teriological contamination that could result in a
product becoming harmful to health. They use
portable scales, cameras, ultraviolet lights,
container sampling devices, thermometers,
chemical testing kits, radiation monitors, and
other equipment to ascertain violations. They
send product samples collected as part of their
examinations to laboratories for analysis.
After completing their inspection, inspectors
discuss their observations with plant managers

Administrative and Managerial Occupations/31
or officials and point out areas where corrective
measures are needed. They write reports of
their findings, and, when necessary, compile
evidence that may be used in court if legal
action must be taken to enforce the law.
Federal and State laws empowerfood inspec­
tors to inspect meat, poultry, and their by­
products to insure that they are wholesome and
safe for public consumption. Working as an
onsite team under a veterinarian, they inspect
meat and poultry slaughtering, processing, and
packaging operations. They also check for cor­
rect product labeling and proper sanitation.
Agricultural quarantine inspectors protect
American agricultural products from the spread
of foreign plant pests and animal diseases. To
safeguard crops, forests, gardens, and live­
stock, they inspect ships, aircraft, railroad cars,
and motor vehicles entering the United States
for restricted or prohibited plant or animal ma­
terials.
Environmental health inspectors, or sani­
tarians, who work primarily for State and local
governments, insure that food, water, and air
meet government standards. They check the
cleanliness and safety of food and beverages
produced in dairies and processing plants, or
served in restaurants, hospitals, and other in­
stitutions. They often examine the handling,
processing, and serving of food for compliance
with sanitation rules and regulations. They
oversee the treatment and disposal of sewage,
refuse, and garbage. They examine places
where pollution is a danger, test for pollutants,
and collect air or water samples for analysis.
They determine the nature and cause of pollu­
tion and initiate action to stop it.
In large local and State health or agriculture
departments, environmental health inspectors
may specialize in milk and dairy products, food

sanitation, waste control, air pollution, institu­
tional sanitation, or occupational health. In
rural areas and small cities, they may be respon­
sible for a wide range of environmental health
activities.
Agricultural commodity graders apply
quality standards to aid the buying and selling
of commodities and to insure that retailers and
consumers receive wholesome and reliable
products. They generally specialize in an area
such as eggs and egg products, meat, poultry,
processed or fresh fruits and vegetables, grain,
tobacco, cotton, or dairy products. They exam­
ine product samples to determine quality and
grade, and issue official grading certificates.
Graders also may inspect the plant and equip­
ment to maintain sanitation standards.
Regulatory Inspectors. Regulatory inspectors
insure compliance with laws and regulations
that protect the public welfare. Important types
of regulatory inspectors are: Immigration;
customs; air safety; railroad; motor vehicle;
occupational safety and health; mine; wagehour compliance; and alcohol, tobacco, and
firearms inspectors.
Immigration inspectors interview and exam­
ine people seeking to enter the United States
and its territories. They inspect passports to
determine whether people are legally eligible to
enter and to verify their citizenship status and
identity. Immigration inspectors also prepare
reports, maintain records, and process applica­
tions and petitions for immigration or tempo­
rary residence in the United States.
Customs inspectors enforce laws governing
imports and exports. Stationed at airports, sea­
ports, and border crossing points, they exam­
ine, count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample
commercial cargoes entering and leaving the
United States to determine admissibility and
the amount of tax that must be paid. They also

Health inspectors oversee compliance with public health regulations.



inspect baggage and articles worn by pas­
sengers and crew members to insure that all
merchandise is declared, proper duties are
paid, and illegal contraband is not present.
Postal inspectors observe the functioning of
the postal system and recommend improve­
ments. They investigate criminal activities such
as theft and misuse of the mail. In instances of
suspected mismanagement or fraud, they con­
duct management or financial audits. They col­
laborate with other government agencies, such
as the Internal Revenue Service, as members of
special task forces.
Aviation safety inspectors insure that Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations
which govern the quality and safety of aircraft
equipment and personnel are maintained. Avia­
tion safety inspectors may inspect aircraft and
equipment manufacturing, maintenance and re­
pair, or flight operations procedures. They usu­
ally specialize in either commercial or general
aviation aircraft. They also examine and certify
aircraft pilots, pilot examiners, flight instruc­
tors, schools, and instructional materials.
Railroad inspectors verify the compliance of
railroad systems and equipment with Federal
regulations. They investigate accidents. They
review railroads’ operating practices to assess
historical compliance with safety regulations.
Motor vehicle inspectors verify the com­
pliance of automobiles and trucks with State
requirements for safe operation and emissions.
They inspect truck cargoes to assure com­
pliance with legal limitations on permisible
gross weight and hazardous cargoes.
Occupational safety and health inspectors
visit places of employment to detect unsafe or
unhealthy working conditions. They inspect
machinery and equipment and observe em­
ployees to see that safety equipment is used and
proper precautions are taken in accordance with
Federal, State, or local government safety stan­
dards and regulations.
Occupational safety and health inspectors
usually visit a plant, factory, or other workplace
in response to a complaint or an accident. In
their reports, they describe hazards and cite
safety standards or regulations that have been
violated. They also discuss their findings with
the employer or plant manager and urge that
violations be promptly corrected.
Mine inspectors work to insure the health
and safety of miners. They visit mines and
related facilities to obtain information on health
and safety conditions and to enforce safety laws
and regulations.
Mine inspectors discuss their findings with
the management of the mine, write reports of
their findings and decisions, and issue notices
that describe violations and hazards that must
be corrected. They also investigate and report
on mine accidents and direct rescue and fire­
fighting operations when fires or explosions
occur.
Wage-hour compliance inspectors inspect
employers’ time, payroll, and personnel rec­
ords to insure compliance with Federal laws on
minimum wages, overtime, pay, employment
of minors, and equal employment opportunity.
They often interview employees to verify the

32/Occupational Outlook Handbook
written examination. Generally, agencies pre­
fer applicants who are college graduates and
whose course work is related to the job.
Food inspectors must have related experience
and pass an examination based on specialized
knowledge.
Aviation safety inspectors must have consid­
erable experience in aviation maintenance and
knowledge of the industry and relevant Federal
laws. In addition, FAA approved pilot and med­
ical or mechanic certificates are required. Some
also require a FAA flight instructor rating.
Many aviation safety inspectors have had flight
training and mechanical training in the Armed
Working Conditions
Forces. No written examination is required.
Most health and regulatory inspectors live an
Applicants for mine safety inspector posi­
active life; they meet many people and work in
tions generally must have experience in mine
a variety of environments. Their jobs often in­
safety, management, or supervision, or possess
volve considerable fieldwork, and some inspec­
a skill such as electrical engineering (for mine
tors travel frequently. They are furnished with
electrical inspectors). In some cases, a general
an automobile or are reimbursed for travel ex­
aptitude test may be required.
penses.
Some civil service examinations, including
At times, inspectors have unfavorable work­
those for agricultural quarantine inspectors and
ing conditions. For example, food, and alco­
agricultural commodity graders, rate applicants
hol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors fre­
solely on their experience and education and
quently come in contact with strong, unpleas­
require no written examination.
ant odors. Mine inspectors often are exposed to
Qualifications usually are similar for inspec­
the same hazards as miners. Many inspectors
tors at the State and local level. Environmental
work long and often irregular hours.
health inspectors, called sanitarians in many
States, usually must have a bachelor’s degree in
Employment
environmental health or the physical or biolog­
Health and regulatory inspectors held over ical sciences. In most States, they are licensed
101,000 jobs in 1982. About 36 percent were by examining boards.
employed by the Federal Government, 34 per­
All inspectors are trained in applicable laws
cent by State governments, and the rest by local and inspection procedures through a combina­
governments.
tion of classroom and on-the-job training. In
The largest single employer of consumer general, people who want to become health and
safety inspectors is the U.S. Food and Drug regulatory inspectors should be able to accept
Administration, but the majority work for State responsibility and like detailed work. They
governments. Most food inspectors and agri­ should be neat and personable and able to ex­
cultural commodity graders in processing press themselves well orally and in writing.
plants are employed by the U.S. Department of
Federal Government inspectors whose job
Agriculture. Agricultural quarantine inspectors performance is satisfactory advance through
work for the U.S. Public Health Service or the their career ladder to a specified full perfor­
U.S. Department of Agriculture. Most en­ mance level. Above this level (usually super­
vironmental health inspectors work for State visory positions), advancement is competitive,
and local governments.
based on agency needs and individual merit.
Most Federal regulatory inspectors work in
regional and district offices throughout the Job Outlook
United States. Aviation safety inspectors work Employment of health and regulatory inspec­
for the Federal Aviation Administration; wage- tors as a group is expected to increase more
hour compliance officers, for the Department of slowly than the average for all occupations
Labor; and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms in­ through the mid-1990’s. Employment growth is
spectors, for the Treasury Department. Oc­ expected to be constrained by slow growth in
cupational safety and health inspectors and government regulatory programs and in gov­
mine inspectors also work for the Department ernment spending. Most job openings will be to
of Labor, as well as for many State govern­ replace those who transfer to other occupations,
ments. Like agricultural quarantine inspectors, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons.
Because health and regulatory inspectors are
immigration and customs inspectors work at
U.S. airports, seaports, and border crossing government workers, their employment is sel­
points, and at foreign airports and seaports. dom affected by general economic fluctuations.
Immigration inspectors are employed by the Most inspectors work in programs which enjoy
Department of Justice. Customs inspectors wide public support. As a result, they are less
likely to lose their jobs than many other work­
work for the Treasury Department.
ers when government programs are cut.

employer’s records and to check for com­
plaints.
Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors
inspect distilleries, wineries, and breweries;
cigar and cigarette manufacturing plants;
wholesale liquor dealers and importers; fire­
arms and explosives manufacturers, dealers,
and users; and other regulated facilities. They
insure compliance with revenue laws and other
regulations on operating procedures, unfair
competition, and trade practices, and deter­
mine that appropriate taxes are paid.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Because of the wide range of inspector jobs and
varying starting levels, qualifications for em­
ployment differ greatly. Requirements are a
combination of education, experience, and a




Earnings
In the Federal Government, the average starting
salary for aviation safety officers and mining
inspectors was $19,700 in 1982. Other health
and regulatory inspectors and graders started at
$13,000, on the average, in 1982.

Experienced food inspectors and agricultural
commodity graders averaged about $21,300 a
year in 1982. Experienced immigration and
customs inspectors averaged about $23,400 a
year; agricultural quarantine and alcohol, tobatcco, and firearms inspectors about $26,800 a
year; and wage-hour compliance inspectors
more than $30,800 a year in 1982. Experienced
consumer safety inspectors, mine inspectors,
and occupational safety and health inspectors
employed by the Federal Government averaged
$33,600 in 1982. Experienced aviation safety
officers averaged over $39,400 a year. Postal
inspectors averaged $37,000 a year in 1982.
According to a 1982 survey by the Interna­
tional Personnel Management Association,
nonsupervisory environmental health inspec­
tors working for selected U.S. cities and count­
ies received average starting salaries of almost
$16,900 in 1982; those working for State gov­
ernments started at about $2,200 less. Experi­
enced environmental health inspectors working
for State governments earned over $16,400, but
top supervisors and administrators made as
much as $30,700 in 1982.

Related Occupations
Health and regulatory inspectors are responsi­
ble for seeing that government laws and regula­
tions are obeyed. Revenue agents, construction
inspectors, State and local police officers, and
fish and game wardens also enforce laws.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on Federal Government jobs is
available from local offices of the State employ­
ment service, area offices of the U.S. Office of
Personnel Management, and Federal Job Infor­
mation Centers in large cities throughout the
country. For information on a career as a specif­
ic type of inspector, the Federal department or
agency that employs them may also be con­
tacted directly.
Information about State and local govern­
ment jobs is available from State civil service
commissions, usually located in each State cap­
ital, or from local government offices.

Health Services
Administrators
(D.O.T. 075.117-022; 187.117-010, -018, .137-014, .167
-022, -034, -038, -090, and 188.117-082)

Nature of the Work
The unprecedented growth in expenditures for
medical care in the United States since the
mid-1960’s has produced new, larger, and more
complex health and medical care organizations
and a recognition of the need for competent
administration. Public demand for better ac­
cess, accountability, and cost control has added
new pressures, while changes in medical tech­
nology, financing patterns, and public regula­
tion have made the job of good management
more complex.
Health services administrator is an inclusive
term for individuals in a variety of positions

Administrative and Managerial Occupations/33
who plan, organize, coordinate, and evaluate
services and resources in medical facilities and
public health organizations. Employers include
hospitals, clinics, health maintenance organi­
zations (HMO’S), long-term care, ambulatory
care, and mental health facilities, home health
agencies, and rehabilitation centers. Admin­
istrators also work in State and local public
health departments.
We can find three functional levels of admin­
istration in most large health care settings—
executive, internal management, and spe­
cialized staff. The chief executive officer
provides overall management direction, but
also is concerned with community outreach,
planning, policymaking, response to govern­
ment agencies and regulations, and negotiat­
ing. This phase of the job often includes speak­
ing before civic groups, promoting public
participation in health programs, and coordi­
nating the activities of the organization with
those of government or community agencies.
Institutional planning is an increasingly impor­
tant responsibility for chief administrators,
who must assess the need for services, person­
nel, facilities, and equipment and recommend
such changes as shutting down a maternity
ward, for example, or opening an outpatient
clinic. Chief administrators need leadership
ability as well as technical skills in order to
respond effectively to the community’s require­
ments for health care while, at the same time,
satisfying demand for financial viability, cost
containment, and public and professional ac­
countability.
Day-to-day management, particularly in
large facilities, may be the responsibility of one
or more associate or assistant administrators,
who work with service unit administrators and
staff specialists. Depending on the size of the
organization, associate or assistant admin­
istrators may be responsible for budget prepara­
tion and finance; personnel administration and
in-service training; information management;
coordination of the activities of the medical,

Health administrators often start out in areas
such as finance, personnel, planning, or
purchasing.



nursing, physical plant, and other operating
departments.
As the health care system becomes more
complex, specialists with expertise in financial
management, systems analysis, statistics, labor
relations, marketing, and planning may join the
administrative staff.

degree, however, represented a variety of disci­
plines, mostly in the behavioral and social sci­
ences.
In 1982, about 100 colleges and universities
offered bachelor degree programs in health
services administration. About 70 schools had
programs leading to the master’s degree in hos­
pital or health services administration; 17 of
Working Conditions
these programs were in schools of public
Health administrators often work long hours.
health. Some schools offer joint degree pro­
Facilities such as nursing homes and hospitals
operate around the clock, and administrators grams, leading to a master’s in public health
may be called at all hours to settle emergency and a master’s in business administration, for
problems. The job also may include travel to example.
To enter graduate programs, applicants must
attend meetings or to inspect health care facili­
have a bachelor’s degree, with courses in natu­
ties.
ral sciences, psychology, sociology, statistics,
accounting, and economics. Competition for
Employment
Health services administrators held about entry to these programs is keen, and applicants
303,000 jobs in 1982. Hospitals and nursing need above-average grades to gain admission.
homes provide about 3 out of 5 wage and salary The programs generally last about 2 years and
jobs, as the accompanying chart shows. The include supervised administrative experience in
remaining jobs are in clinics, rehabilitation hospitals, clinics, or health agencies. Programs
centers, home health agencies, health mainte­ may include courses such as hospital organiza­
nance organizations, and group practices, for tion and management, accounting and budget
the most part.
control, personnel administration, public
Some health administrators work for State health administration, and the economics of
and local health departments and still others health care.
direct the operations of nurses registries and
New graduates with master’s degrees in
medical and dental laboratories.
health or hospital administration may be hired
by hospitals as assistant administrators, depart­
framing, Other Qualifications, and
ment heads, or project directors, and some are
Advancement
As is generally true with managerial jobs, most placed in administrative residencies, or fel­
lowships, offered by some hospitals and health
entrants transfer from other occupations.
Knowledge of management principles and services organizations. These positions are nor­
practices is the essential requirement for a posi­ mally staff jobs that last perhaps 1 year and
tion in this field, and such knowledge often is provide new graduates with additional exposure
gained through work experience. Nonetheless, to a broad sampling of health administration.
New graduates from master’s degree pro­
formal educational preparation is important,
especially for those who wish to advance in the grams in public health are qualified for jobs as
program administrators or policy analysts in
profession.
Academic programs in health administra­ public health departments, voluntary agencies
tion, leading to a bachelor’s, master’s, or doc­ and professional associations such as the Amer­
toral degree, are offered by colleges, univer­ ican Heart Association or the American Hospi­
sities, and schools of public health. The various tal Association, health insurance plans, health
degree programs provide different levels of ca­ policy research institutes, corporate health-care
reer preparation. The master’s degree—in hos­ provider chains, and consulting firms.
Relatively few master’s degree recipients
pital administration, health administration, or
public health—is regarded as the standard cre­ take entry level administrative positions in
dential for many positions in this field. Educa­ nursing homes or life-care communities, al­
tional requirements vary with the size of the though graduates of the small number of long­
organization and the amount of responsibility term care administration programs are likely to
involved. Generally, larger organizations re­ do so. Many nursing home administrators pur­
quire more specialized academic preparation sue graduate education while employed,
than smaller ones do.
however.
New recipients of bachelor’s degrees in
Academic programs in health administration
do not provide the only way of entering this health administration usually begin their ca­
field, however. For some positions, a degree in reers as administrative assistants or department
business, personnel administration, or public heads in hospitals, or as assistant admin­
administration provides an appropriate back­ istrators in small hospitals or in nursing homes.
The Ph.D. degree usually is required for
ground, and many graduate programs in these
disciplines offer concentrations in health ad­ positions in teaching or research, and is an asset
ministration. A survey conducted by the Na­ for those seeking administrative jobs in larger,
tional Center for Education Statistics (NCES) more prestigious health organizations. Al­
shows that recent graduates of master’s pro­ though some public health departments still
grams who found jobs as health services admin­ require chief administrators to be physicians,
istrators came primarily from business, man­ the trend is away from this. Nursing service
agement, and the health professions—includ­ administrators are usually chosen from among
supervisory registered nurses with admin­
ing hospital and health care administration.
Those who entered the field with a bachelor’s istrative abilities and advanced education.

34/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Licensure is not required in most areas of
health services administration, except for nurs­
ing home or long-term care administration.
About 18 States currently require at least 2
years of college for licensure, while 20 require
a bachelor’s degree. All States and the District
of Columbia require these administrators to
pass a qualifying licensing examination, and
most students prepare for it by completing a
special course of study. These preparatory
courses, usually consisting of 100 to 200 hours
of study in long-term care administration, are
available through some colleges, universities,
and home study programs. The licensing exam­
ination covers principles of administration;
management of a long-term care facility; the
role of government in long-term care; environ­
mental health and safety; and medical, psycho­
logical, and social aspects of patient care. Near­
ly half the States require applicants to complete
an internship known as an Administrator-inTraining program before taking the licensure
examination. This internship generally lasts 1
year and is supervised by a licensed admin­
istrator. Since requirements vary from State to
State, persons considering a career in long-term
care administration should investigate licensing
requirements where they wish to work.
Health services administrators are often re­
sponsible for millions of dollars of facilities and
equipment and hundreds of employees. They
need a command of business and communica­
tion skills that allows them to make timely
policy decisions and to motivate subordinates
to implement those decisions. Administrators,
especially head administrators, of all types of
health organizations need to be self-starters.
In order to create an atmosphere favorable to
good patient care, administrators must like peo­
ple, enjoy working with them, and be able to
deal effectively with them. Administrators also
should be good at public speaking.
Health administrators advance in the profes­
sion by moving into more responsible and high­
er paying positions. They may do this within
their own institution, or by shifting to another
health care facility or organization. Frequently,



an administrator’s first job in a large institution
is fairly narrow in scope—department head in
charge of purchasing, for example. Advance­
ment occurs with promotion to successively
more responsible jobs such as assistant or asso­
ciate administrator and, finally, chief admin­
istrator. Hospital administrators sometimes be­
gin their careers in small hospitals in positions
with broad responsibilities, such as assistant
administrator. Regardless of the path of ad­
vancement chosen, the ultimate occupational
goal in hospitals and nursing homes is the posi­
tion of chief executive or chief administrative
officer.
Outside the more traditional avenues of ad­
vancement, many administrators take staff
positions with the Veterans Administration,
U.S. Public Health Service, or State or local
departments of public health. Others find posi­
tions with voluntary health agencies such as the
American Cancer Society or with trade and
professional associations in the health care
field. A growing number of jobs are available
with consulting firms that provide health man­
agement services. Jobs also are available in
community health planning organizatidns.
Whether mandatory or voluntary, official or
unofficial, community health planning is a pro­
cess for governing and managing the health and
medical care system to promote equal access to
quality health care at a reasonable cost, and
individuals with academic training or experi­
ence in health administration are well suited for
health planning positions.

Job Outlook
Employment of health services administrators
is expected to grow faster than the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s as the
health industry expands and health services
management becomes more complex. Most job
openings, however, will result from the need to
replace personnel who transfer to another field
or retire.
The various areas of health administration
will grow at different rates in the years ahead.
Hospital administration may not contribute as

heavily as in the past to employment oppor­
tunities for health administrators. Although the
typical hospital has grown in size and the scope
and sophistication of hospital services has in­
creased, the number of hospitals is decreasing.
Population shifts and financial pressures have
caused some hospitals to close; at the same
time, hospitals are opening and expanding in
areas of population growth—notably in the
South and West.
Furthermore, the American health care sys­
tem is likely to experience a number of changes
in coming years as a result of efforts to control
the rapid increase in health care costs. Hospi­
tals, as the largest category by far of health care
expenditure, will be a focal point for cost con­
tainment. Demand for some catgories of ad­
ministrative personnel is likely to rise to meet
the need for more efficient management, to
provide closer monitoring of costs, and to ad­
minister new reimbursement systems. Pros­
pects should be bright in such areas as finance,
strategic planning, marketing, management in­
formation systems, and purchasing. On the
other hand, if new measures shift a significant
portion of health care services to non-hospital
providers, demand for administrators in hospi­
tals could decline. While it is impossible to
predict what remedies will be applied to control
costs, it is clear that cost containment will pro­
duce important changes in the organization and
delivery of hospital care.
Outside the hospital environment, demand
for administrators will be further stimulated by
the formation of health maintenance organiza­
tions, group medical practices, and a variety of
freestanding health care facilities including
emergency centers, surgicenters, and re­
habilitation centers. In the past decade, health
maintenance organizations have grown in
number and membership and they will continue
to provide jobs for health administrators. Physi­
cians forming group practices to take advantage
of economies of scale and shared expenses are
expected to provide many new opportunities for
administrators in this area of medical practice
management. Freestanding health care facili­
ties such as outpatient surgical centers and
after-hours clinics are expected to experience
very rapid growth due to their convenience and
competitive fee structure. As these facilities
become more widespread, additional jobs will
be generated. Nursing homes and long term
care facilities also will need more admin­
istrators to handle the increasing amount of
administrative work expected as these facilities
expand and diversify.
Enrollments in graduate programs in health
administration rose rapidly during the 1970’s
and graduations from those programs have re­
mained at a relatively high level. In addition,
administrative specialists with graduate de­
grees in other fields—especially business—are
entering the profession. Consequently, compe­
tition for jobs has intensified, particularly in
hospital administration. This situation is ex­
pected to continue, and it may become difficult
for persons with less than a graduate education
to obtain administrative jobs in hospitals. In
nursing homes and other long-term care facili­
ties, where a graduate degree in health admin­
istration is not ordinarily a requirement, job
opportunities will be good for individuals with
a business or management background.

Administrative and Managerial Occupations/35
Earnings
The personal standing and performance of the
administrator, hospital size, geographic loca­
tion, and the type of hospital ownership are all
factors in determining the earnings of hospital
administrators. According to a survey of com­
pensation conducted for Modern Healthcare
magazine, administrators in hospitals with
fewer than 100 beds earned an average income
of about $37,000 in 1982. In hospitals of 100 to
349 beds, administrators averaged $57,500 an­
nually. In the largest hospitals, those with more
than 1,000 beds, chief administrators averaged
more than $85,000. The associate admin­
istrator is directly under the chief administrator.
Earnings for associate administrators ranged
from an average of $28,000 annually in the
smallest hospitals to $58,000 in very large hos­
pitals.
Nursing and personal care home admin­
istrators usually earn lower salaries than those
paid administrators of similar size hospitals.
Starting salaries for recent graduates of mas­
ter’s programs in health administration aver­
aged $24,500 in 1981, according to a national
survey conducted by the Association of Univer­
sity Programs in Health Administration. Recent
recipients of master’s degrees in health admin­
istration starting work in Veterans Administra­
tion hospitals earned $20,256 a year in late
1982. The average salary paid administrators of
Federal hospitals was $40,800.

Related Occupations
Health services administrators plan programs,
set policies, and make decisions for a health
service agency or institution. Other admin­
istrators with similar responsibilities include
social welfare administrators, emergency med­
ical services coordinators, community organi­
zation directors, college or university depart­
ment heads, medical-record administrators,
and recreation superintendents.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about health administration and ac­
ademic programs in this field is available from:
American College of Hospital Administrators, 840
North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611.
Association of University Programs in Health Admin­
istration, 1911 Fort Myer Drive, Suite 503, Arlington,
Va. 22209.

The job of hotel manager can be particularly hectic around check out time.
oversee the management of the accounting,
marketing, personnel, security, front office,
and maintenance departments. Satisfying
guests, handling problems, and coping with the
unexpected are important parts of the job.
General managers of large hotels usually
have an assistant and department heads, such as
sales managers, who run the various opera­
tions. On the other hand, a small hotel or motel
may require only a limited staff; and the man­
ager may assume various duties such as reserva­
tions, room assignments, and superintending
housekeeping.
Large hotel and motel chains often centralize
some activities, such as purchasing and adver­
tising, so that individual hotels in the chain may
not need managers for these departments. Man­
agers who work for chains may be assigned to
organize a newly built or purchased hotel or to
reorganize an existing hotel or motel that is not
operating successfully.

Working Conditions

(D.O.T. 163.117-018; 185.167-106; 187.117-038, .167-046,
-062, -078, -106, -110, -122, -126; 238.137-010; and
320.137-014)

Since hotels are open around the clock, night
and weekend work is common. Hotel em­
ployees frequently must work on shifts. Man­
agers who live in the hotel usually have regular
work schedules, but they may be called for
work at any time. Some managers employed by
resort hotels work on a seasonal basis.
Hotel managers sometimes experience the
pressures of coordinating a wide range of func­
tions. Conventions and large groups of tourists
may present unusual problems. Dealing with
irate patrons can also be stressful. The job can
be particularly hectic for front office managers
around checkout time.

Nature of the Work

Employment

Hotel managers are responsible for the profita­
ble operation of their establishments. They also

Hotel and motel managers held almost 67,000
wage and salary jobs in 1982.

National Health Council, Health Careers Program,
70 West 40th St., New York, N.Y. 10018.
American College of Health Care Administrators,
P.O. Box 5890, 4650 East-West Hwy., Bethesda,
Md. 20814.

Hotel Managers and
Assistants




Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Experience generally is the most important
consideration in selecting managers. This es­
pecially applies to food service managers, be­
cause the hotel restaurant and cocktail lounge
are of great importance to the success of the
entire establishment.
However, employers increasingly are em­
phasizing college or specialized postsecondary
education. A bachelor’s degree in hotel and
restaurant administration provides particularly
strong preparation for a career in hotel manage­
ment. In 1982, about 100 colleges and univer­
sities offered 4-year programs in this field. Sev­
eral hundred junior colleges, technical in­
stitutes, and other academic institutions also
have courses in hotel work that provide a good
background. However, because more aspiring
hotel managers are seeking formal training,
applicants to these programs face increasing
competition.
Included in many programs in hotel manage­
ment are courses in hotel administration, ac­
counting, economics, marketing, data process­
ing, housekeeping, food service management
and catering, and hotel maintenance engineer­
ing. Part-time or summer work in hotels and
restaurants is encouraged because the experi­
ence gained and the contacts with employers
may benefit students when they seek full-time
employment after graduation.
Managers should have initiative, self-disci­
pline, and the ability to organize and direct the
work of others. They must be able to solve
problems and concentrate on details.
Sometimes large hotels sponsor specialized,
on-the-job management training programs
which enable trainees to rotate among various
departments and receive a thorough knowledge
of the hotel’s operation. Other hotels may help
finance the necessary training in hotel manage­
ment for outstanding employees.

36/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Most hotels promote employees who have
proven their ability. Newly built hotels, par­
ticularly those without well-established on-thejob training programs, often prefer experienced
personnel for managerial positions. Hotel and
motel chains may offer better opportunities for
advancement than independently owned estab­
lishments, because employees can transfer to
another hotel or motel in the chain or to the
central office if an opening occurs. Career ad­
vancement can be accelerated by completion of
certification programs offered by the associa­
tions listed below. These programs generally
require a combination of course work, exam­
inations, and experience.

Job Outlook
Employment of salaried hotel managers is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s as addi­
tional large hotels and motels are built and
chain and franchise operations spread. Most
openings are expected to occur as experienced
managers transfer to other occupations, die,
retire, or stop working for other reasons. Sea­
sonal employment opportunities will be avail­
able in resort establishments that are open only
part of the year.
Applicants who have college degrees in hotel
administration should have a decided advantage
in seeking entry positions and later advance­
ment.

Earnings
In 1982, average annual earnings of salaried
hotel managers and assistants were about
$22,000, according to a survey conducted by
the American Hotel and Motel Association.
Fifty percent of these managers earned between
$15,000 and $26,000; the top 10 percent earned
$36,000 or more.
However, salaries varied greatly because of
differences in duties and responsibilities. For
example, general managers averaged $32,000,
whereas executive housekeepers averaged
$15,000. Salaries also depend upon the size and
sales volume of the hotel and its geographic
location. The manager’s level of experience is
also an important factor. In 1982, salaries of
general managers ranged from under $20,000
to over $65,000; executive housekeepers’ sal­
aries ranged from under $12,000 to over
$30,000. Managers may earn bonuses ranging
from 5 to 25 percent of their basic salary in
some hotels. In addition, they and their families
may be furnished with lodging, meals, parking,
laundry, and other services.
Most managers and assistants receive 5 to 10
paid holidays a year, paid vacation, sick leave,
life insurance, medical benefits, and pension
plans. Some hotels offer profit sharing plans,
educational assistance, and other benefits to
their employees.

Related Occupations
Hotel managers and assistants are not the only
workers concerned with organizing and direct­
ing a business where pleasing people is very
important. Others with similar responsibilities
include apartment building managers, depart­
Digitized forment store managers, and office managers.
FRASER


Sources of Additional Information
Information on careers, scholarships, and cer­
tification programs in the lodging industry may
be obtained from:
The American Hotel and Motel Association, 888 7th
Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019.
Hotel Sales Management International, 1400 K St.
NW., Suite 810, Washington, D.C. 20005.
National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc.,
Second Avenue, Business and Professional Building,
Gallipolis, Ohio 45631.

For a directory of colleges and other schools
offering programs and courses in hospitality
education, write to:
Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Edu­
cation, Henderson Human Development Building,
Room 118, University Park, Pa. 16802.

Personnel and Labor
Relations Specialists
(D.O.T. 079.127-010; 166.067-010, .117, .167-014, -018,
-022, -026, -030, -034, .227-010, .267-018, -022 -030;.
and 169.207-010)

Nature of the Work
Attracting the best employees available and
matching them to the jobs they can do best is
important for the success of any organization.
But many enterprises are too large to permit
close contact between management and em­
ployees. Instead, personnel and labor relations
specialists provide this link—helping manage­
ment make effective use of employees’ skills,
and helping employees find satisfaction in their
jobs and working conditions. Although some
jobs in this field require only limited contact
with people outside the office, most involve
frequent contact. Dealing with people is an
essential part of the job.
Personnel specialists and labor relations spe­
cialists concentrate on different aspects of em­
ployer-employee relations.,. Personnel spe­
cialists interview, select, and recommend
applicants for job openings. They handle wage
and salary administration, training and career
development, and employee benefits. They also
keep informed of rules and regulations pertain­
ing to affirmative action and equal employment
opportunity and oversee the implementation of
policies governing hiring and advancement.
“Labor relations” means union-management
relations, and people who specialize in this
field work in unionized establishments, for the
most part. They help company officials prepare
for collective bargaining sessions, participate
in contract negotiations, and handle labor rela­
tions matters that come up every day.
In a small organization, one person can han­
dle the interviewing and hiring. By contrast, in
a large firm the professional staff of the person­
nel department may include recruiters, inter­
viewers, job analysts, benefits specialists,
training specialists, and labor relations spe­
cialists. Personnel clerks and assistants handle

routine tasks such as issuing forms, maintain­
ing files, compiling statistics, and answering
inquiries.
Personnel work often begins with the re­
cruiter, who maintains contacts within the
community and may travel extensively—usu­
ally to college campuses—to search for promis­
ing job applicants. Recruiters talk with appli­
cants, and recommend those who appear
qualified to fill vacancies. They may administer
tests and check references. These workers need
to be thoroughly familiar with the organization
and its personnel policies to discuss wages,
working conditions, and promotional oppor­
tunities with prospective employees. They also
need to keep informed about equal employment
opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action
guidelines.
EEO representatives or affirmative action co­
ordinators handle this area in large organiza­
tions. They investigate and resolve EEO griev­
ances, examine corporate practices for possible
violations, and compile and submit EEO statis­
tical reports.
Job analysts (D.O.T. 166.267-018), some­
times called compensation analysts, do very
exacting work. They collect and examine de­
tailed information about job duties to prepare
job descriptions. These descriptions explain the
duties, training, and skills each job requires.
Whenever a large organization introduces a
new job or reviews existing ones, it calls upon
the expert knowledge of the job analyst.
Establishing and maintaining a firm’s pay
system is the principal job of the compensation
manager (D.O.T. 166.167-022). Assisted by
staff specialists, compensation managers de­
vise ways to ensure fair and equitable pay rates.
They may conduct surveys to see how their
rates compare with others and to see that the
firm’s pay scale complies with laws and regula­
tions.
Human resource development is emerging as
a major specialization within personnel admin­
istration. Training specialists (D.O.T. 079.127010; 166.167-026, .227-010) are responsible for
employee education and training. Trainers con­
duct orientation sessions and arrange on-thejob training for new employees. They also de­
velop programs that help employees keep their
skills up-to-date— instruction in new pro­
cedures or in the operation of new equipment,
for example. In addition, these specialists as­
sess employee training needs, maintain rec­
ords, and evaluate training effectiveness. To
help employees prepare for future respon­
sibilities, they may set up individualized train­
ing plans, to strengthening existing skills or to
teach new skills. Career development may in­
volve study outside the company or rotation
within the firm. Depending on the firm’s size,
goals, and objectives, the responsibilities of
training specialists vary greatly.
Em ployee-benefits managers (D.O.T.
166.117-014, 166.167-018) handle the com­
pany’s employee benefits program, notably its
insurance and pension plans. Expertise in de­
signing and administering benefits programs
has increased enormously in importance since
the Employee Retirement Income Security Act
(ERISA) was enacted. In addition to health

Administrative and Managerial Occupations/37
insurance and pension coverage, many firms
now offer their employees dental insurance,
accidental death and disability insurance, auto
insurance, homeowners’ insurance, stock op­
tions, profit sharing, and thrift/savings plans.
Benefits analysts and benefits administrators
handle these programs and also may develop
and coordinate services as diverse as van-pool­
ing, child care, lunchrooms and company caf­
eterias, newsletters, health promotion and
physical fitness, and alcoholism counseling.
Some firms provide personal and financial
counseling for employees approaching retire­
ment age.
Occupational safety and health programs are
handled in various ways. In small companies
especially, accident prevention and industrial
safety are the responsibility of the personnel
department—or of the labor relations spe­
cialist, if the union has a safety representative.
Increasingly, however, a safety engineer or in­
dustrial hygienist is in charge of a separate
safety department.
Labor relations specialists (D.O.T. 166.167034) advise management on all aspects of union-management relations. When a collective
bargaining agreement is up for negotiation,
they provide background information for man­
agement’s position, which requires familiarity
with economic and wage data as well as exten­
sive knowledge of labor law and collective bar­
gaining trends. Although the director of labor
relations or other top-ranking official represent­
ing the employer negotiates the agreement, the
labor relations staff play an important role.
The labor relations staff interprets and ad­
ministers the contract, particularly grievance
procedures. Labor relations specialists might
work with the union on seniority rights under
the layoff procedure of the contract, for exam­
ple, or meet with the union steward about a
grievance. Doing the job well means staying
abreast of current developments in labor law,
including arbitration decisions, and maintain­
ing continuing liaison with union officials.
Personnel specialists in government and
those in large business firms do essentially the
same kind of work, although there are some
differences. Public personnel specialists deal
with civil service employees whose jobs are
strictly classified as to entry requirements, du­
ties, and pay. Therefore much of the emphasis
in public personnel work is on job analysis.
Training and career development are growing in
importance in the public sector, however, and
greater union activity among government
workers has created a need for labor relations
specialists to handle negotiations, grievances,
and arbitration cases for Federal, State, and
local government agencies.

Education Statistics (NCES). Others had major­
ed in psychology, sociology, counseling, edu­
cation, and other disciplines in the social and
behavioral sciences. A master’s in business ad­
ministration (M.B.A.) also is suitable prepara­
tion. In government, a bachelor’s or master’s
Employment
degree in personnel administration, political
Personnel and labor relations specialists held science, or public administration is an asset.
about 203,000 jobs in 1982. Three out of four
At least 200 colleges and universities have
jobs were in private industry. Some personnel programs leading to a degree in personnel and
and labor relations specialists work for labor labor relations. Other colleges and universities
unions. Others are employed by, or operate, offer programs in personnel administration or
management consulting firms that specialize in personnel management. About 70 colleges and
such areas as compensation, pensions and ben­ universities offer degree or certificate programs
efits, and training and staff development.
in training and development. Depending on the
Between 45,000 and 55,000 personnel and school, preparation for a career in human re­
labor relations specialists worked for Federal, sources development may be obtained in de­
State, and local governments in 1982. They partments of business administration, educa­
handled recruitment, interviewing, job classi­ tion, instructional technology, organizational
fication, training, and related matters for the development, human services, communica­
Nation’s 16 million public employees: Police tion, or public administration.
officers, firefighters, sanitation workers, teach­
Because an interdisciplinary background is
ers, hospital workers, and many others.
appropriate for work in this area, a combination
of courses in the social sciences, behavioral
sciences, business, and economics is useful.
Training, Other Qualifications, and
Prospective personnel specialists might take
Advancement
Because of the diversity of duties and level of courses in principles of management, organiza­
responsibility, the educational backgrounds of tion dynamics, and human relations. Other rel­
personnel and labor relations specialists vary evant courses include business administration,
considerably. In filling entry level jobs, firms public administration, psychology, sociology,
generally seek college graduates. Some em­ political science, economics, and statistics.
ployers prefer applicants who have majored in Courses in labor law, collective bargaining, la­
personnel administration or industrial and labor bor economics, labor history, and industrial
relations, while others look for college gradu­ psychology provide a valuable background for
ates with a technical or business background. the prospective labor relations specialist.
Graduate study in industrial or labor rela­
Still others feel that a well-rounded liberal arts
tions may be required for work in labor rela­
education is best.
Nearly one-half of recent college graduates tions. A law degree seldom is required for entry
in personnel and labor relations jobs had major­ level jobs, but many people responsible for
ed in business and management, according to a contract negotiations are lawyers, and a com­
survey conducted by the National Center for bination of industrial relations courses and law
Although most personnel specialists work in
the office, some travel extensively. Recruiters
regularly attend professional meetings and visit
college campuses to interview prospective
employees.

Working Conditions
Since personnel offices generally are located
where visitors and prospective employees gain
an initial impression of the organization, work
areas tend to be modem and pleasant. Personnel
specialists usually work a standard 35- to 40hour workweek. Labor relations specialists,
however, may work longer hours—particularly
when contract agreements are being prepared
and negotiated.



A college degree is required for most beginning positions in personnel and labor relations.

38/Occupational Outlook Handbook
is highly desirable. Some experienced in per­
sonnel work move into labor relations.
For many personnel jobs, previous experi­
ence is an asset; for some, it is essential. Per­
sonnel administration requires the ability to
work with individuals as well as a commitment
to organizational goals, skills that may be de­
veloped in many ways — selling, teaching, su­
pervising, and volunteering, among others. In
fact, the majority of personnel and labor rela­
tions jobs are filled by people previously em­
ployed in another occupation. This field con­
tinues to offer clerical workers opportunities
for advancement to professional positions.
However, more responsible positions may be
filled by experienced individuals from other
fields including business, government, educa­
tion, and the military. Social services admin­
istration provides a suitable background, too.
Personnel and labor relations specialists
should speak and write effectively and be able
to work with people of all levels of education
and experience as part of a team. They must be
patient to cope with conflicting viewpoints and
emotionally stable to deal with the unexpected
and the unusual. The ability to function under
pressure is essential. Integrity, fairmindedness,
and a persuasive, congenial personality are im­
portant qualities.
Entry level workers usually enter formal or
on-the-job training programs where they learn
how to classify jobs, interview applicants, or
administer employee benefits. Next, they are
assigned to specific areas in the personnel de­
partment to gain experience. Later, they may
advance within their own company, transfer to
another employer, or even manage a major ele­
ment of the personnel program—compensa­
tion, training, or EEO/affirmative action, for
example.
Workers in the middle ranks of a large organ­
ization often leave for a more responsible job in
a smaller organization. Exceptional employees
may be promoted to director of personnel or
labor relations. Others may join a consulting
firm or go into private business. A Ph.D. is an
asset for teaching, writing, or consulting work.

Job Outlook
The number of personnel and labor relations
specialists is expected to grow about as fast as
the average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Most growth will occur in the pri­
vate sector as employers try to provide effective
employee relations programs for an expanding
and aging work force. Relatively little growth is
anticipated in public personnel administration.
As in virtually all occupations, most job open­
ings will result from replacement needs.
Demand for personnel and labor relations
specialists is associated with employment con­
ditions in the firms where they work. An ex­
panding business may hire personnel spe­
cialists to handle additional paperwork while a
business that is reducing its operations will re­
quire fewer workers. During recessions, some
industries may lay off or reduce the number of
personnel and labor relations specialists.
Other factors stimulate demand for person­
nel and labor relations specialists. Legislation
standards in occupational safety and
setting


health, equal employment opportunity, and
pensions has greatly increased recordkeeping
and reporting requirements. Continued growth
is foreseen as employers review and evaluate
programs in these areas.
Corporate recognition of the importance of
human resource development will also spur de­
mand. Greater investment in job-specific, em­
ployer-sponsored training and retraining is an­
ticipated in the years ahead—a response to
productivity concerns, the aging of the work­
force, and technological advances that can sud­
denly leave large numbers of employees with
obsolete skills.
Although the number of jobs in this field is
projected to increase through the mid-1990’s,
the job market is likely to remain competitive,
particularly in labor relations.

Earnings
Typical entry level jobs in the personnel field
include job analyst, EEO representative, bene­
fits analyst, and training specialist. These posi­
tions generally require a bachelor’s degree but
no experience. Salaries vary widely, and de­
pend on the size and location of the firm as well
as the nature of its business.
In 1983, according to a survey conducted by
the American Society for Personnel Admin­
istration and A.S. Hansen, Inc., the median
salary for job analysts—sometimes called posi­
tion analysts, wage analysts or compensation
analysts—was $22,000. EEO representatives
and training specialists each earned median sal­
aries of $25,500; benefits planning analysts had
median salaries of $27,000.
Average annual salaries of personnel direc­
tors in private industry ranged from $32,678 to
$62,645 in 1983, according to a Bureau of La­
bor Statistics survey. Top personnel and labor
relations executives in large corporations
earned considerably more.
In the Federal Government, new graduates
with a bachelor’s degree generally started at
about $13,400 a year in 1982. Those with a
master’s degree started at about $20,300. Aver­
age Federal salaries in several different areas of
personnel and labor relations work were as fol­
lows in 1982:
Mediators ................................................
$45,539
Labor relations specialists ....................
33,134
Apprenticeship and training specialists
33,107
Contractor industrial relations specialists ' 33,030
Labor-management relations examiners
32,577
Personnel management specialists . . .
30,838
Wage and hour compliance specialists
30,760
Employee development specialists . . .
30,607
Occupational analysis specialists . . . .
30,167
Position classifiers .................................
29,281
Employee relations specialists.............
28,779
Equal employment opportunity spe­
cialists ..................................................
28,686
Salary and wage administrators .........
28,383
Personnel staffing specialists...............
27,220

Related Occupations
All personnel and labor relations occupations
are closely related. Other workers who help
people find jobs or help to make the work en­
vironment safe and pleasant include health and

regulatory inspectors, occupational safety and
health workers, employment counselors, re­
habilitation counselors, college career planning
and placement counselors, industrial engi­
neers, psychologists, and sociologists. Several
of these occupations are described elsewhere in
the Handbook.

Sources of Additional Information
For general information on careers in personnel
and industrial relations, write to:
American Society for Personnel Administration, 606
N. Washington St., Alexandria, VA. 22314.

Accreditation of generalists and specialists in
the personnel and human resources field is of­
fered through the Personnel Accreditation In­
stitute. For information, contact:
Executive Director, Personnel Accreditation In­
stitute, 606 N. Washington St., Alexandria, Va.
22314.

For a booklet on Careers in Training and
Development, contact:
American Society for Training and Development,
600 Maryland Ave. SW., Suite 305, Washington,
D C. 20024.

Brochures describing a career with the Na­
tional Labor Relations Board as a field exam­
iner or attorney are available from:
Director of Personnel, National Labor Relations
Board, 1717 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington,
D C. 20570.

The Industrial Relations Research Associa­
tion periodically publishes a list of academic
programs in industrial relations in the IRRA
Newsletter. For the current list, contact:
Industrial Relations Research Association, 7226 So­
cial Science Building, 1180 Observatory Dr.,
Madison, Wis. 53706.

Purchasing Agents
(D.O.T. 162.117-022 and -026; .157-010, -034, and -038;
.167-010, -014, and -030)

Nature of the Work
If an organization does not have the right mate­
rials, supplies, or equipment when they are
needed, its entire production process or work
flow could be interrupted or halted. Purchasing
agents, also called industrial buyers, see to it
that the goods, materials, supplies, and serv­
ices purchased for internal use by the organiza­
tion are of suitable quality, sufficient quantity,
at the right price, and are available when
needed. Agents in industry and the government
buy raw materials, machinery, parts and com­
ponents, furniture, business machines, vehi­
cles, and office supplies. Some, called media
buyers, purchase advertising time and space.
Buyers who purchase merchandise for resale,
rather than for internal use, are described in the
statement on buyers, retail and wholesale trade,
elsewhere in the Handbook.
Purchasing agents buy supplies when the
stock on hand reaches a predetermined reorder
point, when a department in the organization
requisitions items it needs, or when market

Administrative and Managerial Occupations/39
conditions are especially favorable. Because
agents often can purchase from many sources,
their main job is selecting the supplier who
offers the best value consistent with quality,
service, and price.
Purchasing agents use a variety of means to
choose suppliers. They compare listings in cat­
alogs, directories, and trade journals. They
meet with salespersons to discuss items to be
purchased, examine samples, and attend dem­
onstrations of products and equipment. Fre­
quently, agents invite suppliers to bid on large
orders and then select the lowest bidder among
those who meet purchasing and delivery date
requirements.
Sometimes purchasing agents negotiate for
custom-made products or specialized services.
To meet specifications, agents must thoroughly
understand the characteristics and functions of
these purchases. In some cases, such as com­
puter equipment, this means agents must have
considerable technical knowledge. After plac­
ing an order, the purchasing agent checks
periodically to insure prompt delivery.
Purchasing agents develop good business re­
lationships with suppliers in order to get cost
savings, favorable payment terms, quick deliv­
ery on emergency orders, or help in obtaining
scarce materials. Agents also work closely with
other employees in their own organization. For
example, they may discuss design of custommade products with company engineers, de­
fects in purchased goods with quality control
technicians, or shipment problems with work­
ers in the shipping department.
Purchasing agents’ functions may differ ac­
cording to the type and size of the organization.
In a large firm, agents usually specialize in a
commodity or group of commodities—for ex­
ample, steel, lumber, cotton, or petroleum
products. In smaller organizations, agents gen­
erally buy a wider range of goods, such as all
raw materials or all office supplies, furniture,
and business machines. Many have respon­
sibility for arranging custodial, waste disposal,
and other contractual services. Purchasing
managers usually supervise a group of purchas­
ing agents handling a number of related goods
and services.

Whatever their educational background, be­
ginning purchasing agents are enrolled in com­
pany training programs and spend considerable
time learning about company operations and
purchasing procedures. They work with experi­
enced buyers to learn about commodities,
prices, suppliers, and negotiating techniques.
They may be assigned to production planning to
learn about the purchasing system, inventory
records, and storage facilities.
Junior agents purchase standard and catalog
items. As they gain knowledge and experience,
Training, Other Qualifications, and
they may be promoted to purchasing agent,
Advancement
then to senior purchasing agent. Senior agents
Although there are no universal educational purchase highly complex, usually customrequirements for entry level jobs, most large made items.
Purchasing agents must be able to analyze
organizations require a college degree and pre­
fer applicants with a master’s degree in business the technical data in suppliers’ proposals, make
administration or management. Companies buying decisions, and spend large amounts of
that manufacture machinery or chemicals may money responsibly. The job requires the ability
prefer applicants with a technical background, to work independently and a good memory for
such as engineering or science, while other details. In addition, a purchasing agent must be
companies hire business administration majors able to get along well with people to balance the
as trainees. Courses in purchasing, accounting, needs of personnel in the organization with
economics, and statistics are helpful. Famil­ budgetary constraints and to negotiate with
suppliers. An agent may work with lawyers,
iarity with computers also is desirable. Many
contract administrators, and engineers and sci­
colleges and vocational institutes offer courses
en tists when involved in com plex
in purchasing; a few colleges offer a degree in
procurements.
this field.
A qualified purchasing agent can become an
Some small companies require a bachelor’s assistant purchasing manager in charge of a
degree; many others, however, hire graduates of group of purchasing agents and then advance to
associate degree and vocational education pro­ purchasing manager, director or vice president
grams in purchasing for entry level jobs. They of purchasing, or director or vice president of
also may promote clerks or technicians in the materials management. At the top levels, duties
purchasing department. Regardless of the size may overlap into other management functions
of an organization, however, a college degree is such as production, planning, and marketing.
This occupation is becoming increasingly
becoming increasingly important for advance­
professionalized and specialized. Continuing
ment to management positions.

Federal Government. Other important Federal
employers are the Department of Agriculture,
the General Services Administration, and the
Veterans Administration.
Many purchasing agents work in organiza­
tions that have fewer than five employees in the
purchasing department. Large business firms
and government agencies, however, have much
larger purchasing departments; some employ as
many as 100 specialized purchasing agents.

Working Conditions
Purchasing agents generally work a standard
35- to 40-hour week. Some overtime may be
necessary if, for example, the supply of critical
materials runs short. Although they spend most
of their time in the office, some travel to sup­
pliers, seminars, or trade shows.

Employment
Purchasing agents held about 191,000 jobs in
1982. More than one-half of all the jobs were
located in manufacturing, primarily in the ma­
chinery and transportation equipment indus­
tries. Construction companies, hospitals,
schools, and advertising firms also are large
employers of purchasing agents. Government
agencies, primarily in the Federal sector,
provided over one-sixth of all jobs. Because of
its complex and extensive purchasing require­
ments, the Department of Defense employs
about 70 percent of all purchasing agents in the



Purchasing agents select suppliers who offer the best values.

40/Occupational Outlook Handbook
education is essential for advancement. Most
agents participate in seminars offered by pro­
fessional societies and take college courses in
purchasing. Certification enhances one’s
chances for top management positions. In pri­
vate industry, the recognized mark of experi­
ence and professional competence is the desig­
nation Certified Purchasing Manager (C.P.M.).
It is conferred by the National Association of
Purchasing Management, Inc., upon candi­
dates who pass four examinations and meet
educational and experience requirements. In
government, the indications of professional
competence are the designations Professional
Public Buyer (PPB) and Certified Public Pur­
chasing Officer (CPPO), conferred by the Na­
tional Institute of Governmental Purchasing,
Inc. The PPB is earned by passing a two-part
written examination and meeting educational
and experience requirements. A candidate must
meet more stringent basic requirements and
pass a three-part written exam and an interview
assessment to earn the CPPO.

State governments, earnings ranged from
$11,000 for beginning purchasing agents to
over $40,000 for chiefs of purchasing. Gener­
ally, local governments’ salaries are somewhat
lower. However, salaries in some major metro­
politan areas surpass their State government
counterparts.

Related Occupations
Other workers who negotiate and contract to
purchase equipment, supplies, or other mer­
chandise include retail and wholesale buyers,
procurement services managers, livestock
commission agents, and traffic managers.

Sources of Additional Information
Further information about careers in purchasing
is available from:
National Association of Purchasing Management,
Inc.. 496 Kinderkamack Road, Oradell, N.J. 07649.
National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc.,
115 Hillwood Ave., Falls Church, Va. 22046.

Job Outlook
Employment of purchasing agents is expected
to increase about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s, as the vol­
ume of goods and services produced increases.
Goods-producing firms will expand purchasing
departments to handle the growing complexity
of manufacturing processes and to help keep
costs of production materials and supplies to a
minimum. Many opportunities also should
arise as service-producing organizations such
as hospitals and schools also recognize the im­
portance of professional purchasers in reducing
costs.
Most job openings, however, will continue to
arise from the need to replace purchasing
agents who leave their jobs. Many workers in
this occupation typically transfer to other oc­
cupations, often sales or managerial positions.
Others retire or leave the labor force for other
reasons.
Persons who have a master’s degree in busi­
ness administration and a bachelor’s degree in
purchasing, or in engineering, science, or busi­
ness administration with courses in purchasing,
should have the best opportunities. Graduates
of 2-year programs in purchasing should con­
tinue to find good opportunities, especially in
small firms.

Earnings
College graduates hired as junior purchasing
agents earned about $19,100 a year in 1983.
Experienced agents purchasing standard items
averaged about $23,600 a year; senior purchas­
ing agents specializing in complex or technical
goods averaged about $29,000. Assistant pur­
chasing managers received average salaries of
about $35,600 a year. Many corporate directors
of purchasing or materials management earned
well over $50,000 a year. Salaries generally are
higher in large firms where responsibilities
often are greater.
In the Federal Government, beginning pur­
chasing agents who had college degrees earned
$13,000 or $16,100 in 1982, depending on scho­
lastic achievement and experience. Among




School Administrators
(D.O.T. 091.107-010, 099.117-018, -022, and -030)

Nature of the Work
School administrators provide the leadership
and managerial ability that keep individual
schools and entire school systems running
smoothly. School administrators include school
district superintendents, assistant superinten­
dents, and assistant principals. The jobs vary
greatly, and most of what follows primarily
concerns those in the public school system.
The task of school administrators has grown
more complex in recent years. Not only are
schools and school systems larger than ever
before—the result of a continuing trend toward
consolidation—but they touch the lives of many
people, some of whom have become in­
creasingly vocal, even angry, in pursuing their
goals. It takes political as well as administrative
skill to handle the issues that confront school
leaders today: Quality education, desegrega­
tion, contract negotiations with teachers, spi­
raling costs, and taxpayer resistance to higher
taxes, to name a few. But, as educators, admin­
istrators have the satisfaction of knowing that
their work smooths the way to knowledge for
their schools’ students.
The job of a school administrator begins with
planning and setting goals. To achieve these
goals, administrators must organize, coordi­
nate, direct, and evaluate the activities of
school personnel, ensuring that they meet dead­
lines and keep to their budgets. Administrators,
acting on behalf of the school board, negotiate
contracts and settle labor disputes. They must
also maintain good relations with the public.
Superintendents, the chief administrators of
a school district, oversee and coordinate the
activities of all the schools in the district. The
board of education selects the superintendent,
whose duties range from routine administrative
tasks to long-range planning. The nature of the
job depends in part on the size of the district.

Managing the public schools in Raynham,
Massachusetts, is not quite the same as running
the public schools in Chicago. Nevertheless,
the kind of work performed by the superinten­
dent is essentially the same in every district.
On any given day, a superintendent may su­
pervise the preparation of a budget; participate
in collective bargaining sessions with em­
ployees; meet with parents, teachers, or local
citizens’ groups; plan for changes in physical
facilities or staff size due to changes in enroll­
ment; write reports to the school board; or issue
directives pertaining to the operation of the
school system.
Most superintendents have one or more dep­
uties or assistants. An assistant superinten­
dent’s duties depend on the size and organiza­
tion of the school system. In some districts,
assistant superintendents oversee all the opera­
tions in a particular geographic area; in others,
they have authority over specific activities—
personnel, budget, or instruction and pupil
services, for example.
Principals are the highest authority in a
school. They are responsible for running the
school according to the standards set by the
superintendent and board of education.
Ensuring high-quality instruction is the principal’s most important responsibility. Prin­
cipals visit classrooms, review instructional ob­
jectives, evaluate teachers, and examine learn­
ing materials. They also spend a great deal of
time doing paperwork: Filling out forms, pre­
paring administrative reports, keeping track of
attendance, seeing that supplies are properly
requisitioned and allocated, and so on. Despite
the paperwork, principals spend much of the
day with people. They confer with teachers and
other staff—advising, explaining, or answering
procedural questions; they meet with students;
and they talk with parents and members of the
community.
In larger schools, assistant principals often
handle the discipline and coordinate social and
recreation programs. Assistant principals may
also provide individual or group counseling
about personal, social, educational, or voca­
tional matters.

Working Conditions
School administrators work mainly in their of­
fices, but they spend some time away from their
desks at meetings with parent and teacher asso­
ciations, the school board, and civic groups;
sitting in on classes; attending school assem­
blies and sports events; and checking school
physical facilities.
School superintendents and principals usu­
ally work a standard 40-hour week. However, at
night and on weekends, they often put in extra
hours at meetings or attending to problems that
require immediate attention. Unlike teachers,
administrators work year round and can usually
be found at their desks even during school
vacations.

Employment
Elementary and secondary school admin­
istrators held about 133,000 jobs in 1982, most

Administrative and Managerial Occupations/41
of them in public school systems. School sys­
tems have at least one superintendent and, gen­
erally, one or more assistant superintendents.
Every school has a principal, and larger schools
may have one or more assistant principals. As­
sistant principals are generally employed in
secondary schools, which tend to be larger than
elementary schools.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All 50 States and the District of Columbia re­
quire certification of school administrators.
Certification requirements may include good
health and character, U.S. citizenship or State
residency, graduate training in educational ad­
ministration, teaching experience, and passing
an examination. Information on specific re­
quirements may be obtained from State depart­
ments of education.
School superintendents usually are experi­
enced administrators. Many are former prin­
cipals who worked their way up through the
administrative hierarchy. Principals and assis­
tant principals are required by most school sys­
tems to have several years of experience as
classroom teachers. Teachers with varying
backgrounds sometimes move directly into
principalships. Experience in organizing and
supervising school programs and activities is
also an important qualification for principals
and assistant principals, who may have had
another administrative job—such as curricu­
lum specialist; financial advisor; or director of
audiovisual aids, arts, or special education.
Graduate study in educational administra­
tion, preferably at the doctoral level, is usually
required for a school district superintendent.
Larger districts may expect candidates for posi­
tions in the central administrative office to have
a law or business degree in addition to a gradu­
ate degree in education. A master’s degree in
educational administration is the usual prere­
quisite for a position as a school principal or
assistant principal.
The National Council for Accreditation of
Teacher Education accredits graduate programs
in educational administration on over 250 cam­
puses. Programs provide specific preparation
for elementary school principals, secondary
school principals, or school district superinten­
dents. Educational administration courses in­
clude school management, school law, school
finance and budgeting, curriculum develop­
ment and evaluation, systematic planning, su­
pervision of instruction, research design and
data analysis, personnel administration, com­
munity relations, politics in education, and
leadership. A semester of internship and field
experience is recommended.
In addition to experience and education,
school administrators need certain personal
characteristics. Leadership skills and man­
agerial ability are needed to direct the activities
of the many people employed in a school or
school system. Administrators need a personal
philosophy of education which includes an un­
derstanding of the educational process and its
goals, as well as familiarity with educational
technology, curriculum development, and



When hiring administrators, most school systems consider only experienced teachers.
strategies for meeting educational needs. Be­
cause their duties may be rather loosely de­
fined, school administrators must also have a
strong sense of direction and motivation. More­
over, they are frequently under fire from many
groups. Therefore, self-confidence and the
ability to withstand criticism are essential, as
are tact and communications skills.
Because administrative competence is so im­
portant for a school administrator, an appli­
cant’s past work record and reputation are ex­
tremely important when hiring decisions are
made.

“burnout” or dissatisfaction with the classroom
environment, or attracted by the wider range of
duties, greater responsibilities, and higher sal­
aries—can be expected to compete for admin­
istrative positions.
Also, consolidation of both school districts
and schools is expected to continue for at least a
while longer. Thus some positions may be abol­
ished. However, while some administrative
positions may be lost, others—particularly for
assistants—are expected to be created as a re­
sult of the increased size and complexity of the
consolidated units.

Earnings
Job Outlook
Employment of school administrators is ex­
pected to grow more slowly than the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most
job openings will be to replace administrators
who leave the profession.
Pupil enrollment is the basic factor underly­
ing the demand for school administrators. Ele­
mentary school enrollments are expected to
start rising again in 1985 and to continue to rise
through 1995; secondary school enrollments
are not expected to start growing again until
after 1990, however. Therefore, employment of
elementary school principals is expected to in­
crease after 1985 and secondary school prin­
cipals, after 1990. Employment of superinten­
dents, which is determined by the number of
districts rather than by enrollments, is not ex­
pected to increase.
Although openings for principals are ex­
pected to increase, competition for school ad­
ministrator jobs may continue through the
mid-1990’s. Large numbers of teachers and
other school personnel obtain graduate degrees
in education or educational administration each
year. Many of these—whether prompted by

Salaries of school administrators vary accord­
ing to position, level of responsibility, and the
size and geographic location of the school or
school district. Salaries increase with the size of
the school or district. In general, salaries are
highest in the Ear West and Mid-Atlantic States
and lowest in the Southeast. According to the
Educational Research Service, Inc., average
salaries for selected school administrators in
1982-83 were as follows:
Superintendents (contract salary)
Deputy/associate superintendents
Assistant superintendents.........

....
$50,260
....
47,404
42,194

Principals:................................................
Senior high sc h o o l...........
37,602
Junior high/middle sc h o o l.........
34,966
Elementary school ........................
32,451
Assistant principals:..............................
Senior high sc h o o l...........
31,252
Junior high/middle sc h o o l.........
29,746
Elementary S c h o o l...........
27,419

Related Occupations
School administrators need organizational and
leadership skills to manage people, programs,

42/Occupational Outlook Handbook
and financial resources successfully. The same
combination of professional competence and
managerial effectiveness is needed for admin­
istrative positions in health, welfare, religion,
and recreation. Related occupations include
hospital administrators, academic deans, direc­
tors of agencies on aging,library directors, col­
lege or university department heads, recreation
and park directors, and museum curators.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about careers in school admin­
istration, contact:
American Association of School Administrators,
1801 North Moore St., Arlington, Va. 22209.
The National Association of Secondary School Prin­
cipals, 1904 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia
22091.

Underwriters
(D.O.T. 169.167-058)

Nature of the Work
Insurance companies assume billions of dollars
in risks each year by transferring the risk of loss
from their policyholders to themselves. Under­
writers appraise and select the risks their com­
pany will insure. The underwriter must analyze
information in insurance applications, reports
from loss control consultants, medical reports,
and actuarial studies (reports that describe the
probability of insured loss) and then decide
whether to issue a policy. An insurance com­
pany may lose business to competitors if the
underwriter appraises risks too conservatively
or it may have to pay more claims if the under­
writing actions are too liberal. (The term under­
writer sometimes is used in referring to insur­
ance agents; see the statement on insurance

agents and brokers elsewhere in the Handbook
for a discussion of that occupation).
When deciding that an applicant is an accept­
able risk, an underwriter may outline the terms
of the contract, including the amount of the
premium. Underwriters frequently correspond
with policyholders, agents, and managers
about policy cancellations or other requests for
information. In addition, they sometimes ac­
company salespeople on appointments with
prospective customers.
Most underwriters specialize in one of three
major categories of insurance: Life, property
and liability, or health. They further specialize
in group or individual policies. The property
and liability underwriter specializes by type of
risk insured, such as fire, automobile, marine,
or workers’ compensation. In cases where casu­
alty companies insure in a single “package”
policy, covering various types of risks, the un­
derwriter must be familiar with different lines
of insurance. Some underwriters, called com­
mercial account underwriters, handle business
insurance exclusively. They often evaluate a
firm’s entire operation in appraising its insur­
ance application.
An increasing proportion of insurance sales
are being made through group contracts. A
standard group policy insures all persons in a
specified group through a single contract at
uniform premium rates, generally for life or
health insurance protection. The group under­
writer analyzes the overall composition of the
group to be sure that the total risk is not exces­
sive. Another type of group policy provides
members of a group—a labor union, for exam­
ple—with individual policies reflecting their
individual needs. These generally are casualty
policies, such as those covering automobiles.
The casualty underwriter analyzes the applica­
tion of each group member and makes individu­
al appraisals. Some group underwriters meet

Underwriters appraise’ risk by carefully reviewing relevant reports.




with union or employer representatives to dis­
cuss the types of policies available to their
group.

Working Conditions
Underwriters have desk jobs that require no
unusual physical activity. Their offices gener­
ally are comfortable and pleasant. Although
some overtime may be required, the normal
workweek is 35-40 hours. Underwriters occa­
sionally may attend meetings away from home
for several days.

Employment
Insurance underwriters held about 76,000 jobs
in 1982. Most life insurance underwriters were
in home offices in a few large cities, such as
New York, San Francisco, Chicago, Dallas,
Philadelphia, and Hartford.

Draining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
For beginning underwriting jobs, most large
insurance companies seek college graduates
who have a degree in liberal arts or business
administration, but a major in almost any field
provides a good general background. Some
small companies hire persons without a college
degree for underwriter trainee positions. In ad­
dition, some high school graduates who begin
as underwriting clerks may be trained as under­
writers after they demonstrate an aptitude for
the work.
Underwriter trainees begin by evaluating
routine applications under the close supervision
of an experienced risk appraiser. They study
claim files to become familiar with factors asso­
ciated with certain types of losses. As they
develop the necessary judgment, they are as­
signed policy applications that are more com­
plex and have a greater face value.
Continuing education is necessary for the
underwriter to advance. Insurance companies
generally pay tuition for underwriting courses
that their trainees successfully complete; some
also offer salary increases. Independent study
programs are available through the American
Institute of Property and Liability Under­
writers, the American College of Life Under­
writers, the Academy of Life Underwriters, the
Health Insurance Association of America, the
Insurance Institute of America, and the Life
Office Management Association. Experienced
underwriters can qualify as a “fellow” of the
Academy of Life Underwriters by passing a
series of examinations and completing a paper
on a topic in the underwriting field. Examina­
tions are given by the Institute of Home Office
Underwriters and the Home Office Life Under­
writers Association. Designation as a “fellow”
is recognized as a mark of achievement in the
underwriting field.
Underwriting can be a satisfying career for
persons who like working with detail and enjoy
evaluating information. In addition, under­
writers must be able to make prompt decisions
and communicate effectively. They must also
be imaginative and aggressive, especially when
they have to get information from outside
sources.

Administrative and Managerial Occupations/43
Experienced underwriters who complete
courses of study may advance to chief under­
writer or underwriting manager. Some under­
writing managers are promoted to senior man­
agerial jobs.

Job Outlook
Employment of underwriters is expected to rise
about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s as insurance sales con­
tinue to expand. Most job openings, however,
are expected to result from the need to replace
underwriters who transfer to other occupations,
retire, die, or stop working for other reasons.
Several factors underlie the expected growth
in the volume of insurance and the resulting
need for underwriters. Over the next decade,
many more workers will enter the 25-54 age
group. People in this age group have the greatest
need for life and health insurance. They also
need protection for homes, automobiles, and
other valuables. A growing demand for insur­
ance coverage for working women is also ex­
pected. Growing security- consciousness
should also contribute to demand for more in­
surance protection. New or expanding busi­
nesses will need protection for new plants and

equipment, insurance for workers’ compensa­
tion, product liability, and mandatory insur­
ance against long-term gradual environmental
damage caused by hazardous waste. Competi­
tion among insurance companies and changes
in regulations affecting investment profits also
are expected to increase the need for under­
writers.
Since insurance is usually regarded as a nec­
essity regardless of economic conditions, un­
derwriters are unlikely to be laid off during a
recession.

Earnings
According to a survey of property and liability
insurance companies, personal lines under­
writers earned a median salary of $18,500 a
year in 1982. Those specializing in surety
bonds earned $21,000. Senior personal lines
underwriters received a median salary of
$23,400, while senior commercial lines under­
writers earned $23,700 a year. Underwriting
supervisors in property and liability companies
earned between $26,500 and $28,000 a year in
1982.
Most insurance companies have liberal vaca­
tion policies and other employee benefits. Al­

most all insurance companies provide employ­
er-financed group life and retirement plans.

Related Occupations
Underwriters make decisions on the basis of
financial data. Other workers with the same
type of responsibility include auditors, loan of­
ficers, credit managers, and real estate ap­
praisers .

Sources of Additional Information
General information about a career as an insur­
ance underwriter is available from the home
offices of many life insurance and property and
liability insurance companies. Information
about career opportunities as an underwriter
also may be obtained from:
American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.
Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St.,
New York, N.Y. 10038.
Alliance of American Insurers, 20 N. Wacker Dr.,
Chicago, 111. 60606.
The National Association of Independent Insurers,
Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des
Plaines, 111. 60018.

OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE AND MANAGERIAL OCCUPATIONS
Title

Definition

Assessors

Appraise real and personal property to determine its fair value and
assess taxes in accordance with prescribed schedules.

28,000

More slowly than
average

Claims takers,
unemployment
benefits

Interview unemployed workers and compile data to determine
eligibility for unemployment benefits.

15,000

Little change is
expected

Cost estimators

Prepare cost and work completion estimates for engineering contract
bids. Compute cost estimates of raw materials, purchased equipment,
or subcontracted work and labor.

92,000

Faster than average

Credit analysts

Analyze credit data to estimate degree of risk involved in extending
credit or lending money to firms or individuals, and prepare reports
of findings.

22,000

Faster than average

Credit analysts,
chief

Analyze fiscal data such as financial statements, to develop, write
and update credit information used to review bank’s credit
relationship with customers.

8,700

Faster than average

Postmasters and
mail
superintendents
Special agents,
insurance

Supervise and coordinate activities of workers engaged in postal and
related work in assigned post office.

28,000

Expected to decline

Recruit independent insurance agents in field and maintain contact
between them and home office. Advise agents on matters pertaining
to conduct of business, such as cancellations, overdue accounts,
technical problems, claims procedures, new business contacts and
new products. May gather information for underwriter. May inspect
buildings to determine fire insurance rates.

31,000

Faster than average

Collect taxes from individuals or business firms according to
prescribed laws and regulations.

47,000

More slowly than
average

Tax examiners,
collectors and
revenue agents




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects
Nature of the Work
Engineers, surveyors, and architects do plan­
ning and design. Engineers design machines,
processes, systems, and structures. Surveyors
measure and lay out land boundaries. Archi­
tects design buildings and other structures, as
well as outdoor areas. Architects, engineers,
and surveyors often work together on building
projects. Architects design the building, con­
centrating on the visual appearance as well as
the needs of owners and occupants. Engineers
design those parts of the building which are
concerned with such things as its mechanical,
heating, and electrical systems. Surveyors lay
out the building’s boundaries and the bound­
aries of the land it occupies.
Engineers apply scientific and mathematical
theories and principles to solve practical tech­
nical problems. Most work in one of the more
than 25 specialties recognized by professional
societies. Electrical, mechanical, civil, chemi­
cal, and aerospace engineering are the largest.
Although many engineers design and develop
technical products and systems, others work in
testing, production, operations, and mainte­
nance.
Architects also apply scientific and mathe­
matical theories and principles to design and
construct buildings which are esthetically ap­
pealing and safe, and which meet the needs of
their client.
Surveyors use mathematical and scientific
principles to measure and lay out land areas and
establish boundaries. They also research deeds,
write legal descriptions of land, and collect
information for maps and charts.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
The generally accepted standard for engineers
is a bachelor’s degree in engineering, although
those with degrees in natural science or mathe­
matics may sometimes qualify as engineers.
Surveyors usually qualify for their work with a
combination of postsecondary school courses
and on-the-job training. Some obtain a junior
college degree in surveying. A bachelor’s de­
gree in architecture is necessary to become an
architect. To offer architectural services to the
public, architecture graduates must have sever­
al years’ work experience and pass a licensing
examination.

Job Outlook
All occupations in this group are expected to
grow as fast as or faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. In archi­
tecture, however, growth may not be rapid
enough to provide jobs for all of those seeking
to enter the occupation.

44


Architects
(D.d.T. 001.061-010, 351? and .167-010)

Nature of the Work
Designing a building involves far more than
planning an attractive exterior made of stone,
steel and glass, or other materials. Buildings
must be safe as well as attractive and suit the
needs of the people who use them. Architects
take all these things into consideration and de­
sign buildings that are esthetically appealing,
safe, and functional.
Architects provide a wide variety of profes­
sional services to individuals and organizations
planning a building project. Architects are in­
volved in all phases of development, from the
initial discussion of general ideas with the client
through construction. Their duties require a
variety of skills—design, engineering, man­
agerial, and supervisory.
The architect and client first discuss the pur­
poses, requirements, and cost of a project.
Based on the discussions, the architect prepares
a program—a report specifying the require­
ments the design must meet. The architect then
prepares carefully scaled drawings presenting
ideas for meeting the client’s needs.
After the architect’s initial proposals are dis­
cussed and accepted, the architect develops
final construction documents that incorporate
any changes required by the client. These docu­
ments show the floor plans, elevations, build­
ing sections, and other construction details of
the project. Accompanying the architectural
drawings are drawings of the structural system,
air-conditioning, heating, and ventilating sys­
tems, electrical systems, plumbing, and land­
scape plans.
Architects also specify the building materials
and, in some cases, the interior furnishings. In
all cases, the architect’s design and specifica­
tions must conform to local and State building
codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other
ordinances, such as those that require easy ac­
cess by handicapped persons.
Throughout the planning stage, the architect
may make changes to satisfy the client. A client
may decide that the design is too expensive and
ask the architect to make modifications, or the
client may propose additions to the original
plan. Redesigning to suit the client requires
flexibility, and sometimes considerable pa­
tience, on the part of the architect.
After all drawings are completed, the archi­
tect assists the client in selecting a contractor
and negotiating the construction contract. As
construction proceeds, the architect visits the
building site to monitor the contractor in fol­
lowing the design and using the specified mate­
rials. The architect also checks to be sure that

the quality of work meets the specified stan­
dards. The job is not complete until con­
struction is finished, all required tests are made,
construction costs are paid, and guarantees are
received from the contractor.
Architects design a wide variety of struc­
tures, such as houses, churches, hospitals, of­
fice buildings, and airports. They also design
multibuilding complexes for urban renewal
projects, college campuses, industrial parks,
and new towns. Besides designing structures,
architects also may help in selecting building
sites, preparing cost and land-use studies, and
conducting long-range planning for land de­
velopment.
When working on large projects or for large
architectural firms, architects often specialize
in one phase of the work, such as designing or
administering construction contracts. This
often requires working with engineers, urban
planners, landscape architects, and others.

Working Conditions
Architects generally work in a comfortable en­
vironment. Most of their time is spent in offices
interviewing clients, developing reports and
drawings, and working with other architects
and engineers. However, they also often work at
the construction site inspecting the progress of
the project.
Architects may work under great stress to
meet deadlines and working nights and week­
ends is not uncommon.

Employment
Architects held about 84,000 jobs in 1982.
Most architects work for architectural firms—
many of which employ fewer than five workers.
The remainder work for builders, real estate
developers, or other businesses that have large
construction programs and for government
agencies responsible for housing, planning, or
community development such as the Depart­
ments of Defense, Interior, and Housing and
Urban Development.
A large proportion of architects are located in
New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, and
Washington where many large architectural
firms are located. Increasing numbers of archi­
tects are finding employment in areas of the
South and Southwest that are attracting new
business and residential construction such as
Dallas-Ft. Worth, Phoenix, and a number of
Florida cities.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All States and the District of Columbia require
individuals to be registered (licensed) before
they may call themselves architects or contract
for providing architectural services. To qualify

Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/45
Although employment is expected to rise
faster than the average, supply in this small
field could exceed the number of job openings
arising from growth in demand for architects
and from replacement needs. Competition will
continue to be keen for jobs in the most pres­
tigious firms which offer good potential for
career advancement.

Earnings

Architects develop the construction drawings for a building.
for the registration examination, a person gen­
erally must have at least a Bachelor of Architec­
ture degree from a program accredited by the
National Architectural Accrediting Board and
three years of acceptable experience irW archi­
tect’s office. As a substitute for the professional
degree in architecture many States accept other
combinations of formal education and experi­
ence (usually much more than 3 years) for ad­
mission to the registration examination. Many
architecture school graduates work in the field
even though they are not registered. However, a
registered architect is required to take legal
responsibility for all work.
In 1982, the National Architectural Accredit­
ing Board had accredited the programs of 92
schools offering professional degrees in archi­
tecture. Most of these schools offer either a 5year curriculum leading to a Bachelor of Archi­
tecture degree or a 6-year curriculum leading to
a Master of Architecture degree. Students also
may transfer to professional degree programs
after completing a 2-year junior or community
college program in architecture. Many archi­
tecture schools also offer graduate education
for those who already have their first profes­
sional degree. Although such graduate educa­
tion is not essential for practicing architects, it
is desirable for those engaged in specialties or
in research and teaching. A typical college ar­
chitecture program includes courses in archi­
tectural theory, design, graphics, engineering,
and urban planning, as well as in English,
mathematics, physics, economics, and the hu­
manities.
Persons planning a career in architecture
should be able to work independently, have a
capacity for solving technical problems, and be
artistically inclined. They also must be pre­
pared to work in the competitive environment
of business where leadership and ability to
work with others are important. Students who



work for architects, engineers, or building con­
tractors during summer vacations can gain
useful experience.
New graduates usually begin in architectural
firms, where they prepare architectural draw­
ings and make models of structures under the
direction of a registered architect. They also
may design; administer construction contracts;
or write specifications for building materials,
the method of installation, the quality of
finishes, and many other related details.
In large firms, architects may move to super­
visory or managerial positions. Some archi­
tects become partners in established firms.
Often, however, the architect’s goal is to own
his or her own business.

Job Outlook
Employment of architects is expected to rise
faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Demand for architects
is highly dependent upon the level of con­
struction in the United States and foreign coun­
tries. As building activity increases, demand
for architectural services also will rise. Em­
ployment growth, however, is not expected to
be as fast as in previous years. The increasing
use of computer technologies, such as com­
puter-aided design will increase the amount of
work architects can undertake. In addition, for­
eign demand for U.S. architectural services
may grow more slowly than in the past as coun­
tries that traditionally have hired American
firms develop their own architectural service.
About half of all job openings will result
from replacement needs, a much smaller pro­
portion than for all professional workers. The
number ofjob openings for architects is small in
comparison to other occupations because the
occupation is small and few architects leave the
field because they have made a large investment
in their training.

The median annual earnings for salaried archi­
tects who work full time were about $23,900 in
1982. Most earned between $18,000 and
$31,000. The top 10 percent earned more than
$40,000 and the lowest 10 percent less than
$13,000.
The average salary for experienced architects
in 1982 was about $21,000 a year, according to
the American Institute of Architects. Newly
hired architects received about $12,000 an­
nually to start and their salaries increase as they
work toward passing the registration examina­
tion.
Architects with well-established private
practices generally earn much more than even
highly paid salaried employees of architectural
firms. However, architects may have difficulty
getting established in their own practices and
may go through a period when their expenses
are greater than their income. Annual income
may fluctuate due to changing business condi­
tions..
In 1982, the average salary for architects
working in the Federal Government was about
$33,000.

Related Occupations
Architects are concerned with the design and
construction of buildings and related structures.
Others who engage in related work are building
contractors, civil engineers, urban planners,
interior designers, industrial designers, land­
scape architects, drafters, and surveyors.

Sources of Additional Information
General information about careers in architec­
ture, including a catalog of publications, can be
obtained from:
The American Institute of Architects, 1735 New York
Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

Specific questions on education careers
should be addressed to:
The Association of Collegiate Schools of Architec­
ture, Inc., 1735 New York Ave. NW., Washington,
D.C. 20006.

Information about the licensing examina­
tions can be obtained from:
The National Council of Architectural Registration
Boards, 1735 New York Ave. NW., Suite 700, Wash­
ington, D.C. 20006.

Surveyors
(D.O.T. 018.167-010. -014, -018, -026 and -034 through
-050, .261-018, -022, and -026, and .262-010)

Nature of the Work
Surveyors establish official land boundaries,
write descriptions of land to satisfy legal re­
quirements, help set land valuations, measure

46/Occupational Outlook Handbook
construction and mineral sites, and collect in­
formation for maps and charts.
Surveys are usually conducted by a survey
party to measure distances, directions, and an­
gles between points and elevations of points,
lines, and contours on the earth’s surface. Land
surveyors, who may head one or more survey
parties, are directly responsible for a party’s
activities and the accuracy of its work. They
plan the fieldwork, select survey reference
points, and determine the precise location of
natural and constructed features of the survey
project area. They record the results of the sur­
vey, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare
sketches, maps, and reports.
A typical survey party is made up of the party
chief and one to six assistants and helpers. The
party chief leads the day-to-day work activities
of the party. Instrument assistants adjust and
operate surveying instruments such as the the­
odolite (used to measure horizontal and vertical
angles) and electronic equipment used to mea­
sure distances. These workers also compile
notes, sketches, and records of the data ob­
tained from using these instruments.
Surveyors may specialize in a particular type
of survey. Many do land surveys to locate
boundaries of a particular tract of land. They
then prepare maps and legal descriptions for
deeds, leases, and other documents. Those
doing topographic surveys determine eleva­
tions, depressions, and contours of an area, and
indicate distinguishing surface features such as
farms, buildings, forests, roads, and rivers.
Geodetic surveyors use special high-accuracy
techniques, such as satellite observations, to
measure large areas of the earth’s surface.
Geophysical prospecting surveyors mark sites
for subsurface exploration, usually petroleum
related. Marine surveyors survey harbors,
rivers, and other bodies of water to determine
shorelines, topography of the bottom, depth,
and other features.

Surveyors work as members



Photogrammetrists measure and interpret
photographic images to determine the various
physical characteristics of natural or con­
structed features of an area. By applying ana­
lytical processes and mathematical techniques
to photographs from aerial, space, ground, and
underwater locations, photogrammetrists are
able to make detailed maps of areas that are
inaccessible or difficult to survey by other
methods. Control surveys on the ground are
made to insure the accuracy of maps derived
from photogrammetric techniques. Mosaicists
and map editors help develop and verify maps
and pictures from aerial photographs.
A closely related occupation that uses sur­
veying techniques is geodesist. (The work of
geodesists is described in the statement on
geologists elsewhere in the Handbook.)

the severe decline in construction activity dur­
ing the 1981-82 recession. Engineering and ar­
chitectural consulting firms employ nearly onehalf of all surveyors. Federal, State, and local
government agencies employ about one-fourth.
Among the Federal Government agencies em­
ploying surveyors are the U. S. Geological Sur­
vey, the Bureau of Land Management, the
Army Corps of Engineers, the Forest Service,
the National Ocean Survey, and the Defense
Mapping Agency. Most surveyors in State and
local government agencies work for highway
departments and urban planning and redevelop­
ment agencies. Construction firms, oil and gas
extraction companies, and public utilities also
employ surveyors. In addition, a sizable
number own their own survey firms.

Working Conditions

Most persons prepare for surveying work by
combining postsecondary school courses in
surveying with extensive on-the-job training.
Some prepare by obtaining a college degree.
Junior and community colleges, technical in­
stitutes, and vocational schools offer 1-, 2-, and
3-year programs in surveying. A few 4-year
colleges offer bachelor’s degrees specifically in
surveying, while many others offer several
courses in the field.
High school students interested in pursuing a
career in surveying should take courses in al­
gebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, me­
chanical drawing, and computer science.
High school graduates with no formal train­
ing in surveying usually start as a member of the
survey crew. After several years of on-the-job
experience and formal training in surveying—
either in an institutional program or from a
correspondence school—workers may advance
to instrument assistant, then to party chief, and
finally to licensed surveyor.
Beginners with postsecondary school train­
ing in surveying can generally start as instru­
ment assistants. After gaining experience, they
may advance to party chief or become a li­
censed surveyor. In many instances, promo­
tions to higher level positions are based on
written examinations as well as experience.
Those interested in a career as a photogrammetrist usually need a bachelor’s degree in en­
gineering or a physical science. Most photogrammetry technicians have had some spe­
cialized postsecondary school training.
All 50 States require licensing of land sur­
veyors. Licensing requirements are generally
quite strict because, once licensed, surveyors
can be held legally responsible for their work.
Requirements for licensure vary among the
States. Generally, the quickest route to licen­
sure is a combination of 4 years of college, 2 to
4 years of experience, and passing the State
licensing exam. In most States, persons may
qualify to take the licensing exam after 5 to 12
years of surveying experience. As a prere­
quisite to licensure, some States now require a
bachelor’s degree in surveying or in a closely
related field such as civil engineering or for­
estry with courses in surveying. A few States
allow such graduates to take the licensing ex­
amination without experience in the field.

Surveyors usually work an 8-hour day 5 days a
week. Sometimes they work longer hours dur­
ing the summer months when weather condi­
tions are most suitable for surveying.
The work of a survey party is active and
sometimes strenuous. Party members often
stand for long periods and walk long distances
or climb hills with heavy packs of instruments
and equipment. They also are exposed to all
types of weather. Occasionally, they must com­
mute long distances or find temporary housing
near the survey site.
Surveyors spend considerable time on office
duties, such as planning surveys, preparing re­
ports and computations, and drawing maps.
Most computations and some map drafting are
done by computer.

Employment
Surveyors held about 40,000 jobs in 1982. This
is about 12,000 fewer than in 1980, reflecting

of a team when conducting field surveys.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/47
Surveyors should have the ability to visualize
and understand objects, distances, sizes, and
other abstract forms. Also, because mistakes
can be very costly, surveyors must make mathe­
matical calculations quickly and accurately
while paying close attention to the smallest
detail. Leadership qualities are important for
surveyors who supervise others.
Members of a survey party must be in good
physical condition to work outdoors and carry
equipment over difficult terrain. They also need
good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to
communicate over great distances by hand or
voice signals.

buildings, and recreation areas. Construction
and improvement of the Nation’s roads and
highways also should create new surveying
positions. However, employment may fluctuate
from year to year because construction activity
is highly sensitive to changes in economic con­
ditions.
There are indications that demand for sur­
veyors is becoming somewhat less dependent
on the level of construction activity. Tech­
nological innovations that utilize satellites to
collect data have opened new areas of spe­
cialization. For example, the ability to map
inaccessible areas of the earth has been greatly
expanded on both land and sea.

Job Outlook
Employment of surveyors is expected to grow
faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. In addition to openings
arising from growth in the demand for these
workers, many will result from the need to
replace those who leave the occupation, retire,
or die.
In the long run, the anticipated growth in
construction should create additional jobs for
surveyors who lay out streets, shopping cen­
ters, housing developments, factories, office




Earnings
In 1982, high school graduates with little or no
training or experience earned about $9,800 an­
nually at entry level jobs on survey crews with
the Federal Government. Those with 1 year of
related postsecondary training earned $10,650.
Those with an associate degree that included
courses in surveying generally started as instru­
ment assistants with an annual salary of
$11,950. The average annual salary for survey­
ing technicians in 1982 was $15,020. In early

1983, persons starting as land surveyors with
the Federal Government earned $13,400 or
$16,600 a year, depending on their qualifica­
tions. The average annual salary for land sur­
veyors in 1982 was $26,240.
Although salaries in private industry vary by
geographic area, limited information indicates
that salaries for surveyors or surveying techni­
cians are generally comparable to those in the
Federal service at any given level.

Related Occupations
Other occupations concerned with accurate
measurement and delineation of land areas,
coastlines, and natural and constructed features
include cartographers, cartographic drafters,
geodesists, and topographical drafters.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about career opportunities, licen­
sure requirements, and schools that offer train­
ing in surveying is available from:
American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 210
Little Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046.

General information on careers in photogrammetry is available from:
American Society of Photogrammetry, 210 Little
Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046.

Engineers
The work of engineers has made it possible to
communicate by telephone, radio, and TV; to
travel in space; and to prolong life. Future ac­
complishments could be increased energy sup­
plies, more pollution-free powerplants, and aid
to medical science in its fight against disease.
This section, which contains an overall dis­
cussion of engineering, is followed by separate
statements on ten branches of the profession—
aerospace, chemical, civil, electrical, indus­
trial, mechanical, metallurgical, mining, nu­
clear, and petroleum engineering.

Nature of the Work
Engineers apply the theories and principles of
science and mathematics to practical technical
problems. Often their work is the link between
a scientific discovery and its application. Engi­
neers design machinery, products, systems,
and processes for efficient and economical per­
formance. They develop electric power, water
supply, and waste disposal systems. They de­
sign industrial machinery and equipment for
manufacturing goods, and heating, air-con­
ditioning, and ventilation equipment for more
comfortable living. Engineers also develop sci­
entific equipment to probe outer space and the
ocean depths; design defense and weapons sys­
tems for the Armed Forces; and design, plan,
and supervise the construction of buildings,
highways, and rapid transit systems. They also
design and develop consumer products such as
automobiles, television sets, refrigerators, and
electronic games, and systems for control and
automation of manufacturing, business, and
management processes.

Engineers must consider many factors in de­
veloping a new product. For example, in de­
veloping devices to reduce automobile exhaust
emissions, engineers must determine the gener­
al way the device will work, design and test all
components, and fit them together in an inte­
grated plan. They must then evaluate the overall
effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety of the
new device. This process applies to products as
different as lawnmowers, computers, industrial
machinery, and toys.
In addition to design and development, many
engineers work in testing, production, opera­
tions, or maintenance. They supervise produc­
tion processes in factories, determine the
causes of breakdowns, and test newly manufac­
tured products to maintain quality. They also
estimate the time and cost to complete projects.
Some work in engineering administration and
management, or in sales jobs where an engi­
neering background enables them to discuss the
technical aspects of a product and assist in plan­
ning its installation or use. (See the statement
on manufacturers’ sales workers elsewhere in
the Handbook.) Some engineers work as con­
sultants.
Most engineers specialize; more than 25 spe­
cialties are recognized by professional so­
cieties. Within the major branches are over 85
subdivisions. Structural, hydraulic, and high­
way engineering, for example, are subdivisions
of civil engineering. Engineers also may spe­
cialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles,
or in one field of technology, such as propulsion
or guidance systems.
Engineers in each branch apply their knowl­
edge to many fields. Electrical engineers, for

Electrical engineering is the largest engineering specialty.
Em ploym ent, 1982 (thousands)
0
50
100
150
Electrical
Mechanical
Industrial
Civil
Chemical
Aeronautical
Petroleum
Metallurgical
Nuclear
Mining
Other

1

1

200

250

1

1

300

1

_____________________________________J
HD
.................................1
.................................. J
....... 1
.. .1

P
1

SO URCE: Bu reau o f L ab o r S t a tis tic s

48

1




1

350

example, work in the medical, computer, mis­
sile guidance, or power distribution fields. Be­
cause complex problems cut across traditional
fields, engineers in one field often work closely
with specialists in scientific, other engineering,
and business occupations.
Engineers often use*, calculators and com­
puters to solve mathematical equations which
describe how a machine, structure, or system
operates. Engineers.also spend a great deal of
time writing reports and consulting with other
engineers. Complex projects require many en­
gineers, each working with a small part of the
job. Supervisory engineers are responsible for
entire projects.

Working Conditions
Some engineers are at a desk in an office build­
ing almost all of the time but others work in
research laboratories, industrial plants, or con­
struction sites to inspect, supervise or solve on­
site problems. Engineers in specialties such as
civil engineering may work outdoors part of the
time. A few engineers travel extensively to
plants or construction sites. Some work over­
time to meet deadlines, often without addi­
tional compensation.

Employment
Engineering is the second largest profession,
exceeded only by teaching. In 1982, engineers
held about 1,204,000. About 600,000 or onehalf of all engineering jobs were located in
manufacturing industries—mostly in electrical
and electronic equipment, aircraft and parts,
machinery, chemicals, scientific instruments,
primary metals, fabricated metal products, and
motor vehicle industries. In 1982, over 400,000
jobs were in nonmanufacturing industries, pri­
marily in engineering and architectural serv­
ices, construction, public utilities, and business
and management consulting services.
Federal, State, and local governments em­
ployed about 160,000 engineers. Over half of
the jobs were in the Federal Government, main­
ly in the Departments of Defense, Interior, En­
ergy, Agriculture, and Transportation, and in
the National Aeronautics and Space Admin­
istration. Most engineers in State and local gov­
ernment agencies worked in highway and pub­
lic works departments.
Besides the jobs described above, about
40,000 persons held engineering faculty posi­
tions in colleges and universities in 1982. (See
the statement on college and university faculty
elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Engineers are employed in every State, in
small and large cities, and in rural areas. Some
branches of engineering are concentrated in
particular industries and geographic areas, as
discussed in statements later in this chapter.

Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/49
Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A bachelor’s degree in engineering is generally
acceptable for beginning engineering jobs.
College graduates with a degree in science or
mathematics and experienced technicians may
also qualify for some jobs.
Many 2- or 4-year college programs in engi­
neering technology prepare students for prac­
tical design and production work rather than for
jobs that require more theoretical scientific and
mathematical knowledge. Graduates of such 4year technology programs may get jobs similar
to those obtained by graduates with a bachelor’s
degree in engineering. However, some employ­
ers regard them as having skills between those
of a technician and an engineer.
Graduate training is essential for engineering
faculty positions but is not needed for the ma­
jority of entry level engineering jobs. Many
engineers obtain a master’s degree however,
because an advanced degree often is desirable
for promotion or for learning new technology.
Some specialties, such as nuclear, environmen­
tal, or biomedical engineering, are taught
mainly at the graduate level.
About 250 colleges and universities offer a
bachelor’s degree in engineering, and over 90
colleges offer a bachelor’s degree in engineer­
ing technology. Although most institutions of­
fer programs in the larger branches of engineer­
ing, only a few offer some of the smaller
specialties. Therefore, students should investi­
gate curriculums before selecting a college.
Admissions requirements for undergraduate
engineering schools usually include courses in
advanced high school mathematics and the
physical sciences.
In a typical 4-year curriculum, the first 2
years are spent studying basic sciences—math­
ematics, physics, chemistry, and introductory
engineering—and the humanities, social sci­
ences, and English. In the last 2 years, most
courses are in engineering. Some programs of­
fer a general engineering curriculum; students
then specialize in graduate school or on the job.
Some engineering curriculums require more
than 4 years to complete. Some colleges and
universities offer 5-year master’s degree pro­
grams. In addition, several engineering schools
have arrangements whereby a student spends 3
years in a liberal arts college studying pre­
engineering subjects and 2 years in the engi­
neering school and receives a bachelor’s degree
from each.
Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans
combine classroom study and practical work
experience. In addition to gaining useful expe­
rience, students can thereby finance part of
their education. Tq keep up with rapid advances
in technology, engineers often continue their
education throughout their careers.
All 50 States and the District of Columbia
require licensing for engineers whose work
may affect life, health, or property, or who offer
their services to the public. In 1982, over
400,000 engineers were registered. Registra­
tion generally requires a degree from an ac­
credited engineering program, 4 years of rele­
vant work experience, and passing a State



examination. Some States will not register
those with degrees in engineering technology.
Beginning engineering graduates usually do
routine work under the close supervision of
experienced engineers and in larger companies
may also receive formal classroom or seminartype training. As they gain experience, they are
assigned more difficult tasks. Some eventually
become managers or administrators within en­
gineering; others leave engineering for non­
technical managerial, administrative, and sales
jobs. Some engineers obtain graduate degrees
in business administration to improve advance­
ment opportunities; others obtain law degrees
and become patent attorneys. Many high level
executives in government and industry began
their careers as engineers.
Engineers should be able to work as part of a
team and should have creativity, an analytical
mind, and a capacity for detail. In addition,
engineers should be able to express themselves
well—both orally and in writing.

Job Outlook
Employment opportunities for those with de­
grees in engineering are expected to be good
through 1995. In addition, there may be some
opportunities for college graduates from related
fields in certain engineering jobs.
Employment of engineers is expected to in­
crease faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through 1995. Although only a relatively
small proportion of engineers leave the profes­
sion each year, most job openings will arise
from replacement needs. Most replacement
openings are created by engineers who transfer
to management, sales, or other professional
Table 1.

occupations rather than by engineers who retire
or die.
Much of the projected growth in require­
ments for engineers will stem from the expected
higher levels of investment in industrial plants
and equipment to meet the demand for more
goods and services and to increase productivity.
More engineers also will be needed to develop
and manufacture defense-related products and
to improve transportation facilities.
Engineers will be required in energy-related
activities to develop sources of energy as well
as to design energy-saving systems for auto­
mobiles, homes, and other buildings. Engi­
neers also will be needed to solve environmen­
tal problems.
Most industries are less likely to lay off engi­
neers than other workers. Many engineers work
on long-term research and development pro­
jects or in other activities which often continue
even during recessions. However, in industries
such as electronics and aerospace, large cut­
backs in defense or research and development
expenditures may result in layoffs for engi­
neers.
It is important for engineers to continue their
education throughout their careers because
their value to their employer depends on their
knowledge of the latest technology. The pace of
technological change varies by engineering
specialty and industry. Engineers in high-tech­
nology areas such as advanced electronics or
aerospace may find that their knowledge be­
comes obsolete rapidly. Even engineers who
continue their education are vulnerable to ob­
solescence if the particular technology or prod­
uct they have specialized in becomes obsolete.

Degrees granted by engineering specialty, academic year 1980-81
Specialty

Bachelor’s Master’s Doctor’s

Total ......................................................................................... .........

75,000

Aerospace, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering............... .........
Agricultural engineering ................................................................... .........
Architectural engineering................................................................... .........
Bioengineering and biomedical engineering................................... .........
Ceramic engineering ......................................................................... .........
Chemical engineering......................................................................... .........
Civil, construction, and transportation engineering ...................... .........
Electrical, electronics, and communications engineering ........... .........
Engineering, general ......................................................................... .........
Engineering mechanics ...............................................................................
Engineering physics ........................................................................... ..........
Engineering technologies.............................................................................
Environmental and sanitary engineering......................................... .........
Geological engineering ..................................................................... ..........
Geophysical engineering ................................................................... ...........
Industrial and management engineering ....................................................
Materials engineering......................................................................... ...........
Mechanical engineering ................................................................................
Metallurgical engineering ............................................................................
Mining and mineral engineering .................................................................
Naval architecture and marine engineering................................................
Nuclear engineering ........................................................................... ...........
Ocean engineering .........................................................................................
Petroleum engineering ....................................................................... ...........
Textile engineering ............................................................................. ...........
O ther..................................................................................................... ...........

1,809
876
304
437
291
6,527
10,678
14,938
4,06*3
185
284
11.713
275
215
55
3,833
505
13,329
603
750
556
408
200
1,035
57
1,074

Source: National Center for Education S a i t c .
ttsis

16,709
408
153
49 .
185
60
1,267
2,891
3,901
1,517
126
57
323
485
31
17
1,631
355
2,291
193
84
80
281
91
138
—
95

2,561
109
44
—*
54
19
300
325
535
294
57
26
10
34
6
4
112
105
276
75
10
4
121
13
16
—
12

50/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Engineers whose employers consider not to
have kept up may find themselves passed over
for promotions and are particularly vulnerable
to layoffs. However, it is often these high-tech­
nology areas that offer the greatest challenges,
most interesting work, and the highest salaries.
Therefore, the choice of engineering specialty
and employer involves an assessment of the risk
of possible technological obsolescence later in
one’s career versus the potential rewards.
Despite these problems, over the long run the
number of people seeking jobs as engineers is
expected to about equal the number ofjob open­
ings.
(The outlook for various branches is dis­
cussed in the separate statements that follow
this introductory section.)

Related Occupations

Earnings

Society of Women Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New
York, N.Y. 10017.

According to the College Placement Council,
engineering graduates with a bachelor’s degree
and no experience averaged $25,200 a year in
private industry in 1982; those with a master’s
degree and no experience, $28,200 a year; and
those with a Ph.D., $36,300. Starting offers for
those with the bachelor’s degree vary by
branch, as shown in the following tabulation.
Petroleum engineering...........................
Chemical engineering ..........................
Mining engineering ...............................
Metallurgical engineering ....................
Mechanical engineering........................
Electrical engineering ..........................
Nuclear engineering...............................
Industrial engineering ..........................
Aeronautical engineering......................
Civil engineering ...................................

$30,468
27,072
25,368
25r272
25,176
24.768
24,468
24,276
23,676
23,100

Engineers in private industry in 1983 aver­
aged $25,556 at the most junior level, and
$66,938 at senior supervisory levels. Experi­
enced mid-level engineers with no supervisory
responsibilities earned about $36,726. (See
table 2.)
In the Federal Government in 1983, most
engineers with a bachelor’s degree and no expe­
rience could start at $17,383 or $21,527 a year,
depending on their college records. Those with
a master’s degree could start at $24,981, and
those having a Ph.D. degree could begin at
$26,959. The average salary for engineers in
the Federal Government was about $36,000 in
1982.

Much of the work of physical scientists, life
scientists, mathematicians, engineering and
science technicians, and architects relates to
engineering.

Sources of Additional Information
General information on engineering careers—
including engineering school requirements,
courses of study, and salaries— is available
from:
Engineering Manpower Commission of the Amer­
ican Association of Engineering Societies, 345 E.
47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
National Society of Professional Engineers, 2029 K
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

A list of accredited engineering programs
may be obtained from the Accreditation Board
for Engineering and Technology, 345 E. 47th
St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Societies representing many of the individu­
al branches of engineering are listed in this
chapter. Each can provide information about
careers in the particular branch.

Aerospace Engineers
(D.O.T. 002.061, .151, and .167)

Nature of the Work
Aerospace engineers design, develop, test, and
help produce commercial and military aircraft,
missiles, and spacecraft. They play an impor­
tant role in advancing technology in commer­

cial aviation, defense systems, and space explo­
ration.
Aerospace engineers often specialize in
areas like structural design, navigational guid­
ance and control, instrumentation and com­
munication, or production methods. They also
may specialize in one type of aerospace prod­
uct, such as passenger planes, helicopters, sat­
ellites, or rockets.

Employment
Aerospace engineers held about 44,000 jobs in
1982. Nearly 6 out of 10 jobs were located in
the aircraft and parts and guided missiles and
space vehicles industries. Federal Government
agencies, primarily the Department of Defense
and the National Aeronautics and Space Ad­
ministration, provided about 2 out of 10 jobs.
Business and engineering consulting firms,
communications equipment manufacturing
firms, and commercial airlines accounted for
most of the remainder.
Employment of aerospace engineers is con­
centrated in States with large aerospace man­
ufacturers, especially California, Washington,
and Texas.

Job Outlook
Employment of aerospace engineers is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s as Federal
outlays increase for new military aircraft, mis­
sies, and other aerospace systems. Aerospace
engineers also will be needed to design and help
produce new commercial aircraft. Much of the
present fleet of airliners will have to be replaced
with quieter and more fuel-efficient aircraft.
Increased demand for helicopters and business
aircraft also will create opportunities for aero­
space engineers. Despite this expected growth

Table 2. Engineers’ salaries in private
industry by work level, 1983
Level

Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers

I ...............
II .............
III ...........
IV ...........
V .............
VI ...........
VII .........
V I I I .........

Percent of Average
total
salary
employed
6.2
$25,556
12.2
27,769
24.8
31,307
26.3
36,726
18.8
43,720
8.8- —— 51,460
2.3
58,167
.6
66,938

Source: Bureau of Labor S a i t c .
ttsis




An aerospace engineer discusses assembly of a missile with a production worker.

Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/51
in employment, most job openings will result
from the need to replace aerospace engineers
who transfer to other occupations retire, or die.
Since a large proportion of aerospace engi­
neering jobs are defense related, severe cut­
backs in defense spending—like those which
took place in 1969 and 1970—can result in
layoffs of aerospace engineers.

Sources of Additional Information
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Inc., 1633 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019.

(See introductory section of this chapter for
discussion of training requirements and earn­
ings.)

Chemical Engineers
(D.O.T. 006.061, .151; 008.061, .151, and .167)

Nature of the Work
Chemical engineers work in many phases of the
production of chemicals and chemical prod­
ucts. They design equipment and plants and
determine and test methods of manufacturing
the products. Chemical engineers also work in
areas other than chemical manufacturing such
as the development of processes designed to
prevent pollution. Because the duties of chemi­
cal engineers cut across many fields, these pro­
fessionals must have a knowledge of chemistry,
physics, mathematics, and mechanical and
electrical engineering.
This branch of engineering is so diversified
and complex that chemical engineers fre­
quently specialize in a particular operation such
as oxidation or polymerization. Others spe­
cialize in a particular area such as pollution
control or the production of a specific product
like plastics or rubber.

Employment
Chemical engineers held 56,000 jobs in 1982.
Three-fifths were in manufacturing industries,
primarily in the chemicals, petroleum refining,
and related industries. About 1 out of 6 worked
for engineering service or consulting firms and
a small number worked for government agen­
cies or as independent consultants.

A chemical engineer tests a coal sample.
additional openings. Also, the new field of bio­
technology may create opportunities for chemi­
cal engineers.

Sources of Additional Information
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East
47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

(See introductory part of this section for in­
formation on training requirements and earn­
ings.)

Civil Engineers
(D.O.T. 005.061 and .167 except -022)

Nature of the Work
Civil engineers, who work in the oldest branch
of the engineering profession, design and super­
vise the construction of roads, airports, tun­
nels, bridges, water supply and sewage sys­
tems, and buildings. Major specialties within

Job Outlook
Employment of chemical engineers is expected
to grow faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Most openings,
however, will result from the need to replace
chemical engineers who transfer to other oc­
cupations, retire, or die.
A major factor underlying projected employ­
ment growth is expansion in the energy and
chemical industries. The growing complexity
and automation of chemical processes will re­
quire additional chemical engineers to design,
build, and maintain the necessary plants and
equipment. Development of new chemicals
used in the manufacture of consumer goods,
such as plastics and synthetic fibers, will create



Civil engineers often design buildings.

civil engineering are structural, hydraulic, en­
vironmental (sanitary), transportation, high­
way, and soil mechanics.
Many civil engineers are in supervisory or
administrative positions ranging from super­
visor of a construction site to city engineer to
top-level executive. Others work as indepen­
dent consultants.

Employment
Civil engineers held over 155,000 jobs in 1982.
About 40 percent of the jobs were in Federal,
State, and local government agencies. About a
third of the jobs were in firms that provide
engineering, design, and architectural con­
sulting services. The construction industry,
public utilities, railroads, and manufacturing
industries accounted for most of the rest.
Civil engineers work in all parts of the coun­
try, usually in or near major industrial and com­
mercial centers. They often work at con­
struction sites, sometimes in remote areas or in
foreign countries. In some jobs, they often
move from place to place to work on different
projects.

52/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Job Outlook
Employment of civil engineers is expected to
increase faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Most job open­
ings, however, will result from the need to re­
place civil engineers who transfer to other
occupations, retire, or die.
A growing population and an expanding
economy will result in a need for more civil
engineers to design and construct transporta­
tion systems, manufacturing plants, and other
structures.
Since many civil engineers are employed in
construction and related industries, employ­
ment opportunities may decrease during eco­
nomic slowdowns when many new con­
struction projects often are curtailed.

Sources of Additional Information
American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E. 47th
St., New York, N.Y. 10017.

(See introductory part of this section for in­
formation on training requirements and earn­
ings.)

Electrical Engineers
(D.O.T. 003.061, .151, .167, and .187)

Nature of the Work
Electrical engineers design, develop, test, and
supervise the manufacture of electrical and
electronic equipment. Electrical equipment in­
cludes power generating and transmission
equipment used by electric utilities and electric
motors, machinery controls, and lighting and
wiring in buildings, automobiles, and aircraft.
Electronic equipment includes radar, com­
puters, communications equipment, and con­
sumer goods such as TV sets and stereo compo­
nents. Electrical engineers who work with
electronic equipment often are called electronic
engineers.
Electrical engineers generally specialize in a
major area—such as power distributing equip­
ment, integrated circuits, computers, electrical
equipment manufacturing, or communica­
tions—or in a subdivision of these areas—mi­
crowave communication or aviation electronic
systems, for example. Electrical engineers de­
sign new products, write performance require­
ments, and develop maintenance schedules.
They also test equipment, solve operating prob­
lems, and estimate the time and cost of engi­
neering projects. Besides manufacturing and
research, development, and design, many are
employed in administration and management or
technical sales.

Employment

An electrical engineer checks the design of an integrated circuit.
firms, public utilities, and government agen­
cies accounted for most of the remaining jobs.
Some electrical engineers worked as indepen­
dent consultants.

Job Outlook
Employment of electrical engineers is expected
to increase much faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. The ma­
jority of job openings, however, will result from
the need to replace electrical engineers who
transfer to other occupations, retire, or die.
Although increased demand by businesses
and government for computers, communica­
tions equipment, and military electronics is ex­
pected to account for much of the projected
employment growth, consumer demand for
electrical and electronic goods, and increased
research and development in new types of auto­
mation and industrial robots should create addi­
tional jobs.
Since many electrical engineering jobs are
defense related, cutbacks in defense spend­
ing—like those which took place in 1969 and
1970—could result in layoffs of electrical engi­
neers in defense-related industries. Further­
more, those who fail to keep up with the rapid
changes in technology in some electrical engi­
neering specialties risk technological obsoles­
cence which makes them more susceptible to
layoffs or, at a minimum, likely to be passed
over for advancement.

Sources of Additional Information
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers/
United States Activities Board, 1111 19th St. NW.,
Suite 608, Washington, D.C. 20036.

(See introductory part of this section for in­
formation on training requirements and earn­
ings.)

Industrial Engineers

Electrical engineering is the largest branch of
(D.O.T. 010.061-026; 012.061, .067, .167 except -066,
engineering. Electrical engineers held almost and .187)
320,000 jobs in 1982. Most jobs were in firms
that manufacture electrical and electronic
equipment, business machines, professional Nature of the Work
and scientific equipment, and aircraft and Industrial engineers determine the most effec­
parts. Construction and engineering consulting tive ways for an organization to use the basic



factors of production—people, machines, ma­
terials, and energy. They are more concerned
with people and methods of business organiza­
tion than are engineers in other specialties, who
generally work more with products or pro­
cesses, such as metals, power, or mechanics.
To solve organizational, production, and re­
lated problems most efficiently, industrial engi­
neers design data processing systems and apply
mathematical concepts (operations research
techniques). They also develop management
control systems to aid in financial planning and
cost analysis, design production planning and
control systems to coordinate activities and
control product quality, and design or improve
systems for the physical distribution of goods
and services. Industrial engineers conduct sur­
veys to find plant locations with the best com­
bination of raw materials, transportation, and
taxes. They also develop wage and salary ad­
ministration systems and job evaluation pro­
grams. Many industrial engineers move into
management positions because the work is
closely related.

Some industrial engineers develop com­
puterized management control systems.

Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/53
Employment
Industrial engineers held 160,000 jobs in 1982;
more than 3 out of 4 jobs were in manufacturing
industries. Because their skills can be used in
almost any type of organization, industrial en­
gineers are more widely distributed among in­
dustries than other engineers. For example,
some even work for insurance companies,
banks, hospitals, and retail organizations.
Some work for government agencies or are
independent consultants.

Job Outlook
Employment of industrial engineers is expected
to grow faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Most job open­
ings, however, will result from the need to re­
place industrial engineers who transfer to other
occupations, retire, or die.
Industrial growth, more complex business
operations, and the greater use of automation
underlie the projected employment growth.
Jobs also will be created as firms seek to reduce
costs and increase productivity through scien­
tific management and safety engineering.

Sources of Additional Information
Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Technology
Park/Atlanta, Norcross, Ga. 30092.

(See introductory part of this section for in­
formation on training requirements and earn­
ings.)

Mechanical Engineers
(D.O.T. 007.061, .151, .161-022 and -034, .167-014;
014.061, .151, and .167)

Nature of the Work
Mechanical engineers are concerned with the
use, production, and transmission of mechan­
ical power. They design and develop powerproducing machines such as internal combus­
tion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet

Almost 3 out of 5 mechanical engineers work in
manufacturing industries.



and rocket engines. They also design and de­
velop power-using machines such as refrigera­
tion and air-conditioning equipment, elevators,
machine tools, printing presses, and industrial
production equipment.
The work of mechanical engineers varies by
industry and function. Many specialties have
developed within the field; they include motor
vehicles; marine equipment; energy conversion
systems; heating, ventilating, and air-con­
ditioning; instrumentation; and special ma­
chines for industries such as petroleum, rubber,
plastics, and construction.
Large numbers of mechanical engineers do
research, test, and design work while others
work in maintenance, technical sales, and pro­
duction operations. Many are administrators or
managers. Some work as consultants.

result from the need to replace mechanical en­
gineers who transfer to other occupations, re­
tire, or die.

Employment

Nature of the Work

Mechanical engineers held about 209,000 jobs
in 1982. Almost 3 out of 5 jobs were in man­
ufacturing—most in the machinery, transporta­
tion equipment, electrical equipment, and pri­
mary and fabricated metals industries. Busi­
ness and engineering consulting services and
government agencies provided most of the re­
maining jobs.

Metallurgical engineers develop new types of
metal tailored to meet specific requirements—
heat resistant, strong but lightweight, or highly
malleable. They also develop methods to pro­
cess and convert metals into useful products.
Most of these engineers work in one of the three
main branches of metallurgy—extractive or
chemical, physical, and mechanical or process.
Extractive metallurgists are concerned with re­
moving metals from ores, and refining and al­
loying them to obtain useful metal. Physical
metallurgists deal with the nature, structure,
and physical properties of metals and their al­
loys, and with methods of converting refined
metals into final products. Mechanical metal­
lurgists develop methods such as casting, forg­
ing, rolling, and drawing to work and shape
metals. Scientists working in this field are
known as metallurgists or materials scientists,
but the distinction between scientists and engi­
neers in this field is small.

Job Outlook
Employment of mechanical engineers is ex­
pected to increase much faster than the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s as
the demand for machinery and machine tools
grows and industrial machinery and processes
become increasingly complex. Mechanical en­
gineers will be needed to develop new energy
systems and to help solve environmental pollu­
tion problems. Despite this expected employ­
ment growth, however, most job openings will

Sources of Additional Information
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345
E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.

(See introductory part of this section for in­
formation on training requirements and earn­
ings.) -

Metallurgical
Engineers
(D.O.T. 011.061, and .161.010)

A metallurgical engineer examines the structure of a metal sample.

54/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Employment
Metallurgical engineers held 14,000 jobs in
1982. The metal-producing industries provided
over one-fourth of all jobs. Metallurgical engi­
neers also work in industries that manufacture
machinery, aircraft and parts, and electrical
equipment, and in engineering consulting firms
and government agencies.

Job Outlook
Employment of metallurgical engineers is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most job
openings, however, will result from the need to
replace metallurgical engineers who retire, die,
or transfer to other occupations.
More metallurgical engineers will be needed
by the metalworking industries to develop new
metals and alloys as well as to adapt current
ones to new applications. For example, jet en­
gines require metals that can withstand extreme
heat. As the supply of high-grade ores dimin­
ishes, more metallurgical engineers will be re­
quired to develop new ways of recycling solid
waste materials and processing low-grade ores
now regarded as unprofitable to mine. Metal­
lurgical engineers also will be needed to solve
problems associated with the efficient use of
nuclear energy.

Sources of Additional Information

Employment

The Metallurgical Society of AIME, 420 Common­
wealth Dr., Warrendale, Pa. 15086.

Mining engineers held about 5,700 jobs in
1982. The mining industry provided about 3 out
of 5 jobs. Other jobs were located in govern­
ment agencies, engineering consulting firms,
or in manufacturing industries.
Mining engineers are usually employed at
the location of mineral deposits, often near
small communities. However, those in re­
search, management, consulting, or sales often
are located in metropolitan areas.

American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio
44073.

(See introductory part of this section for in­
formation on training requirements and earn­
ings.)

Mining Engineers
(D.O.T. 010.061-014)

Nature of the Work
Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare
minerals for manufacturing industries to use.
They design open pit and underground mines,
supervise the construction of mine shafts and
tunnels in underground operations, and devise
methods for transporting minerals to process­
ing plants. Mining engineers are responsible
for the safe and economical operation of mines,
including ventilation, water supply, power,
communications, and equipment maintenance.
Some mining engineers work with geologists
and metallurgical engineers to locate and ap­
praise new ore deposits. Others develop new
mining equipment or direct mineral processing
operations to separate minerals from the dirt,
rock, and other materials they are mixed with.
Mining engineers frequently specialize in the
mining of one mineral, such as coal or copper.
With increased emphasis on protecting the
environment, many mining engineers have
been working to solve problems related to
mined-land reclamation and water and air pol­
lution.



Job Outlook
Employment of mining engineers is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most job
openings, however, will result from the need to
replace the large proportion of mining engi­
neers who transfer to other occupations each
year.
Efforts to attain energy self-sufficiency
should spur the demand for coal and, therefore,
for mining engineers. The increase in demand
for coal will depend, to a great extent, on the
availability and price of other energy sources
such as petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear
energy as well as the price of coal in other
countries. More technologically advanced min­
ing systems and further enforcement of mine
health and safety regulations also will increase
the need for mining engineers. In addition,
exploration for all other minerals is increasing.
As easily mined deposits are depleted, engi­
neers must devise more efficient methods for
mining low-grade ores. Employment oppor­
tunities also will arise as new alloys and new
uses .for metals increase the demand for less
widely used ores. Recovery of metals from the
sea and the development of oil-shale deposits

could present major challenges to the mining
engineer.

Sources of Additional Information
The Society of Mining Engineers of AIME, Caller
Number D, Littleton, Colo. 80127.

(See introductory part of this section for in­
formation on training requirements and earn­
ings.)

Nuclear Engineers
(D.O.T. 015.061 and .151)

Nature of the Work
Nuclear engineers design, develop, monitor,
and operate nuclear power plants used to gener­
ate electricity and power Navy ships. They also
conduct research on nuclear energy and radia­
tion. For example, they may conduct research
on the nuclear fuel cycle—the production,
handling, and use of nuclear fuel and the safe
disposal of waste produced by nuclear ener­
gy—or on new types of nuclear energy systems
such as breeder reactors or fusion energy. Some
nuclear engineers specialize in the develop­
ment of nuclear weapons. Nuclear engineers
also develop industrial and medical uses for
radioactive materials.

Employment
Nuclear engineers held about 6,300 jobs in
1982. About 40 percent worked for the Federal
Government. Nearly half of all federally em­
ployed nuclear engineers were civilian em­
ployees of the Navy department. About one-

Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/55
third of all federally employed nuclear engi­
neers worked for the Nuclear Regulatory Com­
mission and most of the rest worked for the
Department of Energy or the Tennessee Valley
Authority. Most nonfederally employed nu­
clear engineers worked for public utilities or
engineering consulting companies. Some
worked for manufacturers of nuclear power
equipment.

Job Outlook
Employment of nuclear engineers is expected to
grow faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Nevertheless, most job
openings will result from the need to replace
nuclear engineers who retire, die, or leave the
occupation.
Because of a combination of reduction in the
growth of demand for electric power due to
energy conservation and concerns over the
safety of nuclear power, few new nuclear power
plant construction projects may be started
through the mid-1990’s. However, more nuclear
engineers will be needed to operate the many
plants presently under construction that will be
placed in operation through the mid-1990’s. In
addition, more nuclear engineers may be
needed to improve and enforce safety standards
and to work in defense-related areas.

Sources of Additional Information
American Nuclear Society, 555 North Kensington
Ave., LaGrange Plark, 111. 60525.

Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc., Public Affairs and
Information Program, 7101 Wisconsin Ave., Wash­
ington, D.C. 20014.

(See introductory part of this section for in­
formation on training requirements and earn­
ings.)

Petroleum Engineers
(D.O.T. 010.061 except -014 and -026, .051, .161-010 and
-014, and .167-010 and -014)

Nature of the Work
Most petroleum engineers explore and drill for
oil and gas. They work to achieve the maximum
profitable recovery of oil and gas from a pe­
troleum reservoir by determining and develop­
ing the most efficient production methods.
Since only a small proportion of the oil and
gas in a reservoir will flow out under natural
forces, petroleum engineers develop and use
various enhanced recovery methods, such as
flooding the oil field with water to force the oil
to the surface. The best methods in use today
recover only about half the oil. Petroleum engi­
neers’ research and development in the future
will be directed at finding ways to increase the
proportion of oil recovered in each reservoir.
Petroleum engineers also supervise drilling
operations, conduct research on drilling meth­
ods, and develop new methods to recover off­
shore oil and gas. As oil and gas become harder
to find, petroleum engineers must develop
methods of recovery in areas that were pre­
viously considered inaccessible, such as the
Arctic or the ocean depths.

Employment

Nuclear engineer reviews plans for a nuclear
power plant.




Petroleum engineers held over 26,000 jobs in
1982, mostly in the petroleum industry and
closely allied fields. Employers include major
oil companies and hundreds of smaller, inde­
pendent oil exploration, production, and serv­
ice companies. Engineering consulting firms,
government agencies, and equipment suppliers
also employ petroleum engineers. A few work
as independent consultants.
The petroleum engineer works mostly in
places where oil and gas are found. Large num­
bers of petroleum engineers are employed in
Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and California.
Also, many American petroleum engineers
work overseas in oil-producing countries.

Petroleum engineers often work at oil and gas
well sites.
Job Outlook
Employment of petroleum engineers is ex­
pected to grow about as fast as the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s, as eco­
nomic expansion requires increasing supplies
of petroleum and natural gas. With oil and gas
becoming harder to find, more sophisticated
and expensive recovery methods will be used to
develop new sources of oil, such as offshore and
in the Arctic. Also, oil and gas drilling tech­
niques may be applied to develop geothermal
energy and recover certain minerals, which
would increase demand for petroleum engi­
neers. Despite this expected employment
growth, most job openings will result from the
need to replace petroleum engineers who trans­
fer to other occupations, retire, or die.

Sources of Additional Information
Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, 6200
North Central Expressway, Dallas, Tex. 75206.

(See introductory part of this section for in­
formation on training requirements and earn­
ings.)

Natural Scientists and Mathematicians
N a tu r e o f th e W o rk

Natural scientists and mathematical scientists
seek knowledge of the physical world through
observation, study, and experimentation. The
knowledge gained through their scientific and
mathematical research activities has been used
to develop new products, increase productivity,
provide greater defense capabilities, protect the
environment, and improve health care. Three
subgroups make up this broad occupational
field: Physical scientists, life scientists, and
computer and mathematical occupations.
Physical scientists include those who study
the nature of matter and energy both on earth
and in the rest of the universe (physicists and
chemists) and those who study how physical
processes affect the earth (geologists and
geophysicists) and its atmosphere (mete­
orologists).
Life scientists study living organisms and
their life processes. Biological scientists study
all forms of life and life processes. Most biolog­
ical scientists specialize in certain areas of biol­
ogy; for example, entomologists study insects

Digitized for 56
FRASER


and physiologists study the life processes of
plants or animals. Agricultural scientists apply
principles of life science to problems in agri­
culture such as improving crop yield or breed­
ing better animals. Foresters and con­
servationists apply principles of life science to
conserving and increasing the productivity of
forests, rangelands, and soil.
Those in computer and mathematical oc­
cupations not only study mathematics but use it
as a tool to solve practical business or scientific
problems. Mathematicians, actuaries, statisti­
cians, and systems analysts apply mathematical
techniques to practical problems in business,
health care, defense, and other areas.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
For some natural science and mathematics jobs,
a bachelor’s degree is adequate for entry.
However, in fields such as mathematics, phys­
ics, biology, or agricultural science, an ad­
vanced degree is usually required for entry into
professional level jobs.

Undergraduate training for natural scientists
and mathematicians includes courses in their
major field and in related scientific fields.
In graduate school, students take more ad­
vanced courses in their major area of study and
in related sciences as well. Requirements for
the master’s or doctor’s degree usually include a
thesis, which is a report on the student’s orig­
inal research.

Job Outlook
In the past, growth in employment of natural
scientists and mathematicians has been related
to an expanding economy and to increased re­
search and development (R&D) expenditures.
Both government and industry are expected to
increase their R&D expenditures through the
mid-1990’s in order to expand our basic knowl­
edge of natural science, develop new tech­
nologies and products, and protect the natural
environment. However, if the rate of economic
growth and actual R&D levels and patterns dif­
fer from those assumed, the job outlook in
many occupations described in this section
would be altered.

Mathematical Scientists and Systems Analysts
Mathematics is both a science and a tool used in
many kinds of work. As a tool, mathematics is
essential for understanding and expressing
ideas in natural and social science, engineer­
ing, sales, and administrative and managerial
occupations. (Occupations in these fields are
discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Mathe­
matical techniques increasingly are applied in
these fields because of the widespread use of
computers, which help solve complex prob­
lems rapidly and inexpensively.
Although mathematics is used extensively in
many occupations, people in the occupations
covered in this section use mathematics to a
higher degree than others, and often devise new
mathematical techniques to solve problems.
Many persons with strong mathematical back­
grounds teach mathematics or do research on
both theoretical and applied mathematical
problems.
Statisticians use mathematical techniques to
design and interpret surveys and experiments
and test theories dealing with people or things.
Actuaries use statistical techniques to assess the
likelihood of risks that insurance companies
agree to cover and to calculate the costs associ­
ated with insuring such risks. Systems analysts
use mathematical, statistical, and accounting
techniques to analyze and design data process­
ing methods for business and scientific research
projects.
Most jobs related to mathematics require at
least a bachelor’s degree in mathematics, statis­
tics, or a related field and a strong background
in computer science. A graduate degree, pre­
ferably a doctorate, is necessary for college
teaching and research positions and for ad­
vancement in many nonacademic jobs.

Actuaries
(D.O.T. 020.167-010)

Nature of the Work
Why do young persons pay more for auto­
mobile insurance than older persons? How
much should an insurance policy cost? How
much should an organization contribute each
year to its pension fund? Answers to these and
similar questions are provided by actuaries who
design insurance and pension plans and keep
informed on their operation to make sure that
they are maintained on a sound financial basis.
Actuaries assemble and analyze statistics to
calculate probabilities of death, sickness, inju­
ry, disability, unemployment, retirement, and
property loss from accident, theft, fire, and
other hazards. They use this information to




determine the expected insured loss. For exam­
ple, they may calculate how many persons who
are 21 years old today can be expected to die
before age 65—the probability that an insured
person might die during this period is a risk to
the company. They must make sure that the
price charged for the insurance will enable the
company to pay all claims and expenses as they
occur. Finally, this price must be profitable and
yetbe competitive with other insurance com­
panies. In a similar manner, the actuary calcu­
lates premium rates and determines policy con­
tract provisions for each type of insurance
offered. Most actuaries specialize in either life
and health insurance or property and liability
(casualty) insurance; a growing number spe­
cialize in pension plans.
To perform their duties effectively, actuaries
must keep informed about general economic
and social trends, and legislative, health, and
other developments that may affect insurance
practices. Because of their broad knowledge of
insurance, company actuaries may work in in­
vestment, group underwriting, or pension plan­
ning departments. Actuaries in executive posi­
tions help determine company policy. In that
role, they may be called upon to explain com­
plex technical matters to company executives,
government officials, policyholders, and the
public. They may testify before public agencies
on proposed legislation affecting the insurance
business, for example, or explain intended
changes in premium rates or contract provi­
sions. They also may help companies develop
plans to enter new lines of business.
The small number of actuaries who work for
the Federal Government usually deal with a
particular insurance or pension program, such
as social security or life insurance for veterans
and members of the Armed Forces. Actuaries in
State government regulate insurance com­
panies, supervise the operations of State retire­
ment or pension systems, work on unemploy­
ment insurance or workers’ compensation
problems, and advise on the impact of proposed
legislation. Consulting actuaries set up {tension
and welfare plans for private companies,
unions, and government agencies. They calcu­
late future benefits and determine the amount of
employer contributions. Actuaries who are en­
rolled under the provisions of the Employee
Retirement Income Security Act of 1974
(ERISA) evaluate these pension plans and re­
port on their financial soundness.

Working Conditions
Actuaries have desk jobs that require no un­
usual physical activity; their offices generally
are comfortable and pleasant.
Actuaries generally work between 35 and 40
hours a week except during busy periods, when

Actuaries analyze statistical data to determine
the insurer’s risk.
overtime may be required. Actuaries may travel
to branch offices of their company or to clients.

Employment
Actuaries held over 8,000 jobs in 1982. Many
worked in insurance company headquarters in
New York, Hartford, Chicago, Philadelphia, or
Boston.
Most of these worked for life insurance com­
panies; others worked for property and liability
(casualty) companies. The number of actuaries
employed by an insurance company depends on
its volume of business and the types of insur­
ance policies it offers. Large companies may
employ over 100 actuaries; others, generally
smaller companies, may rely instead on con­
sulting firms, accounting firms, or rating bu­
reaus (associations that supply actuarial data to
member companies). Other actuaries work for
private organizations administering indepen­
dent pension and welfare plans or for govern­
ment agencies.

lYaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A good educational background for a beginning
job in a large life or casualty company is a
bachelor’s degree with a major in mathematics
or statistics; a degree in actuarial science is even
better. Some companies hire applicants with a
major in engineering, economics, or business
administration, provided the applicant has a
working knowledge of mathematics, including
calculus, probability, and statistics (20-25

57

58/Occupational Outlook Handbook
hours). Courses in accounting, computer sci­
ence, economics, and insurance also are useful.
Although only 34 colleges and universities of­
fer a degree in actuarial science, several hun­
dred schools offer a degree in mathematics or
statistics.
A strong background in mathematics is es­
sential for persons interested in a career as an
actuary. It is an advantage to pass, while still in
school, one or more of the examinations offered
by professional actuarial societies. Three so­
cieties sponsor programs leading to full profes­
sional status in their specialty. The Society of
Actuaries gives ten actuarial examinations for
the life and health insurance and pension field;
the Casualty Actuarial Society gives ten exam­
inations for the property and liability field; and
the American Society of Pension Actuaries
gives nine examinations covering the pension
field. Because the first parts of the examination
series of each society cover similar materials,
students need not commit themselves to a spe­
cialty until they have taken three examinations.
These test competence in subjects such as linear
algebra, numerical methods, operations re­
search, probability, calculus, and statistics.
These first few examinations help students eval­
uate their potential as actuaries, and those who
pass usually have better opportunities for em­
ployment and higher starting salaries.
Actuaries are encouraged to complete the
entire series of examinations as soon as possi­
ble; completion generally takes from 5 to 10
years. Many students pass two or more actu­
arial examinations before graduating from col­
lege. Examinations are given twice each year.
Extensive home study is required to pass the
advanced examinations; many actuaries study
20-25 hours a week. Actuaries who complete
five examinations in either the life insurance
series or the pension series or seven examina­
tions in the casualty series are awarded “assoc­
iate” membership in their society. Those who
pass an entire series receive full membership
and the title “fellow.”
Consulting pension actuaries who service
private pension plans and certify their solvency
must be enrolled by the Joint Board for the
Enrollment of Actuaries. Applicants for enroll­
ment must meet certain experience and educa­
tion requirements as stipulated by the Joint
Board.
Beginning actuaries often rotate among jobs
to learn various actuarial operations and dif­
ferent phases of insurance work. At first, they
prepare tabulations for actuarial tables or per­
form other simple tasks. As they gain experi­
ence, they may supervise clerks, prepare corre­
spondence and report^, and do research.
Advancement to more responsible work as
assistant, associate, and chief actuary depends
largely on job performance and the number of
actuarial examinations passed. Actuaries who
have a broad knowledge of the insurance, pen­
sion, and employee benefits fields often ad­
vance to top administrative and executive posi­
tions in underwriting, accounting, or data
processing departments.




Job Outlook

Related Occupations

Employment of actuaries is expected to grow
faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Most job openings,
however, are expected to arise each year to
replace actuaries who transfer to other occupa­
tions, retire, die, or stop working for other
reasons. Job opportunities will be best for col­
lege graduates who have passed at least two
actuarial examinations while still in school and
have a strong mathematical and statistical back­
ground.
Employment in this occupation is influenced
by the volume of insurance sales and pension
plans, which are expected to grow over the next
decade. Shifts in the age distribution of the
population will result in a large increase in the
number of people with established careers and
family responsibilities. This is the group that
traditionally has accounted for the bulk of pri­
vate insurance sales.
In addition, changing iiisurance practices
will create a need for more actuarial services.
For example, as insurance companies branch
out into more than one kind of insurance
coverage, more actuaries will be needed to es­
tablish rates. Growth in new forms of protec­
tion, such as dental, prepaid legal, and kidnap
insurance also will stimulate demand. As peo­
ple live longer, they draw health and pension
benefits for a longer period, and actuaries will
need to recalculate the probabilities of such
factors as death, sickness, and length of retire­
ment. As more States pass competitive rating
laws, many companies that previously relied on
rating bureaus for actuarial data may create
their own actuarial departments or use the serv­
ices of consulting actuaries.
The liability of companies for damage result­
ing from their products has received much at­
tention in recent years. Actuaries will continue
to be involved in the development of product
liability insurance, as well as medical malprac­
tice, workers’ compensation coverage, and pol­
lution liability insurance.
Insurance coverage is considered a necessity
by most individuals and businesses, regardless
of economic conditions. Therefore, actuaries
are unlikely to be laid off during a recession.

Actuaries assemble and analyze statistics in
their day-to-day work. Other workers whose
jobs involve similar skills include mathemati­
cians, statisticians, economists, financial ana­
lysts, and engineering analysts.

Earnings
In 1982, new college graduates entering the life
insurance field without having passed any actu­
arial exams averaged about $16,000-$17,000,
according to estimates by the Society of Actu­
aries. Beginners who had completed the first
exam received between $17,000 and $18,500,
and those who had passed the second exam
averaged between $18,500 and $20,000, de­
pending on geographic location.
Insurance companies and consulting firms
give merit increases to actuaries as they gain
experience and pass examinations. Actuaries
who became associates in 1982 averaged be­
tween $24,000 and $28,000 a year; actuaries
who became fellows during that year averaged
between $35,000 and $45,000. Fellows with
additional years of experience can earn substan­
tially more—top actuarial executives received
salaries of $50,000 a year and higher.

Sources of Additional Information
For facts about actuarial opportunities and
qualifications, contact:
American Society of Pension Actuaries, 1413 K St.
NW., 5th Floor, Washington, D.C. 20005.
Casualty Actuarial Society, One Penn Plaza, 250
West 34th St., New York, N.Y. 10119.
Society of Actuaries, 500 Park Blvd., Room 440,
Itasca, 111. 60143.
American Academy of Actuaries, 1835 K St. NW.,
Suite 515, Washington, D.C. 20006.

Computer Systems
Analysts
(D.O.T. 003.167-062; 012.167-066; 020.062-010, and
.067-010; and 109.067-010)

Nature of the Work
Systems analysts plan and develop methods for
computerizing business and scientific tasks or
improving computer systems already in use.
They may work for an organization that wants
the system or for a consulting firm that develops
systems under contract.
Analysts begin an assignment by discussing
the data processing problem with managers or
specialists to determine the exact nature of the
problem and to break it down into its compo­
nent parts. If a retail chain wished to com­
puterize its inventory system, for example, sys­
tems analysts would determine what informa­
tion must be collected, how it would be
processed, and the type and frequency of re­
ports to be produced. After they have defined
the goals of the system, they use techniques
such as mathematical model building, sam­
pling, and cost accounting to plan the system.
Once a design for the system has been de­
veloped, systems analysts prepare charts and
diagrams that describe it in terms that managers
and users can understand. They also may pre­
pare a cost-benefit and return on investment
analysis to help management decide whether
the proposed system is satisfactory.
If the system is accepted, systems analysts
may determine what computer hardware and
software will be needed to set up the system.
They also prepare specifications for program­
mers to follow and work with them to “debug,”
or eliminate errors from the system. (The work
of com puter program m ers is described
elsewhere in the Handbook). The analyst also
would design any forms required to collect data
and distribute information.
Because the possible uses for computers are
so varied and complex, analysts usually spe­
cialize in either business, scientific, or engi­
neering applications. Often, they have training

Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/59
or experience in the field in which they develop
computer systems.
Some analysts improve systems already in
use by developing better procedures or adapt­
ing the system to handle additional types of
data. Others do research, called advanced sys­
tems design, to devise new methods of systems
analysis.

Working Conditions
Systems analysts work in offices in comfortable
surroundings. They usually work about 40
hours a week—the same as other professional
and office workers. Occasionally, however,
evening or weekend work may be necessary to
meet deadlines.

Employment
Systems analysts held about 254,000 jobs in
1982. Most systems analysts work in urban
areas for firms that manufacture durable goods,
government agencies, banks, insurance com­
panies, and data processing service firms.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
There is no universally accepted way of prepar­
ing for a job as a systems analyst because em­
ployers’ preferences depend on the work being
done. However, college graduates almost al­
ways are sought for these jobs; and, for some of
the more complex jobs, persons with graduate
degrees are preferred. Employers usually want
analysts with a background in accounting, or
business management for work in a business
environment while a background in the phys­
ical sciences, applied mathematics, or engi­
neering is preferred for work in scientifically
oriented organizations. Many employers seek
applicants who have a degree in computer sci­
ence, information science, computer informa­
tion systems, or data processing. Regardless of
college major, employers look for people who
are familiar with programming languages.

Systems analysts work with people and data.



Courses in computer concepts, systems analy­
sis, and data base management systems offer
good preparation for a job in this field.
Prior work experience is important. About 7
out of 10 persons entering this occupation typ­
ically transfer from other occupations, such as
engineer, manager, and computer programmer.
Systems analysts must be able to think log­
ically, have good communication skills, and
like working with ideas and people. They often
deal with a number of tasks simultaneously.
The ability to concentrate and pay close atten­
tion to detail also is important. Although sys­
tems analysts often work independently, they
also work in teams on large projects. They must
be able to communicate effectively with tech­
nical personnel, such as programmers and man­
agers, as well as with people who have no
computer background.
Technological advances come so rapidly in
the computer field that continuous study is nec­
essary to keep skills up to date. Training usually
takes the form of 1- and 2-week courses offered
by employers and “software” vendors. Addi­
tional training may come from professional de­
velopment seminars offered by professional
computing societies.
An indication of experience and professional
competence is the Certificate in Data Process­
ing (CDP). This designation is conferred by the
Institute for Certification of Computer Profes­
sionals upon candidates who have completed 5
years’ experience and passed a five-part exam­
ination.
In large data processing departments, per­
sons who begin as junior systems analysts may
be promoted to senior or lead systems analysts
after several years of experience. Systems ana­
lysts who show leadership ability also can ad­
vance to jobs as managers of systems analysis
or data processing departments. Systems ana­
lysts with several years of experience may start
their own computer consulting firms.

Earnings
Median annual earnings of systems analysts
who worked full time in 1982 were about $540 a
week. The middle 50 percent earned between
$420 and $680 a week. The lowest 10 percent
earned less than $330 a week; the highest tenth,
more than $850.
Earnings for beginning business systems
analysts in private industry averaged about
$446 a week in 1982, according to surveys
conducted in urban areas by the Bureau of La­
bor Statistics. Experienced workers earned
from $480 to $550, and lead systems analysts
earned about $596 weekly. In the Federal Gov­
ernment, the entrance salary for recent college
graduates with a bachelor’s degree was about
$300 a week in early 1982.
Systems analysts working in the North and
West earned somewhat more than those in the
South, and generally their earnings were great­
er in transportation and public utilities, or man­
ufacturing than in finance, trade, or services.

Related Occupations
Other workers in applied mathematics, busi­
ness, and science who use logic and reasoning
ability to solve problems are programmers, fi­
nancial analysts, urban planners, engineers,
mathematicians, operations research analysts,
and actuaries.

Sources of Additional Information
Further information about the occupation of
systems analyst is available from:
Association for Systems Management, 24587 Bagley
Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44138.
Computer Careers-DOL, DPMA, 505 Busse Hwy.,
Park Ridge, 111. 60068.

Information about the Certificate in Data
Processing is available from:
The Institute for Certification of Computer Profes­
sionals, 35 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 1752, Chicago, 111.
60601.

Job Outlook
Employment of systems analysts is expected to
grow much faster than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. The demand
for systems analysts is expected to rise as ad­
vances in technology increase computer ca­
pabilities leading to new applications for com­
puters. Factory and office automation, telecom­
munications, and scientific research are just a
few areas where use of computer systems will
expand. About half of all job openings for sys­
tems analysts will result from replacement
needs—although a smaller proportion of sys­
tems analysts than all professional workers
leave their occupation each year. Most of the
systems analysts who leave the occupation
transfer to other jobs such as manager or engi­
neer.
College graduates who have had courses in
computer programming, systems analysis, and
other data processing areas as well as training or
experience in an applied field should enjoy the
best prospects for employment. Persons with­
out a college degree and college graduates un­
familiar with data processing will face competi­
tion from the large number of experienced
workers seeking jobs as systems analysts.

Mathematicians
(D.O.T. 020.067-014 and -022)

Nature of the Work
Mathematicians work in one of the oldest and
most basic sciences. Mathematicians today are
engaged in a wide variety of activities, ranging
from the creation of new theories to the transla­
tion of scientific and managerial problems into
mathematical terms.
Mathematical work falls into two broad
classes: Theoretical (pure) mathematics; and
applied mathematics. However, these classes
are not sharply defined and often overlap.
Theoretical mathematicians advance mathe­
matical science by developing new principles
and new relationships between existing princi­
ples of mathematics. Although they seek to
increase basic knowledge without necessarily
considering its practical use, this pure and ab­
stract knowledge has been instrumental in pro­
ducing many scientific and engineering
achievements. For example, in 1854 G.F.B.
Riemann invented a seemingly impractical
non-Euclidian geometry that was to become

60/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Mathematics teaching has increased in importance.
part of Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Years later, this theory contributed to the crea­
tion of atomic power.
Applied mathematicians use mathematics to
develop theories, techniques, and approaches
to solve practical problems in business, govern­
ment, engineering, and the natural and social
sciences. Their work ranges from analysis of
the mathematical aspects of launching com­
munications satellites to studies of the effects of
new drugs on disease.
Much work in applied m athem atics,
however, is carried on by persons other than
mathematicians. In fact, the number of workers
using mathematical techniques is many times
greater than the number actually designated as
mathematicians.

Working Conditions
Mathematicians work almost exclusively in of­
fices and classrooms. Most have regular hours
and travel infrequently. They often work, with
engineers, computer scientists, and others. In­
creasingly, they are establishing firms offering
research and consulting services.

Within manufacturing, communications equip­
ment; guided missiles and space vehicles; and
aircraft industries provided the most jobs. The
Department of Defense and the National Aero­
nautics and Space Administration employed al­
most three-fourths of the mathematicians work­
ing in the Federal Government.
Mathematicians work in all States, but are
concentrated in those with high-technology in­
dustries.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
An advanced degree is the preferred require­
ment for beginning teaching jobs, as well as for
most research positions. However, in most 4-

year colleges and universities, the Ph.D. de­
gree is necessary for full faculty status. Al­
though the master’s degree is generally re­
quired, a bachelor’s degree is adequate prepara­
tion for teaching jobs in some 2-year colleges
and technical institutes.
A bachelor’s degree is considered adequate
preparation for some jobs in private industry
and government. Individuals with this back­
ground usually assist senior mathematicians by
performing computations and solving less ad­
vanced problems in applied mathematics. The
majority of bachelor’s degree holders work in
related fields such as computer science where
employment opportunities are rapidly expand­
ing. However, an advanced degree is a prere­
quisite for the more responsible positions. Most
research positions require the doctorate.
The bachelor’s degree in mathematics is of­
fered by most colleges and universities. Mathe­
matics courses usually required for a degree are
analytical geometry, calculus, differential
equations, probability theory and statistics,
mathematical analysis, and modem algebra.
Many colleges and universities urge or even
require students majoring in mathematics to
take several courses in a field that uses or is
closely related to mathematics, such as com­
puter science, operations research, a physical
science, or economics. A prospective college
mathematics student should take as many math­
ematics courses as possible while in high
school.
More than 400 colleges and universities offer
the master’s degree in mathematics; about 150
also offer the Ph.D. In graduate school, stu­
dents conduct research and take advanced
courses, usually in a specific field of mathe­
matics such as algebra, mathematical analysis,
or geometry.
For work in applied mathematics, training in
the field in which the mathematics will be used
is very important. Fields in which applied
mathematics is used extensively include phys­
ics, engineering, and operations research; of

The proportion of mathematics graduates (bachelor’s and master’s
degrees) employed in computer science increased sharply between
1976 and 1962.
Percent of employment

Employment
Mathematicians held about 11,000jobs in 1982.
In addition, about 30,000 persons held mathe­
matics faculty positions in colleges and univer­
sities, according to data from the National Sci­
ence Foundation. (See the statement on college
and university faculty elsewhere in this Hand­
book).
Most mathematicians worked in service and
manufacturing industries and in the Federal
Government. Major employers within the serv­
ices sector were miscellaneous business serv­
ices (including research and development labo­
ratories); engineering, architectural, and sur­
veying services; and educational services.




1976 1982
Mathematics

1976 1982
Computer
science

SO URCE: N a tio n a l S c ie n c e F o u n d a tio n

1976 1982
Education

1976 1982
All other

Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/61
increasing importance are computer and infor­
mation science, business and industrial man­
agement, economics, statistics, chemistry and
life sciences, and the behavioral sciences.
Mathematicians should have a working
knowledge of computer programming since
most complex mathematical computation is
done by computer.
Mathematicians need good reasoning ability,
persistence, and the ability to apply basic prin­
ciples to new types of problems. They must be
able to communicate well since they often need
to discuss the problem to be solved with non­
mathematicians.

and operations research analyst. In addition, a
strong background in mathematics facilitates
employment in fields such as engineering, eco­
nomics, finance, and genetics.

Job Outlook

Professional Opportunities in Mathematics
is available for $1.50 from:

Employment of mathematicians is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most job
openings, however, will arise from the need to
replace experienced mathematicians who trans­
fer to other occupations, retire, or leave the
labor force for other reasons.
Those with Ph.D. degrees in mathematics
should have very favorable employment oppor­
tunities. Holders of the doctorate in applied
mathematics customarily have better employ­
ment prospects than their theoretically-oriented
colleagues. However, the present shortage of
Ph.D.’s is expected to continue, and the demand
for holders of the doctorate in theoretical math­
ematics should strengthen substantially.
Industry and government agencies will need
mathematicians for work in operations re­
search, numerical analysis, computer systems
design and programming, information and data
processing, applied mathematical physics,
market research, commercial surveys, and as
consultants in industrial laboratories.
Those with a bachelor’s or master’s degree in
mathematics may have difficulty finding a job
in university teaching or theoretical research.
However, there will be many openings in ap­
plied areas such as computer science and data
processing.

Sources of Additional Information
Several brochures are available that give facts
about the field of mathematics, including career
opportunities, professional training, and col­
leges and universities with degree programs.
Seeking Employment in the Mathematical
Sciences is available for 50 cents from:
American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box 6248,
Providence, R.I. 02940.

Mathematical Association of America, 1529 18th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

For specific information on careers in applied
mathematics, contact:
Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics,
1405 Architects Building, 117 S. 17th St., Phila­
delphia, Pa. 19103.

For information on a career as a mathe­
matical statistician, contact:
Professor Kjell Doksum, Institute of Mathematical
Statistics, Department of Statistics, University of
California, Berkeley, Calif. 94720.

Information on Federal job opportunities is
available from area offices of the State employ­
ment service and the U.S. Office of Personnel
Management or from Federal Job Information
Centers located in various large cities
throughout the country.

Statisticians
(D.O.T. 020.167-026)

Earnings

Nature of the Work

According to a 1982 College Placement Coun­
cil Survey, starting salaries for mathematicians
with a bachelor’s degree averaged about
$21,300 a year. Those with a master’s degree
started at about $25,900 annually. Salaries for
new graduates having the Ph.D., most of whom
had some experience, averaged over $30,500.
The median annual salary for all working math­
ematicians was about $28,600 in 1982.
In the Federal Government in 1982, the aver­
age starting salary for mathematicians having
the bachelor’s degree and no experience was
either $13,000 or $16,100 a year, depending on
their college records. Those with the master’s
degree averaged $19,700 or $23,800; and per­
sons having the PH.D. degree started at either
$23,800 or $28,500. The average salary for all
mathematicians in the Federal Government was
about $33,400 in 1982.

Statistics are numbers that help describe the
characteristics of the world and its inhabitants.
Statisticians devise, carry out, and interpret the
numerical results of surveys and experiments.
In doing so, they apply their knowledge of
statistical methods to a particular subject area,
such as economics, human behavior, natural
science, or engineering. They may use statis­
tical techniques to predict population growth or
economic conditions, develop quality control
tests for manufactured products, or help busi­
ness managers and government officials make
decisions and evaluate the results of new pro­
grams.
Often statisticians are able to obtain accurate
information about a group of people or things
by surveying a small portion, called a sample,
of the group. For example, to determine the size
of the total audience, television rating services
ask only a few thousand families, rather than all
viewers, what programs they watch. Statisti­
cians decide where and how to get the data,
determine the type and size of the sample
group, and develop the survey questionnaire or

Related Occupations
A degree in mathematics generally qualifies
one to enter related occupations such as statisti­
cian, computer programmer, systems analyst,



Computers have greatly improved the statisti­
cian's ability to analyze large amounts of data
quickly.
reporting form. They also prepare instructions
for workers who will tabulate the returns.
Since statistics are used in so many areas, it
sometimes is difficult to distinguish statisti­
cians from specialists in other fields who use
statistics. For example, a statistician working
with data on economic conditions may have the
title of economist.

Working Conditions
Statisticians usually work regular hours in of­
fices. Some statisticians may travel occasion­
ally to supervise or set up a survey, or to gather
statistical data. Some may have fairly repetitive
tasks, while others may have a variety of tasks
such as designing surveys or interpreting data.

Employment
Statisticians held over 20,000 jobs in 1982.
About 6 out of 10 jobs were in industry, pri­
marily in manufacturing, finance, insurance
companies, and business service establish­
ments such as consultants’ offices. Over onethird were in Federal, State, or local govern­
ment. Federally employed statisticians were
concentrated in the Departments of Commerce,
Agriculture, Health and Human Services, and
Defense. Others worked in colleges and univer­
sities and nonprofit organizations.
Although statisticians work in all parts of the
country, most are in metropolitan areas such as
New York City; Washington, D.C.; and Los
Angeles-Long Beach, Calif.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A bachelor’s degree with a major in statistics or
mathematics is the minimum educational re­
quirement for many beginning jobs in statistics.
For other entry level statistical jobs, however, a
bachelor’s degree with a major in an applied
field such as economics or a life science and a
minor in statistics is preferable.
Over 200 colleges and universities offered
statistics as a concentration for a bachelor’s
degree in 1982. Many schools also offer either a

62/Occupational Outlook Handbook
degree in mathematics or a sufficient number of
courses in statistics to qualify graduates for
beginning positions. Required subjects for sta­
tistics majors include mathematics through dif­
ferential and integral calculus, statistical meth­
ods, and probability theory. Due to the rapid
expansion of statistical computing—the use of
computers for statistical applications—courses
in computer science are highly recommended.
For quality-control positions, training in engi­
neering or physical or biological science is de­
sirable. For many market research, business
analysis, and forecasting jobs, courses in eco­
nomics and business administration are help­
ful.
Many colleges and universities also offered
graduate degrees in statistics in 1982, and many
other schools offered one or two graduate level
statistics courses. Acceptance into graduate
programs does not require an undergraduate
degree in statistics although a good mathe­
matics background is essential.
Beginning statisticians who have only the
bachelor’s degree often spend much of their
time doing routine work supervised by an expe­
rienced statistician. Through experience, they
may advance to positions of greater technical
and supervisory responsibility. However, op­
portunities for promotion are best for those with
advanced degrees.

Job Outlook
Employment opportunities for persons who
combine training in statistics with knowledge
of a field of application are expected to be
favorable through the mid-1990’s. Although




growth will be average in this field, most open­
ings are expected to result from the need to
replace experienced statisticians who transfer
to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor
force for other reasons.
Private industry will require increasing num­
bers of statisticians for quality control in man­
ufacturing. Statisticians with knowledge of en­
gineering and the physical sciences will find
jobs working with scientists and engineers in
research and development. Business firms will
rely more heavily than in the past on statisti­
cians to forecast sales, analyze business condi­
tions, modernize accounting procedures, and
help solve management problems. Additional
statisticians will be needed as sophisticated sta­
tistical services are increasingly contracted out
to consulting firms.
Other fields have recognized the usefulness
of statistics. For example, statistical techniques
are used to analyze legal problems and the
judicial process as well as sociological and psy­
chological relationships. As the use of statistics
expands into new areas, more statisticians will
be needed.
Federal, State, and local government agen­
cies will need statisticians for existing pro­
grams in fields such as agriculture, demogra­
phy, transportation, social security, health, and
education, and relatively new programs such as
energy conservation and environmental quality
control.

$16,100 a year, depending on their college
grades. Beginning statisticians with the mas­
ter’s degree averaged $19,700 or $23,800.
Those with the Ph.D. began at $23,800 or
$28,500. The average annual salary for statisti­
cians in the Federal Government was about
$32,700 in 1982.
Salaries in private industry were lower than
those in the Federal Government, according to
the limited data available.

Related Occupations
Workers in the following occupations may use
statistics extensively: Market research analysts,
urban and regional planners, engineers, en­
vironmental scientists, health scientists, life
scientists, physical scientists, and social scien­
tists. Others who work with numbers are actu­
aries, mathematicians, financial analysts, com­
puter programmers, and systems analysts.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about career opportunities in
statistics, contact:
American Statistical Association, 806 15th St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20005.

Earnings

Information on Federal job opportunities is
available from area offices of the State employ­
ment service and the U.S. Office of Personnel
Management or from Federal Job Information
Centers located in various large cities
throughout the country.
For information on a career as a mathe­
matical statistician, contact:

In the Federal Government in 1982, the average
starting salary of statisticians who had the bach­
elor’s degree and no experience was $13,000 or

Professor Kjell Doksum, Institute of Mathematical
Statistics, Department of Statistics, University of
California, Berkeley, Calif. 94720.

Physical Scientists
Physical scientists investigate the structure and
composition of the earth and the universe.
Many physical scientists perform research de­
signed to increase basic scientific knowledge.
Others employ the results of research to solve
practical problems in developing new products,
locating new sources of oil, or predicting the
weather.
This section covers four physical science oc­
cupations—chemists, geologists and geophysi­
cists, meteorologists, and physicists (which in­
cludes astronomers). Persons who teach the
physical sciences in colleges and universities
are discussed in the statement on college and
university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.
Most physicists have Ph.D.’s. The jobs of
many other physical scientists also require a
Ph.D., especially research positions, but some
jobs in these other fields can be entered with a
bachelor’s degree.
A knowledge of the physical sciences (es­
pecially chemistry and physics) is also required
by engineers and life scientists; these occupa­
tions are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.

Chemists
(D.O.T. 022.061-010 and -014, .137-010, .161-010; and
041.061-026)

Nature of the Work
The clothes we wear, the foods we eat, the
houses in which we live—in fact, most things
that help make our lives better, from medical
care to a cleaner environment—result, in part,
from the work done by chemists.
Chemists search for and put to practical use
new knowledge about substances. Their re­
search has resulted in the development of a
tremendous variety of synthetic materials, such
as nylon and polyester fabrics, and processes
which help save energy and reduce pollution,
such as improved oil refining methods. Re­
search on the chemistry of living things
provides the basis for advances in medicine,
agriculture, and other areas.
Over 60 percent of all chemists work in re­
search and development. In basic research,
chemists investigate the properties, composi­
tion, and structure of matter and the laws that
govern the combination of elements and reac­
tions of substances. In applied research and
development, they create new products or im­
prove existing ones, often using knowledge
gained from basic research. For example, syn­
thetic rubber and plastics have resulted from
research on small molecules uniting to form
larger ones (polymerization).
The process of developing a product begins
with descriptions of the characteristics it should




have. If similar products exist, chemists test
samples to determine their ingredients. If no
such product exists, chemists experiment with
various substances to develop a product with
the required specifications.
About 10 percent of all chemists work in
production and inspection. In production,
chemists prepare instructions (batch sheets) for
plant workers that specify the kind and amount
of ingredients to use and the exact mixing time
for each stage in the process or monitor auto­
mated processes to ensure proper product yield
and quality. At each step, samples are tested for
quality control to meet industry and govern­
ment standards. Chemists keep records and
prepare reports showing results of tests. Others
work as marketing or sales representatives
where they sell and provide technical informa­
tion on chemical products.
Chemists often specialize in a subfield of
chemistry. Analytical chemists determine the
structure, composition, and nature of sub­
stances, and develop new analytical tech­
niques. An outstanding example of the ca­
pabilities of this specialty was the analysis of
moon rocks by an international team of ana­
lytical chemists. Biochemists study the chemi­
cal composition of living things. They try to
understand the complex chemical combinations
and reactions involved in reproduction,
growth, and heredity. Recent advances in bio­
chemistry have resulted in the discovery of
many of the mechanisms of reproduction and
heredity, including how to splice genes (a tech­
nique called recombinant DNA). These discov­
eries will probably lead to major advances in
medicine and to the development of new prod­
ucts and production processes. Organic chem­
ists study the chemistry of carbon compounds.
When combined with other elements, carbon
forms a vast number of substances. Many mod­
em commercial products, including drugs,
plastics, and other synthetics, have resulted
from the work of organic chemists. Inorganic
chemists study compounds other than carbon.
They may, for example, develop materials for
electronic components. Physical chemists
study the physical characteristics of atoms and
molecules and investigate how chemical reac­
tions work. This research may result in new and
better energy sources.

Working Conditions
Chemists usually work regular hours in offices
and laboratories. Some are exposed to health or
safety hazards when handling certain chemi­
cals, but there is little risk if proper procedures
are followed.

Employment
Chemists held about 89,000 jobs in 1982. Al­
most two-thirds of all chemists work for man­
ufacturing firms—about one-half of these are in

the chemical manufacturing industry; the rest
are scattered throughout other manufacturing
industries. Chemists also work for State and
local governments, primarily in health and agri­
culture, and for Federal agencies, chiefly the
Departments of Defense, Health and Human
Resources, and Agriculture. Smaller numbers
work for nonprofit research organizations. In
addition, about 19,000 persons held chemistry
faculty positions in colleges and universities in
1982. (See the statement on college and univer­
sity faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Chemists are employed in all parts of the
country, but they are concentrated in large in­
dustrial areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A bachelor’s degree with a major in chemistry
or a related discipline is sufficient for many
beginning jobs as a chemist. However, graduate
training is required for most research jobs, and
most college teaching jobs require a Ph.D. de­
gree. Beginning chemists should have a broad
background in chemistry, with good laboratory
skills.
Many colleges and universities offer a bach­
elor’s degree program in chemistry. About 550
are approved by the American Chemical So­
ciety. In addition to required courses in ana­
lytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chem­
istry, undergraduates usually study mathe­
matics, physics, and liberal arts.
Several hundred colleges and universities
award advanced degrees in chemistry. Graduate
students generally specialize in a subfield of
chemistry. Requirements for the master’s and
doctor’s degree usually include a thesis based
on independent research.
Students planning careers as chemists should
enjoy studying science and mathematics, and
should like working with their hands building
scientific apparatus and performing experi­
ments. Perseverance and the ability to concen­
trate on detail and to work independently are
essential. Other assets include an inquisitive
mind and imagination.
Graduates with the bachelor’s degree gener­
ally begin their careers in government or indus­
try by analyzing or testing products, working in
technical sales or service, or assisting senior
chemists in research and development laborato­
ries. Some in entry level positions are consid­
ered chemists; others are considered senior
chemical technicians. Employers may have
training and orientation programs which
provide special knowledge needed for the em­
ployer’s type of work. Candidates for an ad­
vanced degree often teach or do research in
colleges and universities while working toward
their degrees.

63

64/Occupational Outlook Handbook
occupations may also be similar to that of
chemists.

Sources of Additional Information
General information on career opportunities
and earnings for chemists is available from:
American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

Information on careers in biochemistry is
available from:
American Society of Biological Chemists, 9650
Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014.

Information on Federal job opportunities is
available from local offices of State employ­
ment services and the U.S. Office of Personnel
Management or from Federal Job Information
Centers located in various large cities
throughout the country.

Geologists and
Geophysicists
(D.O.T. 024.061, .161, and .167)

Chemists with a bachelor’s degree often get jobs analyzing or testing products or assisting senior
chemists in research and development laboratories.
Beginning chemists with the master’s degree
can usually teach in a 2-year college or go into
applied research in government or private in­
dustry. The Ph.D. generally is required for
basic research, for 4-year college faculty posi­
tions, and for advancement to many admin­
istrative positions.
Many people with a bachelor’s degree in
chemistry also enter a wide range of occupa­
tions with little or no connection to chemistry.
Some enter medical, dental, veterinary, or
other health profession schools.

Job Outlook
Employment of chemists is expected to grow
about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. In addition to jobs aris­
ing from increased demand for chemists, many
openings will result each year as chemists
transfer to other occupations, retire, or die.
The majority of job openings are expected to
be in private industry, primarily in the develop­
ment of new products. In addition, industrial
companies will need more chemists—es­
pecially biochemists—to do biotechnology re­
search and to develop products and production
processes arising from this research.
Little growth in the employment of chemis­
try faculty in colleges and universities is ex­
pected.
Chemistry graduates may become high
school teachers. However, they usually are then
regarded as science teachers rather than chem­
ists. Others may qualify as engineers, es­
pecially if they have taken some courses in
engineering. (See statements on secondary



school teachers and engineers elsewhere in the
Handbook.)

Earnings
According to the College Placement Council,
chemists with the bachelor’s degree were of­
fered starting salaries averaging $21,000 a year
in 1982; those with the m aster’s degree,
$23,800; and those with the Ph.D., $32,600.
According to the American Chemical So­
ciety, salaries of experienced chemists in pri­
vate industry having a bachelor’s degree aver­
aged $29,000 a year in 1982; for those with a
master’s degree, $33,000; and for those with a
Ph.D., $42,000.
Depending on a person’s college record, the
annual starting salary in the Federal Govern­
ment in early 1983 for an inexperienced chemist
with a bachelor’s degree was either $13,369 or
$16,559. Those who had 2 years of graduate
study could begin at $20,256 a year. Chemists
having the Ph.D. degree could start at $24,508
or $29,374. The average salary for all chemists
in the Federal Government in 1982 was $32,800
a year.

Related Occupations
The work of chemical engineers, occupational
safety and health workers, agricultural scien­
tists, biological scientists, and chemical techni­
cians is closely related to the work done by
chemists. Many manufacturers’ sales represen­
tatives and wholesale trade sales workers in
chemical marketing use a knowledge of chem­
istry in their work, as do many technical writ­
ers. The work of other physical and life science

Nature of the Work
Geologists and geophysicists study the physical
aspects and history of the earth. They analyze
information collected through seismic prospec­
ting techniques, which involve bouncing sound
waves off deeply buried rock layers; examine
surface rocks and samples of buried rocks re­
covered by drilling; and study information col­
lected by satellites. They also identify rocks
and minerals, conduct geological surveys, con­
struct maps, and use instruments such as the
gravimeter and magnetometer to measure the
earth’s gravity and magnetic field. An impor­
tant application of geological research is locat­
ing oil and other minerals.
Geologists and geophysicists examine chem­
ical and physical properties of specimens in
laboratories under controlled temperature and
pressure. They may study fossil remains of ani­
mal and plant life or experiment with the flow of
water and oil through rocks. Laboratory equip­
ment used includes instruments such as the Xray diffractometer, which determines the struc­
ture of minerals, and the petrographic micro­
scope, used for close study of rock formations.
Besides locating resources and working in
laboratories, geologists and geophysicists also
advise construction companies and government
agencies on the suitability of proposed loca­
tions for buildings, dams, or highways. Some
administer and manage research and explora­
tion programs.
The fields of geology and geophysics are
closely related but there are differences.
Geologists study the composition, structure,
and history of the earth’s crust. They try to find
out how various rocks were formed and what
has happened to them throughout history.
Geophysicists use the principles of physics and
mathematics to study the earth’s internal com­
position, surface, and atmosphere and also

Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/65
various forces such as its magnetic, electrical,
and gravitational fields.
Geologists and geophysicists usually spe­
cialize. Geodesists study the size, shape, and
gravitational field of the earth. Their principal
task is to make very precise measurements for
mapping the earth’s surface. Hydrologists
study the distribution, circulation, and physical
properties of underground and surface waters.
They may study the form and intensity of pre­
cipitation, its rate of infiltration into the soil,
and its return to the ocean and atmosphere.
Mineralogists analyze and classify minerals
and precious stones according to composition
and structure. Paleontologists study fossils
found in geological formations to trace the evo­
lution of plant and animal life. Seismologists
study and interpret data from seismographs,
which measure small movements of the earth,
and other instruments to locate earthquakes and
earthquake faults. Stratigraphers study the dis­
tribution and arrangement of sedimentary rock
layers by examining their fossil and mineral
content. Meteorologists sometimes are classi­
fied as geophysical scientists. (See the state­
ment on meteorologists elsewhere in the Hand­
book.)

Working Conditions

oil and gas exploration. Mining and quarrying
companies also employ many geologists and
geophysicists. Self-employed geologists held
about 1 in 6 jobs, primarily as industry and
government consultants.
The Federal Government employed almost
5,600 geologists, geophysicists, geodesists,
and hydrologists in 1982. Almost two-thirds
worked for the Department of the Interior in the
U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines,
and the Bureau of Reclamation. Other Federal
agen cies that em ploy g eologists and
geophysicists include the Departments of De­
fense, Agriculture, Commerce, and Energy.
State agencies also employ geologists and
geophysicists; some work on surveys in cooper­
ation with the U .S. Geological Survey.
Geologists and geophysicists also work for
nonprofit research institutions and museums.
Some are employed by American firms over­
seas for varying periods of time. In addition,
about 7,000 persons held geology and
geophysics faculty positions in colleges and
universities in 1982. (See the statement on col­
lege and university faculty elsewhere in the
Handbook.)

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

A bachelor’s degree in geology or geophysics is
adequate for entry into some lower level
geology jobs, but better jobs with good ad­
vancement potential usually require at least a
master’s degree in geology or geophysics. Per­
sons with strong backgrounds in physics, math­
ematics, or computer science also may qualify
for some geophysics jobs. A Ph.D degree is
essential for most research positions.
Over 500 colleges and universities offer a
bachelor’s degree in geology and about 75 col­
Employment
leges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree
Geologists and geophysicists held almost in geophysics. Other programs offering train­
49,000 jobs in 1982. Over two-fifths were in oil ing for beginning geophysicists include
and gas companies, and almost one-sixth were geophysical technology, geophysical engineer­
in service firms, many of which are involved in ing, geophysical prospecting, engineering
geology, petroleum geology, and geodesy.
More than 220 universities award advanced
degrees in geology and about 70 universities
grant advanced degrees in geophysics.
Geologists and geophysicists need to be able
to work as part of a team. They should be
curious, analytical, and able to communicate
effectively. Those involved in fieldwork must
have physical stamina.
Geologists and geophysicists usually begin
their careers in field exploration or as research
„assistants in laboratories. With experience,
they can be promoted to project leader, program
manager, or other management and research
positions.
Most geologists and geophysicists divide their
time between fieldwork and office or laboratory
work. While in the field, geologists often travel
to remote sites by helicopter or jeep and cover
large areas by foot. Exploration geologists and
geophysicists often work overseas or in remote
areas. When not working outdoors, geologists
are in comfortable, well-lighted, well-venti­
lated offices and laboratories.

Job Outlook

A geologist studies geological data plotted by a
computer.



Employment of geologists and geophysicists is
expected to grow about as fast as the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s. In ad­
dition to new jobs created by increased demand
for geologists, many openings will arise each
year as geologists leave the occupation, retire,
or die.
Efforts to locate new sources of energy as
older sources become exhausted will continue

to stimulate domestic exploration activities and
create a need for many additional geologists,
although exploration activity may vary over the
short run depending on the price and demand
for oil. Geologists and geophysicists who have
knowledge and experience in geophysical oil
and gas exploration techniques may experience
better employment opportunities than others.
Additional geologists and geophysicists will be
needed to discover new mineral resources, to
devise techniques for exploring deeper within
the earth’s crust, and to develop more efficient
methods of mining. They also will be needed to
develop more adequate water supplies and
waste disposal methods, and to do site evalua­
tion for construction activities.

Earnings
Median annual earnings of full time geologists
and geophysicists were about $33,000 in 1982;
the middle 50 percent earned between $25,000
and $40,000 annually. According to surveys
done by the College Placement Council, gradu­
ates with bachelor’s degrees in physical and
earth sciences received average starting offers
of $23,800 a year in 1982. Graduates with mas­
ter’s degrees in geology and related geological
sciences received average starting offers of
$29,000 a year.
In the Federal Government in early 1983,
geologists and geophysicists having a bach­
elor’s degree could begin at $13,369 or $16,559
a year, depending on their college records.
Those having a master’s degree could start at
$16,559 or $20,256 a year; those having the
Ph.D. degree, at $24,508 or $29,374. In 1982,
the average salary for geologists in the Federal
Government was about $33,000 a year and for
geophysicists, about $35,200 a year.

Related Occupations
Many geologists and geophysicists work in the
petroleum and natural gas industry. This indus­
try also employs many other workers who are
involved in the scientific and technical aspects
of petroleum and natural gas exploration and
extraction, including drafters, engineering
technicians, laboratory assistants (petroleum
production), petroleum engineers, and sur­
veyors. Also related to the work of geologists
and geophysicists are other physical science
occupations such as physicists, chemists, mete­
orologists, and oceanographers as well as math­
ematicians and computer scientists.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on training and career oppor­
tunities for geologists is available from:
American Geological Institute, 5202 Leesburg Pike,
Falls Church, Va. 22041.

Information on training and career oppor­
tunities for geophysicists is available from:
American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20009.
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, P.O. Box
3098, Tblsa, Okla. 74101.

For information on Federal Government ca­
reers, contact:

66/Occupational Outlook Handbook
U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20415.

Meteorologists
(D.O.T. 025.062-010)

Nature of the Work
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere,
which is the air that surrounds the earth. Mete­
orologists try to understand the atmosphere’s
physical characteristics, motions, and pro­
cesses, and determine the way the atmosphere
affects the rest of our environment. The best
known application of this knowledge is in un­
derstanding and forecasting the weather.
However, weather information and mete­
orological research also is applied in many
other areas, such as air pollution control, fire
prevention, agriculture, air and sea transporta­
tion, and studying trends in the earth’s climate.
Meteorologists who forecast the weather,
known professionally as operational or synop­
tic meteorologists, are the largest group of spe­
cialists in this field. They study past and current
weather information, such as air pressure, tem­
perature, humidity, and wind velocity, and ap­
ply physical and mathematical relationships to
make short-range and long-range predictions.

Their data come from weather satellites and
observers in many parts of the world. Although
some forecasters still prepare and analyze
weather maps, most data now are plotted and
analyzed by computers.
Some meteorologists engage in basic and
applied research. For example, physical mete­
orologists study the chemical and physical
properties of the atmosphere. They do research
on the effect of the atmosphere on transmission
of light, sound, and radio waves, as well as
study factors affecting formation of clouds,
rain, snow, and other weather phenomena.
Other meteorologists, known as climatologists,
study trends in climate and analyze past records
on wind, rainfall, sunshine, and temperature to
determine the general pattern of weather that
makes up an area’s climate. These studies are
used to plan heating and cooling systems, de­
sign buildings, and aid in effective land utiliza­
tion.

Working Conditions
Jobs in weather stations, most of which operate
around the clock 7 days a week, often involve
night work and rotating shifts. Most stations are
at airports or in or near cities; some are in
isolated and remote areas. Meteorologists in
smaller weather stations generally work alone;
in larger ones, they work as part of a team.

Employment
Meteorologists held about 3,700 jobs in 1982.
In addition, about 1,000 persons held mete­
orology faculty positions in colleges and uni­
versities in 1982. (See the statement on college
and university faculty elsewhere in the Hand­
book.)
The largest employer of civilian mete­
orologists was the National Weather Service,
where about 1,800 worked at stations in all
parts of the United States and in a small number
of foreign areas. The Department of Defense
employed almost 200 civilian meteorologists.
A few worked for State and local governments
and for nonprofit organizations.
In addition to government, private weather
consulting firms and radio and television sta­
tions employed many meteorologists. Com­
mercial airlines also employed meteorologists
to forecast weather along flight routes and to
brief pilots on atmospheric conditions. Other
meteorologists worked for companies that de­
sign and manufacture meteorological instru­
ments or for firms in aerospace, engineering,
utilities, and other industries.
In addition to civilian meteorologists, thou­
sands of members of the Armed Forces did
forecasting and other meteorological work.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A bachelor’s degree with a major in mete­
orology is the usual minimum requirement for
beginning jobs in weather forecasting.
However, employers prefer to hire those with an
advanced degree, and an advanced degree is
increasingly necessary for promotion.
For research and college teaching and for
many top level positions in other mete­
orological activities, an advanced degree, pre­
ferably in meteorology, is essential. People
with graduate degrees in other sciences also
may qualify if they have advanced courses in
meteorology, physics, mathematics, and chem­
istry.
In 1982, about 35 colleges and universities
offered a bachelor’s degree in meteorology or
atmospheric science; about 40 schools offered
advanced degrees. Many other institutions of­
fered some courses in meteorology. Before se­
lecting a degree program in meteorology, stu­
dents should investigate the particular empha­
sis of the program, since many meteorology
programs are combined with the study of a
related scientific or engineering field.
Beginning meteorologists often start in jobs
involving routine data collection, computation,
or analysis. Experienced meteorologists may
advance to various supervisory or admin­
istrative jobs. A few very well qualified mete­
orologists with a background in business ad­
ministration may establish their own weather
consulting services.

Job Outlook

Employment of meteorologists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s.




Employment of meteorologists is expected to
grow more slowly than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. Little or no
growth in employment is expected in the Na­
tional Weather Service, which employs most
meteorologists. Some new jobs will be created

Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/67
in private industry as companies recognize the
value of having their own weather forecasting
and meteorological services but most of the job
openings in this very small occupation will
arise from the need to replace those who change
occupations, retire, or die. Persons with an
advanced degree in meteorology should have
the best job prospects.

physics and mathematics to answer questions
about the fundamental nature of the universe,
such as its origin and history and the evolution
of the solar system.
Most physicists work in research and de­
velopment. Some do basic research to increase
scientific knowledge. For example, they inves­
tigate the structure of the atom or the nature of
gravity. The equipment that physicists design
Earnings
for their research can Qften be applied to other
The average salary for meteorologists em­
areas. For example, lasers (devices that amplify
ployed by the Federal Government was
light and emit it in a highly directional, intense
$34,200 in 1982. In early 1983, meteorologists
beam) are utilized in surgery; microwave de­
in the Federal Government with a bachelor’s
degree and no experience received starting sal­ vices are used for ovens; and measurement
aries of $13,369 or $16,559 a year, depending techniques and instruments can detect the kind
on their college grades. Those with a master’s and number of cells in blood or the amount of
degree could start at $16,559 or $20,256; those mercury or lead in foods.
Many physicists conduct applied research
with the Ph.D. degree, at $24,508 or $29,374.
However, the National Weather Service hired and help develop new devices, products, and
few professional level meteorologists in 1983; processes. For instance, their knowledge of sol­
instead it hired meteorological technicians, id-state physics led to the development of tran­
most at a starting salary of $13,369. Qualified sistors and then to the integrated circuits used in
meteorological technicians in the National calculators and computers. A small number
Weather Service may eventually be promoted to work in inspection, testing, quality control, and
other production-related jobs in industry. Some
professional meteorologists.
do consulting work.
Almost all astronomers do research. Most of
Related Occupations
Workers in other occupations concerned with their time is spent analyzing the large quantities
the physical environment include forest ecolo­ of data collected by their own and others’ obser­
gists, foresters, geologists, geophysicists, vations and writing scientific papers on the re­
oceanographers, range managers, and soil con­ sults of their research. Most astronomers spend
only a few weeks each year making observa­
servationists.
tions with telescopes, radio telescopes, and
other instruments (some in orbiting satellites)
Sources of Additional Information
that can detect electromagnetic radiation from
Information on career opportunities in mete­
distant sources. Contrary to the popular image,
orology is available for 75 cents from:
astronomers almost never actually look through
American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St.,
a telescope because photographic and elec­
Boston, Mass. 02108.
tronic radiation detecting equipment is more
For facts about job opportunities with the effective than the human eye.
Most physicists specialize in one or more
National Weather Service, contact:
branches of the science—elementary-particle
National Weather Service, Personnel Section, Gramphysics; nuclear physics; atomic, electron, or
ax Bldg., 8060 13th St., Silver Spring, Md. 20910.
molecular physics; physics of condensed mat­
ter; optics; acoustics; health physics; plasma
physics; and the physics of fluids. Some spe­
cialize in a subdivision of one of these
branches. For example, subdivisions of solidstate physics include superconductivity, crys­
(D.O.T. 023.061-010, -014, .067-010; 041.061-034;
tallography, and semiconductors. However,
079.021-010 and -014)
since all physics involves the same fundamen­
tal principles, several specialties may overlap,
and in the course of their careers physicists
Nature of the Work
The flight of the space shuttle, the accuracy of frequently switch from one subfield to another.
advanced medical instruments, and even the
Growing numbers of physicists are specializ­
safety of the family car depend on research by ing in fields such as biophysics, chemical phys­
physicists. Through systematic observation and ics, and geophysics in which physics and a
experimentation, physicists use mathematical related science are combined. Furthermore, the
terms to describe the structure of the universe practical applications of physicists’ work in­
and the interaction of matter and energy. Phys­ creasingly have merged with engineering.
icists also develop theories that describe the
fundamental forces and laws of nature. Deter­
mining the basic laws governing phenomena Working Conditions
such as gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear Physicists generally work regular hours in labo­
interactions leads to discoveries and innova­ ratories, classrooms, and offices. Most phys­
tions that advance nuclear energy, electronics, icists do not encounter unusual hazards in their
communications and aerospace technology, work. Astronomers who make observations
and medical instrumentation.
may need to travel to observation facilities
Astronomy is usually considered a subfield which are usually in remote locations and fre­
of physics. Astronomers use the principles of quently work at night.

Physicists




Employment
Physicists held almost 19,000 jobs in 1982. In
addition, about an equal number of persons
held physics faculty positions in colleges and
universities. (See the statement on college and
university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Private industry employed almost two-thirds of
all nonacademic physicists, primarily in com­
panies manufacturing electrical equipment, air­
craft and missiles, chemicals, and scientific
instruments. Many others worked as re­
searchers in colleges and universities, hospi­
tals, commercial laboratories, and independent
research organizations. The Federal Govern­
ment, mostly the Departments of Defense and
Commerce, employed about 3 out of 10 phys­
icists.
Although physicists are employed in all parts
of the country, their employment is greatest in
areas that have heavy industrial concentrations
and large college and university enrollments.

IVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Graduate training in physics or a closely related
field is almost essential for most entry level jobs
in physics and for advancement. The doctorate
usually is required for full faculty status at col­
leges and universities and for industrial or gov­
ernment jobs administering research and de­
velopment programs. A doctorate is also the
usual requirement for a job in astronomy.
Those having master’s degrees may qualify
for some research jobs in private industry and in
the Federal Government as well as for teaching
jobs in 2-year colleges. In universities, some
teach and assist in research while studying for
their Ph.D.
Those having bachelor’s degrees may qualify
for a few applied research and development
jobs in private industry and in the Federal Gov­
ernment. Some are employed as research or
teaching assistants in colleges and universities
while studying for advanced degrees. Many
with undergraduate physics degrees work in
engineering and other scientific fields. (See
statements on engineers, geologists and
geophysicists, programmers, and systems ana­
lysts elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Almost 800 colleges and universities offer a
bachelor’s degree in physics. The undergradu­
ate program provides a broad background in the
science and serves as a base for later specializa­
tion either in graduate school or on the job.
Some typical physics courses are mechanics,
electromagnetism, electronics, optics, ther­
modynamics, and atomic and molecular phys­
ics. Students also take courses in chemistry and
many courses in mathematics.
About 270 colleges and universities offer
advanced degrees in physics. In graduate
school, the student, with faculty guidance, usu­
ally works in a specific subfield of physics.
Graduate students, especially candidates for
Ph.D. degrees, spend a large portion of their
time conducting research.
About 50 universities offer the Ph.D. degree
in astronomy. These programs include ad­
vanced courses in astronomy, physics, and
mathematics. Some schools require that gradu­
ate students spend several months working at an

68/Occupational Outlook Handbook
this area will result from the need to replace
those who leave the occupation.
Persons with only a bachelor’s degree in
physics are not qualified to enter most physicist
jobs. However, many with bachelor’s degrees in
physics find jobs as engineers, technicians, or
computer specialists. Others become high
school physics teachers. However, they are usu­
ally regarded as teachers rather than as phys­
icists. (See the statement on secondary school
teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Earnings

Graduate training in physics or a closely related field is essential for most entry level jobs in physics.
observatory. The usual qualification for en­
trance to a graduate program in astronomy is a
bachelor’s degree in astronomy, physics, or
mathematics with a physics minor.
Students planning a career in physics should
have an inquisitive mind, mathematical ability,
and imagination. They should be able to work
on their own, since physicists, particularly in
basic research, often receive only limited super­
vision.
Physicists, especially those who hold less
than a Ph.D., often begin their careers doing
routine laboratory tasks. After some experi­
ence, they are assigned more complex tasks and
may advance to work as project leaders or re­
search directors. Some work in top manage­
ment jobs. Physicists who develop new prod­
ucts or processes sometimes form their own
companies or join new firms to exploit their
own ideas.

Job Outlook
Employment opportunities in physics are ex­
pected to be good through 1995 for persons with




a doctorate in physics because employment is
projected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations over the period and the number of
graduate degrees awarded annually in physics
has been declining since 1970. However, per­
sons seeking jobs in astronomy are expected to
continue to encounter competition for the small
number of available openings that will occur
through 1995. Despite the faster than average
growth projected in this occupation, most job
openings will arise as physicists transfer to
other occupations, retire, or die.
Many physicists work in research and de­
velopment (R&D). The anticipated increase in
R&D expenditures through 1995 should result
in increased employment for physicists. If actu­
al R&D expenditure levels and patterns differ
significantly from those assumed, however, the
outlook would be altered.
Some with advanced degrees in physics will
be needed to teach in colleges and universities,
but opportunities will be better in private indus­
try. Since little employment growth is expected
in colleges and universities, most openings in

Median annual earnings of full time physicists
were about $33,000 in 1982; the middle 50
piercent earned between about $28,000 and
$45,000 annually.
According to an American Institute of Phys­
ics Survey of 1982 degree recipients, starting
salaries for physicists in private industry aver­
aged about $26,500 for those with a master’s
degree and $34,000 for those with a Ph.D.
Depending on their college records, phys­
icists with a bachelor’s degree could start in the
Federal Government in early 1983 at either
$13,369 or $16,559 a year. Beginning phys­
icists having a master’s degree could start at
$16,559 or $20,256, and those having the
Ph.D. degree could begin at $24,508 or
$29,374. Average earnings for all physicists in
the Federal Government in 1982 were $38,400
a year.
Starting salaries for physics college and uni­
versity faculty with the Ph.D. averaged
$23,000 in 1982, according to the American
Institute of Physics. (See the statement on col­
lege and university teachers elsewhere in the
Handbook.) Many faculty physicists supple­
ment their regular incomes by working as con­
sultants and taking on special research projects.

Related Occupations
Physics is closely related other scientific oc­
cupations such as chemistry, geology, and
geophysics. Engineers and engineering and sci­
ence technicians also use a knowledge of the
principles of physics in their work.

Sources of Additional Information
General information on career opportunities in
physics is available from:
American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.

For a pamphlet containing information on
careers in astronomy and on schools offering
training in the field, send 25 cents to:
Dr. Harry Shipman, Education Officer, American
Astronomical Society, University of Delaware, New­
ark, Del. 19711.

Life Scientists
Life scientists study living organisms and their
life processes, such as growth, reproduction,
and behavior They apply knowledge gained
from research to specific goals such as the de­
velopment of drugs, special varieties of plants,
and ways of maintaining a cleaner environ­
ment. They are concerned with the origin, pres­
ervation, and development of life, from the
largest animal to the smallest living cell. Bio­
logical scientists study the basic life processes
of plants and animals, and agricultural scien­
tists apply their knowledge of biology to
agricultural problems. Foresters and con­
servationists use their knowledge of life science
to manage and conserve the natural resources of
forests, rangelands, and soil. Detailed informa­
tion about training requirements and job out­
look in these occupations appears in the three
statements that follow.

Agricultural Scientists
(D.O.T. 040.061-010, -014, -018, -038, -042, and -058;
041.061-014, -018, and -082)

Animal scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-014) do
research on the breeding, feeding, and diseases
of domestic farm animals.
Dairy scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-018) and
Poultry scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-042) con­
duct research on the breeding, feeding, and
management of dairy cattle and poultry.
Horticulturists (D.O.T. 040.061-038) work
with orchard and garden plants such as fruit and
nut trees, vegetables, and flowers. They seek to
improve plant culture methods for the beau­
tification of communities, homes, parks, and
other areas as well as for increasing crop quality
and yields.
Soil scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-058) study
soil characteristics, map soil types, and deter­
mine the best types of crops for each soil. They
study the responses of various types of soils to
fertilizers, tillage practices, crop rotation, and
other actions which affect the soil.
Animal breeders (D.O.T. 041.061-014) and
plant breeders (D.O.T. 041.061-082) develop
systems of breeding to develop and improve
desirable characteristics of animals and plants.
Apiculturists (D.O.T. 041.061-018) study the
culture and breeding of bees.

Working Conditions
Nature of the Work
The work done by agricultural scientists has
played an important part in making American
farm workers the most productive agricultural
workers in the world. Agricultural scientists
study farm crops and animals and develop ways
of improving their quantity and quality. They
look for ways to increase yields with less labor,
control pests and weeds more effectively, and
conserve soil and water. Agricultural science is
closely related to biological science in that both
involve the study of living organisms; agri­
cultural scientists then apply this knowledge to
solving practical problems in agriculture.
About 40 percent of all agricultural scientists
manage or administer research and develop­
ment projects or marketing or production oper­
ations in companies that produce agricultural
chemicals or machinery. About 20 percent do
research and development. Some spend most of
their time in laboratories, but some in research
and development spend much of their time
working with plants and animals in the field.
Some agricultural scientists teach in colleges
and universities and others work as consultants
to business firms or to government.
Agricultural scientists usually specialize in
one of the following areas. Agronomists
(D.O.T. 040.061-010) are concerned with the
growth and improvement of field crops. They
improve the quality and yield of crops such as
com, wheat, and cotton by developing new
growth methods or by controlling diseases,
pests, and weeds. Some agronomists may spe­
cialize in a particular crop or crop problem.




Agricultural scientists generally work regular
hours in offices, laboratories, or classrooms.
Some agricultural scientists spend much time
outdoors conducting research on farms or agri­
cultural research stations.

Employment
Agricultural scientists held about 22,000 jobs
in 1982. In addition, over 15,000 persons held
agricultural science faculty positions in col­
leges and universities in 1982. (See the state­
ment on college and university faculty
elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Almost half of all agricultural scientists work
for Federal, State, or local governments. Al­
most 3,000 worked for the Federal Government
in 1982, mostly in the Department of Agri­
culture. Large numbers worked for State gov­
ernments at State agricultural colleges or agri­
cultural research stations. Almost 10 percent of
all agricultural scientists work for agricultural
service companies; others work for fertilizer
companies, seed companies, and wholesale
distribution companies. Over 2,000 agri­
cultural scientists were self-employed in 1982,
mainly as consultants.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Training requirements for agricultural scientists
depend on the specialty and the type of work
performed. A Ph.D. degree in an agricultural
science specialty is usually required for college
teaching, independent research, and for ad­
vancement to many administrative and man­

agement jobs. A master’s degree is sufficient
for some jobs in applied research. The bach­
elor’s degree is adequate preparation for some
jobs in sales, inspection, and other nonresearch
areas, but, in some cases, promotions may be
limited for those who hold no higher degree.
Those who hold degrees in related sciences
such as biology, chemistry, or physics also may
enter some agricultural science jobs.
All States have at least one land-grant college
which offers agricultural science curriculums.
Many other colleges and universities also offer
some kind of agricultural science courses.
Since some schools may not offer all spe­
cialties, students should investigate carefully
the course offerings of the schools they are
considering. Requirements for advanced de­
grees usually include fieldwork and laboratory
research as well as classroom studies and prepa­
ration of a thesis based on independent re­
search.
Agricultural scientists should be able to work
independently or as part erf a team and must be
able to communicate their findings clearly and
concisely, both orally and in writing.
Agricultural scientists who have advanced
degrees usually begin in research or teaching
jobs. With experience, they may advance to
jobs such as supervisors of research programs.

Job Outlook
Employment of agricultural scientists is ex­
pected to grow more slowly than the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Many
agricultural scientists work for Federal, State,
or local governments where little employment
growth is expected. Employment of agricultural
scientists involved in research may grow
rapidly in private industry as advances such as
recombinant DNA now being made in bio­
technology are applied to agriculture. In addi­
tion to jobs arising from growth in demand for
agricultural scientists, job openings will occur
as agricultural scientists transfer to other oc­
cupations, retire, or die.
Employment opportunities in agricultural
science are expected to be better for those with
advanced degrees. However, a bachelor’s de­
gree in agricultural science is useful for occupa­
tions such as farmer or farm manager, cooper­
ative extension service worker, technician, or
seed or fertilizer company sales representative.
Persons with degrees in agricultural science
also work for businesses that deal with farmers
such as banks and farm equipment manufac­
turers.

Earnings
According to the College Placement Council,
beginning salary offers for agricultural scien­
tists with the bachelor’s degree averaged
$16,700 a year in 1982.

69

70/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Agricultural scientists examine a newly developed variety of orghum.
In the Federal Government in early 1983,
agricultural scientists with a bachelor’s degree
could start at $13,369 or $16,559 a year, de­
pending on their college records. Those having
the master’s degree could start at $16,559 or
$20,256, depending on their academic records
or work experience; and those having the Ph.D.
degree could begin at $24,508 or $29,374 a
year. Agricultural scientists in the Federal Gov­
ernment averaged about $28,000 a year in
1982.

Related Occupations
The work of agricultural scientists is closely
related to that of biologists as well as to other
natural scientists such as chemists and phys­
icists. It is also related to agricultural produc­
tion occupations such as farmer and farm man­
ager and to cooperative extension service
workers as well as to foresters and conservation
scientists. Certain specialties of agricultural
science are also related to other occupations.
For example, animal scientists are related to
veterinarians, horticulturists to landscape ar­
chitects, and soil scientists to soil con­
servationists.

Source of Additional Information
Information on careers in agricultural science is
available from:
Higher Education Programs, Agricultural Research
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Admin­




istration Building, 14th St. and Independence Ave.
SW., Washington, D.C. 20250.
American Society of Agronomy, 677 S. Segoe Rd.,
Madison, Wis. 53711.
Crop Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd.,
Madison, Wis. 53711.
Soil Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd.,
Madison, Wis. 53711.

For information on careers in horticultural
science, send a stamped, self-addressed enve­
lope to:
American Society for Horticultural Science, 701
North Saint Asaph St., Alexandria, Va. 22314.

Information on Federal job opportunities is
available from local offices of State employ­
ment services and the U.S. Office of Personnel
Management or from Federal Job Information
Centers located in various large cities
throughout the country.

Biological Scientists
(D.O.T. 041.061, except -014, -018, -026, -034, -054,
-070, -074, -082, and 090; and .167-010)

Nature of the Work
Biological scientists study all aspects of living
organisms and the relationship of animals and

plants to their environment. Although many
specialize in some area such as ornithology (the
study of birds) or microbiology (the study of
microscopic organisms), all have in common
the study of life.
Many biological scientists are primarily in­
volved in research and development. Some
conduct basic research to increase knowledge
of living organisms. Others in applied research
use this knowledge in activities such as de­
veloping new m edicines, increasing crop
yields, and improving the environment. Those
working in laboratories must be familiar with
research techniques and the use of laboratory
equipment and computers. Not all research,
however, is performed in laboratories. For ex­
ample, a botanist may do research in the vol­
canic valleys of Alaska to see what plants grow
there.
Other biological scientists work in manage­
ment or administration, for example planning
and administering programs for testing foods
and drugs and directing activities at zoos or
botanical gardens. Some work as consultants to
business firms or to government, while others
test and inspect foods, drugs, and other prod­
ucts or write for technical publications. (See the
statement on technical writers elsewhere in the
Handbook.) Some work in technical sales and
service jobs for companies manufacturing
chemicals or other technical products. (See the
statements on manufacturers’ sales represen­
tatives and wholesale trade sales workers
elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Most biological scientists who come under
the broad category of biologist (D.O.T.
041.061-030) are further classified by the type
of organism they study or by the specific ac­
tivity they perform.
Anatomists (D.O.T. 041.061-010) study and
examine the structure of organisms, from cell
structure to the formation of tissues and organs.
Many specialize in human anatomy. Research
methods may entail dissections or the use of
electron microscopes.
Botanists (D.O.T. 041.061-038) deal pri­
marily with plants and their environment.
Some study all aspects of plant life, while oth­
ers specialize in areas such as identification and
classification of plants, the structure and func­
tion of various plant parts, and the causes and
cures of plant diseases.
Embryologists study the development of an
animal from a fertilized egg through the hatch­
ing process or birth, and the causes of healthy
and abnormal development.
Microbiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-058) inves­
tigate the growth and characteristics of micro­
scopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, and
molds. Medical microbiologists study the rela­
tionship between bacteria and disease or the
effect of antibiotics on bacteria. Other micro­
biologists specialize in soil bacteriology (the
effect of microorganisms on soil fertility), viro­
logy (viruses), or immunology (mechanisms
that fight infections).
Pharmacologists (D.O.T. 041.061-074) and
toxicologists conduct tests on animals such as
rats, guinea pigs, and monkeys to determine the
effects of drugs, gases, poisons, dusts, and
other substances on the functioning of tissues

Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/71
and organs. Pharmacologists may develop new
or improved drugs and medicines.
Physiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-078) study
life functions of plants and animals under nor­
mal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists
may specialize in functions such as growth,
reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or
movement, or in the physiology of a certain
area or system of the body.
Zoologists (D.O.T. 041.061-090) study vari­
ous aspects of animals—their origin, behavior,
diseases, and life processes. Some experiment
with live animals in controlled or natural sur­
roundings while others dissect dead animals to
study their structure. Zoologists are usually
identified by the animal group studied—or­
nithologists (birds), entomologists (insects),
mammalogists (mammals), herpetologists
(reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish).
Some biological scientists apply their knowl­
edge across a number of areas and may be
classified by the functions performed. Ecolo­
gists, for example, study the relationship be­
tween organisms and their environments and
the effects of influences such as pollutants,
rainfall, temperature, and altitude on organ­
isms. For exam ple, ecologists examine
plankton (microscopic water plants and ani­
mals) and measure the radioactive content of
fish to determine the effects of pollution.
Agricultural scientists, who may also be
classified as biological scientists, are included
in a separate statement elsewhere in the Hand­
book.

Working Conditions
Biological scientists generally work regular
hours in offices, laboratories, or classrooms
and usually are not exposed to unsafe or un­
healthy conditions. Some biological scientists
such as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists
may take field trips which involve strenuous
physical activity and primitive living condi­
tions.

Biological scientists study living organisms and
life processes.



Employment

Job Outlook

Biological scientists held about 52,000 jobs in
1982. In addition, an almost equal number of
persons held biology faculty positions in col­
leges and universities. (See the statement on
college and university faculty elsewhere in the
Handbook.)
About 14,000 biological scientists worked
for the Federal Government in 1982. Over onequarter worked for the Department of Agri­
culture, and about one-fifth worked for the Na­
tional Institutes of Health. Large numbers also
were employed by the Department of the Inte­
rior and the Defense Department. State and
local governments combined employed about
8,500.
Over 12,000 worked in private industry,
mostly in the pharmaceutical, chemical, food,
and agricultural services industries in 1982.
About 4,000 worked for nonprofit research or­
ganizations and foundations; a few were selfemployed.

Employment of biological scientists is expected
to increase faster than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s due to recent
advances in genetic research that should result
in new drugs, improved plants, and medical
discoveries. Advances in biological technology
should result in many additional research jobs
for biological scientists in private industry; ad­
ditional jobs are likely to be created by the
production, by biological methods, of products
which are presently produced by chemical or
other methods. Efforts to preserve the environ­
ment should also result in additional employ­
ment opportunities. In addition to jobs arising
from growth in demand for biological scien­
tists, job openings will occur as some biolog­
ical scientists transfer to other occuptions, re­
tire, or die.
Employment opportunities for biological
scientists are expected to be better for those
with advanced degrees since most new jobs will
be research oriented. Furthermore, the employ­
ment outlook will vary by specialty. Those who
have the ability to do research in areas related to
the genetic, cellular, and biochemical areas of
biology should experience better employment
opportunities than those in other specialties.
However, many persons with a bachelor’s de­
gree in biological science find jobs in occupa­
tions such as science or engineering technicians
or medical laboratory technologists. Some be­
come high school biology teachers. However,
they are usually regarded as teachers rather than
biologists. (See the statement on secondary
school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Others enter a wide range of occupations with
little or no connection to biology.
Biological scientists rarely lose their jobs
during recessions, since most are employed on
long-term research projects or in agriculture,
activities which are not much affected by eco­
nomic fluctuations.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
The Ph.D. degree generally is required for col­
lege teaching, independent research, and for
advancement to administrative research posi­
tions and other management jobs. A master’s
degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied
research. The bachelor’s degree is adequate
preparation for some beginning jobs, but pro­
motions often are limited for those who hold no
higher degree. New graduates with a bachelor’s
degree Can start their careers in testing and
inspecting jobs, or become technical sales and
service representatives. They also can become
senior biology technicians, medical laboratory
technologists and technicians or, with courses
in education, high school biology teachers.
(See the statement on secondary school teach­
ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many with a
bachelors degree in biology enter medical, den­
tal, veterinary, or other health profession
schools. Some enter a wide range of occuations
with little or no connection to biology.
Most colleges and universities offer bach­
elor’s degrees in biological science and many,
advanced degrees. Curriculums for advanced
degrees in biological science often emphasize a
particular area of biological science such as
microbiology or botany. Not all universities
offer all curriculums. Requirements for ad­
vanced degrees usually include fieldwork and
laboratory research as well as classroom studies
and preparation of a thesis. Biological scientists
who have advanced degrees usually begin in
research or teaching jobs. With experience,
they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of
research programs.
Prospective biological scientists should be
able to work independently or as part of a team
and must be able to communicate their findings
clearly and concisely, both orally and in writ­
ing. Biological scientists conducting field re­
search in remote areas must have physical
stamina.

Earnings
According to the College Placement Council,
beginning salary offers in private industry in
1982 averaged $16,500 a year for bachelor’s
degree recipients and $17,000 a year for mas­
ter’s degree recipients in biological science.
In the Federal Government in early 1983,
biological scientists having a bachelor’s degree
could begin at $13,369 or $16,559 a year, de­
pending on their college records. Those having
the master’s degree could start at $16,559 or
$20,256, depending on their academic records
or work experience; those having the Ph.D.
degree could begin at $24,508 or $29,374 a
year. Biological scientists in the Federal Gov­
ernment averaged $31,900 a year in 1982.

Related Occupations
Many occupations are related in some way to
biological scientists since they deal with living
organisms. These include the conservation oc­
cupations of foresters, forestry technicians,
range manangers, and soil conservationists, as
well as agricultural scientists, biochemists, soil
scientists, oceanographers, and life science
technicians. The wide array of health occupa­
tions are all related to those in the biological

72/Occupational Outlook Handbook
sciences, as are occupations dealing with rais­
ing plants and animals such as farmers and farm
workers, florists, and nursery workers.

Sources of Additional Information
General information on careers in biological
science is available from:
American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1401
Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, Va. 22209.
American Physiological Society, Education Officer,
9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20814.
Dr. Carol C. Baskin, Secretary, Botanical Society of
America, School of Biological Sciences, University
of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. 40506.
American Society of Zoologists, P.O. Box 2739,
California Lutheran College, Thousand Oaks, Calif.
91360.

For information on careers in horticultural
science, send a stamped, self-addressed envel­
ope to:
American Society for Horticultural Science, 701
North Saint Asaph St., Alexandria, Va. 22314.

Information on Federal job opportunities is
available from local offices of State employ­
ment services and the U.S. Office of Personnel
Management or from Federal Job Information
Centers located in various large cities
throughout the country.

Foresters and
Conservationists
(D.O.T. 040.061-030, -034, -046, -050, -054, and -062;
169.167-022; and 451.137-010)

Nature of the Work
Forests and rangelands serve a variety of needs:
They provide habitats for wildlife, serve as sites
for recreational activities, and supply lumber,
minerals, and water. Foresters and con­
servationists manage, develop, and help protect
these and other natural resources.
Foresters plan and supervise the growing,
protection, and harvesting of trees. They map
forest areas, estimate the amount of standing
timber and future growth, and manage timber
sales. Foresters also protect the trees from fire,
harmful insects, and disease. Some foresters
also protect wildlife and manage watersheds;
develop and supervise camps, parks, and graz­
ing lands, and do research. Foresters in exten­
sion work provide information to forest owners
and to the general public.
Range managers, also called range con­
servationists, range ecologists, or range scien­
tists, manage, improve, and protect rangelands
to maximize their use without damaging the
environment. Rangelands cover more than 1
billion acres of the United States, mostly in the
Western States and Alaska. They contain many
natural resources: Grass and shrubs for animal
grazing, wildlife habitats, water from vast wa­
tersheds, recreation facilities, and valuable
mineral and energy resources. Rangelands also




serve as areas for scientific study of the environ­
ment. Range managers help ranchers attain op­
timum livestock production by determining the
number and kind of animals to graze, the graz­
ing system to use, and the best season for graz­
ing. At the same time, however, they try to
conserve the soil and vegetation for other uses
such as wildlife habitats, outdoor recreation,
and timber.
Soil conservationists provide technical assis­
tance to farmers, ranchers, and others con­
cerned with the conservation of soil, water, and
related natural resources. They develop pro­
grams that are designed to get the most produc­
tive use of land without damaging it. Soil con­
servationists do most of their work in the field.
Conservationists visit areas with erosion prob­
lems, find the source of the problem, and de­
velop a program to combat the erosion.
Foresters and conservationists often spe­
cialize in one area of work, such as timber
management, outdoor recreation, or forest eco­
nomics.

Working Conditions
Working conditions for foresters and con­
servationists vary considerably. Their image as
solitary horseback riders, singlehandedly pro­
tecting large areas of land far from civilization
no longer holds true. Modem foresters and con­
servationists spend a great deal of time working
with people. They deal regularly with landowners, loggers, forestry technicians and
aides, farmers, and ranchers.
The work can still be physically demanding,
though. Many foresters and conservationists
often work outdoors in all kinds of weather,
sometimes in remote areas. To get to these
areas, they use airplanes, helicopters, and fourwheel drive vehicles. Foresters and con­
servationists also may work long hours fighting
fires or on search-and-rescue missions.

Employment
Foresters and conservationists held nearly
31,000 jobs in 1982. About one-half worked for
the Federal Government, primarily in the De­
partment of Agriculture. About one-fourth
worked for State governments. The remainder
worked in private industry, mainly for lumber,
paper, and logging companies, and for local
governments and consulting firms. A few were
self-employed either as consultants or forest
owners.
Most soil conservationists work for the
Federal Government, mainly with the Depart­
ment of Agriculture’s Soil Conservation Serv­
ice.
Although foresters and conservationists
work in every State, employment is concen­
trated in the Western and Southeastern States
where many national forests and parks are lo­
cated and where most of the lumber and pulpwood producing forests are located. Range
managers work almost entirely in the Western
States where rangeland is located. Soil con­
servationists, on the other hand, are employed
in almost every county in the country.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A bachelor’s degree in forestry is the minimum
educational requirement for professional ca­
reers in forestry. However, due to keen job
competition and the increasingly complex
nature of the forester’s work, many employers
prefer graduates who hold advanced degrees.
Certain jobs such as teaching and research re­
quire advanced degrees.
In 1982, about 50 colleges and universities
offered bachelor’s or higher degrees in forestry;
43 of these were accredited by the Society of
American Foresters. Curriculums stress the lib­
eral arts and communications skills as well as
technical forestry subjects. Courses in forest
economics and business administration supple­
ment the student’s scientific and technical
knowledge. Many colleges require students to
spend one summer in a field camp operated by
the college. All schools encourage summer
jobs that give experience in forest or con­
servation work.
A bachelor’s degree in range management or
range science is the usual minimum educational
requirement for range managers. The Federal
Government requires at least 42 hours in plant,
animal, or soil sciences and natural resources
management courses, including at least 18
hours in range management. Graduate degrees
in range management generally are required for
teaching and research positions and may be
helpful for advancement in other jobs.
In 1982, about 18 colleges and universities
offered degrees in range management or range
science. A number of other schools offered
some courses in range management. Spe­
cialized range management courses combine
plant, animal, and soil sciences with principles
of ecology and resource management. Desir­
able electives include economics, forestry, hy­
drology, agronomy, wildlife, computer sci­
ence, and recreation.
Very few colleges and universities offer de­
grees in soil conservation. Most soil con­
servationists have degrees in agronomy, agri­
cultural education, or general agriculture; a few

Foresters and conservationists work outdoors in
all kinds of weather.

Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/73
have degrees in related fields such as wildlife
biology, forestry, and range management. Pro­
grams of study generally include 30 semester
hours in natural resources or agriculture, in­
cluding at least 3 hours in soils.
In addition to meeting the intellectual de­
mands of forestry and conservation work, for­
esters and conservationists must enjoy working
outdoors, be physically hardy, and be willing to
move—often to remote places. They must also
be able to work well with people and have good
communication skills.
Recent forestry and range management grad­
uates usually work under the supervision of
experienced foresters or range managers. After
gaining experience, they may advance to more
responsible positions. In the Federal Govern­
ment, an experienced forester may supervise an
entire forest area, and may advance to regional
forest supervisor or to a top administrative posi­
tion. In private industry, foresters start by learn­
ing the practical and administrative aspects of
the business. Many foresters work their way up
to top managerial positions within their com­
panies.
Soil conservationists usually begin working
within one county and with experience may
advance to the area and State level. Also, soil
conservationists can transfer to related occupa­
tions such as farm management advisors or land
appraisers.

Job Outlook
Employment of foresters and conservationists
is expected to grow more slowly than the aver­
age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s.

Employment should continue to grow faster in
private industry than in Federal and State gov­
ernments where budget limitations are likely to
restrain growth. More foresters will be needed
in private industry to ensure an increasing out­
put of forest products. Private owners of timberland also are likely to employ more foresters
as they recognize the need for—and the higher
profitability of—improved forestry and logging
practices. The growing demand for meat, wild­
life habitats, recreation, and water, as well as
continued environmental concerns should stim­
ulate the need for more range managers.
However, the employment of soil con­
servationists is expected to change little through
the mid-1990’s since the Federal Government,
the major employer, is not expected to increase
its employment of soil conservationists. Be­
sides job openings created by growth in em­
ployment, many foresters and conservationists
will be needed to replace those who retire,
transfer to other occupations, or die.

Related Occupations

Earnings

For information about career opportunities in
the Federal Government, contact:

Most graduates entering the Federal Govern­
ment as foresters, range managers, or soil con­
servationists in early 1983 with just a bachelor’s
degree started at $13,369 a year, although those
with high grades or a master’s degree could start
at $16,559. In 1982, the average Federal salary
for foresters was about $27,900; for range con­
servationists, about $23,700; and for soil con­
servationists, about $26,000.

Foresters and conservationists are not the only
workers concerned with managing, develop­
ing, and protecting natural resources. Other
workers with similar responsibilities include
agricultural scientists, agricultural engineers,
biological scientists, farmers, farm managers,
ranchers, and wildlife managers.

Sources of Additional Information
General information about the forestry profes­
sion and lists of schools offering education in
forestry are available from:
Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor
Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20814.
American Forestry Association, 1319 18th St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

Information about a career as a range man­
ager as well as a list of schools offering training
is available from:
Society for Range Management, 2760 W. 5th Ave.,
Denver, Colo. 80204.

Bureau of Land Management, Denver Service Cen­
ter, Federal Center Building 50, Denver, Colo.
80225.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, RO.
Box 2417, Washington, D.C. 20013.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation
Service, P.O. Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013.

OTHER NATURAL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICAL RELATED OCCUPATIONS
Definition

Financial analysts

Conduct statistical analyses of information affecting investment
programs of public, industrial and financial institutions and private
individuals.

19,000

Easter than average

Medical scientists

Includes Medical Scientists such as Physicians, Dentists, Public
Health Specialists, Pharmacists and Medical Pathologists who are
concerned with the understanding of human diseases and
improvement of human health, and are engaged in clinical
investigation or other research, production, technical writing, or
related activities.

7,200

Faster than average




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Title

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious
Workers, and Lawyers
Many of the workers described in this section of
the Handbook are concerned with the social
needs of people. For example, clinical psycho­
logists help the mentally or emotionally dis­
turbed adjust to life through behavior modifica­
tion programs and other techniques. Social
workers in a wide range of settings address the
needs of individuals, families, groups, and
communities. Their work may involve any­
thing from helping an elderly person adjust to
life in a nursing home to organizing fund rais­
ing for community social welfare activities.
Recreation workers help people enjoy their
nonworking hours by organizing activities in
camps, community centers, playgrounds, and
other settings. Religious workers counsel peo­
ple in their faith and provide spiritual and moral
leadership within their communities. Lawyers
advise clients of their legal rights and obliga­
tions and suggest particular courses of action in
personal and business matters.
People in these types of jobs must be tactful,
compassionate, and sensitive to the needs of
others. Their manner must inspire trust and
confidence. In fact, religious workers, lawyers,
and others are bound by strict rules of ethics and
may not disclose matters discussed in con­
fidence with clients. Patience also is a vital
personal characteristic as clients often are con­
fused, hesitant, fearful, or angry. They may not
fully understand their circumstances and may
have difficulty expressing themselves.
Other workers described in this section con­
duct basic and applied research in the social
sciences. They deal primarily with data and
things rather than people. They use established
methods to assemble a body of fact and theory
that contributes to human knowledge. Social
scientists investigate all aspects of human so­
ciety—from an anthropologist studying the
origins of the human race or a historian study­
ing an ancient civilization to a political scientist
analyzing the results of presidential elections or
a market research analyst conducting a survey
of consumer preferences. Through their studies
and analyses, social scientists help educators,
government officials, business executives, and
others to address broad social, economic, and
political questions.
The ability to think logically and methodi­
cally and to analyze data is essential to social
science research. Other important personal
characteristics include objectivity, openmin­
dedness, and systematic work habits. Good
oral and written communication skills also are
necessary.
Digitized for 74
FRASER


While training and educational requirements
vary among the occupations in this cluster, ad­
vanced training leading to a doctoral or equiv­
alent professional degree is often necessary for
employment in certain settings and for “profes­
sional” recognition. Even in occupations for
which entry is possible with a bachelor’s de­
gree, for example, advancement prospects may
be quite limited for those without graduate
training. These occupations require more train­
ing than most occupations in the Handbook.
The Handbook statements that follow in­
clude more detailed information on the nature
of the work and training requirements. Infor­
mation on employment, earnings, working
conditions, and job outlook also is presented.

Lawyers
(D.O.T. 110)

Laws affect every aspect of our society. They
regulate the entire spectrum of relationships
among individuals, groups, businesses, and
governments. They define rights as well as re­
strictions, covering such diverse activities as
judging and punishing criminals, granting pat­
ents, drawing up business contracts, paying
taxes, settling labor disputes, constructing
buildings, and administering wills.
Because social needs and attitudes are con­
tinually changing, the legal system that regu­
lates our social, political, and economic rela­
tionships also changes. Lawyers, also called
attorneys, link the legal system and society. To
perform this role, they must understand the
world around them and be sensitive to the nu­
merous aspects of society that the law touches.
They must comprehend not only the words of a
particular statute, but the human circumstances
it addresses as well.
As our laws grow more complex, the work of
lawyers takes on broader significance. Laws
affect our lives in new ways as the legal system
takes on regulatory tasks in areas such as trans­
portation, energy conservation, consumer pro­
tection, and social welfare. Lawyers interpret
these laws, rulings, and regulations for individ­
uals and businesses.

Nature of the Work
In our society, lawyers act as both advocates
and advisors. As advocates, they represent op­
posing parties in criminal and civil trials by
presenting arguments that support each side in a
court of law. As advisors, lawyers counsel their
clients as to their legal rights and obligations

and suggest particular courses of action in busi­
ness and personal matters.
Whether acting as advocates or advisors,
nearly all attorneys have certain activities in
common. Probably the most fundamental ac­
tivities are the interpretation of the law and its
application to a specific situation. This requires
in-depth research into the purposes behind cer­
tain laws and into judicial decisions that have
applied those laws to circumstances similar to
those currently faced by the attorney. Based on
this research, the attorney helps clients decide
what actions would best serve their interests.
Lawyers must deal with people in a
courteous, efficient manner and not disclose
matters discussed in confidence with clients.
Because lawyers hold positions of great respon­
sibility, they must always adhere to strict rules
of ethics.
Finally, most lawyers write reports or briefs
which must communicate clearly and precisely.
The more detailed aspects of a lawyer’s job
depend upon his or her field and position.
While all licensed attorneys are allowed to
represent parties in court, some appear in court
more frequently than others. A few lawyers
specialize in trial work. These lawyers usually
have an exceptional ability to think quickly,
speak with ease and authority, and are thor­
oughly familiar with courtroom strategy. Trial
lawyers still spend considerable time outside
the courtroom conducting research, interview­
ing clients and witnesses, and handling other
details in preparation for trial.
Although most lawyers deal with many dif­
ferent areas of the law, a significant number
concentrate on one branch of law, such as admi­
ralty, probate, or international law. Communi­
cations lawyers, for example, may represent
radio and television stations in their dealings
with the Federal Communications Commis­
sion. They help established stations prepare and
file license renewal applications, employment
reports, and other documents required by the
FCC on a regular basis. They also keep their
clients informed of changes in FCC regula­
tions. Communications lawyers help individu­
als or corporations buy or sell a station or estab­
lish a new one.
Lawyers who represent public utilities be­
fore the Federal Power Commission and other
regulatory agencies handle matters involving
utility rates. They develop strategy, arguments,
and testimony; prepare cases for presentation;
and argue the case. These lawyers also inform
clients about changes in regulations and give
advice about the legality of their actions.

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/75
Still other lawyers advise insurance com­
panies about the legality of insurance transac­
tions. They write insurance policies to conform
with the law and to protect companies from
unwarranted claims. They review claims filed
against insurance companies and represent
companies in court.
Lawyers in private practice may concentrate
on areas such as litigation, wills, trusts, con­
tracts, mortgages, titles, and leases. Some
manage a person’s property as trustee or see that
provisions of a client’s will are carried out as
executor. Others handle only public interest
cases—civil or criminal—which have a poten­
tial impact extending well beyond the individu­
al client. Attorneys hope to use these cases as a
vehicle for legal and social reform.
A single client may employ a lawyer full
time. Often known as house counsel, this law­
yer usually advises a company about legal
questions that arise from business activities.
Such questions might involve patents, govern­
ment regulations, a business contract with an­
other company, or a collective bargaining
agreement with a union.
Attorneys employed at the various levels of
government constitute still another category.
Criminal lawyers may work for a State attorney
general, a prosecutor or public defender, or a
court. At the Federal level, attorneys may in­
vestigate cases for the Department of Justice or
other agencies. Lawyers at every government
level help develop laws and programs, draft
legislation, establish enforcement procedures,
and argue cases.
Other lawyers work for legal aid societies—
private, nonprofit corporations established to
serve poor people in particular areas. These
lawyers generally handle civil rather than crim­
inal cases.
A relatively small number of licensed attor­
neys work in law schools. Most are faculty
members who specialize in one or more sub­
jects, while others serve as administrators.

Some work full time in nonacademic settings
and teach part time. (For additional informa­
tion, see the statement on college and univer­
sity faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Working Conditions
Lawyers do most of their work in offices and
courtrooms. They sometimes meet in clients’
homes or places of business and, when neces­
sary, in hospitals or prisons. They frequently
travel to attend meetings; to gather evidence;
and to appear before courts, legislative bodies,
and other authorities.
Salaried lawyers in government and private
firms generally have structured work sched­
ules. Independent lawyers may work irregular
hours while conducting research, conferring
with clients, or preparing briefs during non­
office hours. Lawyers generally work long
hours and are under particularly heavy pressure
when a case is being tried. Preparation for court
includes keeping abreast of the latest laws and
judicial decisions.
Although work generally is not seasonal, the
work of tax lawyers may be an exception. Since
lawyers in private practice can determine their
own workload, many stay in practice well
beyond the usual retirement age.

Employment
Lawyers held about 465,000 jobs in 1982.
About three-fourths of them practiced privately,
either in law firms or in solo practices. Most of
the remaining lawyers held positions in govern­
ment, primarily at the State and local levels. In
the Federal Government, lawyers are concen­
trated in the Departments of Justice, Treasury,
and Defense, but they work for other Federal
agencies as well. Others are employed as house
counsel by public utilities, transportation firms,
banks, insurance companies, real estate agen­
cies, manufacturing firms, welfare and re­
ligious organizations, and other business firms
and nonprofit organizations. Some salaried
lawyers also have independent practices; others
do legal work part time while in another oc­
cupation.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Lawyers do research on how laws have been
interpreted and applied in the past.



To practice law in the courts of any State, a
person must be admitted to its bar. Applicants
for admission to the bar must pass a written
examination; however, a few States drop this
requirement for graduates of their own law
schools. Lawyers who have been admitted to
the bar in one State occasionally may be admit­
ted in another State without taking an examina­
tion if they meet that State’s standards of good
moral character and have a specified period of
legal experience. Federal courts and agencies
set their own qualifications for those practicing
before them.
To qualify for the bar examination in most
States, an applicant must complete at least 3
years of college and graduate from a law school
approved by the American Bar Association
(ABA) or the proper State authorities. (ABA
approval signifies that the law school meets
certain standards developed by the association

to promote quality legal education. With cer­
tain exceptions, graduates of nonapproved
schools generally are restricted to taking the bar
examination and practicing in the State in
which the school is located.) A few States ac­
cept the study of law in a law office or in
combination with study in a law school; only
California accepts the study of law by corre­
spondence as qualification for taking the bar
exam. Several States require registration and
approval of students by the State Board of Ex­
aminers, either before they enter law school or
during the ehrly years of legal study.
Although there is no nationwide bar exam,
46 States and the District of Columbia partici­
pate in the Multistate Bar Examination (MBE).
The MBE, covering issues of broad interest, is
given in addition to the State bar exam. States
vary in their treatment of MBE scores.
The required college and law school educa­
tion usually takes 7 years of full-time study
after high school—4 years of undergraduate
study followed by 3 years in law school. Al­
though some law schools accept a very small
number of students after 3 years of college,
most require applicants to have a bachelor’s
degree. To meet the needs of students who can
attend only part time, a number of law schools
have night or part-time divisions which usually
require'4 years of study. In 1981, about oneeighth of all graduates of ABA-approved
schools were part-time students.
Preparation for a career as a lawyer really
begins in college. Although there is no recom­
mended “prelaw” major, the choice of an un­
dergraduate program is important. Certain
courses and activities are desirable because they
give the student the skills needed to succeed
both in law school and in the profession. Essen­
tial skills—the ability to write, to read and
analyze, to think logically, and to communicate
verbally—are learned during high school and
college. An undergraduate program that culti­
vates these skills while broadening the student’s
view of the world is best. Majors in the social
sciences, natural sciences, and humanities all
are suitable, although a student should not spe­
cialize too narrowly. Regardless of one’s major,
courses in English, foreign language, public
speaking, government, philosophy, history,
economics, mathematics, and computer sci­
ence, among others, are highly recommended.
Students interested in a particular aspect of
law may find related courses helpful; for exam­
ple, engineering and science courses for the
prospective patent attorney, and accounting for
the future tax lawyer. In addition, typing is
advisable simply for convenience in law
school.
Acceptance by most law schools depends on
the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an ap­
titude for the study of law, usually through good
grades and the Law School Admission Test
(LSAT), administered by the Educational Test­
ing Service. The quality of the applicant’s un­
dergraduate school, any prior work experience,
and sometimes a personal interview are also
taken into consideration. In 1982, the American
Bar Association had approved 173 law schools.
Others were approved by State authorities only.

76/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Competition for admission to law school is
intense. Enrollments rose very rapidly during
the early 1970’s, with applicants far outnumber­
ing available seats. Competition for admission
remains stiff, especially in more prestigious law
schools. Although enrollments are expected to
level off during the 1980’s and early 1990’s,
admission to law school will remain the first of
several hurdles for prospective lawyers.
During the first year or year and a half of law
school, students generally study fundamental
courses such as cdnstitutional law, contracts,
property law, judicial procedures, and legal
writing. In the remaining time, they may elect
specialized courses in fields such as tax, labor,
or corporation law. Practical experience often is
acquired by participation in school-sponsored
legal aid or legal clinic activities, in the school’s
moot court competitions in which students con­
duct appellate arguments, in practice trials un­
der the supervision of experienced lawyers and
judges, and through writing on legal issues for
the school’s law journals.
In 1982, law students in 28 states and the
District of Columbia were required to pass the
Multistate Professional Responsibility Exam­
ination (MPRE), which tests their knowledge of
the ABA codes on professional responsibility
and judicial conduct. The MPRE may be taken
during law school, usually after completing a
course on legal ethics.
A number of law schools have clinical pro­
grams where students gain legal experience
through practice trials and law school projects
under the supervision of practicing lawyers and
law school faculty. Law school clinical pro­
grams might include work in legal aid clinics,
for example, or on the staff of legislative com­
mittees. Part-time or summer clerkships in law
firms, government agencies, and corporate
legal departments also provide experience that
can be extremely valuable later on. Such train­
ing can provide references or lead directly to a
job after graduation, and can help students de­
cide what kind of practice best suits them. Cler­
kships also may be an important source of fi­
nancial aid.

Graduates receive the degree of juris doctor
(J.D.) or bachelor of law (LL.B.) as the first
professional degree. Advanced law degrees are
desirable for those planning to specialize, do
research, or teach. Some law students pursue
joint degree programs, which generally require
an additional year or more. Joint degree pro­
grams are offered in a number of areas, includ­
ing law and business administration and law
and public administration.
After graduation, lawyers must keep in­
formed about legal and nonlegal developments
that affect their practice. An attorney represent­
ing electronics manufacturers, for example,
must follow trade journals and the latest Federal
regulations. Attorneys in the Department of
State must remain well versed in current events
and international law, while divorce lawyers
read about the changing role of the family in
modem society. Many law schools and State
and local bar associations provide continuing
education courses that help lawyers stay abreast
of recent developments.
The practice of law involves a great deal of
responsibility. Persons planning careers in law
should like to work with people and be able to
win the respect and confidence of their clients,
associates, and the public. Integrity and hon­
esty are vital personal qualities. Perseverance
and reasoning ability are essential to analyze
complex cases and reach sound conclusions. At
times, lawyers need creativity when handling
new and unique legal problems.
Most beginning lawyers start in salaried
positions. Newly hired salaried attorneys usu­
ally act as research assistants to experienced
lawyers or judges. After several years of pro­
gressively responsible salaried employment,
many lawyers are admitted to partnership in
their firm, or go into practice for themselves.
Some lawyers, after years of practice, become
judges.
Some persons use their legal training in ad­
ministrative or managerial positions in various
departments of large corporations. A transfer

Law school graduates more than doubled during the 1970’s,
creating keen competition for jobs.
Law degrees (thousands)

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics




from a corporation’s legal department to an­
other department often is viewed as a way to
gain administrative experience and rise in the
ranks of management.

Job Outlook
Despite strong growth in the demand for law­
yers, the sizable number of law school gradu­
ates entering the job market each year has
created keen competition for jobs. Over the last
decade, the number of law school graduates
more than doubled, as shown in the accom­
panying chart. While the number of graduates
is expected to level off through the mid-1990’s,
competition for salaried jobs will remain inten­
se. New graduates, together with qualified law­
yers seeking to transfer from other occupations,
should continue to outnumber salaried open­
ings, particularly in large metropolitan areas.
Employment of lawyers grew very rapidly
during the last decade. Faster-than-average
growth is expected to continue through the
mid-1990’s as increased population and busi­
ness activity help sustain the strong demand for
attorneys. This demand also will be spurred by
growth of legal action in such areas as consum­
er protection, the environment, and safety, and
an anticipated increase in the use of legal serv­
ices by middle-income groups through legal
clinics and prepaid legal service programs. As
during the 1970’s, employment growth will be
concentrated in private salaried jobs. The
number of self-employed lawyers is expected to
grow slowly as it becomes increasingly difficult
to establish a profitable small practice, due to
the growing complexity of law, which encour­
ages specialization, and the cost of maintaining
up-to-date legal research materials.
Turnover of jobs in this occupation is very
low because its members are well paid and
enjoy considerable social status, and a substan­
tial educational investment is required for en­
try. Nevertheless, most job openings will stem
from the need to replace lawyers who transfer to
other occupations, retire, or stop working for
other reasons.
Employers will continue to be selective in
hiring new lawyers. Graduates of prestigious
law schools and those who rank high in their
classes should find salaried positions with law
firms, on the legal staffs of corporations and
government agencies, or as law clerks forjudg­
es. Graduates of less prominent schools and
those with lower scholastic ratings will experi­
ence some difficulty in finding salaried jobs.
Some graduates may be forced to accept posi­
tions for which they are overqualifed or in areas
outside their field of interest. An increasing
proportion will enter fields where legal training
is an asset but not normally a requirement. For
example, banks, insurance firms, real estate
companies, government agencies, and other or­
ganizations seek law graduates to fill many ad­
ministrative, managerial, and business posi­
tions.
Due to the competition for jobs, a law gradu­
ate’s geographic mobility and experience as­
sume greater importance. The willingness to
relocate may be an advantage in getting a job.

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/77
In addition, employers increasingly seek grad­
uates who have advanced law degrees and expe­
rience in a particular field such as tax, patent, or
admiralty law.
Establishing a new practice probably will
continue to be best in small towns and expand­
ing suburban areas, as long as an active market
for legal services already exists. In such com­
munities, competition is likely to be less than in
big cities, and new lawyers may find it easier to
become known to potential clients; also, rent
and other business costs are somewhat lower.
Nevertheless, starting a new practice will re­
main an expensive and risky proposition that
should be weighed carefully. Salaried positions
will continue largely in urban areas where gov­
ernment agencies, law firms, and big corpora­
tions are concentrated.
Some lawyers are adversely affected by
cyclical swings in the economy. During reces­
sions, the demand for some discretionary legal
services, such as planning estates, drafting
wills, and handling real estate transactions, de­
clines. Also, corporations are less likely to liti­
gate cases when declining sales and profits re­
sult in budgetary restrictions. Although few
lawyers actually lose their jobs during these
times, earnings may decline for many. Some
corporations and law firms will not hire new
attorneys until business improves. Several fac­
tors, however, mitigate the overall impact of
recessions on lawyers. During recessions, indi­
viduals and corporations face other legal prob­
lems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and
divorces, that require legal action. Further­
more, the continuous emergence of new laws
and legal interpretations will create new oppor­
tunities for lawyers.




Earnings
In 1982, starting salaries for recent law school
graduates ranged from $10,000 a year in some
small firms to over $40,000 in some larger
ones. Beginning attorneys in private industry
averaged about $28,000 in 1983. In the Federal
Government, annual starting salaries for attor­
neys in 1982 were about $19,700 or $23,800,
depending upon academic and personal
qualifications. Factors affecting the salaries of­
fered to new graduates include: Academic rec­
ord; type, size, and location of employers; and
the desired specialized educational back­
ground. The field of law makes a difference,
too. Patent lawyers, for example, generally are
among the highest paid attorneys.
Salaries of experienced attorneys also vary
widely according to the type, size, and location
of the employers. The average salary of the
most experienced lawyers in private industry in
1983 was nearly $85,000. General attorneys in
the Federal Government averaged around
$39,200 a year in 1982; the relatively small
number of patent attorneys in the Federal Gov­
ernment averaged around $44,900.
Lawyers starting their own practice may
need to work part time in other occupations
during the first years to supplement their in­
come. Lawyers on salary receive increases as
they assume greater responsibility. Incomes of
lawyers in practice usually grow as their prac­
tices develop. Lawyers who are partners in law
firms generally earn more than those who prac­
tice alone.

Related Occupations
Legal training is useful in many other occupa­
tions. Some of these are arbitrators, hearing

examiners, journalists, patent agents, title ex­
aminers, legislative assistants, lobbyists, FBI
special agents, political office holders, and cor­
porate executives.

Sources of Additional Information
Persons considering law as a career will find
information on law schools and prelaw study in
the Prelaw Handbook, published annually by
Law School Admission Services, Box 2000,
Newtown, Pa. 18940. Copies may be available
in public or school libraries. In addition, many
colleges and universities have a prelaw advisor
who counsels undergraduates about their
course work, the LSAT, law school applica­
tions, and other matters.
Information on law schools, financial aid for
law students, and law as a career is available
from:
Information Services, American Bar Association,
1155 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. (There may
be a slight charge for publications.)

For information on the placement of law
graduates and the legal profession in general,
contact:
National Association for Law Placement, Admin­
istrative Office, Joseph Merrick Jones Hall, Tulane
Law School, New Orleans, La. 70118.

Information on legal education is available
from:
Association of American Law Schools, 1 Dupont
Circle NW., Suite 370, Washington, D.C. 20036.

For advice on financial aid, contact a law
school financial aid officer.
The specific requirements for admission to
the bar in a particular State may be obtained at
the State capital from the clerk of the Supreme
Court or the Secretary of the Board of Bar
Examiners.

Social Scientists and Urban Planners
Nature of the Work
Social scientists study all aspects of human
society—from the distribution of products and
services to newly formed religious groups or
plans for modem mass transportation systems.
Social science research provides insights that
help us understand the many different ways in
which individuals and groups make decisions,
exercise power, or respond to change. Through
their studies and analyses, social scientists and
urban planners assist educators, government
officials, business leaders, and others to solve
social, economic, and environmental prob­
lems.
Research is a basic activity for many social
scientists. They use established methods to as­
semble a body of fact and theory that contrib­
utes to human knowledge. Applied research
usually is designed to produce information that
will enable people to make better decisions or
manage their affairs more effectively. Inter­
views and surveys are widely used to collect
facts, opinions, or other information. Data col­
lection takes many other forms, however, in­
cluding living and working among the people
studied; archeological investigations; the anal­
ysis of historical records and documents; ex­
periments with human subjects or lower ani­
mals in a psychological laboratory; and the
administration of standardized tests and ques­
tionnaires.
Regardless of their field of specialization,
social scientists are concerned with some as­
pect of society, culture, or personality.
Anthropologists study the way of life, re­
mains, language, and physical characteristics
of people in all parts of the world; they compare
the customs, values, and social patterns of dif­
ferent cultures. Anthropologists generally con­
centrate in 1 of 4 subfields: Cultural an­
thropology, archeology, linguistics, or physical
anthropology. Most anthropologists specialize
in cultural anthropology, studying the
customs, cultures, and social lives of groups in
a wide range of settings from nonindustrialized
societies to modern urban cultures. Arch­
eologists study cultures from artifacts and other
rem ains in the ground. Linguistic an­
thropologists study the role of language in vari­
ous cultures. Physical anthropologists study
the evolution of the human body and look for
the earliest evidence of human life.
Economists study the way we use our re­
sources to produce goods and services. They
compile and analyze data that explain the costs
and benefits of allocating resources in different
ways. Most economists are concerned with the
practical applications of economic policy in a
particular area, such as finance, labor, agri­
culture, transportation, energy, or health. Oth­
ers develop theories to explain economic prob­
lems such as unemployment or inflation.

78



Geographers study the distribution and loca­ counseling, experimental, social, or industrial
tion of various characteristics of the earth’s sur­ psychology.
Sociologists analyze the behavior of groups
face. Geographers specialize, as a rule. Eco­
nomic geographers deal with the geographic or social systems such as families, neigh­
distribution of an area’s economic activities. borhoods, or clubs. Sociologists may spe­
Political geographers are concerned with the cialize in a particular field such as criminology,
relationship of geography to politics. Physical rural sociology, or medical sociology.
Urban and regional planners develop com­
geographers study the physical characteristics
of the earth. Urban geographers study cities and prehensive plans and programs for the use of
metropolitan areas while regional geographers land for industrial and public sites. Planners
study the physical, climatic, economic, politi­ prepare for situations that are likely to develop
cal, and cultural characteristics of a particular as a result of population growth or social and
region or area, which may range in size from a economic change.
river basin to a State, country, or continent.
Cartographers design and construct maps and Working Conditions
charts. Medical geographers study the effect of Most social scientists have regular hours.
While working alone behind a desk, they read
the environment on health.
Historians describe and analyze past events and write research reports. Many experience
through writing and research. Historians usu­ the pressures of deadlines and tight schedules,
ally specialize in a specific country or geo­ and sometimes must work overtime. Their rou­
graphic region; in a particular time period; or in tine may be interrupted by telephone calls, let­
a particular field, such as social, intellectual, ters to answer, special requests for information,
political, or diplomatic history. Archivists and meetings, or conferences. Travel may be neces­
curators—who work for museums, special li­ sary to collect information or attend meetings.
braries, or historical societies—identify, classi­ Social scientists on foreign assignment must
fy, and preserve historical documents and ar­ adjust to unfamiliar cultures and climates.
Some social scientists do fieldwork. For ex­
tifacts. Biographers collect detailed informa­
tion on individuals. Genealogists trace family ample, anthropologists and archeologists often
histories, and other historians help preserve and must travel to remote areas to live among the
people they study or stay for long periods at the
protect historic buildings and sites.
Market research analysts conduct tele­ site of their excavations.
phone, personal, or mail surveys and other re­
search to determine public preferences for a Employment
wide variety of products and services. They Social scientists held over 200,000 jobs in
sometimes offer samples of a product to find out 1982. They work for a wide range of employers
whether potential customers are pleased with including government agencies; research or­
the design. They analyze the data and sum­ ganizations and consulting firms; labor unions,
marize their results in reports which are used by trade associations, and nonprofit organizations;
business, industry, and government in for­ hospitals and other health facilities; and busi­
ness firms. In addition, many persons with
mulating policy.
Political scientists investigate the ways in graduate training in a social science discipline,
which political power is gained and used. They usually a doctoral degree, are employed by
study a wide range of subjects such as Soviet- colleges and universities where they charac­
American relations, the beliefs and institutions teristically combine teaching with research and
of nations in Asia and Africa, the politics of a consulting. (For more information, see the
New England town or a major metropolis, and Handbook statement on college and university
the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court. faculty.) As a source of employment, the aca­
Studying topics such as public opinion, politi­ demic world is more important for graduates in
cal decisionmaking, and ideology, they analyze sociology or political science than for graduates
the structure and operation of governments as in urban and regional planning or psychology.
well as informal political entities. Depending
on the topic under study, a political scientist Training, Other Qualifications, and
might conduct a public opinion survey, analyze Advancement
election results, or compare the principal fea­ The Ph.D. or equivalent degree is a minimum
requirement for most positions in colleges and
tures of various tax proposals.
Psychologists study human behavior and use universities and is important for advancement
their expertise to counsel or advise individuals to many top-level nonacademic posts. Gradu­
or groups. Their research also assists adver­ ates with master’s degrees have more limited
tisers, politicians, and others interested in influ­ professional opportunities, although the situa­
encing or motivating people. While clinical tion varies a great deal by field. For example,
psychology is the largest specialty, psycholog­ job prospects for master’s degree holders in
ists specialize in many other fields such as urban and regional planning are brighter than

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/79
The number of social science graduates has declined since the
early 1970’s in response to shrinking demand.
Bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor’s degrees in social sciences (thousands)

depending on their college records. Those with
a master’s degree could start at $19,700, and
those having a Ph.D. degree could begin at
$23,800. The average salary of all social scien­
tists working for the Federal Government was
about $34,000.

Related Occupations
A number of fields related to social science are
covered elsewhere in the Handbook. See the
statements on lawyers, statisticians, mathe­
maticians, programmers, systems analysts, re­
porters and correspondents, social workers, re­
ligious workers, college and university faculty,
and vocational and education counselors.

Sources of Additional Information
For general information concerning the social
science occupations, contact:
1970-71 71-72 72-73 73-74 74-75 75-76 76-77 77-78 78-79 79-80 1980-81
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics

for master’s degree holders in sociology. Bach­
elor’s degree holders have even more limited
opportunities and in most social science oc­
cupations do not qualify for “professional”
positions. The bachelor’s degree does,
however, provide a suitable background for
many different kinds of “junior professional”
jobs, such as research assistant, administrative
aide, or management trainee.
Training in statistics and mathematics is es­
sential for most social scientists. Indeed, the
widespread use of mathematical and other
quantitative research methods in economics,
political science, market research, experimen­
tal psychology, and other fields is among the
most important trends in recent times. The abil­
ity to use computers for research purposes is a
“must” in many disciplines.
Depending on their jobs, social scientists and
urban planners may need a wide range of per­
sonal characteristics. Because they constantly
seek new information about people, things, and
ideas, intellectual curiosity and creativity are
two fundamental personal traits. The ability to
think logically and methodically is important to
a political scientist comparing the merits of
various forms of government. The ability to
analyze data is important to an economist
studying proposals to reduce budget deficits in
government. Objectivity, openmindedness,
and systematic work habits are important in all
kinds of social science research. Perseverance
is essential for an anthropologist, who might
spend years accumulating artifacts from an an­
cient civilization. Emotional stability and sen­
sitivity are vital to a clinical psychologist work­
ing with mental patients. And, of course,
written and oral communication skills are es­
sential to all these workers.

Job Outlook
Employment of social scientists is expected to
grow about as fast as the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Most job open­
ings, however, will result from the need to re­
place social scientists who transfer to other



occupations, retire, or stop working for other
reasons.
However, the number of degrees awarded in
the#
social sciences is expected to exceed job
openings and result in competition for jobs.
Prospects are better in some disciplines than in
others. As in the past, top graduates of leading
universities will have a decided advantage in
competing for jobs, especially for the limited
number of academic jobs. Other considerations
that affect employment opportunities in these
occupations include degree level; field of spe­
cialization; specific skills and experience; de­
sired work setting; salary requirements; and
geographic mobility.
The predominance of academic employment
in such disciplines as anthropology, history,
political science, and sociology may cause se­
vere problems for these specialists through the
mid-1990’s as college enrollments decline.
Compared to the past, few academic positions
will be available, and efforts are continuing to
acquaint new graduates in these fields with al­
ternative or nontraditional career opportunities
in areas such as program administration and
evaluation.

Earnings
According to the College Placement Council,
persons with a bachelor’s degree in marketing
and distribution received offers averaging about
$16,000 a year in 1982. Economics majors re­
ceived offers averaging around $18,500, while
other social science majors averaged around
$15,000. Social science majors with a master’s
degree received starting offers that averaged
$18,500.
According to a 1981 National Research
Council survey, the median annual salary of
doctoral historians was about $27,000. Doc­
toral psychologists and other social scientists
earned about $30,900.
In the Federal Government, social scientists
with a bachelor’s degree and no experience
could start at $13,000 or $16,100 a year in 1982,

Consortium of Social Science Occupations, 1733
Massachusetts Ave. NW., Suite 300, Washington,
D.C. 20036.

More detailed information about econo­
mists, psychologists, sociologists, and urban
and regional planners is presented in the Hand­
book statements that follow this introductory
statement.
For information about careers (including op­
portunities for contract work in archeology and
historic preservation and State employment op­
portunities for archeologists), job openings,
grants and fellowships, schools that offer train­
ing in anthropology, and “Getting a Job Outside
the Academy" (special publication no. 14),
contact:
The American Anthropological Association, 1703
New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C.
20009.

Additional information on careers and job
openings for geographers, and on schools offer­
ing various programs in geography may be ob­
tained from:
Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20009.

For additional information on careers in car­
tography, surveying, and geodesy, contact:
American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 210
Little Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046.

For more information on careers and a list of
schools that offer courses in photogrammetry
and satellite data interpretation, contact:
American Society of Photogrammetry, 210 Little
Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046.

Additional information on careers and job
openings for historians and on schools offering
various programs in history is available from:
American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE.,
Washington, D.C. 20003.

For information on careers and schools offer­
ing degree programs and courses in historic
preservation, contact:
National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1785 Mas­
sachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

General information on careers for historians
is available from:

80/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Organization of American Historians, Indiana Uni­
versity, 112 North Bryan St., Bloomington, Ind.
47401.

For additional information on careers for his­
torians, send a self-addressed, stamped envel­
ope to:
American Association for State and Local History,
708 Berry Rd., Nashville, Tenn. 37204.

For information on museum careers and mu­
seum studies programs, contact:
Office of Museum Programs, Arts and Industries
Building, Room 2235, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C. 20560.

For information on training for museum ca­
reers, contact:
American Association of Museums, 1055 Thomas
Jefferson St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20007.

A pamphlet, Careers in Marketing (Mono­
graph Series No. 4), may be obtained from:
American Marketing Association, 250 Wacker St.,
Chicago, 111. 60606.

The American Political Science Association,
1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington,
D.C. 20036 offers two career pamphlets, one
for undergraduates and one for faculty and
graduate students, at $1 each. Also, A Guide to
Graduate Study in Political Science is available
for $7.50 for members and $10 for nonmem­
bers. In addition, a monthly newsletter listing
job openings, primarily academic, is available
to members of the association.
Programs in Public Affairs and Administra­
tion, a directory that contains data on the aca­
demic content of programs, the student body,
the format of instruction, and other informa­
tion, may be purchased for $10 from:
National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and
Administration, 1120 G St. NW., Suite 520, Wash­
ington, D.C. 20005.

Economists
(D.O.T. 050.067-010)

Nature of the Work
Economists study the way a society uses scarce
resources such as land, labor, raw materials,
and machinery to provide goods and services.
They analyze the results of their research to
determine the costs and benefits of making,
distributing, and using resources in a particular
way. Their research might focus on topics such
as energy costs, inflation, business cycles, un­
employment, tax policy, or farm prices.
Some economists who are primarily theoreti­
cians may develop theories through the use of
mathematical models to explain the causes of
inflation. Most economists, however, are con­
cerned with practical applications of economic
policy in a particular area, such as finance,
labor, agriculture, transportation, energy, or
health. They use their understanding of eco­
nomic relationships to advise business firms,
Digitized for insurance companies, banks, securities firms,
FRASER


industry associations, labor unions, govern­
ment, and others.
Depending on the topic under study, econo­
mists may devise methods and procedures for
obtaining data they need. For example, sam­
pling techniques may be used to conduct a
survey, and econometric modeling techniques
may be used to develop projections. Preparing
reports usually is an important part of the econ­
omist’s job. He or she may be called upon to
review and analyze all the relevant data, pre­
pare tables and charts, and write up the results
in clear, concise language.
Being able to present economic and statis­
tical concepts in a meaningful way is par­
ticularly important for economists whose re­
search is policy directed. Economists who
work for business firms may be asked to
provide management with information to make
decisions on marketing and pricing of company
products; to look at the advisability of adding
new lines of merchandise, opening new
branches, or diversifying the company’s opera*tions; to analyze the effect of changes in the tax
laws; or to prepare economic and business fore­
casts. Business economists working for firms
that carry on operations abroad may be asked to
prepare forecasts of foreign economic condi­
tions.
Economists who work for government agen­
cies assess economic conditions in the United
States and abroad and estimate the economic
impact of specific changes in legislation or pub­
lic policy. For example, they may study how
changes in the minimum wage affect teenage
unemployment. Most government economists
are in the fields of agriculture, business, fi­
nance, labor, transportation, urban economics,
or international trade. For example, economists
in the U.S. Department of Commerce study
domestic production, distribution, and con­
sumption of commodities or services; those in
the Federal Trade Commission prepare industry
analyses to assist in enforcing Federal statutes
designed to eliminate unfair, deceptive, or mo­
nopolistic practices in interstate commerce; and
those in the Bureau of Labor Statistics analyze
data on prices, wages, employment, and pro­
ductivity.

Working Conditions
Economics faculty have flexible work sched­
ules, dividing their time among teaching, re­
search, and administrative responsibilities.
Economists working for government agencies
and private firms, on the other hand, have much
more structured work schedules. They may
work alone with only reports, statistical charts,
computers, and calculators for company. Or
they may be an integral part of a research team.
Most work under pressure of deadlines, tight
schedules, and heavy workloads, and some­
times must work overtime. Their routine may
be interrupted by telephone calls, letters, spe­
cial requests for data, meetings, or con­
ferences. Travel may be necessary to collect
data or attend conferences.

Economists review and analyze data in tables
and charts.
Employment
Economists held about 30,000 jobs in 1982.
About one-half of all economists were em­
ployed by government agencies, including a
wide range of Federal agencies. Private indus­
try, particularly manufacturing firms, banks,
insurance companies, securities and invest­
ment companies, economic research firms, and
management consulting firms, employed most
of the rest. Some economists run their own
consulting businesses. A number of economists
combine a full-time job in government or busi­
ness with part-time or consulting work in an­
other setting.
Employment of economists is concentrated
in large cities. The largest numbers are in New
York City and Washington, D.C. Some work
abroad for companies with major international
operations; for the Department of State and
other U.S. Government agencies; and for inter­
national organizations.
Besides the jobs described above, an estimat­
ed 15,000 persons held economics faculty posi­
tions in colleges and universities, according to
data from the National Science Foundation.
(For information about this occupation, see the
statement on college and university faculty
elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Economists must thoroughly understand eco­
nomic theory and mathematical methods of
economic analysis. Since many beginning jobs
in government and business involve the collec­
tion and compilation of data, a thorough knowl­
edge of basic statistical procedures is required.
In addition to courses in macroeconomics, mi­
croeconomics, econometrics, and business and
economic statistics, training in computer sci­
ence is highly recommended.
At the undergraduate level, courses in the
following subjects also are valuable: Business
cycles; economic and business history; eco­
nomic development of selected areas; money

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/81
and banking; international economics; public
finance; industrial organization; labor econom­
ics; comparative economic systems; economics
of national planning; urban economic problems
and policies; marketing; consumer analysis; or­
ganizational behavior; and business law.
A bachelor’s degree with a major in econom­
ics is sufficient for many beginning research,
administrative, management trainee, and busi­
ness sales jobs. However, graduate training in­
creasingly is required for most economist jobs
and for advancement to more responsible posi­
tions. Areas of specialization at the graduate
level include advanced economic theory, com­
parative economic systems and planning, econ­
ometrics, economic development, economic
history, environmental and natural resource
economics, history of economic thought, in­
dustrial organization, institutional economics,
international economics, labor economics,
monetary economics, public finance, regional
and urban economics, and social policy. Stu­
dents should select graduate schools strong in
specialties in which they are interested. Some
schools help graduate students find internships
or part-time employment in government agen­
cies or economic research firms. Work experi­
ence and contacts can be useful in testing career
preferences and learning about the job market
for economists.
In the Federal Government, candidates for
entrance positions generally need a college de­
gree with a minimum of 21 semester hours of
economics and 3 hours of statistics, account­
ing, or calculus. However, because competition
is keen, additional education or experience may
be required.
A master’s degree generally is the minimum
requirement for a job as a college instructor in
many junior colleges and small 4-year schools.
In some colleges and universities, however, a
Ph.D. is necessary for appointment as an in­
structor. The Ph.D. is required for a pro­
fessorship and for tenure, which is becoming
increasingly difficult to obtain.
In government, industry, research organiza­
tions, and consulting firms, economists who
have a graduate degree usually can qualify for
more responsible research and administrative
positions. A Ph.D. is necessary for top posi­
tions in many organizations. Experienced
economists may advance to managerial or ex­
ecutive positions in banks, industrial concerns,
trade associations, and other organizations to
formulate business and administrative policy.
About 1,200 colleges and universities offer
bachelor’s degree programs in economics;
about 200, master’s; and about 130, doctoral
programs.
Persons considering careers as economists
should be able to work accurately with detail
since much time is spent on data analysis. Pa­
tience and persistence are necessary because
economists may spend long hours on indepen­
dent study and problem solving. Sociability
enables economists to work easily with others.
Economists must be objective and systematic in
their work and be able to express themselves
effectively both orally and in writing.



Creativity and intellectual curiosity are essen­
tial to success in this field, just as they are in
other areas of scientific endeavor.

Job Outlook
Employment of economists is expected to grow
about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Most job openings will
result from the need to replace experienced
economists who transfer to other occupations,
retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons.
Overall, economists are likely to have more
favorable job prospects than most other social
scientists. Opportunities should be best in busi­
ness and industry, research organizations, and
consulting firms, reflecting the complexity of
the domestic and international economies and
increased reliance on quantitative methods of
analyzing business trends, forecasting sales,
and planning purchasing and production. Em­
ployers will seek economists well trained in
econometrics and statistics.
The continued need for economic analyses
by lawyers, accountants, engineers, health
service administrators, urban and regional
planners, and others will also increase the
number of jobs for economists. Employment of
economists in the Federal Government is ex­
pected to rise slowly—in line with the rate of
growth projected for the Federal work force as a
whole. Little or no change is expected in the
employment of economists in State and local
government. Since college enrollments are ex­
pected to decline through the mid-1990’s, little
or no employment growth is expected in col­
leges and universities. As a result, many highly
qualified economics graduates will enter nonacademic positions.
Persons who graduate with a bachelor’s de­
gree in economics through the mid-1990’s
should face very keen competition for the lim­
ited number of economist positions for which
they qualify. However, many will find employ­
ment in government, industry, and business as
management or sales trainees, or as research or
administrative assistants. Those with strong
backgrounds in mathematics, statistics, and
computer science may be hired by private firms
for market research work. Candidates who hold
master’s degrees in economics face very strong
competition, particularly for teaching positions
in colleges and universities. However, some
may gain positions in junior and community
colleges. Those with a strong background in
marketing and finance may have the best pros­
pects in business and management consulting
firms. Ph.D.’s are likely to face competition for
academic positions, although top graduates
from leading universities should have little dif­
ficulty in acquiring teaching jobs. However, a
larger number of Ph.D.’s will be forced to ac­
cept jobs at smaller, less prestigious institu­
tions. Ph.D.’s should have favorable oppor­
tunities to work as economists in government,
industry, research organizations, and con­
sulting firms.
Generally, a strong background in economic
theory and econometrics provides the tools for
acquiring any specialty within the field. Those

skilled in quantitative techniques and their ap­
plication to economic modeling and forecast­
ing, including the use of computers, may have
the best job opportunities.

Earnings
According to a 1982 salary survey by the Col­
lege Placement Council, persons with a bach­
elor’s degree in economics received an average
starting salary of $18,500 a year. Median an­
nual earnings of full-time economists were
about $30,200 in 1982. The middle 50 percent
earned between $19,200 and $36,400 annually.
The lowest ten percent earned under $14,400
while the highest 10 percent earned over
$46,800.
The median base salary of business econo­
mists in 1982 was $43,000, according to a sur­
vey by the National Association of Business
Economists. About one-third of those respond­
ing also had income from secondary employ­
ment. Economists in general administration
and international economics commanded the
highest salaries; econometricians and teachers
the lowest. The highest paid business econo­
mists were in the mining, nondurable manufac­
turing, and securities and investment indus­
tries; the lowest paid were in colleges and
universities and in the construction industry.
The Federal Government recognizes educa­
tion and experience in certifying applicants for
entry level positions. In general, the entrance
salary for economists having a bachelor’s de­
gree averaged about $13,000 a year in 1982;
however, those with superior academic records
could begin at about $16,100. Those having a
master’s degree could qualify for positions at an
annual salary of about $19,700, while those
with a Ph.D. could begin at about $23,800.
Economists in the Federal Government aver­
aged around $34,900 a year in 1982.

Related Occupations
Economists are concerned with understanding
and interpreting financial matters, among other
subjects. Others with jobs in this area include
financial analysts, bank officers, accountants
and auditors, underwriters, actuaries, securities
sales workers, appraisers, credit analysts, loan
officers, and budget officers.

Sources of Additional Information
For information on schools offering graduate
training in economics, contact:
American Economic Association, 1313 21st Ave.
South, Nashville, Tenn. 37212.

For additional information on careers in busi­
ness economics, contact:
National Association of Business Economists, 28349
Chagrin Blvd., Suite 201, Cleveland, Ohio 44122.

Psychologists
(D.O.T. 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, and -034)

Nature of the Work
Psychologists study human behavior and men­
tal processes to understand and explain people’s

82/Occupational Outlook Handbook
the arts, history of psychology, psychophar­
macology, and military and rehabilitation psy­
chology.

Nearly half of all doctoral psychologists are clinical specialists.
Percent employed by specialty, 1981

c
Clinical
Experimental
Developmental and gerontological
Industrial and personnel
Social
Counseling and guidance
School
General
Physiological
Educational
Psychometrics
Personality
Comparative
Other

10
I

■ ■ H
U

20
1

30
I

40
1

50

...... . J

~~
~ IH
'~ n
"in
in

1
I
1

■ E l

SOURCE: National Research Council

actions. Some research psychologists investi­
gate the physical, emotional, or social aspects
of human behavior. Other psychologists in ap­
plied fields counsel and conduct training pro­
grams; do market research; or provide health
services in hospitals or clincs.
Like other social scientists, psychologists
collect and test the validity of data and formu­
late hypotheses. Research methods depend on
the topic under study. Psychologists may gather
information through controlled laboratory ex­
periments; performance, aptitude, and intel­
ligence tests; observation, interviews, and
questionnaires; clinical studies; or surveys.
Psychologists usually specialize. Experi­
mental psychologists study behavior processes,
and work with human beings and lower animals
such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons; prominent
areas of experimental research include motiva­
tion, learning and retention, sensory and per­
ceptual processes, and genetic and neurological
factors in behavior. Developmental psycholog­
ists study the patterns and causes of behavioral
change as people progress through life; some
concern themselves with behavior during infan­
cy and childhood, while others study changes
that take place during maturity and old age.
Personality psychologists study human nature,
individual differences, and the ways in which
those differences develop. Social psychologists
examine people’s interactions with others and
with the social environment; prominent areas of
study include group behavior, leadership, at­
titudes, and interpersonal perception. Com­
parative psychologists study the behavior of
different animals, including humans. Phys­
iological psychologists study the relationship of
behavior to the biological functions of the body.
Psychologists in the field of psychometrics de­
velop and apply procedures for measuring psy­
chological variables such as intelligence and
personality.
Clinical psychologists generally work in
hospitals or clinics, or maintain their own prac­
tices. They help the mentally or emotionally




disturbed adjust to life. They interview patients;
give diagnostic tests; provide individual, fam­
ily, and group psychotherapy; and design and
carry through behavior modification programs.
Clinical psychologists may collaborate with
physicians and other specialists in developing
treatment programs. Some clinical psycholog­
ists work in universities where they train gradu­
ate students in the delivery of mental health
services. Others administer community mental
health programs. Counseling psychologists use
several techniques, including interviewing and
testing, to advise people on how to deal with
problems of everyday living—personal, social,
educational, or vocational. Educational psy­
chologists design, develop, and evaluate educa­
tional programs. School psychologists evaluate
students’ needs and problems, facilitate school
adjustment, and help solve learning and social
problems in schools. Industrial and organiza­
tional psychologists apply psychological tech­
niques to personnel administration, manage­
ment, and marketing problems. They are
involved in policy planning, training and de­
velopment, psychological test research, coun­
seling, and organizational development and
analysis, among other activities. For example,
an industrial psychologist may work with man­
agement to develop better training programs
and to reorganize the work setting to improve
worker productivity. Engineering psycholog­
ists, often employed in factories and plants,
develop and improve human/machine systems,
military equipment, and industrial products.
Community psychologists apply psychological
knowledge to problems of urban and rural life.
Consumer psychologists study the psychologi­
cal factors that determine an individual’s be­
havior as a consumer of goods and services.
Health psychologists counsel the public in
health maintenance to help people avoid serious
emotional or physical illness. Other areas of
specialization include environmental psychol­
ogy, population psychology, psychology and

Working Conditions
A psychologist’s specialty and place of employ­
ment determine his or her working conditions.
For example, clinical and counseling psycho­
logists in private practice have pleasant, com­
fortable offices and set their own hours.
However, they often have evening hours to ac­
commodate their clients. Some employed in
hospitals, nursing homes, and other health fa­
cilities often work evenings and weekends,
while others in schools and clinics work regular
hours. Psychologists employed by academic
institutions divide their time among teaching,
research, and administrative responsibilities.
Some maintain part-time clinical practices as
well. In contrast to the many psychologists who
have flexible work schedules, some in govern­
ment and private industry have more structured
schedules. Reading and writing research re­
ports, they often work alone behind a desk.
Many experience the pressures of deadlines,
tight schedules, heavy workloads, and over­
time work. Their routine may be interrupted
frequently. Travel may be required to attend
conferences or conduct research.

Employment
Psychologists held about 83,000 jobs in 1982.
Educational institutions—primarily colleges
and universities—employed about 4 out of 10
psychologists in positions involving counsel­
ing, research, and administration. Hospitals,
clinics, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes,
and other health facilities employed about 3 out
of 10 psychologists; government agencies at the
Federal, State, and local levels, about 2 out of
10. The Veterans Administration, the Depart­
ment of Defense, and the Public Health Service
employ more psychologists than other Federal
agencies. Psychologists also are employed by
research organizations, management con­
sulting firms, market research firms, and other
businesses. After several years of experience,
some enter private practice or set up their own
research or consulting firms.
Besides the jobs described above, an estimat­
ed 24,000 persons held psychology faculty
positions at colleges and universities, accord­
ing to data from the National Science Founda­
tion. For information about this occupation, see
the statement on college and university faculty
elsewhere in the Handbook.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A doctoral degree is often required for employ­
ment as a psychologist, particularly in the aca­
demic world. Understandably, entrants to this
occupation are older, on average, then entrants
to other professional occupations. People with
doctorates in psychology (Ph.D or Psy.D.—
Doctor of Psychology) qualify for a wide range
of responsible research, clinical, and counsel­
ing positions in universities, private industry,
and government.

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/83
People with a master’s degree in psychology
can administer and interpret tests as psycholog­
ical assistants. Under the supervision of psy­
chologists, they can conduct research in labora­
tories, counsel patients, or perform admin­
istrative duties. They may teach in 2-year
colleges, or work as school psychologists or
counselors. (See the Handbook statement on
vocational and education counselors.)
People with a bachelor’s degree in psychol­
ogy are qualified to assist psychologists and
other professionals in community mental health
centers, vocational rehabilitation offices, and
correctional programs; to work as research or
administrative assistants; to take jobs as train­
ees in government or business; or—provided
they meet State certification requirements—to
teach high school. However, without additional
academic training, their advancement oppor­
tunities are limited.
In the Federal Government, candidates hav­
ing at least 24 semester hours in psychology
and one course in statistics qualify for entry
level positions. Competition for these jobs is
keen, however. Clinical psychologists gener­
ally must have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D.
requirements and have served an internship;
vocational and guidance counselors usually
need 2 years of graduate study in counseling
and 1 year of counseling experience.
At least 1 year of full-time graduate study is
needed to earn a master’s degree in psychology.
Requirements usually include practical experi­
ence in an applied setting or a master’s thesis
based on a research project. Three to five years
of graduate work usually are required for a
doctoral degree. The Ph.D. degree culminates
in a dissertation based on original research. The
Psy.D., based on practical work and examina­
tions rather than a dissertation, prepares stu­
dents for clinical and other applied positions. In
clinical or counseling psychology, the require­
ments for the doctoral degree generally include
an additional year or more of internship or su­
pervised experience.
Competition for admission into graduate
programs is keen. Some universities require an
undergraduate major in psychology. Others
prefer only basic psychology with courses in
the biological, physical, and social sciences,
statistics, and mathematics.
Over 1,100 colleges and universities offer a
bachelor’s degree program in psychology;
about 400, a master’s; about 300, a Ph.D.; and
about 10, a Psy.D. In addition, a growing
number of professional schools of psychology
not affiliated with colleges or universities offer
the Psy.D. The American Psychological Asso­
ciation (APA) presently accredits Ph.D. train­
ing programs in clinical, counseling, and
school psychology as well as Psy.D. programs.
In 1983, 129 colleges and universities offered
fully approved programs in clinical psychology
(including 7 Psy.D. programs); 37 in counsel­
ing psychology; and 24 in school psychology
(including 1 Psy.D. program). APA also has
approved about 130 internship facilities for doc­
toral training in clinical and counseling psy­
chology.
Although financial aid is becoming in­
creasingly difficult to obtain, some universities



award fellowships or scholarships, or arrange
for part-time employment. The Veterans Ad­
ministration (VA) offers predoctoral train­
eeships to interns in VA hospitals, clinics, and
related training agencies. The National Science
Foundation, the Department of Health and
Human Services, the Armed Forces, and many
other organizations also provide financial aid.
Psychologists who want to enter independent
practice must meet certification or licensing
requirements. In 1982, all States and the Dis­
trict of Columbia had such requirements. Li­
censing laws vary by State, but generally re­
quire a doctorate in psychology and 2 years of
professional experience. In addition, most
States require that applicants pass a written and
an oral examination. Most State boards admin­
ister a standardized test. Some States certify
those with master’s level training as psycholog­
ical assistants or associates. Some States re­
quire continuing education for relicensure.
Most States require that licensed or certified
psychologists limit their practice to those areas
in which they have developed professional
competence through training and experience.
The American Board of Professional Psy­
chology recognizes professional achievement
by awarding diplomas in clinical, counseling,
industrial and organizational, and school psy­
chology. Candidates generally need a doctorate
in psychology, 5 years of experience, and pro­
fessional endorsements; they also must pass an
examination.

People pursuing a career in psychology must
be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal
effectively with people. Sensitivity, compas­
sion, and the ability to lead and inspire others
are particularly important for clinical work and
counseling. Research psychologists should be
able to do detailed work independently and as
part of a team. Verbal and writing skills are
necessary to communicate research findings.
Patience and perseverance are vital qualities
because results from psychological treatment of
patients or research often are long in coming.

Job Outlook
Employment of psychologists is expected to
increase faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Largely because
of the substantial investment in training re­
quired to enter this specialized field, psycho­
logists have a strong attachment to their oc­
cupation—only a relatively small proportion
leave the profession each year. Nevertheless,
most job openings are expected to result from
replacement needs.
Several factors may help maintain the de­
mand for psychologists: Increased emphasis on
health maintenance rather than treatment of ill­
ness; public concern for the development of
human resources, which may result in more
services for minorities, the elderly, and the
poor; and increased testing and counseling of
children. Government funding of these services
could affect the demand for psychologists.
Some openings are likely to occur as psycho­
logists increasingly study the effects on people

Sensitivity, compassion, and patience are essential qualities for counseling occupations.

84/Occupational Outlook Handbook
form. These groups include families, tribes,
communities, and governments, as well as a
variety of social, religious, political, business,
and other organizations. Sociologists study the
behavior and interaction of groups, trace their
primary activity, 1981
origin and growth, and analyze the influence of
group activities on individual members. Some
sociologists are concerned primarily with the
characteristics of social groups and institutions.
Other
Others are more interested in the ways individu­
als are affected by the groups to which they
belong.
Research/
Fields of specialization for sociologists in­
development/
clude social organization, social stratification
design
and mobility, social psychology, evaluation re­
search, urban sociology, racial and ethnic rela­
tions, political sociology, criminology and de­
viance, and industrial sociology. Other impor­
Management/
administration
tant specialties include medical sociology—the
study of social factors that affect mental and
public health; demography—the study of the
size , characteristics, and movement of popula­
tions; gerontology—the study of the special
problems faced by the growing number of aged
persons in our rapidly changing society; social
an was about $29,000; in State and local gov­ ecology—the study of the effect of the physical
ernment, about $27,900; in hospitals and environment and technology on people; and
clinics, about $30,100; in other nonprofit or­ clinical sociology—intervention in social sys­
ganizations, about $30,500; and in business tems for assessment and change.
and industry, about $40,300. Ph.D. or Psy.D.
Sociological research, like other kinds of so­
psychologists in private practice and in applied cial science research, involves collecting infor­
specialties generally have higher earnings than mation, testing its validity, and analyzing the
other psychologists.
results. Sociologists usually conduct surveys or
The Federal Government recognizes educa­ engage in direct observation to gather the data
tion and experience in certifying applicants for they need. For example, after providing for
entry level positions. In general, the average controlled conditions, a sociologist might test
starting salary for psychologists having a bach­ the effects of different styles of leadership on
elor’s degree was about $13,000 or $16,100 a individuals in a small group. A medical so­
year in 1982; counseling psychologists with a ciologist might study the incidence of lung can­
roaster's degree andTyear of counseling experi­ cer in an area contaminated by industrial pollu­
ence could start at $19.700: clinical psycholog­ tants. Sociological researchers also conduct
ists having a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree andTyear large-scale experiments to test the efficacy of
of internship could start at $23,8007The aver­ different kinds of social programs. They might
age salary for psychologists in the Federal Gov­ test and evaluate particular programs of income
ernment was about $34,900 a year in 1982.
assistance, job training, or remedial education.
Increasingly, sociologists apply statistical and
Related Occupations
Psychologists are trained to evaluate, counsel, computer techniques in their research. The re­
and advise individuals and groups. Others who sults of sociological research aid educators,
do this kind of work are psychiatrists, social lawmakers, administrators, and others inter­
workers, clergy, special education teachers, ested in social problems and social policy. So­
ciologists work closely with members of other
and counselors.
professions including psychologists, physi­
Sources of Additional Information
cians, economists, political scientists, an­
For information on careers, educational re­ thropologists, and social workers.
quirements, and financial assistance, contact:
Some sociologists are primarily admin­
American Psychological Association, Educational
istrators. They apply their professional knowl­
Affairs Office, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C.
edge in areas as diverse as intergroup relations,
20036.
family counseling, public opinion analysis, law
Information on traineeships and fellowships enforcement, education, personnel administra­
also is available from colleges and universities tion, public relations, regional and community
that have graduate departments of psychology. planning, and health services planning. They
may, for example, administer social service
programs in family and child welfare agencies
or develop social policies and programs for
government, community, youth, or religious
organizations.
(D.O.T. 054)
A number of sociologists are employed as
consultants. Using their expertise and research
Nature of the Work
Sociologists study human society and social skills, they advise on such diverse problems as
behavior by examining the groups that people halfway houses and foster care for the mentally

Most doctoral psychologists consult or teach.
Percent employed by

SOURCE: National Research Council

of technological advances in areas such as agri­
culture, energy, the environment, and the con­
servation and use of natural resources. Psycho­
logists also increasingly are involved in pro­
gram evaluation in such fields as health, educa­
tion, military service, law enforcement, and
consumer protection.
Because college enrollments are expected to
decline through the mid-1990’s, little or no em­
ployment growth is expected in colleges and
universities. As a result, there will be keen
competition for academic positions. Although
outstanding Ph.D. holders from leading univer­
sities should have no difficulty in obtaining
teaching jobs at top schools, a larger number of
Ph.D.’s will be forced to take jobs at smaller,
less prestigious institutions. Some may accept
part-time or temporary assignments with little
or no hope of gaining tenure. As a result, many
highly qualified graduates are expected to seek
nonacademic jobs.
Persons holding doctorates from leading uni­
versities in applied areas such as clinical, coun­
seling, health, and industrial or organizational
psychology should have particularly good pros­
pects. Psychologists with extensive training in
quantitative research methods and computer
science will have a competitive edge over appli­
cants without this background.
Persons with only a master’s degree in psy­
chology will probably continue to encounter
severe competition for the limited number of
jobs for which they qualify. Nevertheless, some
may find jobs as counselors in schools or as
psychological assistants in community mental
health centers. Bachelor’s degree holders can
expect very few opportunities in this field, al­
though some may find jobs as assistants in
rehabilitation centers.

Earnings
According to a 1981 survey by the National
Research Council, the median annual salary of
psychologists with a doctoral degree was about
$30,900. In educational institutions, the medi­




Sociologists

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawytr$/85
ill; ways of counseling ex-offenders; and mar­
ket research for advertisers and manufacturers.
Increasingly, sociologists are involved in the
evaluation of social and welfare programs.
Some do technical writing and editing.

Working Conditions
Most sociologists do a lot of desk work, reading
and writing reports on their research. So­
ciology faculty have flexible work schedules,
dividing their time between teaching, research,
consulting, and administrative responsibilities.
Sociologists working in government agencies
and private firms have more structured work
schedules, and many experience the pressures
of deadlines, tight schedules, heavy workloads,
and overtime. Their routine may be interrupted
by numerous telephone calls, letters, requests
for information, and meetings. Travel may be
required to collect data for research projects or
to attend professional conferences. So­
ciologists in private practice may work eve­
nings and weekends to accommodate clients.

Employment
Sociologists held about 6,000 jobs in 1982.
Government agencies employ about 1 out of 3
sociologists to deal with such subjects as pover­
ty, crime, public assistance, population policy,
social rehabilitation, community development,
mental health, racial and ethnic relations, and
environmental impact studies. Sociologists in
the Federal Government work primarily for the
Departments of Health and Human Services,
Interior, Agriculture, and Defense. Some de­
mographers work for international organiza­
tions such as the World Bank, the United Na­
tions, and the World Health Organization.
Some sociologists hold managerial, research,
and planning positions in hospitals, corpora­
tions, research firms, professional and trade
associations, consulting firms, and welfare or
other nonprofit organizations. Some so­
ciologists have private practices in counseling,
research, or consulting.

Sociologists collaborate with others on research.



Besides the jobs described above, about
15,000 persons held sociology faculty positions
in colleges and universities, according to data
from the National Science Foundation. For
more information about this occupation, see the
statement on college and university faculty
elsewhere in the Handbook.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
The Ph.D. degree is required for appointment
to permanent teaching and research positions in
colleges and universities and is essential for
many senior level positions in research in­
stitutes, consulting firms, corporations, and
government agencies. As the academic job
market gets tighter through the mid-1990’s, a
Ph.D. will be required increasingly for vir­
tually all professional sociologist positions.
Sociologists with m aster’s degrees can
qualify for administrative and research posi­
tions in public agencies and private businesses,
provided they have sufficient training in re­
search, statistical, and computer methods.
However, advancement opportunities generally
are more limited for master’s degree holders
than for Ph.D.’s. Sociologists with master’s de­
grees may qualify for teaching positions in
junior colleges and for some college instructorships.
Bachelor’s degree holders in sociology may
get jobs as interviewers or as administrative or
research assistants. Many work as social work­
ers, counselors, or recreation workers in public
and private welfare agencies. Sociology majors
who have sufficient training in statistical and
survey methods may qualify for positions as
junior analysts or statisticians in business or
research firms or government agencies.
About 150 colleges and universities offer
doctoral degree programs in sociology; most of
these also offer a master’s degree. In 170
schools, the master’s is the highest degree of­
fered, and about 900 schools have bachelor’s
degree programs. Sociology departments offer
a wide variety of courses including sociological
theory, social statistics and quantitative meth­
ods, crime and deviance, dynamics of social
interaction, sex roles, population, social strat­
ification, social control, small group analysis,
urban sociology, social organizations, and so­
ciology of religion, law, the arts, war, politics,
education, work and occupations, and mental
health.
Some departments of sociology have highly
structured programs, while others are relatively
unstructured and leave course selection largely
up to the individual student. Departments have
different requirements regarding foreign lan­
guage skills, courses in statistics, internships,
and completion of a thesis for the master’s de­
gree.
In the Federal Government, candidates gen­
erally need a college degree with 24 semester
hours in sociology, including course work in
theory and methods of social research.
However, since competition for the limited
number of positions is so keen, advanced study
in the field is highly recommended.
The choice of a graduate school is important
for people who want to become sociologists.

Students should select schools that have a d e­
quate research facilities and offer appropriate
areas of specialization such as theory, demogra­
phy, clinical sociology, or quantitative meth­
ods. Opportunities to gain practical ex p erien ce
also may be available, and sociology depart­
ments frequently help place students in busi­
ness firms and government agencies.
The ability to handle independent research is
important for sociologists. Intellectual curi­
osity is an essential trait; researchers must have
inquiring minds and a desire to find explana­
tions for the phenomena they observe. Like
other social scientists, sociologists must be ofe?
jective in gathering information about sopj|l
institutions and behavior; they need analytical
skills in order to organize data effectively qp4
reach valid conclusions; and they mqst be cafe­
ful and systematic in their work. Because com­
municating their findings to other people i$
such an important part of the job, sociology
must be able to formulate the results of tt^jf
work in a way that others will understand- The
ability to speak well and to write clearly au4
concisely is a “must” in this field.

Job Outlook
Employment of sociologists is expected to in­
crease about as fast as the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. However,
most openings are expected to result from the
need to replace sociologists who transfer to
other occupations, retire, or leave the labor
force for other reasons. Increased demand for
sociologists is likely to arise from the need to
evaluate and administer programs designed to
cope with social and welfare problems.
The number of persons who graduate with
advanced degrees in sociology through the
mid-1990’s is likely to greatly exceed the avail­
able job openings. Graduates with a Ph.D. face
increasing competition, particularly for aca­
demic positions, although those with degrees
from the most outstanding institutions may
have an advantage in securing teaching jobs.
An increasing proportion of Ph.D.’s are ex­
pected to enter nonacademic careers. Some
may take research and administrative positions
in government, research organizations, and
business firms. Those well trained in quan­
titative research methods, including survey
techniques, advanced statistics, and computer
science, will have the widest choice of jobs. For
example, private firms that contract with the
government to evaluate social programs and
conduct other research increasingly seek so­
ciologists with strong quantitative skills. De­
mand is expected to be strong for those with
training in applied areas such as clinical so­
ciology, criminology, deviant behavior, medi­
cal sociology, social gerontology, and demog­
raphy. For example, additional demographers
may be sought to help businesses plan market­
ing and advertising programs and to help de­
veloping countries prepare population projec­
tions and formulate long-range public planning
programs. Additional gerontologists may be
needed to help formulate programs for our ex­
panding elderly population. Sociologists with
training in other applied disciplines, such as

86/Occupational Outlook Handbook
public policy, public administration, and busi­
ness administration, will be attractive to em­
ployers seeking managerial and administrative
personnel.
Persons with a master’s degree will continue
to face very strong competition for academic
positions, although some may find jobs in
junior and community colleges. They also will
face strong competition for the limited number
of nonacademic sociologist positions open to
them. Some may find research and admin­
istrative jobs in research firms, business, and
government. For example, sociologists with
backgrounds in business and quantitative re­
search methods may find opportunities in mar­
ket research firms.
Bachelor’s degree holders will find few op­
portunities for jobs as professional so­
ciologists. As in the past, many graduates will
take positions as trainees and assistants in busi­
ness, industry, and government. As with ad­
vanced degree holders, training in quantitative
research methods provides these graduates with
the most marketable skills. Some may find
positions in social welfare agencies. For those
planning careers in law, journalism, business,
social work, recreation, counseling, and other
related disciplines, sociology provides an ex­
cellent background. Some who meet State cer­
tification requirements may enter high school
teaching.

Earnings
According to a 1981 survey by the National
Research Council, the median annual salary of
all doctoral social scientists (including so­
ciologists) was $30,900. For those in educa­
tional institutions, it was $29,800; in State and
local government, $29,200; in nonprofit organ­
izations, $30,400; and in business and industry,
$38,900.
The Federal Government recognizes educa­
tion and experience in certifying applicants for
entry level positions. In general, the average
entrance salary for sociologists with a bach­
elor’s degree was about $13,000 or $16,100 a
year in 1982, depending upon the applicant’s
academic record. The starting salary for those
with a master’s degree was about $19,700 a
year, and for those with a P h.D ., about
$23,800. Sociologists in the Federal Govern­
ment averaged around $30,000 a year in 1982.
In general, sociologists with the Ph.D. de­
gree earn substantially higher salaries than
those without the doctoral degree. Some so­
ciologists supplement their regular salaries
with earnings from other sources, such as con­
sulting or counseling work.

Related Occupations
Sociologists are not the only people whose jobs
require an understanding of social processes
and institutions. Others whose work demands
such expertise include anthropologists, econo­
mists, geographers, historians, political scien­
tists, psychologists, urban and regional plan­
ners, market research analysts, reporters and
correspondents, and social workers.




Sources of Additional Information
Additional information on careers, and gradu­
ate departments of sociology is available from:
The American Sociological Association, 1722 N St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

For information about careers in demogra­
phy, contact:
Population Association of America, 806 15th St.
NW., Suite 640, Washington, D.C. 20005.

For information on careers in clinical so­
ciology, contact:
Clinical Sociology Association, c/o Jonathan Freed­
man, President, Hutchings Psychiatric Center, P.O.
Box 27, Syracuse, N.Y. 13210.

Urban and Regional
Planners
(D.O.T. 188.167-110 and 199.167-014)

Nature of the Work
Urban and regional planners, often called com­
munity or city planners, develop programs to
provide for future growth and revitalization of
urban, suburban, and rural communities. They
help local officials make decisions on social,
economic, and environmental problems.
Planners examine community facilities such
as health clinics and schools to be sure these
facilities can meet the demands placed upon
them. They also keep abreast of the legal issues
involved in community development or re­
development and changes in housing and build­
ing codes. Because suburban growth has in­
creased the need for better ways of traveling to
the urban center, the planner’s job often in­
cludes designing new transportation systems
and parking facilities.
Urban and regional planners prepare for sit­
uations that are likely to develop as a result of
population growth or social and economic
change. They estimate, for example, the com­
munity’s long-range needs for housing, trans­
portation, and business and industrial sites.
Working within a framework set by the com­
munity government, they analyze and propose
alternative ways to achieve more efficient and
attractive urban areas.
Before preparing plans for long-range com­
munity development, urban and regional plan­
ners prepare detailed studies that show the cur­
rent use of land for residential, business, and
community purposes. These reports include
such information as the location of streets,
highways, water and sewer lines, schools, li­
braries, and recreational sites. They also
provide information on the types of industries
in the community, characteristics of the popula­
tion, and employment and economic trends.
With this information, urban and regional plan­
ners propose ways of using undeveloped land
and design the layout of recommended build­
ings and other facilities such as subway sta­
tions. They also prepare materials that show
how their programs can be carried out and what
they will cost.

Urban and regional planners often confer
with land developers, civic leaders, and other
public planning officials. They may prepare
materials for community relations programs,
speak at civic meetings, and appear before leg­
islative committees to explain their proposals.
In large organizations, planners usually spe­
cialize in areas such as physical design, com­
munity relations, and the renovation or recon­
struction of rundown business districts. In
small organizations, planners must be able to
do several kinds of work.

Working Conditions
Urban and regional planners spend most of their
time in offices. To be familiar with areas that
they are developing, however, they occasion­
ally spend time outdoors examining the features
of the land under consideration for develop­
ment, its current use, and the types of structures
existing on it. Although most planners have a
scheduled 40-hour workweek, they sometimes
must attend evening or weekend meetings or
public hearings with citizens’ groups.

Employment
Urban and regional planners held about 21,000
jobs in 1982. Local government planning agen­
cies—city, county, or regional—employ about
7 out of 10. An increasing proportion of public
agency plannners work in small jurisdictions
with populations under 50,000. State and
Federal agencies that deal with housing, trans­
portation, or environmental protection employ
most of the rest.
Many planners do consulting work, either
part time in addition to a regular job, or full
time for a firm that provides services to private
developers or government agencies. Some
planners work for large land developers or re­
search organizations.

Urban and regional planners map current and
proposed land uses.

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/87
Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Employers often seek workers who have ad­
vanced training in urban or regional planning.
Most entry jobs in Federal, State, and local
government agencies require 2 years of gradu­
ate study in urban or regional planning, or the
equivalent in work experience. Although the
master’s degree in planning is the usual require­
ment at the entry level, some people who have a
bachelor’s degree in city planning, architec­
ture, or engineering may qualify for beginning
positions.
In 1982, about 80 colleges and universities
offered a master’s degree in urban or regional
planning. Although students holding a bach­
elor’s degree in architecture or engineering may
earn a master’s degree after 1 year, most gradu­
ate programs in planning require 2 or 3 years.
Graduate students spend considerable time in
workshops or laboratory courses learning to
analyze and solve urban and regional planning
problems and often are required to work in a
planning office part time or during the summer.
Candidates for jobs in Federal, State, and
local government agencies usually must pass
civil service examinations to become eligible
for appointment.
Planners must be able to think in terms of
spatial relationships and visualize the effects of
their plans and designs. They should be flexible
and able to reconcile different viewpoints to
make constructive policy recommendations.
After a few years’ experience, urban and
regional planners may advance to assignments
requiring a high degree of independent judg­
ment such as designing the physical layout of a
large development or recommending policy,
program, and budget options. Some are pro­
moted to jobs as planning directors and spend a
great deal of time meeting with officials in other
organizations, speaking to civic groups, and




supervising other professionals. Advancement
beyond planning director is difficult and often
occurs only through a transfer to a large city
with more complex problems and greater re­
sponsibilities.

Job Outlook
Employment of urban and regional planners is
expected to grow more slowly than the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. De­
mand will be spurred by the importance of
environmental, economic, and energy plan­
ning; interest in zoning and land-use planning
in undeveloped and nonmetropolitan areas, in­
cluding coastal areas; the need to replace old
public facilities such as bridges, highways, and
sewers; and expected population growth in sub­
urban locations and in the South and West.
However, slow growth in local government
spending through the mid-1990’s is expected to
limit growth of urban planner jobs. Understan­
dably, most jobs will arise from the need to
replace experienced planners who transfer to
other occupations, retire, or leave the labor
force for other reasons.
In recent years, qualified applicants have ex­
ceeded openings in urban or regional planning,
and the situation is expected to persist unless
fewer degrees are awarded. As a result, some
persons trained as planners may have to accept
jobs in other areas of public policy and admin­
istration. An increasing proportion of urban
planners are expected to find jobs in the private
sector.
Graduates of prestigious academic institu­
tions should have the best job prospects. Urban
and regional planning graduates who have spe­
cialized in economic development, land-use
planning, transportation systems, or health sys­
tems may be in particular demand. With in­
creasing competition, geographic mobility and

the willingness to work in small towns or rural
areas are important for many jobseekers.

Earnings
According to a 1981 survey by the American
Planning Association, urban and regional plan­
ners earned a median annual salary of about
$26,000. The median annual salary of planners
in city, county, and other local governments
was $24,600; in State governments, $25,300;
in private consulting firms, $30,000; in busi­
ness, $33,000; and in nonprofit foundations,
$24,000. For planners with over 10 years’ expe­
rience, county and joint city/county agencies
paid about $30,000 annually while private busi­
nesses and consulting firms paid about
$40,000. Directors of public planning agencies
earned from $1,300 to $2,100 more than staff
members at comparable levels of experience.
Planners with a master’s degree were hired
by the Federal Government at a starting average
salary of $19,700 a year in 1982. In some cases,
persons having less than 2 years of graduate
work could enter Federal service as interns at
yearly salaries of about $13,000 or $16,100.
Salaries of urban and regional planners em­
ployed by the Federal Government averaged
$34,000 a year in 1982.

Related Occupations
Urban and regional planners develop plans for
the orderly growth of urban and rural commu­
nities. Others whose work is related to the work
of planners include architects, city managers,
and planning engineers.

Sources of Additional Information
Additional information on careers and salaries
in urban and regional planning, a list of schools
offering training, and job referrals are available
from:
American Planning Association, 1776 Massachusetts
Ave. NW.. Washington, D.C. 20036.

Social and Recreation Workers
Those considering a career in social work or
recreation should be “people-oriented,” for
helping people is what the work is all about.
Social workers and recreation workers use a
variety of techniques to help people cope with
crises or live fuller lives.
Social workers assist individuals and fam­
ilies whose lives are being tom apart by pover­
ty, alcoholism, drug abuse, behavior problems,
or illness. They find families to adopt or
provide foster care for children whose parents
are unable to take care of them; see that needy
families are able to give their children proper
food, health care, and schooling; and step in
when there is evidence of parental neglect or
abuse. School social workers help students who
have severe personal or family problems.
Group workers give guidance and support so
that young people will develop into responsible
adults. Some social workers do corrections
work, by counseling juvenile delinquents and
serving as probation officers or parole officers.
Medical social workers counsel hospital pa­
tients and advise, the family—perhaps suggest­
ing arrangements for home care after the pa­
tient leaves the hospital. Psychiatric social
workers, usually employed in hospitals,
clinics, or mental health centers, help patients
respond to their treatment and serve as a link
with the family and the community at large.
Growing attention is being given within the
profession to directing and influencing social
change. Social planners work with health,
housing, transportation, and other planners to
suggest ways of making communities more
wholesome places in which to live. Social
workers use various forms of direct action to
help people deal with some of the basic forces
that shape their lives. They may, for example,
do research to identify community needs; draft
legislation; or comment on government pro­
posals in areas such as housing, health, and
social and welfare services. Or they may help
organizations in the community work for social
betterment.
Recreation workers, too, help individuals
and groups in a number of different ways. They
develop and supervise activity programs for
children, teenagers, and adults. Some spe­
cialize in therapeutic recreation, and plan and
coordinate activities for people who are hand­
icapped, emotionally disturbed, or chronically
ill. Recreation workers often operate on a team
basis with other professionals including
therapists, nurses, physicians, social workers,
counselors, and educators.
People enter professional positions in social
work and recreation from a variety of back­
grounds. To a certain extent, an applicant’s for­
mal education determines the amount of re­
sponsibility given and advancement oppor­
tunities. An MSW (master’s in social work) is

88




preferred or required for many social work
positions, while a college degree with a major
in recreation is increasingly important for those
aspiring to a career in recreation or leisure serv­
ices. In both fields, however, training is offered
at the associate, bachelor’s, master’s, and
Ph.D. levels. Ordinarily, a candidate with an
associate degree would be offered a job as an
activity leader or casework aide, while some­
one with a Ph.D. would be considered for a
position in teaching, research, or administra­
tion. But the job market does not always oper­
ate as predictably as this; actual hiring deci­
sions vary from time to time and place to place.
Experience, or academic training in a related
field, may be the decisive consideration.
New graduates are likely to experience com­
petition for jobs through the mid-1990’s.
However, the job market will be more crowded
in some fields of specialization and some parts
of the country than in others. More detailed
information about job outlook appears in the
statements that follow.

Social Workers
(D.O.T. 195.107-010 through -046, .137-010, .164-010,
.167-010, -014, -030, and -034, .267-014, and .367-018)

Nature of the Work
Social workers are community troubleshooters.
Through direct counseling, referral to other
services, or policymaking and advocacy, they
help individuals, families, and groups cope
with their problems. Those in the area of plan­
ning and policy help people understand how
social systems operate and propose ways of
bringing about needed change in institutions
such as health services, housing, or education.
Among the major helping professions, social
work is distinguished by a tradition of concern
for the poor and the disadvantaged.
The nature of the problem and the time and
resources available determine which of several
social work methods—casework, group work,
or community organization—will be used.
When necessary, the social worker refers cli­
ents to other professional or community re­
sources. Using their training in human be­
havior, personality theory, and social group
relations, for example, social workers might
identify the need for assistance of children,
teenagers, young adults, or older persons in
places such as community centers, schools,
hospitals, nursing homes, and correctional in­
stitutions. Social workers work in conjunction
with or coordinate the efforts of civic, re­
ligious, business, and union organizations to
combat social problems through community
programs. For a neighborhood or larger area.

they may help plan and develop health, hous­
ing, welfare, and recreation services. Social
workers often coordinate existing services,
organize fundraising for community social wel­
fare activities, and aid in developing new com­
munity services.
Social workers who specialize in family
services counsel individuals, work to strength­
en personal and family relationships, and help
clients cope with problems. They provide infor­
mation and referral services in many areas—
family budgeting and money management, lo­
cating housing, homemaker assistance for the
elderly, job training, and day care for children
of working parents.
Social workers who specialize in child wel­
fare seek to improve the well-being of children
and youth. They may advise parents on child
care and child rearing, counsel children and
youth with social adjustment difficulties, and
arrange homemaker services during a parent’s
illness. Social workers may institute legal ac­
tion to protect neglected or abused children,
help unmarried parents, and counsel couples
about adoption. After proper evaluation and
home visits, they may place children for adop­
tion, in foster homes, or institutions. If children
have serious problems in school, child welfare
workers may consult with parents, teachers,
counselors, and others to identify the underly­
ing problems.
Medical social workers and psychiatric so­
cial workers are trained to help patients and
their families with problems that may accom­
pany illness or inhibit recovery and rehabilita­
tion. They work in hospitals, clinics, health
maintenance organizations, nursing homes, re­
habilitation centers, and offices of physicians.
Hospital social workers may work with patients
or with families of patients suffering from emo­
tionally devastating illnesses. While discharge
planning remains an important area of practice
for hospital social workers, other roles are
evolving. In some hospitals, social workers un­
dertake primary care functions in departments
of pediatrics or obstetrics. They are involved in
health screening and health education, collabo­
rate with community agencies to coordinate
care, coordinate employee assistance pro­
grams, and serve as outpost workers to com­
munity agencies and groups of physicians.
Many social workers are in the mental health
field. (See chart.) Much effort has gone into
developing community based facilities to re­
duce the need for hospital care, and quite a few
of these jobs are in community mental health
centers, outpatient psychiatric clinics, or pri­
vate practice settings. Still, there are a number
of jobs for social workers who specialize in
mental health in hospitals—in psychiatric hos­
pitals in particular.

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/89

Mental health is an important social work specialty.

Percent employed by field of practice,

1982

0
Mental health
Children and youth services
Medical/health services
Family services
Services to aged
School social work
Developmentally disabled
Alcohol and substance abuse
Corrections and criminal justice
Community organization and planning
All other

5

10

15

20

25

30

I
------ 1
------ 1
------ 1
------ 1
' - ........„........ 3,1

i

;............ ........)

i rm
i

□
□
........... .,„j

SO URCE: National Association of Social Workers

A growing number of social workers spe­
cialize in the field of aging. They plan and
evaluate services for the elderly, and help older
persons and their families deal with difficulties
brought about by diminished capacities and
changed circumstances. In nursing homes, for
example, they help patients and their families
adjust to the need for long-term institutional
care.
Other social workers specialize in correc­
tions. Correctional treatment specialists pro­
vide direct services for inmates of penal or
correctional institutions, while probation and
parole officers help offenders who are eligible
for parole readjust to society. They counsel on
the social problems that arise on returning to
family and community life, and also may help
secure necessary education, training, employ­
ment, or community services.

percent of the members of the National Asso­
ciation of Social Workers (NASW) engaged in
private practice on either a part-time or full­
time basis.
Although employment is concentrated in ur­
ban areas, many social workers work with rural
families. A small number of social workers—
employed by the Federal Government and the
United Nations or one of its affiliated agen­
cies—serve in other parts of the world.

health agencies; and other human service agen­
cies.
Social workers practice in a variety of set­
tings. Some are employed in business and in­
dustry, as “industrial” or “occupational” social
workers. They generally are located in the per­
sonnel department or health unit, and support
employee welfare through counseling, educa­
tional programs, and referral to community
agencies. Industrial social workers might, for
example, counsel employees about emotional
problems, alcoholism, or drug abuse.
A small but growing number of social work­
ers are in private practice. In 1982, more than 11

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A bachelor’s degree is the minimum require­
ment for most professional positions in this
field. Besides the bachelor’s in social work
(BSW), undergraduate,majors in psychology,
sociology, and related fields satisfy hiring re­
quirements in many social service agencies. A
master’s degree in social work (MSW) is gener­
ally required for positions in the mental health
field and is almost always necessary for super­
visory, administrative, or research positions. A
doctorate in social work usually is required for
teaching and is desirable for some research and
administrative jobs.
In 1983, there were 335 accredited BSW
programs and 88 MSW programs. BSW pro­
grams prepare graduates for direct service posi­
tions such as caseworker or group worker.
Classroom instruction is offered in social work
practice, social welfare policies, human be­
havior and the social environment, and social
research methods. All accredited programs re­
quire supervised field experience.
An MSW degree is preferred for some entry
level positions and is a decided asset for ad­
vancement to a supervisory position. In agen­
cies facing a flood of job applicants, the MSW

Working Conditions
Most social workers have a 5-day, 35- to 40hour week. However, many, particularly in pri­
vate agencies, work part time. Many work eve­
nings and weekends to meet with clients, attend
community meetings, and handle emergency
situations. Compensatory time generally is
granted for overtime. Because social workers
often must visit clients or attend meetings,
some travel may be necessary.

Employment
Social workers held 345,000 jobs in 1982.
More than half of these jobs were in State,
county, or municipal government agencies; rel­
atively few were in the Federal Government.
Social workers in the public sector are em­
ployed primarily in departments of human re­
sources, social services, mental health, health,
housing, education, and corrections. Those in
the private sector work for voluntary nonprofit
agencies; community and religious organiza­
tions; hospitals, nursing homes, and home



A master’s degree (MSW) is often required for a job in medical social work.

90/Occupational Outlook Handbook
may be essential. Two years of specialized
study, including a period of supervised field
instruction, or internship, are required to earn a
master’s degree in social work. Field placement
affords an opportunity to test one’s suitability
for social work practice. At the same time, the
student may develop expertise in a specialized
area and make personal contacts that later are
helpful in securing a permanent job. Previous
training in social work is not required for entry
into a graduate program, but courses such as
psychology, sociology, economics, political
science, history, social anthropology, and ur­
ban studies, as well as social work, are recom­
mended. Some graduate schools offer acceler­
ated MSW programs for qualified applicants.
A limited number of scholarships and fel­
lowships are available for graduate education.
A few social welfare agencies grant workers
“educational leave” to obtain graduate educa­
tion.
Career advancement usually takes the form
of promotion to supervisor, administrator, or
director, although some social workers go into
advanced clinical or direct practice, teaching,
research, or consulting. Like other admin­
istrators, directors of social service agencies
hire, train, and supervise staff, develop and
evaluate agency programs, make budget deci­
sions, solicit funds, and represent the agency in
public.
In addition to experience, which is essential,
advancement in the social service field often
requires an advanced degree. More than 40
schools of social work offer post-master’s pro­
grams, most of which lead to a doctoral degree.
Increasingly, social workers seeking to broaden
their career options are pursuing graduate stud­
ies in related fields including human services
administration, public administration, business
administration, health services administration,
education, and law. A number of graduate pro­
grams have developed joint degree programs in
social work and another discipline.

In 1982, 28 States had licensing or registra­
tion laws regarding social work practice and the
use of professional titles. Voluntary certifica­
tion is offered by the National Association of
Social Workers (NASW), which awards the ti­
tle ACSW (Academy of Certified Social Work­
ers) to those who qualify. For clinical social
workers, professional credentials include list­
ing in the NASW Register of Clinical Social
Workers or in the Registry of Health Care
Providers in Clinical Social Work.
Social workers should be emotionally matu­
re, objective, and sensitive, and should possess
a basic concern for people and their problems.
They must be able to handle responsibility,
work independently, and maintain good work­
ing relationships with clients and coworkers.
Volunteer, part-time, or summer work as a so­
cial work aide offer ways of testing one’s inter­
est in pursuing a career in this field.

Job Outlook
Employment of social workers is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s, reflecting
public and private response to the social service
needs of a growing and aging population. The
need to replace social workers who leave the
occupation or stop working is expected to be the
principal source of jobs, however.
Expansion of social services is likely to occur
in hospitals, nursing homes, hospices, re­
habilitation programs, and home health agen­
cies; in community-based programs for the
aging; and in the area of personal, family, and
career counseling. Relatively high levels of un­
employment coupled with problems caused by
social change are expected to sustain a strong
need for personnel in the social service field.
Social workers will also be needed to work with
professionals in other fields, including housing,
transportation, criminal justice, and public ad­
ministration.

Following a period of rapid growth, the number of degrees awarded
in social work has leveled off.
Degrees in social work (thousands)

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics




Opportunities for social workers in private
practice will continue to depend on public ac­
ceptance of their role as independent practi­
tioners; on the reimbursement issue (reimbur­
sement for clinical social work services by
health insurance or other third-party payers is
not widespread); and on competition from other
mental health providers—clinical psycholog­
ists, counselors, family therapists, and others.
Job prospects for social workers vary a great
deal. Opportunities depend to some extent
upon academic credentials—whether or not an
applicant has formal social work training, and
preferably an MSW—but geographic location
is probably the most important consideration.
Competition is keen in cities where training
programs for social workers abound. This com­
petition is certain to intensify if social service
programs are cut back in response to budget
pressures on State and local governments. At
the same time, population growth in the Sunbelt
States is spurring expansion of social service
programs there, and some isolated rural areas
find it difficult to attract and retain qualified
staff.
Trends in enrollment in social work educa­
tion will affect future job prospects for social
workers. Enrollments rose sharply in the early
1970’s, nearly doubling between 1970 and
1975. (See chart.) The number of social work
degrees awarded each year has begun to stablize
since the mid-1970’s, but a number of factors
point to a decline during the 1980’s and 1990’s.
Most important is the impending decrease in
the college-age population, projected to decline
by more than 20 percent between 1982 and
1995.
If fewer people prepare for social work ca­
reers while demand continues to grow, condi­
tions in the now-crowded job market are likely
to improve. Job search problems of MSW’s
should abate and prospects for BSW’s probably
will improve. Very strong competition will
continue, however, for the substantial number
of associate and bachelor’s degree holders seek­
ing entry level human service jobs that do not
require formal preparation in social work.
Earnings
Salaries for social workers at all levels vary
greatly by type of agency (private or public;
Federal, State, or local) and geographic region,
but generally are highest in large cities and in
States with sizable urban populations. Private
practitioners, administrators, teachers, and re­
searchers often earn considerably more than
other types of social workers.
Average starting salaries for social case­
workers (positions requiring a BSW) in State
and local governments averaged about $14,300
in 1982, according to a survey conducted by the
International Personnel Management Associa­
tion; for social service supervisors, the average
starting salary was $18,100.
The average annual starting salary for social
workers (positions requiring an MSW and 1
year of related experience) in hospitals and
medical centers was about $18,100 in 1982,

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/91
according to a survey conducted by the Univer­
sity of Texas Medical Branch. Top salaries for
experienced social workers in these settings
averaged $23,800.
In the Federal Government, social workers
with an MSW started at $20,256 in 1982; aver­
age earnings for social workers in the Federal
service were $28,300. Graduates with a Ph.D.
or job experience may start at a higher salary.
Most social workers in the Federal Government
are employed by the Veterans Administration
and the Departments of Health and Human
Services, Education, Justice, and Interior.

Related Occupations
Through direct counseling or referral to other
services, social workers help people solve a
range of personal problems. Workers in oc­
cupations with similar duties include: The cler­
gy, counselors, counseling psychologists, and
vocational rehabilitation counselors.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about career opportunities in
social work, contact:
National Association of Social Workers, 7981 East­
ern Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910.

The Council on Social Work Education pub­
lishes an annual Directory of Accredited BSW
Programs and Directory of Accredited MSW
Programs, which may be purchased for $2.00
each, postpaid. These and other publications
are available from:
Council on Social Work Education, 1744 R St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

Recreation Workers
(D.O.T. 159.124-010; 187.137-010; 195.167-018, .227-010
and -014, .367-030; and 352.167-010)

recreation such as swimming, hiking, and
horseback riding as well as outdoor education.
They also provide campers with specialized
instruction in a particular area such as music,
drama, gymnastics, tennis, or computers. In
resident camps, the staff must insure that the
campers have adequate living conditions.
Recreation personnel in industry organize
and direct leisure activities and athletic pro­
grams such as bowling and softball leagues,
social functions, and exercise and fitness pro­
grams.
Therapeutic recreation (also known as recre­
ation therapy) is a small but growing specialty
designed to help individuals recover or adjust to
illness, disability, or specific social problems.
A clinical specialty within recreation, thera­
peutic recreation is a form of individualized
medical treatment, similar to physical therapy
or occupational therapy. It is carried out in
hospitals and nursing homes, for the most part,
under the supervision of a physician.
Recreation workers occupy a variety of posi­
tions at different levels of responsibility. Recre­
ation leaders provide face-to-face leadership
and are responsible for a recreation program’s
daily operation. They may give instruction in
crafts, games, and sports, keep records, and
maintain recreation facilities. Recreation lead­
ers who give instruction in specialties such as
art, music, drama, swimming, or tennis are
called activity specialists. They often conduct
classes and coach teams in the activity in which
they specialize. A camp counselor, who is gen­
erally a recreation leader, may also be an ac­
tivity specialist. Recreation leaders usually
work under a supervisor.
Recreation supervisors plan programs to
meet the needs of the population they serve;
supervise recreation leaders, sometimes over
an entire region; and direct specialized ac­
tivities.

Recreation administrators or directors man­
age recreation programs. They have overall re­
sponsibility for program planning, budget, and
personnel.

Working Conditions
While the average week for recreation workers
is 35-40 hours, people entering this field should
expect some night work and irregular hours.
Workers often spend much time outdoors.
Because recreation workers are employed
wherever there are people who have leisure
time, the distribution of employment follows
overall population patterns; most jobs are in the
urban and suburban areas where the majority of
Americans live. However, jobs in camping are
found mostly in the less populated areas of the
country because of the outdoor nature and ori­
entation of camping programs. Some camp
workers receive room and board as part of their
compensation.

Employment
Recreation workers held about 124,000 jobs in
1982. (This estimate does not include many
summer workers.) About 40 percent of the jobs
were in Federal, State, or local government
agencies, primarily in park and recreation de­
partments at the municipal and county levels,
and in State park systems. The Federal Govern­
ment employs recreation specialists, sports
specialists, outdoor recreation planners, and
recreation assistants and aides for programs run
by the Veterans Administration and the Depart­
ments of Defense and Interior.
Nearly 25 percent of the jobs were in mem­
bership organizations with a civic, social, fra­
ternal, or religious orientation—the Boy
Scouts, Girl Scouts, and Red Cross, for exam­
ple. Not quite 15 percent were in programs ran
by social service organizations (senior centers
and adult day care programs, for example) or in

Nature of the Work
As leisure time in our lives increases, oppor­
tunities for organized recreation become more
important. Recreation workers plan, organize,
and direct activities that help people enjoy and
benefit from leisure hours. These workers hold
a wide range of jobs, which bring them in
contact with people of all ages, socioeconomic
levels, and degrees of emotional and physical
health.
Recreation programs, whether institu­
tionally or community based, are as diverse as
the people they serve. Employment settings
range from pristine wilderness areas to health
clubs in suburban shopping malls. At local
playgrounds and community centers, for exam­
ple, recreation personnel organize and conduct
a variety of leisure activities, including arts,
crafts, fitness, and sports. Other employment
settings include parks, camps, campgrounds,
and recreational areas; schools, churches, and
synagogues; retirement communities, nursing
homes, senior centers, and adult day care pro­
grams; and correctional institutions.
Under a camp director, counselors lead and
instruct campers in nature-oriented forms of



Teaching swimming is part of this recreation worker’s job.

92/Occupational Outlook Handbook
residential care facilities such as halfway
houses, group homes, and institutions for de­
linquent youth.
About 10 percent of the jobs were in hospi­
tals, nursing homes, and other health care facil­
ities, and most of the remainder were in private
and commercial recreation—including amuse­
ment parks, sports and entertainment centers,
wilderness and survival enterprises, tourist at­
tractions, vacation excursions, hotels and other
resorts, camps, health spas, athletic clubs,
apartment complexes, and other settings.
The recreation field is characterized by an
unusually large number of part-time, seasonal,
and volunteer jobs. Some volunteers serve on
local park and recreation boards and commis­
sions. The vast majority, however, serve as vol­
unteer activity leaders at local playgrounds, or
in youth organizations, camps, nursing homes,
hospitals, senior centers, and other settings.
Volunteer experience and part-time work dur­
ing school may lead to a full-time job. The
largest number of paid employees in the recrea­
tion field are part-time or seasonal workers.
Typical jobs include summer camp counselors
and playground leaders, lifeguards, craft spe­
cialists, and after-school and weekend recrea­
tion program leaders. Many jobs are filled by
reachers and college students.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Educational requirements for jobs in this field
vary a great deal. Many applicants for full-time
career positions are college graduates with ma­
jors in recreation, leisure studies, or physical
education, but a bachelor’s degree in any liberal
arts field may be appropriate. Some jobs re­
quire specialized training in a particular field,
such as art, music, drama, or athletics.
A college degree is not always necessary.
Some recreation positions are filled by high
school graduates, while others are filled by
graduates of associate degree programs in parks
and recreation, social work, and other human
service technologies. A number of jobs in this
field are held by college students who work
part-time while earning a degree.
Most supervisors have a bachelor’s degree
plus experience. Persons with academic prepa­
ration in parks and recreation management, lei­
sure studies, physical education, fitness man­
agement, and related fields generally have bet­
ter prospects for career advancement, although
this varies from one employer to another.
A bachelor’s degree and experience are con­
sidered minimum requirements for admin­
istrators. However, increasing numbers are ob­
taining master’s degrees in parks and recreation
as well as in related disciplines. Many persons
in other disciplines, including social work, for­
estry, and resource management, pursue gradu­
ate degrees in recreation.
In industrial recreation, companies seeking
recreation directors prefer applicants with a
bachelor’s degree in recreation and a strong
background in business administration. While a
bachelor’s degree in recreation or education is
generally the minimum requirement camp di­
rector, a master’s degree is often preferred.




In 1982, about 200 community and junior
colleges offered associate degree park and rec­
reation programs, and 300 colleges and univer­
sities offered programs leading to a bachelor’s,
master’s, or Ph.D. degree. Approximately 150
schools offered programs in therapeutic recrea­
tion; while some of these lead to an associate
degree, most are at the bachelors or masters
levels.
The National Recreation and Park Associa­
tion (NRPA) accredits 34 park and recreation
curriculums at the bachelor’s degree level. Ac­
credited programs provide broad exposure to
the history, theory, and philosophy of park and
recreation management. Courses are offered in
community organization; supervision and ad­
ministration; recreational needs of special pop­
ulations such as the elderly or handicapped; and
supervised fieldwork. Students have an oppor­
tunity to specialize in areas such as therapeutic
recreation, park management, outdoor recrea­
tion, industrial or commercial recreation, and
camp management.
The American Camping Association has de­
veloped a curriculum for camp director educa­
tion in colleges and universities. Many national
youth associations offer training courses for
camp directors at the local and regional levels.
Persons planning recreation careers must be
good at motivating people and sensitive to their
needs. Good health and physical stamina are
required. Activity planning calls for creativity
and resourcefulness. Willingness to accept re­
sponsibility and the ability to exercise judg­
ment are important qualities since recreation
personnel often work alone. To increase their
leadership skills and understanding of people,
students are advised to obtain related work ex­
perience in high school and college. Such expe­
rience may help students decide whether their
interests really point to a human service career.
Students also should talk to local park and rec­
reation professionals, school guidance coun­
selors, and others.
Professional credentials for this field are of­
fered by the National Recreation and Park As­
sociation (NRPA), the American Camping As­
sociation, the American Health Care Associa­
tion, and the National Council for Therapeutic
Recreation Certification. Over 30 States have
adopted NRPA standards for park/recreation
technicians and park/recreation professionals.
The American Camping Association certifies
individuals who meet their standards of profes­
sional competence. The American Health Care
Association maintains a registry of activity co­
ordinators who meet its standards. Finally, the
National Council for Therapeutic Recreation
Certification awards certification to recreation
therapist who meet its standards.
Neither registration nor certification is usu­
ally required for employment or advancement
in this field, although there are exceptions. In
the case of therapeutic recreation, for example,
hiring in long-term care facilities that accept
Medicare and Medicaid patients is subject to
Federal standards governing the qualifications
of members of the facility’s activity staff.
Therapeutic recreation specialists certified by

the National Council for Therapeutic Recrea­
tion Certification or registered with the Amer­
ican Health Care Association satisfy the
Federal requirement for the position of activity
coordinator. Local job market conditions play a
role, too. Employers faced with an abundance
of qualified applicants are likely to give prefer­
ence to those with professional credentials in
therapeutic recreation. Two States—Utah and
Georgia—license therapeutic recreation work­
ers.

Job Outlook
Employment of recreation workers is expected
to grow about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s as people
have more leisure time; as more older people
use senior centers and nursing homes; and as
additional recreation sites are constructed.
Most job openings, however, will result from
replacement needs.
The outlook for recreation workers depends
to a large extent on local government funding.
Budget constraints are likely to continue, al­
though priorities as well as resources for public
services vary from one community to another.
Park and recreation programs often are among
the first to be cut when budget problems arise.
Camping, however, is supported primarily by
the private sector—profit-making firms as well
as voluntary agencies run camps—and there­
fore is not as vulnerable to budget cuts as pub­
licly funded recreation programs.
Because the field is open to all college gradu­
ates regardless of major, the number of appli­
cants for full-time positions in recreation great­
ly exceeds the number of job openings. Keen
competition for jobs is expected to continue.
Individuals with recreation experience, and
those with formal training in related fields, are
expected to have the best opportunities for staff
positions. Those with graduate degrees should
have the best opportunities for supervisory or
administrative positions.
Commercial recreation is expected to offer
more favorable opportunities than either the
public or voluntary sectors. Hiring practices in
commercial recreation vary a great deal,
however, and employers’ preference for appli­
cants with formal training in recreation, phys­
ical education, and related fields has not been
clearly established.
Opportunities for therapeutic recreation
workers are likely to be good through the
mid-1990’s, in line with the anticipated demand
for additional rehabilitation services for a grow­
ing and aging population. The expanding sup­
ply of people with the requisite credentials may
lead to competition, however. (People with for­
mal training in special education and occupa­
tional therapy may qualify for jobs as
therapeutic recreation workers.) Therapeutic
recreation workers have been successful in
finding jobs working with the disabled elderly
in both institutional and community-based set­
tings.
The overall market for recreation and activity
jobs in the field of aging is likely to remain
competitive, however. This reflects differences
in the supply of qualified applicants. While
employers tend to seek individuals with formal

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/93
training in therapy when staffing programs for
severely disabled older persons, they appar­
ently feel that people from a variety of back­
grounds can function effectively with the “well
elderly.” This greatly increases the amount of
competition for jobs in senior centers, retire­
ment communities and local parks and recrea­
tion department programs for the elderly. Ac­
tivities programs in nursing homes, too, attract
an abundance of jobseekers.

Earnings
According to a 1982 survey by the International
Personnel Management Association, States
paid recreation program leaders with a bach­
elor’s degree an average beginning salary of
about $13,000; experienced workers, about
$18,100. Municipalities paid program leaders
an average beginning salary of about $13,700;
experienced workers, about $17,200.
According to the American Camping Asso­
ciation, the average salary for camp directors
was about $1600 a month in public camps in
1982. Salaries for camp directors in private
camps were somewhat higher.




The average annual starting salary for recrea­
tion therapists in hospitals and medical centers
was about $15,700 in 1982, according to a sur­
vey conducted by the University of Texas Medi­
cal Branch. Top salaries for experienced recrea­
tion therapists in these settings averaged
$19,600, and some were as high as $29,800.
Most public and private recreation agencies
provide vacation and other fringe benefits such
as sick leave and hospital insurance.

Related Occupations
Recreation workers must exhibit leadership and
sensitivity in dealing with people. Other oc­
cupations that require similar personal qualities
include social workers, parole officers, human
relations counselors, school counselors,
clinical and counseling psychologists, and
teachers.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about careers in recreation or in
recreation therapy is available from:
National Recreation and Park Association, Division
of Professional Services, 3101 Park Center Dr., Alex­
andria, Va. 22302.

The 1981 edition of NRPA’s Directory cf Col­
lege! University Programs in Recreation, Lei­
sure Services and Resources may be purchased
for $5.00 plus postage and handling. Career
information is also available from:
American Association for Leisure and Recreation,
1900 Association Dr., Reston, Va. 22091.

The 1983 edition of AALR’s Directory of
Professional Preparation in Parks and Recrea­
tion may be purchased for $8.50 plus postage
and handling.
For information on careers in industrial rec­
reation, contact:
National Employee Services and Recreation Associa­
tion, 2400 South Downing St., Westchester, 111.
60153.

For information on careers in camping and
job referrals, send request and postpaid return
envelope to:
American Camping Association, Bradford Woods,
Martinsville, Ind. 46151.

For information about a career as an activity
coordinator in a nursing home, or for informa­
tion about registration by the AHCA Section of
Activity Coordinators, contact:
American Health Care Association, 1200 15th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

Religious Workers
Most religious workers are members of the cler­ obtained directly from leaders of the respective
gy. A career in the clergy requires different groups.
considerations from those in other career fields.
Persons entering the ministry, priesthood, or
rabbinate should do so primarily because they
possess a strong religious faith and a desire to
help others. Nevertheless, knowledge about the
profession, how to prepare for it, and the kind (D.O.T. 120.007-010)
of life it offers are important.
The number of clergy needed depends Nature of the Work
largely on the number of people who participate Protestant ministers lead their congregations in
in organized religious groups. This affects the worship services and administer the various
number of churches and synagogues estab­ rites of the church, such as baptism, con­
lished and pulpits to be filled. In addition to the firmation, and Holy Communion. They prepare
clergy who serve congregations, many others and deliver sermons and give religious instruc­
teach or act as administrators in seminaries and tion. They also perform marriages; conduct fu­
in other educational institutions; still others ser­ nerals; counsel individuals who seek guidance;
ve as chaplains in the Armed Forces, industry, visit the sick, aged, and handicapped at home
correctional institutions, hospitals, or on col­ and in the hospital; comfort the bereaved; and
lege campuses; some serve as missionaries or serve church members in other ways. Many
work in social welfare agencies.
Protestant ministers write articles for publica­
Persons considering a career in the clergy tion, give speeches, and engage in interfaith,
should seek the counsel of a religious leader of community, civic, educational, and recrea­
their faith to aid in evaluating their qualifica­ tional activities sponsored by or related to the
tions. Most important are a deep religious be­ interests of the church. Some ministers teach in
lief and a desire to serve the spiritual needs of seminaries, colleges, and universities.
others. Priests, ministers, and rabbis also are
The services that ministers conduct differ
expected to be models of moral and ethical among Protestant denominations and also
conduct. A person considering one of these among congregations within a denomination.
fields must realize that the civic, social, and In many denominations, ministers follow a tra­
recreational activities of a member of the clergy ditional order of worship; in others, they adapt
often are influenced and restricted by the the services to the needs of youth and other
customs and attitudes of the community.
groups within the congregation. Most services
The clergy should be sensitive to the needs of include Bible reading, hymn singing, prayers,
others and able to help people deal with these
needs. The job demands an ability to speak and
write effectively, to organize, and to supervise
others. The person entering this field also must
enjoy studying, because the occupation re­
quires continuous learning and demands con­
siderable initiative and self-discipline.
In addition to the clergy, some lay people are
religious workers. Many coordinate the ac­
tivities of various denominational groups to
meet the religious needs of students or direct
religious school programs designed to promote
religious education among members of their
faith. Like members of the clergy, they some­
times provide counseling and guidance on mar­
ital, health, financial, and religious problems.
Lay people are expected to play an increasingly
important role in nonliturgical functions.
Education and training requirements as well
as job prospects for the clergy vary widely
among faiths and even among branches within
some faiths. A detailed discussion of training
requirements, job prospects, and other infor­
mation on the clergy in the three largest faiths in
the United States—Protestant, Roman Cath­
olic, and Jewish—is presented in the following
statements. Information on the clergy in other
faiths and on lay religious workers may be

Protestant Ministers

94



and a sermon. In some denominations, Bible
reading by a member of the congregation and
individual testimonials may constitute a large
part of the service.
Ministers serving small congregations gener­
ally work personally with parishioners. Those
serving large congregations have greater ad­
ministrative responsibilities and spend consid­
erable time working with committees, church
officers, and staff, besides other duties. They
may share specific aspects of the ministry with
one or more associates or assistants, such as a
minister of education who assists in educational
programs for different age groups, or a minister
of music.

Working Conditions
Ministers are “on call” for any serious troubles
or emergencies that involve or affect members
of their churches. They also may work long and
irregular hours in administrative, educational,
and community service activities.
Many of the ministers’ duties are sedentary,
such as reading or doing research in a study or a
library to prepare sermons or write articles.
In some denominations, ministers are reas­
signed by a central body to a new pastorate
every few years.

Employment
In 1982, an estimated 243,000 Protestant minis­
ters served individual congregations. Some
also worked in closely related fields such as
chaplains in hospitals and the Armed Forces.

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Reiigious Workers, and Lawyers/95
Most ministers are employed by the five largest
Protestant churches—Baptist, M ethodist,
Lutheran, Presbyterian, and Pentecostal.
All cities and most towns in the United States
have at least one Protestant church with a full­
time minister. Some churches employ part-time
ministers who are seminary students, retired
ministers, or holders of secular jobs. Although
most ministers are located in urban areas, many
serve two or more congregations in less densely
populated areas.

Training and Other Qualifications
Educational requirements for entry into the
Protestant ministry vary greatly. Some de­
nominations have no formal educational re­
quirements, and others ordain persons having
various types of training in Bible colleges, Bi­
ble institutes, or liberal arts colleges.
In 1982, about 140 American Protestant theo­
logical institutes were accredited by the Asso­
ciation of Theological Schools in the United
States and Canada. These admit only students
who have received a bachelor’s degree or its
equivalent with a liberal arts major from an
accredited college. Many denominations re­
quire a 3-year course of professional study in
one of these accredited schools or seminaries
after college graduation for the degree of master
of divinity.
Recommended preseminary or undergradu­
ate college courses include English, history,
philosophy, natural sciences, social sciences,
fine arts, music, religion, and foreign lan­
guages. These courses provide a knowledge of
modem social, cultural, and scientific institu­
tions and problems. However, students consid­
ering theological study should contact, at the
earliest possible date, their denominations and
the schools to which they intend to apply, to
learn how to prepare for the program they hope
to enter.
The standard curriculum for accredited theo­
logical schools consists of four major catego­
ries: Biblical, historical, theological, and prac­
tical. Courses of a practical nature include
pastoral care, preaching, religious education,
and administration. Many accredited schools
require that students work under the supervi­
sion of a faculty member or experienced minis­
ter. Some institutions offer doctor of ministry
degrees to students who have completed addi­
tional study, usually two or more years, and
served at least two years as a minister. Schol­
arships and loans are available for students of
theological institutions.
In general, each large denomination has its
own school or schools of theology that reflect
its particular doctrine, interests, and needs.
However, many of these schools are open to
students from other denominations. Several in­
terdenominational schools associated with uni­
versities give both undergraduate and graduate
training covering a wide range of theological
points of view.
Persons who have denominational qualifica­
tions for the ministry usually are ordained after
graduation from a seminary or after serving a
probationary pastoral period. Denominations
that do not require seminary training ordain
clergy at various appointed times. For example,



the Evangelical minister may be ordained with
only a high school education.
Men and women entering the clergy often
begin their careers as pastors of small con­
gregations or as assistant pastors in large
churches.

Job Outlook
The anticipated slow growth in church mem­
bership combined with pressures of rising costs
and inadequate financial support are expected
to result in only limited growth in the need for
ministers through the mid-1990’s. The number
of persons being ordained has been increasing,
and this trend is likely to continue. As a result,
new graduates of theological schools are ex­
pected to face increasing competition in finding
positions and more experienced ministers will
face competition in moving to large con­
gregations with greater responsibility. The sup­
ply-demand situation will vary among de­
nominations, with more favorable prospects for
ministers in Evangelical churches. Ministers
willing to work in rural areas also should have
relatively favorable opportunities. Most of the
openings for ministers through the mid-1990’s
will arise from the need to replace those who
retire, die, or leave the ministry for other rea­
sons.
Employment alternatives for newly ordained
Protestant ministers who are unable to find
positions in parishes include working in youth
counseling, family relations, and welfare or­
ganizations; teaching in religious educational
institutions; and serving as chaplains in the
Armed Forces, hospitals, universities, and cor­
rectional institutions.

Earnings
Salaries of Protestant clergy vary substantially,
depending on age, experience, denomination,
size and wealth of congregation, and geograph­
ic location. Based on limited information, the
estimated average annual income of Protestant
ministers was about $16,500 in 1982. Fringe
benefits, such as housing and transportation,
may add as much as 25 percent to a minister’s
annual salary.

Related Occupations
Protestant ministers advise and counsel indi­
viduals and groups regarding their religious as
well as personal, social, and vocational de­
velopment. Other occupations involved in this
type of work include social workers, clinical
and counseling psychologists, teachers, and
counselors.

National Council of Churches, Professional Church
Leadership, 475 Riverside Dr., New York, N.Y.
10027.

Rabbis
(D.O.T. 120.007-010)

Nature of the Work
Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their con­
gregations, and teachers and interpreters of
Jewish law and tradition. They conduct re­
ligious services and deliver sermons on the
Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Like other
clergy, rabbis conduct weddings and funeral
services, visit the sick, help the poor, comfort
the bereaved, supervise religious education
programs, engage in interfaith activities, and
involve themselves in community affairs.
Rabbis serving large congregations may
spend considerable time in administrative du­
ties, working with their staffs and committees.
Large congregations frequently have an associ­
ate or assistant rabbi. Many assistant rabbis
serve as educational directors.
Rabbis serve either Orthodox, Conservative,
Reform, or Reconstructionist congregations.
Regardless of their particular point of view, all
Jewish congregations preserve the substance of
Jewish religious worship. Congregations differ
in the extent to which they follow the traditional
form of worship—for example, in the wearing
of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the
language of prayer, or the use of music or a
choir. The format of the worship service and,
therefore, the ritual that the rabbis use may vary
even among congregations belonging to the
same branch of Judaism.
Rabbis also may write for religious and lay
publications, and teach in theological semin­
aries, colleges, and universities.

Working Conditions
Rabbis work long hours and are “on call” to
visit the sick, comfort the bereaved, and coun­
sel those who need it. Community and educa­
tional activities may also require long or irreg­
ular hours.
Some of their duties are intellectual and sed­
entary, such as studying religious texts and re­
searching and writing sermons and articles for
publication.
Rabbis have a good deal of independent au­
thority, since they have no formal hierarchy.
They are responsible only to the Board of Trust­
ees of the congregations they serve.

Sources of Additional Information
Persons who are interested in entering the Prot­
estant ministry should seek the counsel of a
minister or church guidance worker. Each theo­
logical school can supply information on ad­
mission requirements. Prospective ministers
also should contact the ordination supervision
body of their particular denomination for infor­
mation on special requirements for ordination.
Occupational information about the Protes­
tant ministry can also be obtained from:

Employment
In 1982, there were an estimated 6,500 practic­
ing rabbis. Of these, approximately 1,500
Orthodox, 800 Conservative, 700 Reform, and
60 Reconstructionist rabbis had synagogues.
Most of the rest taught in Jewish Studies pro­
grams at colleges and universities. Others
worked as chaplains in the military services, in
hospitals and other institutions, or in one of the
many Jewish community service agencies.

96/Occupational Outlook Handbook
seminary get extensive practical training in
dealing with social and political problems in the
community. Training for alternatives to the
pulpit, such as leadership in community serv­
ices and religious education, increasingly is
stressed.
Some seminaries grant advanced academic
degrees in fields such as Biblical and Talmudic
research. All Jewish theological seminaries
make scholarships and loans available. Newly
ordained rabbis usually begin as leaders of
small congregations, assistants to experienced
rabbis, directors of Hillel Foundations on col­
lege campuses, teachers in seminaries and
other educational institutions, or chaplains in
the Armed Forces. As a rule, experienced rab­
bis fill the pulpits of large and well-established
Jewish congregations.

Job Outlook

Counseling is an integral part of a rabbi’s duties.
Although rabbis serve Jewish communities
throughout the Nation, they are concentrated in
major metropolitan areas that have large Jewish
populations.

Training and Other Qualifications
To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a
student must complete a course of study in a
seminary. Entrance requirements and the cur­
riculum depend upon the branch of Judaism
with which the seminary is associated.
About 30 seminaries train Orthodox rabbis.
The Rabbi Issac Elchanan Theological Semin­
ary and the Beth Medrash Govoha Seminary
are representative of Orthodox seminaries. The
former requires a bachelor’s degree for entry
and has a formal 3-year ordination program.
The latter has no formal admission require­
ments but may require more years of study for
ordination. The training is rigorous. When stu­
dents have become sufficiently learned in the
Talmud, the Bible, and other religious studies,
they may be ordained with the approval of an
authorized rabbi, acting either independently or
as a representative of a rabbinical seminary.
The Jewish Theological Seminary of Amer­
ica trains rabbis for the Conservative branch.
The Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute
of Religion trains rabbis for the Reform branch.
Both seminaries require the completion of a 4-




year college course, as well as earlier prepara­
tion in Jewish studies, for admission to the
rabbinical program leading to ordination. A
student with a strong background in Jewish
studies can complete the course at the Con­
servative seminary in 4 years; for other enrollees, the course may take as long as 6 years.
Normally 5 years of study are required to com­
plete the rabbinical course at the Reform semin­
ary, including 1 year of preparatory study in
Jerusalem. Exceptionally well-prepared stu­
dents can shorten this 5-year period to a mini­
mum of 3 years.
The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College
trains rabbis in the newest branch of Judaism. A
bachelor’s degree is required for admission.
The rabbinical program is based on a 5-year
course of study which emphasizes, in each year,
a period in the history of Jewish civilization. In
addition, students are required to earn a mas­
ter’s degree in a related field at an area univer­
sity. Graduates are awarded the title “Rabbi”
and, with special study, can earn the Doctor of
Hebrew Letters degree.
In general, the curriculums of Jewish theo­
logical seminaries provide students with a com­
prehensive knowledge of the Bible, Talmud,
Rabbinic literature, Jewish history, theology,
and courses in education, pastoral psychology,
and public speaking. Students of the Reform

The job outlook for rabbis varies among the
four major branches of Judaism.
Orthodox clergy currently face keen compe­
tition because the number of graduates from
Orthodox seminaries is increasing at a more
rapid pace than the number of pulpits.
Rabbis in the Conservative and Reform
branches are expected to have good employ­
ment opportunities if present trends continue.
Their seminaries balance supply and demand
by limiting enrollments.
Reconstructionist rabbis also are expected to
have good employment opportunities. Mem­
bership is expanding rapidly and demand is
expected to exceed supply.
Newly ordained rabbis who do not have a
pulpit may work for a Jewish social service
agency, teach in a religious educational institu­
tion, or serve as chaplain in the Armed Forces
or in hospitals, universities, or correctional in­
stitutions.

Earnings
Income varies, depending on the size and finan­
cial status of the congregation, as well as its
denominational branch and geographic loca­
tion. Rabbis usually earn additional income
from gifts or fees for officiating at ceremonies
such as weddings.
Based on limited information, annual earn­
ings of rabbis generally ranged from $20,000 to
$50,000 in 1982, including fringe benefits.

Related Occupations
Rabbis advise and counsel individuals and
groups regarding their religious as well as per­
sonal, social, and vocational development.
Other occupations involved in this type of work
include social workers, clinical and counseling
psychologists, teachers, and counselors.

Sources of Additional Information
Persons who are interested in becoming rabbis
should discuss their plans for a vocation with a
practicing rabbi. Information on the work of
rabbis and allied occupations can be obtained
from:
The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary,
2540 Amsterdam Ave., New York, N.Y. 10033.
(Orthodox)

Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/97
Beth Medrash Govoha Seminary, 626 Seventh St.,
Lakewood, N.J. 08701. (Orthodox)
The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 3080
Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10027. (Conservative)
Hebrew Union College— Jewish Institute of Re­
ligion, Director of Placement, whose three campuses
are located at 1 W. 4th St., New York, N.Y. 10012; at
3101 Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio 45220; and at
3077 University Mall, Los Angeles, Calif. 90007.
(Reform)
Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, Church Road
and Greenwood Avenue, Wyncote, Pa. 19095.

Roman Catholic
Priests
(D.O.T. 120.007-010)

Nature of the Work
Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiritual,
pastoral, moral, and educational needs of the
members of their church. They deliver ser­
mons, administer the sacraments of marriage
and of penance, and preside at liturgical func­
tions, such as funeral services. They also com­
fort the sick, console and counsel those in need
of guidance, and assist the poor.
Their day usually begins with morning medi­
tation and Mass and may end with the hearing
of confessions or an evening visit to a hospital
or home. Many priests direct and serve on
church committees, work in civic and charita­
ble organizations, and assist in community pro­
jects.
The two main classifications of priests—di­
ocesan (secular) and religious—have the same
powers acquired through ordination by a
bishop. The differences lie in their way of life,
their type of work, and the church authority to
whom they are immediately subject. Diocesan
priests generally work individually in parishes
assigned by the bishop of their diocese. Re­
ligious priests generally work as part of a re­
ligious order, such as the Jesuits, Dominicans,
or Franciscans. They may engage in specialized
activities, such as teaching or missionary work,
assigned by superiors of their order.
Both religious and diocesan priests hold
teaching and administrative posts in Catholic
seminaries, colleges and universities, and high
schools. Priests attached to religious orders
staff a large proportion of the church’s institu­
tions of higher education and many high
schools, whereas diocesan priests are usually
concerned with the parochial schools attached
to parish churches and with diocesan high
schools. The members of religious orders do
most of the missionary work conducted by the
Catholic Church in this country and abroad.

countries where they may live under difficult
and primitive conditions. Some live a commu­
nal life in monasteries where they devote them­
selves to prayer, study, and assigned work.
Diocesan priests are “on call” at all hours to
serve their parishioners in emergency situa­
tions. They also have many intellectual duties
including study of the scriptures and keeping up
with current religious and secular events in
order to prepare sermons. Diocesan priests are
responsible to the bishop in the diocese.

Employment
There were approximately 58,000 priests in
1982, according to the National Conference of
Catholic Bishops. There are priests in nearly
every city and town and in many rural commu­
nities. The majority are in metropolitan areas
where most Catholics reside. Large numbers of
priests are located in communities near Cath­
olic educational and other institutions.

Training and Other Qualifications
Preparation for the priesthood generally re­
quires 8 years of study beyond high school in
one of 540 seminaries. Preparatory study may
begin in the first year of high school, at the
college level, or in theological seminaries after
college graduation.
High school seminaries provide a college
preparatory program that emphasizes English
grammar, speech, literature, and social studies.
Latin is required and modem languages are
encouraged. The seminary college offers a lib­
eral arts program stressing philosophy and re­
ligion, the study of man through the behavioral
sciences and history, and the natural sciences
and mathematics. In many college seminaries,
a student may concentrate in any of these fields.

The remaining 4 years of preparation include
sacred scripture; dogmatic, moral, and pastoral
theology; homiletics (art of preaching); church
history; liturgy (Mass); and canon law. Field­
work experience usually is required; in recent
years, this aspect of a priest’s training has been
emphasized. Diocesan and religious priests at­
tend different major seminaries where slight
variations in the training reflect the differences
in their duties. Priests commit themselves not to
marry.
Postgraduate work in theology is offered at a
number of American Catholic universities or at
ecclesiastical universities around the world,
particularly in Rome. Also, many priests do
graduate work in fields unrelated to theology.
Priests are encouraged by the Catholic Church
to continue their studies, at least informally,
after ordination. In recent years, continuing
education for ordained priests has stressed
social sciences, such as sociology and psychol­
ogyYoung men never are denied entry into semi­
naries because of lack of funds. In seminaries
for secular priests, scholarships or loans are
available. Those in religious seminaries are fi­
nanced by contributions of benefactors.
A newly ordained secular priest usually
works as an assistant pastor or curate. Newly
ordained priests of religious orders are assigned
to the specialized duties for which they are
trained. Depending on the talents, interests,
and experience of the individual, many oppor­
tunities for greater responsibility exist within
the church.

Job Outlook
More priests will be needed in the years ahead
to provide for the spiritual, educational, and

Working Conditions
Priests spend long and irregular hours working
for the church and the community.
Religious priests are assigned duties by their
superiors in their particular orders. Some re­
ligious priests serve as missionaries in foreign



Spiritual guidance is an important priestly function.

98/Occupational Outlook Handbook
social needs of the increasing number of Ca­
tholics. During the past decade, the number of
ordained priests has been insufficient to fill the
needs of newly established parishes and other
Catholic institutions, and to replace priests who
retire, die, or leave the priesthood. This situa­
tion is likely to persist and perhaps worsen, if
the sharp drop in seminary enrollment con­
tinues, and if an increasing proportion of priests
retires as expected.
In response to the shortage of priests, certain
traditional functions may now be performed by
lay deacons and by teams of clergy and laity.
Presently over 6,000 lay deacons have been
ordained to preach and perform liturgical func­
tions such as distributing holy communion and
reading the gospel at the Mass. Teams of clergy
and laity undertake nonliturgical functions
such as hospital visits and meetings. These
trends are expected to increase. Priests will
continue to offer Mass, administer sacraments,
and hear confession, but probably will be less
involved in teaching and administrative and
community work.

Earnings

Related Occupations

Diocesan priests’ salaries vary from diocese to
diocese. Based on limited information, most
salaries range from $2,300 to $4,400 a year.
The diocesan priest also may receive a car al­
lowance of $25 to $50 a month, free room and
board in the parish rectory, and fringe benefits
such as group insurance and retirement benefits
in the diocese.
Religious priests take a vow of poverty and
are supported by their religious order.
Priests who do special work related to the
church, such as teaching, usually receive a par­
tial salary which is less than a lay person in the
same position would receive. The difference
between the usual salary for these jobs and the
salary that the priest receives is called “contri­
buted service.” In some of these situations,
housing and related expenses may be provided;
in other cases, the priest must make his own
arrangements. Some priests doing special work
may receive the same compensation that a lay
person would receive.

Roman Catholic priests advise and counsel in­
dividuals and groups regarding their religious
as well as personal, social, and vocational de­
velopment. Other occupations involved in this
type of work include social workers, clinical
and counseling psychologists, teachers, and
counselors.

Sources of Additional Information
Young men interested in entering the pri­
esthood should seek the guidance and counsel
of their parish priests. For information regard­
ing the different religious orders and the secular
priesthood, as well as a list of the seminaries
which prepare students for the priesthood, con­
tact the diocesan Directors of Vocations
through the office of the local pastor or bishop.
Occupational information about the Roman
Catholic priesthood can also be obtained from:
National Catholic Vocation Council, 1307 S. Wabash
Avenue, Chicago, 111. 60605.

OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCE, SOCIAL WORK, RELIGIOUS, AND LAW RELATED OCCUPATIONS
Title

Definition

Directors, religious
education and
activities

Direct and coordinate activities of various denominational groups to
meet religious needs of students and plan, organize, and direct
church school programs designed to promote religious education
among church membership. Provide counseling and guidance relative
to marital, health, financial, and religious problems.

43,000

Little change is
expected

Judges

Arbitrate, advise, and administer justice in courts of law. Sentence
defendants in criminal cases, on conviction by juries, according to
statutes of state or federal government or determine liability of
defendants in civil cases.

20,000

About as fast as
average

Magistrates

Adjudicate criminal cases not involving penitentiary sentences, and
civil cases concerning damages below sum specified by state law.
May issue marriage licenses and perform wedding ceremonies.

11,000

More slowly than
average




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors
Teaching, librarianship, and counseling are
“people-oriented” fields that involve helping
others learn, acquire information, or gain in­
sight into themselves. Professional positions
require a bachelor’s degree, as a rule, although
some require a master’s or doctoral degree.
Teaching is one of the largest occupations in
the United States. In 1982, kindergarten and
elementary school teachers held 1,366,000
jo b s, secondary school teach ers held
1,024,000, and college and university teachers
held 744,000. Many others held jobs as teach­
ers in preschool programs and nursery schools;
in public and private vocational education pro­
grams; in dance, music, and art studios; and in
other places. Librarianship and counseling are
much smaller fields. In 1982, librarians and
audiovisual specialists held 157,000 jobs and
counselors held 148,000.
Teaching takes place in many different set­
tings, and most people would agree that educa­
tion is a life long process. But perhaps our most
influential educational experiences occur dur­
ing the period of formal education, beginning in
preschool or kindergarten and extending
through early adulthood. Teachers help stu­
dents gain the skills they need to function in the
world around them, encouraging them to ex­
plore many subjects and master some; to identi­
fy interests and values; to learn to make deci­
sions; and to think for themselves.
Librarianship is undergoing profound
changes as libraries try to keep up with the
information explosion, assimilate new tech­
nology, and respond to budget pressures. Many
libraries are restructuring services and looking
for new ways to share resources. These de­
velopments may alter library staffing patterns
as well.
Public libraries, long thought of as centers
for recreational reading, are enlarging the
scope of their activities and finding additional
ways to serve the community—as information
and referral services, cultural centers, and
learning centers or “open universities.” School
libraries, also called media centers because so
much of their collection is not in printed form,
have become an integral part of the learning
experience in elementary and secondary
schools. College and university libraries
provide both reference collections for students
and support for highly specialized research.
Special libraries and documentation centers,
which generally tailor services to a single group
of users, have led the field in the use of com­
puters for information storage and retrieval.
Expertise in library automation is important for
all kinds of librarians, however.
Counseling has many dimensions. Coun­
selors provide personal, social, and vocational
guidance in a wide range of settings, including
schools and colleges, rehabilitation centers,



community mental health centers, halfway
houses, and counseling centers for women, mi­
norities, veterans, ex-offenders, and alcohol or
drug abusers.
Some employers require a master’s degree in
counseling, counseling psychology, social
work, or a related field, but others do not. Peer
counseling, which has proved highly effective
in many situations, is conducted by individuals
who are trained and supervised by profession­
als. Peer counselors do not ordinarily have pro­
fessional credentials themselves, however.
Moreover, counseling is a normal part of the job
for many others in the “helping professions,”
including members of the clergy, social work­
ers, psychologists, and nurses.
Job prospects in secondary and college and
university teaching, librarianship, and guid­
ance and career counseling are expected to be
competitive overall, as a result of anticipated
enrollment declines and an abundance of
qualified jobseekers. Most positions in these
fields are in the public sector, where only slow
employment growth is expected through 1995.
Staff cutbacks in school systems and social
service agencies will intensify competition for
jobs. Job prospects for elementary school
teachers are expected to be more favorable as
enrollments start increasing after 1985. Pros­
pects in secondary schools may improve in the
early 1990’s, as enrollments there begin to in­
crease.
Nonetheless, the teaching occupations in
particular are so large that replacement needs
alone will generate a substantial number of
openings throughout the decade. Furthermore,
some specializations and some parts of the

country are far more promising than others.
Jobseekers who have certain kinds of training—
particularly in science and mathematics—or
who are willing to relocate will be in a relatively
favorable position.
Training and human resource development, a
field closely related to teaching, has attracted
growing numbers of teachers seeking a career
change. Trainers need many of the skills that
mark successful teachers; they, too, must be
able to design lesson plans, speak in front of
groups, and evaluate performance. And train­
ers should be able to inspire interest and encour­
age learning. Teachers are among those who
have responded to job opportunities in the
growing field of employee development.
However, training specialists warn that many
teachers lack the knowledge of business prac­
tices and organizational dynamics needed for a
successful career in private industry. For more
information, see the statement on personnel
and labor relations specialists elsewhere in the
Handbook.
While library jobs are relatively hard to find,
opportunities should be favorable for librarians
with knowledge in scientific and technical
fields such as law, medicine, and engineering.
People with information-handling skills are
also in demand in other settings. New informa­
tion-handling roles, for which many librarians
are well qualified, are emerging in business and
industry, especially in the rapidly developing
“information industry.”
More detailed information on job outlook
and alternative careers appears in the state­
ments that follow.

Growth in education-related occupations will vary greatly through
the mid-1990’s.
Projected percent change in employment, 1982-95
-2 0

-1 0

0

10

20

30

40

SO URCE: Bu re au of Lab o r S t a tis tic s

99

10O/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Kindergarten and
Elementary School
Teachers
(D.O.T. 092.227-010, -014; 094.224-010, .227-010
through -022; 099.224-010)

Nature of the Work
Kindergarten and elementary school teachers
play a vital role in the development of children.
What is learned or not learned in these early
years can shape children’s views of themselves
and the world, and affect later success or failure
in school and work.
Kindergarten and elementary school teach­
ers introduce children to the basics of mathe­
matics, language, science, and social studies.
They try to instill good study habits and an
appreciation for learning, and observe and eval­
uate each child’s performance and potential.
Elementary school teachers may use films,
slides, computers or instructional games to help
children learn in creative ways. They also ar­
range class trips, speakers, and class projects.
Teachers keep track of their students’ social
development and health. They observe each
child’s behavior and discuss problems—such as
habitual resistance to authority—with the par­
ents. Teachers also report health problems to
parents and school health officials.
Most elementary school teachers instruct a
group of children in several subjects while
providing individual attention as much as pos­
sible. In some schools, two or more teachers
team teach and are jointly responsible for a
group of students or for a particular subject. An
increasing number of elementary school teach­
ers specialize and teach one or two subjects to
several classes. Some teach subjects such as
music, art, or physical education, while others

Job prospects for kindergarten



concentrate on the special needs of certain
groups: Those who have reading problems, or
those who do not speak English, for example.
Much of a teacher’s work occurs outside the
classroom. Teachers generally prepare lessons
and grade papers at home, and attend faculty
meetings and supervise extracurricular ac­
tivities after school. They also serve on faculty
committees to revise curricula or to evaluate the
school’s objectives and the students’ perfor­
mance. To stay up to date on educational mate­
rials and teaching techniques, they may partici­
pate in workshops and other inservice activities
or take courses at local colleges and univer­
sities.
In many schools, teacher aides do clerical
work and supervise lunch and playground ac­
tivities so that teachers can give more individu­
al attention to students.

Working Conditions
Teachers spend much of their time standing or
walking. Kindergarten teachers may join their
students on the floor to finger paint, cut out
pictures, or do other crafts.
A teacher may often have to deal with disrup­
tive, disrespectful, and sometimes even violent
children. This can be physically and emo­
tionally taxing. Giving appropriate attention to
disabled pupils also adds to a teacher’s load.
Most elementary school teachers work a tra­
ditional 2-semester, 10-month school year with
a 2-month vacation. Teachers on a 10-month
schedule may teach in the summer session or
take other jobs. Many enroll in college courses
or special workshops. Some teachers in yearround schools work 8-week sessions, are off 1
week between sessions, and have a long mid­
winter break. This 12-month schedule makes it
difficult for teachers to take supplemental jobs.
In most States the public schools must be in
session a minimum number of days, usually
180.

and elementary school teachers are expected to improve.

Most States as well as the District of Colum­
bia have tenure laws that protect the jobs of
teachers who have taught satisfactorily for a
certain number of years. A teacher normally
must serve a probationary period of 3 years
before attaining tenure. Tenure is not an auto­
matic guarantee of job security, but it does
provide some protection.

Employment
Kindergarten and elementary school teachers
held 1,366,000 jobs in 1982. Most elementary
school teachers work in public schools that have
students in kindergarten through grade six;
however, some teach in middle schools that
cover the 3 or 4 years between the lower ele­
mentary grades and 4 years of high school. Less
than 14 percent of elementary school teachers
work in private schools.
Since kindergarten and elementary school
teachers work directly with students, their em­
ployment is distributed geographically much
the same as population.

Draining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All 50 States and the District of Columbia re­
quire public elementary school teachers to be
certified by State education authorities. Some
States require teachers in private and parochial
schools to be certified as well. Generally, cer­
tification is granted by the State Board of Edu­
cation, the State Superintendent of Education,
or a Certification Advisory Committee.
Teachers may be certified to teach either the
early childhood grades (usually nursery school
through the third grade) or the elementary
grades (grades 1 through 6 or 8). Some teachers
obtain certification to teach special education or
reading at the elementary school level.
Requirements for certification vary by State,
and school systems may have additional hiring
requirements. In all States and the District of
Columbia, however, public kindergarten or ele­
mentary school teachers must have a bachelor’s
degree from an institution with an approved
teacher education program. Teacher training
programs include a variety of liberal arts
courses as well as student teaching and pre­
scribed professional education courses. Almost
half of all States require teachers to earn gradu­
ate degrees within a certain number of years
after being hired.
Twenty-one States require (or will require by
1985) applicants for certification to be tested for
competency either in basic skills, subject mat­
ter, teaching skills, or a combination of these.
Half the States have health, citizenship, or
character requirements. Complete information
on requirements for elementary school teaching
is available from State departments of educa­
tion or superintendents of schools.
Information about whether a particular
teacher training program is approved can be
obtained from the institution offering the train­
ing or from the State department of education.
Many States have reciprocity agreements that
allow teachers who are certified in one State to
become certified in another.
Kindergarten and elementary school teach­
ers should be creative, dependable, patient and

Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/101
competent in handling classroom situations.
Most important, they should be vitally inter­
ested in the educational and emotional develop­
ment of children.
As teachers gain experience, they may ad­
vance to supervisory, administrative, or spe­
cialized positions within the school system.
Often, however, these positions require addi­
tional training and certification and the number
of positions is limited. As a result, for most
teachers, advancement consists of higher pay
rather than additional responsibility or a higher
position.

Job Outlook
Job prospects for kindergarten and elementary
school teachers are expected to begin improv­
ing by the mid-1980’s. If the number of new
college graduates prepared to teach in elemen­
tary school remains at current levels there may
be more openings than qualified applicants
after the mid-1980’s. Although employment is
expected to grow, the major source of job open­
ings will be the need to replace teachers who
leave the profession. In 1980, about one-half of
those who left teaching did so for family re­
sponsibilities; about one-third transferred to
other occupations.
Employment in kindergarten and elementary
school teaching is expected to increase faster
than the average for all occupations, primarily
because of rising enrollments starting in 1985
and continuing through 1995. Additional posi­
tions also are expected as a result of lower pupilteacher ratios.
Enrollment levels and employment of class­
room teachers are closely associated. Because
of fewer births in the 1960’s, elementary school
enrollments have been declining since 1967,
when they peaked at nearly 32 million. Al­
though birth rates are not projected to increase
substantially from the level of the mid-1970’s,
the number of births is expected to rise during
the decade as more women enter the prime

childbearing ages. The National Center for Ed­
ucation Statistics projects that by 1983, the
downward enrollment trend will halt at a level
of about 27.1 million. Thereafter, elementary
school enrollments will advance to more than
33 million by 1995.
Enrollment growth will not occur at the same
rate in all areas of the country, however. Largely
because of migration to the South and West,
population growth (and therefore the increase
in enrollments) is expected to be greater in
those regions.
Whether an elementary school teacher
“shortage” develops in the mid-1980’s depends
not only on factors that affect demand for teach­
ers, but on supply as well. The basic sources of
teacher supply—recent graduates qualified to
teach at the elementary school level and former
teachers seeking reentry to the occupation—are
likely to respond to changes in the demand for
elementary school teachers. The greater avail­
ability of jobs beginning in the mid-1980’s may
encourage more people to prepare for elemen­
tary school teaching and attract more people
from the teacher reserve pool. The reserve pool
is very large because many elementary school
teachers are women who leave teaching for
household responsibilities and also because
there had been an oversupply of these teachers
for years. In 1980, more than one-third of those
who entered teaching had not worked the pre­
vious year because of household respon­
sibilities. Also, during the same year, about
two-fifths of all entrants transferred from other
jobs. If such supply responses occur, a shortage
of elementary school teachers may not develop.
In addition secondary school teachers may turn
to elementary school teaching. However, train­
ing requirements for secondary school teachers
are substantially different from those for ele­
mentary school teachers, and relatively few
secondary school teachers are expected to take
additional training for elementary level cer­
tification. Employment of teachers is also sen­
sitive to changes in State and local expenditures

The decline in the elementary school age population will be
reversed around 1985.
Population 5 to 13 years of age (thousands)




for education. Pressure from taxpayers to limit
tax and spending increases is likely to continue
through the mid-1990’s and consequently affect
the hiring of additional teachers.

Earnings
According to the National Education Associa­
tion, public elementary school teachers aver­
aged $20,042 a year in 1982-83. Generally, the
Mid-Atlantic and the Far Western States paid
the highest salaries.
Collective bargaining agreements cover an
increasing number of teachers. In 1980, 31
States and the District of Columbia had laws
that required collective bargaining in teacher
contract negotiations, and an additional 8 States
permitted such bargaining. Most public school
systems that enroll 1,000 students or more bar­
gain with teacher organizations over wages,
hours, and the terms and conditions of employ­
ment.

Related Occupations
Kindergarten and elementary school teaching
requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes,
including organizational and administrative
abilities; a talent for working with children;
communication skills; the power to influence,
motivate, and train others; creativity; and lead­
ership ability. Other occupations that use these
aptitudes include child care attendants; trainers
and employee development specialists; em­
ployment interviewers; librarians; personnel
managers; public relations representatives; so­
cial workers; and career, vocational, and school
counselors.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on certification requirements is
available from local school systems and State
departments of education.
Federal financial aid is available for educa­
tion students preparing to work with the hand­
icapped. For information, enclose $1.00 and
request Special Education Career Preparation
from:
Closer Look, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C.
20036.

Information on teachers’ unions and educa­
tion-related issues can be obtained from:
American Federation of Teachers, 11 Dupont Circle
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

General information on the teaching profes­
sions can be obtained from local or State affili­
ates of the National Education Association.
A list o f colleges and universities accredited
by the National Council for Accreditation of
Teacher Education can be obtained from:
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Educa­
tion, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 202, Wash­
ington, D.C. 20006.

Secondary School
Teachers
(D.O.T. 091.221-010, .277-010; 094.244-010, .277-010
through -022; and 099.224-010)

Nature of the Work
The high school years are a time of transition
from childhood to adulthood. Secondary

102/Occupational Outlook Handbook
school teachers facilitate this process. They
help students delve more deeply into subjects
introduced in elementary school and learn more
about themselves and the world.
Secondary school teachers instruct students
in a specific subject, such as English, Spanish,
mathematics, history, or biology. They may
teach a variety of related courses. Social studies
teachers, for example, may instruct two 9th
grade classes in American History, two 12th
grade classes in Contemporary American Prob­
lems, and another class in World Geography.
For each class, teachers develop lesson plans;
prepare, give, and grade examinations; and ar­
range special activities, such as a class project
to devise an urban redevelopment plan for a
city.
Teachers design their classroom presenta­
tions to meet the individual needs and abilities
of as many as 150 students in five different
classes. They may arrange tutoring for students
or give advanced assignments for highly moti­
vated pupils.
Teachers use a variety of instructional mate­
rials including films, slides, and computer ter­
minals. They may arrange field trips, such as
planetarium visits to supplement classroom
work on astronomy.
Science teachers also supervise laboratory
work and vocational education teachers teach
shop classes to give students “hands-on” expe­
rience with instruments, tools, and machinery.
In addition to classroom teaching, secondary
school teachers prepare lessons and grade pa­
pers at home, oversee study halls and ho­
merooms, supervise extracurricular activities,
and attend meetings with parents and school
personnel. Teachers also participate in work­
shops and college classes to keep up to date on
their subject specialty and on developments in
education.

Working Conditions
Teaching involves long periods of standing and
talking and can be both physically and mentally
tiring. Dealing with disruptive students can
also be emotionally exhausting.
Since teachers spend much time in activities
outside the classroom, they may work over 40
hours a week. Most teachers work the tradi­
tional 10-month school year with a 2-month
vacation. Teachers on a 10-month schedule may
teach in the summer session or take other jobs.
Many enroll in college courses or special work­
shops. Teachers in districts with a year-round
schedule work 8 weeks, are on vacation for 1
week, and have a 5-week midwinter break. In
most States, schools must be in session a mini­
mum number of days, usually 180.
The District of Columbia and most States
have tenure laws that protect the jobs of teachers
who have taught satisfactorily for a certain
number of years. A teacher normally must ser­
ve a probationary period of 3 years before at­
taining tenure. Tenure is not an automatic guar­
antee of job security, but it does provide some
protection.

Employment
Secondary school teachers held 1,024,000 jobs
in 1982. More than 90 percent taught in public
schools. Since teachers work directly with stu­
dents, their employment is distributed much the
same as the population.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All 50 States and the District of Columbia re­
quire public secondary school teachers to be
certified. Many States require teachers in pri­
vate and parochial schools to be certified as
well. Usually certification is granted by the

State Board of Education, the State Superinten­
dent of Education, or a Certification Advisory
Committee.
Requirements for certification to teach at the
secondary school level vary by State, and
school systems may have additional require­
ments. However, in all States and the District of
Columbia, teachers need a bachelor’s degree
from an approved teacher training program
with a prescribed number of credits in the sub­
ject they plan to teach. They must also complete
student teaching and other professional educa­
tion courses. Almost half the States require
teachers to obtain graduate degrees within a
certain time after being hired.
Twenty States require (or will require by
1985) applicants for teacher certification to be
tested for competency either in basic skills,
subject matter, teaching skills, or a combination
of these. Many States also have health, cit­
izenship, or character requirements. Informa­
tion on certification requirements for secondary
school teaching is available from any State de­
partment of education or superintendent of
schools.
Information about whether a particular
teacher training program is approved can be
obtained from the institution offering the train­
ing or from the State department of education.
Many States have reciprocity agreements that
allow teachers who are certified in one State to
become certified in another.
Secondary school teachers should be good at
working with young people, knowledgeable in
their special subject, and able to motivate stu­
dents and to impart knowledge to them.
With additional preparation and certifica­
tion, experienced teachers may be able to move
into positions as school librarians, reading spe­
cialists, curriculum specialists, or guidance
counselors. However, for most secondary
school teachers, advancement takes the form of
a higher salary rather than a different job. Rela­
tively few teachers move into administrative or
supervisory positions in a public school sys­
tem. To do so usually requires at least 1 year of
graduate education, several years of classroom
teaching, and sometimes a special certificate.

Job Outlook

All states require public secondary school teachers to be certified.




Prospective secondary school teachers will face
keen competition for jobsTtfrrough the early
1990’s. Employment opportunities should im­
prove thereafter. If the number of new college
graduates prepared to teach in secondary school
remains at current levels, the supply of persons
qualified to teach will greatly exceed require­
ments until the early 1990’s, and many qualified
graduates will have to consider alternatives to
secondary school teaching. College students
interested in becoming secondary school teach­
ers should take courses that apply to jobs out­
side teaching. A willingness to relocate may be
an advantage in obtaining a teaching job.
The prime sources of teacher supply are re­
cent college graduates qualified to teach sec­
ondary school and former teachers seeking to
reenter the profession. Although reentrants
have experience in their favor, many schools
may prefer to hire new graduates who com-

Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/103

The decline In the high school age population will not be reversed
until the early 1990’s.
Population 14 to 17 years of age (thousands)

request Special Education Career Preparation
from:
Closer Look, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C.
20036.

Information on teachers unions and educa­
tion-related issues may be obtained from:
American Federation of Teachers, 11 Dupont Circle
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

General information on the teaching profes­
sions can be obtained from local or State affili­
ates of the National Education Association.
A list of colleges and universities accredited
by the National Council for Accreditation of
Teacher Education can be obtained from:
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Educa­
tion, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 202, Wash­
ington, D.C. 20006.

College and
University Faculty
mand lower salaries and whose training is more
recent.
Employment of secondary school teachers is
expected to decline throughout the 1980’s and
start increasing during the early 1990’s. Pupil
enrollment is the basic factor underlying the
demand for teachers. Because of fewer births in
the early 1960’s secondary school enrollments
began declining in the mid-1970’s. The Na­
tional Center for Education Statistics projects
that enrollment in secondary schools will con­
tinue to decline through 1990. Enrollments will
begin increasing after 1990, reflecting a rise in
births after the mid-1970’s. Enrollment growth
will vary by region. Population migration to the
South and West will result in smaller enroll­
ment decline there; conversely, population
losses in Northeast and North Central States
will result in greater enrollment declines in
these States.
Since secondary school enrollments are ex­
pected to decline through 1990, nearly all open­
ings for secondary school teachers will stem
from the need to replace teachers who leave the
profession. In 1980, more than 40 percent of
secondary school teachers who left the profes­
sion transferred to other occupations; about 30
percent left to assume household respon­
sibilities; the rest retired, became unemployed,
or went back to school.
Employment of teachers is sensitive to
changes in State and local expenditures for edu­
cation. Pressure from taxpayers to limit tax and
spending increases are likely to continue
through the mid-1990’s, affecting the number of
teachers employed.
Although the overall outlook for secondary
school teachers indicates a highly competitive
market, employment conditions may be favora­
ble in certain fields. Science and mathematics
teachers are in short supply because employers
in private industry and government offer higher
salaries to people trained in mathematics and
science. Some schools also report difficulty in



finding enough teachers qualified in special ed­
ucation, vocational education, and bilingual
education.

Earnings
According to the National Education Associa­
tion, public secondary school teachers aver­
aged $21,100 a year in 1982-83. Generally,
salaries were highest in the Mid-Atlantic region
and in the Far West.
Collective bargaining agreements cover an
increasing number of teachers. In 1982, 32
States and the District of Columbia had laws
that required collective bargaining in teacher
contract negotiations, and an additional 8 States
permitted such bargaining.
In some schools, teachers receive extra pay
for coaching sports, and working with students
in extracurricular activities such as music,
drama, or school publications. Some teachers
earn extra income by work in the school system
during summer sessions. Others hold summer
jobs outside the school system.

Related Occupations
Secondary school teaching requires a wide va­
riety of skills and aptitudes, including organi­
zational, administrative, and recordkeeping
abilities; research and communication skills;
the power to influence, motivate, and train oth­
ers; and creativity. Other occupations which
use these aptitudes include: School admin­
istrators, counselors, trainers and employee de­
velopment specialists, employment inter­
viewers, librarians, personnel managers, pub­
lic relations representatives, sales represen­
tatives, and social workers.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on certification requirements and
approved teacher training institutions is avail­
able from State departments of education.
Federal financial aid is available for educa­
tion students preparing to work with the hand­
icapped. For information, enclose $1.00 and

(D.O.T. 090.227-010; and 099.224-010)

Nature of the Work
Millions of people enroll in college every year
for personal enrichment or for skills needed for
a job. Although the majority are recent high
school graduates, the number of older students
on campus is growing. Many are homemakers
preparing to enter or reenter the work force;
others have returned to school to obtain courses
for advancement in their present job or for a
career change.
College and university faculty members
provide instruction in particular fields of study
to meet the needs of these students. Faculty
members generally teach several different
courses in the same field—freshman composi­
tion and 18th century English literature, for
example. Many instruct undergraduates only,
while some instruct both undergraduates and
graduate students. Still fewer instruct only
graduate students. Usually, the more experi­
enced and educated faculty members teach the
higher level classes.
College and university faculty members use
various teaching methods depending on the
subject, interest, and the level of their students.
They may lecture in classrooms that seat hun­
dreds of students, lead seminars for only a few
students, or supervise students in laboratories.
Some use teaching assistants who may lead
discussion sections or grade exams. Closedcircuit television, computers, and other teach­
ing aids are frequently used.
College faculty members keep up with de­
velopments in their field by reading current
literature and participating in professional ac­
tivities. They also conduct and publish the re­
sults of their own scholarly research. Some
college faculty members may experience a se­
rious conflict between their responsibilities to
their students and the pressure to “publish or
perish.” Those at universities generally spend
the most time doing research; those in 2-year
colleges, the least.

104/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Most faculty members enter the profession as
instructors and have at least a master’s degree.
Because competition for positions is so keen,
many 4-year colleges and universities consider
only doctoral degree holders for entry level
academic appointments. At 2-year institutions
a doctorate may not be considered advan­
tageous.
Doctoral programs usually require 4 years or
more of study beyond the bachelor’s degree,
including intensive research for a doctoral dis­
sertation that makes an original contribution to
the candidate’s field of study. A working knowl­
edge of one or more foreign languages (or com­
puter languages) and, in many fields, advanced
mathematical and statistical techniques are
often required as well. Students should consid­
er carefully their academic potential and
motivation before beginning doctoral studies.
Advancement through the academic ranks in
4-year institutions usually requires a doctorate
plus college teaching experience, even in in­
stitutions that hire master’s degree holders as
instructors.
Academic, administrative, and professional
Most college faculty members enter the profession as instructors and must have at least a master’s contributions affect advancement opportunities
in this field. Research, publication, consulting
degree.
work, and other forms of professional recogni­
In addition to preparation, instruction, and being exposed to new ideas and sharing in the tion all have a bearing on a college faculty
member’s chances of promotion.
research, college and university faculty mem­ growth and development of students.
College faculty need inquiring, analytical
bers may advise students and work with student
minds and a strong desire to pursue and dis­
organizations. Department heads also have ad­ Employment
seminate knowledge. As teachers and re­
ministrative duties.
College and university faculty held 744,000 searchers, they should be able to communicate
jobs in 1982. About two out of three faculty well, both orally and in writing. And as models
Working Conditions
members holding the rank of professor, associ- ! for their students, they should be dedicated to
College faculty members generally have flexi­ ate professor, assistant professor, or instructor the principles of academic integrity and intel­
ble schedules, dividing their time among teach­ were full time, and almost one out of three were lectual honesty. College faculty need to be open
ing, research, advising, and administrative part time instructional staff. Approximately to new ideas—from their students, peers, and
responsibilities. They may work staggered 30,000 persons were full-time junior instruc­ the nonacademic community.
hours and teach classes at night. The normal tors. In addition, thousands of graduate stu­
teaching load usually is heavier in 2-year and dents, employed as assistant instructors, teach­ Job Outlook
community colleges where less emphasis is ing fellows, teaching assistants, or laboratory Employment of college and university faculty is
assistants—taught part time.
placed on research and publication.
expected to decline through the mid-1990’s.
Public institutions, which constitute less The basic factor underlying the demand for
Over 90 percent of all full-time college and
university faculty work in institutions that have than one-half of all colleges and universities, college faculty is enrollment. During the 1960’s
tenure systems (the assurance of continuing employ over 70 percent of all full-time instruc­ and the 1970’s, enrollments rose and employ­
employment with freedom from dismissal tional faculty. They employ about two-thirds of ment of college faculty increased. The steady
without cause and due process). Nearly two- the full-time faculty in all universities and 4- rise in the number of persons attending college
thirds of these faculty members are tenured. year colleges, and over 90 percent in all 2-year reflected not only growth in the number of 18- to
Under a tenure system, a faculty member usu­ institutions.
24-year-olds, but an increase in the proportion
Nearly one-third of full-time faculty teach in of college-age persons who actually went to
ally receives 1-year contracts during a proba­
tionary period lasting at least 3 years and or­ universities; almost one-half work in 4-year college. Enrollments, which peaked during the
dinarily no more than 7 years; some universities colleges; and over one-fifth teach in 2-year col­ early 1980’s, are expected to decline through
award 2- or 3-year contracts. After the proba­ leges.
the mid-1990’s as the traditional college-age
A few part-time faculty work in more than population not only decreases but the propor­
tionary period, institutions consider faculty
members for tenure. Declining enrollments and one institution of higher education. Others are tion of those going to college remains un­
budgetary constraints, however, have made ten­ primarily employed outside of an academic set­ changed or declines slightly. A growing
ure increasingly difficult for faculty members ting—in government, private industry, or in number of adults have entered college in recent
to gain. Colleges and universities are turning to nonacademic research. These people—some­ years, many on a part-time basis, but adult
short-term contracts and to part-time faculty to times referred to as “adjunct faculty”—may enrollments are not expected to completely off­
teach as little as one course a semester.
set the decline in traditional-age college stu­
save money.
dents. Employment opportunities may be better
Few professions offer vacation arrangements
in community colleges that emphasize pro­
as attractive as those in teaching. In addition to Training, Other Qualifications, and
grams for adult learners. In general, however,
the summer months during which faculty mem­ Advancement
bers may conduct research, prepare course and The overwhelming majority of full-time col­ fewer students will mean fewer college faculty
teaching materials, teach short-term summer lege and university faculty are classified in four members.
Because employment of college and univer­
classes, travel, or pursue hobbies, they also academic ranks: Professors, associate pro­
have breaks during other school holidays. Col­ fessors, assistant professors, and instructors. A sity faculty will decline, job openings will re­
sult entirely from replacement needs. In any
lege faculty also have the intangible rewards of small proportion are classified as lecturers.



Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/105

The college age population is expected to decline through the
mid-1990’s.
Population 18 to 24 years of age (thousands)

Librarians
(D.O.T. 100 except 100.367-018)

Nature of the Work

given academic institution, the number of va­
cancies will be influenced by the age of current
faculty, tenure patterns and policies, and retire­
ment practices.
Competition for openings will be extremely
keen, particularly for faculty positions in the
largest and most prestigious institutions. The
number of Ph.D. recipients alone will exceed
greatly the number of openings for college fac­
ulty through the mid-1990’s. Many graduates
who succeed in finding academic jobs may have
to accept part-time or short-term appointments
that offer little hope of tenure.
Some fields will offer brighter employment
prospects for college faculty than others, of
course. Departments that report shortages in­
clude engineering, computer science, business
administration, and law—areas that offer very
attractive jobs outside the academic setting.
Employment of college faculty is related to the
non-academic job market in other fields in still
another way: There is an “echo effect” as
favorable job prospects in a particular field—
accounting, for example—cause large numbers
of students to sign up for courses, thus creating
a demand for more teachers. However, changes
in the job market, especially in fields like engi­
neering that are subject to cyclical fluctuations,
may cause a field temporarily to lose its popu­
larity with college students—and thereby re­
duce demand for faculty.
During the next decade an increasing propor­
tion of prospective college and university fac­
ulty members will have to seek nonacademic
positions. And some persons holding graduate
degrees may have to enter positions that have
not previously required a master’s degree or a
Ph.D.

Earnings
Earnings vary widely according to faculty rank
and type of institution. Faculty members in 4year institutions earn higher salaries, on the



average, than those in 2-year schools. Accord­
ing to a 1981-82 survey conducted by the Na­
tional Center for Education Statistics, salaries
for all full-time faculty on 9-month contracts
averaged around $25,500; professors, $33,400;
associate professors, $25,300; assistant pro­
fessors, $20,600; and instructors, $16,500.
Since over 85 percent of full-time faculty
members have 9-month contracts, many have
additional summer earnings from consulting,
teaching, research, writing for publication, or
other employment. Royalties and fees for
speaking engagements may provide additional
earnings.
Som e college and university faculty m em ­
bers enjoy benefits offered by few other profes­
sions, including tuition waivers for dependents,
housing allow ances, travel allow ances, and
paid sabbatical leaves. In many institutions,
faculty members are eligible for a sabbatical
leave after 6 or 7 years o f employment.

Related Occupations
College and university faculty function both as
teachers and researchers. They must have an
aptitude for communicating information and
ideas. Related occupations include: Trainers
and employee development specialists, writers,
consultants, lobbyists, and policy analysts.
Their research activities are often similar to
those of their colleagues in industry, govern­
ment, and nonprofit research organizations.

Sources of Additional Information
Professional societies generally provide infor­
mation on employment opportunities in their
particular fields. Names and addresses of these
societies appear in the statements on specific
occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.
Answers to questions pertaining to college
and university teaching can be obtained from:
American Association of University Professors, One
Dupont Circle, NW., Suite 500, Washington, D.C.
20036.

Librarians make information available to peo­
ple. They serve as a link between the public and
the millions of sources of information by select­
ing and organizing materials and making them
accessible.
Library work is divided into two basic func­
tions: User services and technical services. Li­
brarians in user services—for example, refer­
ence and children’s librarians—work directly
with users to help them find the information
they need. Librarians in technical services—
such as acquisitions librarians and catalogers—
are primarily concerned with acquiring and pre­
paring materials for use and deal less frequently
with the information user.
The size of the collection affects the scope of
the job. In small libraries or information cen­
ters, librarians generally handle all aspects of
the work. They select, purchase, and process
materials; publicize services; provide reference
help to groups and individuals; supervise the
support staff; prepare the budget; and oversee
other administrative matters. In large libraries,
librarians specialize in a single area, such as
acquisitions, cataloging, bibliography, refer­
ence, circulation, or administration. Or they
may handle special collections.
Building and maintaining a strong collection
are essential activities in any library, large or
sm all. A cquisitions librarians (D.O.T.
100.267-010) select and order books,
periodicals, films, and other materials. To keep
abreast of current literature, they read book
reviews, look over publishers’ announcements
and catalogs, confer with booksellers, and seek
advice from library users. A knowledge of book
publishing and business acumen are important,
for librarians are under pressure to get as much
for their money as possible.
After materials have been received, other
librarians prepare them for use. Classifiers
(D.O.T. 100.367-014) classify materials by
subject matter. They may skim through publica­
tions and assign classification numbers. Cata­
logers (D.O.T. 100.387-010) supervise assis­
tants who prepare cards or other access tools
that indicate the title, author, subject, publisher,
date of publication, and location in the library.
The cards are then filed in the card catalog or
other appropriate storage unit.
Bibliographers (D.O.T. 100.367-010), who
usually work in research libraries, compile lists
of books, periodicals, articles, and audiovisual
materials on particular subjects. They also rec­
ommend materials to be acquired in subject
areas with which they are familiar. Special col­
lections librarians (D.O.T. 100.267-014) col­
lect and organize books, pamphlets, man­
uscripts, and other materials in a specific field,
such as rare books, genealogy, or music. From
time to time, they may prepare reports and
exhibits to inform scholars and other re­
searchers about important additions to the col­
lection.

106/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Librarians are also classified according to the
type of library in which they work: Public li­
braries, school library/mediacenters, academic
libraries, and special libraries.
Public librarians serve people of all ages and
from all walks of life. Increasingly, public li­
brarians provide materials and services to spe­
cific groups, including persons who, because of
physical handicaps, cannot use conventional
print materials. The professional staff of a large
public library system may include the chief
librarian, an assistant chief, and division heads
who plan and coordinate the work of the entire
system. The system also may include librarians
who supervise branch libraries and specialists
in acquisitions, cataloging, special collections,
and user services.
Some public librarians work with specific
groups of readers. Children’s librarians
(D.O.T. 100.167-018) find materials children
will enjoy and show them how to use the li­
brary. They may plan and conduct special pro­
grams such as story hours or film programs.
They often work with school and community
organizations. Adult services librarians sug­
gest materials suited to the needs and interests
of adults. They may help to conduct education
programs, such as community development,
public affairs, creative arts, problems of the
aging, and home and family. Young adult li­
brarians (D.O.T. 100.167-034) help junior and
senior high school students select and use
books and other materials. They may organize
programs of interest to young adults, such as
book or film discussions or concerts of recorded
music. They also may coordinate the library’s
work with school programs. Community out­
reach librarians and bookmobile librarians

(D.O.T. 100.167-014) develop library services
to meet the needs of special groups within the
community. They might arrange for materials
to be brought to a migrant labor camp, an inner
city housing project, or a nursing home, for
example.
School librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-030)
teach students how to use the school library/
media center. Working with teachers and media
specialists, school librarians familiarize stu­
dents with the library’s resources. They prepare
lists of materials on certain subjects and help
select materials for school programs. They also
select, order, and organize materials. In­
creasingly, the library/media center is viewed
as an integral part of the school’s overall in­
structional program, and many school li­
brarians work closely with classroom teachers
in curriculum development. They assist teach­
ers in developing study units and participate in
team teaching.
In large high schools and in many communi­
ty colleges, the media center’s collection of
films, tapes, cassettes, records, and other mate­
rials is maintained by a school library media
specialist (D.O.T. 100.167-030) or an au­
diovisual librarian (D.O.T. 100.167-010). Me­
dia center professionals also develop au­
diovisual materials and work with teachers on
curriculum.
Academic librarians serve students, faculty
members, and researchers in colleges and uni­
versities. They work closely with members of
the faculty to ensure that the general collection
includes reference materials required for the
hundreds of courses that might be offered dur­
ing a particular academic year. They also main­
tain the quality of the collection in research
areas for which the institution is noted.

Special librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-026)
work in information centers or libraries main­
tained by government agencies and corporate
firms such as pharmaceutical companies,
banks, law firms, advertising agencies, medi­
cal centers, and research laboratories. They
build and arrange the organization’s informa­
tion resources to suit the needs of their users.
Often, the collection is highly specialized,
being limited to subjects of particular interest to
the firm. Special librarians may conduct liter­
ature searches, compile bibliographies, or pre­
pare abstracts. In scientific and technical librar­
ies in particular, computerized data bases are an
important and much-used part of the collection.
Maintaining these, and assisting users in re­
trieving information that has been stored in a
computer’s memory, are increasingly important
parts of the special librarian’s job.
The staff of a technical library or documenta­
tion center may also include information scien­
tists (D.O.T. 109.067-010). Although they work
closely with special librarians, information sci­
entists must possess a more extensive technical
and scientific background and a knowledge of
various techniques for handling information.
They abstract complicated information into
condensed, readable form, and interpret and
analyze data for a highly specialized clientele.
Among other duties, they develop classification
systems, prepare coding and programming
techniques for computerized information stor­
age and retrieval systems, design information
networks, and develop microfilm technology.
Technological innovations are beginning to
alter traditional patterns of library organization,
and eventually may affect staffing as well. A
growing number of libraries are tying into re­
mote computer data bases through their com­
puter terminals. The idea of serving users by
providing them with access to a variety of com­
mercial data banks took hold initially in corpo­
rate libraries and inform ation centers.
However, the practice has spread and now some
public and academic libraries, too, are linked to
commercial data bases. The rise of regional
library networks also has profound implications
for library operations, for the networks make it
less important than it once was for a library to
own the materials its users want. It doesn’t
really matter where the original material is lo­
cated, if it can be accessed remotely by com­
puter or sent by facsimile machines.

Working Conditions

A master’s degree in library science (M.L.S.) is necessary for professional positions in most public,
academic, and special libraries.




Libraries generally are busy, demanding, even
stressful places to work. Contact with people,
which often is a major part of the job, can be
taxing. Physically, the job may require much
standing, stooping, bending, and reaching.
Good eye-sight is also important especially for
computer work.
Librarians typically work a 5-day, 35- to 40hour week. Public and college librarians may
work some weekends and evenings. School li­
brarians generally have the same workday
schedule as classroom teachers. A 35- to 40hour week during normal business hours is
common for special librarians.

Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/107
Employment
Librarians held 150,000 jobs in 1982; in addi­
tion, audiovisual specialists held 6,300 jobs in
library/media centers. School and academic li­
braries together accounted for roughly 7 out of
10 librarians. Public libraries and special librar­
ies employed the remainder. A small number of
librarians served as consultants or administered
State and Federal library programs.
Most librarians work in cities and towns.
Those attached to bookmobile units serve wide­
ly scattered population groups.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A master’s degree in library science (M.L.S.) is
necessary to obtain an entry level professional
position in most public, academic, and special
libraries. About 120 schools offered such de­
grees in 1983. However, most employers prefer
graduates of one of the 60 library education
programs accredited by the American Library
Association in U.S. Educational preparation
for school librarianship is more diverse, reflect­
ing the considerable differences among the
States in standards and certification require­
ments for public school librarians.
Most graduate schools of library science re­
quire graduation from an accredited 4-year col­
lege or university and good grades. A broad
undergraduate background, with well defined
major and minor areas of study, is appropriate
preparation for graduate library education.
Some library schools require a reading knowl­
edge of at least one foreign language.
A typical graduate program in library sci­
ence includes basic courses in the foundations
of librarianship, including the history of books
and printing, intellectual freedom and cen­
sorship, and the role of libraries in society.
Other basic courses cover material selection
and processing; reference tools; and user serv­
ices. Advanced courses are offered in such
areas as resources for children or young adults;
classification, cataloging, indexing, and ab­
stracting; library administration; and library au­
tomation. Because virtually all aspects of rou­
tine library operation are subject to automation,
many library schools encourage students to
take courses in computer and information sci­
ence.
The master of library science (M.L.S.) pro­
gram represents a general, all-round prepara­
tion for library work, but some people spe­
cialize in a particular area such as archives,
media, or library automation. A few M.L.S.
degree holders return to library school for an
additional year of study to earn a certificate of
advanced study. A Ph.D. degree in library sci­
ence is advantageous for a teaching position or
for a top administrative post, particularly in a
college or university library or in a large library
system.
For those interested in special libraries or
research libraries, a master’s degree, doctorate,
or professional degree in the appropriate sub­
ject specialization is highly desirable. And in
academic libraries, an advanced degree may be
essential for promotion to a senior level posi­
tion.



State certification requirements for public
school librarians vary widely. Most States re­
quire that school librarians be certified as teach­
ers. A degree in library science may not be
required, for, in many schools, the library has
become the “learning resources center” and is
staffed by media personnel with a variety of
educational backgrounds. Although some me­
dia professionals have a bachelor’s or master’s
in library science, others have a degree in media
resources, educational technology, or au­
diovisual communications. State departments
of education can provide information about
specific requirements.
Some States require certification of public
librarians employed in municipal, county, or
regional library systems. State library agencies
can provide information about these require­
ments.
In the Federal Government, which currently
hires about 120 librarians a year, beginning
positions require completion of a 4-year college
course and a master’s degree in library science,
or demonstration of the equivalent in experi­
ence and education by a passing grade on an
examination.
Scholarships for training in library science
are available from library schools, large librar­
ies, and library associations. Loans and assistantships also are available.
Because of an abundant supply of qualified
jobseekers, employers in some localities now
require some experience for what used to be
entry level positions. Graduates who have par­
ticipated in internship programs and workstudy programs or who have worked part time
may have an employment advantage over other
new graduates.
Experienced librarians may advance to ad­
ministrative positions. A master’s degree in
business or public administration may help to
obtain such positions.

Job Outlook
Employment of librarians is expected to grow
more slowly than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Most job open­
ings will result from the need to replace li­
brarians who transfer to other fields, retire, or
leave the occupation for other reasons.
The demand for individuals with library
skills outside traditional settings is expected to
help ease the tight job market for librarians.
Furthermore, the number of library school
graduates, which has been declining since the
mid-1970’s, may continue to drift downward.
Therefore, the oversupply could abate, and em­
ployment prospects brighten.
Employment growth in public libraries is
likely to be slower than it has been during the
last two decades. Faced with rising materials
costs and tighter operating budgets, many li­
braries are expected to hire fewer additional
librarians.
Employment of academic librarians is ex­
pected to decline slightly, a reflection of the
overall decline in college enrollments expected
through the mid-1990’s. The situation will vary
from institution to institution, however.
In school libraries, a large sector, slow em­
ployment growth is foreseen, overall. Elemen­
tary school enrollments are projected to rise

after 1984; secondary school enrollments will
start increasing after 1990. In some commu­
nities, declining enrollments and fiscal con­
straints are likely to result in staff cutbacks, and
some school librarians may be transferred to
classroom teaching. In other localities,
however, population growth will spur demand
for educational personnel, including librarians.
Opportunities should be favorable for li­
brarians with specialized knowledge in scien­
tific and technical fields including medicine,
law, business, engineering, and the physical
and life sciences. These jobs are available in
special libraries and research libraries, for the
most part. Individuals with expertise in com­
puterized library systems will also be in de­
mand, because of the widespread use of com­
puters to store and retrieve information and to
handle routine operations such as ordering, cat­
aloging, and circulation control. Individuals
with a background in cataloging or in working
with children should also find good job oppor­
tunities.
Information management outside the tradi­
tional library setting, a rapidly developing
field, is expected to offer excellent employment
opportunities for library school graduates and
practicing librarians with backgrounds in infor­
mation science and library automation. Private
industry, consulting firms, and government
agencies all need qualified people to set up and
maintain information systems.

Earnings
Salaries of librarians vary by type of library, the
individual’s qualifications, and the size and lo­
cation of the library.
Starting salaries of graduates of library
school master’s degree programs accredited by
the American Library Association averaged
$15,633 a year in 1981, and ranged from
$14,132 in public libraries to $16,748 in special
libraries. The median salary for experienced
special librarians was $27,000 a year in 1982.
The median salary for experienced librarians in
college and university libraries was $23,500 in
1983. Librarians in the Federal Government
averaged about $28,800 in 1982.
The usual paid vacation after a year’s service
is 3 to 4 weeks. Vacations may be longer in
school libraries and somewhat shorter in those
operated by business and industry.

Related Occupations
Librarians play an important role in the transfer
of knowledge and ideas by providing people
with access to the information they need and
want. Jobs requiring similar analytical, organi­
zational, and communicative skills include ar­
chivists, information scientists, museum cura­
tors, publishers’ representatives, research ana­
lysts, information brokers, and records man­
agers.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on librarianship, including a listing
of accredited education programs and informa­
tion on scholarships or loans, may be obtained
from:
American Library Association, 50 East Huron St.,
Chicago, 111. 60611.

108/Occupational Outlook Handbook
For information on a career as a special li­
brarian, write to:
Special Libraries Association, 235 Park Ave. South,
New York, N.Y. 10003.

Material about a career in information sci­
ence may be obtained from:
American Society for Information Science, 101016th
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Information on graduate schools of library
and information science can be obtained from:
Association for American Library and Information
Science Education, 471 Park Lane, State College, Pa.
16801.

Information on Federal assistance to schools
for library training is available from:
Office of Libraries and Learning Technologies, U.S.
Department of Education, 1200-19th St. NW., Wash­
ington, D.C. 20208.

Those interested in a position as a librarian in
the Federal service should write to:
Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20415.

Information concerning requirements and
application procedures for positions in the Li­
brary of Congress may be obtained directly
from:
Personnel Office, Library of Congress, Washington,
D.C. 20540.

State library agencies can furnish informa­
tion on scholarships available through their of­
fices, requirements for certification, and gener­
al information about career prospects in the
State. Several of these agencies maintain job
“hotlines” which report current openings for
librarians in the State.
State boards of education can furnish infor­
mation on certification requirements and job
opportunities for school librarians.

work and help those who are not going to col­
lege to find full-time jobs. They also help stu­
dents with social, behavioral, and personal
problems. They may deal with students individ­
ually, or in cases where problems are wide­
spread, as in drug or alcohol abuse, they may
initiate group counseling sessions. Counselors
often consult and work closely with parents,
teachers, school psychologists, school nurses,
and social workers. Elementary school coun­
selors work with younger children, observing
them during classroom and play activities and
conferring with their teachers and parents in
order to evaluate their strengths or problems.
They work to establish a home and school en­
vironment in which the child will leam, grow,
and develop. College counselors and student
development specialists provide a broad range
of counseling services in two year community
or junior colleges and four year colleges and
universities. Counselors also work in college
placement offices, dealing with students and
alumni. These counselors are generally known
as college career planning and placement
counselors.
Rehabilitation counselors assist physically,
mentally, emotionally, or socially handicapped
individuals to become self-sufficient and pro­
ductive citizens. Rehabilitation counselors
evaluate their clients’ potential for employment
and arrange for medical care, rehabilitation
programs, occupational training, and job place­
ment. To do this, they leam about their clients
by talking with them, evaluating school and
medical reports, and consulting with family
members. They also confer with physicians,
psychologists, and occupational therapists
about the types of work their clients could per­
form. They then recommend an appropriate
rehabilitation program and specialized training
to help the disabled individual become more

independent and more employable. Since em­
ployment success is an important goal of re­
habilitation counseling, counselors keep in
touch with employers about job openings and
the training required.
Employment counselors help individuals
make wise career placement decisions. Along
with their client, they explore his or her educa­
tion, training, work history, interests, skills,
personal traits, and physical capacities. They
may arrange for aptitude and achievement tests.
These counselors may suggest specific employ­
ers and appropriate ways of applying for work,
and give advice on resume writing and inter­
viewing. They may contact employers for their
clients. After placement, counselors follow up
to determine if additional assistance is re­
quired.
Mental health counselors help individuals
deal with a wide range of personal and social
problems such as drug and alcohol abuse, fam­
ily conflicts, including child and spouse abuse,
suicide, work problems, criminal behavior, and
problems of aging. They also counsel rape vic­
tims, individuals and families trying to cope
with illness and death, and people with emo­
tional problems. Mental health counselors
work closely with other specialists, including
psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social
workers, and psychiatric nurses.

Working Conditions
Rehabilitation and employment counselors
generally work a standard 40 hour week. Selfemployed counselors and those working in
mental health and community agencies often
work evenings to counsel clients who work
during the day. College career planning and
placement counselors may have to work over­
time and irregular hours, especially during re­
cruiting periods.
Most school counselors work the traditional
10-month school year with a 2-month vacation,

Counselors
(D.O.T. 045.107-010, -014, -038, -042; 090.107-010; and
169.267.026)

Nature of the Work
Counselors help individuals deal with personal,
social, educational, and career problems and
concerns. Their duties depend on the individu­
als or groups they serve and the settings in
which they work. School and college coun­
selors help students understand themselves bet­
ter—their abilities, interests, talents, and per­
sonality characteristics— and help translate
these into realistic academic and career op­
tions. They may run career information centers
and career education programs. They may use
tests or other tools to help students understand
themselves and their options. High school
counselors keep up-to-date on college admis­
sion requirements, entrance exams, and finan­
cial aid as well as job training in local trade or
technical schools and apprenticeship programs.
They help students find part-time and summer




A counselor advises a student on college search strategy.

Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/109
degree. Most graduate programs include super­
vised experience in counseling. Graduate
courses include counseling theory and tech­
niques, assessment and evaluation, individual
and group counseling, occupational and educa­
tional information, and community resources.
About 24 graduate counselor education pro­
grams are currently accredited by the Council
Employment
for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Counselors held 148,000 jobs in 1982. Almost Educational Programs.
2 out of 3 of these jobs were in educational
Many counselors are certified. The National
services. Most of these were in secondary Board for Certified Counselors examines pro­
schools; some were in elementary schools and fessional credentials and conducts a national
colleges and universities. State and local re­ examination for those who wish to have the
habilitation agencies, Veterans Administration designation of “National Certified Counselor.”
rehabilitation programs, and V.A. hospitals
Most States require public school counselors
were major employers of counselors. Some to have both counseling and teaching certifi­
worked in training and rehabilitation organiza­ cates. However, a growing number of States no
tions such as Goodwill and Lighthouses for the longer require a teaching certificate. Depend­
Blind.
ing on the State, a master’s degree in counseling
Counselors also worked in many types of and 1 to 5 years of teaching experience may be
public and private community mental health required for a counseling certificate. State de­
and social service agencies and organizations partments of education can provide specific in­
such as family (marriage) counseling services, formation.
halfway houses and homes for children and the
Vocational and related rehabilitation agen­
handicapped, offender rehabilitation agencies, cies generally require a master’s degree in re­
self-help organizations such as Alcoholics habilitation counseling, counseling and guid­
Anonymous and drug rehabilitation organiza­ ance, or counseling psychology for rehabilita­
tions, and in religious organizations providing tion counselor jobs. Some may, however,
similar services.
accept applicants with a bachelor’s degree in
rehabilitation services, counseling, psychol­
ogy, or related fields. Experience in employ­
Training, Other Qualifications, and
ment counseling, job development, psychol­
Advancement
Generally, a master’s degree in student person­ ogy, education, and social work may be
nel, counseling, student personnel services, re­ helpful.
Approximately 30 colleges and universities
habilitation counseling, counseling psychol­
ogy, psychology, or a related field is required. offer a bachelor’s degree in rehabilitation serv­
In some cases, individuals with a bachelor’s ices education. In 1983, the Council on Re­
degree in psychology, sociology, counseling, habilitation Education accredited 70 graduate
or rehabilitation services are qualified, par­ programs in rehabilitation counseling. Usually,
ticularly if they have worked in related fields, 2 years of study—including a period of super­
such as social work, teaching, interviewing, vised work experience—are required for the
master’s degree.
job placement, psychology, or personnel.
Counselors in most State vocational re­
Counselor education programs at the gradu­
habilitation agencies must score competitively
ate level are available in over 400 colleges and
universities, usually in departments of educa­ on a written examination, and be evaluated by a
tion or psychology. One to two years of gradu­ board of examiners. Many employers require
ate study are usually required for a master’s rehabilitation counselors to be certified. To be­
come certified, counselors must meet educa­
tional and experience standards established by
the Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor
Certification, and pass a written examination.
Some States require counselors in public em­
ployment offices to have a master’s degree; oth­
ers do not. Most counselors in State employ­
ment agencies have a bachelor’s degree plus
additional courses in guidance and counseling.
Mental health counselors generally have a
master’s degree or doctorate in mental health
counseling, another area of counseling, or in
psychology or social work. Mental health
counselors can be certified by the National
Academy of Certified Clinical Mental Health
Counselors. A master’s degree, a period of su­
pervised internship, and passing an examina­
tion are required for certification. In addition, a
number of States require a license for private
practice.
Some employers provide an initial period of
training for newly hired counselors or coun­
selor trainees. Many agencies have work-study
Counselors must be skillful communicators.

although an increasing number are employed
on 10-1/2 or 11-month contracts. They generally
have the same hours as teachers.
Since privacy is essential to permit con­
fidential and open discussions with their cli­
ents, counselors usually have private offices.




programs whereby employed counselors can
earn graduate degrees. Professional counselors
must meet continuing education requirements
for certification and licensure. They do this
through participation in graduate studies,
workshops, institutes, and personal studies.
Persons interested in counseling should have
a strong interest in helping others and the ability
to inspire respect, trust, and confidence. They
should be able to work independently or as part
of a team.
School counselors may advance by moving
to a larger school; becoming director or super­
visor of counseling or guidance; or, with further
graduate education, becoming an educational
psychologist, vocational psychologist, school
psychologist, or school administrator. Usually,
educational or vocational psychologists must
have the Ph.D. degree.
Rehabilitation, mental health, and employ­
ment counselors may advance to supervisory or
administrative jobs in their agencies. Some
counselors move into research, consulting
work, or college teaching, or go into private
practice.

Job Outlook
Employment of counselors is expected to grow
more slowly than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Most job open­
ings will result from the need to replace coun­
selors who transfer to other fields, retire, or
leave the occupation for other reasons.
Pupil enrollment is the major factor affecting
employment of school counselors. Elementary
school enrollments, which have been declining
since the early 1970’s, are projected to begin
rising again after 1984. However, enrollments
in secondary schools, where most school coun­
selors work, will not start increasing again until
after 1990. In some communities, declining
enrollments and fiscal constraints are likely to
result in staff cutbacks, with school counselors
being transferred to classroom teaching, es­
pecially in States where counselors also hold
teacher certification. The number of counselors
in colleges and universities is expected to de­
cline as college enrollments decrease.
Total employment in State and local govern­
ment, except education—where most re­
habilitation and employment counselors are
employed—is expected to increase more slow­
ly than average through the mid-1990’s, and
employment of counselors is expected to follow
this same trend.
Employment of mental health counselors and
others who work with individuals with personal
and social problems such as marital or other
family difficulties, alcoholism, drug abuse, and
aging is likely to grow faster than average,
however. Private practice, community and so­
cial service agencies, and the development of
human resource and employee assistance pro­
grams in private business and industry are ex­
pected to be areas of growth.

Earnings
According to a recent survey, the average salary
of school counselors in the 1982-83 academic
year was $24,500. Salaries varied by size,
grade level, and locality of the school. Average

110/Occupational Outlook Handbook
salaries ranged from about $21,000 in the
Southeast to almost $28,000 in the Ear West.
Salaries of rehabilitation, mental health, and
employment counselors are usually somewhat
lower than those of school counselors.
Some counselors supplement their income
by part-time consulting or other work with pri­
vate or public counseling centers, government
agencies, or private industry.

Related Occupations
Counselors help people evaluate their interests,
abilities, and disabilities, as well as help them
deal with personal, social, academic, and ca­
reer problems. Others who help people in sim­
ilar ways include college and student personnel
workers, teachers, personnel workers and man­
agers, social workers, psychologists, psychia­
trists, members of the clergy, occupational and
physical therapists, training and employee de­
velopment specialists, and equal employment
opportunity/affirmative action specialists.

Sources of Additional Information
For general information about counselors, con­
tact:

American Association for Counseling and Develop­
ment, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22304.

National Rehabilitation Counseling Association, 633
So. Washington St., Alexandria, Va. 22314.

For information on training programs ac­
credited by the Council for Accreditation of
Counseling and Related Educational Programs,
contact:

National Council on Rehabilitation Education. 1200
Commercial St., Emporia, Kans. 66801.

Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Educational Programs, American Association for
Counseling and Development, 5999 Stevenson Ave.,
Alexandria, Va. 22304.

For information on national certificaiton re­
quirements and procedures, contact:
National Board for Certified Counselors, 5999 Ste­
venson Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22304.

State departments of education can supply
information on colleges and universities that
offer training in guidance and counseling as
well as on State certification and licensure re­
quirements.
State employment service offices can supply
information about their job opportunities and
entrance requirements.
For information about rehabilitation counsel­
ing, contact:

A list of accredited graduate programs in
rehabilitation counseling may be obtained
from:
Council on Rehabilitation Education, 162 North State
St., Room 317, Chicago, 111. 60601.

For a list of federally funded programs offer­
ing training in rehabilitation counseling, con­
tact:
Division of Resource Development, Rehabilitation
Sendees Administration, U.S. Department of Educa­
tion, 330 C St. SW., Washington, D.C. 20201.
For inform ation on certification require­
ments for rehabilitation counselors, contact:
Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certifica­
tion, 162 North State St., Chicago, 111. 60601.

For information on certification require­
ments for mental health counselors, contact:
National Academy of Certified Clinical Mental
Health Counselors, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alex­
andria, Va. 22314.

OTHER TEACHING, LIBRARY, AND COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS
Title

Definition

Adult education
teachers

Teach and instruct out-of-school youths and adults in courses other
than those which lead to an occupational objective. Subjects may
include such self-improvement or avocational courses as
americanization, basic education, bridge, fine arts, homemaking,
stock market, languages, etc. Teaching may take place in a public or
private nonproprietary school whose primary business is education
and training, or in a school associated with an organization whose
primary business is other than education.

Dance instructors

Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

125,000

Faster than average

Instruct pupils in ballet, ballroom, tap and other forms of dance.
Observe students to determine physical and artistic qualifications.
Explain and demonstrate techniques and methods of regulating
movement of body and feet to musical accompaniment.

27,000

Faster than average

Extension service
specialists

Instruct extension workers or develop specialized service activities in
field of agriculture or home economics. Work may involve planning
training programs, lecturing and preparing literature on such subjects
as home management or horticulture.

14,000

More slowly than
average

Vocational
education teachers

Teach vocational and occupational subjects at the postsecondary level
(but at less than the baccalaureate) to students who have graduated or
left high school. Subjects may include business, secretarial science,
data processing, commercial art, trades or practical nursing. Teaching
may take place in a public or private proprietary school whose
primary business is education and training, or in a school associated
with an organization whose primary business is not education.

98,000

Faster than average




Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners
Health practitioners diagnose, treat, and strive
to prevent illness and disease. While all of them
practice the art of healing, they differ in meth­
ods of treatment and areas of specialization.
Physicians—both doctors of medicine and doc­
tors of osteopathy—prescribe medications, ex­
ercise, proper diet, and surgery. Manipulation
of muscles and bones, especially the spine, is
the primary form of treatment given by chi­
ropractors. Optometrists specialize in eye care
and podiatrists treat foot diseases and defor­
mities. Dentists emphasize not only the treat­
ment but the prevention of problems associated
with the teeth and gums. Veterinarians treat
animals and inspect meat, poultry, and other
food as part of public health programs.
Among the health practitioners whose work
is described in this section of theHandbook, the
most numerous are physicians, who held
479,000 jobs in 1982. The other practitioner
occupations are much smaller, as the following
tabulation shows:
Physicians (M.D.’s and D.O.’s) ...........
Dentists....................................................
Veterinarians...........................................
Optometrists...........................................
Chiropractors .........................................
Podiatrists................................................

479,000
173,000
36,000
28,000
25,000
13,000

Training to become a health practitioner is
much more rigorous than training for most
other professional occupations, but practice
also offers unusual rewards. Incomes of health
practitioners greatly exceed the average and
generally are higher than those of other profes­
sional workers with similar years of graduate
education. Furthermore, health practitioners
enjoy great prestige within the community, and
most derive considerable satisfaction from
knowing that their work contributes directly to
the well-being of others.
All health practitioners must have the ability
and perseverance to complete the years of study
required. They should be emotionally stable,
able to make decisions in emergencies, and
have a strong desire to help the sick and injured.
Sincerity and an ability to gain the confidence
of patients also are important qualities.
Among these six health practitioner occupa­
tions, minimum training requirements vary
from 6 to 9 years of postsecondary education.
After college, prospective physicians must
complete 3- or 4-year programs of medical edu­
cation, followed by at least 1 year of graduate
training in a hospital (residency or internship).
Physicians who specialize, and most M.D.’s
do, spend several years in training after their
residency to qualify for specialty board exam­
inations. Two years of college are required for
entry to the 4-year chiropractic schools. Op­
tometrists, podiatrists, and veterinarians all



must complete a minimum of 2 years of college
before beginning the 4-year program.
Occupational licensing is a distinctive fea­
ture of the health sector. The right to practice
medicine, dentistry, nursing, pharmacy, and
several other professions—and the right to call
oneself a physician, dentist, nurse, or phar­
macist—is regulated by law. Each of the 50
States has legislation governing the kinds of
tasks that may be performed by a given health
professional, and specifying the training and
proof of competence necessary for practice.
Complementing the occupational licensure
laws is a system of granting professional cre­
dentials, in which associations and other non­
governmental bodies attest to an individual’s
competence through certification or registra­
tion.
The employment outlook for health practi­
tioners is expected to remain favorable through
the mid-1990’s, but the market is changing as
supply overtakes demand. The physician short­
age identified during the 1960’s and early 1970’s
has vanished as a result of legislative measures
designed to expand supply. In fact, medical
school graduates are finding it unexpectedly
difficult to secure the residency of their choice
and—later on—to start a practice. Established
practitioners report that they are seeing fewer
patients than they would like.
Nonetheless, physicians in private practice
generally work 60 hours a week or more and
their earnings potential exceeds that in most
other occupations. In the years ahead, demand
for their services will continue to grow, for the
population is increasing—especially the
number of older people, who are relatively
heavy users of health care. Moreover, rural
communities and inner city neighborhoods re­
main underserved.
The American health care system is likely to
change in a number of ways in the years ahead
as a result of efforts to control the very rapid
increase in health care costs. For example,
practice patterns are likely to change. Solo
practice is already beginning to give way to
group practice and a variety of salaried arrange­
ments, and this trend is likely to accelerate as
more and more young practitioners accept sal­
aried positions. Salaried positions for physi­
cians are found in health maintenance organiza­
tions; multispecialty group practices; am­
bulatory, emergency, critical care, and sub­
specialty procedure facilities; the Armed
Forces and the Veterans Administration; and in
other institutional settings. Especially in areas
already well served with practitioners, new
graduates appear willing to sacrifice traditional
practice patterns (and income potential) in favor
of ensured earnings, regular hours, and protec­
tion from some of the more stressful elements
of practice.

Changes in the employment situation of phy­
sicians cannot help but affect other health prac­
titioners, and competition for patients is al­
ready evident. Some specialists are moving
into general practice as referrals for specialty
work fall off. Competition appears to be mount­
ing between physicians, on the one hand, and
other providers including optom etrists,
podiatrists, chiropractors, clinical psycholog­
ists, physical therapists, and nurse midwives,
on the other. In dentistry, the ample supply of
dentists raises questions about prospects for
dental auxiliaries (hygienists and assistants).
However, relations among the health occupa­
tions are complex and the net effect of an abun­
dance of physicians and dentists is uncertain.
For more detailed information about the out­
look in individual practitioner occupations^ see
the statements that follow.

Chiropractors
(D.O.T. 079.101-010)

Nature of the Work
Chiropractic is a system of treatment based on
the principle that a person’s health is deter­
mined largely by the nervous system, and that
interference with this system impairs normal
functions and lowers resistance to disease. Chi­
ropractors treat patients primarily by manual
manipulation (adjustments) of parts of the
body, especially the spinal column.
Because of the emphasis on the spine and its
position, most chiropractors use X-rays to help
locate the source of patients’ difficulties. In
addition to manipulation, chiropractors use
water, light, massage, ultrasound, electric, and
heat therapy. They also prescribe diet, sup­
ports, exercise, and rest. Most State laws spec­
ify the types of supplementary treatment per­
mitted in chiropractic. Chiropractors do not
prescribe drugs or surgery.

Working Conditions
Almost all chiropractors work in private offices
that are clean and comfortable. The average
workweek is about 40 hours, but this may in­
clude some evening and weekend time to ac­
commodate patients who work. Because most
chiropractors are self-employed, they can set
their own hours. Like other self-employed
health practitioners, chiropractors tend to be
older than average when they stop working al­
together.

Employment
Chiropractors held about 25,000 jobs in 1982.
Most chiropractors were in private practice and

111

112/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Chiropractors treat patients primarily by manual
manipulation.
about 70 percent were in solo practice—that is,
they had no partners. Some were salaried assis­
tants of established practitioners or worked for
chiropractic clinics. A small number taught or
conducted research at chiropractic colleges.
Chiropractors often locate in small commu­
nities—about half work in cities of 50,000 in­
habitants or less.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All 50 States and the District of Columbia regu­
late the practice of chiropractic and grant li­
censes to chiropractors who meet certain
educational requirements and pass a State
board examination. Many States have re­
ciprocity agreements that permit chiropractors
already licensed in another State to obtain a
license without taking an examination.
The type of practice permitted and the educa­
tional requirements for a license vary consider­
ably from one State to another, but in general,
State licensing boards require successful com­
pletion of a 4-year chiropractic course follow­
ing 2 years of college. Thirty-eight State boards
recognize only academic training in chiroprac­
tic colleges accredited by the Council on Chi­
ropractic Education. Some States require spe­
cific college courses such as English, chemis­
try, biology, or physics. Several States require
that chiropractors pass a basic science examina­
tion. The National Board of Chiropractic Ex­
aminers’ test given to chiropractic students is
accepted by 47 State boards in place of a State
examination.
In 1982, 9 of the 15 chiropractic colleges in
the United States were fully accredited by the
Council on Chiropractic Education; 5 others
were recognized candidates working toward ac­
creditation. All chiropractic colleges require
applicants to have a minimum of 2 years of



undergraduate study, including courses in En­
glish, the social sciences, chemistry, biology,
physics, and mathematics.
Chiropractic colleges emphasize courses in
manipulation and spinal adjustments. Most of­
fer a broader curriculum, however, including
subjects such as physiotherapy and nutrition.
During the first 2 years, most chiropractic col­
leges emphasize classroom and laboratory
work in subjects such as anatomy, physiology,
and biochemistry, while the last 2 years stress
clinical experience. Students completing chi­
ropractic training earn the degree of Doctor of
Chiropractic (D.C.).
Chiropractic requires a keen sense of obser­
vation to detect physical abnormalities and con­
siderable hand dexterity but not unusual
strength or endurance. Persons desiring to be­
come chiropractors should be able to work in­
dependently and handle responsibility. The
ability to work with detail is important. Sympa­
thy and understanding are desirable qualities
for dealing effectively with patients.
Most newly licensed chiropractors either set
up a new practice or purchase an established
one. Because of the financial investment neces­
sary to open and equip an office, many first
work for established chiropractors to acquire
the experience and the funds needed.

Job Outlook
Job opportunities for chiropractors through the
mid-1990’s will reflect employment growth that
is expected to be about as fast as the average for
all occupations plus the need to replace experi­
enced chiropractors who leave the profession.
Demand for chiropractic is related to the
ability of patients to pay for services, either
directly or through health insurance, and to
public acceptance of the profession, which ap­
pears to be growing. At present, newly-gradu­
ated chiropractors are entering practice with
little difficulty. Enrollments in chiropractic col­
leges have grown dramatically, however, and as
more students graduate, new chiropractors may
encounter competition establishing a practice
in areas where other practitioners already are
located.

Earnings
In chiropractic, as in other types of independent
practice, earnings are relatively low in the be­
ginning. From the limited data available, new
graduates who worked as associates to estab­
lished practitioners earned more than $15,000 a
year in 1982. Experienced chiropractors aver­
aged about $45,500, after expenses, according
to a survey conducted by the American Chi­
ropractic Association.

Related Occupations
Chiropractors diagnose, treat, and work to pre­
vent diseases, disorders, and injuries. They em­
phasize the importance of the nervous system
for good health. Others whose professions re­
quire similar skills include acupuncturists, au­
diologists, dentists, naturopathic doctors, op­
tometrists, osteopaths, podiatrists, speech pa­
thologists, and veterinarians.

Sources of Additional Information
The board of licensing in each State capital can
supply information on State licensing require­
ments for chiropractors.
General information on chiropractic as a ca­
reer is available from:
American Chiropractic Association, 1916 Wilson
Blvd., Arlington, Va. 22201.
International Chiropractors Association, 1901 L St.
NW., Suite 800, Washington, D.C. 20036.

For a list of chiropractic colleges, as well as
general information on chiropractic as a career,
contact:
Council on Chiropractic Education, 3209 Ingersoll
Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50312.

For information on requirements for admis­
sion to a specific chiropractic college, contact
the admissions office.

Dentists
(D.O.T. 072)

Nature of the Work
Dentists examine teeth and tissues of the mouth
to diagnose diseases or abnormalities. They
take X-rays, fill cavities, straighten teeth, and
treat gum diseases. Dentists extract teeth and
substitute artificial dentures designed for the
individual patient. They also perform correc­
tive surgery of the gums and supporting bones.
In addition, they may clean teeth and provide
other preventive services.
Dentists spend most of their time with pa­
tients, but may devote some time to laboratory
work such as making dentures and inlays. Most
dentists, however—particularly those in large
cities—send their laboratory work to commer­
cial firms. Some dentists employ dental
hygienists to clean patients’ teeth and provide
instruction for patient self-care. Dentists may
also employ other assistants to perform office
work, assist in “chairside” duties, and provide
therapeutic services under their supervision.
(The work of dental hygienists and dental assis­
tants is described elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Most dentists are general practitioners who
provide many types of dental care; about 15
percent practice in one of the eight specialty
areas recognized by the American Dental Asso­
ciation (ADA). The largest group of specialists
are orthodontists, who straighten teeth. The
next largest group, oral surgeons, operate on
the mouth and jaws. The remainder specialize
in pedodontics (dentistry for children);
periodontics (treating the gums); prosthodontics (making artificial teeth or dentures); endo­
dontics (root canal therapy); public health den­
tistry; and oral pathology (diseases of the
mouth).
About 5 percent of all dentists teach in dental
schools, do research, or administer dental
health programs on a full-time basis. Many
dentists in private practice do this work on a
part-time basis.

Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/113
Working Conditions
Most dental offices are open 5 days a week, and
some dentists have evening hours. Dentists
usually work between 40 and 45 hours a week,
although many spend more than 50 hours a
week in the office. Dentists often work fewer
hours as they grow older, and a considerable
number continue in part-time practice well
beyond the usual retirement age.

Employment
Dentists held about 173,000 jobs in 1982. Be­
cause some dentists hold more than one job, the
number of jobs exceeds the number of dentists
in practice—nearly 132,000, according to the
U.S. Public Health Service.
Nine out of 10 dentists are in private practice.
Of the remainder, about half do research, teach
or hold positions in dental schools. Some work
in hospitals and clinics. About 1,000 dentists
work in the hospitals and clinics of the Veterans
Administration and the U.S. Public Health
Service.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All 50 States and the District of Columbia re­
quire dentists to be licensed. To qualify for a
license in most States, a candidate must gradu­
ate from a dental school approved by the Amer­
ican Dental Association and pass written and
practical examinations. In 1982, candidates in
49 States and the District of Columbia could
fulfill part of the State licensing requirements
by passing a written examination given by the
National Board of Dental Examiners. Most
State licenses permit dentists to engage in both
general and specialized practice. In 16 States
and the District of Columbia, however, a dentist
must obtain a specialty license before practic­
ing as a “specialist.” Requirements include 2 or
3 years of graduate education and, in some
cases, completion of a special State examina­
tion. Extra education also is necessary in the
other 34 States, but the dental profession, not
the State licensing authority, regulates the spe­
cialist’s practice. To practice in a different
State, a licensed dentist usually must pass that
State’s examination. However, 20 States grant
licenses to dentists from other States on the
basis of their credentials. Dentists who want to
teach or do research usually spend an additional
2 to 4 years in advanced dental training in
programs operated by dental schools, hospi­
tals, and other institutions of higher education.
Dental schools require a minimum of 2 to 4
years of college-level predental education. In
fact, most dental students are college gradu­
ates. Four out of five of the students entering
dental schools in 1982 had a bachelor’s or mas­
ter’s degree. Predental education must include
courses in the sciences and humanities.
In selecting students, dental schools give
considerable weight to college grades. In addi­
tion, all dental schools participate in a nation­
wide testing program, and scores earned on
these tests are considered along with informa­
tion gathered about the applicant through rec­
ommendations and interviews. Many Statesupported dental schools give preference to res­
idents of their particular States.



Examining a patient requires manual dexterity.
Dental school generally lasts 4 academic
years, although one institution condenses the
program into 3 calendar years and another pro­
gram lasts 5 years. Studies begin with class­
room instruction and laboratory work in basic
sciences including anatomy, microbiology, bio­
chemistry, and physiology. Courses in preclinical technique and beginning courses in
clinical sciences also are provided at this time.
During the last 2 years the student treats pa­
tients chiefly in dental clinics.
Most dental colleges award the degree of
Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S). An equiv­
alent degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine
(D.M.D.), is conferred by 20 schools.
Earning a dental degree is a costly process,
but financial aid is available from the Federal
and State governments, health-related organi­
zations, industry, and dental schools. Many
dental students rely on student loans to finance
their professional training.
Dentistry requires both manual skills and a
high level of diagnostic ability. Dentists should
have good visual memory, excellent judgment
of space and shape, and a high degree of manual
dexterity, as well as scientific ability. Good
business sense, self-discipline, and the ability
to instill confidence are helpful for success in
private practice. High school students who
want to become dentists are advised to take
courses in biology, chemistry, health, and
mathematics.

Most dental graduates open their own offices
or purchase established practices. Some gain
experience with established dentists and save
money to equip an office; others may enter
residency training programs in approved hospi­
tals or dental schools. Dentists who enter the
Armed Forces are commissioned as captains in
the Army and Air Force and as lieutenants in the
Navy. Graduates of recognized dental schools
are eligible for positions in the Federal service
and for commissions (equivalent to lieutenants
in the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Service.

Job Outlook
Employment of dentists is expected to grow
about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s due to population
growth, increased awareness that regular dental
care helps prevent and control dental diseases,
and prepayment arrangements, which make it
easier for people to afford dental services.
Because of the abundant supply of practi­
tioners, however, the employment situation for
dentists is becoming competitive in some areas
of the country. The number of dental school
graduates rose sharply from the mid-1960’s un­
til the mid-1970’s, as new dental schools were
established. The expansion has moderated sin­
ce then, and first-year enrollments have de­
clined since 1980. (See chart.) Nevertheless, a
substantial number of newly qualified dentists
will enter the labor market each year.

114/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Even though the upsurge in dental school enrollments has halted,
the outlook in dentistry remains competitive.
First-year dental enrollments (thousands)

Prospective dental students should contact
the office of student financial aid at the schools
to which they apply for information on schol­
arships, grants, and loans, including Federal
financial aid.

Optometrists
(D.O.T. 079.101-018)

Nature of the Work

67

69

71

73

75

77

79

81

83

SO URCE: A m e ric an Den tal A s s o c ia t io n

As a result, an oversupply of dentists may
develop in some localities and intensify in oth­
ers. If so, various market adjustments are like­
ly—increased evening and weekend office
hours (although total hours may be reduced),
reductions in earnings, and less intensive use of
dental assistants and dental hygienists, for ex­
ample. To build clientele, dentists are likely to
experiment with new ways of providing care
and may, for example, reach out to hitherto
underserved groups such as the elderly.
Fluoridation of community water supplies
and improved dental hygiene prevent tooth and
gum disorders and preserve teeth that might
otherwise be extracted. However, since the pre­
served teeth may need care in the future, these
measures may increase rather than decrease the
demand for dental care. There will continue to
be a need for dentists to teach in dental col­
leges, administer dental public health pro­
grams, and serve in the Armed Forces.
In a departure from the usual pattern, re­
placement needs create relatively few job open­
ings. This reflects the fact that dentists have a
distinctive employment pattern: Once having
completed their training and entered dental
practice, they tend to work continuously until
they reach retirement age. Some older dentists
reduce their hours of work because of ill health
or desire for leisure, but very few people leave
dentistry to take up other careers. A compara­
ble degree of occupational attachment is found
in only a few other occupations, notably among
other health practitioners, who, like dentists,
have a considerable investment in training.

Earnings
During the first year or two of practice, dentists
often earn little more than the minimum needed
to cover expenses, but their earnings usually
rise rapidly as their practice develops. Spe­
cialists generally earn considerably more than
general practitioners. The average income of
dentists in 1982 was about $55,000 a year, ac­
cording to the limited information available. In



the Federal Government, new graduates of den­
tal schools could expect to start at $24,500 a
year in 1982. Experienced dentists working for
the Federal Government in 1982 averaged
$46,000; some earned as much as $57,500.
Location is one of the major factors affecting
the income of dentists who open their own
offices. For example, in high-income urban
areas, dental services are in great demand.
However, a practice can be developed most
quickly in small towns, where new dentists can
become known easily and where they may face
less competition from established practitioners.
Although income in small towns may rise
rapidly at first, over the long run the level of
earnings, like the cost of living, may be lower
than it is in larger communities.
Except for emergencies, dental work gener­
ally can be postponed. During periods of high
unemployment and economic hardship, there­
fore, dentists tend to experience a reduction in
the volume of work and lower earnings.

Related Occupations
Dentists examine, diagnose, and treat various
oral diseases and abnormalities. Others whose
work involves personal contact and requires a
long and rigorous period of scientific training
include psychologists, optometrists, physi­
cians, veterinarians, and podiatrists.

Sources of Additional Information
For information on dentistry as a career and a
list of accredited dental schools, contact:
American Dental Association, Council on Dental Ed­
ucation, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.
American Association of Dental Schools, 1619 Mas­
sachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

The American Dental Association also will
furnish a list of State boards of dental exam­
iners. Persons interested in practicing dentistry
should obtain the requirements for licensure
from the board of dental examiners of the State
where they plan to work.

Half the people in the United States wear glass­
es or contact lenses. Optometrists (doctors of
optometry) provide most of the vision care
these people need. They examine people’s eyes
to diagnose vision problems and detect signs of
disease and other abnormal conditions. They
also test to insure that the patient has proper
depth and color perception and the ability to
focus and coordinate the eyes. When necessary,
they prescribe lenses and treatment. Where evi­
dence of disease is present, the optometrist re­
fers the patient to the appropriate health care
practitioner. Most optometrists supply the pre­
scribed eyeglasses and fit and adjust contact
lenses. Optometrists also prescribe vision
therapy or other treatment which does not re­
quire surgery. In 37 States optometrists may
utilize diagnostic drugs; in three of these States
they may also utilize drugs to treat eye diseases.
Although most optometrists are in general
practice, some specialize in work with the el­
derly or with children. Others work with par­
tially sighted persons, who use microscopic or
telescopic lenses. Still others concentrate on
contact lenses or vision therapy. Optometrists
teach, do research, consult, and serve on health
advisory committees of various kinds.
Optometrists should not be confused with
either ophthalmologists or dispensing opti­
cians. Ophthalmologists are physicians (doc­
tors of medicine or osteopathy) who specialize
in medical eye care, eye diseases, and injuries;
perform eye surgery; and prescribe drugs or
other eye treatment, as well as lenses. Dispens­
ing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses according
to prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or
optometrists; they do not examine eyes or pre­
scribe treatment. (See statements on physicians
and dispensing opticians elsewhere in the
H a n d b o o k .)

Working Conditions
Optometrists work in places—usually their
own offices—that are clean, well lighted, and
comfortable. The work requires a lot of atten­
tion to detail. Because optometrists, like other
health practitioners, generally are self-em­
ployed, they have considerable flexibility in
setting their hours of work, and often continue
to practice after the normal retirement age.
Many independent practitioners work well over
40 hours a week, including time on Saturday
and in the evening.

Employment
Optometrists held about 28,000 jobs in 1982.
The number of jobs is greater than the number

Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/115

Optometrists use sophisticated instruments to examine patients’ eyes.
of practicing optometrists because some op­
tometrists hold two jobs or maintain two of­
fices. For example, an optometrist may have a
full-time private practice and also work part
time in a vision-care center. More than 9 out of
10 optometrists worked full time. Although the
majority of optometrists are in solo practice, a
growing number are in partnership or group
practices. The trend toward partnership or
group practices, which is especially pro­
nounced among younger optometrists, is asso­
ciated with the high cost of setting up a solo
practice. For the same reason, some op­
tometrists work as salaried employees in the
offices of other optometrists.
Some optometrists work in health centers
and eye clinics or teach in schools of optometry.
Others work for the Veterans Administration,
health maintenance organizations, public and
private health agencies, and insurance com­
panies.
Some optometrists in private practice also act
as consultants to industrial safety programs,
insurance com panies, m anufacturers of
ophthalmic products, and others.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All States and the District of Columbia require
that optometrists be licensed. Applicants for a
license must have a Doctor of Optometry de­
gree from an accredited optometric school or
college and pass a State board examination. In
some States, applicants can substitute the ex­
amination of the National Board of Examiners
in Optometry, given in the second, third, and
fourth years of optometric school, for part or all
of the written State examination. Some States
allow applicants to be licensed without lengthy
examination if they have a license in another



State. In 46 States, optometrists must earn con­
tinuing education credits in optometry to renew
their licenses.
The Doctor of Optometry degree requires a
minimum of 6 or 7 years of higher education
consisting of a 4-year professional degree pro­
gram preceded by at least 2 or 3 years of preoptometric study at an accredited university, col­
lege, or junior college. Most optometry
students enter with at least a bachelor’s degree.
In 1982, there were 13 schools and colleges of
optometry in the United States accredited by
the Council on Optometric Education of the
American Optometric Association; accredita­
tion was pending for 3 other schools. Require­
ments for admission to these schools usually

include courses in English, mathematics, phys­
ics, chemistry, and biology or zoology. Some
schools also require courses in psychology, so­
cial studies, literature, philosophy, and foreign
languages. All applicants must take the Op­
tometry College Admissions Test (OCAT).
Competition is keen for admission to optome­
try schools. Therefore, superior grades in preoptometric college courses may enhance one’s
chances for acceptance.
Because most optometrists are self-em­
ployed, business ability, self-discipline, and the
ability to deal with patients tactfully are neces­
sary for success.
Many beginning optometrists enter into as­
sociate practice with an optometrist or other
health professional. Others purchase an estab­
lished practice or set up a new practice. Some
take salaried positions to obtain experience and
the necessary funds to start their own practice.
Optometrists wishing to advance in a spe­
cialized field may study for a master’s or Ph.D.
degree in visual science, physiological optics,
neurophysiology, public health, health admin­
istration, health information and communica­
tion, or health education. One-year graduate
clinical residency programs also are available
in optometric specialties including family prac­
tice optometry, pediatric optometry, geriatric
optometry, low vision rehabilitation, vision
training, contact lenses, hospital-based op­
tometry, and primary care optometry. Op­
tometrists who enter the Armed Forces as ca­
reer officers have the opportunity to work to­
ward advanced degrees and to do research on
vision problems.

Job Outlook
Opportunities for optometrists through the
mid-1990’s will reflect employment growth that
is about average for all occupations, plus the
need to replace experienced optometrists who
leave the profession.
Replacement needs arise almost entirely
from retirements and deaths, for optometrists,

Optometrists account for about a third of patient visits for eye care.
Percent of eye care visits, 1979
0

10

Ophthalmologists
Optometrists
Physicians other
than ophthalmologists
Other (mainly
opticians)
SO URCE: N a tio n a l Cen ter for H ealth S t a tis tic s

20

30

40

50

116/Occupational Outlook Handbook
like other health practitioners, have a strong
attachment to their profession and generally
remain in practice until they stop working al­
together. Few transfer to other occupations. Be­
cause over a third of all active optometrists are
55 years of age or older, it is expected that a
large number of optometrists will retire during
the next decade.
Population growth and the aging of the popu­
lation are major factors contributing to antici­
pated growth in the occupation, although a shift
in optometrists’ share of the vision care market
could also affect demand. Visits to both op­
tometrists and ophthalmologists are substan­
tially higher for persons over the age of 45,
reflecting the onset of vision problems during
middle age and the increasing severity of these
problems in old age. Rising per capita income,
which permits people to pay for more frequent
doctor visits, and greater recognition of the
importance of good vision also should increase
demand for optometric services.
Health insurance coverage of optometric
services is growing. Today, 30 million Amer­
icans are covered under some sort of vision
benefit program. Broadening of health insur­
ance coverage to provide reimbursement for
eye care provided by optometrists is likely to
bring about a shift in current patterns of service
utilization, and a greater number of optometric
visits. (Most plans already pay for vision care
provided by ophthalmologists and other physi­
cians.) If consumers change their preference
for the type of provider, the relative positions of
optometrists and ophthalmologists in the vision
care market could change. Currently, op­
tometrists account for about one-third of patient
visits for eye care, as the accompanying chart
shows.

Earnings
In 1982, net earnings of new optometry gradu­
ates in their first full year of practice averaged
about $24,000. Experienced optometrists aver­
aged about $50,000 annually. Optometrists
working for the Federal Government earned an
average of $34,800 a year in 1982. Incomes
vary greatly, depending upon location, spe­
cialization, and other factors. Optometrists
who start out by working on a salaried basis
tend to earn more money initially than op­
tometrists who set up their own solo practice.
However, in the long run, those with their own
private practice have the potential to earn more
than those employed by other optometrists,
hospitals, health agencies, retail stores, or
other firms.

Sources of Additional Information
For information on optometry as a career, write
to:
American Optometric Association, Education and
Manpower Division, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St.
Louis, Mo. 63141.

Additional career information and a listing of
accredited optometric educational institutions
as well as required preoptometry courses can be
obtained from:
Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry,
Suite 410, 600 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington,
D.C. 20024.

The Board of Optometry in the capital of
each State can supply information on licensing
requirements.
For information on admission requirements
and sources of financial aid, including Federal
loans and scholarships, contact individual op­
tometry schools.

Physicians
(D.O.T. 070 and 071)




Working Conditions
Many physicians have long, irregular hours.
Most specialists work fewer hours each week
than general practitioners. As doctors approach
retirement age, they may accept fewer new pa­
tients and tend to work shorter hours. However,
many continue in practice well beyond 70 years
of age.

Nature of the Work
Physicians perform medical examinations, di­
agnose illnesses, and treat people who are suf­
fering from injury or disease. They also advise
patients on maintaining good health. There are
two types of physicians: the M.D.—Doctor of
Medicine—and the D.O.—Doctor of Osteopa­
thy. Despite differences in training and philoso­
phy of treatment, both M.D.’s and D.O.’s use all
accepted methods of treatment, including drugs
and surgery. Osteopathic physicians, however,
place special emphasis on the musculo-skeletal
system of the body—bones, muscles, liga­
ments, and nerves. One of the basic treatments
or therapies used by osteopathic physicians
centers on manipulating this system with the
hands.

Employment
Physicians held about 479,000 jobs in 1982.
Because young physicians in particular fre­
quently “moonlight,” the number of jobs ex­
ceeds the number of individuals who are in
practice—about 430,000 M.D.’s and 20,000
D.O.’s in 1982, according to the American Med­
ical Association and the American Osteopathic
Association.
About two-thirds of the M.D.’s had office
practices; about one-fourth worked as residents
or full-time staff members in hospitals. The
remaining M.D.’s taught or had primarily ad­
ministrative or research duties.
The Northeast has the highest ratio of physi­
cians to population; the South, the lowest.

Specialists outnumber general practitioners by 6 to 1.
Percent of physicians by specialty group, 1981
Other specialty:

Psychiatry
Anesthesiology, etc.

Surgical specialty:

General surgery
Orthopedic surgery,

Related Occupations
Other occupations in which the main activity
consists of applying logical thinking and scien­
tific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat
disease, disorders, or injuries in humans or
animals are chiropractors, dentists, osteopathic
physicians, physicians, podiatrists, and vet­
erinarians.

Physicians may be “family doctors” who en­
gage in general practice or they may specialize
in a particular field of medicine. Most D.O.’s
are general practitioners, providing primary
care; only about 11 percent are specialists. On
the other hand, about 85 percent of the M.D.’s
who provide patient care are specialists. (See
chart). The largest of the medical specialties for
which there is postgraduate training are internal
medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and
gynecology, psychiatry, pediatrics, radiology,
anesthesiology, ophthalmology, pathology, and
orthopedic surgery. The most rapidly growing
specialties are in the primary care area—family
practice, internal medicine, and pediatrics.
Some physicians combine the practice of
medicine with research or teaching in medical
schools.

Medical specialty:

Internal medicine
Pediatrics, etc.

SOURCE: A m e ric an M e d ic a l A s s o c ia t io n

General practice
and family practice

Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/117
More than half of all D.O.’s practice in cities and
towns of fewer than 50,000 inhabitants.
M.D.’s, on the other hand, have tended to locate
in urban areas, close to hospital and educational
centers, so many rural areas have been under­
served. Currently, more medical students are
being exposed to practice in rural communities
with the direct support of educational centers
and hospitals in more populous areas. In addi­
tion, some rural areas offer physicians guaran­
teed minimum incomes to offset the relatively
low earnings typical in rural medical practice.
Osteopathic physicians are located chiefly in
those States that have osteopathic hospitals. In
1982, three-fifths of all D.O.’s were in Florida,
Michigan, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio,
Texas, and Missouri. Nineteen States and the
District of Columbia each had fewer than 50
osteopathic physicians in 1982.

framing and Other Qualifications
All States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto
Rico require physicians to be licensed. Licen­
sure requirements for both D.O.’s and M.D.’s
include a minimum of 8 years of postsecondary
education—graduation from an accredited pro­
fessional school, successful completion of a
licensing examination, and, in most States, 1 or
2 years of supervised practice in an accredited
graduate medical education program (internship/residency). The licensing examination
taken by most graduates of U.S. medical
schools is the National Board of Medical Exam­
iners (NBME) test that all States except Texas
and Louisiana accept.
Graduates of foreign medical schools gener­
ally begin practice in the United States after
completing a U.S. hospital residency training
program. To enter an approved residency, grad­
uates of foreign medical schools usually must
pass an examination administered by the Edu­
cational Commission for Foreign Medical
Graduates and be certified by that organization.
After one year of work in an approved residen­
cy, foreign medical graduates, as well as gradu­
ates of U.S. medical schools who have not
taken the NBME test, must take the Federation
Licensure Examination (FLEX) that all juris­
dictions accept. Although physicians licensed
in one State usually can get a license to practice
in another without further examination, some
States limit reciprocity.
Of the 127 accredited schools in the United
States in which students can begin study for the
M.D. degree, 126 award the degree of Doctor of
Medicine (M.D.). One school offers a 2-year
program in the basic medical sciences to stu­
dents who transfer to another medical school
for the last semesters of study. Fifteen schools
of osteopathic medicine award the degree of
Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.).
The minimum educational requirement for
entry to a medical or osteopathic school is nor­
mally 3 years of college; some schools require 4
years. A few medical schools allow exceptional
students to begin their professional study after 2
years of college. Most students have at least a
bachelor’s degree, and many have advanced
degrees.
Required premedical study includes under­
graduate work in English, physics, biology,



and inorganic and organic chemistry. Students
also should take courses in the humanities,
mathematics, and the social sciences to acquire
a broad general education. Studies have shown
that medical students with undergraduate ma­
jors in the humanities do as well in their medical
studies as those who major in the sciences or a
“premedical curriculum.”
Medicine is a popular field of study, and
applicants must compete for entry with highly
motivated students who generally have excelled
in preprofessional education. Factors consid­
ered by the schools in admitting students in­
clude their academic record and their scores on
the Medical College Admission Test, which
almost all applicants take. Consideration also is
given to the applicant’s character, personality,
and leadership qualities, as shown by personal
interviews, letters of recommendation, and ex­
tracurricular activities. Osteopathic colleges
give considerable weight to a favorable recom­
mendation by an osteopathic physican familiar
with the applicant’s background. Many Statesupported schools give preference to State resi­
dents and, sometimes, to residents of nearby
States.
Students spend the first semesters of medical
school primarily in laboratories and classrooms

learning basic medical sciences such as anat­
omy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology,
microbiology, and pathology. Additionally, stu­
dents gain some clinical experience with pa­
tients during the first 2.years of study, learning
to take case histories, perform examinations,
and recognize symptoms. During the last se­
mesters, students work under supervision in
hospitals and clinics to gain experience in the
diagnosis and treatment of illness.
After graduation, almost all M.D.’s complete
1or 2 years of graduate medical education (resi­
dency). Nearly all D.O.’s serve a 12-month ro­
tating internship (including experience in sur­
gery, pediatrics, internal medicine, and other
specialties.) Physicians seeking certification in
a specialty spend from 2 to 5 years—depending
on the specialty—in advanced residency train­
ing, followed by 2 or more years of practice in
the specialty. Then they must pass the specialty
board examinations. Physicians who want to
teach or do research may take graduate work
leading to a master’s or Ph.D. degree in a field
such as biochemistry or microbiology.
A physician’s training is very costly.
However, loans and scholarships are available
from the Federal Government, State and local
governments, and private sources. To receive
this aid,the student may have to demonstrate

A career in medicine requires years of rigorous and very costly training.

118/Occupational Outlook Handbook
financial need or agree to serve at least 3 years
in the Armed Forces upon graduation.
Persons who wish to become physicians
must have a strong desire to serve the sick and
injured. They must be self-motivated and com­
petitive to survive the pressures of premedical
and medical education and the demanding
workload during the intemship/residency that
follows medical school. They must study a
great deal to keep up with the latest advances in
medical science. Sincerity and a pleasant per­
sonality are helpful in gaining the confidence of
patients. Physicians should be emotionally sta­
ble and able to make decisions in emergencies.
In view of the variation in State laws, stu­
dents interested in becoming physicians should
study carefully the professional and legal re­
quirements of the State in which they plan to
practice. Those who have completed 1 year of
graduate medical education and enter active
military duty initially serve as captains in the
Army or Air Force or as lieutenants in the Navy.
Graduates also qualify for professional medical
positions in the Federal civil service.

needed for medical research and for the grow­
ing fields of public health, rehabilitation, indus­
trial medicine, and mental health.
Replacement needs in medicine and os­
teopathic medicine account for fewer job open­
ings than in most other occupations, because
physicians exhibit very strong attachment to
their work. Once having completed training
and entered medical practice, physicians tend
to remain in the labor force until they retire.
Moreover, relatively few leave medicine for
other careers.
Supply and demand are projected to be
roughly in balance through the mid-1990’s.
However, the increasingly abundant supply of
practitioners will create problems for some in­
dividuals and lead to surpuses in some lo­
calities. Medical school enrollments have in­
creased greatly since the mid-1960’s; the
sharpest rise occurred between 1965 and 1975.
While enrollment increases have moderated
since the mid-1970’s and little change is forseen
after the mid-1980’s, the number of people
completing training each year will be relatively
large. (See chart.)
Foreign-trained physicians (including U.S.
Job Outlook
citizens who completed their training abroad)
Job opportunities for physicians through the currently account for approximately one-sixth
mid-1990’s will reflect faster-than-average em­ of all newly licensed physicians and one-fifth of
ployment growth plus the need to replace expe­ all M.D.’s in practice. The Bureau of Health
rienced physicians who leave the medical pro­ Professions anticipates the supply of foreignfession.
trained physicians to grow more slowly through
Population growth and aging contribute to the mid-1990’s than in the past. Of new physi­
the need for more physicians. Especially rapid cians who enter practice each year through
growth is projected for the elderly population, 1995, approximately 1 in 10 will be a foreign
which makes much greater use of physicians’ medical graduate.
services than younger persons. Demand for
Competition for post-graduate residencies
medical care is greatly influenced by ability to will intensify since the number of first year
pay, and access to physicians’ services is wide­ residency positions will closely match the
spread as a result of broad health insurance number of graduates from U.S. medical
coverage—through private insurance, now a schools. Newly trained physicians are likely to
standard employee benefit, as well as through experience competition as they seek to launch a
public programs including Medicare and Medi­ practice. Those who are willing to locate in
caid. In addition, more physicians will be inner cities, rural areas, and other places where

Dramatic growth in the number of medical students has contributed
to the increasingly competitive outlook for physicians.
First-year enrollm ents (thousands)

doctors are not in oversupply should have little
difficulty.
Intensified competition due to substantial
growth in the supply of newly qualified M.D.’s
and D.O.’s is certain to affect physicians’ earn­
ings. It also will limit their choice of practice
location and specialty. Because of greater com­
petition for patients and changes currently un­
derway in the organization and financing of the
Nation’s health care, more physicians may
choose salaried positions. Fewer will go into
solo practice. Pressure to curtail the influx of
foreign medical graduates is likely to continue.

Earnings
Stipends of medical school graduates serving as
residents in hospitals vary according to the type
of residency, geographic area, and size of the
hospital, but allowances of $19,000 to $22,000
a year are common. Many hospitals also
provide full or partial room and board and other
maintenance allowances to residents.
Graduates who had completed approved 3year residencies but had no other medical expe­
rience received a starting salary at Veterans’
Administration hospitals of about $46,800 a
year in 1983. In addition, those working full
time received up to $13,000 in other cash bene­
fits or “special” payments.
Newly qualified physicians who establish
their own practice must make a sizable financial
investment to equip a modern office. During the
first year or two of independent practice, physi­
cians probably earn little more than the mini­
mum needed to pay expenses. As a rule,
however, their earnings rise rapidly as practices
develop.
Physicians have among the highest average
annual earnings of any occupational group. Ac­
cording to information from the American
I Medical Association, physicians in family or
I general practice and pediatricians averaged just
over $70,000 in 1982. Anesthesiologists’ radi! ologists’, and surgeons’ average income were
i slightly more than $130,000. The average of all
physicians’ net incomes for 1982 was about
C$100,000. Earnings of physicians depend on
factors such as the region of the country; pa­
tients’ income; and the physician’s skill, per­
sonality, professional reputation, and experi­
ence. Self-employed physicians usually earn
more than those in salaried positions.

Related Occupations
Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat
diseases, disorders, and injuries. Other occupa­
tions that require similar kinds of skill and crit­
ical judgment include audiologists, chiroprac­
tors, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists, speech
pathologists, and veterinarians.

Sources of Additional Information
For a list of approved medical schools, as well
as general information on premedical educa­
tion, financial aid, and medicine as a career,
contact:
67

69

71

73

75

77

79

81

83

SO URCE: A s s o c ia t io n of A m e ric an M e d ic a l C o lle g e s ; A m e ric an O s te o p a th ic A s s o c ia t io n




Office of Related Health Professions, American Med­
ical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago 111.
60610.

Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/119
Association of American Medical Colleges, Suite
200, One Dupont Circle NW., Washington, D.C.
20036.
For general information on osteopathic medicine as a
career, contact:
American Osteopathic Association, Department of
Public Relations, 212 East Ohio St., Chicago, 111.
60611.
American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic
Medicine, 4720 Montgomery Lane, Bethesda, Md.
20814.

Information on Federal scholarships and
loans is available from the directors of student
financial aid at schools of medicine and os­
teopathic medicine. Information about Armed
Forces Health Professions Scholarships is avail­
able from any local military recruiting office.
Persons who wish to practice medicine or
osteopathic medicine in a particular State
should inquire about licensure requirements di­
rectly from the board of examiners of that State.

Podiatrists
(D.O.T. 079.101-022)

Nature of the Work
Because we use them so often in walking, run­
ning, or just standing, we are constantly and
painfully aware when our feet hurt. A growing
number of foot sufferers visit a doctor of
podiatric medicine, or podiatrist, for relief.
Podiatrists diagnose and treat diseases and dis­
orders of the foot. They perform surgery; fit
corrective devices; and prescribe drugs, phys­
ical therapy, and proper shoes. To help in diag­
noses, they take X-rays and perform or pre­
scribe blood and other pathological tests.
Podiatrists treat a variety of foot conditions,
including corns, bunions, calluses, ingrown
toenails, skin and nail diseases, deformed toes,
and arch disabilities. Whenever podiatrists find
symptoms of a medical disorder affecting other
parts of the body—arthritis, diabetes, or heart

Podiatrists diagnose and treat foot problems.



disease, for example—they refer the patient to a
physician while continuing to treat the foot
problem.
More than 4 of every 5 podiatrists are gener­
alists who provide all types of food care.
However, some podiatrists specialize in foot
surgery, orthopedics (bone, muscle, and joint
disorders), podopediatrics (children’s foot ail­
ments), or podogeriatrics (foot problems of the
elderly). Regular vigorous exercise contributes
to physical health and emotional well-being,
and with the growing popularity of jogging,
tennis, racquetball, and other fast-moving
sports, the specialty of sports medicine is show­
ing rapid growth.

Working Conditions
Podiatrists usually work independently in their
own offices. They generally work 40 hours a
week, and they set their hours to suit their
practice.

Employment
Podiatrists held about 13,000 jobs in 1982.
While the majority of podiatrists are in private
p ractice, some are employed by other
podiatrists. Other podiatrists are employed by
hospitals, health maintenance organizations,
and podiatric medical colleges. The Veterans
Administration and public health departments
also employ some podiatrists.
Podiatrists work mainly in large cities.

framing, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All States and the District of Columbia require a
license for the practice of podiatry. To qualify
for a license, an applicant must graduate from
an accredited college of podiatric medicine and
pass a written and oral examination. Eight
States—Arizona, California, Georgia, Michi­
gan, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, and
Virginia—require applicants to serve a 1-year
residency in a hospital or clinic following grad­
uation. Most of the States grant licenses with­
out further examination to podiatrists already
licensed by another State.
The six colleges of podiatric medicine are
located in California, Illinois, Iowa, New York,
Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Minimum entrance
requirements at these schools include 3 years of
undergraduate college work with courses in En­
glish, chemistry, biology or zoology, physics,
and mathematics. However, most entrants sur­
pass the minimum requirements. About 90 per­
cent of the class entering in 1982 held at least a
bachelor’s degree, and the average enrollee had
an overall grade point average of “B” or better.
All colleges of podiatric medicine require ap­
plicants to earn an acceptable score on the Med­
ical College Admissions Test.
Of the 4 years in podiatry school, the first 2
are spent in classroom instruction and laborato­
ry work in anatomy, bacteriology, chemistry,
pathology, physiology, pharmacology, and
other basic sciences. During the final 2 years,
students gain clinical experience while con­
tinuing their academic studies. The degree of
Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.) is
awarded to graduates. Additional education and
experience generally are necessary to practice

in a specialty. Federal, State, and private loans
are available for students to pursue full-time
study leading to a degree in podiatric medicine.
Persons planning a career in podiatry should
have scientific aptitude and manual dexterity,
and like detailed work. A good business sense
and congeniality also are assets as in any medi­
cal profession.
Most newly licensed podiatrists set up their
own practices. Some purchase established
practices, or take salaried positions to gain the
experience and money they need to begin their
own practices.

Job Outlook
Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow
much faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s as podiatry continues to
gain recognition as a health profession, causing
more people to turn to podiatrists for foot care.
Health insurance is not a barrier, for public and
private programs generally cover podiatry serv­
ices. Broader participation in fast-moving
sports that tend to aggravate foot disorders will
spur demand, as will the growing number of
older people, many of whom have foot prob­
lems.
In addition to opportunities created by rapid
growth in employment, many openings will
result from the need to replace podiatrists who
retire or stop working for other reasons. Oppor­
tunities for graduates to establish new prac­
tices, as well as to enter salaried positions,
should be favorable.

Earnings
Newly licensed podiatrists build their practices
over a number of years. Income during the first
several years is usually low but generally rises
significantly as the practice grows. From the
limited information available, a net income of
about $70,000 a year is common for established
podiatrists. Newly licensed podiatrists hired by
Veterans Administration hospitals earned start­
ing salaries between $24,508 and $29,374 in
early 1983.

Related Occupations
Podiatrists work to prevent, diagnose, and treat
diseases, disorders, and injuries. Other occupa­
tions that require similar skills include au­
diologists, chiropractors, d en tists, op­
tometrists, osteopathic physicians, physicians,
speech pathologists, and veterinarians.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on license requirements in a par­
ticular State is available from that State’s board
of examiners.
Information on colleges of podiatric medi­
cine, entrance requirements, curriculums, and
student financial aid is available from:
American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medi­
cine, 20 Chevy Chase Circle NW., Washington, D.C.
20015.

For additional information on podiatry as a
career, contact:
American Podiatry Association, 20 Chevy Chase Cir­
cle NW., Washington, D.C. 20015.

120/Occupational Outlook Handbook
For information about financial assistance
programs administered by the U.S. Depart­
ment of Health and Human Services, write to:
Division of Student Assistance, Health Resources
and Services Administration, 5600 Fishers Lane,
Rockville, Md. 20857.

remainder are in a variety of practice spe­
cialties. Some veterinarians inspect food, in­
vestigate disease outbreaks, or work in labora­
tories as part of Federal and State public health
programs. Others teach in veterinary colleges,
work in zoos or animal laboratories, or engage
in medical research.

Working Conditions

Veterinarians
(D.O.T. 073. except .361-010)

Nature of the Work
Think of a veterinary doctor and you will likely
imagine someone caring for pandas and ele­
phants at the zoo or treating the family poodle
for a case of “kennel cough.” But some vets
work with scientific research teams on such
projects as searching out new pharmaceuticals
to treat heart disease. They help prevent the
outbreak and spread of animal diseases, some
of which—like rabies—can be transmitted to
human beings. Veterinarians perform surgery
on sick and injured animals and prescribe and
administer medicines and vaccines.
Over one-third of all veterinarians treat small
animals or pets exclusively. Another one-third
treat both large and small animals. Almost 10
percent specialize in the health and breeding of
cattle, poultry, sheep, swine, or horses. The

Veterinarians usually treat pet animals in hospi­
tals and clinics. Those who specialize in large
animal practice usually work out of well
equipped mobile clinics and drive considerable
distances between farms and ranches to care for
their animal patients. Veterinarians are some­
times exposed to injury, disease, and infection.
Those in private practice often work long hours.
Veterinarians in rural areas may work outdoors
in all kinds of weather. Because they are selfemployed, veterinarians in private practice usu­
ally can continue working well beyond normal
retirement age.

Employment
Veterinarians held about 36,000 jobs in 1982.
Most were in private practice. The Federal Gov­
ernment employed about 2,300 veterinarians in
civilian jobs, chiefly in the U.S. Department of
Agriculture and the U.S. Public Health Serv­
ice. Other employers of veterinarians are State
and local governments, international health
agencies, colleges of veterinary medicine,

Recent graduates often start out by working in an established veterinary practice.




medical schools, research laboratories, live­
stock farms, animal food companies, and phar­
maceutical companies.
Veterinarians are located in all parts of the
country, and the type of practice generally var­
ies according to geographic setting. Vet­
erinarians in rural areas mainly treat farm ani­
mals; those in small towns usually engage in
general practice; those in cities and suburban
areas often limit their practice to pets.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All States and the District of Columbia require
veterinarians to have a license. To obtain a
license, applicants must have a Doctor of Vet­
erinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree
from an accredited college of veterinary medi­
cine and pass written and—in most States—
oral State board proficiency examinations.
Some States issue licenses without further ex­
amination to veterinarians already licensed by
another State.
For veterinarians seeking positions in re­
search and teaching, an additional master’s or
Ph.D. degree usually is required or, in­
creasingly, specialty board certification in a
field such as pathology, physiology, toxicology,
or laboratory animal medicine. Veterinarians
who seek specialty board certification must
complete an approved residency program, pass
the board’s examination, and meet any other
board requirements.
The D.V.M. or V.M.D. degree requires a
minimum of 6 years of college consisting of a 4year professional degree program preceded by
at least 2 years of preveterinary study that em­
phasizes the physical and biological sciences.
Several veterinary medical colleges require 3
years of preveterinary work, and most suc­
cessful applicants have completed 4 years of
college. In addition to rigorous academic in­
struction, professional training includes con­
siderable practical experience in diagnosing
and treating animal diseases, performing sur­
gery, and performing laboratory work in anat­
omy, biochemistry, and other scientific and
medical subjects.
In 1983, 25 colleges of veterinary medicine
in the United States were accredited by the
Council on Education of the American Veterin­
ary Medical Association (AVMA). Admission
to these schools is highly competitive. Each
year there are many more qualified applicants
than the schools can accept. Serious applicants
usually need grades of “B” or better, especially
in science courses. Experience in part-time or
summer jobs working with animals is advan­
tageous. Colleges usually give preference to
residents of the State in which the college is
located, because these schools are largely State
supported. In the South and West, regional
educational plans permit cooperating States
without veterinary schools to send students to
designated regional schools. In other areas,
colleges that accept out-of-State students give
priority to applicants from nearby States that do
not have veterinary schools.
The Federal Government provides some
loans for students in schools of veterinary medi­
cine, subject to the availability of funds; service

Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/121
in an underserved area after graduation may
cancel the student’s obligation.
Most veterinarians begin as employees or
partners in established practices. Those who
can afford the substantial investment needed
for drugs, instruments, and other startup costs
may set up their own practices. An even greater
investment is needed to open an animal hospital
or purchase an established practice.
Newly trained veterinarians may qualify for
civilian jobs with the U.S. Government as meat
and poultry inspectors, disease-control work­
ers, epidemiologists, research assistants, or
commissioned officers in the U.S. Public
Health Service. A license is not required for
Federal employment.

Job Outlook
Employment of veterinarians is expected to
grow faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s, primarily because of
growth in the companion animal (horses, dogs,
and other pets) population. Emphasis on scien­
tific methods of raising and breeding livestock
and poultry, and growth in public health and
disease control programs also will stimulate the
demand for veterinarians. In addition, many
new veterinarians will be needed each year to
replace those who retire or die.
Despite rapid growth in employment, newly
qualified veterinarians may face competition in




establishing a practice in some areas due to the
increasingly abundant supply of practitioners.
Veterinary school enrollments rose sharply in
the 1970’s, and the number of graduates is ex­
pected to remain at current levels for the fore­
seeable future. The expense of establishing a
practice has prompted more and more gradu­
ates to seek employment with established vet­
erinarians until they can finance their own prac­
tices. If this trend continues, competition for
salaried positions with existing veterinary prac­
tices will grow.
Opportunities are presently excellent for
those in some specialties such as food animal
practice, toxicology, and pathology, and de­
mand for specialists is expected to remain
strong.

Earnings
According to limited data from the AVMA, the
average net income for private practice vet­
erinarians was about $45,000 in 1983; incomes
vary considerably, depending on factors such as
location, type of practice, and years of experi­
ence.
Newly graduated veterinarians employed by
the Federal Government started at $22,956 a
year in 1982. The average annual salary of vet­
erinarians in the Federal Government was
$37,000 in 1982.

Related Occupations
Veterinarians use their professional training to
prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disor­
ders, and injuries. Others who require similar
skills are audiologists, chiropractors, dentists,
optometrists, physicians, podiatrists, and
speech pathologists.

Sources of Additional Information
A pamphlet entitled Today’s Veterinarian pres­
ents information on veterinary medicine as a
career and lists accredited colleges of veterin­
ary medicine. A free copy may be obtained by
submitting a request, together with a self-ad­
dressed, stamped business-size envelope, to:
American Veterinary Medical Association, 930 N.
Meacham Rd., Schaumburg, 111. 60196.

Information on opportunities for vet­
erinarians in the U.S. Department of Agri­
culture is available from:
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Field
Service Office, Employment Services, Butler Square
West, 5th Floor, 100 N. 6th St., Minneapolis, Minn.
55043.
Food Safety and Quality Service, Personnel Divi­
sion, Butler Square West, 4th Floor, 100 N. 6th St.,
Minneapolis, Minn. 55043.

For information on scholarships, grants, and
loans, contact the financial aid officer at the
veterinary schools to which you wish to apply.

Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians,
Therapists, and Physician Assistants
The health professionals described in this sec­
tion of the Handbook care for the sick, help the
disabled, and advise individuals and commu­
nities on ways of maintaining and improving
their health. Nursing is by far the largest of
these occupations. Registered nurses held more
than 1.3 million jobs in 1982. The other occupa­
tions described here vary in size from phar­
macists (about 151,000 jobs) to physician assis­
tants (22,000 jobs).
Registered nurses are an essential part of the
health team. They work primarily in hospitals,
where they provide direct patient care, assist in
surgery and diagnostic procedures, train and
supervise other members of the staff, organize
health education activities for patients and the
community, and handle administrative tasks. A
growing number work in long-term care facili­
ties such as nursing homes, rehabilitation cen­
ters, and mental hospitals. Some engage in
community health, industrial, or school nurs­
ing, while others work in clinics or physicians’
offices or do private duty nursing. With addi­
tional training and experience, registered
nurses may assume the responsibilities of nurse
practitioners, nurse midwives, or nurse anes­
thetists. In these expanded roles, nurses per­
form tasks that otherwise would be performed
by a physician.
Three principal kinds of nursing education
programs—diploma, associate degree, and
bachelor’s degree—prepare students for careers
as registered nurses. The differences should be
understood by the prospective nursing student.
However, all nursing education programs share
the goals of teaching nurses the scientific basis
of modem nursing practice, familiarizing them
with the latest treatment and rehabilitation tech­
niques, and equipping them to understand pa­
tients’ medical, social, and psychological
needs.
The relatively new occupation of physician
assistant (PA) involves direct patient care by
workers who are trained to perform many of the
more routine tasks normally carried out by a
physician. These include taking medical histo­
ries, doing routine examinations, and making
hospital rounds. Physician assistants work un­
der a physician, usually right in the office.
Some, however, practice in rural health clinics,
prisons, and other places where physicians are
not readily available. Training commonly lasts
2 years. Admission to PA training is highly
competitive, and most students already have a
background in one of the health professions.
Legal provisions permitting physician assis­
tants to practice are not uniform throughout the
country, in part because the occupation is so
new.

122


Therapists use a variety of techniques to help
patients who are injured, disabled, or emo­
tionally disturbed to regain physical or emo­
tional independence. Physical therapists use
exercise and other treatments to help patients
increase strength, mobility, and coordination.
Occupational therapists teach skills of every­
day living, including vocational skills, to peo­
ple who are disabled or handicapped. Their
goal is to help patients adapt to their limitations
and learn to be as self-sufficient as possible.
Speech pathologists and audiologists work
with children and adults who have speech, lan­
guage, or hearing impairments. Rehabilitation
counselors, whose work is closely related to
that of therapists, are discussed in the Hand­
book statement on vocational and education
counselors.
A number of other therapists aid in re­
habilitation. Orientation therapists for the
blind help newly blinded persons learn to move
about unassisted; to handle such everyday ac­
tivities as dressing, grooming, eating, and
using the telephone; and to communicate by
means of Braille, reading machines, or other
devices. Recreation therapists, also known as
therapeutic recreation workers, are -trained to
use sports, games, crafts, and hobbies as part of
the rehabilitation of ill, disabled, or handicap­
ped persons. (See the statement on recreation
workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Art,
dance, and music therapists help patients re­
solve physical, emotional, or social problems
through nonverbal means of communication.
Horticultural therapists use gardening for
therapeutic purposes—as a group activity for
persons with mental or emotional problems, for
example. A bachelor’s degree with a health
professions specialization is standard prepara­
tion for most therapy occupations. For some
jobs, a master’s degree is essential.
Dietitians and pharmacists also use special
skills and expertise to assist sick or disabled
persons, although they do not provide direct
patient care. Having completed college pro­
grams that include bacteriology, chemistry, and
other sciences, these workers draw on scientific
knowledge to devise therapeutic treatments or
give advice on the effects of diet or drugs. Both
fields offer opportunities to practice in a variety
of settings. Dietitians plan diets to meet the
nutritional needs of groups as diverse as hospi­
tal patients, school children, prisoners, and
hotel guests. Pharmacists generally work in
hospitals or community pharmacies where they
dispense drugs and medicines prescribed by
health practitioners. Like other health profes­
sionals, dietitians and pharmacists sometimes

teach or do consulting work in addition to their
primary job.
Pharmacists, physical therapists, and regis­
tered nurses must havp a license to practice.
Students considering one of these careers
should investigate the licensing requirements in
the State where they plan to work. Comple­
menting the occupational licensure laws is a
system of voluntary credentialing, in which
professional associations and other nongovern­
mental bodies attest to an individual’s compe­
tence through certification or registration.
Employment in these occupations is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Popula­
tion growth, especially the increase in the
number of older people, will spur demand for
health care. Since the number of persons age 75
and over is projected to rise very rapidly in the
years ahead, the need for a broad range of
health and social support services for older per­
sons will escalate. However, the availability of
public and private funds to pay for health care
will continue to determine which services are
actually in place.
Health insurance terms that prescribe which
services are reimbursable affect both the indus­
try and occupational “mix” of health sector
employment. Increased coverage for hospice
services, for example, would stimulate demand
for nurses, social workers, and pastoral coun­
selors in hospices, although volunteers provide
most hospice care. Similarly, measures to en­
courage greater use of nurse practitioners,
nurse midwives, and physician assistants
would spur employment in those occupations.
Currently, a broad-based effort to contain the
rate of increase in health care costs is underway.
Although the results of various cost con­
tainment strategies are difficult to predict, it is
clear that redesign of the financing system
could mean sweeping changes in the organiza­
tion and delivery of health care in the United
States. This could alter the rate of employment
growth and cause some occupations to diverge
from current projections. In addition to new
jobs created by future growth, many openings
will occur due to replacement needs.
Several other sections of the Handbook con­
tain statements on health careers. Check the
alphabetical index at the back to locate the state­
ments on health services administrators, dental
assistants, medical assistants, nursing aides,
orderlies, and attendants, dispensing opticians
and ophthalmic laboratory technicians, and
dental laboratory technicians.
Books and brochures on health careers are
available in libraries, counseling centers, and

Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physicians Assistants/123
bookstores. The Sources of Additional Infor­
mation section at the end of each Handbook
statement identifies organizations that can
provide pamphlets, lists of accredited schools,
and sources of financial aid. For an overview of
jobs in the health field, including some jobs not
covered in Handbook, request a copy of “200
Ways to a Health Career” from:
National Health Council, 1740 Broadway, New York,
N.Y. 10019.

Another useful publication is the Health Ca­
reers Guidebook, fourth edition, published in
1979 by the U.S. Department of Labor and the
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare (now the Department of Health and
Human Services). It is available for $7.50 from:
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

Dietitians
(D.O.T. 077 except .121-010)

Nature of the Work
Nutrition is the science of food and its effect on
the body. It is concerned with the nutrients in
food, their use in body chemistry, and—in the
final analysis—the relationship between diet
and health. Dietitians provide nutritional coun­
seling to individuals and groups; set up and
supervise food service systems for institutions
such as hospitals and schools; and promote
sound eating habits through education and re­
search. In this field, the term “nutritionist” ap­
plies to a number of different health profession­
als involved with food science and human
nutrition. Among these are dietitians, food
technologists, and home economists.
Among dietitians, major areas of specializa­
tion include administration, education, re­
search, and clinical and community dietetics.
Administrative dietitians apply the principles
of nutrition and sound management to largescale meal planning and preparation, such as
that done in hospitals, prisons, company caf­
eterias, schools, and other institutions. They
supervise the planning, preparation, and serv­
ice of meals; select, train, and direct food serv­
ice supervisors and workers; budget for and
purchase food, equipment, and supplies; en­
force sanitary and safety regulations; and pre­
pare records and reports. Dietitians who are
directors of dietetic departments also decide on
departmental policy; coordinate dietetic serv­
ices with the activities of other departments;
and are responsible for the dietetic department
budget, which in large organizations may
amount to millions of dollars annually.
Clinical dietitians, sometimes called
therapeutic dietitians, assess nutritional needs,
develop and implement nutrition care plans,
and evaluate and report the results in hospitals,
nursing homes, or clinics. Clinical dietitians
confer with doctors and other members of the
health care team about patients’ nutritional
care, instruct patients and their families on the
requirements and importance of their diets, and



suggest ways to maintain these diets after leav­
ing the hospital or clinic. In a small institution,
a dietitian may perform both administrative and
clinical duties.
Community dietitians or nutritionists may
counsel individuals and groups on sound nutri­
tion practices to prevent disease, maintain
health, and rehabilitate persons recovering
from illness. They may engage in teaching and
research with a community health focus. This
work covers areas such as special diets, meal
planning and preparation, and food budgeting
and purchasing. Dietitians or nutritionists in
this field usually are associated with communi­
ty health programs; they may be responsible for
planning, developing, coordinating, and ad­
ministering a nutrition program or a nutrition
component within the community health pro­
gram. They work mainly for public and private
health and social service agencies, including
“meals-on-wheels” programs, congregate
meals for older Americans, and nutritional pro­
grams for women with infants and young chil­
dren.
Research dietitians seek ways to improve the
nutrition of both healthy and sick people. They
may study nutrition science and education,
food management, food service systems and
equipment, or how the body uses food. Other
research projects may investigate the nutri­
tional needs of the aging, persons who have
chronic diseases, or space travelers. Research
dietitians need advanced training in this field
and usually are employed in medical centers or
educational facilities, or they may work in com­
munity health programs.

Working Conditions
Although most dietitians work 40 hours a week,
dietitians in hospitals may sometimes work on

weekends, and those in commercial food serv­
ices have somewhat irregular hours. Dietitians
spend much of their time in clean, well-lighted,
and well-ventilated areas, such as research lab­
oratories, classrooms, or offices near food
preparation areas. However, they do spend time
in kitchens and serving areas that often are hot
and steamy. Dietitians working in hospital and
clinical settings may have to be on their feet a
lot; those involved in consulting spend a signifi­
cant amount of time traveling.

Employment
Dietitians held about 44,000 jobs in 1982.
Health care facilities, including hospitals, nurs­
ing homes, and clinics, are major employers of
dietitians, accounting for nearly 60 percent of
the jobs in 1982. Colleges, universities, and
school systems provide approximately 10 per­
cent of all jobs, and another 10 percent are in
child care or residential care facilities. Other
jobs are found in a variety of settings, including
prison systems, hotel and restaurant chains, and
business firms that provide food service for
their employees.
Many dietitians work as consultants, either
full time or part time. In addition to serving on
the staff of a hospital, for example, a dietitian
may be a consultant for another health care
facility. Nursing homes use consultants to
provide much of their dietitic supervision.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A bachelor’s degree with a major in foods and
nutrition or institution management is the basic
educational requirement for dietitians. This de­
gree can be earned in about 240 colleges and
universities, usually in departments of home

Health care facilities are major em ployers of dietitians.

124/Occupational Outlook Handbook
economics and food and nutrition sciences. Re­
quired college courses include food and nutri­
tion, institution management, chemistry, bac­
teriology, and physiology. Other important
courses are mathematics, statistics, computer
science, psychology, sociology, and econom­
ics. It is also possible to prepare for this profes­
sion by receiving an advanced degree in nutri­
tion, food service management, or related
sciences and providing evidence of qualifying
work experience.
To qualify for professional credentials as a
Registered Dietitian (R.D.), the American Di­
etetic Association (ADA) recommends com­
pletion of an approved dietetic internship or a
coordinated undergraduate program or 3 years
of approved qualified experience plus a bach­
elor’s degree or 6 months of approved qualified
experience plus an advanced degree. The
internship lasts 6 to 12 months and combines
clinical experience under a qualified dietitian
with some classroom work. In 1982, 100 in­
ternship programs were accredited by the
ADA. A growing number of coordinated under­
graduate programs have been developed that
enable students to complete their clinical expe­
rience requirement while obtaining their bach­
elor’s degree. In 1982, 67 such programs were
offered by medical schools and by departments
of allied health and home economics in colleges
and universities. These programs are ac­
credited by the ADA.
Experienced dietitians may advance to assis­
tant or associate director or director of a dietetic
department. Advancement to higher level posi­
tions in teaching and research requires graduate
education; public health nutritionists usually
must earn a graduate degree. Graduate study in
institutional or business administration is valu­
able to those interested in administrative di­
etetics. Many dietitians have acquired ad­
vanced degrees in related areas.
Persons who plan to become dietitians
should have organizational and administrative
ability as well as scientific aptitude, and should
be able to work well with people. Among the
courses recommended for high school students
interested in careers as dietitians are home eco­
nomics, business administration, biology,
health, mathematics, and chemistry.

Job Outlook
Employment of dietitians is expected to grow
faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s to meet the expanding
needs of hospitals and long-term care facilities.
Most job openings, however, will result from
the need to replace experienced dietitians who
stop working or transfer to other occupations. A
growing number of experienced dietitians are
moving into management positions in private
industry, for example.
The factors that underlie future growth in
demand for health services— population
growth and aging, emphasis on health educa­
tion and promotion of prudent lifestyles, and
widespread ability to pay for care through pub­
lic and private health insurance—also will spur
demand for dietitians. In addition, dietitians
will be needed in other settings, such as cater­
ing firms and restaurant chains. Dietitians also




will be needed to staff community health pro­
grams and to conduct research in food and
nutrition.
Staffing flexibility can be facilitated by using
full-time and part-time dietitians. For this rea­
son, opportunities for part-time employment
should remain favorable.
To help meet the demand for dietetic serv­
ices, nursing homes are using (under the super­
vision of registered dietitians) dietetic assis­
tants trained in vocational-technical schools
and dietetic technicians trained in ADA-ap­
proved programs in community colleges. Em­
ployment opportunities should continue to be
favorable for graduates of these programs.

Earnings
Entry level salaries of hospital dietitians aver­
aged $17,880 a year in 1982, according to a
national survey conducted by the University of
Texas Medical Branch. Some experienced hos­
pital dietitians received as much as $41,832 a
year.
The starting salary in the Federal Govern­
ment for those with a bachelor’s degree was
about $13,369 in 1982. The average Federal
salary for dietitians was about $24,781 in 1982.
Dietitians usually receive benefits such as
paid vacations, sick leave, holidays, health in­
surance, and retirement benefits.

Related Occupations
Dietitians apply the principles of nutrition in a
variety of situations. Other workers with sim­
ilar duties include food and home economists,
executive chefs, and food service managers.

Sources of Additional Information
For information on accredited dietetic inter­
nship and coordinated undergraduate pro­
grams, scholarships, registration, and a list of
colleges providing training for a professional
career in dietetics, contact:
The American Dietetic Association, 430 North Mich­
igan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.

The U.S. Office of Personnel Management,
Washington, D.C. 20415, has information on
hiring requirements for dietitians in Federal
hospitals and for public health nutritionists and
dietitians in the U.S. Public Health Service.

Occupational
Therapists
(D.O.T. 076.121-010)

Nature of the Work
Occupational therapists provide services to
people who are mentally, physically, or emo­
tionally disabled. By providing specific ac­
tivities and adaptive equipment, occupational
therapists help these people learn skills to live
independent, productive, and satisfying lives.
These activities are designed to prepare patients
to return to work, develop or restore basic func­
tions, and aid in adjustment to disabilities.

Like other health professionals, occupational
therapists usually work as a member of a medi­
cal team, which may include a physician, phys­
ical therapist, clinical psychologist, rehabilita­
tion counselor, social worker, and others. Team
members evaluate the patient in terms of their
individual specialties and consult with each
other to arrive at an overall evaluation of the
patient’s capacities, skills, and abilities. To­
gether they develop short- and long-term goals
and the means by which they may be achieved.
Various activities are used as therapy tools.
When working with children, occupational
therapists use toys and games to teach a variety
of skills. With other patients, occupational
therapists use activities of daily living skills,
such as meal preparation, bathing, and dressing
in clinic areas set up as kitchens and bathrooms.
W oodw orking, leath erw o rk , or o th er
therapeutic activities may increase motor skills,
strength, endurance, concentration, and
motivation.
Often the loss of function causes the inability
to care for oneself. Occupational therapists
provide adaptive equipment such as wheel­
chairs, splints, and aids for eating and dressing.
They may design and make special equipment
for disabled patients and recommend changes
in the home or work environment to facilitate
functioning. In the treatment of individuals
with em otional problem s, occupational
therapists provide individual and group ac­
tivities to help people learn self-care and to
manage their work and leisure more efficiently.
These activities may include crafts that require
planning and time management skills, budget­
ing, shopping, meal preparation and homemak­
ing, self-care, and using ■community resources
such as public transportation and service agen­
cies.
Although they are not necessarily expert in
all these activities, occupational therapists
must know enough about them to understand
their therapeutic values and to set them into
motion.
Occupational therapists tend to work with
certain disability and age groups. For instance,
approxim ately 3 out of 5 occupational
therapists work principally with persons who
have physical disabilities; the rest work with
patients who have psychological or emotional
problems or developmental deficits. Some
work only with children and young adults; oth­
ers work exclusively with the elderly.
Besides working with patients, occupational
therapists supervise student therapists, occupa­
tional therapy assistants, volunteers, and aux­
iliary nursing workers. The chief occupational
therapist in a hospital may teach medical and
nursing students the principles of occupational
therapy. Many therapists supervise occupa­
tional therapy departments, coordinate patient
activities, or are consultants to public health
departments and mental health agencies. Some
teach in colleges and universities.

Working Conditions
Although occupational therapists generally
work a standard 40-hour week, they may occa­
sionally have to work evenings or weekends.
Their work environment varies according to the

Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physicians Assistants/125
setting and available facilities. In a large re­
habilitation center, for example, the therapist
may work in a spacious room equipped with
machines, handtools, and other devices that
often generate noise. In a nursing home, the
therapist may work in a kitchen when using
food preparation as therapy. In a hospital,
therapists may work directly on the ward with
patients. Wherever they work and whatever
equipment they use, they generally have ade­
quate lighting and ventilation. The job can be
physically tiring because therapists are on their
feet much of the time.

Employment
Occupational therapists held about 25,000 jobs
in 1982. The largest number of jobs were in
hospitals, including rehabilitation and psychi­
atric hospitals. (See chart.) Employment of oc­
cupational therapists in school systems rose
sharply in response to requirements established
by the Education for All Handicapped Children
Act of 1975. Today, a substantial number of
therapists work in school systems and schools
for handicapped children. Other major employ­
ers include nursing homes, home health agen­
cies, community mental health centers, adult
day care programs, outpatient clinics, and resi­
dential care facilities.
A growing number of occupational therapists
are in private practice. They see patients in their
own offices, in patients’ homes, or in hospitals,
nursing homes, adult day care programs, and
other institutions that purchase occupational
therapy services on a contract basis.
Many work part time.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Preparation for this field requires a bachelor’s
degree in occupational therapy. Twenty-one
States and the District of Columbia require a
license to practice occupational therapy. Appli­
cants for licensure must have a degree or certifi­
cate from an accredited educational program,
successfully complete 6 months of supervised
field work and pass the State licensure examina­
tion.
Certification is available by examination
through the American Occupational Therapy
Association, which awards the title of regis­
tered occupational therapist (OTR) to qualified
applicants.
In 1982, accredited programs in occupational
therapy were offered by 56 colleges and univer­
sities. Fifty-four of these schools offer a bach­
elor’s degree program; some have a 2-year pro­
gram for students who have completed the first
2 years of college. A number of schools offer a
certificate or master’s degree in occupational
therapy for students who have a bachelor’s de­
gree in another field. A graduate degree often is
required for teaching, research, or admin­
istrative positions.
Coursework in occupational therapy pro­
grams includes physical, biological, and be­
havioral sciences and the application of occupa­
tional therapy theory and skills. These pro­
grams also require students to work for 6 to 9
months in hospitals, health agencies, or schools
to gain experience in clinical practice.



Job prospects are excellent in occupational therapy.
Entry to educational programs is highly com­
petitive and applicants are screened carefully.
Persons considering this profession should have
above-average academic performance and
grades of “B” or better in biology, chemistry,
and other high school science courses. In addi­
tion to biology and chemistry, high school stu­
dents interested in a career as an occupational

therapist are advised to take courses in health,
art, and the social sciences. In choosing among
applicants, many educational programs weigh
heavily any previous job experience in a health
care setting. College students who consider
transferring from another academic discipline
to an occupational therapy program in their
sophomore or junior year need superior grades

Occupational therapists practice in a variety of settings.
Percent employed by work setting, 1982
0

10

20

Home health
agencies
Nursing homes
School systems
Hospitals
Other
NOTE: Excludes teachers
SOURCE: American Occupational Therapy Association

30

40

50

126/Occupational Outlook Handbook
because competition for entrance to programs
is more intense after the freshman year.
Persons considering this career must be able
to work with people of all kinds and all ages,
with temperaments and personalities that are
likely to be as varied as patient illnesses and
handicaps. To gain patients’ confidence, it is
necessary to have a warm, friendly personality
that inspires both trust and respect. In addition
to these qualities, it is also necessary to have
ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities
to individual needs. The potential therapist also
needs to be skilled, patient, and resourceful in
teaching, since patients often present unusual
and difficult learning problems.
Newly graduated occupational therapists
generally begin as staff therapists. Advance­
ment is chiefly to supervisory or administrative
positions; some therapists pursue advanced ed­
ucation to teach and/or conduct research.

Job Outlook
Employment in this occupation is expected to
increase much faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s due to an­
ticipated rapid growth in rehabilitation pro­
grams. The number of people who will need
rehabilitation services will rise sharply. Sub­
stantial growth is expected for the population
age 75 and above, an age group that suffers a
relatively high incidence of disabling condi­
tions. Furthermore, advances in medical tech­
nology will save young lives that only a few
years ago would have been lost: Children with
severe birth defects, for example, and accident
victims—many of whom are teenagers and
young adults. Medical advances such as these
heighten the need for rehabilitative care.
As existing programs expand and new ones
are established, therapists will be needed to
staff hospital rehabilitation departments, nurs­
ing homes and other long-term care facilities,
clinics, psychiatric hospitals, programs in
schools for children with developmental and
learning disabilities, and home health pro­
grams.
Job prospects in occupational therapy
are expected to be excellent through the
mid-1990’s. Enrollments in occupational
therapy programs have leveled off, and barring
a sudden shift in enrollment patterns, the
number of graduates is projected to fall short of
job openings due to employment growth and
replacement needs.

Earnings
Beginning salaries for occupational therapists
in hospitals averaged about $17,500 a year in
1982, according to a national survey conducted
by the University of Texas Medical Branch.
Most experienced occupational therapists
earned between $19,500 and $23,700; some
administrators earned as much as $34,000.
In 1982, starting salaries for therapists em­
ployed by the Federal Government, most of
whom worked for the Veterans Administration,
were about $15,000 a year. The average salary
paid occupational therapists with the Federal
Government was about $23,300 in 1982.




Related Occupations
Occupational therapists use specialized knowl­
edge to help patients return to their normal
activities and generally aid them to achieve
maximum independence. Other workers per­
forming similar duties include orthotists, pros­
thetists, physical therapists, speech pa­
thologists and audiologists, rehabilitation
counselors, therapeutic recreation workers, art
therapists, music therapists, and dance
therapists.

Sources of Additional Information
For more information on occupational therapy
as a career, and for certification requirements,
write to:
American Occupational Therapy Association. 1383
Piccard Dr., Rockville, Md. 20850.

Pharmacists
(D.O.T. 074.161-010)

Nature of the Work
Pharmacists dispense drugs and medicines pre­
scribed by doctors and dentists. They also sup­
ply information and advise people on the use of
prescription medicines and medicines that can
be obtained without prescriptions. Pharmacists
must understand the use, composition, and
effect of drugs and how they are tested for
purity and strength. They may maintain patient
medication profiles and advise physicians on
the proper selection and use of medicines.
Compounding—the actual mixing of ingre­
dients to form powders, tablets, capsules, oint­
ments, and solutions—is now only a small part
of a pharmacist’s practice, since most medi­
cines are produced by manufacturers in the
dosage and form used by the patient.
Pharmacists employed in community phar­
macies may have other duties. Besides dispens­
ing medicines, some pharmacists buy and sell
nonpharmaceutical merchandise, hire and su­
pervise personnel, and oversee the general op­
eration of the pharmacy. Other pharmacists,
however, practice in prescription pharmacies
that dispense only medicines, medical sup­
plies, and health accessories. Increasingly
community pharmacists also give advice about
and sell home health care products.
Pharmacists in hospitals and clinics dispense
inpatient and outpatient prescriptions and ad­
vise the medical staff on the selection and
effects of drugs; they also make sterile solu­
tions, buy medical supplies, teach in schools of
nursing and allied health professions, and per­
form administrative duties. In addition, phar­
macists work as consultants to the medical team
in matters related to daily patient care in hospi­
tals, nursing homes, and other health care facil­
ities.

Working Conditions
Pharmacists usually work in a clean, well-light­
ed, and well-ventilated area that resembles a
small laboratory. Shelves are lined with hun­
dreds of different drug products. In addition,

some items are refrigerated and all controlled
substances (narcotics, depressants, and stim­
ulants) are kept under lock and key. Many phar­
macists use computers to assist in the filing and
recording of prescriptions. Pharmacists spend a
lot of time on their feet.

Employment
Pharmacists held about 151,000 jobs in 1982.
Between 20 and 25 percent of all pharmacists
own their own businesses; the others hold sal­
aried positions. As the accompanying chart
shows, most pharmacists work in community
pharmacies—independently-owned or part of a
chain. The rest work for hospitals, phar­
maceutical manufacturers, wholesalers, and
government and educational institutions. Phar­
macy services in nursing homes generally are
provided on a consultant or contract basis rather
than by staff pharmacists.
Pharmacists employed by the Federal Gov­
ernment work chiefly in hospitals and clinics of
the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Pub­
lic Health Service. Other Federal agencies that
employ pharmacists—for their drug knowl­
edge, as well as to dispense drugs—include the
Department of Defense, the Food and Drug
Administration and other branches of the De­
partment of Health and Human Services, and
the Drug Enforcement Administration. State
and local health agencies and pharmaceutical
and other professional associations also employ
pharmacists.
Some pharmacists hold more than one job.
They may work a standard week in their pri­
mary work setting and work several hours a
week in a secondary setting, as a consultant to a
nursing home or clinic, for example. Pharmacy
also offers opportunities for part-time employ­
ment. Community as well as hospital phar­
macies often remain open in the evenings and
on weekends, and all States require a licensed
pharmacist to be in attendance during pharmacy
hours. Self-employed pharmacists usually
work more hours per week than those in sal­
aried positions because of the additional re­
sponsibility of managing a business.
Most towns have at least one pharmacy with
one pharmacist or more in attendance. Most
pharmacists, however, practice in or near cities
and in those States that have the largest popula­
tions.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A license to practice pharmacy is required in all
States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto
Rico. To obtain a license, one must graduate
from an accredited pharmacy program (a few
States allow graduation from foreign pharmacy
programs), pass a State board examination,
and—in all States—have a specified amount of
practical experience or serve an internship un­
der the supervision of a licensed pharmacist.
Internships generally are served in a communi­
ty or hospital pharmacy. In 1982, all States
except California, Florida, and Hawaii granted
a license without reexamination to qualified
pharmacists already licensed by another State.
Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in
more than one State.

Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physicians Assistants/127

Pharmacists must pay close attention when filling prescriptions.
At least 5 years of study beyond high school
are required to graduate from programs ac­
credited by the American Council on Phar­
maceutical Education in the 72 colleges of phar­
macy. Five years are needed to obtain a
Bachelor of Science (B.S.) or a Bachelor of
Pharmacy (B.Pharm.) degree, the degrees re­
ceived by most graduates. Depending on a stu­
dent’s educational background, 6 or 7 years are
required for a Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.)
degree. Most pharmacy schools offer the bac­
calaureate degree, and almost one-half also of­
fer the professional doctorate degree; five
schools offer only the latter. The Pharm.D. de­
gree as well as the B.S. and B.Pharm. degrees
may serve as the entry degree for licensure as a
pharmacist.
Admission requirements vary. A few col­
leges admit students directly from high school.
Most colleges of pharmacy, however, require
entrants to have completed 1 or 2 years of pre­
pharmacy education in an accredited junior col­
lege, college, or university. A prepharmacy
curriculum usually emphasizes mathematics
and basic sciences, such as chemistry, biology,
and physics, but also includes courses in the
humanities, social sciences, and business ad­
ministration. Because entry requirements vary
among colleges of pharmacy, prepharmacy stu­
dents should acquaint themselves with the re­
quirements of the school they wish to attend.
The bachelor’s degree in pharmacy is the
minimum educational qualification for most
positions in the profession. An increasing
number of students are enrolled in advanced
professional programs leading to the Pharm.D.
degree. A master’s or Ph.D. degree in phar­
macy or a related field usually is required for
research work, and a Pharm.D., master’s, or
Ph.D. usually is necessary for administrative
work or college teaching. Although a number
of pharmacy graduates interested in further



training pursue an advanced degree in phar­
macy, there are other options. Some enter med­
ical, dental, or law school, and others pursue
graduate degrees in related disciplines.
Areas of special study include pharmaceutics
and pharmaceutical chemistry (physical and
chemical properties of drugs and dosage
forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the
body), pharmacognosy (drugs derived from
plant or animal sources), hospital pharmacy,
clinical pharmacy, and pharmacy administra­
tion. Clinical pharmacy is the synthesis of basic
and pharmaceutical science education and the
application of this knowledge to drug manage­
ment problems in the care of patients. Courses
in pharmacy administration are particularly
helpful to pharmacists who become executives
or managers.

All colleges of pharmacy offer courses in
pharmacy practice, designed to teach students
the skills involved in compounding and dis­
pensing prescriptions, and to strengthen their
understanding of professional ethics and re­
sponsibilities. In many cases, professional
training increasingly emphasizes direct patient
care as well as consultative services to other
health professionals.
Drug manufacturers, chain drugstores, cor­
porations, State and national pharmacy associa­
tions, colleges of pharmacy, and other organi­
zations award scholarships annually to students
studying full time toward a degree in pharmacy.
Many pharmacists are self-employed. Pro­
spective pharmacists interested in this type of
practice should have business sense and the
ability to gain the confidence of clients. Hon­
esty, integrity, orderliness, and accuracy are
important attributes.
Pharmacists often begin as employees in
community pharmacies. After they gain experi­
ence and secure the necessary capital, they may
become owners or part owners of pharmacies.
A pharmacist with experience in a chain drug­
store may advance to a managerial position,
and later to a higher executive position within
the company. Hospital pharmacists who have
the necessary training and experience may ad­
vance to director of pharmacy service or to
other administrative positions. Pharmacists in
industry often have opportunities for advance­
ment in management, sales, research, quality
control, advertising, production, packaging,
and other areas.
Some individuals put their pharmaceutical
training to work in related fields. For example,
pharmacists are hired as sales or medical serv­
ice representatives by drug manufacturers and
wholesalers. They sell medicines to communi­
ty pharmacies and to hospitals and inform
health personnel about new drugs. Some teach
in colleges of pharmacy, supervise the man­
ufacture of pharmaceuticals, or are involved in

128/Occupational Outlook Handbook
research and the development of new medi­
cines. Pharmacists also edit or write technical
articles for pharmaceutical journals. Some
combine pharmaceutical and legal training in
jobs as patent lawyers or consultants on phar­
maceutical and drug laws.

Job Outlook
Employment of pharmacists is expected to grow
about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s, and the overall job
outlook is favorable. However, in some lo­
calities, particularly large metropolitan areas,
there appear to be imbalances leading to inten­
sified competition, a situation that may con­
tinue.
As in most other occupations, the majority of
job openings will result from the need to re­
place pharmacists who leave the profession. In
pharmacy, this generally means retirement, for
pharmacists, like physicians and dentists, tend
to remain in the field until they retire. Rela­
tively few transfer to other lines of work.
Demand for pharmacists will be stimulated
by population growth and the aging of the popu­
lation, which will cause pharmacies to open or
expand in regions experiencing growth and in
places where concentrations of older people are
developing. Employment of pharmacists is ex­
pected to rise more rapidly in hospitals than in
community pharmacies. The projected increase
in the elderly population is especially impor­
tant, for the number of prescriptions influences
demand for pharmacists, and the elderly are
relatively heavy users of medicine and drugs.
Other factors likely to spur demand for phar­
macists through the mid-1990’s include scien­
tific advances that have made a wider range of
drug products available for preventive and
therapeutic uses and the widespread availability
of health insurance, which generally pays for
prescription drugs.

Earnings
Salaries of pharmacists are generally influenced
by the location, size, and type of employer, as
well as the duties and responsibilities of the
position. Median annual earnings of full-time,
salaried pharmacists were about $24,100 in
1982; the middle 50 percent earned between
$19,100 and $28,300. Ten percent earned less
than $14,100 and 10 percent more than $31,100.
According to a survey by Drug Topics maga­
zine, pharmacists working in chain drugstores
in 1982 had an average base salary of $27,651
per year, while pharmacists working in inde­
pendent drugstores averaged $25,275. In gen­
eral, the highest salaries were paid on the West
Coast.
The average starting salary for pharmacists
working in hospitals, medical schools, and
medical centers was about $22,800 a year in
1982, according to a national survey conducted
by the University of Texas Medical Branch;
experienced pharmacists in these workplaces
averaged about $29,700 a year. Pharmacists
who do consulting work in addition to their
primary job may have total earnings consider­
ably higher than this. Experienced phar­
macists, particularly owners or managers of
pharmacies, often earn considerably more.




The minimum entrance salary in the Federal
Government for a new graduate with a bach­
elor’s degree from an approved pharmacy de­
gree program was about $16,600 a year in 1982.
However, most graduates qualified for a begin­
ning salary of about $20,300 a year; those with
2 years of graduate work, about $24,500 a year.
Pharmacists with additional years of experience
may start at a higher salary. The average salary
for all federally employed pharmacists was
about $27,100 in 1982.
According to a survey conducted by the
American Association of Colleges of Phar­
macy, average annual salaries of full-time per­
sonnel in colleges of pharmacy during 1982
were as follows: Deans, about $57,000; assis­
tant and associate deans, about $44,000; full
professors, around $44,200; associate pro­
fessors, around $35,000; and assistant pro­
fessors, about $28,300.
With the proliferation of chain drugstores
and the increasing difficulty of owning a phar­
macy, some pharmacists have joined unions.
The main unions organizing pharmacists are
the United Food and Commercial Workers In­
ternational Union and District 1199, an affiliate
of the Retail, Wholesale and Department Store
Union.

Related Occupations
Pharmacists fill the prescriptions of physicians,
dentists, and other health practitioners and are
responsible for selecting, compounding, dis­
pensing, and preserving drugs and medicines.
Workers in other professions requiring similar
educational training and who work with phar­
maceutical compounds or perform related du­
ties include pharmaceutical bacteriologists,
p h arm aceu tical ch em ists, and p h ar­
macologists.

Sources of Additional Information
Additional information on pharmacy as a ca­
reer, preprofessional and professional require­
ments, programs offered by colleges of phar­
macy, and student financial aid is available
from:
American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 4630
Montgomery Ave., Suite 201, Bethesda, Md. 20814.

General information on pharmacy is avail­
able from:
American Pharmaceutical Association, 2215 Consti­
tution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037.

General information on independent retail
pharmacies is available from:
National Association of Retail Druggists, 205
Daingerfield Road, Alexandria, Va. 22314.

For a list of accredited colleges of pharmacy,
contact:
American Council on Pharmaceutical Education, 311
West Superior St., Chicago, 111. 60610.

Information on requirements for licensure in
a particular State is available from the Board of
Pharmacy of the State or from:
National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, One
East Wacker Dr., Suite 2210, Chicago, 111. 60601.

Information on college entrance require­
ments, curriculums, and financial aid is avail­
able from the dean of any college of pharmacy.

Physical Therapists
(D.O.T. 076.121-014)

Nature of the Work
Physical therapists plan and administer treat­
ment in order to restore bodily functions, re­
lieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent
disability to those suffering from a disabling
injury or disease. Their patients include acci­
dent victims, handicapped children, and stroke
victims. Physical therapy also is used in the
treatment of multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy,
nerve injuries, amputations, fractures, and ar­
thritis.
Initially, physical therapists review and eval­
uate the patient’s condition and medical rec­
ords, perform tests or measurements, and inter­
pret the findings. Then they develop a treatment
plan in cooperation with the patient’s physi­
cian. The goal is to help patients attain max­
imum muscle strength and motor skills but, at
the same time, accept and adjust to the limiting
effects of their disabilities. Patients often are
suffering emotional as well as physical stress,
and treatment requires sensitivity in addition to
technical proficiency on the part of the
therapist.
Since treatments may be prolonged, the full
cooperation of the patient is very important. As
a first step, therefore, physical therapists famil­
iarize themselves with patients’ personal back­
grounds, as well as with their medical histories,
and make an effort to gain their trust and con­
fidence. The therapist-patient relationship can
be highly important in determining the effec­
tiveness of the treatment.
Therapeutic procedures include exercise for
increasing strength, endurance, coordination,
and range of motion; electrical stimulation to
activate paralyzed muscles; instruction in car­
rying out everyday activities and in the use of
helping devices; and the application of mas­
sage, heat, cold, light, water, or electricity to
relieve pain or improve the condition of mus­
cles and skin. To carry out these procedures,
therapists must have detailed knowledge of
human anatomy and physiology and know what
steps may be taken to correct disease and injury.
Treatment can be more effective and pro­
gress faster if patients and their families under­
stand the purpose and plan and know just how
they can help. Physical therapy services include
instructing patients and their families in how to
carry on prescribed treatment programs at
home. They may need specific instruction in the
techniques of muscle contraction and relaxation
or in the care and use of braces or prosthetic
appliances. Physical therapists may personally
conduct the treatment program or supervise a
program conducted by a physical therapist as­
sistant.
Physical therapists usually perform their
own evaluations of patients. In some hospitals

Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physicians Assistants/129
and nursing homes, however, the director or
assistant director of the physical therapy de­
partment may handle this work, which requires
extensive training and experience. Therapists
may treat patients with a wide variety of prob­
lems, or they may specialize in pediatrics, geri­
atrics, orthopedics, sports medicine, neu­
rology, or cardiopulmonary diseases.

Working Conditions
Physical therapists generally work in pleasant
surroundings. Evening and weekend hours may
be required, especially for those in private prac­
tice who must be available at times convenient
for their patients. The job can be physically
exhausting. In addition to standing for long
periods, therapists must move equipment and
help patients turn, stand, or walk.

Employment
Physical therapists held more than 43,000 jobs
in 1982. Many jobs are part time, and, indeed,
one-fifth of all therapists hold a part-time job.
About 2 out of 5 jobs for physical therapists
are in hospitals. Many jobs are in nursing
homes—either staff positions or contract serv­
ices provided by consulting firms or indepen­
dent practitioners. Therapists also work in re­
habilitation centers, schools and residential
facilities for handicapped children, home
health agencies, outpatient clinics, and physi­
cians’ offices.
As the accompanying chart shows, a sub­
stantial number of physical therapists are in
solo or group practice, normally treating clients
referred to them by physicians. In a few States,
physical therapists treat clients who come di­
rectly to them without first being referred by a
physician.
Some therapists teach, conduct research, or
serve as consultants.

neuroanatomy, and neurophysiology; it also in­
cludes specialized courses such as bio­
mechanics of motion, human growth and de­
velopment, manifestations of disease and
trauma, and courses in specific therapeutic pro­
cedures. Besides receiving classroom instruc­
tion, students get supervised clinical experi­
ence administering physical therapy to patients
in hospitals and other treatment centers.
Competition for entry to physical therapy
programs is keen. Consequently, students se­
riously interested in attending a physical
therapy program must attain superior grades in
their earlier studies, especially in science
courses. High school courses that are useful
include health, biology, chemistry, social sci­
ence, mathematics, and physics.
Personal traits that physical therapists need
include patience, tact, resourcefulness, and
emotional stability to help patients and their
families understand the treatments and adjust to
their handicaps. Physical therapists also should
have manual dexterity and physical stamina.
Many persons who want to determine whether
they have the personal qualities needed for this
occupation volunteer for summer or part-time
work in the physical therapy department of a
hospital or clinic. Indeed, such experience is

required for admission to some education pro­
grams .
A graduate degree combined with clinical
experience increases opportunities for advance­
ment, especially to teaching, research, and ad­
ministrative positions.

Job Outlook
Employment of physical therapists is expected
to grow much faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s because of
anticipated rapid growth in rehabilitation serv­
ices. Many additional openings will result from
replacement needs.
Most new positions for physical therapists
will result from the expansion of programs to
aid disabled persons—a diverse and growing
population. The aging of the population will
spur demand, for the number of people who
need therapy will increase sharply: Very rapid
growth is projected for the population age 75
and above, a group that suffers a relatively high
incidence of disabling conditions. However, the
degree to which population growth is translated
into additional jobs for physical therapists will
depend upon other factors as well, including the
extent to which health care providers encourage

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All States, the District of Columbia, and the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico require a license
to practice physical therapy. Applicants must
have a degree or certificate from an accredited
physical therapy educational program and pass
a State licensure examination.
Three different types of programs provide
educational preparation for entry level jobs in
this field: Bachelor’s degree programs in phys­
ical therapy; certificate (or second bachelor’s
degree) programs for those who already hold a
bachelor’s in another field, such as biology; and
entry level master’s degree programs in phys­
ical therapy.
In 1983, entry level training was offered in 84
bachelor’s degree programs, 6 certificate pro­
grams, and 10 master’s degree programs. One
of the master’s degree programs is sponsored
jointly by the U.S. Army and Baylor Univer­
sity; graduates are commissioned as officers in
the Army. In addition, 25 master’s degree pro­
grams and 7 doctoral degree programs offered
advanced training for physical therapists.
The physical therapy curriculum includes
science courses such as anatomy, physiology,



The aging of the population contributes to the growing demand for physical therapists.

130/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Physical therapists practice in a variety of settings.
Percent employed by work setting, 1982
0

10

20

30

40

50

Hospitals
Offices of therapists/
physicians
Rehabilitation centers
Nursing homes

Working Conditions

Home health agencies
School systems
Other
SOURCE: American Physical Therapy Association

this level of care for elderly patients, and the
availability of funds to pay for it.
Only part of the increasing number of per­
sons requiring rehabilitation services will stem
from the aging of the population. Young per­
sons, too, need physical therapy. Advances in
medical technology have saved lives that only a
few years ago would have been lost: Children
with severe birth defects, for example, and car
crash victims, many of whom are teenagers and
young adults. Future biomedical developments
are certain to permit even more people to sur­
vive traumas that in the past would have been
fatal, thereby creating a need for rehabilitative
care.
Job prospects in physical therapy should be
very good through the mid-1990’s. New gradu­
ates are in great demand, and the number of
people completing training programs is ex­
pected to fall short of that needed to fill job
openings. Total enrollments in accredited phys­
ical therapy programs have remained relatively
stable since the mid-1970’s. If program comple­
tions remain at current levels and demand for
rehabilitation services continues to increase,
prospects for jobseekers should become even
more favorable than they are today.

Related Occupations

Earnings

The occupation of physician assistant (PA)
came into being during the 1960’s, when physi­
cians were in short supply. Additional educa­
tion enabled medical corpsmen trained during
the Vietnam conflict as well as some nurses and
others with patient-care experience to relieve
physicians of many essential but time-consum­
ing tasks. PA’s interview patients, take medical
histories, perform physical examinations, order
laboratory tests, make tentative diagnoses, and
prescribe appropriate treatments. Studies show
they have the ability to care for 8 out of 10
people who visit a family practitioner’s office in
any one day. PA’s, however, always work under
the direction of a licensed “supervising physi­
cian.”

Starting salaries in hospitals for new physical
therapy graduates averaged about $18,000 a
year in 1982, according to a national survey
conducted by the University of Texas Medical
Branch. A 1982 survey conducted by the Amer­
ican Physical Therapy Association disclosed
that the average earnings for all salaried phys­
ical therapists was $23,000 and some earned
more than $35,000 a year.
Beginning therapists employed by the
Federal Government earned starting salaries of
$15,000 a year in 1982. The average salary paid
therapists was about $23,700 annually; super­
visory therapists may earn more than $33,000.




Alternative titles sometimes used by these
workers are MEDEX, physician associate, and
community health medic. Some PA’s assist
physicians in such specialty areas as pediatrics
or surgery. They perform routine procedures
such as physical exam inations, provide
postoperative care, and assist during compli­
cated medical procedures such as cardiac
catheterizations. These specialist PA’s include
child health associates, orthopedic physician
assistants, urologic physician assistants, sur­
geon assistants, and emergency room physi­
cian assistants.

Physical therapists are concemed.with the treat­
ment and rehabilitation of persons with phys­
ical or mental disabilities or disorders. They
may use exercise, massage, heat, water, elec­
tricity, and various therapeutic devices to help
their patients gain independence. Others who
do sim ilar work include occupational
therapists, speech pathologists and au­
diologists, orthotists, prosthetists, and respira­
tory therapists.

Sources of Additional Information
Additional information on a career as a physical
therapist and a list of accredited educational
programs in physical therapy are available
from:
American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North
Fairfax St., Alexandria, Va. 22314.

Physician Assistants
(D.O.T. 079.364-018)

Nature of the Work

Physician assistants work in the same places as
physicians. Hospitals, clinics, and physicians’
offices usually provide a comfortable, welllighted environment, although PA’s must often
stand for long periods and do considerable
walking.
The workweek and schedule vary according
to the setting. Some emergency room PA’s
work 24-hour shifts twice weekly, and others
work three 12-hour shifts each week. The work­
week of PA’s who work in physicians’ offices
may include some night office hours or early
morning hospital rounds to visit patients. PA’s
in clinics usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week.

Employment
Physician assistants held about 22,000 jobs in
1982. They most commonly work for physi­
cians in private practice. However, hospitals
employ an increasing proportion of PA’s—now
about 25 percent. A small but growing number
work for health maintenance organizations,
other prepaid health plans, or clinics.
Despite efforts to encourage physicians to
practice where they are needed most, many
rural areas and inner cities remain underserved.
Almost 20 percent of all Americans live in
counties with a population of less than 50,000,
yet only 8 percent of all active physicians prac­
tice in these areas. The 45 percent of all PA’s
who practice there provide badly needed health
care service.
Although most PA’s in medically under­
served areas are associated with physicians in
private practice, some work in clinics, where a
physician may be available just 1 or 2 days each
week. For the rest of the week, a PA working
with one or more nurses, technicians, or medi­
cal assistants provides all health care services.
PA’s in these clinics usually have quick tele­
phone access to a physician for consultation,
but: experience has shown that normally few
consultations are needed. The Rural Health
Clinics Service Act of 1977 helped promote this
type of practice by making reimbursement by
Medicare easier; currently, over 10 percent of
all PA’s practice in one of these clinics.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
In the early years of the occupation, informal
training was not uncommon, but today, nearly
all States require that new PA’s complete an
approved program. Approximately 15,000 PA’s
had completed such training programs by 1982.
Fifty-four educational programs for primary

Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physicians Assistants/131
Individuals planning a career as a physician
assistant should be conscientious and willing to
study a great deal throughout their career to
keep up with medical advances. They should
exhibit leadership, self-confidence, and emo­
tional stability. A pleasant personality, pa­
tience, and the ability to deal with all kinds of
people are essential.
Formal lines of advancement have not
evolved within this young profession. There are
no head PA’s in hospitals or nursing homes as
there are head nurses; by the very nature of the
profession, individual PA’s are supervised by
physicians. Since a supervising physician
shares responsibility for the quality of care ren­
dered by the PA, this relationship must be a
close one.
Some PA’s advance after additional educa­
tion to practice in a specialty area such as emer­
gency medicine; others advance with experi­
ence to added responsibilities and higher
earnings although earnings generally level off
within 7 or 8 years after graduation.

A physician assistant monitors emergency medical treatment on the way to the hospital.
care physician assistants and 3 programs for
surgeon assistants were approved by the Com­
mittee on Allied Health Education and Ac­
creditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical
Association.
Admission requirements vary, but 2 years of
coursework at the college level in science or one
of the health professions is usually the mini­
mum requirement. Most applicants, in fact,
hold a bachelor’s or higher degree.
A background in one of the health profes­
sions is an important qualification for entry to
these highly-competive programs. Most pro­
grams prefer applicants with clinical experi­
ence in jobs ranging from medical technologist
to registered nurse, and nearly all PA students
have such a background.
Educational programs are generally 2 years
in length, although some are longer and a few
are shorter. Most PA programs are located in
medical schools, schools of allied health, or 4year colleges; a few are located in community
colleges or are hospital based. Regardless of the
institutional sponsorship, most accredited PA
programs have clinical teaching affiliations
with medical schools or medical school faculty.
PA education begins with a classroom or
didactic phase that lasts 6 to 24 months. Class­
room instruction includes human anatomy,
physiology, microbiology, clinical phar­
macology, applied psychology, clinical medi­
cine, and medical ethics, During the program’s
last 9 to 15 months, students do supervised
clinical work designed to develop practitioners’
skills. Clinical training begins with a series of
clinical practice assignments or rotations.
These rotations include family practice, inpa­
tient and ambulatory medicine, general sur­
gery, obstetrics and gynecology, emergency
medicine, internal medicine, psychiatry, and
pediatrics. Sometimes, one or more of the rota­
tions are served under the “preceptorship” or
supervision of a physician who is seeking to



hire a PA. This learning experience often leads
to a permanent position.
The number of PA programs that award a
bachelor’s degree has been growing, and cur­
rently about two-thirds of the programs do so.
Most of the remaining programs offer a certifi­
cate and/or associate degree; one offers an M.S.
option.
MEDEX programs, which last about 18
months, are slightly shorter than other PA pro­
grams. MEDEX programs are designed for
people who have had extensive, direct patient
care experience, usually in roles such as medi­
cal corpsman or registered nurse. This back­
ground allows for a shorter period of classroom
training and increased emphasis on clinical ex­
perience. MEDEX students usually gain most
of their supervised clinical experience working
with the physician who will hire them upon
graduation.
Postgraduate education for PA’s, termed the
“PA residency” , is a recent development. Resi­
dency programs, as yet unaccredited, are avail­
able in emergency medicine, general surgery,
neonatology, and occupational medicine.
State laws and regulations govern the use of
the title “physician assistant” and the scope of
PA practice in all but a few States. Most States
require that PA’s be graduates of accredited
educational programs and 35 States require that
PA’s be certified by the National Commission
on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc.
(NCCPA). NCCPA certification attests to
clinical competence; in 1982, about 12,000
PA’s had gained certification.
The PA’s scope of practice—the duties he or
she may perform—is determined in some
States by the supervising physician and in oth­
ers by the State’s regulatory agency. There is
considerable variation among State laws and
regulations and changes commonly occur. As­
piring PA’s should investigate the laws and reg­
ulations where they wish to practice.

Job Outlook
Job opportunities for PA’s through the
mid-1990’s are expected to reflect average em­
ployment growth as well as the need to replace
experienced PA’s who leave the profession.
The occupation, though still small, has expe­
rienced extraordinary growth: The number of
formally trained PA’s was fewer than 100 in
1970. Hospitals are hiring PA’s to replace resi­
dent physicians and foreign medical graduates,
as fewer foreign graduates enter the country and
the number of surgical residency programs is
reduced. Moreover, follow-up data reveal that
nearly all newly trained PA’s find work. New
graduates may have to accept jobs in medically
underserved areas, but they do not view this as a
hardship. Most PA students report a preference
to practice in a small city or town.
Long-term prospects for PA’s are difficult to
assess, largely because of unresolved issues in
health policy. Restrictions on reimbursement
for the services of PA’s is one of the most
important questions clouding the profession’s
future. Studies have established that substitut­
ing PA’s for some physicians can lower costs
without reducing the quality of care. However,
the majority of health insurance programs—
including Medicare and Medicaid—do not gen­
erally provide reimbursement for services per­
formed solely by a PA. This uncertainty regard­
ing payment makes some hospitals and physi­
cians reluctant to hire PA’s.
Another unsettling factor is the diversity of
State laws that regulate the kinds of services
PA’s may perform. In some States, they have
the authority to make medical decisions and
prescribe treatment without the immediate su­
pervision of a physician. In others, they are
allowed to practice only where a licensed physi­
cian is present. Most States restrict the number
of drugs a PA can prescribe and some States
prohibit PA’s from writing prescriptions al­
together. Furthermore, laws regarding PA prac­
tice are under review in some States, where
proposals to expand their scope of practice have
aroused the opposition of other health
providers. Employers may be reluctant to hire
PA’s without knowing what rules will govern
their use in coming years.

132/Occupational Outlook Handbook
The now-plentiful supply of physicians also
affects prospects for PA’s. In the early 1960’s,
the Federal Government took steps to expand
the number of graduates from U.S. medical
schools. As a result, medical school enroll­
ments doubled between 1965 and 1980, and the
number of physicians in practice has risen
sharply. Barring a major surge in demand for
medical services, the increasingly abundant
supply of physicians is expected to lower pa­
tient loads for physicians and possibly decrease
the demand for PA’s in urban areas.
Some developments could heighten rather
than curtail demand for PA’s. More doctors are
locating in medically underserved areas, which
could open up additional employment oppor­
tunities for PA’s. Current emphasis on cost con­
tainment may increase the number of health
maintenance organizations (HMO’s) and other
kinds of prepaid health plans. Such plans,
which provide complete health care services to
members for a set annual charge, employ physican assistants, nurse-midwives, and nurse
practitioners in place of some physicians. Be­
cause the plan collects payment directly from
the client, the reimbursement problem does not
arise. A greater role for HMO’s in the delivery
of health care is just one of a number of possible
consequences of the effort to bring health care
spending under control. The overall effect
would undoubtedly be increased demand for
PA’s and other physician-extenders.
The aging of the population could also
favorably affect employment of PA’s. Com­
pared to younger people, the elderly visit physi­
cians more often, spend more money on medi­
cine and drugs, and spend much more time in
hospitals. Resolution of the reimbursement is­
sue could lead to greater employment of PA’s by
nursing homes and home health agencies that
serve the elderly.
Also affecting the outlook for PA’s are en­
rollments in PA training programs. In recent
years, enrollments have leveled off. If enroll­
ments remain stable while demand for PA’s
continues to grow, job opportunities for these
workers should be even more favorable.

Sources of Additional Information
For more information about the profession,
send for the brochure, Physician Assistant,
available free from:
American Academy of Physician Assistants, 1117
North 19th St., Suite 300, Arlington, Va. 22209.

Information on individual PA training pro­
grams also is available from:
Association of Physician Assistant Programs, 1117
North 19th St., Suite 300, Arlington, Va. 22209.

The 1983-84 edition of the Association’s
publication entitled Profile lists educational
programs and describes each program’s ac­
creditation status, admission procedures and
requirements, and cost. Information on cer­
tification requirements is also given. Profile
may be ordered from the Association for $10
prepaid.
For eligibility requirements and a description
of the Physician Assistant National Certifying
Examination write to:
National Commission on Certification of Physician
Assistants, Inc., 3384 Peachtree Rd. NE., Suite 560,
Atlanta, Ga. 30326.

Information regarding certification for
orthopedic physician assistants is available
from:
National Board for Certification of Orthopedic Physi­
cian Assistants, 304 East 45th St., 11th Floor, New
York, N.Y. 10017.

For information regarding training and cer­
tification of urologic physician assistants,
write:
American Board of Urologic Allied Health Profes­
sionals, Inc., 6845 Lake Shore Dr., P.O. Box 9397,
Raytown, Mo. 64133.

Registered Nurses
(D.O.T. 075.121-010, .124-010 and -014, .127-010, -014,
-018, -022, -026, and -030, .137-010, .264-010 and -014,
.371-010, .374-010, -014, -018, and -022)

Related Occupations
Other health workers who provide patient care
that requires a similar level of skill and training
include nurse practitioners, physical therapists,
and occupational therapists.



Working Conditions
Nurses generally work indoors in well-lighted,
comfortable buildings. Community health
nurses may be required to travel to patients in
all types of weather. Although most nursing
tasks are not strenuous, nurses need physical
stamina because they spend considerable time
walking and standing. Emotional stability is
required to cope with human suffering and fre­
quent emergencies. Because patients in hospi­
tals and nursing homes require care at all times,
staff nurses in these institutions may have to
work nights, weekends, and holidays.

Employment

Earnings
In 1982, physician assistants starting work in
hospitals and medical centers averaged about
$20,500, according to a national survey con­
ducted by the University of Texas Medical
Branch. Typically, the highest pay for PA’s in
these settings was about $26,000, although
some earned as much as $37,000.
The average salary of PA’s in all settings was
about $22,000 in 1982. PA’s in health mainte­
nance organizations, hospitals, and physicians’
offices earn slightly more than those in clinics.
Veterans Administration hospitals started
PA’s at about $18,339 a year in 1982. Average
earnings for all PA’s employed in VA hospitals
were about $24,800 in 1982. The highest paid
Federal PA’s earned $30,500.

surgery; others care for children, the elderly, or
the mentally ill.
Registered nurses working in nursing homes
provide bedside nursing care to patients con­
valescing from surgery or an illness, and to
those suffering from chronic illnesses and dis­
abilities. They also supervise licensed practical
nurses and nursing aides.
Private duty nurses give individual care to
patients who need constant attention. They may
work in a home, a hospital, or a convalescent
institution.
Community health nurses care for patients in
clinics, homes, schools, and other community
settings. They instruct patients and families in
health care and give periodic care as prescribed
by a physician. They also may instruct com­
munity groups in proper diet and arrange for
immunizations. These nurses work with com­
munity leaders, teachers, parents, and physi­
cians in community health education. Some
community health nurses work in schools.
Office nurses assist physicians, dental sur­
geons, and, occasionally, dentists in private
practice or clinics. Sometimes they perform
routine laboratory and office work in addition to
their nursing duties.
Occupational health or industrial nurses
provide nursing care to employees in industry
and government and, along with physicians,
promote employee health. As prescribed by a
doctor, they treat minor injuries and illnesses at
work, provide needed nursing care, arrange for
further medical care if necessary, and offer
health counseling. They also may assist with
health examinations and inoculations.

Nature of the Work
Registered nurses (R.N.’s) perform a wide vari­
ety of health care functions. They observe, as­
sess, and record symptoms, reactions, and
progress of patients; administer medications;
assist in the rehabilitation of patients; instruct
patients and family members in proper health
maintenance care; and help maintain a physical
and emotional environment that promotes re­
covery. Some R.N.’s administer community
health programs, conduct research, or teach.
The work setting usually determines the scope
of the nurse’s responsibilities.
Hospital nurses constitute by far the largest
group of nurses. Most are staff nurses who
provide skilled bedside nursing care and carry
out the medical regimen prescribed by physi­
cians. They may also supervise licensed prac­
tical nurses, aides, and orderlies. Hospital
nurses usually work with groups of patients
who require similar nursing care. For instance,
some nurses work with patients who have had

Registered nurses held about 1,312,000 jobs in
1982. Two out of three jobs were in hospitals,
and the rest were in a variety of settings: Nurs­
ing homes, community health agencies, physi­
cians’ offices, student health programs, schools
of nursing, occupational health, private duty
nursing, and solo and group practice.
The following tabulation shows the distribu­
tion of employed nurses in 1980, using data
from the National Sample Survey of Registered
Nurses (in percents):
Percent
Total ................................................
H ospitals..................................................
Nursing homes or long-term care facili­
ties .......................................................
Public or community health facilities .
Physicians’ or dentists’ offices ...........
Student health services ........................
Occupational health facilities .............
Private duty nursing...............................
O ther.........................................................

100.0
65.6
8.0
6.6
5.7
3.5
2.3
1.6
6.7

Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/133

A hospital nurse monitors the patient’s condition.
Between one-fourth and one-third of all nurs­
ing jobs are part time.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
To obtain the license to practice that is required
by all States and the District of Columbia,
nurses must graduate from an approved school
of nursing and pass a national examination ad­
ministered by each State. Nurses may be li­
censed in more than one State, either by exam­
ination or endorsement of a license issued by
another State.
In 1982, about 1,455 nurse training programs
were offered in the United States. In addition,
142 master’s degree and 24 doctoral degree
programs provided advanced education in nurs­
ing.
Nursing training programs vary in length
from 2 to 5 years after graduation from high
school, depending on the nature of the pro­
gram. Programs offered by community and
junior colleges take about 2 years and lead to an
associate degree; hospital-based programs last
2-3 years and lead to a diploma; college and
university programs require 4 or 5 years and
lead to a baccalaureate degree.
There is considerable controversy about the
relative merits of the various nurse training pro­
grams. Some employers have specific prefer­
ences, but, with few exceptions, graduates of
all these programs qualify for entry level staff
nurse positions after passing the licensing ex­
aminations.
Individuals considering a career in nursing
should bear in mind that the kind of program
they choose—associate, diploma, or bachelor’s
degree—will affect their future opportunities.
For supervisory or administrative positions, for
jobs in public health agencies, and for admis­
sion to graduate nursing programs, for exam­
ple, a bachelor’s degree in nursing is necessary.



Those considering research, consulting, teach­
ing, or a clinical specialization also should start
their nursing education in a bachelor’s pro­
gram.
Some R.N.’s trained in diploma or associate
degree programs subsequently enter bac­
calaureate degree programs to prepare for a
broader scope of nursing practice, but this can
be a costly and time-consuming way of securing
baccalaureate level preparation.
All nurse training programs include class­
room instruction and supervised nursing prac­
tice in hospitals and other health facilities. Stu­
dents take courses in anatomy, physiology,
microbiology, nutrition, psychology, and nurs­
ing. They also get supervised clinical experi­
ence in the care of patients who have different
types of health problems. Students in bachelor’s
degree programs as well as in some of the other
programs are assigned to community agencies
to learn how to care for patients in clinics and in
patients’ homes. Varying amounts of general
education are combined with nursing education
in all three types of programs.
From staff positions in hospitals, experi­
enced nurses may be promoted to the position
of head nurse, assistant director, and eventually,
director of nursing services.
For nurses who prefer close contact with
patients, career advancement may mean be­
coming a clinical nurse specialist, nurse practi­
tioner, nurse clinician, or nurse anesthetist.
Graduate level preparation is necessary to reach
these positions, all of which are distinguished
by the ability to exercise a high degree of inde­
pendent judgment in assessing nursing prob­
lems and determining priorities of care. Train­
ing is offered in hospitals and universities,
normally lasts 1-2 years, and leads to a certifi­
cate or master’s degree. Applicants must be
R.N.’s and many programs require up to 2 years
of nursing experience in a relevant specialty.

Nurse anesthetists complete a certificate pro­
gram allowing them to administer anesthesia
under the direction of a physician. Nurse practi­
tioners and nurse midwives have graduate level
training in diagnostic and health assessment
skills that enables them to perform certain du­
ties normally performed by a physician.
Clinical nurse specialists and nurse clinicians
have expertise in a clinical area such as pedi­
atrics or gerontology/geriatrics which usually is
obtained through completion of a master’s de­
gree program.
Both clinical specialists and nurse practi­
tioners can seek certification of their advanced
status in nursing. The American Nurses’ Asso­
ciation grants certification to those who meet
requirements for advanced training and experi­
ence and pass the certification examination.
Persons who want to pursue a nursing career
should have a sincere desire to serve humanity
and be sympathetic to the needs of others.
Nurses must be able to accept responsibility
and direct or supervise the activity of others;
they must have initiative, and in appropriate
situations be able to follow orders precisely or
determine if additional consultation is required;
and they must use good judgment in emergen­
cies.

Job Outlook
Employment of registered nurses is expected to
rise faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s in response to the health
care needs of a growing and aging population.
As in most other occupations, replacement
needs will be the main source of jobs, even
though R.N.’s show a strong attachment to their
field. Compared to workers in other occupa­
tions requiring a similar amount of training,
R.N.’s are less likely to transfer to another oc­
cupation. Persons who stop working as regis­
tered nurses tend to stop working altogether, at
least for a while; most resume homemaking
responsibilities. Licensed R.N.’s not currently
in the field augment the supply of approx­
imately 75,000-80,000 individuals who com­
plete nursing education programs every year.
The rapidly growing demand for registered
nurses is in part a function of their training,
which permits them to work effectively in a
wide variety of roles and employment settings.
Registered nurses’ technical skills make them
more versatile than licensed practical nurses
and nursing aides, for example. In hospitals,
the growth of intensive-care and special care
units for seriously ill patients has spurred de­
mand for clinically specialized nursing person­
nel, and this trend in favor of nursing personnel
with higher levels of formal preparation is cer­
tain to continue with the widespread applica­
tion of sophisticated medical technologies.
Efforts to hold down health care costs are
likely to produce organizational changes in the
delivery of health care, including shifts in staff­
ing patterns in hospitals and nursing homes.
Although these changes and their consequences
are a matter of conjecture, R.N.’s probably will
be affected favorably. For example, R.N.’s are
well suited for work in the rapidly emerging
“alternative” delivery systems such as health

134/Occupational Outlook Handbook
maintenance organizations, ambulatory sur­
gical clinics, and free-standing emergency cen­
ters.
The shortage of R.N.’s abated as the 1981-82
recession decreased personal spending on
health care and increased the number of R.N.’s
seeking jobs. Shortages remain, however, par­
ticularly in rural areas, some big city hospitals,
and certain specialities, such as geriatrics.
Some competition is expected through the
mid-1990’s for the more desirable, higher pay­
ing jobs, especially in areas considered highly
attractive because of climate, recreational and
cultural facilities, and in areas where training
programs abound. Nurses with a bachelor’s de­
gree should have the best prospects in those
areas. For nurses who have advanced training,
the outlook is excellent for obtaining positions
as administrators, faculty, clinical specialists,
and community health nurses.

Earnings
Median annual earnings of registered nurses
who worked full time in 1982 were about
$19,000. The middle 50 percent earned be­
tween about $16,000 and $23,000. The lowest
10 percent earned about $12,000 or less. The
top 10 percent, many of whom probably were
head or supervisory nurses, earned more than
$27,000.
According to a survey conducted by the Bu­
reau of Labor Statistics, general duty nurses
employed full time in nursing homes in large
metropolitan areas earned annual average sal­
aries ranging from $15,000 to $22,000 in 1982.
Full-time head nurses earned from $15,000 to
$25,000 in these nursing homes.
In 1982, the Veterans Administration paid
inexperienced nurses who had a diploma or an
associate degree the starting salary of $14,901 a
year; those with a bachelor’s degree, $17,431.
Nurses employed in all Federal Government
agencies earned an average of about $23,000 in
1982.
Starting salaries of registered nurses em­
ployed in hospitals, medical schools, and medi­
cal centers averaged about $17,600 a year in
1982, according to a national survey conducted
by the University of Texas Medical Branch.
Experienced R.N.’s averaged about $23,300.
This survey also showed that head nurses aver­
aged starting salaries of about $21,800 and ex­
perienced salaries of $28,500; nurse anesthe­
tists, $25,900 and $34,200; and clinical nurse
specialists, $21,500 and $28,600.
Most hospital and nursing home nurses re­
ceive extra pay for work on evening or night
shifts. Nearly all receive from 5 to 13 paid
holidays a year, at least 2 weeks of paid vacation
after 1 year of employment, and health and
retirement benefits.

Related Occupations
Other occupations with responsibilities and du­
ties similar to those of registered nurses in­
clude: Occupational therapists, paramedics,
physical therapists, physician assistants, and
respiratory therapists.




Sources of Additional Information
The National League for Nursing (NLN) pub­
lishes a variety of materials about nursing and
nursing education, including a list of approved
schools of nursing and information on student
financial aid. One brochure describes master’s
degree programs to prepare nurse practitioners,
clinical specialists, and nurse educators. For a
complete list of NLN publications, write for a
career information brochure. Send your request
to:
Career Information Services, National League for
Nursing, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, N.Y.
10019.

Information on career opportunities as a reg­
istered nurse is available from:
American Nurses’ Association, 2420 Pershing Rd.,
Kansas City, Mo. 64108.

Information about employment oppor­
tunities in Veterans Administration hospitals is
available from local Veterans Administration
hospitals and also from:
Recruitment Division, Veterans Administration, 810
Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20420.

For information on nursing careers in hospi­
tals, contact:
American Hospital Association, Division of Nursing,
840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611.

For a copy of Health Careers in Long-Term
Care, write:
American Health Care Association, 1200 15th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

Respiratory
Therapists
(D.O.T. 079.361)

Nature of the Work
Respiratory therapists, sometimes called inha­
lation therapists, treat patients who have car­
diorespiratory problems. Treatment may range
from giving temporary relief to patients with
chronic asthma or emphysema to giving emer­
gency care for heart failure, stroke, drowning,
or shock. Respiratory therapists are among the
first medical specialists called for emergency
treatment of acute respiratory conditions aris­
ing from head injury or drug poisoning. Their
role is a highly responsible one because a pa­
tient who stops breathing for longer than 3 to 5
minutes has little chance of recovery without
serious brain damage. If oxygen is cut off for
more than 9 minutes, death results.
Following doctors’ orders, respiratory
therapists use special equipment, such as respi­
rators and positive-pressure breathing ma­
chines, to treat patients who need temporary or
emergency respiratory assistance. For exam­
ple, they use aerosol inhalants to confine medi­
cation to the lungs. They often treat patients
who have undergone surgery. The anesthesia
administered during surgery depresses respira­
tion, so in some cases respiratory therapy is
prescribed to restore full, deep breathing and

protect the patient against respiratory illness
that could complicate recovery. They also show
patients and their families how to use equip­
ment at home. Other duties include keeping
records of the cost of materials and charges to
patients, and maintaining and making minor
repairs to equipment. Some therapists teach or
supervise other respiratory therapy personnel.

Working Conditions
Respiratory therapists generally work a 40hour week. Because many hospitals operate
around the clock, they may be required to work
evenings or weekends. Respiratory therapists
spend long periods standing and, in an emer­
gency, may work under a great deal of stress.
The inhalants they work with are highly flam­
mable; however, adherence to safety precau­
tions and regular testing of equipment mini­
mize the danger of fire.

Employment
Respiratory therapists held about 46,000 jobs
in 1982. About 9 out of 10 jobs were located in
hospitals in departments of respiratory therapy,
anesthesiology, or pulmonary medicine. Oxy­
gen equipment rental companies, ambulance
services, nursing homes, and free-standing sur­
gical centers accounted for most of the remain­
ing jobs.

"framing, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Respiratory apparatus has become more com­
plex in recent years and formal training is in­
creasingly important for entry to the field. Vol­
untary certification for respiratory therapy
workers is available through the National Board
for Respiratory Care. Many employers consid­
er such certification important in choosing
among candidates. California is the only State
that requires respiratory therapy workers to be
licensed.
Training for respiratory therapy is offered at
the postsecondary level in hospitals, medical
schools, colleges and universities, trade
schools, vocational-technical institutes, and
the Armed Forces. In 1982, about 200 programs
in respiratory therapy were approved by the
Committee on Allied Health Education and Ac­
creditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical
Association. Another 200 programs offered
CAHEA-approved preparation for respiratory
therapy technicians.
Formal training programs vary in length and
in the credential or degree awarded. About 20
of the CAHEA-approved therapist programs
are 4-year programs that lead to a bachelor’s
degree; most of the others are somewhat shorter
in length and lead to an associate degree. Tech­
nician courses usually last about 1 year and
graduates are awarded certificates. Areas of
study for both types of programs include human
anatomy and physiology, chemistry, physics,
microbiology, and mathematics. Technical
courses deal with procedures, equipment, and
clinical tests.
People who want to enter the respiratory
therapy field should enjoy working with people
and should be sensitive to patients’ physical and
psychological needs. Respiratory therapy

Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/135
earned an average salary of $19,700 a year in
1982.
In 1982, the Federal Government paid respi­
ratory therapists with 2 years of CAHEA-accredited postsecondary school training starting
salaries of about $12,000 to $13,000.
Respiratory therapy workers in hospitals re­
ceive the same benefits as other hospital per­
sonnel, including health insurance, retirement
benefits, and vacations and sick leave. Some
employers provide tuition assistance and other
educational benefits, uniforms, and parking.

Related Occupations
Respiratory therapy workers, under the super­
vision of a physician, administer respiratory
therapy care and life support to patients with
heart and lung difficulties. Other workers who
care for, treat, or train people to improve their
physical well-being include: Dialysis techni­
cians, emergency medical technicians, li­
censed practical nurses, registered nurses, oc­
cupational therapists, and physical therapists.

Sources of Additional Information
Information concerning education programs is
available from:

Explaining the steps in respiratory therapy treatment is necessary to ensure the patient’s cooperation.
workers must pay attention to detail, follow
instructions, and work as part of a team. Oper­
ating complicated respiratory therapy equip­
ment requires mechanical ability and manual
dexterity. High school students interested in
this field are encouraged to take courses in
health, biology, mathematics, physics, and
bookkeeping.
Respiratory technicians and assistants can
advance to the therapist level by taking the
appropriate courses. Indeed, some students in
respiratory therapist programs work part time
as hospital technicians.
For respiratory therapists, advancement in
clinical practice goes from care of “general” to
“critical” patients. Extra skills are needed to
judge the condition of patients with breathing
problems as well as other organ system (heart,
kidney, etc.) failures. Ability to combine
breathing care with many other nursing and
medical functions is also required.
Therapists may also advance into supervi­
sion and management positions and with addi­
tional academic training or experience may
direct the respiratory therapy department. Cre­
dentials as a Registered Respiratory Therapist
(RRT) often are required for administrative
positions.
The field of education also offers oppor­
tunities for career development. Jobs for hospi­
tal “in-service” educators are widely available,
especially for therapists with skills or training
in teaching. Many therapists have found careers
as instructors in respiratory-therapy education
programs, and with additional academic prepa­
ration they are eligible to advance up the line to
professor or program director.

Job Outlook
Employment of respiratory therapists is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all



occupations through the mid-1990’s as a result
of population growth, widespread accessibility
of hospital and surgical care through public and
private health insurance, and the development
of new diagnostic and treatment procedures in
this field. Most openings, however, will arise
from the need to replace individuals who trans­
fer to other occupations or stop working al­
together.
Future demand for these workers will also
reflect the health care needs of an aging popula­
tion. The rate of surgery has increased, with the
most pronounced increase in operations occur­
ring among persons 65 years of age and older,
the segment of the population with the greatest
frequency of heart and lung problems. The in­
creased rate of surgery among the elderly re­
sults partly from safer and more effective sur­
gical procedures. If this trend continues,
demand for respiratory therapy workers will be
heightened. Morever, lung disease is on the
increase and trained therapists will be needed to
treat these patients. It is also expected that op­
portunities will increase in home care and in
rehabilitation.
Employment prospects should continue to be
excellent for experienced therapists and for re­
cent graduates of formal training programs.
However, the increasing availability of formally
trained therapy workers may make entry more
difficult for people with neither training nor
experience.

Earnings
The starting salary of respiratory therapists em­
ployed in hospitals averaged about $15,400 a
year in 1982, according to a survey conducted
by the University of Texas Medical Branch.
Experienced respiratory therapists in hospitals

American Association for Respiratory Therapy, 1720
Regal Row, Suite 112, Dallas, Tex. 75235.

Information on the credentialing of respira­
tory therapy workers can be obtained from:
The National Board for Respiratory Care, Inc., 11015
West 75th Terrace, Shawnee Mission, Kans. 66214.

For the current list of CAHEA-approved pro­
grams for respiratory therapy occupations,
write:
Department of Allied Health Education and Ac­
creditation, American Medical Association, 535 N.
Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610.

Many respiratory therapy workers receive
formal training in hospitals, vocational-tech­
nical institutes, private trade schools, and other
noncollegiate settings. Local hospitals can
provide information on training opportunities
for this and other health occupations. Non­
hospital vocational programs are listed, by city
and State, in the 1982 edition of Postsecondary
Schools with Occupational Programs, a pub­
lication of the U.S. Department of Education’s
National Center for Education Statistics. This
publication may be available in counseling cen­
ters or large public libraries.

Speech Pathologists
and Audiologists
(D.O.T. 076.101 and .107)

Nature of the Work
Almost 1 American in 10 is unable to speak or
hear clearly. When not treated, speech, lan­
guage, and hearing impairments are serious
handicaps that can cause problems throughout
life. Children who have difficulty speaking,
understanding language, or hearing cannot par­
ticipate fully with other children in play or in

136/Occupational Outlook Handbook
ordinary classroom activities. Sometimes these
children seem to have mental or emotional
problems, when in fact the problem is language
or hearing. Adults with speech, language, or
hearing impairments may have adjustment
problems on the job. Speech pathologists and
audiologists provide direct services to these
people by evaluating their speech, language, or
hearing abilities and providing treatment.
Speech pathologists work with children and
adults who have speech, language, and voice
disorders resulting from causes such as total or
partial hearing loss, brain injury, cleft palate,
learning disabilities, mental retardation, emo­
tional problems, or foreign dialect. Au­
diologists assess and treat hearing problems,
sometimes by fitting and dispensing hearing
aids. However, speech and hearing are so inter­
related that, to be competent in one of these
fields, one must be familiar with both.
The duties of speech pathologists and au­
diologists vary with education, experience, and
place of employment. In clinics, such as those
in schools and hospitals, they use diagnostic
procedures to identify and evaluate speech, lan­
guage, and hearing disorders. Then, in cooper­
ation with physicians, psychologists, physical
therapists, and counselors, they develop and
implement an organized program of therapy.
Although most speech pathologists and au­
diologists do some administrative work, direc­
tors of clinics and coordinators of speech, lan­
guage, and hearing in schools, health depart­
ments or other government agencies may be
totally involved in administration.

Working Conditions
Speech pathologists and audiologists generally
work in clean, comfortable surroundings and
spend most of their time at a desk or table.
Although the job is not physically demanding,
the close attention to detail and intense con­
centration needed can be mentally exhausting.
A great deal of satisfaction can be gained from
seeing a client improve. Lack of progress, on
the other hand, can be very frustrating.

Employment
Speech pathologists and audiologists held
about 42,000 jobs in 1982. Over two-thirds
worked in elementary and secondary schools
and colleges and universities. The rest worked
in hospitals and nursing facilities, speech, lan­
guage, and hearing centers, offices of physi­
cians, government agencies, and in private
practice.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A master’s degree in speech-language pa­
thology or audiology is the standard credential
in this field. Medicare and Medicaid, for exam­
ple, only pay for speech-language pathology
services provided by a practitioner with a mas­
ter’s degree. Those working in public schools
generally are required to have a practice certifi­
cate issued by the State educational agency.
Some States permit those with only a bachelor’s
degree in speech pathology or audiology to
practice in public schools, but often these per­
sons are considered teachers rather than speech
pathologists or audiologists.
In 34 States, licenses are required for those
offering speech pathology and audiology serv­
ices in private practice, clinics, or other settings
outside of schools. Licensure requirements
vary among the States but usually include grad­
uation from an accredited master’s degree pro­
gram in speech-language pathology or au­
diology. Clinical experience and an examina­
tion are also required. Undergraduate courses
in speech-language pathology and audiology
programs include anatomy, physiology, phys­
ics, acoustics, sociology, linguistics, and pho­
netics. Courses in speech, language, and hear­
ing disorders as well as in child psychology and
psychology of the exceptional child also are
helpful.
In 1982, about 240 colleges and universities
offered master’s or Ph.D. programs in speechlanguage pathology and audiology. Courses in­
clude advanced anatomy and physiology of the

Over two-thirds of all speech pathologists and audiologists work in educational institutions.



areas involved in hearing, speech, and lan­
guage; acoustics; psychological aspects of
communication; and analysis of speech produc­
tion, language abilities, and auditory pro­
cesses. Graduate students also take courses in
the evaluation and remediation of speech, lan­
guage, and hearing disorders and receive super­
vised clinical training in communicative disor­
ders.
Meeting the American Speech-LanguageHearing Association’s (ASHA) requirements
for a Certificate of Clinical Competence (CCC)
usually is necessary to advance professionally.
To earn the CCC, a person must have a master’s
degree or its equivalent, complete a 9-month
internship approved by the association, and
pass a national written examination.
Speech pathologists and audiologists should
be able to approach problems objectively and
have a concern for the needs of others. They
also should have considerable patience, be­
cause a client’s progress often is slow. In addi­
tion, they should be able to work with detail, to
accept responsibility, to work independently,
and to direct others.

Job Outlook
Employment of speech pathologists and au­
diologists is expected to increase about as fast
as the average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Population growth will add to the
number of persons having speech, language,
and hearing problems. Emphasis on early re­
cognition and treatment of these problems in
children will continue to stimulate demand for
clinicians in schools. Many school-age chil­
dren thought to have learning disabilities actu­
ally have language or hearing disorders that
speech pathologists and audiologists can treat.
Besides job openings created by growth in em­
ployment, many speech pathologists and au­
diologists will be needed to replace those who
retire, die, or leave the occupation.

Earnings
Audiologists in hospitals and medical centers
were paid about $19,500 to $23,700 a year in
1982, compared to about $18,900 to $23,500
for speech pathologists, according to a national
survey conducted by the University of Texas
Medical Branch.
The annual starting salary in the Federal
Government for speech pathologists and au­
diologists with a master’s degree was about
$20,200 in early 1983. Those having a doctoral
degree were eligible to start at about $24,500.

Related Occupations
Speech pathologists and audiologists specialize
in the diagnosis and treatment of speech, lan­
guage, and hearing problems. Workers in other
professions who also perform rehabilitative
functions include occupational therapists, op­
tometrists, physical therapists, and some physi­
cians and podiatrists.

Sources of Additional Information
State departments of education can supply in­
formation on certification requirements for
those who wish to work in public schools.
General information on speech pathology
and audiology is available from:
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association,
10801 Rockville Pike. Rockville, Md. 20852.

Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/137
OTHER DIETETIC AND THERAPY OCCUPATIONS
Title

Definition

Dietetic
technicians

Provide service in assigned areas of food service management. Teach
principles of food and nutrition and provide dietary counseling under
direction of dietitians.

13,000

Much faster than
average

Manual arts,
music, and
recreational
therapists
Physical therapy
technicians

Plan, organize, and direct medically oriented manual arts, musical,
or recreational programs in hospital or similar institution to
rehabilitate patients who are physically or mentally ill.

18,000

Paster than average

Administer physical therapy treatment such as massages, heat, light
and sound treatment and traction to relieve pain. Instruct, motivate
and assist patients in learning and improving functional activities.
Assist physical therapists.

33,000

Much faster than
average




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Health Technologists and Technicians
Many jobs in the health field owe their existence
to the development of new laboratory pro­
cedures, diagnostic techniques, and life sup­
port systems. Clinical laboratories have been
transformed by the installation of automated
instruments that offer low-cost analyses in min­
utes. Elsewhere in the hospital, new kinds of
equipment—computerized tomography (CT)
scanners, dialysis machines, and ultrasound
scanners, for example—have made possible
new kinds of medical treatment. Technologies
that are possible candidates for widespread use
in the years ahead include digital radiography
and nuclear magnetic resonance. However, the
field of medical diagnostics is changing so
rapidly that it is impossible to predict what the
next generation of devices will bring. One thing
is certain: New occupations will emerge with
future advances in medical technology.
Four statements in this section of the Hand­
book describe health careers that involve oper­
ating or monitoring biomedical equipment: Ra­
diologic technologists, electrocardiograph
technicians, electroencephalographic tech­
nologists and technicians, and clinical labora­
tory technologists and technicians.
Most radiologic technologists operate the fa­
miliar X-ray machine, but some specialize.
Computerized tomographers, for example, use
equipment linked to a computer for cross-sec­
tion X-rays of the brain or other parts of the
body. Diagnostic medical sonographers use
equipment which produces an image from
sound waves reflected from the body to exam­
ine internal organs. Nuclear medicine tech­
nologists use radioactive substances that show
up during imaging, and radiation therapy tech­
nologists operate the equipment used to treat
cancer patients.
Electrocardiograph (EKG) technicians op­
erate equipment that monitors a patient’s heart
action. Cardiology technology includes far
more than the EKG, however, and cardiology
technologists of various kinds perform or assist
with phonocardiograms, echocardiograms, an­
giograms, stress tests, cardiac catheterizations,
and other tests that enable physicians to detect
and diagnose heart problems. For example,
heart patients scheduled for surgery may be
given an echocardiogram (an ultrasound pro­
cedure) before cardiac catheterization, often
the last step before an operation. Nuclear car­
diology and digital subtraction angiography are
new cardiac technologies that are likely to gain
in importance.
Dialysis technicians, who operate kidney
machines, and perfusionists, who operate the
heart-lung machines used in coronary bypass
surgery, are examples of health workers who
operate equipment on which patients’ lives de­
pend.

138




Some health occupations are auxiliary jobs
redesigned to extend the services of highly
skilled health practitioners. The dental
hygienist expands dental services without sacri­
ficing the quality of care. The emergency medi­
cal technician provides health care in the ab­
sence of a practitioner. These workers are
specially trained to provide medical attention
when no physician or nurse is available—typ­
ically at the site of a fire, automobile accident,
or other emergency.
Practical nursing is by far the largest of the
health occupations described in this section of
the Handbook. Licensed practical nurses held
about 594,000 jobs in 1982. Other large oc­
cupations are clinical laboratory technology
and radiologic technology. Most other health
technologist occupations are quite small. In
fact, fragmentation into a large number of small
and highly specialized occupations is typical of
the health labor market.
The distinction between a health technologist
and a health technician lies in the complexity of
the job. Technologists have more responsibility
than technicians, and therefore need more
training, which varies with the occupation. For
example, medical technologists, who use labo­
ratory techniques to test specimens of body
fluids and tissues for evidence of disease, need
a bachelor’s degree in medical technology,
chemistry, or biochemistry. Medical techni­
cians usually are graduates of 2-year programs.
E lectroencephalographic (EEG) tech ­
nologists, who operate m achinery that
monitors the electrical activity of patients’
brains, generally complete 1- or 2-year training
programs, while training for EEG technicians
lasts only about 6 months.
Preparation for these careers varies. Some
workers learn their skills on the job through
classroom and laboratory study combined with
closely supervised clinical experience. As a
rule, the newer the occupation, the more likely
that training will be provided on the job. In
most health technologist occupations, however,
workers are trained formally in hospitals, medi­
cal centers, community colleges, 4-year col­
leges and universities, vocational-technical in­
stitutes, or trade schools. Training require­
ments for specific occupations are described in
the statements that follow.
The Committee on Allied Health Education
and Accreditation (CAHEA) accredits training
programs for 26 allied health occupations. In­
formation about accredited programs is pub­
lished annually in the Allied Health Education
Directory, which may be purchased from:
Department of Allied Health Education and Ac­
creditation, American Medical Association, 535 N.
Dearborn St., Chicago, Illinois 60601.

Allied Health Education Programs in Col­
legiate Settings 1980: A Directory, published
by the American Society of Allied Health Pro­
fessions (ASAHP), identifies all programs in 2year and 4-year colleges and universities that
prepare students for allied health careers. Pro­
gram listings for specific occupations, arranged
by State, are available from ASAHP at 10 cents
a page (minimum order $2.00). For details,
write:
American Society of Allied Health Professions, One
Dupont Circle NW., Suite 300, Washington, D.C.
20036.

Many allied health workers receive their
training in hospitals, vocational-technical in­
stitutes, private trade schools, and other noncollegiate settings. Such programs are listed,
by State, in the 1982 edition of Postsecondary
Schools with Occupational Programs, a pub­
lication of the U.S. Department of Education’s
National Center for Education Statistics. This
publication may be available in counseling cen­
ters or large public libraries.
Employment in the health industry is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
industries through the mid-1990’s due to popu­
lation growth, especially the substantial in­
crease in the number of older people. However,
the patient’s ability to pay for diagnostic tests,
laboratory work, surgery, and hospital stays is
one of the most important factors spurring de­
mand. Widespread availability of third-party
coverage for hospital and laboratory services
under Medicare, Medicaid, and commercial
health insurance is expected to assure continued
rapid growth in employment of health tech­
nologists and technicians.
Currently underway is a broad-based effort
to contain the rate of increase in health care
costs. To predict what will actually occur is
impossible, but cost containment, if suc­
cessful, could mean sweeping changes in the
organization and delivery of health care serv­
ices in the United States. Changes in the reim­
bursement system, combined with more strin­
gent review procedures, could slow the pur­
chase of expensive new hospital equipment and,
also reduce the number of diagnostic tests and
procedures that physicians order. Therefore,
actual growth in the health technologist occupa­
tions may diverge from the rates currently an­
ticipated.
Books and brochures on health careers are
available in libraries, counseling centers, and
bookstores. The Sources of Additional Infor­
mation section at the end of each Handbook
statement identifies organizations that can
provide career information, including bro­
chures that describe the work and lists of train­
ing programs. For an overview of jobs in the
health field, including some jobs not covered in

Health Technologists and Technicians/139
the Handbook, request a copy of “200 Ways to a
Health Career” from:
National Health Council, 1740 Broadway, New York,
N.Y. 10019.

Another useful publication is Health Careers
Guidebook, fourth edition, published in 1979
by the U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare (now the Department of Health and
Human Services.) It is available for $7.50
from:
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402.

Clinical Laboratory
Technologists and
Technicians
(D.O.T. 078.121-010, .161-010, .221-010, .261-010
and -014, .281-010, .361-014 and -030, and .381-014)

Nature of the Work
Laboratory tests play an important part in the
detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease.
They are essential in detecting the presence of
illnesses in which there are changes in the body
fluids and tissues. Examples of such changes
include chemical changes in the blood, urine,
or lymph; increases or decreases in the count of
various types of white or red blood cells; micro­
scopic changes in the structure of the cells of a
diseased tissue or organ; and the presence of
parasites, viruses, or bacteria in the blood or
tissue.
Although physicians use the results of labo­
ratory evaluation and diagnosis, they do not
perform the tests themselves. Instead, the tests
are done by clinical laboratory personnel.
These specialists provide laboratory services
ranging from routine tests to highly complex
analyses, and their skill level and educational
preparation vary accordingly. This section of
the Handbook discusses the work of two levels

Clinical laboratory personnel examine body
tissues and fluids to help determine the cause of
an illness.



of laboratory personnel: Technologists and health agencies, pharmaceutical firms, and re­
technicians.
search institutions. Laboratory facilities gener­
Medical laboratory technologists have a ally are concentrated in metropolitan areas.
bachelor’s degree in science, as a rule. They Some laboratory workers work part time.
perform complicated chemical, biological,
In 1982, Veterans Administration hospitals
hem atological, m icroscopic, and bac­
and laboratories employed about 3,700 medical
teriological tests. These may include chemical
tests to determine, for example, the blood cho­ technologists and about 2,200 medical labora­
lesterol level, or microscopic examination of tory technicians. Others worked for the U.S.
the blood to detect the presence of diseases such Public Health Service.
as leukemia. Technologists microscopically ex­
amine other body fluids; make cultures of body Training, Other Qualifications, and
fluid or tissue samples to determine the pres­ Advancement
ence of bacteria, parasites, or other micro-or­
The usual requirement for a beginning job as a
ganisms; and analyze the samples for chemical
content or reaction. They also may type and medical technologist is a bachelors degree with
a major in medical technology or in one of the
cross-match blood samples for transfusions.
Technologists in small laboratories perform life sciences: Biology or biochemistry, for ex­
many types of tests, while those in large labora­ ample. It is also possible to qualify through ontories usually specialize. Among the areas in the-job experience, specialized training, or a
which they can specialize are biochemistry (the combination of these.
chemical analysis of body fluids), blood bank
Bachelor’s degree programs in medical tech­
technology (the collection and preparation of nology include substantial course work in
blood products for transfusion), cytotechnolochemistry, biological sciences, microbiology,
gy (the study of human body cells), hematology
(die study of blood cells), histology (the study and mathematics, plus 1 year of practical expe­
of human and animal tissue), and microbiology rience in laboratory work. These programs are
(the study of bacteria and other micro-organ­ offered by colleges and universities as well as
by hospitals. The hospital programs generally
isms).
Most medical technologists conduct tests re­ are affiliated with colleges or universities and
lated to the examination and treatment of pa­ lead to a bachelor’s degree, although a few
tients. Others do research, develop laboratory hospital programs require a bachelor’s degree
techniques, teach, or perform administrative for entry.
duties.
Many universities offer advanced degrees in
Medical laboratory technicians generally
medical technology and related clinical labora­
have an associate degree or a diploma or certifi­
cate from a private postsecondary trade or tech­ tory sciences for technologists who plan to spe­
nical school. They are midlevel laboratory cialize in a certain area of laboratory work or in
workers who function under the supervision of teaching, administration, or research.
Medical laboratory technicians acquire their
a medical technologist or laboratory supervisor.
They perform a wide range of complex tests and training in a variety of ways including com­
laboratory procedures which do not require the munity and junior colleges, hospitals, and vo­
technical knowledge of medical technologists. cational and technical schools. Many programs
Like technologists, they may work in several last 2 years and lead to an associate degree.
areas or specialize in one field.
Some medical laboratory technicians are train­
Working Conditions
ed in the Armed Forces.
Clinical laboratory personnel generally work a
Persons interested in a clinical laboratory
5-day, 40-hour week. Those working in a hos­ career should be careful about selecting a train­
pital can expect some evening and weekend ing program. Prospective employers—hospi­
duty. Laboratory workers may spend a great tals and independent laboratories—may have
deal of time on their feet.
Laboratories generally are well lighted and preferences as to program accreditation. (Ac­
clean. Although unpleasant odors and infec­ creditation indicates that a training program
tious materials often are present, few hazards meets established standards.) Prospective
exist if proper methods of sterilization and training programs should be able to provide
handling of specimens, materials, and equip­ information about the kinds of jobs obtained by
ment are used.
graduates, educational costs, the length of time
the training program has been in operation,
Employment
Clinical laboratory technologists and techni­ instructional facilities, and faculty qualifica­
cians held about 209,000 jobs in 1982. Medical tions.
Nationally recognized accrediting agencies
laboratory technologists accounted for nearly
half of these jobs, as the following tabulation in the allied health field include the Committee
shows.
on Allied Health Education and Accreditation
(CAHEA) and the Accrediting Bureau of
Medical laboratory technologists . . . .
103,000
Health Education Schools (ABHES). CAHEA
Medical laboratory technicians ...........
57,000
accredits programs that provide training for 26
Blood bank specialists..........................
17,000
Biochemistry technologits...................
11,000
allied health occupations including medical
Microbiology technologists .................
9,000
technologists, cytotechnologists, histologic
Histologic technologists........................
7,000
technicians, specialists in blood bank tech­
Cytotechnologists...................................
5,000
nology, and medical laboratory technicians.
Most medical laboratory personnel work in ABHES accredits training programs for medi­
hospitals. Others work in independent labora­ cal laboratory technicians and medical assis­
tories, physicians’ offices, clinics, public tants.

140/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Licensure and certification are well estab­
lished in the health field as methods of regulat­
ing the skill and competence of personnel. Li­
censure refers to the process by which a
government agency authorizes individuals to
engage in a given occupation and use a par­
ticular job title. Occupational licensing takes
place at the State level. Several States—includ­
ing Alabama, California, Florida, Hawaii, Ne­
vada, and Tennessee—require medical tech­
nologists or medical laboratory technicians to
be licensed. Other states, such as Georgia, re­
quire registration. More information is avail­
able from State boards of occupational licens­
ing or from State Occupational Information
Coordinating Committees.
Certification is a voluntary process by which
a nongovernmental organization such as a pro­
fessional society grants recognition to an indi­
vidual who meets prescribed standards. Widely
accepted by employers in the health industry,
certification is a prerequisite for some jobs, and
often is necessary for career advancement.
Agencies that certify medical laboratory tech­
nologists and technicians include the Board of
Registry of the American Society of Clinical
Pathologists, the American Medical Tech­
nologists, the National Certification Agency
for Medical Laboratory Personnel, and the Credentialing Commission of the International So­
ciety of Clinical Laboratory Technology.
Accuracy, dependability, and the ability to
work under pressure are important personal
characteristics for a medical laboratory worker.
Manual dexterity and normal color vision are
highly desirable.
Technologists may advance to supervisory
positions in certain areas of laboratory work, or,
after several years’ experience, to admin­
istrative medical technologist in a large hospi­
tal. Graduate education in one of the biological
sciences, chemistry, management, or education
usually speeds advancement. Technicians can
advance to technologists by getting additional
education and experience.

Job Outlook
Employment of clinical laboratory workers is
expected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most
openings, however, will result from the need to
replace experienced laboratory personnel who
transfer to other occupations or stop working
altogether.
Rapid growth in employment is expected be­
cause of the importance of laboratory tests for
medical diagnosis and treatment. Whenever a
physician orders chemotherapy to treat a cancer
patient, for example, a demand for clinical lab­
oratory services is created—for tests to monitor
blood chemistry, in particular. Advances in
clinical research and bioengineering tech­
nology are bound to lead to new tests and new
kinds of laboratory equipment in coming years,
thus spurring demand for laboratory personnel.
Clinical laboratory technology is in­
creasingly able to spot major diseases such as
cancer and heart disease in their early, presymptomatic stages, although the use of labora­
tory tests for early diagnosis is far from wide­
spread. If preventive medicine and early



diagnostic screening become more cost-effec­
tive, however, and are broadly accepted by the
medical community, demand for clinical labo­
ratory services could rise sharply.
Indirectly influencing growth of the field are
population growth and aging. Broad coverage
for laboratory work under Medicare, Medicaid,
and commercial health insurance has been a
significant factor in the expansion of clinical
laboratories and has contributed to the upward
spiral in health expenditures. Recent changes in
the health care financing system may encourage
hospitals to reduce the use of such services as
clinical laboratory work, and to scrutinize out­
lays for costly new technology and equipment.
However, the impact of cost containment
efforts on employment of clinical laboratory
personnel remains to be seen.

Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools,
Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart,
Ind. 46514.

Earnings

Secretary-ABHES, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart,
Ind. 46514.

Salaries of clinical laboratory personnel vary
depending on the employer and geographic lo­
cation. In general, those in large cities receive
the highest salaries.
Starting salaries for medical technologists
employed by hospitals, medical schools, and
medical centers averaged about $17,100 a year
in 1982, according to a survey conducted by the
University of Texas Medical Branch. Begin­
ning salaries for cytotechnologists averaged
about $15,700; for histology technicians, about
$13,600; and for medical laboratory techni­
cians, about $13,300. According to the same
survey, experienced medical technologists
working in hospitals, medical schools, and
medical centers averaged about $22,400 a year
in 1982; cytotechnologists averaged about
$19,700; and medical laboratory technicians
and histology technicians each averaged
$17,200.
The Federal Government paid medical tech­
nologists a starting salary of about $13,400 a
year in 1982. Those having experience, superi­
or academic achievement, or a year of graduate
study entered at about $16,600. Starting sal­
aries for technicians began at $11,900 a year in
1982, depending on education and experience.
Medical technologists in the Federal Govern­
ment averaged about $19,900 in 1982, and med­
ical laboratory technicians, about $16,600.

Related Occupations
Clinical laboratory technologists and techni­
cians perform a wide variety of tests to help
physicians diagnose and treat disease. Their
principal activity is the analysis and identifica­
tion of substances. Other workers who perform
laboratory tests include chemistry tech­
nologists, criminalists, and food testers.

Sources of Additional Information
Career information is available from:
American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Board of
Registry, P.O. Box 12270, Chicago, 111. 60612.
American Society for Medical Technology, 330
Meadowfem Drive, Houston, Tex. 77067.
American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd.,
Park Ridge, 111. 60068.

National Certification Agency for Medical Laborato­
ry Personnel, 1725 DeSales St. NW., Suite 403,
Washington, D.C. 20036.
International Society for Clinical Laboratory Tech­
nology, 818 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo. 63101.

For a list of CAHEA-approved training pro­
grams for clinical laboratory personnel, write:
Committee on Allied Health Education and Ac­
creditation, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, 111.
60610.

For a list of training programs for medical
laboratory technicians accredited by the Ac­
crediting Bureau of Health Education Schools,
write:

For information about employment oppor­
tunities in a Veterans Administration hospital,
contact the personnel office of that VA hospital.
Information about employment oppor­
tunities with the National Institutes of Health is
available from the Clinical Center, National In­
stitutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20205.

Dental Hygienists
(D.O.T. 078.361-010)

Nature of the Work
Dental hygienists, working under the direction
of a dentist, provide direct patient care; they
remove deposits and stains from patients’ teeth,
expose and develop dental X-ray films, and
perform various o th er prev en tiv e and
therapeutic services. Helping the public de­
velop and maintain good oral health is another
important aspect of the job, and hygienists may
instruct patients in the proper selection and use
of toothbrushes and other devices, for example,
or explain the relationship between diet or
smoking and oral health.
Depending on the State law, hygienists may
remove scale from teeth; apply topical fluoride
to prevent tooth decay; take medical and dental
histories; take X-rays; make impressions of
teeth for study models; and prepare other diag­
nostic aids. In some States, dental hygienists
may perform pain control and restorative pro­
cedures.
Dental hygienists in school systems serve in
several capacities. Clinical functions include
examining children’s teeth, assisting the dentist
in determining the dental treatment needed, and
reporting the findings to parents. They also
scale and polish teeth and give oral hygiene
instruction. In addition, they develop and deliv­
er classroom and assembly programs on oral
health.
A few dental hygienists assist in research
projects. Those having advanced training may
teach in schools of dental hygiene.

Health Technologists and Technicians/141
Working Conditions
Dental hygienists usually work in clean, welllighted offices. Important health safeguards for
persons in this occupation are regular medical
checkups and strict adherence to established
procedures for using X-ray equipment. The oc­
cupation is one of several covered by the Con­
sumer-Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act
of 1981, which encourages the States to adopt
uniform standards for the training and certifica­
tion of individuals who perform medical and
dental radiologic procedures.
Most hygienists work fewer than 30 hours
per week. Some of this work may be on Satur­
days or during evening hours.

Employment
Dental hygienists held about 69,000 jobs in
1982. Because multiple jobholding is common
in this field, the number of jobs exceeds the
number of individuals at work that year. Be­
cause dentists frequently hire hygienists to
work only 2 or 3 days a week, hygienists who
want a ftill-time schedule may have to hold
more than one job.
Most dental hygienists work in private dental
offices. Other places of employment include
public health agencies, school systems, busi­
ness firms, hospitals, clinics, and schools of
dental hygiene.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Dental hygienists must be licensed. To obtain a
license, a candidate must graduate from an ac­
credited dental hygiene school and pass both a
written and a clinical examination. For the
clinical examination, the applicant is required
to perform dental hygiene procedures, such as
removing deposits and stains from a patient’s
teeth. In 1983, candidates in 49 States and the
District of Columbia could complete part of the
State licensing requirements by passing a writ­
ten examination given by the National Board of
Dental Examiners. Few States permit dental
hygienists licensed in other States to practice in
their jurisdictions without further examination.
In 1982, 202 schools of dental hygiene in the
United States were accredited by the Commis­
sion on Dental Accreditation. Most programs
grant an associate degree; others lead to a bach­
elor’s degree. A few institutions offer both
types of programs. Six schools offer master’s
degree programs in dental hygiene.
Completion of an associate degree program
usually is sufficient for the dental hygienist who
wants to practice in a private dental office. To do
research, teach, and work in public or school
health programs, at least a bachelor’s degree
usually is required. Dental hygienists with a
master’s degree work as teachers or admin­
istrators in dental hygiene and dental assisting
training programs, public health agencies, and
in associated research.
Competition is keen for admission to dental
hygiene schools. The minimum requirement
for admission to a school of dental hygiene is
graduation from high school. Several schools
that offer the bachelor’s degree admit students
to the dental hygiene program only after they
have completed 2 years of college. Dental



It is not unusual for a dental hygienist to hold several part-time jobs.
hygiene training given in the Armed Forces
usually does not fully prepare one to pass the
licensing exam, but credit for that training may
be granted to those who seek admission to ac­
credited dental hygiene programs.
The curriculum in a dental hygiene program
consists of courses in the basic sciences, dental
sciences, clinical sciences, and liberal arts.
These schools offer laboratory, clinical, and
classroom instruction in subjects such as anat­
omy, physiology, chemistry, pharmacology,
nutrition, histology (the study of tissue struc­
ture), periodontology (the study of gum dis­
eases), dental materials, and clinical dental
hygiene.
People who want to becom e dental
hygienists should enjoy working with others.
The ability to put patients at ease is helpful, for
patients often are under stress. Personal neat­
ness, cleanliness, and good health also are im­
portant qualities. Dental hygienists must have
manual dexterity because they use various den­
tal instruments with little room for error within
a patient’s mouth. Among high school courses
recommended for aspiring dental hygienists are
biology, health, chemistry, speech, and mathe­
matics.

Job Outlook
Employment of dental hygienists is expected to
grow faster than the average for all occupations
because of the demand for dental care that will
be generated by an expanding population, the
growing awareness of the importance of oral
health, and the availability of dental prepay­
ment plans. Nonetheless, the majority of job
openings will result from the need to replace
workers who leave the occupation.
Job prospects for dental hygienists are ex­
pected to be favorable through the mid-1990’s.
Opportunities for part-time employment and
for work in rural areas also should be good.

The use of dental hygienists is more preva­
lent in some places than others; more wide­
spread recognition by dentists of hygienists’
contribution to heightened productivity is like­
ly to spur demand for these workers in areas
where they are not extensively used. Younger
dentists, in particular, tend to hire hygienists,
because they are taught in dental school how to
make effective use of auxiliaries in their dental
practice. The trend toward group practice
among dentists should also result in jobs for
dental hygienists.
The increasingly abundant supply of dentists
could work in the opposite direction, restrain­
ing demand for hygienists. There is concern
that the growing supply of dentists will lead to
smaller patient loads. If that occurs, dentists
might choose to perform more services them­
selves and hire fewer auxiliaries.

Earnings
Earnings of dental hygienists are affected by the
type of employer, education, and experience of
the individual hygienist, and the geographic
location. Dental hygienists who work in private
dental offices are commonly paid by the hour or
day, although they may earn a salary or a com­
mission for work performed.
The median earnings of dental hygienists
working full time were about $315 a week in
1982. In 1982, the Federal Government paid
dental hygienists with no experience starting
salaries of between $12,000 and $ 13,400 a year
depending upon the length of their training.
Dental hygienists working for the Federal Gov­
ernment averaged about $15,400 a year, in
1982.
Dental hygienists who work for school sys­
tems, health agencies, the Federal Govern­
ment, or State agencies have the same hours,

142/Occupational Outlook Handbook
vacation, sick leave, retirement, and health in­
surance benefits as other workers in these or­
ganizations.

Related Occupations
Dental hygienists relieve dentists from many
routine tasks. Other occupations performing
similar duties for dentists and physicians in­
clude dental assistants, dental laboratory tech­
nicians, general duty nurses, nurse anesthe­
tists, and radiologic technologists.

Sources of Additional Information
For information on a career in dental hygiene,
contact:
Commission on Dental Acccreditation, Suite 1814,
American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave,
Chicago, 111. 60611.

For information about accredited programs
and the educational requirements to enter this
occupation, contact:
Division of Professional Development, American
Dental Hygienists’ Association, Suite 3400, 444 N.
Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.

The State Board of Dental Examiners in each
State, or the American Association of Dental
Examiners, 211E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111.
60611, can supply information on licensing re­
quirements.

Electrocardiograph
Technicians
(D.O.T. 078.362-018)

Nature of the Work
Electrocardiograms (EKG’s) are graphic heart­
beat tracings produced by an instrument called

An EKG technician attaches electrodes to a
patient.



an electrocardiograph. These tracings record
the electrical changes that occur during and
between heartbeats. Physicians order elec­
trocardiograms to help diagnose certain forms
of heart disease and to analyze changes in the
condition of a patient’s heart over a period of
time. Often the test is done before surgery.
Some physicians use electrocardiograms as a
routine diagnostic procedure for persons who
have reached a certain age. In many fields,
electrocardiograms are required as part of pre­
employment physical examinations.
Many other cardiac tests are in use, including
“invasive” tests such as cardiac catheterization
and coronary angiography. During catheteriza­
tion, a tube (catheter) is inserted through the
patient’s blood vessel into the heart. Angiogra­
phy involves the injection of radiopaque dyes to
enhance X-ray images (angiograms). Gener­
ally, the EKG is monitored during these other
cardiac tests.
Since the equipment is mobile, EKG techni­
cians can record electrocardiograms in a doc­
tor’s office, in the EKG department of a hospi­
tal, or at the patient’s bedside. After explaining
the procedure to the patient, the technician at­
taches from 3 to 12 electrodes—also called
“leads”—to the chest, arms, and legs of the
patient. Often the technician applies a gel be­
tween the electrodes and the patient’s skin, to
facilitate the passage of the electrical impulses.
By manipulating switches on the electrocar­
diograph and positioning the electrodes across
the chest, the technician traces the heart’s elec­
trical action. A stylus records the tracings on
graph paper. The test may be given while the
patient is resting or while exercising. The tech­
nician must know the anatomy of the chest and
heart to select the exact locations for the chest
electrodes. Electrodes placed in the wrong lo­
cation result in an inaccurate reading.
After the recording has been completed, the
technician prepares the electrocardiogram for
analysis by a physician, usually a heart spe­
cialist. Technicians must be able to recognize
and correct any technical errors, such as
crossed wires or electrical interference, that
prevent an accurate reading. They also must
call the doctor’s attention to any significant
deviations from the norm for the technique used
to record the EKG.
Some EKG technicians schedule appoint­
ments, type doctors’ diagnoses, maintain pa­
tients’ EKG files, care for equipment and assist
in more specialized cardiac testing.

worked in cardiology departments of large hos­
pitals. Others worked part time in small general
hospitals where workloads are usually not great
enough to demand full-time technicians. Some
worked full or part time in clinics and car­
diologists’ offices.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
EKG technicians are trained on the job as a
rule. Training usually is conducted by an EKG
supervisor or a cardiologist and lasts from 4 to 6
weeks for basic EKG tests and up to 1 year for
some of the more complex ones.
Applicants for trainee positions generally
must be high school graduates. High school
courses that are recommended for students in­
terested in this field include health, biology,
and typing. Familiarity with medical termi­
nology can be acquired in classes on human
anatomy and physiology and by studying a
medical dictionary. Applicants for EKG train­
ing should be reliable, have mechanical ap­
titude, ability to follow detailed instructions,
and presence of mind in emergencies.
The relatively few formal training programs
in cardiovascular technology are located prin­
cipally in hospitals, vocational-technical in­
stitutes, trade schools, and community col­
leges. Formal classroom programs range from
6 to 8 months. Two year associate degree pro­
grams have clinical as well as academic compo­
nents. The American Cardiology Technologists
Association (ACTA) recognizes five of these
programs.
There are no licensing requirements for EKG
technicians, and credentialing— available
through the American Cardiology Tech­
nologists Association—is voluntary.
EKG technician is the entry level position in
cardiovascular technology. With suitable expe­
rience and additional training, EKG techni­
cians may advance to monitor technician,
Holter monitor technician, stress testing techni­
cian, echocardiology technician, and cardiac
catheterization technician. Promotion to a su­
pervisory position is possible, too.

Job Outlook

Employment of EKG technicians is expected to
grow faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s as a result of general
population grow th, greater health con­
sciousness, and the widespread availability of
health insurance programs that help people pay
for health and medical care. Demand for tech­
nicians also should increase due to the rising
Working Conditions
proportion of older persons, the segment of the
Except for emergency cases, EKG technicians population requiring the most cardiac testing.
usually work in a relaxed atmosphere. A lot of Most job openings, however, will result from
their time is spent standing. They work directly the need to replace experienced EKG techni­
with patients and therefore must relate to many cians who transfer to other kinds of work, leave
kinds of people.
the labor force temporarily, or stop working
Technicians generally work a 5-day, 40-hour altogether.
week, which may include Saturdays and Sun:
Because entry requirements are minimal, the
days. Those in hospitals also may work evening pool of prospective jobseekers is very large. In
hours.
some communities, individuals seeking posi­
tions as EKG technicians may find that employ­
ers prefer applicants with previous EKG experi­
Employment
Electrocardiograph technicians held about ence or formal training, including Armed
21,000 jobs in 1982. Most EKG technicians Forces training.

Health Technologists and Technicians/143
Earnings
EKG technicians employed in hospitals, medi­
cal schools, and medical centers earned starting
salaries of about $11,000 a year in 1982, accord­
ing to a survey conducted by the University of
Texas Medical Branch. EKG technicians who
perform more sophisticated tests generally are
paid more than those who perform only basic
ones. Some experienced EKG technicians
earned as much as $22,300 a year.
EKG technicians employed by the Federal
Government are called Medical Machine Tech­
nicians. Depending on their education and ex­
perience in this occupation, newly hired work­
ers could earn annual salaries ranging from
$11,949 to $18,339 in 1982. Usually, EKG tech­
nicians earn slightly less than the average for all
nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex­
cept farming.
EKG technicians in hospitals receive the
same fringe benefits as other hospital person­
nel, including health insurance, pension bene­
fits, vacation, and sick leave. Some institutions
provide tuition assistance, uniforms, and other
benefits.

Related Occupations
Other occupations requiring operation of diag­
nostic or therapeutic equipment include audiometrists, electroencephalographic (EEG)
technologists and technicians, radiologic tech­
nologists, and clinical laboratory technologists
and technicians.

Sources of Additional Information
Local hospitals can supply information about
employment opportunities.
For a list of approved training programs and
information about credentialing, contact:
American Cardiology Technologists Association,
Inc., Suite 808, Reston International Center, 11800
Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 22091.

Electro­
encephalographic
Technologists and
Technicians
(D.O.T. 078.362-022)

Nature of the Work
Electroencephalography (EEG) is concerned
with recording and studying the electrical ac­
tivity of the brain. A machine called an elec­
troencephalograph, operated by an EEG tech­
nologist or technician, records this activity and
produces a written tracing of the brain’s elec­
trical impulses. This record of brain waves is
called an electroencephalogram. Neurologists
and other medical practitioners use electroen­
cephalograms to help diagnose the extent of
injury for patients suspected of having brain
tumors, strokes, or epilepsy; to measure the
effects of infectious diseases on the brain; and
to determine whether individuals who suffer



from serious adjustment problems or learning
difficulties have any organic problems. EEG
also may be used before vital organ transplant
operations to help determine when the potential
donor is “medically” dead.
Before EEG technicians and technologists
produce electroencephalograms, they take a
simplified medical history of the patient and
help the patient relax. The technician then ap­
plies the electrodes of the electro en ­
cephalograph to designated spots on the pa­
tient’s head and makes sure that the machine is
working correctly. The technician chooses the
most appropriate combinations of instrument
controls and electrodes to produce the kind of
record needed. EEG technicians must recog­
nize and correct any artifacts that appear (an
artifact is an electrical or mechanical event that
comes from somewhere other than the brain,
such as eye movement or interference from
electrical lights). The technician reports any
mechanical problems with the electroen­
cephalograph to the supervisor, so that the ma­
chine can be repaired promptly. EEG techni­
cians must know how to recognize changes in
the patient’s neurologic, cardiac, and respirato­
ry status. To react properly in an emergency,
EEG technicians must understand the kinds of
medical emergencies that can occur while they
are taking the electroencephalograph. For ex­
ample, if a patient suffers an epileptic seizure,
the EEG technician must take the proper action.
EEG technologists, who usually have a
broader knowledge of the work than techni­
cians, also use EEG equipment in conjunction
with other electrophysiologic monitoring de­
vices, such as tape recorders, computers, and
video equipment. They also can repair the
equipment. After producing an EEG recording,
the technologist may be asked to write a de­
scription of the recording for the electroencephalographer.
Besides supervising technicians during re­
cordings, EEG technologists arrange work
schedules and teach EEG techniques. Tech­
nologists often have administrative respon­
sibilities, such as managing the laboratory,
keeping records, scheduling appointments, or­
dering supplies, and establishing protocol.

Most EEG technologists and technicians work
full time.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
EEG technicians generally learn their skills on
the job. Applicants for trainee positions in hos­
pitals need a high school diploma, as a rule.
Often, EEG trainees transfer to the neurology
department from other jobs in the hospital, such
as EKG technician.
EEG technologists qualify for their jobs in
either of two ways: advancing from the techni­
cian level, or completing a formal training pro­
gram. Programs that train EEG technologists
are offered at the postsepondary level by hospi­
tals, medical centers, community colleges, vo­
cational-technical institutes, and colleges and
universities. In 1980, the Committee on Allied
Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA)
had approved 19 of the 53 formal training pro­
grams for EEG personnel. Programs usually
last from 1 to 2 years and include laboratory
experience as well as classroom instruction in
neurology, anatomy, neuroanatomy, phys­
iology, neurophysiology, clinical and internal
medicine, psychiatry, and electronics and in­
strumentation. Graduates receive associate de­
grees or certificates.
Credentials for EEG personnel are available
through the American Board of Registration of
E lectroencephalographic Technologists
(ABRET), which awards the title “Registered
EEG Technologist” (R. EEG T.) to qualified
applicants. Although not generally required for
entry-level jobs, registration indicates profes­
sional competence, and may be necessary for
supervisory or teaching jobs.
Persons who want to enter this field should
have manual dexterity, good vision, an aptitude
for working with electronic equipment, and the
ability to work with patients as well as with
other health professionals. High school stu­
dents considering a career in this occupation
should take courses in health, biology, human
anatomy, and mathematics.

Working Conditions
EEG technologists and technicians, who usu­
ally work in clean, well-lighted surroundings,
spend about half of their time on their feet. A lot
of bending is necessary as they may work with
patients who are unruly or very ill.
A 5-day, 40-hour workweek with little over­
time is normal, although some hospitals require
EEG technologists and technicians to be “on
call” (ready to report to work at a moment’s
notice) after hours and on weekends and holi­
days. These employees generally work during
the day, but those involved in sleep studies
work evenings and nights.

Employment
Electroencephalographic technologists and
technicians held about 5,500 jobs in 1982. Hos­
pitals employ most EEG personnel. Jobs also
are available in neurology laboratories and in
the offices of neurologists and neurosurgeons.

Most EEG personnel work in hospitals.

144/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Some EEG technologists in large hospitals
can advance to chief EEG technologist and take
on increased responsibilities in laboratory man­
agement and in teaching basic techniques to
new personnel or students from EEG training
programs. Chief EEG technologists generally
are supervised by a physician—an electroencephalographer, neurologist, or neurosurgeon.

Job Outlook
Employment of EEG technologists and techni­
cians is expected to grow faster than the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s due
to the increased use of EEG’s in surgery, in
diagnosing and monitoring patients with brain
disease, and in research on the human brain.
EEG technologists and technicians will also be
needed to perform electrophysiological exam­
inations—somatosensory, visual, and auditory
evoked responses, for example—that have be­
come more common as a result of advances in
clinical neurophysiology. Contributing to the
increased demand for EEG technologists and
technicians is the projected expansion of the
health industry that is associated with a growing
and aging population and widespread access to
health care through health insurance.
As in other occupations, however, most
openings will arise from the need to replace
workers who transfer to other jobs or stop work­
ing.

Earnings
Starting salaries of EEG technicians employed
by hospitals, medical schools, and medical
centers averaged $12,250 a year in 1982, ac­
cording to a survey by the University of Texas
Medical Branch. Starting salaries for registered
EEG technologists were $1,000 to $2,000 high­
er. Top salaries of experienced EEG technicians
ranged as high as $22,000 a year. Highly
qualified technologists may earn more as teach­
ers for special training, supervisors of EEG
laboratories, or program directors of schools of
EEG technology.
EEG technologists and technicians em­
ployed by the Federal Government are called
Medical Machine Technicians. Depending on
education and experience, beginning annual
salaries ranged from about $12,000 to $18,400
in 1982.
EEG technologists and technicians in hospi­
tals receive the same benefits as other hospital
personnel, including hospitalization, vacation,
and sick leave benefits. Some institutions
provide tuition assistance or free courses, pen­
sion programs, uniforms, and parking.

Related Occupations
Related occupations in supervised medical ac­
tivities are audiometrists, dental assistants,
electrocardiograph technicians, electrodiag­
nostic technicians, licensed practical nurses,
nursing aides, occupational therapy assistants,
surgical technicians, orderlies, physical
therapy aides, and psychiatric aides.

Sources of Additional Information
Local hospitals can supply information about
employment opportunities.




For general information about a career in
electroencephalography as well as a list of ac­
credited formal training programs, contact:
Executive Office, American Society of EEG Tech­
nologists, Sixth at Quint, Carroll, Iowa 51401.

Information on becoming a registered EEG
technologist is available from:
The Psychological Corporation, 304 E. 45th St.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.

Health Record
Technicians
(D.O.T. 079.367-014)

Nature of the Work
A medical record is a permanent document
giving a complete account of a person’s illness
or injury and the medical services rendered
while in a health care facilty. Ordinarily, it
includes such items as a patient’s medical histo­
ry, results of physical examinations, reports of
X-ray and laboratory tests, diagnosis and treat­
ment plan, doctors’ orders and notes, and
nurses’ notes. This record shows at a glance
what treatment has been given and what treat­
ment is planned for the patient. Medical records
also are used for research, insurance claims,
legal actions, professional review of treatment
and medications prescribed, and for training of
medical personnel. In addition, medical rec­
ords are used to evaluate the quality and cost of
various medical and surgical procedures, and to
plan health care in the community.
Managing an information system that meets
the medical, administrative, ethical, and legal
requirements of a health care delivery system
involves the teamwork of health record admin­
istrators, health record technicians, and health
record clerks. Often, these workers are referred
to as medical record personnel.
Record administrators direct the activities of
the health record department and develop sys­
tems for documenting, storing, and retrieving
medical information. They supervise the medi­
cal record staff, and train them for specialized
jobs. Administrators are responsible for com­
piling statistics for State or national health
agencies, assist the medical staff in evaluations
of patient care or research studies, and may be
required to testify in court about records and
record procedures. Health record admin­
istrators serving as department heads are a part
of the hospital management staff.
Technicians organize and evaluate health
records for completeness and accuracy. Using
standard classification systems, they code
symptoms, diseases, operations, procedures,
and other therapies and post these codes on the
records to facilitate retrieval of information at a
later time.
Health record technicians prepare data for
input into computers and also prepare records
for microfilming. They assist the medical staff
by tabulating data from records for research

purposes and may, for example, maintain spe­
cial registries showing occurrences of disease
by type, such as cancer, injury, or stroke. Tech­
nicians also maintain health-record indexes and
compile administrative and health statistics for
public health officials, administrators, plan­
ners, and others.
In response to inquiries from law firms, in­
surance companies, and government agencies,
health record technicians gather statistics and
prepare reports on such topics as types of dis­
eases treated, surgery, and use of hospital beds.
They may present medical records during legal
proceedings.
The day-to-day tasks of health record person­
nel vary with the size of the facility. For exam­
ple, in a small health care facility, a record
technician may have full responsibility for
managing the record department, whereas in a
large facility, technicians are likely to spe­
cialize in just one aspect of the work. In many
nursing homes, a record clerk—working under
a consultant who is a Registered Record Ad­
ministrator (RRA) or an Accredited Record
Technician (ART)—is responsible for main­
taining the health record system.

Working Conditions
Health record personnel generally work a stan­
dard 40-hour week in a. comfortable office en­
vironment within a hospital, nursing home, or
other health care facility. Because incorrect or
misplaced medical records could affect the
health and well-being of a patient, close atten­
tion to detail is required. Some aspects of the
job are highly repetitive.

Employment
Health record technicians held 22,000 jobs in
1982. Although most jobs are in hospitals, a
growing number are located in nursing homes,
clinics, community health centers, group prac­
tices, and health maintenance organizations.
Insurance companies employ record techni­
cians to tabulate and analyze data from medical
records for evaluating claims for reimburse­
ment. Public health departments hire techni­
cians to supervise data collection from health
care institutions and to assist in research. Man­
ufacturers of medical record systems, services,
and equipment employ health record personnel
to develop and market their products.
Some record technicians provide services to
nursing homes on a consultant basis. Other
self-employed record technicians specialize in
medical transcription—the typing of physi­
cians’ records and notes from dictating or rec­
ording equipment or, occasionally, from writ­
ten notes.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most employers prefer to hire graduates of 2year associate degree programs accredited by
the Committee on Allied Health Education and
Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Med­
ical Association in collaboration with the
Am erican M edical Record A ssociation

Health Technologists and Technicians/145
with similar duties include information clerks,
insurance clerks, library technical assistants,
medical secretaries, and medical transcriptionists.

Sources of Additional Information
A list of CAHEA-approved programs for health
record technicians, information about corre­
spondence courses, and general information on
careers in medical record management is avail­
able from:
American Medical Record Association, John Han­
cock Center, Suite 1850, 875 N. Michigan Ave.,
Chicago, 111. 60611.

Licensed Practical
Nurses
(D.O.T. 079.374-014)

Nature of the Work

Record departments are likely to expand as hospitals increasingly monitor costs.
(AMRA). In 1982, community and junior col­
leges offered more than 80 accredited pro­
grams. Required courses include biological sci­
ences, medical terminology, medical record
science, business management, and data pro­
cessing.
Credentialing of health record technicians is
voluntary, and is offered through the American
Medical Record Association (AMRA), which
awards the title of Accredited Record Techni­
cian (ART) to those who pass a written exam­
ination.
Because the number of technician jobs out­
number graduates from approved programs,
hospitals often advance promising record clerks
to technician status through on-job-training.
Medical record clerks with several years’ expe­
rience can advance to the technician level after
completing the AMRA Independent Study Pro­
gram, obtaining 30 credit hours in medical rec­
ord technology from an accredited college, and
passing the ART examination for accreditation.

Job Outlook
Employment of health record technicians is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s due to the
health care needs of a growing and aging popu­
lation. Most openings, however, will occur be­
cause of replacement needs.
Directly influencing demand for record per­
sonnel is the extensive paperwork associated
with the delivery of health care—reports of
diagnostic procedures, laboratory tests, and
other clinical data needed for third-party pay­
ments, for professional review of decisions
about patient care, and for regulatory purposes.
Management’s need for accurate clinical data
for purposes of financial control is the most
important reason for anticipated employment
growth in the years immediately ahead,
however. Recently introduced changes in the
method of health care financing are expected to



heighten demand for record personnel to sup­
port management efforts to monitor and control
costs. The introduction of prospective reimbur­
sement for Medicare beneficiaries, for exam­
ple, will give hospitals a reason to monitor
patterns of diagnosis and treatment more close­
ly than ever before—and this will require analy­
sis of data maintained by health record techni­
cians.
The outlook for technicians with a 2-year
associate degree or its equivalent will be excel­
lent through the mid-1990’s. Health record
technicians are likely to need this level of train­
ing as the documentation of medical care be­
comes more specialized and complex. For that
reason, jobseekers without formal training may
experience strong competition as health record
technicians. Opportunities for part-time work
will continue, especially in nursing homes.

Earnings
Earnings of health record technicians vary ac­
cording to locality. Beginning technicians in
hospitals and medical schools averaged
$12,000 in 1982, according to a national survey
conducted by the University of Texas. Experi­
enced technicians in hospital record depart­
ments averaged about $16,500. Some earned
over $19,000 a year.
In 1982, the 1,800 record technicians em­
ployed by the Federal Government averaged
about $14,400 a year. Outstanding record tech­
nicians may work up to higher supervisory
positions with corresponding pay increases, al­
though Registered Record Administrators fill
most positions.
Like other hospital employees, health record
personnel generally receive paid holidays and
vacations, health insurance, life insurance, and
retirement benefits.

Related Occupations
Health record technicians perform a variety of
technical and clerical duties including verifica­
tion, transcription, and filing. Other workers

Licensed practical nurses (LPN’s) help care for
the physically or mentally ill and infirm. Under
the direction of physicians and registered
nurses, they provide nursing care that requires
technical knowledge but not the professional
education and training of a registered nurse.
(The work of registered nurses is described
elsewhere in the Handbook.) In California and
Texas, licensed practical nurses are called li­
censed vocational nurses.
In hospitals, LPN’s provide bedside care.
They take and record temperatures and blood
pressures, change dressings, administer certain
prescribed medicines, and help patients with
bathing and other personal hygiene. They assist
physicians and registered nurses in examining
patients and in carrying out nursing pro­
cedures. They also assist in the delivery, care,
and feeding of infants, as well as in the re­
habilitation of patients. Some licensed practical
nurses work in specialized units such as inten­
sive care or recovery rooms. There they per­
form special nursing procedures and operate
sophisticated equipment to provide care for se­
riously ill or injured patients. In some in­
stances, experienced LPN’s supervise hospital
attendants and nursing aides.
LPN’s who work in private homes provide
day-to-day patient care that seldom involves
highly technical procedures or complicated
equipment. In addition to providing nursing
care, they may prepare meals, see that patients
are comfortable, and help keep up their morale.
They may teach family members how to per­
form simple nursing tasks.

Working Conditions
Licensed practical nurses in hospitals generally
work 40 hours a week, but often this includes
some work at night and on weekends and holi­
days. They often must stand for long periods
and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk.
In private homes, LPN’s usually work 8 to 12
hours a day and go home at night. Private duty
nursing affords a great deal of independence in
setting work hours and the length and frequen­
cy of vacations.

146/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Employment
Licensed practical nurses held more than
594,000 jobs in 1982.
Well over half the wage and salary jobs were
in hospitals, as the accompanying chart shows.
A substantial number of jobs were in nursing
homes, and the rest were in schools, clinics,
and doctors’ offices, for the most part.
An estimated 10 percent of LPN jobs are held
by private duty nurses. These LPN’s are either
self-employed, in which case they are hired
directly by patients or their families, or they are
employees of a nurses’ registry or temporary
help agency. About 3 LPN’s in 10 work part
time.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All States and the District of Columbia require
practical nurses to have a license. To become
licensed, applicants must complete a State-ap­
proved program in practical nursing and pass a
written examination. Educational requirements
for enrollment in State-approved training pro­
grams range from completion of ninth grade to
high school graduation, but a high school diplo­
ma is usually preferred.

In 1982, about 1,300 State-approved pro­
grams provided practical nursing training.
Trade, technical, or vocational schools offered
more than half of these programs. Other pro­
grams were available at community and junior
colleges, hospitals, and health agencies. Sever­
al programs operated by the Armed Forces for
military personnel were State-approved for
practical nurse training. Graduates of these pro­
grams can apply for licensure.
Practical nurse training programs generally
last 1year and include both classroom study and
clinical practice. Classroom instruction covers
nursing concepts and principles and related
subjects including anatomy, physiology, medi­
cal-surgical nursing, pediatrics, obstetrics,
psychiatric nursing, administration of drugs,
nutrition, first aid, and community health. In
addition, students receive supervised clinical
experience—usually in a hospital.
LPN’s should have a deep regard for human
welfare and be emotionally stable because work
with the sick and injured can be upsetting. As
part of a health care team, they must be able to
follow orders and work under close supervi­
sion.

Licensed practical nurses must be sensitive to the needs of patients.




Advancement opportunities are limited, al­
though in-service educational programs pre­
pare some LPN’s for work in specialized areas,
such as postsurgery recovery rooms or inten­
sive care units.
Increasingly, however, practical nurse train­
ing programs are designed to allow practical
nurse graduates to continue their education and
eventually satisfy the formal requirements for
registered nurse. For example, in over 80 asso­
ciate degree RN programs, the first year of
study satisfies the educational requirements for
LPN. After this first year of study, students can
apply for licensure as a practical nurse and
begin working, or complete both years of
coursework and seek licensure as a registered
nurse.

Job Outlook
Employment of LPN’s is expected to rise faster
than the average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s in response to the health care needs
of a growing and aging population.
As in most other occupations, replacement
needs will be the main source of jobs, despite
the fact that LPN’s show an unusually strong
attachment to their field. Compared to workers
in other occupations requiring a similar amount
of training, LPN’s are much less likely to trans­
fer to other jobs. Individuals who stop working
as practical nurses tend to stop working al­
together; most resume homemaking respon­
sibilities. LPN’s not currently active in the field
thus augment the supply of approximately
40,000-45,000 persons who complete formal
training programs each year.
The acute care, high technology emphasis of
American medicine has had the effect, over the
past decade, of restraining employment growth
in practical nursing. The widespread adoption
of sophisticated medical technologies—a con­
cept that includes diagnostic and therapeutic
procedures as well as equipment—has pro­
duced a demand for highly skilled support staff.
Registered nurses, physician assistants, and
technologists are sought for the advanced train­
ing these positions generally require.
In academic medical centers, teaching hospi­
tals, and other institutions where the most ad­
vanced technology is in place, LPN’s are being
phased out and replaced by registered nurses.
This trend could accelerate if changes in the
health care delivery system lead to changes in
the mix of hospital patients. Specifically, the
emergence of “alternative” delivery systems
such as walk-in surgical centers and clinics that
handle less serious medical problems could
mean that a larger proportion of hospital beds
will be occupied by the sickest patients, whose
conditions require the application of sophisti­
cated technologies.
While a number of factors affect future pros­
pects for LPN’s, efforts to restrain the increase
in health care costs are particularly important.
Changes in the health care financing system are
likely to produce organizational changes in the
years ahead, including shifts in staffing patterns
in hospitals and nursing homes. In some hospi­
tals, fewer LPN’s and nursing aides will be
used, but in others, little change in the mix of
nursing personnel is anticipated.

Health Technologists and Technicians/147

Employment opportunities for LPN’s are ex­
pected to be more favorable in some settings
than in others. Prospects will be excellent in
nursing homes, home health agencies, and pri­
vate duty nursing—practice settings where the
number of LPN jobs is expected to grow rapidly
through the mid-1990’s. Fewer opportunities
are foreseen in other fast-growing settings:
Health maintenance organizations, clinics, and
free-standing emergency centers will probably
hire registered nurses instead.
Nearly half of all new jobs for LPN’s will be
in the hospital sector.

Related Occupations
Other jobs that involve working closely with
people while helping them include: Emergency
medical technician, social service aide, and
teacher aide.

Sources of Additional Information
A list of State-approved training programs and
information about practical nursing is available
from:
National League for Nursing, 10 Columbus Circle,
New York, N.Y. 10019.
National Association for Practical Nurse Education
and Service, Inc., 254 West 31st St., New York, N.Y.

10001.

Earnings
Median annual earnings of LPN’s who worked
full time in 1982 were about $13,000. The mid­
dle 50 percent earned between $11,000 and
$16,000. The lowest 10 percent earned $8,000
or less. The top 10 percent earned more than
$18,000.
According to surveys conducted by the Bu­
reau of Labor Statistics, LPN’s employed full
time in nursing homes in large metropolitan
areas earned annual salaries ranging from
$11,000 to $18,000 in 1982. Full-time LPN’s in
hospitals in large metropolitan areas earned
from $13,000 to $19,000.
Starting salaries of LPN’s employed in hospi­
tals, medical schools, and medical centers aver­
aged about $12,700 a year in 1982, according to
a national survey conducted by the University
of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced LPN’s
averaged about $16,600.
In 1982, Federal hospitals paid LPN’s with
no experience annual salaries of $10,645.
LPN’s with 1 year of experience received
$11,949 and those with 2 years, $13,369.
Many hospitals give pay increases after spe­
cific periods of satisfactory service. Raid holi­
days and vacations, health insurance, and pen­
sion plans are typical benefits provided by hos­
pitals.



For information about a career in practical
nursing, contact:
National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses,
Inc., P.O. Box 11038, Durham, N.C. 27703.

Information |about employment oppor­
tunities in Veterans Administration hospitals is
available from local Veterans Administration
hospitals and also from:
Recruitment Division, Veterans Administration, 810
Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20420.

For information on nursing careers in hospi­
tals, contact:
American Hospital Association, Division of Nursing,
840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611.

For a copy of “Health Careers in Long-Term
Care,’’ write:
American Health Care Association, 1200 15th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

Radiologic
Technologists
(D.O.T. 078.161-018, .162-010, .361-018 and -034, .362026 and .364-010)

Nature of the Work
The field of radiology had its beginnings in
1895, when Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-

rays, which permit a physician to view the
interior of the human body and diagnose condi­
tions such as fractures, ulcers, blood clots, and
tumors. With the application of computer tech­
nology to radiology during the 1970’s, the field
has been revolutionized. Today, the chances of
obtaining an accurate diagnosis are vastly im­
proved as vague symptoms are routinely trans­
formed into sharp, clear pictures. Sophisticated
computer imaging devices can screen nonsurgically for disorders, often on an outpatient
basis. This means less risk for the patient than
in the past, when there often was no alternative
to invasive tests and exploratory surgery.
New applications of radioisotopes and radi­
oactive tracers led to the growth of nuclear
medicine, while the invention of therapeutic Xray machines led to the birth of radiation
therapy, also known as radiation oncology.
More recently, advances in computer tech­
nology have made possible such imaging sys­
tems as computed tomography, ultrasound, and
digital subtraction angiography, all of which
provide physicians with a good “look” at inter­
nal organs with little risk to the patient. Al­
though discovered many years ago, some of
these imaging techniques have become
clinically practical only during the last decade,
thanks to improvements in electronic circuitry
that enable computers to handle the vast amount
of data involved in a single test. Imaging sys­
tems coming into use include nuclear magnetic
resonance and positron emission tomography.
The people who operate radiologic equip­
ment are called radiologic technologists or radi­
ographers. They should not be confused with
radiologists—physicians who specialize in the
interpretation of radiographs.
Most technologists operate equipment that is
used for diagnostic imaging: X-ray machines,
fluoroscopes, computed tomography (CT)
scanners, and ultrasonic scanners, for example.
These workers are still known as X-ray tech­
nologists in some places. However, as imaging
technologies based on concepts other than Xray exposure have come into use, radiologic
technologist or radiographer has become the
standard job title. Radiation is now an impor­
tant tool for the treatment of disease as well as
for diagnosis, and a distinction frequently is
drawn between therapeutic radiologic tech­
nologists and diagnostic radiologic tech­
nologists. The emergence of nuclear medicine,
radiation therapy, and ultrasound as separate
specialties has created additional job titles.
Before a radiologic technologist can perform
any work on a patient, a physician must issue a
requisition for the work. Similar to prescrip­
tions for drugs, these requisitions assure that
radiologic technologists examine or treat only
people certified by physicians as needing such
studies or treatment. At all times, technologists
must follow precisely not only physicians’ in­
structions but also regulations concerning use
of radiation to insure that they, patients, and
coworkers are protected from its dangers.
Because radiologic technologists often work
with patients who cannot help themselves,
good health, moderate strength, and stamina
are important. A sympathetic and understand­
ing manner is helpful, for technologists need to

148/Occupational Outlook Handbook
give clear instructions and explanations to pa­
tients who often are worried and anxious. Pa­
tients may be very ill or dying. Radiation
therapy technologists in particular are called
upon to develop a close and compassionate
relationship with patients and their families, for
in contrast to the pattern in other areas of radi­
ology, these technologists are likely to admin­
ister therapy to cancer patients every day for
several weeks or more. In radiation therapy,
nuclear medicine, and even ultrasound, it is not
uncommon for patients to have breathing diffi­
culties or to go into shock or cardiac arrest; if
this happens, the technologist must be ready to
assist until other medical personnel can be
called in.
Radiologic technologists (D.O.T. 078.362026) take X-ray films (radiographs) of all parts
of the human body for use in diagnosing medi­
cal problems. They prepare patients for radi­
ologic examinations, assuring that they remove
any articles, such as belt buckles or jewelry,
through which X-rays cannot pass. Then they
position the patients, who either lie on a table,
sit, or stand, so that the correct parts of the body
can be radiographed, always taking care not to
aggravate injuries or make the patients uncom­
fortable. To prevent unnecessary radiation ex­
posure, the technologist surrounds the exposed
area with radiation protection devices, such as
lead shields, or in some way limits the size of
the X-ray beam.
After the necessary preparations, the tech­
nologist positions the radiation equipment at
the correct angle and height over the appropri­
ate area of a patient’s body. Using instruments
similar to a measuring tape, the technologist
measures the thickness of the section to be
radiographed and then sets the controls on the
machine to produce radiographs of the right
density, detail, and contrast. The technologist
then places a properly identified X-ray film of
the correct size under the part of the patient’s

An X-ray is an important diagnostic tool.




body to be examined, and makes the exposure.
Afterward, the technologist removes the film
and develops it. Throughout the procedure, the
technologist is careful to use only as much
radiation as is necessary to obtain a good diag­
nostic examination.
Before a radiologist examines a patient by
fluoroscopy (watching a patient’s internal body
movements on a monitor or screen), the radi­
ologic technologist prepares a solution of bar­
ium sulphate for the patient to drink. As this
solution passes through the patient’s digestive
tract, for example, the radiologist looks for
diseases, injuries, or defects in the patient’s
digestive system. When fluoroscopic examina­
tions are performed, whether on the digestive
tract or on other parts of the body such as chest,
heart, or blood vessels, the technologist assists
the physician by preparing and positioning the
patient, adjusting the machine, applying the
correct exposure, and making any necessary
follow-up radiographs.
Nuclear medicine technologists (D.O.T.
078.361-018), also known as radioisotope tech­
nologists, participate in or direct various ac­
tivities involving radiopharmaceuticals in med­
ical diagnosis and treatment. They may work
directly with patients; conduct laboratory stud­
ies; do research; or handle administrative func­
tions relating to the purchase, use, and disposal
of radioactive isotopes and safety procedures
required in using them.
Nuclear medicine technologists calculate
and prepare the correct dosages of radi­
onuclides or radiopharmaceuticals given to pa­
tients by mouth, injection, or other means and
then position the patient for the imaging pro­
cedures. Using special equipment, tech­
nologists make images of the radioistopes or
radionuclides as they pass through or localize in
different parts of a patient’s body. They view
images on a screen or on films to detect the
existence of pathologic conditions, which are

determined by the distribution of radioactive
isotopes in various organs, glands, and body
systems. This information is used by physi­
cians in diagnosis. Small quantities of radioac­
tive isotopes may be administered to a patient,
and body specimens, such as blood and urine,
collected and measured for radioactivity level.
Radioactive substances may also be added to
body specimens to determine hormone and
drug content.
Other responsibilities include insuring that
radiation safety procedures are carefully fol­
lowed by all workers in the nuclear medicine
laboratory and that complete and accurate rec­
ords are kept. This includes patient medical
records, patient procedures performed, and
amounts and kinds of radioisotopes received,
used, and disposed of.
Radiation therapy technologists (D.O.T.
078.361-034) treat cancer patients. They pre­
pare patients for radiotherapy and administer
prescribed doses of ionizing radiation to dis­
eased body areas. Technologists operate vari­
ous kinds of equipment, including high energy
linear accelerators and particle generators.
They must position patients under the equip­
ment with absolute accuracy, in order to expose
diseased body areas to treatment while protect­
ing the rest of the body from radiation.
Radiation therapy produces side effects such
as nausea and vomiting, hair loss, and redness
of the skin in the exposed area, so the tech­
nologist must observe the patient’s reactions
and keep the physician informed.
Other responsibilities include assisting in
maintaining the proper operation of controlling
devices and equipment, observing safety mea­
sures for patients and clinical personnel, and
keeping or helping keep patient records, as well
as assisting in the preparation and handling of
radioactive materials used in treatment pro­
cedures.
With additional education, available at major
cancer centers, radiation therapy technologists
can specialize and become medical radiation
dosimetrists. In this specialty, they work with
health physicists in determining the best radia­
tion dosages for various problems as well as the
special devices needed to expose only a small
section of a body part to radiation.
Ultrasound technologists (D.O.T. 078.364010), also known as diagnostic medical
sonographers, use special equipment to trans­
mit sound waves at high frequencies into the
patient’s body, then collect reflected echoes to
form an image. The image, which results from
the “bounce-back” of sound from the areas
being scanned, is viewed on a screen and may
be automatically recorded on a printout strip or
photographed from the screen for permanent
records and for use in interpretation and diag­
nosis by physicians. Ultrasound images can be
displayed as moving pictures—an important
feature for cardiovascular and prenatal studies.
Ultrasound has quickly become a mainstay in
obstetrics and gynecology, and is coming into
widespread use in other clinical areas as well.
Ultrasound technologists select equipment
appropriate for use in ultrasound tests ordered
by physicians. They also check the patient’s
other diagnostic studies for information.

Health Technologists and Technicians/149
Sonographers explain the procedure, record
any additional medical history considered nec­
essary, and then position the patient for testing.
Viewing the screen as the scanning device is
moved over the patient’s body, sonographers
must be able to recognize subtle differences
between healthy and pathological areas, to
check for factors such as position, obstruction,
or change of shape; and to judge if the images
are satisfactory for diagnostic purposes. A high
degree of technical skill and knowledge of anat­
omy and physiology are essential to recognize
the significance of all body structures present in
the ultrasound image.
In addition to the duties involved in prepar­
ing patients and operating equipment, tech­
nologists may have administrative tasks. They
may prepare work schedules, evaluate equip­
ment, and, in general, manage ultrasound de­
partments or facilities.

Working Conditions
Radiologic technologists generally work a 40hour week that may include evening and week­
end or on-call hours. Technologists are on their
feet a lot and may be required to lift or turn
disabled patients.
There are potential radiation hazards in this
field; however, these hazards have been reduced
by the use of safety devices such as instruments
that measure radiation exposure, lead aprons,
gloves, and other shielding. Because of the
presence of radiation and radioactive materials,
technologists wear special badges while they
are in the radiation area. The badge measure­
ment rarely approaches or exceeds established
safety levels because of safety programs and
built-in safety devices.
Radiologic technologists, radiation therapy
technologists, and nuclear medicine tech­
nologists are among the occupations covered by
the Consumer Patient Radiation Health and
Safety Act of 1981, which aims to protect the
public from the hazards of unnecessary ex­
posure to medical and dental radiation by mak­
ing sure that operators of radiologic equipment
are properly trained. The Act requires the
Federal Government to set standards that the
States, in turn, may use for accrediting training
programs and certifying individuals who en­
gage in medical or dental radiography.

Employment
Radiologic technologists held about 110,000
jobs in 1982. Most were diagnostic radi­
ographers. Nuclear medicine technologists, ra­
diation therapy technologists, and ultrasound
technologists hold a relatively small proportion
of all jobs in this field.
About 7 out of every 10 jobs are in hospitals.
The rest are located in physicians’ and dentists’
offices, clinics, and laboratories. About 2,500
radiologic technologists worked for the Vet­
erans Administration in 1982: these included
2,100 diagnostic radiographers, 300 nuclear
medicine technologists, and fewer than 100 ra­
diation therapy technologists.
Many technologists work part time.



Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Preparation for this field is offered at the postse­
condary level in hospitals, medical centers,
colleges and universities, trade schools, voca­
tional-technical institutes, and the Armed
Forces. Hospitals, which employ most radi­
ologic technologists, prefer to hire individuals
who have completed a formal training program.
Technologists employed in physicians’ offices
may be trained on the job, however.
Formal training programs are offered in radi­
ography, nuclear medicine technology, radia­
tion therapy technology, and diagnostic medi­
cal sonongraphy (ultrasound). These programs
vary in a number of respects: Length of train­
ing, prerequisities, class size, and cost. Pro­
grams range in length from 1to 4 years and lead
to a certificate, associate degree, or bachelor’s
degree. Two year programs are most prevalent,
however.
Some of the 1-year certificate programs are
designed for individuals from other health pro­
fessions who wish to change fields—medical
technologists, registered nurses, and respirato­
ry therapists, for example. Certificate programs
also attract radiologic technologists interested
in developing a specialization in nuclear medi­
cine, radiation therapy, or ultrasound tech­
nology. A bachelor’s or master’s degree in one
of the radiologic technologies is desirable for
supervisory, administrative, or teaching posi­
tions.
The Committee on Allied Health Education
and Accreditation (CAHEA) accredits most
formal training programs for this field. A total
of 8,300 persons graduated from approximately
1,000 CAHEA-accredited programs in 1982:
7,200 in radiography, 700 in nuclear medicine
technology, and 400 in radiation therapy tech­
nology. (Ultrasound programs were not ac­
credited by CAHEA until 1982, so most of the
100 or so programs in diagnostic medical
sonography are not yet accredited.)
Radiography programs require, at a mini­
mum, a high school diploma or the equivalent.
High school courses in mathematics, physics,
chemistry, and biology are helpful. The pro­
grams provide both classroom and clinical in­
struction in anatomy, physiology, patient care
procedures, physics, radiation protection, prin­
ciples of imaging, medical terminology, posi­
tioning, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pa­
thology.
While it is difficult to generalize about prere­
quisities for training programs in nuclear medi­
cine, radiation therapy, and diagnostic medical
sonography, a health professions background
generally is preferred. For some programs, it is
essential. About half of the CAHEA-accredited
radiation therapy programs, and several of the
diagnostic medical sonography programs, ac­
cept applications only from radiologic tech­
nologists and registered nurses. Nuclear medi­
cine technology programs accept medical
laboratory technologists as well as radiologic
technologists and nurses. Nuclear medicine
programs that do not require a health profes­
sions background generally expect applicants
to have 2-3 years of college; many require a
bachelor’s degree.

Procedures for professional credentialing of
radiologic occupations include licensure—re­
quired by law in 12 States and Puerto Rico—
and certification or registration, which is volun­
tary. Many jobs are open only to registered or
registry-eligible technologists. Hospitals, for
example, generally require CAHEA-accredited
training plus credentials in the appropriate radi­
ologic technology. Public health departments
and private physicians are more likely to hire
technologists without such credentials.
States that currently license radiographers
are: Arizona, California, Florida, Hawaii, Indi­
ana, Kentucky, Montana, New Jersey, New
York, Oregon, Vermont, and West Virginia.
Radiation therapy technologists must hold a
license in order to work in 6 States: Arizona,
California, New Jersey, New York, Oregon,
and Vermont. New Jersey and Vermont require
nuclear medicine technologists to be licensed.
(Puerto Rico requires a license for the practice
of all three specialties: Radiography, radiation
therapy technology, and nuclear medicine tech­
nology.)
Registration is offered by the American Reg­
istry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) in
three technologies: Radiography, radiation
therapy, and nuclear medicine. Credentials in
nuclear medicine technology are also awarded
by the Nuclear Medicine Technology Certifica­
tion Board (NMTCB). The American Registry
of D iagnostic M edical S onographers
(ARDMS) certifies the competence of ultra­
sound technologists.
With experience and additional training,
staff technologists in large radiography depart­
ments may be promoted to positions that re­
quire advanced skills in special procedures in­
cluding CT scanning, ultrasound, and an­
giography, or they may move into supervisory
positions such as quality assurance tech­
nologist, chief technologist, and— u l­
timately—department administrator or man­
ager. Some technologists progress by becoming
instructors or directors in radiologic technology
programs; others take jobs as sales represen­
tatives or instructors with equipment manufac­
turers.

Job Outlook
Employment in the field of radiologic tech­
nology is expected to grow faster than the aver­
age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s,
reflecting the importance of these technologies
in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. None­
theless, most openings will come from the need
to replace experienced technologists who leave
the profession.
Most radiologic technologists are young
women, and the field is characterized by a pat­
tern of movement from family responsibilities
into the labor force and back to the home again.
Technologists who leave the occupation gener­
ally do so in order to go to school or assume
household responsibilities; relatively few trans­
fer to other occupations and fewer still remain
in the field until they are old enough to retire.
While job prospects for radiologic tech­
nologists are expected to be good, overall, there
are problems of maldistribution. Supply and

150/Occupational Outlook Handbook
demand appear to be in balance in major metro­
politan areas, but rural communities have diffi­
culty recruiting and retaining qualified staff. As
a result, hiring practices vary according to the
availability of trained personnel. In small towns
and rural areas, nurses, clinical laboratory tech­
nologists, and other health professionals may
be taught to operate radiologic equipment if
trained technologists are not available. This
rarely happens in suburban areas and large cit­
ies.
Opportunities for radiation therapy tech­
nologists should should continue to be excel­
lent, although it is important to bear in mind
that this specialty is very small. Currently, radi­
ation therapy technologists are in great de­
mand, and reports of a shortage are wide­
spread. Trends in the incidence of cancer and
other malignancies will continue to be the prin­
cipal factor affecting demand for these work­
ers. Not only has there been an increase in the
number of cancer cases detected, but more
cases are being treated by radiation—either
alone or in combination with surgery or chemo­
therapy.
In nuclear medicine, demand is likely to
grow in emerging specializations such as nu­
clear magnetic resonance (NMR) technology.
NMR represents a new generation in medical
diagnostics and is a potential competitor with
computed tomography (CT) for the diagnosis
of brain, brain stem, and spinal cord cases be­
cause it provides very effective imaging of soft
tissues. NMR equipment employs huge super­
conductive magnets and radiowaves to reveal
detailed information about the body’s anatomy
and chemical composition. The information is
processed by a computer and the resulting im­
age displayed on a videoscreen in a control
room. While some analysts believe NMR will
be a “boom technology,” it is difficult to predict
how rapidly the new, extremely expensive
equipment will be put into place.
Efforts to bring health care spending under
control could affect radiology. Recent changes
in the health care financing system may encour­
age hospitals to reduce the use of diagnostic
radiology services, and to be more cautious
about approving outlays for costly new tech­
nology and equipment. Steps such as these
might cause employment to grow less rapidly
than currently anticipated. However, it is too
soon to predict the employment impact of cost
containment efforts; the effect on radiologic
technologists remains to be seen.
Long term prospects for radiologic tech­
nologists will also be influenced by future
trends in enrollments in formal training pro­
grams, which are expected to level off or possi­
bly decline during the 1980’s due to the sharp
decrease in the population of college age. A
stable or somewhat smaller supply of newly
qualified technologists, coupled with rapidly
growing demand, would create a highly favora­
ble situation for jobseekers.

in 1982, according to a national survey con­
ducted by the University of Texas Medical
Branch. Experienced radiologic technologists
averaged about $19,300 a year.
Workers with specialized skills earn more.
Ultrasound technologists started at about
$16,400 in 1982, according to the University of
Texas survey; radiation therapy technologists,
at about $16,700; and nuclear medicine tech­
nologists, at $17,000 a year. Experienced ultra­
sound technologists averaged $20,500 a year.
Experienced radiation therapy technologists
also averaged $20,500, and experienced nu­
clear medicine technologists earned somewhat
more—$21,400 a year, on the average.
In 1982, the Federal Government offered sal­
aries of about $13,000 a year to radiologic tech­
nologists in entry level positions. Average
Federal salaries in 1982 were about $17,000 a
year for diagnostic radiologic technologists,
$18,200 for radiation therapy technologists,
and $18,400 for nuclear medicine tech­
nologists.
Sick leave, vacations, health insurance, and
other benefits are comparable to those covering
other workers in the same organization.

Related Occupations
Radiologic technologists operate sophisticated
technical equipment to help physicians, den­
tists, and other health practitioners diagnose
and treat patients. Workers in related occupa­
tions include dental hygienists, electrocar­
diograph technicians, electroencephalographic
technologists, and clinical laboratory tech­
nologists.

Sources of Additional Information
For career information, enclose a stamped,
self-addressed business size envelope with
your request to:
American Society of Radiologic Technologists,
15000 Central Ave. SE, Albuquerque, N. Mex.
87123.
Society of Nuclear Medicine, 475 Park Avenue
South, New York, N.Y. 10016.
Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, P.O.
Box 31782, Dallas, Tex. 75231.

Information about a career in radiation
therapy technology is available from:
Vice President for Professional Education, American
Cancer Society, 777 Third Ave., New York, N.Y.
10017.

For the current list of accredited training pro­
grams in radiography, radiation therapy tech­
nology, nuclear medicine technology, or diag­
nostic medical sonography, write:
Department of Allied Health Education and Ac­
creditation, American Medical Association, 535 N.
Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610.

Surgical Technicians
(D.O.T. 079.374-022)

Earnings
Starting salaries of radiologic technologists
employed in hospitals, medical schools, and
medical centers averaged about $14,900 a year




Nature of the Work
Surgical technicians, also called surgical tech­
nologists or operating room technicians, assist

surgeons and anesthesiologists before, during,
and after surgery. They work under the supervi­
sion of physicians and registered nurses.
They help set up the operating room with the
instruments, equipment, sterile linens, and flu­
ids such as glucose that will be needed during
an operation. Surgical technicians also may
prepare patients for surgery by washing, shav­
ing, and disinfecting body areas where the sur­
geon will operate. They may transport patients
to the operating room and help drape and posi­
tion them on the operating table.
During surgery, they pass instruments and
other sterile supplies to the surgeons and the
surgeons’ assistants. They hold retractors, cut
sutures, and help count the sponges, needles,
and instruments used during the operation. Sur­
gical technicians help prepare, care for, and
dispose of specimens taken for testing during
the operation and help apply dressings. They
may operate sterilizers, lights, suction ma­
chines, and assist with diagnostic equipment.
After the operation, surgical technicians help
transfer patients to the recovery room and assist
nurses in cleaning and stocking the operating
room for the next operation.

Working Conditions
Surgical technicians work in clean, well-light­
ed, cool environments. They need stamina to be
on their feet the whole time they are on duty and
to pay close attention during operations.
Most surgery is performed during the day,
but some workplaces, such as emergency sur­
gery units, require 24-hour coverage. A 40hour, 5-day workweek is normal for surgical
technicians, although many are required at
times to be “on call” (available to work on short
notice for emergencies).

Employment
Surgical technicians held about 35,000 jobs in
1982. Although some surgical technicians—
called private scrubs—are employed directly
by surgeons, most are employed by hospitals,
clinics, surgical centers, and other institutions
that have operating room, delivery room, and
emergency room facilities.

Draining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Nearly all technicians receive their training in
formal programs offered by community and
junior colleges, vocational and technical
schools, or hospitals. Although most programs
last from 9 to 10 months, some community
college programs last 2 years and lead to an
associate degree. In 1983, there were about 400
training programs for surgical technicians, of
which 101 were accredited by the Committee on
Allied Health Education and Accreditation
(CAHEA). High school graduation normally is
required for admission.
Accredited programs provide classroom
training as well as supervised clinical experi­
ence. Required courses include anatomy, phys­
iology, and microbiology. Other courses in­
clude the care and safety of patients during
surgery, use of anesthesia and its hazards, and
surgical procedures. Students also learn how to

Health Technologists and Technicians/151
sterilize instruments; prevent and control infec­
tion; and handle special drugs, solutions, sup­
plies, and equipment.
Some surgical technicians receive their train­
ing in hospital-based programs for students
who have a background in allied health fields.
The length of these programs varies from 6
weeks to 1 year, depending on the trainee’s
qualifications and the objectives of the training.
Students in these programs include practical
nurses, nursing aides, clinical laboratory aides,
radiology technicians, and emergency medical
technicians.
Some surgical technicians are trained in the
Armed Forces. Regardless of where they are
trained, surgical technicians are expected to
keep abreast of new developments in the field,
such as laser surgery, so they can work with the
new equipment and procedures.
Obtaining professional credentials for this
occupation is voluntary; the Liaison Council on
Certification (LCC) certifies technicians who
meet entry level knowledge by successfully
passing a national certification examination.
Continuing education is required to maintain
the certification.
Manual dexterity is a necessity for surgical
technicians because they must handle various
instruments quickly. They must be con­
scientious, orderly, and emotionally stable. In
surgery, there is very little margin for error.
High school students interested in careers in
this occupation are advised to take courses in
health and biology.
Some surgical technicians advance to assis­
tant operating room administrator and assistant
operating room supervisor. Operating room ad­
ministrators deal with the day-to-day running of
an operating room, including ordering supplies
and arranging work schedules, while operating
room supervisors direct the work of other sur­
gical technicians.

Job Outlook
Employment in this field is expected to grow
faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. As in other occupa­
tions, however, most job openings will result
from the need to replace experienced workers
who transfer to other occupations or stop work­
ing altogether.
The same factors that generate strong de­
mand for other health workers will also spur
demand for surgical technicians—namely, pop­
ulation growth, the aging of the population,
technological advances that make surgery ap­
propriate in more situations than before, and
the availability of health insurance programs




A surgical technician prepares a syringe.
that help people pay for medical and surgical
care.
Also contributing to the growth in demand
for workers in this small occupation is an ex­
pansion in their role. Surgical technicians in
some hospitals are performing more of the rou­
tine operating room tasks previously handled
by operating room nurses.
The rate of surgery has increased in recent
years, particularly among persons 65 years of
age and older. The increase in surgery among
the elderly may result in part from tech­
nological advances that make surgical pro­
cedures safer and more effective, so that the
potential benefits to the elderly patient out­
weigh the risks. If this trend continues, demand
for surgical technicians will be heightened.
Graduates of formal training programs or
surgical technicians with certification will have
the best job opportunities. Persons without
these qualifications can expect to face competi­
tion for jobs of their choice.

Other workers who perform medical activities
under supervision are chiropractor assistants,
dental assistants, electrocardiograph techni­
cians, electroencephalographic technologists
and technicians, licensed practical nurses,
medical assistants, nursing aides, occupational
therapy assistants, orderlies, and physical
therapy aides.

Earnings

Sources of Additional Information

The average starting salary for surgical techni­
cians was about $12,200 a year in 1982, accord­
ing to a national survey conducted by the
University of Texas Medical Branch. Experi­
enced technicians earned an average salary of

Additional information on a career as a surgical
technician, on training programs for the oc­
cupation, and on certification is available from;

approximately $15,800 annually. Surgical tech­
nicians employed by the Federal Government
are classified as Operating Room Nursing As­
sistants. Starting salaries ranged from about
$9,800 to $18,400 in 1982, depending on edu­
cation and experience.
Salaries vary widely by geographic location,
with those on the east and west coasts generally
higher. Surgical technicians employed by sur­
geons tend to earn more than those employed by
hospitals and similar institutions.

Related Occupations

Association of Surgical Technologists, Caller No. E,
Littleton, Colo. 80120.

Writers, Artists, and Entertainers
Creativity, imagination, and talent are prere­
quisites for a career as a writer, artist, or enter­
tainer. People in these fields use a variety of
media to express ideas and emotions and to
describe and interpret the human experience.
For writers and others in communication oc­
cupations, language is a “tool of the trade.”
They use the written or spoken word to inform,
persuade, or entertain—or to express their own
individuality. Poets, playwrights, lyricists,
novelists, and short-story writers use language
primarily for creative expression. Among those
who use language to inform or persuade are
journalists, speech writers, script writers, tech­
nical writers and copywriters. Some people in
communications occupations do relatively little
writing. Among them are editors, who revise
and coordinate the work of others; proof­
readers, who read and correct copy; literary
agents, who appraise and try to get manuscripts
published; and radio and television announcers
and interpreters who rely on the spoken word to
do their jobs.
Artists and others in design occupations use
visual means such as light, space, color, form,
and texture to convey feelings or create a par­
ticular effect. They need esthetic sensitivity,
color sense, and talent. A fine artist creates a

152




painting or sculpture primarily to express an
emotion or idea. Applied artists create esthetically pleasing objects that serve a practical
purpose. Working by hand, for the most part,
they employ artistic skills and techniques to
produce utilitarian objects. The design field
includes people as diverse as sculptors, graphic
and commercial artists, sign painters, il­
lustrators, photographers, engravers, painting
restorers, prop makers, silversmiths, deco­
rators, exhibit designers, clothing designers,
and furniture designers.
Performing artists and entertainers express
themselves through music, drama, dance or
movement. Whereas writers and visual artists
can capture a moment forever by transferring it
to paper or canvas, performing artists express
their creativity through a “performance.” And
no two live performances are ever exactly the
same. Performing artists may use their talent to
say something serious or profound about the
human condition or they may simply provide
entertainment. Because communicating with
an audience is such an integral part of the per­
former’s art, stage presence and rapport with an
audience are qualities an artist must develop
and refine. Actors and actresses, singers, dan­
cers, m usicians, com edians, magicians,

mimes, trapeze artists, and figure skaters are
just a few of the many different entertainment
occupations.
In some of these occupations, particularly
those in the performing arts, few jobs offer
permanent employment; most are short-term
engagements. With an oversupply of qualified
people vying for work, many writers, artists,
and entertainers have to settle for occasional or
part-time employment in their chosen field.
They work for pay when they can. The rest of
the time, they study, practice, and take tempo­
rary jobs unrelated to their art—such as waiting
on tables or sales clerking.
People who aspire to a creative career need to
be realistic about their talent, for that is what
counts most in getting a job or establishing a
reputation. Practical experience—in local the­
atrical productions or on a community news­
paper, for example—can help in getting started.
However, even very talented people must be
willing to spend years mastering a skill and then
wait for a “break”—an opportunity to perform,
to exhibit their work, or to have a manuscript
published. Writers, artists, and entertainers
need to be flexible enough to cope with job
insecurity and willing to live on an inregular
income. Job prospects in a number of creative
occupations are described in the statements that
follow.

Communications Occupations
Many communications workers must per­
The art of communications is as old as human­
ity. Its importance in modem society becomes form well under pressure. A reporter who mis­
apparent when you try to imagine the world ses the deadline on an important story may cost
without radio, television, newspapers, maga­ the newspaper a “scoop,” resulting in a loss of
zines, or books. From the earliest discoveries of newsstand sales. A television announcer who
papermaking techniques to today’s use of com­ does not react quickly to emergencies on the air
puters’ and satellites that transmit information can cause the show’s ratings to decline. A pub­
around the world instantaneously, people have lic relations worker who gives out incorrect
sought ways of recording the events around information about a company’s operations can
them and conveying the information to others. damage its public image.
Competition for most communications jobs
Communication is the process of transmiting
information to an audience through a variety of is keen because the field traditionally attracts
many more jobseekers than there are job open­
media.
The communications field includes a broad ings. Some people are attracted by the glam­
range of occupations having to do with re­ orous image of media jobs—the opportunities
search, writing, editing, and production. It en­ to meet public figures, to appear before nation­
compasses educational, medical, business, wide audiences, and to attend top newsmaking
speech, joke, screen, and fiction writing; and events. This glamorous aspect of the job
interpreting, translating, public relations, ad­ obscures the hard work most of these jobs en­
vertising, and many other specialties. This sec­ tail. Journalists, for example, spend hours
tion of the Handbook describes four of these every day on the tedious but essential tasks of
occupations—reporters and correspondents, making contacts, checking facts, following
public relations workers, radio and television leads, and writing up their findings.
Despite the keen competition, jobs will be
announcers and newscasters, and writers and
available through the mid-1990’s for talented
editors.
Communications occupations require a people who have acquired appropriate educa­
broad education, with preparation either in the tion and experience. Willingness to take a job
liberal arts and humanities or in a scientific or where one is available in a small town instead of
technical field, depending on specific career Los Angeles or New York City and willingness
interest. The intellectual habits acquired during to start at the bottom may make the difference
college are important. Acute powers of obser: between success and failure in breaking into the
vation and the ability to think clearly and log­ field. After that, a combination of talent,
ically are necessary traits7 because people in motivation, imagination, hard work, and luck
these jobs'need to understand the significance can lead to a rewarding career.
of the events they observe. An^excellentCom­
mand of language;:=-both written and oral—is
essential. It is through appropriate choice of
words or phrases that writers, for example, get
the desired effect from their material. A feeling
for language enables reporters and correspon­ (D.O.T. 165.017-010, .067-010, and .167-010)
dents to breathe life and meaning into events
that occur every day. A knack for dramatization
through the spoken word makes radio and tele­ Nature of the Work
vision announcers and newscasters attractive to An organization’s image, profitability, and even
audiences of all kinds.
its continued existence can depend on how suc­
In addition to a broad education and out­ cessfully it presents its goals and policies to the
standing language skills, people in communi­ public. Public relations specialists help busi­
cations jobs may need to be very well informed nesses, governments, universities, hospitals,
about a particular subject. Depending on the public schools and other organizations build
job, they may need to be versed in economics, and maintain positive relationships with the
law, politics, science, engineering, computer public.
science, education, music, or sports. They may
Public relations specialists apply their talents
be called upon to explain complex legal issues and skills in many different areas. They may
that arise from a major Supreme Court deci­ handle press, community, or consumer rela­
sion; national economic and political events for tions, political campaigns, interest-group rep­
readers of a small town newspaper; the latest resentation. fundraising, or employee recruit­
developments in a high-technology field for ment. Public relations is not only “telling the
readers of a trade journal; or the history of jazz, employer’s story,” however. Unde
classical, bluegrass, or other music featured on attitudes and concerns
a radio show.
'gloyees/and various other “publics”—and




Public Relations
Specialists

communicating this information to manage ment to help formulate policy—is also an imcations, public relations workers promote
understanding and cooperation among the di'T ’
Ublic relations departments are found in a
variety of organizations, and workers must tai­
lor their programs to an employer’s particular
needs. A public relations director of a college or
university, for example, may spend most of the
Time recruiting a student body, while one in a
large corporation may work with stockholders,
“government agencies, and community groups.
^^PttbhrretM ons workers put together infor­
mation that keeps the public aware of their or­
ganization’s policies, activities, and accom­
plishments, and keeps management aware of
public attitudes. After preparing the informa­
tion, they may contact people in the media who
might be interested in printing, televising, or
broadcasting their material. Many radio or tele­
vision announcements, special reports, news­
paper items, and magazine articles start at the
desks of public relations workers. Sometimes
the subject is a company and its policies to­
wards its employees or its role in the communi­
ty. Often the subject is a public issue, such as
health, nutrition, energy, or the environment.
Public relations specialists also arrange and
conduct programs in which company represen­
tatives will have direct contact with the public.
Such work includes setting up speaking en­
gagements and helping prepare speeches for
company officials. These workers often repre­
sent employers at community projects or occa­
sionally may show films at school assemblies,
plan conventions, or manage fundraising cam­
paigns.
Public relations staff members in very large
firms may number 200 or more, but in most
firms the number is much smaller. The director
of public relations, who is often a vice president
of the company, may develop overall plans and
policies with a top management executive. In
addition, large public relations departments
employ writers, research workers, and other
specialists who prepare material for the dif­
ferent groups the company wishes to reach.
Workers who handle publicity for an individ­
ual or direct public relations for a university,
small business, or nonprofit organization may
handle all aspects of the job. They contact peo­
ple outside the organization, do th'fe IWcessmy
“
“planning and research, and prepare material for
distribution:Tn many small nriiKifiese wuikeis
may combine public relations duties with ad­
vertising or sales promotion work; they may be
top level officials or in more junior positions.

153

154/Occupational Outlook Handbook
The most skilled public relations work of mak­
ing overall plans and maintaining contacts usu­
ally is done by the department director and
highly experienced staff members.

Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, D.C.
A trend, however, is the dispersal of public
relations jobs throughout the Nation, including
smaller towns.

Working Conditions

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Although public relations staffs generally work
35 to 40 hours a week, schedules may be rear­
ranged because public relations programs oper­
ate against deadlines. Preparing and delivering
speeches, attending meetings and community
activities, and out-of-town travel may all be a
part of the public relations specialist’s routine.
Thus, any of their regular assignments or spe­
cial events may require workers to be at the job
or on call around the clock.

Employment
Public relations workers held about 90,000jobs
in 1982. Manufacturing firms, public utilities,
transportation companies, insurance com­
panies, and trade and professional associations
employ many of them. A sizable number work
for government agencies (the Federal Govern­
ment alone employs several thousand public
information specialists), or for schools, col­
leges, museums, and other educational, re­
ligious, and human service organizations. The
rapidly expanding health field also offers oppor­
tunities for public relations work, in hospitals,
pharmaceutical companies, and medical asso­
ciations, for example. Many workers are em­
ployed by public relations consulting firms
which serve clients for a fee. Some work for
advertising agencies.
Public relations workers are concentrated in
large cities where press services and other com­
munications facilities are readily available, and
where many businesses and trade associations
have their headquarters. Many public relations
consulting firms, for example, are in New York,

Public relations specialists need enthusiasm to
motivate others.



A college education combined with public rela­
tions experience is excellent preparation for
public relations work. Although most begin­
ners major in journalism, communications, or
public relations, some employers prefer train­
ing in a field related to the firm’s business—
science, finance, or engineering, for example.
Regardless of academic background, most en­
trants transfer from other occupations where
they obtained valuable work experience. Many
firms seek college graduates who have worked
in electronic or print journalism. Others prefer
workers with sales, engineering, or other expe­
rience that prepares them to deal knowledgea­
bly with the organization’s products or serv­
ices.
In 1982, about 90 colleges and 25 graduate
schools offered degree programs or special curriculums in public relations, usually admin­
istered by the journalism or communications
department. In addition, about 300 colleges
offered at least one course in this field. Typical
courses include public relations theory and
techniques, organizational communication,
public relations management and administra­
tion, and other courses in public relations. Spe­
cialties are offered in public relations in busi­
ness, government, and nonprofit organizations.
Courses in advertising, journalism, business
administration, political science, communica­
tions, psychology, sociology, and creative writ­
ing also help in preparing for a career in public
relations. Persons who have a bachelor’s degree
in public relations or a related field generally
enter staff positions, wliereas those with a grad­
uate degree in public relations are more
qualified for administrative and managerial
jobs.
Extracurricular activities such as writing for
a school publication or television or radio sta­
tion provide valuable experience. Many
schools help students gain part-time or summer
internships in public relations which provide
training that can help in competing for entry
positions. Membership in the Public Relations
Student Society of America provides an oppor­
tunity for students to exchange views with pub­
lic relations workers and to make professional
contacts that may help later in securing a full­
time job in the field. A portfolio of published
articles, television or radio programs, slide pre­
sentations, and other work samples usually is
an asset in finding a job.
Public relations workers spend much time
gathering information. Creativity, initiative,
and the ability to express thoughts clearly and
simply are important to the public relations
worker. Fresh ideas are so vital in public rela­
tions that some experts spend all their time
developing new ideas.
People who choose public relations as a ca-.
reer need an outgoing personality, self-con­
fidence, and an understanding of human psy­
chology. They should have the enthusiasm for

motivating people. The ability to be competi­
tive but function as part of a team are important
qualifications.
Public information positions in the Federal
Government generally require a college de­
gree. Media, writing, or editing experience
may help in gaining such a position. Require­
ments for similar positions in State and local
governments vary.
Some companies—particularly those with
large public relations staffs—have formal train­
ing programs for new employees. In other
firms, new employees work under the guidance
of experienced staff members. Beginners often
maintain files of material about company ac­
tivities, scan newspapers and magazines for
appropriate articles to clip, and assemble infor­
mation for speeches and pamphlets. After gain­
ing experience, they work on more difficult
assignments, such as writing press releases,
speeches, and articles for publication. In some
firms, workers get all-round experience where­
as in other firms they specialize.
Promotion to supervisory jobs may come as
workers show they can handle more demanding
and creative assignments. Some experienced
public relations workers start their own con­
sulting firms.
The Public Relations Society of America ac­
credits public relations workers who have at
least 5 years’ experience in the field and have
passed a comprehensive 6-hour examination (4
hours written, 2 hours oral). Employers consid­
er professional recognition through such ac­
creditation a sign of competence in this field.

Job Outlook
Employment of public relations workers is ex­
pected to increase about as fast as the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s.
New jobs will result from growth in demand for
these workers as corporations, associations,
health facilities, and other large organizations
expand their public relations staffs. The trend
toward the use of public relations specialists by
smaller organizations also should stimulate em­
ployment growth.
The vast majority of job openings, however,
will result from the need to replace workers
who leave the occupation. Turnover is relatively
high, as an unusually large proportion of public
relation specialists transfer to other occupa­
tions. Experience in public relations is good
preparation for advertising and other closely
related jobs, and there is a lot of movement into
and out of this occupation.
Competition for beginning jobs is keen, for
the glamour and excitement of public relations
attract large numbers of jobseekers, including
many with related experience. Prospects for a
career in public relations are best for highly
qualified applicants—talented people with
sound academic preparation and some media
experience.

Earnings
Median annual earnings for most public rela­
tion specialists who are not self-employed were
$21,000 in 1982. The middle 50 percent earned
between $15,000 and $28,000 annually; the

Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/155
lowest 10 percent earned less than $9,500, and
the top 10 percent earned more than $38,000.
Starting salaries for college graduates begin­
ning in public relations work generally ranged
from $10,000 to $13,000 a year in 1982; persons
with a graduate degree often started at a higher
salary.
The salaries of experienced workers gener­
ally are highest in large organizations with ex­
tensive public relations programs. According
to a 1982 survey, the median annual salary of
top level public relations workers was $38,500.
Median annual salaries ranged from about
$29,300 in hospitals to $48,800 in public rela­
tions consulting firms.
In the Federal Government, persons with a
bachelor’s degree generally started at $16,600 a
year in late 1982; those with a master’s degree
generally started at $20,300 a year. Additional
education or experience could qualify appli­
cants for a higher salary. Public information
specialists in the Federal Government averaged
about $31,000 a year in 1982.

Related Occupations
Public relations workers develop and distribute
persuasive material in order to create favorable
public attitudes. Other workers with similar
jobs include fundraisers, account executives,
lobbyists, promotion managers, advertising
managers, and police officers involved in com­
munity relations.

Sources of Additional Information
Current information on the public relations
field, salaries, and other items is available from:
P R R e p o r te r ,

Dudley House, P.O. Box 600, Exetei,

N.H. 03833.

Additional information on job opportunities
and the public relations field in general may be
purchased for $1 from:
Service Department, P u b lic R e la tio n s N e w s , 127 East
80th St., New York, N.Y. 10021.

Announcers at television stations and large
radio stations mostly specialize in a particular
kind of programming such as sports events,
general news broadcasts, or weather reports.
They must be thoroughly familiar with these
areas and, if a written script is required, may do
the research and writing.
Television news broadcasting requires spe­
cialized “on-camera” personnel—anchor per­
sons, television news reporters, and broadcast
news analysts. In large news operations, such
as those of stations in major cities or national
networks, all three often take part in the news
broadcast.
The news anchor, or a pair of co-anchors,
presents the day’s important news stories.
Throughout the broadcast, the anchors, some­
times called newscasters, introduce films and
interviews prepared by news reporters that
provide in-depth information on the event being
covered.
Radio and television broadcast news ana­
lysts, called commentators, also present cur­
rent news stories, but normally interpret them
or discuss how specific events may affect the
Nation or us personally.
Frequently, a smaller television station em­
ploys only a news anchor who reads accounts of
the day’s stories and introduces background re­
ports provided by the networks or by a televi­
sion news service.
Announcers frequently participate in com­
munity activities. A sports announcer, for ex­
ample, might be the master of ceremonies at a
touchdown club banquet or greet customers at
the opening of a new sporting goods store.
Some announcers become well-known and
highly paid personalities.

Working Conditions
Announcers and newscasters usually work in
well-lighted, air-conditioned, soundproof stu­
dios. However, when broadcasting from a war

zone or the site of a civil disturbance, fire,
flood, or other emergency situation, newscast­
ers may risk injury.
Working within a tight schedule requires
split-second timing and can be physically and
mentally demanding. Those who enjoy the
work, however, feel that the intangible re­
wards—creative work, many personal con­
tacts, and the satisfaction of becoming widely
known—far outweigh the disadvantages of ir­
regular and often unpredictable hours, work
pressures, and disrupted personal lives.

Employment
Radio and television announcers and newscast­
ers held about 55,000 jobs in 1982. Nearly all
are staff announcers, but some are freelance
announcers who sell their services for individu­
al assignments to networks and stations, or to
advertising agencies and other independent
producers.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Entry to this profession is highly competitive.
While formal training in a college or technical
school is valuable, station officials pay par­
ticular attention to taped auditions^ that present
samples of an applicant’s delivery and—in tele­
vision—appearance and style on commercials,
news, interviews, and other copy. College grad­
uates and others hired by television stations
usually start out as production secretaries, pro­
duction assistants, researchers, or reporters and
are given a chance to move into announcing if
they show an aptitude for broadcasting.
Announcers must have a pleasant and wellcontrolled voice, good timing, and excellent
pronunciation. Correct English usage and a
knowledge of dramatics, sports, music, and
current events improve chances for success.
Good judgment and the ability to react quickly

Radio and Television
Announcers and
Newscasters
(D.O.T 131.067-010, .267-010, and -018; 159.147-010,
and -014)

Nature of the Work
Announcers and newscasters are the most fa­
miliar of the many occupations in radio and
television broadcasting. At small radio sta­
tions, most announcers are also disc jockeys.
They introduce recorded music; present news,
sports, weather, and commercials; interview
guests; and report on community activities and
other matters of interest to the audience. Often
they “ad-lib” much of the commentary. In small
stations, they may also operate the control
board, sell commercial time to advertisers, and
write commercial and news copy. Many radio
stations also have news reporters who broadcast
directly from the scene.



Television news team discusses late-breaking story before going on the air.

156/Occupational Outlook Handbook
in emergencies are important because announ­
cers may be required to “ad-lib” all or part of a
show. A neat, pleasing appearance is essential,
of course, for television announcers and news
broadcasters. The most successful announcers
attract a large viewing or listening audience by
combining a pleasing personality with an ap­
pealing style.
High school courses in English, public
speaking, drama, foreign languages, nnd elec­
tronics, plus sports and music hobbies, are val­
uable background for prospective announcers.
A liberal arts education provides an excellent
background for an announcer, and many univer­
sities offer courses of study in the broadcasting
field. Students at these institutions also may
gain valuable experience by supplementing
their courses with part-time work at the campus
radio station and summer work at local stations,
filling in for vacationing staff members. A
number of private broadcasting schools offer
training in announcing.
Persons considering enrolling in any school,
whether public or private, that offers training
for a broadcasting career should contact the
personnel managers of radio and television sta­
tions and broadcasting trade organizations to
determine the school’s performance in produc­
ing suitably trained candidates.
Announcers generally get their first broad­
casting jobs in a small station. Because announ­
cers in small radio stations sometimes operate
transmitters, prospective announcers often ob­
tain a Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) restricted radiotelephone operator per­
mit. This qualifies them to become involved in
the routine operation of radio transmitters and
makes them much more useful to these stations.
(For additional information on FCC require­
ments, see the statement on broadcast techni­
cians elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Announcers usually work in several different
stations in the course of their careers. After
acquiring experience at a station in a small
community, an ambitious and talented an­
nouncer may move to a better paying job in a
large city. An announcer also may advance by
hosting a regular program as a disc jockey,
sportscaster, or other specialist. In the national
networks, competition for jobs is particularly
intense, and announcers often must be college
graduates and have several years of successful
announcing experience before they are given an
audition.

Job Outlook
Competition for beginning jobs as announcers
will be very keen through the mid-1990’s. The
broadcasting field typically attracts many more
jobseekers than there are jobs. It will be easier
to get a job in radio than in television because
more radio stations hire beginners. Many of
these jobs will be in small stations, however,
where the pay is relatively low. Because compe­
tition for ratings is so intense in major metro­
politan areas, large radio and television stations
will continue to seek highly experienced an­
nouncers and newscasters who have proven that
they can attract a large audience.
Employment of announcers is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all



occupations through the mid-1990’s as new ra­
dio and television stations are licensed and
more cable television systems originate their
own programming. Employment of radio an­
nouncers may not keep pace with the increase in
the number of stations, however, because of the
increased use of automatic programming equip­
ment. Although announcers are rather strongly
attached to their occupation, most openings in
this relatively small occupation will arise from
the need to replace those who transfer to other
fields of work, retire, or die.
Over the years, employment in this occupa­
tion has not been significantly affected by
downturns in the economy. When poor busi­
ness conditions and decreasing advertising rev­
enues necessitate employment reductions, ra­
dio and television stations tend to cut back the
number of production and “behind-the-scenes”
workers rather than reduce the number of an­
nouncers and broadcasters.

Earnings
Salaries in broadcasting vary widely with the
type of station, the size of the market it serves,
and with what the announcer has to offer.
Median weekly earnings of full-time an­
nouncers were about $300 in 1982; the middle
50 percent earned between $240 and $550
weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less than
$200 and the top 10 percent, more than $700.
According to a survey conducted by the Na­
tional Association of Broadcasters, 1981 sal­
aries of radio announcers ranged from a low of
$190 to a high of $420. Salaries of TV announ­
cers ranged from $350 to more than $1000 a
week.
Most announcers in large stations work a 40hour week and receive overtime pay for addi­
tional hours. Many announcers in small sta­
tions work a considerable amount of overtime.
Working hours consist of both time on the air
and time spent in preparing for broadcasts.
Evening, night, weekend, and holiday duty oc­
curs frequently since many stations broadcast
24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

Related Occupations
The success of radio and television announcers
and news broadcasters is largely dependent
upon their ability to speak effectively to their
audiences. Others for whom oral communica­
tions skills are vital are interpreters, narrators,
sales workers, public relations workers, and
dramatic and comedy performers.

Sources of Additional Information
For a list of schools that offer programs and
courses in broadcasting, contact:
Broadcast Education Association, 1771 N St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

For information on FCC licensure, write to:
Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20552.

General information on the broadcasting in­
dustry is available from:
National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Reporters and
Correspondents
(D.O.T. 131.267-018)

Nature of the Work
Reporters and correspondents play an impor­
tant role in society. They gather information
and prepare stories that inform us about local,
state, national, and international events; pres­
ent differing points of view on current issues;
and monitor the actions of public officials and
others who exercise power. In covering a story,
they may do background research, review pub­
lic records, and interview a variety of people.
As a rule, reporters take notes or use a tape
recorder while collecting facts and write their
stories upon returning to the office. In order to
meet deadlines, however, they sometimes tele­
phone their information or stories to rewriters
who write or transcribe the stories for them.
Reporters in radio and television broadcast­
ing often report “live” from the scene of a
newsworthy event, where they have to compose
their story on the spot. They then may do voice­
overs for a film report in the studio and appear
on camera to introduce the story or comment on
it.
Large newspaper and radio and television
stations frequently assign reporters to investi­
gate specific locations or “beats,” such as police
stations or the courts, to gather news originat­
ing in these places. General assignment report­
ers write up local news, such as a story about a
school board meeting or an obituary of a com­
munity leader. Many newspaper, magazine,
and wire service reporters with a background or
interest in a particular subject analyze and inter­
pret the news in specialized fields such as medi­
cine, politics, foreign affairs, sports, fashion,
art, theater, consumer affairs, travel, finance,
social events, science, education, business, la­
bor, and religion. Critics review restaurants and
movies as well as literary, artistic, and musical
works and live performances, while editorial
writers present viewpoints on topics of public
interest.
Newspapers, magazines, wire services, and
radio and television networks frequently station
reporters known as correspondents in large cit­
ies as well as in other countries to prepare
stories on major news events occurring in these
locations. Reporters on small newspapers cover
all aspects of local news, and also may take
photographs, write headlines, lay out pages,
edit wire service copy, and write editorials. On
some small weeklies, they also may solicit ad­
vertisements, sell subscriptions, and perform
general office work.

Working Conditions
The work of reporters and correspondents is
usually hectic. They are under pressure to meet
deadlines and many work under trying condi­
tions. In the office, for example, they often
must contend with loud conversation and the
confusion of people constantly on the go. When
reporting from the scene, radio and television

Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/157
reporters may be distracted by curious
onlookers, police, or other emergency work­
ers. Some assignments covering wars, political
uprisings, fires, floods, and other events may be
dangerous.
Working hours vary by type of employer.
Reporters working for morning papers usually
work from late afternoon until midnight. Those
on afternoon or evening papers generally work
from early morning until early or midafter­
noon. Radio and television reporters generally
are assigned to a day or evening shift so that the
news can be covered whenever it happens. Al­
though magazine reporters often can schedule
their work during the day, all reporters may
have to change their work hours to meet a dead­
line or to update an earlier report because of
late-breaking developments. Their work may
demand long hours, irregular schedules, and
some travel. Foreign correspondents often
work late at night to send news to papers in time
for printing.

Employment
Reporters and correspondents held about
51,000 jobs in 1982. Four of every five worked
for newspapers, either large city daily papers or
daily or weekly papers in suburban commu­
nities and small towns. Others worked in radio
and television broadcasting and for magazines
and wire services.

IVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most editors prefer graduates who have a de­
gree in journalism, which includes training in
the liberal arts along with professional training
in journalism. A few prefer applicants who
have a bachelor’s degree in liberal arts and a
master’s degree in journalism. High school
courses in English, journalism, social studies,
and typing provide a good foundation.
In 1982, the vast majority of journalism grad­
uates who landed jobs on newspapers, maga­
zines, or with news wire services prepared
specifically for news work by majoring in newseditorial journalism.
Bachelor’s degree programs in journalism
are available in about 300 colleges. About
three-fourths of the courses in a typical under­
graduate journalism curriculum are in liberal
arts. Required journalism courses include in­
troductory mass media, basic reporting and
copy editing, history of journalism, and press
law and ethics. In addition, students planning a
career in broadcasting take courses in radio and
television newscasting and production. Other
journalism courses are selected in the student’s
specific area of interest.
About 350 community and junior colleges
offer journalism courses or programs. Credit
earned may be transferable to 4-year college
programs in journalism. Some junior colleges
also offer programs especially designed to pre­
pare the student directly for employment as a
general assignment reporter. However, such
graduates find it increasingly difficult to com­
pete with graduates of 4-year programs. The
Armed Forces also provide some training in
journalism.



Reporters usually work under the pressure of deadlines.
A master’s degree in journalism was offered
by about 70 schools in 1982; about 20 schools
offered the Ph.D. degree. Some graduate pro­
grams are intended primarily as preparation for
news careers, while others concentrate on pre­
paring journalism teachers, researchers and
theorists, and advertising and public relations
workers.
Liberal arts courses useful to persons prepar­
ing for a reporting career include English
courses with an emphasis on writing, so­
ciology, political science, economics, history,
psychology, computer science, business, and
speech. The ability to read and speak a foreign
language also is desirable. Those who aspire to
reporting in a specialized field—science or fi­
nance, for example—should concentrate on
coursework in those subject areas.
Typing skill is essential because reporters
type their own news stories. Also, a growing
number of reporters use computerized word
processing equipment to write and edit stories.
The ability to take shorthand also is useful.
Often, a knowledge of news photography is
valuable.
The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund and indi­
vidual newspapers and magazines offer sum­
mer internships that provide college students
with an opportunity to perform a variety of
basic reporting or editing duties. Experience
acquired through such internships helps im­
measurably in job placement after graduation.
In addition, more than 3,100 journalism schol­
arships, fellowships, and assistantships were
awarded to college journalism students by uni­
versities, newspapers, foundations, and profes­
sional organizations in 1981.
News reporting involves a great deal of re­
sponsibility, because what a reporter writes fre­
quently influences the opinion of the reading

public. Reporters should be dedicated to serv­
ing the public’s need for accurate and impartial
news. Although reporters work as part of a
team, they have an opportunity for self-expres­
sion. The ability to present facts and opinions
clearly and succinctly is essential for success in
this field. Accuracy and objectivity are equally
important, because, among other reasons, un­
true or libelous statements can lead to costly
lawsuits.
Important personal characteristics include a
“nose for news,” curiosity, persistence, ini­
tiative, poise, resourcefulness, an accurate
memory, and the physical stamina and emo­
tional stability to deal with pressing deadlines,
irregular hours, and sometimes dangerous as­
signments. Being at ease on camera or in front
of a microphone is essential for broadcast re­
porters. Because some assignments lead report­
ers to unfamiliar places, they must be able to
adapt to strange surroundings and feel at ease
with a variety of people.
Some who compete for full-time reporter
jobs find it is helpful to have had experience as a
“stringer”—a part-time reporter who covers the
news in a particular area of the community and
is paid on the basis of the stories printed. High
school and college newspapers and church or
community newsletters also provide writing
and editing experience that may be helpful in
getting a job.
Most beginners start with small publications
as general assignment reporters or copy editors.
A few outstanding journalism graduates are
hired by large city papers and national maga­
zines, but this is the exception rather than the
rule. Large employers generally require several
years of reporting experience.

158/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Beginning reporters are assigned duties such
as reporting on civic and club meetings, sum­
marizing speeches, writing obituaries, inter­
viewing important visitors to the community,
and covering police court proceedings. As they
gain experience, they may report more impor­
tant events, cover an assigned “beat,” or spe­
cialize in a particular field.
Reporters may advance to reporting for
larger papers or press services. However, com­
petition for such positions is keen, and news
executives receive many applications from
highly qualified reporters every year. Some ex­
perienced reporters become columnists, corre­
spondents, editorial writers, editors, or top ex­
ecutives; these positions represent the top of the
field and competition for them is extremely
keen. Other reporters transfer to related fields
such as public relations or preparing copy for
radio and television news programs.

Job Outlook
Employment of reporters and correspondents is
expected to grow about as fast as the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s. This
growth will come about primarily because of an
anticipated increase in the number of smalltown
and suburban daily and weekly newspapers.
For the most part, little or no increase is ex­
pected in the number of big city dailies, al­
though some of them may increase the size of
their reporting staffs. Magazines and radio and
television broadcasting should continue to
provide a significant number of jobs, but major
news magazines and large radio and television
stations primarily seek only experienced re­
porters. The need to replace experienced re­
porters and correspondents who leave the oc­
cupation each year will account for the vast
majority of all job openings. Compared to other
professional workers, a somewhat larger pro­
portion of reporters and correspondents transfer
to other occupations—reflecting the somewhat
stressful and hectic nature of the job. Some
people decide they don’t like the lifestyle and
transfer to other occupations where their skills
are valuable, especially public relations and
advertising work.
Overall, graduates who have majored in
news-editorial journalism and completed an in­
ternship while in school should have the best
prospects for reporting jobs. Most editors pre­
fer to hire the top graduates of accredited pro­
grams. Talented writers who can handle highly
specialized scientific or technical subjects will
be at an advantage in the job market. Small
newspapers often look for beginning reporters
who are acquainted with the community and
who can help with photography and other as­
pects of newspaper production. Persons with­
out at least a bachelor’s degree in journalism
will face increasingly stiff competition for en­
try level positions.
Newspapers and magazines located in small
towns and suburban areas are expected to con­
tinue to offer the most opportunities for begin­
ning reporters. Journalism graduates who are
willing to relocate and start at relatively low
salaries are likely to find reporting jobs on these



newspapers. Openings arise on small publica­
tions as reporters gain experience and move up
to editorial positions, or transfer to reporting
jobs on larger newspapers and magazines.
Competition for reporting jobs on large met­
ropolitan newspapers and national magazines
will be keen. Most of these employers require
experience and do not ordinarily hire new grad­
uates. Sometimes, however, new graduates find
jobs on major publications because they have
credentials in an area for which the paper has a
pressing need. Occasionally, the experience
and contacts gained through an internship pro­
gram or summer job lead to a reporting job
directly after graduation.
Because enrollments in journalism education
programs are expected to continue rising
through the mid-1990’s, college teaching op­
portunities are expected to be good for qualified
applicants—generally, Ph.D.’s with practical
reporting experience. Some highly qualified re­
porters with a master’s degree will find teaching
positions in journalism departments of colleges
and junior colleges. This favorable outlook for
journalism educators contrasts with the gener­
ally bleak prospect for college faculty in many
other academic disciplines.
Employment of reporters and correspondents
generally is not cut back sharply during slack
economic periods, but when business condi­
tions force publishers and broadcasters to re­
duce spending, new hiring may be temporarily
slowed or even halted.
College graduates who have majored in jour­
nalism also have the background for work in
such closely related fields as advertising and
public relations. Every year, a substantial
number of journalism graduates take media
jobs in these fields. Other graduates accept
sales, managerial, and other nonmedia posi­
tions, while still others continue their training
and then find jobs in fields such as law, busi­
ness, public administration, and political sci­
ence.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of full-time reporters
were about $380 in 1982; the middle 50 percent
earned between $270 and $550 weekly. Ten
percent earned less than $215, and 10 percent
earned more than $700.
Reporters working for daily newspapers and
magazines having contracts negotiated by the
Newspaper Guild had starting salaries ranging
from about $175 to $737 a week in 1982. The
majority earned between $300 and $450 a
week.
Reporters having 4 or 5 years of experience
averaged $493 a week in early 1982. Virtually
all experienced reporters earned over $300 a
week, while the top contractual salary was $767
a week. A number of top reporters on big city
dailies earned even more, on the basis of merit.
In general, earnings of reporters are above the
average earnings of nonsupervisory workers in
private industry, except farming.
Most newspaper reporters generally work a
5-day, 35- or 40-hour week and receive extra
pay for overtime work. Benefits may vary

widely according to length of service and the
size and location of the newspapers. Most re­
porters, however, receive benefits such as paid
vacations, group insurance, and pension plans.

Related' Occupations
Reporters and correspondents must write clear­
ly and effectively to succeed in their profession.
Others for whom writing ability is essential
include technical writers, advertising copy
writers, public relations workers, educational
writers, fiction writers, biographers, screen
writers, and editors.

Sources of Additional Information
Career information, including pamphlets en­
titled Your Future in Newspapers and Facts
about Newspapers is available from:
American Newspaper Publishers Association Foun­
dation, The Newspaper Center, Box 17407, Dulles
International Airport, Washington, D.C. 20041.

Information on careers in journalism, col­
leges and universities that offer degree pro­
grams in journalism or communications, and
journalism scholarships and internships may be
obtained without charge from:
The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, Inc., P.O. Box 300,
Princeton, N.J. 08540.

For a list of junior and community colleges
offering programs in journalism, contact:
National Community College Journalism Associa­
tion, San Antonio College, 1300 San Pedro Ave., San
Antonio, Tex. 78284.

Information on union wage rates for news­
paper and magazine reporters is available from:
The Newspaper Guild, Research and Information De­
partment, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C.
20005.

For a list of schools with accredited programs
in their journalism departments, send a stamp­
ed, self-addressed envelope to:
Accrediting Council on Education for Journalism and
Mass Communication, School of Journalism, Univer­
sity of Missouri, P.O. 838, Columbia, Mo. 65205.

For general information about careers in
journalism, contact:
Association For Education in Journalism and Mass
Communication, University of South Carolina Col­
lege of Journalism, Columbia, S.C. 29208.

Careers in Communications, a booklet
providing information on opportunities for
women in newspaper reporting and other com­
munications fields is available from:
Women In Communications, Inc., P.O. Box 9561,
Austin, Tex. 78766.

A pamphlet titled A Career in Newspapers,
can be obtained from:
National Newspaper Association, 1627 K St. NW.,
Suite 400 Washington, D.C. 20006.

Names and locations of newspapers and a list
of schools and departments of journalism are
published in the Editor and Publisher Interna­
tional Year Book, available in most public li­
braries and newspaper offices.

Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/159

Writers and Editors
(D.O.T. 131 except .267-010; -018; -022; 132 except .017;
.037-014; -018; -022; and 139.087-010)

Nature of the Work
Writers and editors communicate through the
written word. Writers develop original fiction
and nonfiction prose for books, magazines,
trade journals, newspapers, technical studies
and reports, company newsletters, radio and
television broadcasts, and advertisements. Edi­
tors supervise writers and select and prepare
material for publication or broadcasting.
Writers start by selecting a topic or being
assigned one by an editor. They then gather
information on the topic through personal ob­
servation, library research, and interviews.
Sometimes the information gathered may cause
writers to change the focus to a related topic
that is more interesting. From the information
gathered, they select and organize the material
to be used, and finally put it into words that will
convey it to the reader with the desired effect.
Writers often revise or rewrite sections, search­
ing for the best organization of the material or
just the right phrasing. News writers—writers
employed by newspapers and radio and televi­
sion news departments—write news items for
inclusion in newspapers or news broadcasts.
Starting with information supplied by reporters
or wire services, they write news stories or
scripts for newscasters. Reporters and corre­
spondents are described elsewhere in this sec­
tion of the Handbook.
Technical writers put scientific and technical
information into readily understandable lan­
guage. They prepare manuals, catalogs, parts
lists, and instructional materials used by sales
representatives to sell machinery or scientific
equipment and by technicians to install, main­
tain, and service it.
Copy writers write advertising copy for use
by publication or broadcast media to promote
the sale of goods and services.
Established writers may work on a freelance
basis where they sell their work to publishers,
manufacturing firms, and advertising agencies.
They sometimes are hired to complete specific
assignments such as writing about a new prod­
uct or technique.
Editors frequently do some writing and al­
most always do much rewriting and editing, but
their primary duties are to plan the contents of
the publication and to supervise its preparation.
They decide what will appeal to readers, assign
topics to writers, and oversee the production of
the book, magazine, or newspaper. In small
organizations, one editor has full responsibility
for the publication. In larger ones, an executive
editor oversees the activities of associate or
assistant editors who have responsibility for
particular subjects, such as fiction, interna­
tional news, or sports. Administrative duties of
editors include hiring and firing writers and
other employees, planning budgets, negotiat­
ing contracts with freelance writers, and gener­
al managerial duties. In broadcasting com­
panies, program directors have responsibilities
comparable to those of editors.
Editors and program directors are often help­
ed by assistants who may have the title of assis­
tant editor, editorial assistant, copy editor, or



production assistant. Many of these assistants
hold entry level jobs. They review copy for
errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
They check manuscripts for readability, style,
and agreement with editorial policy. They add
and rearrange sentences to improve clarity or
delete incorrect and unnecessary material. Edi­
torial assistants also perform research for writ­
ers and verify facts, dates, and statistics. They
may help prepare material for publication or
broadcast by arranging page layouts of articles,
photographs, and advertising or by planning
the use of films. They may also compose head­
lines, prepare copy for typesetters, and proof­
read the printer’s galleys. Some editorial assis­
tants read and evaluate manuscripts submitted
by freelance writers or answer letters about
published or broadcast material. Production as­
sistants clip stories that come over the wire
services’ printers, answer phones, and make
copies of material for newswriters, editors, and
program directors.

Working Conditions
Working conditions for writers and editors vary
with the kind of publication they work on and
the kind of articles they produce. Some work in
comfortable, private offices; others work in
noisy rooms filled with the sound of typewriters
and other word processing equipment and other
writers tracking down information over the
telephone. The search for information some­
times requires travel and visits to diverse work­
places, such as factories, offices, laboratories,
the ballpark, or the theater, but many have to be
content with telephone interviews and the li­
brary.
The workweek usually runs 35 to 40 hours.
Night and weekend work is required of those
who prepare morning or weekend publications
and broadcasts. Some workers must also put in
overtime to meet deadlines or to cover a latedeveloping story. The more frequently the pub­
lication is issued, the more frequent the dead­
lines and the greater the pressure to meet them.
The need to understand complex technical data
may also be a source of stress or pressure.

Employment
Writers and editors held about 120,000 jobs in
1982. Nearly 40 percent worked for news­
papers, magazines, and book publishers. Sub­
stantial numbers also worked on journals and
newsletters published by business and nonprofit
organizations, such as professional associa­
tions, labor unions, and religious organiza­
tions. Others wrote and edited advertising and
public relations materials for advertising agen­
cies, public relations firms, and large corpora­
tions. Some also worked in radio and television
broadcasting; others developed publications for
Federal, State, and local governments.
Many technical writers work for firms manu facturing a irc ra ft, ch em icals, phar­
maceuticals, and computer and other electronic
equipment. Firms in the energy, communica­
tions, and computer software fields also employ
many technical writers.
Persons who write and edit for major book
publishers, magazines, broadcasting com­
panies, advertising agencies and public rela­
tions firms, and the Federal Government tend to
be concentrated in New York, Chicago, Los
Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, San Francisco,
and Washington, D.C. More widely dispersed
throughout the country, on the other hand, are
those who work for newspapers; corporations;
and professional, religious, business, tech­
nical, and trade union magazines or journals.
Technical writers are employed throughout the
country but the largest concentrations are in the
Northeast, Texas, and California.
Thousands of other persons work as freelan­
cers—earning some income from their articles,
books, and, less commonly, television and
movie scripts. Most support themselves pri­
marily with income from other sources.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Formal educational requirements for writing
and editing jobs vary. A college degree is re­
quired by many employers, but there is little
agreement as to the preferred major. Some em­
ployers look for a broad liberal arts background
or a major in literature, history, philosophy, or

Writers start by selecting a topic or being assigned one by an editor.

160/Occupational Outlook Handbook
one of the social sciences. Others prefer to hire
people with degrees in communications or jour­
nalism.
Some jobs, such as technical writing, require
a degree in or some knowledge about a spe­
cialized field—engineering, business, or one of
the sciences. Relatively few technical writers
enter the occupation directly from college. The
majority work initially in other jobs, usually as
technicians, scientists, or engineers. Some be­
gin as research assistants, editorial assistants,
or trainees in a company’s technical informa­
tion or advertising department. In time, these
people may assume writing duties and develop
technical communication skills.
Whatever their educational background,
writers and editors must be able to express ideas
clearly and logically. Creativity, intellectual cu­
riosity, a broad range of knowledge, selfmotivation, and perseverance are also valuable
assets. For some jobs, the ability to concentrate
amid confusion and to produce under pressure
is essential. Since writing requires research,
writers must be familiar with research tech­
niques. Editors must have good judgment in
deciding what material to accept and what to
reject. They must also have tact and the ability
to guide and encourage others in their work.
All prospective writers need practical writ­
ing experience. High school and college news­
papers, literary magazines, and small com­
munity newspapers and radio stations all
provide valuable—but sometimes unpaid—ex­
perience. Many magazines, newspapers, and
radio and TV stations have summer internships
in which students can learn about the publish­
ing and broadcasting business. Interns might
run errands, answer phones, conduct some re­
search and interviews, or even write short
pieces, depending on the employer.
Advancement for writers and editors de­
pends, in part, on the size of the organization
for which they work. In small firms, beginning
writers and editors may do a little bit of every­
thing, not only working as editorial or produc­
tion assistants but also writing or editing mate­
rial right away. They often advance by moving

to other firms, so turnover among beginning
writers and editors is high. In larger firms, jobs
are usually structured more formally. Persons in
entry-level positions generally do research,
fact-checking, or copy-editing. They take on
full-scale writing or editing duties less rapidly
than do the employees of small companies.
Advancement comes as they are assigned more
important articles to write or edit.

Job Outlook
Employment of writers and editors is expected
to increase faster than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. Employment
of salaried writers and editors by newspapers,
periodicals, book publishers, and nonprofit or­
ganizations—including research agencies and
religious, business, professional, and civic as­
sociations—is expected to increase with grow­
ing demand for their publications. Growth of
advertising and public relations agencies
should also be a source of new jobs. Demand
for technical writers is expected to increase
because of the continuing expansion of scien­
tific and technical information and the con­
tinued need to communicate it to researchers,
corporate managers, sales representatives, and
technicians. With the increasing complexity of
industrial and scientific equipment, more users
will depend on the technical writer’s ability to
prepare precise but simple explanations and
instructions. Besides jobs created by increased
demand for writers and editors, many job open­
ings will occur as experienced workers in this
field transfer to other occupations, retire, or
die.
Each year, thousands of young people with
college degrees in English, journalism, com­
munications, and the liberal arts seek writing
and editing jobs. Many end up in other occupa­
tions because the number of people qualified to
work as writers and editors greatly exceeds the
number of positions available, despite the high
turnover in these occupations. Throughout the
mid-1990’s, the outlook for writing and editing

A much larger proportion of writers, artists, and entertainers are
self-employed than of other professional, technical, and kindred
workers.
Percent self-employed

jobs is expected to continue to be keenly com­
petitive. Opportunities will be best in firms that
prepare business and trade publications and in
technical writing. Persons considering careers
in writing and editing should keep their options
open because the job market in this field is very
competitive. Academic preparation in a field
unrelated to writing may prove useful to some
people, either to qualify them as writers spe­
cializing in that field, or to qualify them for a
job in the field itself in the event that they are
unable to get a salaried writing job.

Earnings
In 1982, beginning salaries for writers and edi­
torial assistants ranged from $14,000 to
$19,000 annually, according to surveys by the
American Management Associations. Salaries
for experienced writers and researchers gener­
ally ranged between $18,000 and $29,000 a
year, depending on their qualifications and the
size of the publication on which they worked.
Experienced editors generally earned between
$20,000 and $36,000 a year; supervisory edi­
tors, $26,000 to $40,000 a year.
Senior editors on large circulation news­
papers and magazines earned over $60,000 per
year. Many writers and editors supplemented
their salaried income by doing freelance work.
Writers and editors employed by the Federal
Government earned an average of $26,000 a
year in 1982.

Related Occupations
Writers and editors communicate ideas and in­
formation to individuals for their education and
entertainment. Other communications occupa­
tions include newspaper reporters and corre­
spondents, radio and television announcers,
advertising and public relations workers, and
teachers of journalism.
Sources of Additional Information
For information on writing and editing careers
in the field of communications, contact:
Women in Communications, Inc., P.O. Box 9561,
Austin, Tex. 78766.

For a guide to journalism careers and schol­
arships, contact:
The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, P.O. Box 300,
Princeton, N.J. 08540.

For information on college internships in
magazine editing, contact:
American Society of Magazine Editors, 575 Lex­
ington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022.

For information on careers in technical writ­
ing, contact:
Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 815 15th
St. NW., Suite 506, Washington, D.C. 20005. A c a ­
d e m ic P r o g r a m s in T e c h n ic a l C o m m u n ic a tio n , a list­
ing of colleges and universities that offer programs in
technical writing, is also available from the Society
for $8.

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982
SOURCE: B u reau o f Lab o r S t a tis tic s




For information on careers in business com­
munication, contact:
American Business Communication Association,
100 English Building, 608 South Wright St., Urbana,
111. 61801.

Design Occupations
People in design occupations are applied art­
ists. They design clothing, automobiles, ap­
pliances, and other products, plan and design
interiors of buildings, arrange flowers, illus­
trate publications, and compose and take pho­
tographs. They create or design objects that are
both practical and attractive and make sure that
the places in which people live and work are
pleasant yet functional. Manufacturers, retail
and wholesale trade establishments, advertis­
ing agencies, printing and publishing firms,
theatrical producers and television and motion
picture studios employ designers. In addition,
many are self-employed, working in their own
studios.
Applied artists design a variety of products,
settings, and advertisements as well as oversee
the work of other artists or craft workers who
produce or install them. Commercial artists
design newspaper and TV advertisements as
well as catalogs, books, and instructional mate­
rials; photographers take pictures to convey an
idea or tell a story; industrial designers develop
functional, attractive articles and packages for
everyday use; set designers design movie, tele­
vision, and theater sets, interior designers ar­
range furnishings and spaces in homes, stores,
and offices; fashion designers design clothes,
fabrics and accessories, memorial designers
design monuments, statues, and memorials;
and floral designers create floral arrangements
to express the thought and sentiments of the
sender.
Artistic talent is crucial in all design occupa­
tions. People in this field need strong color
sense, an eye for detail, a sense of balance and
proportion, and sensitivity to beauty. They
must be creative, imaginative, persistent, and
able to communicate visually and verbally. A
good portfolio—a collection of examples of a
designer’s best work—is sometimes more im­
portant in finding a job than formal education.
Design careers require varying levels of
training. While floral designers often learn their
skills on the job and may not even need a high
school diploma, industrial designers as a rule
must complete 4 or more years of college. Per­
sons with appropriate experience and a major in
engineering, architecture, and fine arts may
also gain entry to this field. A liberal arts educa­
tion and training in painting, sculpture, and
architecture are important for commercial art­
ists. Fashion designers get their training in 2- or
3-year programs in schools of fashion design or
in 4-year colleges leading to a bachelor’s degree
in fashion design. Although not a requirement,
formal training is becoming increasingly im­
portant for interior designers. This is available
in 3-year professional school programs of inte­
rior design as well as in 4-year college and
university programs. The curriculum for these
occupations includes principles of design, art




and art history, mechanical and architectural
drawing, painting, architecture, and basic engi­
neering. Although a college degree is not nec­
essary for photographers, 2-year and 4-year
institutions offer courses or degree programs in
photography.
Creative work can be frustrating, even dis­
couraging, during periods when new ideas
don’t come—or when the designer’s ideas clash
with those of a client. Tact, problem-solving
skills, the ability to work independently as well
as with others, and sound professional judg­
ment are important traits for individuals in this
field.
The statements that follow discuss design
occupations in more detail. Several other jobs
that require design skills are described
elsewhere in the Handbook. See the statements
on urban and regional planners, engineers, and
architects.

Commercial and
Graphic Artists and
Designers
(D.O.T. 141.031-010, .061, .067-010, .081; 142.031-010,
149.031-010; 962.381-018)

Nature of the Work
Some professional artists are painters, who pro­
duce works of art for display in museums, art
galleries, and homes. Most, however, are com­
mercial and graphic artists and designers, who
illustrate and design the flood of magazine,
newspaper, and TV advertisements as well as
catalogs, brochures, instruction manuals, tech­
nical literature, book and record jackets, tex­
tiles, and many other items requiring visual
appeal.
The field of commercial art, also called
graphic art or design, is very broad and includes
some activities only loosely related to what is
usually thought of as art. Most people in the
field work in either illustration or design.
Illustrators paint or draw pictures. Many do a
variety of illustrations while others are spe­
cialists.
Fashion artists (D.O.T. 141.061-014) spe­
cialize in stylish and fashionable illustrations of
the latest in women’s and men’s clothing. This
specialty is perhaps the most glamorous and
“artistic” commercial art specialty.
Medical and scientific illustrators (D.O.T.
141.061-026) combine an interest in art with
knowledge of the biological sciences. They
draw illustrations of parts of the human body, or

animals and plants. Their work is used in medi­
cal textbooks and other publications, for re­
search purposes, and in lectures and presenta­
tions.
Cartoonists (D.O.T. 141.061-010) form an­
other illustration specialty. They draw political
cartoons, newspaper comic strips, and comic
books. Some cartoonists work with others who
create the idea or story and write the captions.
Most cartoonists, however, must have humor­
ous, critical, or dramatic talents in addition to
drawing talent.
Animators (D.O.T. 141.081-010) draw the
large series of pictures which, when transferred
to film, form the animated cartoons seen in the
movies and on TV. Animators are employed
almost exclusively in the motion picture indus­
try, which produces animated cartoons for TV
and the movies.
Some illustrators draw “story boards” for TV
commercials. Story boards present TV com­
mercials in a series of scenes in much the same
way as a newspaper comic strip tells a story, so
that the advertising agency and the client (the
company doing the advertising) can evaluate
the effectiveness of proposed commercials.
Story boards may also serve as guides to place­
ment of actors and cameras and to other details
during the production of commercials. Some
illustrators draw for children’s books; others
specialize in book and record jacket illustra­
tion.
Designers. Many in art-related jobs do little or
no drawing, but instead create or supervise the
creation of effective visual impressions of ad­
vertisements and industrial products.
Art directors (D.O.T. 141.031-010) decide
the art, design, photography, and type style that
go into published materials and TV advertise­
ments. In many organizations, an executive or
managing art director is in charge of a number
of art directors who are assigned to many indi­
vidual projects or advertising accounts.
Art directors create a visual effect that will
sell a product. They may design and illustrate
advertisements or other artwork themselves, or
direct and supervise others in this work. Art
directors are usually well paid and have com­
mensurate responsibility. Their job is consid­
ered the top commercial art-related job, al­
though some regard art directors as managers
or administrators rather than artists.
The lowest level art positions in an advertis­
ing agency or art studio are layout or paste-up
artists. These jobs are often entry level posi­
tions which provide experience for aspiring
commercial artists. Layout artists carefully
position elements of the advertisement (pho­
tographs, illustrations, and text) according to
the art director’s instructions. The magazine or
newspaper uses this “mechanical,” as it is
called, as a guide to print the advertisement.

161

162/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Commercial artists face keen competition for both salaried jobs and freelance work.
Working Conditions
Most commercial artists are salaried em­
ployees. They work in offices and studios and
usually have hours and working conditions sim­
ilar to those of other office workers.
A large proportion of commercial artists,
especially illustrators, are freelancers who do
individual projects for those wishing to use
their services. Until an illustrator develops a
reputation and a regular clientele, he or she will
not receive a steady income. Much effort often
must be expended on selling potential custom­
ers on the quality of one’s work and in acquiring
experience and a reputation. Freelancers can set
their own hours and working conditions.
However, both freelance and salaried commer­
cial artists must frequently meet tight deadlines
which necessitate long hours of work until the
project is complete.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
In the graphic arts field, demonstrated ability
rather than evidence of appropriate training or
other qualifications is all that is needed for
success. The device used by almost all in the
graphic arts field to gain employment or free­
lance work is the “portfolio,” a collection of
examples of the artist’s best work. Evidence of
appropriate talent and flair shown in the port­
folio is the most important factor used by art
directors and others in deciding whether to hire
or contract out work to an artist. In theory, a
person with a good portfolio but no training or
experience could succeed in graphic arts. In
reality, to put together a successful portfolio,
most aspiring graphic artists must acquire skills

in a postsecondary art school—usually in a 4year program. A bachelor’s degree in fine arts is
less useful because many of the technical skills
necessary are not taught and the emphasis is on
art for its own sake rather than on art for mar­
keting and other purposes. There also are many
other kinds of art schools, some with 2-year
associate degree programs, as well as voca­
tional education programs. Some of these
provide the technical skills necessary to get a
beginning job but may not give the background
necessary for advancement. However, there are
always exceptions to any rule in this field. What
really counts is talent, and some with little or no
formal training have been very successful in
commercial art.
Persons hired in advertising agencies or
graphic arts studios often start with relatively
routine work such as paste-ups or mechanicals.
While doing this work, however, they may ob­
serve and practice their skills on the side. Those
with talent may advance to assistant art director
and then to art director. Others may gain
enough skill to succeed as a freelancer or may
prefer to specialize in an area such as calligra­
phy. Many freelancers get started by working
part time as a freelancer while continuing to
hold a full-time job. Others have enough talent
and confidence in their ability to start out as a
freelancer immediately after they graduate
from art school. Many actually freelance part
time while still in school, an excellent way to
develop experience and a portfolio of published
work.
The freelancer develops a set of clients who
regularly contract for work at good rates. Some
successful freelancers are widely recognized
for their skill in specialties such as children’s
book illustration or high fashion illustration.
These freelancers earn high incomes and can
pick and choose the type of work they will do.

Job Outlook
The commercial art and graphics field has a
glamorous and exciting image. Because formal
entry qualifications are few, many people at

Almost half of all commercial artists are self-employed.

Employment
Commercial and graphic artists held about
133,000 jobs in 1982. Many were employed by
the advertising industry, either directly or indi­
rectly as freelancers, or by graphic art studios
which do much of their work for advertising
agencies.
The publishing industry also employs many
commercial artists. Other industries such as
department stores and other retailers, durable
goods manufacturing firms, motion picture
producers, and government agencies employ
commercial artists inin-house advertising,
graphic arts, and related activities.
Commercial and graphic artists are concen­
trated in larger cities. New York City has by far
the largest concentration because it is the center
of the advertising and publishing industries.
Chicago and Los Angeles also have many art­
ists. However, there are commercial and graph­
ic artists employed almost everywhere except
in very small towns and rural areas.




Distribution of employment, 1982

Wage and
salary workers

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor S t a tis tic s

Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/163
least partially qualify for entry. Consequently,
competition is keen for salaried jobs and free­
lance work. Many commercial artists find only
enough freelance work to occupy them part
time. Many freelancers have to charge very low
prices until they acquire experience and a good
reputation. Despite an oversupply of those
seeking commercial art jobs, those with out­
standing talent are eagerly sought.
Employment of commercial and graphic art­
ists is expected to grow about as fast as the
average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s as advertising and design continue
to expand with the economy and producers of
information, goods, and services stress visual
appeal. However, the supply of those seeking
entry to this field will probably continue to
exceed requirements. Those with above-aver­
age talent and a mastery of graphic art skills
will continue to be in demand.

Earnings
The median earnings for salaried commercial
and graphic artists and designers who usually
work full time were about $17,900 a year in
1982. The middle 50 percent earned between
$12,200 and $23,500 a year.
Those in entry level paste-up or layout jobs
may make little more than the minimum
wage. Art directors, by contrast, make
$30,000-$40,000 or more per year. Earnings
for freelancers vary widely. Those struggling to
gain experience and a reputation may some­
times be forced to charge what amounts to less
than the minimum wage for their work. Wellestablished freelancers are able to make a very
comfortable living. Freelancers of course do
not receive any of the usual fringe benefits such
as health insurance or retirement benefits that
salaried employees receive.
In 1982, Federal Government employees in
art-related jobs earned an average salary of
about $22,338 a year.

Related Occupations
Many occupations in the advertising industry,
such as account executives or creative direc­
tors, are related to commercial and graphic art
and design. Workers in other occupations in
which visual art skills are applied are archi­
tects, display workers, floral designers, indus­
trial designers, interior designers, landscape
architects, and photographers. The various
printing occupations are related to graphic art,
as are teachers of art and design.

Sources of Additional Information
For additional information on graphic artists,
write to:
The Graphic Artists Guild, 30 East 20th St., Room
405, New York, N.Y. 10003.
The National Art Education Association, 1916 Asso­
ciation Dr., Reston, Va. 22091.

Designers__________
(D.O.T. 141.051-010, and .137-010; and 142 except .061038)

Nature of Work
Designers arrange and design articles, prod­
ucts, materials, and interiors so that they are not



only functional, serving the purpose for which
they were intended, but also visually pleasing.
Products and packaging that are both functional
and eye-catching are likely to attract more
buyers than those that are not. Pleasant sur­
roundings, beautiful clothes, and floral ar­
rangements can boost our spirits.
Designers usually specialize in one type of
product or activity, for example, automobiles,
clothing, furniture, home appliances, industrial
equipment, movie and theater sets, packaging,
building interiors, or floral arrangements. In
developing a new design or altering an existing
one, they first determine the needs of their cli­
ents and potential users. Then they consider the
size, shape, weight, color, materials used, and
the way the product functions, as well as ease of
maintenance, safety, and cost of the design.
Designers may compare similar or competitive
products. They take into account and often set
style and fashion trends. Designers usually de­
velop sketches of several designs which they
present for final selection to an art or design
director; a product development team; a play,
film, or television producer; or a client. The
designer then makes a model, a sample, or
scaled detailed plans and drawings. Designers
may also supervise craft workers who carry out
their designs. Those with their own businesses
also must find clients and do administrative
work.
The design field includes a variety of spe­
cialties. Industrial designers (D.O.T. 142.061026) develop and design countless manufac­
tured products like cars, home appliances,
computers, stethoscopes, filing cabinets, fish­
ing rods, pens, and piggy banks. They combine
artistic talent with research on product use,,
marketing, materials, and production methods
to create the best and most appealing design and
thereby make the product competitive with
similar ones in the marketplace. Package de­
signers (D.O.T. 142.081-018) create product
containers that are not only attractive but easy
to handle and store. Graphic artists (D.O.T.
141.061-022) draw or paint illustrations to ad­
vertise a product or an event. They also draw or
design commercial logos such as corporate
symbols or letterheads.
Interior designers (D.O.T. 142.051-014)
plan, design, and furnish the interiors of private
homes, public buildings, and commercial es­
tablishments like offices, restaurants, and the­
aters. They coordinate colors; select furniture,
floor coverings, and curtain materials; and de­
sign lighting and architectural detail like crown
molding. They sometimes renovate or make
structural changes to old buildings.
Set designers (D.O.T. 142.061-046, -050)
design movie, television, and theater sets. They
study scripts, confer with directors, and con­
duct research to determine appropriate archi­
tectural styles.
Fashion designers (D.O.T. 142.061-018) de­
sign coats, suits, dresses, hats, handbags,
shoes, gloves, jewelry, underwear, and other
apparel. Some high-fashion designers are selfemployed and design for individual clients.
They make fashion news by establishing the
“line,” colors, and kinds of materials that will
be worn each season. Other self-employed

high-fashion designers cater to specialty stores
or high-fashion department stores. They design
original garments as well as follow the estab­
lished fashion trends. Designers who work for
apparel manufacturers do less original work;
they adapt for the mass market the fashions set
by other designers.
Cloth designers (D.O.T. 142.061-014) design
fabrics for garments, upholstery, rugs, and
other products, utilizing their knowledge of tex­
tile materials and fashion trends.
Memorial designers (D.O.T. 142.061-030)
design memorials, mausoleums, statues, and
monuments. Some memorial designers spe­
cialize in designing large-scale monuments that
commemorate or honor people, places, or
events.
Floral designers (D.O.T. 142.081-010) cut
and arrange fresh, dried, or artificial flowers
and foliage into a design to express the senti­
ments of the sender. They trim flowers and
arrange bouquets, sprays, wreaths, dish gar­
dens, and terrariums. They usually work from a
written order indicating the occasion, customer
preference for color and type of flower, price,
and the date, time, and place the arrangement
or plant is to be delivered. The variety of duties
performed by a floral designer depends on the
size of the shop and the number of designers
employed. In a small operation, the floral de­
signer may do almost everything from growing
flowers to keeping books.

Working Conditions
Working conditions and places of employment
vary, depending on the specialty. Designers
employed by manufacturing establishments or
design firms generally work regular hours in
well-lighted and comfortable settings. Those
who are self-employed usually work longer
hours and are involved with a lot of paperwork
in taking care of their business.
Industrial designers usually work regular
hours and only occasionally work overtime to
meet deadlines. Interior designers’ hours are
often long and irregular. They usually adjust
their workday to suit their clients, meeting with
them evenings or on weekends when necessary.
They may transact business in clients’ homes or
offices, in their own offices, or in other loca­
tions such as decorator showrooms. Set design­
ers, especially those in television broadcasting,
often work long and irregular hours. Television
production tempo is very fast and the set de­
signers are often under pressure to make rapid
changes in the sets. Fashion designers who
work in the apparel industry usually have, reg­
ular hours; however, their work may be sea­
sonal and require long hours before fashion
showings. Memorial designers spend most of
their time in well-lighted and quiet settings sim­
ilar to those of architectural drafting rooms.
Some time is spent outdoors evaluating terrain
for placement of memorials. Floral designers
usually work regular hours, except during the
holidays, when overtime may be required. De­
signers face frustration at times when their de­
signs are rejected. Independent consultants,
who are paid by the assignment, are under
pressure to please clients and to find new ones
to maintain their incomes.

164/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Employment
Designers held about 180,000 jobs in 1982.
About two-fifths were in wholesale and retail
trade—in florist shops, furniture and home fur­
nishings stores, department stores, and apparel
stores. More than one-fourth were in manufac­
turing industries—primarily machinery, motor
vehicles and aircraft, apparel, metal products,
instruments, printing and publishing, and tex­
tiles. Services industries, primarily business
services and engineering and architectural
firms, accounted for about 1 out of 10 jobs.
Construction firms and government agencies
also employed some designers. Self-employed
designers accounted for about one sixth of all
jobs.
Nearly all floral designers work in retail
flower shops. Many florist shops are small and
employ only a few designers. Many floral de­
signers manage their own shops. Most interior
designers work in design firms or as members
of design departments of furniture stores. Some
work for architects, furniture suppliers, antique
dealers, and furniture and textile manufac­
turers. Most industrial designers work for con­
sulting firms or large manufacturing com­
panies. Some work for architectural firms or do
freelance work. Fashion designers work in the
apparel industry, privately owned salons, highfashion department stores, and specialty shops.
Some work for pattern manufacturers or as free­
lancers. Some fashion designers work in the
entertainment industry designing costumes for

theater, television, and movies. Memorial de­
signers work for monument manufacturers,
who are usually located near quarries. Set de­
signers usually work for theater companies, the
film industry, and television broadcasting.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Artistic talent is crucial in all design occupa­
tions. People in this field need a strong color
sense, an eye for detail, a sense of balance and
proportion, and sensitivity to beauty. A good
portfolio—a collection of examples of a per­
son’s best work—is sometimes more important
in finding a job than formal education.
However, formal training is becoming in­
creasingly important for most designers. Al­
most 2 out of 3 designers entering the field in
1980 had a college degree or some college edu­
cation. Industrial designers usually have 4 or
more years of college.
Formal training is available in 2- and 3-year
professional schools which award certificates or
associate degrees in design. Four-year colleges
and universities grant the degree of Bachelor of
Fine Arts. The curriculum in these schools in­
cludes art and art history, principles of design,
fashion designing and sketching, garment con­
struction, textiles, mechanical and architec­
tural drawing, computerized design, sculpture,
architecture, and basic engineering. A liberal
arts education with courses in merchandising
and business administration along with training

in art is also a good background. Persons with
training or experience in architecture also
qualify for some design occupations.
In 1982, 31 colleges and art schools offered
programs in design that were either accredited
by the National Association of Schools of Art
and Design or recognized by the Industrial De­
signers Society of America. Most of these
schools award a degree in art, industrial design,
interior design, graphic design, or fashion de­
sign. Many schools do not allow formal entry
into a bachelor’s degree program until a student
has successfully finished a year of basic art and
design courses. Applicants may be required to
submit sketches and other examples of their
artistic ability. Some colleges and universities
offer degrees in floriculture and floristry and
provide training in flower marketing and shop
management. Junior colleges, adult education
programs, and correspondence schools also of­
fer courses in design. Floral designers may also
get training in commercial floral design
schools.
Regardless of the amount of formal training
required, people in the design field must be
creative, imaginative, persistent, and able to
communicate their ideas visually. Because
tastes in style and fashion can change quickly,
people in this field need to be open to new ideas
and influences. Problem-solving skills and the
ability to work independently are important
traits. People in this field need self-discipline to
start projects on their own, and to budget their
time in order to meet deadlines. Business sense
and sales ability are important for those who are
freelancers or run their own businesses.
Beginning designers are usually given onthe-job training. Usually a person can become a
qualified floral designer after 2 years of on-thejob training; beginners in interior design usu­
ally need 1 to 3 years of training before they
advance to designer. Experienced designers
may advance to chief designer, design depart­
ment head, or other supervisory positions.
Some experienced designers open their own
firms.
Although most States have no licensing re­
quirements in the field, membership in the
American Society of Interior Design (ASID) or
the Institute of Business Designers is a recog­
nized mark of achievement for interior design­
ers. Membership usually requires the comple­
tion of 3 or 4 years of postsecondary school
education in design, at least 2 years of practical
experience in the field, and completion of a
written and design-problem examination given
by the National Council of Interior Design
Qualification.

Job Outlook

Designers need an eye for detail and a sense of balance and proportion.




Employment in design occupations is expected
to grow faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through 1995. However, most of the open­
ings will result from the need to replace those
who leave the field. Designers tend to leave the
field at a somewhat higher rate than other pro­
fessional and technical workers. Most who
leave transfer to other occupations; others as­
sume household responsibilities or retire.
Despite projected greater than average em­
ployment growth, persons seeking beginning

Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/165
jobs in most design fields, with the exception of
floral design, are expected to face stiff competi­
tion through 1995. Many talented individuals
are attracted to this field, and those with only
average talent or without formal training are
likely to find it difficult to find jobs.
Continued emphasis on product quality and
safety, on design of new products for businesses
and offices, and on high-technology products in
medicine and transportation should expand the
demand for industrial designers. Growth in
population and personal incomes should in­
crease the demand for interior designers, fash­
ion designers, floral designers, and set design­
ers. Memorial designers, especially those who
design cemetery markers, are expected to have
steady work with good job security.

Earnings
Median annual earnings of experienced full­
time designers were almost $24,000 in 1982.
Floral designers generally earned somewhat
less than the median. Earnings of self-em­
ployed designers varied greatly, depending on
their talent and business ability, but generally
were higher than those of salaried designers.

Related Occupations
Workers in other occupations who design or
arrange objects, materials, or interiors to im­
prove their appearance and function include
architects, engineers, photographers, merchan­
dise displayers, fur designers, graphic design­
ers, commercial artists, artists and art teachers,
and manufacturers’ sales workers who handle
interior furnishings.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about careers in interior de­
sign, contact:

mood of scenes which they photograph. Pho­
tographers specializing in scientific, medical,
or engineering photography expose worlds nor­
mally hidden from our view.
Although their subject matter varies widely,
all photographers use the same basic equip­
ment. The most important tool, of course, is the
camera, and most photographers own several.
Unlike snapshot cameras, which have a lens
permanently attached to the camera body, the
professionals’ cameras are generally con­
structed to use a variety of lenses designed for
close-up, medium-range, or distance photogra­
phy.
Besides cameras and lenses, photographers
use a variety of film and colored filters to obtain
the desired effect under different lighting con­
ditions. When taking pictures indoors or after
dark, they may use electronic flash units,
floodlights, reflectors, and other special light­
ing equipment.
Some photographers develop and print their
own photographs in the darkroom and may en­
large or otherwise alter the basic image. Many
photographers send their work to laboratories
for processing.
Because the procedures involved in still pho­
tography are quite different from those in mo­
tion picture photography, many photographers
specialize in one or the other. However, the
demand is growing for photographers who have
training in both areas.
In addition to the skilled use of cameras and
accessories, photographers must be able to
compose their pictures with creativity and to
recognize a potentially good photograph.
Still photographers (D.O.T. 143.062-030)
may specialize in a particular type of photogra­
phy, such as portrait, fashion, or industrial

work. Portrait photographers take pictures of
individuals or groups of persons and often work
in their own studios. For special events, such as
weddings or christenings, however, they take
photographs in churches and homes. Portrait
photographers in small studios, like other small
business owners, frequently handle all aspects
of their business. They arrange for advertising
and schedule appointments; set and adjust
equipment before taking the pictures; develop
and retouch negatives; develop proofs; and
mount and frame pictures. They also purchase
supplies and take care of the billing and rec­
ordkeeping.
Industrial photographers take pictures of a
wide range of subjects including livestock,
manufactured articles, buildings, and groups of
people. They frequently do photography for
catalogs. Companies use their work in publica­
tions to report to stockholders or to advertise
company products or services. To create attrac­
tive, eye-catching promotional pictures, adver­
tising photographers must command a broad
array of photographic techniques. Industrial
photographers also photograph groups of peo­
ple for employee news magazines or take mo­
tion pictures of workers operating equipment
and machinery for management’s use in analyz­
ing production or work methods.
Motion picture photographers (D.O.T.
143.062-022) may specialize in a particular
subject material or field such as medical, scien­
tific, news, or commercial. Some operate cam­
eras in the motion picture industry.
Scientific photographers (D.O.T. 143.062026) and biological photographers (D.O.T.
143.362-010) provide illustrations and docu­
mentation for scientific publications and re­
search reports. The photographs and slides they

American Society of Interior Designers, 1430 Broad­
way, New York, N.Y. 10018.

For information about careers in floral ar­
rangement, contact:
Society of American Florists, 901 North Washington
St., Alexandria, Va. 22314.

For information about careers in memorial
design, contact:
Monument Builders of North America, 1612 Central
St., Evanston, 111. 60201.

A brochure about careers and a list of schools
offering courses and degrees in industrial de­
sign are available for $2 from:
Industrial Designers Society of America, 6802 Poplar
Place, Suite 303, McLean, Va. 22101.

Photographers
(D.O.T. 143)

Nature of the Work
Photographers use their cameras and film to
portray people, places, and events much as a
writer uses words. Those who are skillful can
capture the personality of individuals or the



Industrial photographers may use special techniques to obtain information not visible under normal
conditions.

166/Occupational Outlook Handbook
produce are also used for teaching purposes.
These photographers usually specialize in a
particular field, such as engineering, aero­
dynamics, medicine, biology, or chemistry.
Some design photographic equipment for use
as a research tool. For example, medical re­
searchers often use ultraviolet and infrared pho­
tography, fluorescence, and X-rays to obtain
information not visible under normal condi­
tions. Time-lapse photography (where time is
stretched or condensed), photomicrography
(where the subject of the photography may be
magnified 50 or 70 times or more), and photogrammetry (surveying an area using aerial
photography) are other special techniques.
Photojournalists (D.O.T. 143.062-034) pho­
tograph newsworthy events, places, people,
and things for publications such as newspapers
and magazines or for television news shows.
They may also prepare educational slides, film­
strips, and movies.

Working Conditions
Working conditions for photographers vary.
Those who have salaried jobs usually work a 5day, 35- to 40-hour week. Photographers in
business for themselves may work longer or
more irregular hours. Many photographers
work part time.
Freelance, press, and commercial pho­
tographers may travel frequently and may work
in uncomfortable surroundings. Sometimes the
work can be dangerous, especially for photojournalists assigned to cover stories on natural
disasters or military conflicts.
Many photographers work under pressure.
Deadlines and demanding customers must be
satisfied. Freelance photographers may find so­
liciting new clients frustrating and tedious.

Employment
Photographers held about 86,000 jobs in 1982.
Nearly 6 of every 10 jobs were salaried posi­
tions. The rest were held by self-employed pho­
tographers who do individual projects for those

wishing to use their services. Photographic or
commercial art studies provided the most jobs;
other employers included newspapers, maga­
zines, radio and television broadcasters, mo­
tion picture companies, government agencies,
and manufacturing firms. Some photographers
were employed by colleges, universities, and
other educational institutions to prepare promo­
tional and educational materials.
Jobs for photographers are found in all parts
of the country—both small towns and large
cities—but are concentrated in the more popu­
lated areas.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Although a high school education is desirable,
entry level jobs for photographers have no for­
mal education or training requirements. Em­
ployers usually seek applicants who have a
broad technical understanding of photography
as well as other photographic talents, such as
imagination, creativity, and a good sense of
timing. Technical expertise can be obtained
through practical experience, postsecondary
training, or some combination of the two. Some
jobs do require that applicants have specialized
knowledge of the subject areas that will be
photographed.
Photographic training is available in col­
leges, universities, junior colleges, public vo­
cational education programs, and private pho­
tography and art schools. About 75 colleges
and universities offered 4-year curriculums
leading to a bachelor’s degree in photography in
1982. Many schools offer photography training
as part of their communications and journalism
programs. Some colleges and universities grant
master’s degrees in photography. In addition,
some colleges have 2-year curriculums leading
to a certificate or an associate degree in pho­
tography. A formal education in photography
gives a fundamental background in a variety of
equipment, processes, and techniques. Art

Almost half of all photographers are self-employed.
Distribution of employment, 1982

Wage and
salary workers

schools offer useful training in design and com­
position, but not the technical training needed
for professional photographic work. The
Armed Forces also train people in photographic
skills.
People may prepare for work as pho­
tographers in a commercial studio through 2 or
3 years of on-the-job training as a pho­
tographer’s assistant. Trainees generally start in
the darkroom where they learn to mix chemi­
cals, develop film, and do photoprinting and
enlarging. Later they may set up lights and
cameras or help an experienced photographer
take pictures.
Amateur experience is helpful in getting an
entry job with a commercial studio, but posthigh school education and training usually are
needed for industrial or scientific photography.
Here success in photography depends on being
more than just a competent photographer, and
adequate career preparation requires some
knowledge of the field in which the photogra­
phy is used.
Photographers must have good eyesight and
color vision, artistic ability, and manual dex­
terity. They should be patient, accurate, and
enjoy working with detail. Some knowledge of
mathematics, physics, and chemistry is helpful
for understanding the use of various lenses,
films, light sources, and development pro­
cesses.
Some photographic specialties require addi­
tional qualities. Commercial or freelance pho­
tographers must be imaginative and original in
their thinking. Those who specialize in pho­
tographing news stories must recognize a po­
tentially good photograph and act quickly; oth­
erwise, an opportunity to capture an important
event on film may be lost. Writing ability some­
times is important for photojournalists, who
may write captions and accompanying articles
for their photographs. Portrait photographers
need the ability to help people relax in front of
the camera.
Newly hired photographers are given rela­
tively routine assignments that do not require
split-second camera adjustments or decisions
on what subject matter to photograph. News
photographers, for example, may be assigned
to cover events such as civic meetings or snow­
storms. After gaining experience,they advance
to more demanding assignments, and may
move to larger newspapers or magazines. A few
gain national recognition for their work and
exhibit their photographs in art and pho­
tographic galleries, or publish them in books. A
few industrial or scientific photographers may
be promoted to supervisory positions. Maga­
zine and news photographers may eventually
become heads of graphic arts departments or
photography editors.

Job Outlook

SOURCE: Bu reau of Lab o r S t a tis tic s




Employment of photographers is expected to
grow more slowly than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. In addition
to openings resulting from increased demand
for photographers, others will occur each year
as workers transfer to other occupations, retire,
or die.

Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/167
Demand will be stimulated as business and
industry place greater importance upon visual
aids in meetings, stockholders’ reports, sales
campaigns, and public relations work. Pho­
tography is becoming an increasingly impor­
tant part of law enforcement work, as well as
scientific and medical research, where oppor­
tunities are expected to be good for those with
appropriate technical skills. Employment in
photojournalism is expected to grow slowly.
Employment of portrait and commercial
photographers is also expected to grow slowly,
and competition for jobs is expected to remain
keen. These fields are relatively crowded since
amateur photographers can go into business for
themselves with a modest financial investment,
or work part time while holding another job.
Increased use of self-processing cameras in
commercial photography has contributed to
crowding in this field, since little training is
required for such work.




Earnings
Photographers in private industry who did rela­
tively routine work averaged $20,439 a year in
early 1982; those at mid-level averaged
$24,425; and those doing difficult work,
$26,815.
In early 1983, beginning photographers who
worked for newspapers that have contracts with
The Newspaper Guild had weekly earnings be­
tween $175 and $692, with the majority of
beginning photographers earning between $275
and $350. Newspaper photographers with some
experience (usually 4 or 5 years) averaged
about $480 a week in early 1983. Almost all
experienced newspaper photographers earned
over $350; the top salary under Guild contracts
with daily newspapers was $721 a week.
Photographers in the Federal Government
earned an average of $21,504 a year in 1982.
Scientific photographers averaged $33,296.

Some self-employed and freelance pho­
tographers earn more than salaried workers.
Many self-employed photographers, however,
earn very little from their photography work.
Earnings of freelancers are affected greatly by
general business conditions and the type and
size of their community and clientele.

Related Occupations
Besides photographers, other workers who rely
on their visual arts talents in their jobs include
commercial artists, floral designers, il­
lustrators, industrial designers, painters, and
sculptors.

Sources of Additional Information
Career information on photography is available
from:
Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 1090
Executive Way, Des Plaines, 111. 60018.

Performing Artists
The excitement of opening night, the thrill of an
audience’s applause, the joy of public recogni­
tion and admiration—these are some induce­
ments for people to enter the performing arts.
The opportunity for creative self-expression
and the development of one’s artistic talents are
other reasons why some people become per­
forming artists.
The performing arts include acting, dancing,
instrumental music, and singing. These fields
have the common goals of entertaining, com­
municating with, and affecting the emotions of
audiences. All of a performer’s work depends
entirely upon his or her personal qualities—
such as speech, appearance, facility in body
movement, finger dexterity, and mental capaci­
ties.
Most aspiring artists spend many years in
intensive training and practice before they are
ready for professional performances. They not
only need great natural talent but also deter­
mination, a willingness to work long and hard
in their chosen field, and some luck.
Within the performing arts, the number of
talented persons seeking employment generally
exceeds by far the number of positions avail­
able. As a result, many performers are not able
to find enough work in their field to be em­
ployed full time all year long. Many supple­
ment their incomes by teaching, or work much
of the time in occupations unrelated to the per­
forming arts. Only the most successful perfor­
mers can earn a living solely from their art;
therefore, persons interested in these careers
may wish to consider training for a backup or
alternative field of work.
The statements that follow give detailed in­
formation on actors and actresses, dancers, mu­
sicians, and singers.

Actors and Actresses
(D.O.T. 150.047-010; 159.044-010, 047-010, -014, -018,
-022; and 961.367-010)

Nature of the Work
Actors and actresses entertain and communi­
cate with people through their interpretation of
dramatic roles. They rely on facial and verbal
expression as well as body motions for their
creative effect.
Making a character come to life before an
audience is a job that has great glamour and
fascination. However, acting requires per­
sistence, practice, and hard work, as well as a
special talent. Only a few actors and actresses
achieve recognition as stars on the stage, in
motion pictures, or on television. A somewhat
larger number are well-known, experienced

168




performers, who frequently are cast in support­
ing roles. However, most actors and actresses
struggle for a toehold in the profession and pick
up parts wherever they can. Employment for
actors is characteristically unsteady. Most ac­
tors experience frequent periods of unemploy­
ment, and many take temporary jobs, often as
waiters or sales workers, while waiting for their
next acting parts to come along.
Beginning stage actors generally start in
“bit” parts where they speak only a few lines. If
successful, they may progress to larger, sup­
porting roles. They frequently serve as under­
studies for the principals. Film and television
actors, in contrast, may begin in large roles or
move into programs from working in commer­
cials.
In addition to the actors and actresses with
speaking parts, “extras,” who have no lines to
deliver, are used in almost all motion pictures
and many television shows and theater produc­
tions.
Some actors move into acting-related jobs as
drama coaches or directors of stage, television,
radio, or motion picture productions. A few
teach drama in colleges and universities, where
they usually specialize in a particular aspect of
drama, such as stage movement, stage speech
and voice, or acting. Some professional actors
employed by theater companies also teach act­
ing in courses offered to the public.

Working Conditions
Acting demands patience and total commit­
ment, since aspiring actors and actresses must
wait for parts or filming schedules, work long
hours, and travel often. Evening work is a reg­
ular part of a stage actor’s life. Flawless perfor­
mances require the tedious memorizing of lines
and repetitive rehearsals—sometimes late at
night after performances. Performances on
television programs often allow little time for
rehearsal, so that the actor must deliver a good
performance with very little preparation. An
actor needs stamina to withstand the heat of
stage or studio lights, the long irregular hours,
and the adverse weather conditions that may
exist “on location.” When plays are on the road,
weekend traveling often is necessary.

Employment
At any one time in 1982, actors and actresses
held an average of about 34,000 jobs in motion
pictures, stage plays, industrial shows, and
commercials. Many others were between acting
jobs, so that the total number of people actually
employed as actors and actresses over the
course of the year was higher. In the winter,
most employment opportunities on the stage
are in New York and other large cities. In the
summer, stock companies in suburban and re­
sort areas provide employment. In addition,

many cities have “little theaters,” repertory
companies, and dinner theaters, which provide
opportunities for local amateur talent as well as
for professional actors and actresses. Normally,
casts are selected in New York City for shows
that go “on the road.”
Employment in motion pictures and films for
television is centered in Hollywood and New
York City, although a few studios are located in
Miami and other parts of the country. In addi­
tion, many films are shot on location and em­
ploy local professionals and nonprofessionals
as “day players” and “extras.” A number of
American-produced films are shot in foreign
countries. In television, most opportunities for
actors are at the headquarters of the major net­
works—in New York, Los Angeles, and, to a
lesser extent, Chicago. A few local television
stations occasionally employ actors.

Training and Other Qualifications
Aspiring actors should take part in high school
and college plays, or work with little theaters
and other acting groups for experience.
Some people do enter the field without for­
mal training in acting. However, formal train­
ing or acting experience is generally necessary.
Training in dramatic arts can be obtained at
specialized schools in New York and Los An­
geles, and at about 620 colleges and univer­
sities throughout the country offering bach­
elor’s or higher degrees in dramatic and theater
arts. College drama curriculums usually in­
clude courses in liberal arts, stage speech and
movement, directing, playwriting, play pro­
duction, and history of the drama, as well as
practical courses in acting. From these, the
student develops an appreciation of the great
plays and the roles he or she may play.
In all media, the best way to start is to use
local opportunities and to build on them. Many
actors who are successful in local and regional
productions eventually try to obtain work in
New York or Los Angeles. Modeling experi­
ence may also be helpful in obtaining employ­
ment in television or motion pictures. Persons
who plan to pursue an acting career need talent,
creative ability, and training that will enable
them to portray different characters. They must
have poise, stage presence, and the ability to
affect an audience. At the same time, the ability
to follow directions is important. Physical ap­
pearance is often a deciding factor in being
selected for particular roles. Actors should be
prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent em­
ployment and rejections when auditioning for
work.
Many actors rely on agents or managers to
find them performing engagements, negotiate
contracts, and plan their careers.
To become a movie extra, one must usually
be listed by a casting agency, such as Central

Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/169
salaries of the few top stars are many times the
figures cited.
Eight performances amount to a week’s work
on the legitimate stage, and any additional per­
formances are paid for as overtime. After the
show opens, the basic workweek is 36 hours,
including 12 hours for rehearsals. Before it
opens, however, the workweek usually is longer
to allow time for rehearsals.
Many actors who earn more than a set mini­
mum per year are covered by a union health,
welfare, and pension fund, including hospi­
talization insurance, to which employers con­
tribute. Under some employment conditions,
Equity and AFTRA members have paid vaca­
tions and sick leave. Most stage actors get little
if any unemployment compensation solely
from acting since they seldom have enough
employment in any State to meet the eligibility
requirements.

Related Occupations

There is keen competition for acting jobs.
Casting, a no-fee agency that works with the
Screen Extras Guild and supplies all extras to
the major movie studios in Hollywood. Appli­
cants are accepted only when the number of
persons of a particular type on the list—for
example, athletic young men, old ladies, or
small children—is below the foreseeable need.
In recent years, only a very small proportion of
the total number of applicants have succeeded
in being listed. An actor employed as an extra in
a film has very little opportunity to advance to a
speaking role in that film.
The length of a performer’s working life de­
pends largely on training, skill, versatility, and
perseverance. Some actors and actresses work
almost indefinitely. Many actors leave the oc­
cupation, however because they cannot find
enough acting work to make a living.

Job Outlook
The large number of people desiring acting
careers, the lack of formal entry requirements,
and the relatively small number of job openings
cause keen competition for acting jobs. Only
the most talented find regular employment.
Through the mid-1990’s, many openings will
occur as actors leave the occupation. In addi­
tion, faster than average growth in employment
is expected, in commercial theaters, non-profit
acting com panies, and television. Nev­
ertheless, there are not expected to be openings
for all jobseekers, and the keen competition for
acting jobs is expected to continue.

Earnings
Actors and actresses who appear on the stage
belong to the Actors’ Equity Association; in
motion pictures, including television films, to
the Screen Actors Guild, Inc. or to the Screen
Extras Guild, Inc.; and in television or radio, to



the American Federation of Television and Ra­
dio Artists (AFTRA). These unions and the
producers of the shows sign basic collective
bargaining agreements which set minimum sal­
aries, hours of work, and other conditions of
employment. Each actor also signs a separate
contract, which may provide for a higher salary
than that specified in the basic agreement.
The minimum weekly salary for actors in
Broadway productions was about $575 in 1982.
Those in small “off-Broadway” theaters re­
ceived minimums ranging from $180 to $300 a
week, depending on the seating capacity of the
theater. For shows on the road, the minimum
rate was $47 extra per day.
In 1982, motion picture and television actors
and actresses earned a minimum daily rate of
$298, or $903 for a 5-day week. For extras, the
minimum rate was $83 a day. Television actors
also receive additional compensation for re­
runs.
However, earnings of most actors and
actresses from acting work are low because
their employment is irregular. According to
data from Actors Equity Association, which
represents about 30,000 actors in the legitimate
theater, about 15,000 of their members had no
earnings in 1982; 6,000 members made less
than $5,000; 3,600 members earned between
$5,000 and $30,000; and only 400 members
earned more than $30,000. The Screen Actors
Guild, which has over 40,000 members, re­
ports that over 80 percent earned less than
$5,000 from acting jobs in 1982; fewer than 5
percent earned $25,000 or more. Therefore,
many actors must supplement their incomes
from acting by maintaining other, nonacting
jobs.
Some well-known actors and actresses who
have salary rates above the minimums, and the

Actors and actresses entertain people through
their interpretations of dramatic roles by facial
and verbal expression and body motions. Re­
lated occupations for people with these skills
include dancers, choreographers, disc jockeys,
drama teachers or coaches, narrators, and radio
and television announcers. Other people work­
ing in theatrical occupations related to acting
are playwrights, directors, script writers, stage
managers, and set designers. Occupations in­
volved with the business aspects of theater pro­
ductions include producers, touring managers,
booking managers, and actors’ agents.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on colleges and universities and
conservatories that offer a major in drama is
available from:
American Theater Association, 1000 Vermont Ave.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

Information about nonprofit regional theaters
may be obtained from:
Theater Communications Group, Inc., 355 Lexington
Ave., New York, N.Y., 10017.

Information about grants made in the per­
forming arts is available from:
Information Office, National Endowment for the
Arts, 2401 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20506.
League of Professional Theatre Training Programs,
Suite 1515, 1860 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10023.

Dancers
(D.O.T. 151.027-010, and .047-010)

Nature of the Work
Dancing is an ancient and worldwide art used to
interpret an idea or a story, or simply to phys­
ically express rhythm and sound. Many profes­
sional dancers perform in classical ballet,
which includes the stylized, traditional reperto­
ry, in or modern dance, which allows more free
movement and self-expression. Others perform
in dance adaptations for musical shows, in folk,

170/Occupational Outlook Handbook
ethnic, and jazz dances, and in other popular
kinds of dancing. In addition to being an art
form for its own sake, dance also is used to
complement opera, musical comedy, and tele­
vision performances.
In dance productions, performers most often
work as a group, although a few top artists
dance solo. Many dancers combine stage work
with teaching. Some dancers create (choreog­
raph) original dances, teach them to perfor­
mers, and sometimes direct and stage the pre­
sentations of their work.

Working Conditions
Dancing is strenuous. Rehearsals require very
long hours and usually take place daily, includ­
ing weekends and holidays. For shows on the
road, weekend travel often is required. Most
performances take place in the evening, and
dancers must become accustomed to working
late hours. Therefore, many dancers, by their
thirties, transfer to related occupations such as
choreographer or dance teacher or find work in
other occupations. Certain celebrated dancers,
however, continue performing beyond the age
of 50.

Employment
Professional dancers held an average of about
8,000jobs at any one time in 1982. Many others
were between engagements so that the total
number of people employed as dancers over the
course of the year was greater. In addition, in
1982, there were about 23,000 dance instruc­
tors in secondary schools, colleges and univer­
sities, dance schools, and private studios. Of
these, many also worked from time to time as
performers themselves.
New York City is the home for about one-half
of the major dance companies. Other cities with
full-time dance companies are Los Angeles,

San Francisco, Seattle, Chicago, Dallas,
H ouston, Salt Lake City, C in cin n ati,
Cleveland, Boston, Philadelphia, and Atlanta.

TYaining and Other Qualifications
Serious training for a career in dancing tradi­
tionally begins by about age 12. Early ballet
training begins at age 7 or 8 and is usually given
by private teachers and independent ballet
schools. Students who demonstrate potential in
the early teens receive more intensive and ad­
vanced professional training at regional ballet
schools or schools conducted under the aus­
pices of the major ballet companies. Leading
dance school companies often have summer
training programs from which they select can­
didates for admission to their regular full-time
training program. Early and intensive training
also is important for the modem dancer, but
modem dance does not require as many years of
training as ballet. Most dancers have their pro­
fessional auditions by age 17 or 18, but training
and practice never end. For example, profes­
sional ballet dancers take from 10 to 12 lessons a
week for 11 or 12 months of the year, and must
spend many additional hours practicing and
rehearsing.
Because of the strenuous and time-consum­
ing training required, a dancer’s general educa­
tion may be minimal. However, a broad, gener­
al education including music, literature, histo­
ry, and the visual arts gives a background
helpful in the interpretation of dramatic epi­
sodes, ideas, and feelings.
About 210 colleges and universities confer
bachelor’s or higher degrees in dance, generally
through the departments of physical education,
music, theater, or fine arts. Most programs con­
centrate on modern dance, but also offer
courses in ballet/classical techniques.

A college education is not essential to obtain­
ing employment as a professional dancer. In
fact, ballet dancers who postpone their first
audition until graduation may compete at a dis­
advantage with younger dancers. On the other
hand, a college degree can be helpful for the
dancer who retires at an early age, as often
happens, and wishes to enter another field of
work.
Although a college education is an advantage
for college or university teaching, it is not nec­
essary for teaching dance or choreography in a
studio. Studio schools usually require teachers
to have experience as performers; colleges and
conservatories generally require graduate de­
grees, but performance experience often may
be substituted. Maturity and a broad educa­
tional background also are important.
The dancer’s life is one of rigorous practice
and self- discipline; therefore, patience, per­
severance, and a devotion to dance are essen­
tial. Good health and physical stamina are nec­
essary in order to practice and perform and to
follow the rugged travel schedule often re­
quired.
Seldom does a dancer perform unaccom­
panied. Therefore, ability to function as part of
a team is important. Dancers also should be
prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent em­
ployment and rejections when auditioning for
work.
Body height and build should not vary much
from the average. Good feet and normal arches
also are required. Above all, one must have
agility, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm,
and a feeling for music, as well as a creative
ability to express oneself through movement.
Many dancers retire in their thirties or transfer
to related fields such as teaching dance or be­
coming choreographers or dance directors.

Job Outlook
The large number of people seeking profession­
al dancing careers and the relatively small
number of job openings cause keen competition
for dancing jobs. Only the most talented find
regular employment. Through the mid-1990’s,
some job openings will occur as dancers leave
the occupation. In addition, employment of
dancers is expected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations with new profes­
sional dance companies, dance groups affili­
ated with colleges and universities, and in tele­
vision. Nevertheless, there are not likely to be
openings for all jobseekers, and keen competi­
tion is expected to continue.

Earnings

A ballet dancer needs agility, grace, and a sense of rhythm.



Some dancers in the major opera ballet, classi­
cal ballet, and modem dance belong to the
American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those
on live or videotaped television belong to the
American Federation of Television and Radio
Artists; those who perform in films and TV
belong to the Screen Actors Guild or the Screen
Extras Guild; and those in musical comedies
join Actors’ Equity Association. The unions
and producers sign basic agreements specifying
minimum salary rates, hours of work, and other
conditions of employment. However, the sepa­
rate contract signed by each dancer with the

Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/171
producer of the show may be more favorable
than the basic agreement. Most dancers who
have only occasional professional engagements
are not represented by any unions.
In 1982, the minimum salary for dancers in
opera and other stage productions was $60 per
performance. The single performance rate for
ballet dancers was $130. Dancers on tour re­
ceived an allowance of $60 a day in 1982 for
room and board. Minimum performance rates
for dancers on television ranged from $475 to
$486 for a 1-hour show, depending on the
number of dancers in the group. The perfor­
mance rate covers 18 hours of rehearsal over a
3-day period, in addition to the performance.
The normal workweek is 30 hours (6 hours per
day maximum) spent in rehearsals and matinee
and evening performances. Extra compensa­
tion is paid for additional hours worked.
However, the earnings of most dancers from
dancing are low because their employment is
irregular. They often must supplement their in­
comes by taking temporary jobs unrelated to
dancing.
Dancers covered by union contracts are en­
titled to some paid sick leave and various health
and welfare benefits provided by their unions.
Employers contribute toward these benefits.
Most other dancers do not receive any fringe
benefits.

Professional musicians—those whose live­
lihoods depend upon performing for others—
may play in a symphony orchestra, dance band,
rock group, or jazz “combo.” Whether their
specialty is classical or popular music, they all
have behind them many years of study and
practice.
Popular music performers usually play the
trumpet, trombone, clarinet, flute, saxophone,
organ, or one of the “rhythm” instruments—the
piano, string bass, drums, or guitar. Most play
engagements in nightclubs and restaurants, for
musical comedies, in concerts, and at weddings
and other special events. The best known artists
sometimes perform on television.
Classical musicians play in symphony, op­
era, ballet, and theater orchestras, in churches
and synagogues, and for other groups that re­
quire orchestral accompaniment. Some form
small chamber music groups—usually quartets
or trios. Classical musicians play string, brass,
woodwind, or percussion instruments. Many
pianists accompany vocal or instrumental sol­
oists, choral groups, or provide background
music in restaurants or other places. Most or­
ganists play in churches; often they direct the
choir.
A few well-known musicians give their own
concerts, appear as soloists with symphony or­
chestras, and make recordings.

Related Occupations

Working Conditions

Dancers express concepts and emotions
through their body movements. They need
grace, rhythm, and body control. Some related
occupations which utilize actual training in
dance or specialized knowledge of dance forms
include acrobats, athletes, dance critics, dance
instructors, dance notators, dance therapists,
and recreation workers.

Musicians generally perform at night and on
weekends, and also spend time in practice and
rehearsal. Performances often require travel.
Many musicians find only part-time work or
experience unemployment between engage­
ments. They often supplement their incomes
with other types of jobs.

Employment
Sources of Additional Information
A list of colleges and universities that teach
dance, including details on the types of courses
offered, is available from:
National Dance Association, a Division of the Amer­
ican Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recre­
ation, and Dance, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, Va.
22091.

For information on all aspects of dance, in­
cluding job listings, contact:
American Dance Guild, 570 7th Ave. 20th FI., New
York, N.Y. 10018. Enclose a stamped, self-addressed
envelope.

Information about the related field of dance
therapy, along wih a list of schools that offer
degrees in the field, is available from:
American Dance Therapy Association, Suite 230,
2000 Century Plaza, Columbia, Md. 21044.

Musicians
(D.O.T. 152.041-010, .047-014, and -018)

Nature of the Work
The wide variety and appeal of music make it
difficult to imagine a world without musicians.



Many teachers in these schools are accom­
plished artists who will train only promising
young musicians.
About 500 colleges, universities, and music
conservatories offer bachelor’s or higher de­
grees in music. About 600 conservatories and
colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s de­
gree in music education to qualify graduates for
a State certificate to teach in an elementary or
secondary school.
Those who play popular music must have an
understanding of and feeling for that style of
music, but classical training may expand their
employment opportunities. As a rule, they take
lessons with private teachers when young, and
seize every opportunity to make amateur or
professional appearances. As they gain experi­
ence and become known, they perform with
better known bands and orchestras.
Most entrants to the occupation do not have a
college degree. However those with a degree
are more likely to work full time than those who
do not.
Young persons who consider careers in mu­
sic should have musical talent, versatility, cre­
ative ability, and poise and stage presence to
face large audiences. Since quality perfor­
mance requires constant study and practice,
self-discipline is vital. Moreover, musicians
who play concert and nightclub engagements
must have physical stamina because of frequent
traveling and night performances. They must
also be prepared to face the anxiety of intermit­
tent employment and rejections when audition­
ing for work.
Many musicians rely on agents or managers
to find them performing engagements, negoti­
ate contracts, and plan their careers.

Job Outlook

Performing musicians held an average of about The large number of people desiring to be pro­
124,000 jobs at any one time in 1982. Others fessional musicians, the lack of formal entry
were between engagements, so that the total requirements for many types of jobs, and the
number of people employed as musicians dur­
ing the course of the year was greater.
Many work in cities in which entertainment
and recording activities are concentrated, such
as New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles,
Nashville, Miami Beach, and New Orleans.
Many classical musicians perform with one of
the 31 major symphony groups, the 29 regional
orchestras, the 115 metropolitan orchestras, or
the hundreds of other orchestras. Many musi­
cians also work in smaller cities and towns,
playing in churches, clubs, and restaurants, and
for weddings and other events. The Armed
Forces, too, offer careers in their musical or­
ganizations.

Training and Other Qualifications
Many people who become professional musi­
cians begin studying an instrument at an early
age. Intensive training is needed to acquire the
necessary skill, knowledge of music, and abil­
ity to interpret music. This training may be
obtained through private study with an accom­
plished musician, in a college or university
music program, in a music conservatory, or
through practice with a group. For study in an
institution, an audition frequently is necessary.

To be a musician requires constant study and
practice, creative ability, and stage presence.

172/Occupational Outlook Handbook
relatively small number of job openings cause
keen competition for jobs. Only the most tal­
ented find regular employment. Through the
mid-1990's, many openings will occur as musi­
cians leave the occupation. In addition, em­
ployment is expected to grow about as fast as
the average for all occupations. However, there
are not likely to be openings for all jobseekers,
and the keen competition for jobs as a musician
is expected to continue.

Earnings
Earnings often depend on a performer’s profes­
sional reputation as well as on geographic loca­
tion—and on the number of hours worked. In
1982, median earnings for salaried musicians
who usually work full time were about $410 a
week. The middle 50 percent earned between
$300 and $520 a week.
Minimum salaries for musicians in major
symphony orchestras in 1982 ranged from $300
to $650 a week, according to the American
Symphony Orchestra League. Minimums in
the regional symphony orchestras ranged from
about $120 to $415 a week. Minimum wages for
musicians in metropolitan symphony or­
chestras were generally between $6 and $45 per
rehearsal and $16 to $58 per concert. Some
musicians earned substantially more than the
minimums, however.
The major symphony orchestras have sea­
sons ranging from 31 to 52 weeks, with an
average of 48 weeks. Metropolitan and regional
orchestras generally have shorter seasons.
Musicians in large metropolitan areas who
had steady engagement contracts to play at
dances, clubs, variety shows, ballets, musical
comedies, and concerts generally earned mini­
mums ranging from $10 to $25 per hour in
1982. Wages for similar engagements in small­
er cities and towns tended to be less. Musicians
employed in motion picture recording earned a
minimum of about $150 for a 3-hour session;
those employed in television commercials
earned a minimum of $76 each for two to four
musicians and $140 each for more than five
musicians for a 1-hour session. Musicians em­
ployed by recording companies were paid a
minimum of about $170 for a 3-hour session in
1982.
Musicians employed by some symphony or­
chestras work under master wage agreements,
which guarantee a season’s work up to 52
weeks. Many other musicians may face rela­
tively long periods of unemployment between
jobs. Even when employed, however, many
work part time. Thus, their earnings generally
are lower than those in many other occupations.
Moreover, since they may not work steadily for
one employer, some performers cannot qualify
for unemployment compensation, and few have
either sick leave or vacations with pay. For these
reasons, many musicians give private lessons
or take jobs unrelated to music to supplement
their earnings as performers.
Many musicians belong to a branch of the
American Federation of Musicians, an AFLCIO union. Concert soloists may also belong to
the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.
(AFL-CIO).



Related Occupations
Aside from actual performers, there are many
music-related occupations. These include ar­
rangers, composers, orchestrators, librettists,
and music therapists. A large number of music
teachers work in elementary and secondary
schools, music conservatories and college and
universities, or are self employed. Many who
teach music also perform.
A technical knowledge of musical instru­
ments is required by instrument repairers, tune­
rs, and copyists. In addition, there are a number
of occupations in the business side of music
such as booking agents, concert managers, mu­
sic store owners and managers; salespersons of
records, sheet music, and musical instruments;
and music publishers. Others whose work in­
volves music are disc jockeys, music critics,
sound and audio technicians, music librarians,
and radio and TV announcers.

of voice production, melody, and harmony.
They sing character parts or perform in their
own individual styles. Singers are classified
according to their voice range—soprano, con­
tralto, tenor, baritone, or bass, or by the type of
music they sing, such as opera, rock, folk, or
country and western.
A small number of singing stars make re­
cordings or go on concert tours. Somewhat
larger numbers of singers obtain leading or sup­
porting roles in operas and popular music
shows, secure engagements as concert soloists
in oratorios and other types of performances, or
become members of opera and musical comedy
choruses and other professional choral groups.
Popular music singers perform in movies, on
the stage, on radio and television, in concerts,
and in nightclubs and other places of entertain­
ment.

Sources of Additional Information

Working Conditions

For answers to specific questions about wages,
hours of work, and working conditions for pro­
fessional musicians, contact:
American Federation of Musicians (AFL-CIO), 1500
Broadway, New York. N.Y. 10036.

The requirements for certification of organ­
ists and choir masters are available from:
American Guild of Organists, 815 Second Ave., Suite
318. New York, N.Y. 10017.

For information about a career in music
therapy, contact:
National Association for Music Therapy, Inc., P.O.
Box 610, Lawrence, Kans. 66044.

For programs in music teacher education,
contact:
Music Educators National Conference, 1902 Asso­
ciation Dr., Reston, Va. 22091.

Information about certification of private
music teachers is available from:
Music Teachers National Association, 2113 Carew
Tower, Cincinnati, Ohio 45202.

A list of accredited schools of music is also
available for $6 from:
National Association of Schools of Music, 11250
Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, Va. 22090.

A brochure entitled Careers in Music, pro­
duced jointly by the three organizations listed
above, is available from any of the three.
Information about careers in orchestra man­
agement is available from:
American Symphony Orchestra League, P.O. Box
669, Vienna, Va. 22180.

Singers generally perform at night and on
weekends, and must also practice and attend
rehearsals. Except for a few well-known perfor­
mers, few singers have steady jobs. Most expe­
rience some unemployment between engage­
ments, or have to supplement their incomes
with other kinds of jobs. Moreover, a singing
career sometimes is relatively short since it
depends on a good voice, physical stamina, and
public acceptance of the artist, all of which may
be affected by age.

Employment
At any one time in 1982, professional singers
held an average of about 21,000 jobs. Many
others were between singing jobs, so that the
total number of people employed as singers
over the course of the year was greater. Oppor­
tunities for singing engagements are concen­
trated in New York City, Los Angeles, Las
Vegas, San Francisco, Dallas, and Chicago—
the N ation’s chief entertainment centers.
Nashville is a major center for performances
and recordings by country and western singers.
Many singers also work part time in church and
synagogue choirs, or give private singing
lessons.
Many other people with singing back­
grounds are employed as music teachers in ele­
mentary and secondary schools, colleges, uni­
versities, and conservatories, and as choir­
masters in church and synagogue choirs. (See
the statements on teachers elsewhere in the
Handbook.)

Training and Other Qualifications

Singers
(D.O.T. 152.047-022)

Nature of the Work
Singing is an age-old form of entertainment
which, in one form or another, can be under­
stood and appreciated by almost everyone.
Singers interpret music using their knowledge

A broad background in music, including its
theory and history, is desirable, although not
essential, for all types of singing. The ability to
dance also may be helpful for some jobs. In
addition, knowing how to play the piano may
be an asset. As a rule, voice training should not
begin until after the individual has matured
physically. An audition often is required for
advanced voice training. Voice training often
continues for years after a singer’s professional
career has started.

Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/173
Training for singers of classical music is
available through private voice lessons and de­
gree programs in music conservatories or de­
partments of music in colleges and universities.
These schools provide voice training, and also
training in music interpretation, music-related
foreign languages, and, sometimes, dramatics.
Four-year programs grant a bachelor of music,
bachelor of science or arts (in music), or bach­
elor of fine arts. Those who plan to teach sing­
ing in public schools need at least a bachelor’s
degree in music and must meet the State cer­
tification requirements for teachers. About 600
conservatories, colleges, and universities offer
a degree program in music education; about
500 offer bachelor’s degrees in music.
Although voice training is an asset for sing­
ers of popular music, many with untrained
voices have successful careers. The typical
popular song does not require a voice with as
wide a range as is required for classical music,
and the lack of voice projection may be over­
come with a microphone.
Singers of popular songs may become known
by participating in local amateur shows or per­
formances. These engagements may lead to
employment with local dance bands or rock
groups and possibly later with better known
ones.
Besides musical ability, a singing career re­
quires an attractive appearance, poise and stage
presence, and perseverance. Singers also must
have physical stamina to adapt to frequent trav­
eling and rigorous time schedules, which often
include night performances. They also must be
prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent em­
ployment and rejections when auditioning for
work.
Many singers rely on agents to find them
performing engagements, negotiate contracts,
and plan their careers.

Job Outlook
The large number of people desiring singing
careers, the lack of formal entry requirements
for many types of singers, and the relatively
small number of job openings cause keen com­
petition for singing jobs. Only the most talented
find regular employment. Through the
mid-1990’s, some openings will occur as sing­
ers leave the occupation. In addition, growth in
employment is expected in opera, theater,
nightclubs, and other areas. However, there are
not likely to be openings for all jobseekers, and
the keen competition for singing jobs is ex­
pected to continue.




A successful singing career depends on a good voice, physical stamina, and public acceptance.
Earnings
The union minimum rate for concert singers
who were part of a chorus was $75 per perfor­
mance in 1982. Members of an opera chorus
earned a minimum daily rate of $55 per perfor­
mance. A featured soloist received a minimum
of $200 for each single performance. A few
opera soloists and popular singers, however,
earned thousands of dollars per performance.
Minimum wage rates for group singers on net­
work or syndicated television ranged between
$213 and $227 per singer for a 1-hour show.
Solo or duo singers received minimums of
about $460 each for a 1-hour TV show. The
minimum scale for phonograph recording art­
ists is $100 per side. However, earnings of most
singers from singing are low because their em­
ployment is irregular.
Professional singers usually belong to a
branch of the Associated Actors and Artistes of
America, an AFL-CIO union. The branch for
singers on the concert stage or in opera is the
American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; for
those who sing on radio or television or make
recordings, the American Federation of Televi­
sion and Radio Artists; for singers in the variety
and nightclub field, the American Guild of Va­
riety Artists; for those in musical comedy and
operettas, the Actors’ Equity Association; and

for those on television or in motion pictures, the
Screen Actors Guild, Inc.

Related Occupations
Others who have careers concerned with vocal
music include composers, arrangers, orchestrators, and songwriters, as well as voice
and music teachers, choir directors, and music
therapists. There are many occupations in the
business and technical side of music, such as
artists’ managers, business managers, booking
managers, sound controllers, audio operators,
sound recording technicians, and music li­
brarians.

Sources of Additional Information
A directory of accredited schools and depart­
ments of music is available for $6 from:
National Association of Schools of Music, 11250
Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, Va. 22090.

For information regarding programs in music
teacher education, contact:
Music Educators National Conference, 1902 Asso­
ciation Dr., Reston, Va. 22091.

Information about certification of private
music teachers is available from:
Music Teachers National Association, 2113 Carew
Tower, Cincinnati, Ohio 45202.

A brochure entitled Careers in Music is
available from any of the three organizations
listed above.

174/Occupational Outlook Handbook
OTHER WRITING, ART, AND ENTERTAINMENT RELATED OCCUPATIONS
Title

Definition

Athletes

Participate in competitive athletic events; play games or engage in
sports according to established rules. Train through physical exercise
and practice. May be designated according to sport in which
individual participates.

23,000

More slowly than
average

Merchandise
displayers and
window trimmers

Includes workers concerned with planning and executing commercial
displays, such as those in windows and interiors of retail stores and
those used in trade exhibitions.

27,000

Faster than average

Painters, artistic

Paint landscapes, portraits, still life, abstract designs, and similar
compositions in oils, watercolors, or tempera. May paint scenery,
back drops and other parts of motion picture or stage sets.

25,000

More slowly than
average

Sports instructors

Teach individuals or groups in sports such as golf, tennis, skiing,
bowling, etc., explaining and demonstrating the sports’ techniques
and methods. Observe students and inform them of action required to
correct mistakes.

53,000

About as fast as
average




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Technologists and Technicians, Except Health
Technologists and technicians provide the tech­
nical assistance necessary for engineering,
computer, library, legal, and similar profession­
al activities. They focus on the practical ele­
ments of’a job, leaving the policy, theory, and
design aspects to others.
Technologists and technicians perform the
day-to-day tasks needed to carry out a project or
run an operation. They may operate testing and
measuring equipment in a laboratory; make
drawings of new designs; build models of new
projects; program computers; or guide air­
planes to their destinations. They are employed
in nearly every industry, wherever technical
assistance in a specialized area is needed.
Most technologists and technicians work
closely with and are supervised by professional
workers. For example, engineering technicians
work with engineers, library technicians with
librarians, and legal assistants with lawyers.
They are usually part of a team that is engaged
in a particular project or operation.
In most specialties, technologists and techni­
cians use complex electronic or mechanical in­
struments, technical manuals, or other spe­
cialized materials. For example, air traffic con­
trollers guide pilots by monitoring radar
tracking devices. Legal assistants conduct re­
search using specialized law books, while pro­
grammers work with computers.
Because of the diversity of technologist and
technician occupations, training requirements
vary widely. A high school diploma is a mini­
mum requisite; most jobs, in fact, require spe­
cialized postsecondary training. Training is of­
fered at junior and community colleges,
technical institutes, vocational schools, and ex­
tension divisions of colleges and universities.
These programs usually emphasize practical
courses and “hands-on” experience in a par­
ticular specialty. Programs vary in length. For
example, most legal assistant programs require
2 years’ work. On the other hand, many pro­
grammers complete 4-year bachelor’s degree
programs.
In addition to acquiring a formal education,
technologists and technicians often receive onthe-job training. For example, programmers
generally work under close supervision for sev­
eral months; air traffic controllers must com­
plete several years of progressively more re­
sponsible work to become fully qualified. Oc­
casionally, technologists and technicians take
additional courses to keep abreast of tech­
nological advances in their specialty.
The knowledge and personal characteristics
required in these jobs vary, but most tech­
nologists and technicians need a good founda­
tion in mathematics and the basic sciences—
physics, chemistry, and biology. They must be
able to apply practical knowledge to solve par­
ticular problems. Because they are often part of



a team, technologists and technicians must fol­
low directions well and effectively communi­
cate their findings to others. They must be pa­
tient, precise, and organized in their work
habits. Also, most need manual dexterity to
work with various kinds of equipment.
The following section describes the nature of
the work, employment, training requirements,
job outlook, earnings, and working conditions
for a representative sample of technologist and
technician occupations.

Air Traffic
Controllers
(D.O.T. 193.162 except -022; .167-010)

Nature of the Work
Air traffic controllers are the guardians of the
airways. They keep track of planes flying within
their assigned area, and make certain that they
are safe distances apart. Their immediate con­
cern is safety, but controllers also must direct
planes efficiently to minimize delays. Some
regulate airport traffic; others regulate flights
between airports.
Although airport tower controllers watch
over all planes travelling through the airport’s
airspace, their main responsibility is to
organize the flow of aircraft in and out of the
airport. Relying both on radar and visual obser­
vation, they closely monitor each plane to
maintain a safe distance between all aircraft and
to guide pilots between the hangar or ramp and
the end of the airport’s airspace.
During arrival or departure, each plane is
handled by several controllers. As a plane ap­
proaches an airport, the pilot radios ahead to
inform the terminal of its presence. The “arrival
controller” in the radar room just beneath the
control tower has a copy of the plane’s flight
plan and already has observed the plane on
radar. If the way is clear, the arrival controller
directs the pilot to a runway; if the airport is
busy, the plane is fitted into a traffic pattern with
other aircraft waiting to land. As the plane nears
the runway, the pilot is asked to contact the
tower. There, a “local controller,” who also is
watching the plane on radar, monitors the air­
craft the last mile or so to the runway, delaying
any departures that would interfere with the
plane’s landing. Once the plane has landed, a
“ground controller” in the tower directs it along
the taxiways to its assigned gate. The ground
controller works almost entirely by sight, but
may use radar if visibility is very poor.
A similar procedure is used for departures.
The ground controller directs the plane to the

proper runway. The local controller then in­
forms the pilot about conditions at the airport,
such as the weather, speed and direction of
wind, and visibility. The local controller also
issues runway clearance for the pilot to take off.
Once in the air, the plane is guided out of the
airport’s airspace by the “departure controller.”
After each plane departs, airport tower con­
trollers notify “enroute controllers” who will
next take charge. There are 20 enroute control
centers located around the country. Airplanes
generally fly along designated routes; each cen­
ter is assigned a certain airspace containing
many different routes. Enroute controllers
work in teams of up to three members, depend­
ing on how heavy traffic is; each team is respon­
sible for a section of the center’s airspace. A
team, for example, might be responsible for all
planes that are between 30 to 100 miles north of
an airport and flying at an altitude between
6,000 and 18,000 feet.
To prepare for planes about to enter the
team’s airspace, the “radar associate controller”
organizes flight plans coming from printing
machines. If two planes are scheduled to enter
the team’s airspace at a similar time, location,
and altitude, this controller may arrange with
the preceding control unit for one plane to
change its flight plans. The previous unit may
have been another team at the same or an adja­
cent center, or a departure controller at a neigh­
boring terminal. As a plane approaches a team’s
airspace, the “radar controller” accepts respon­
sibility for the plane from the previous controll­
ing unit. The controller also delegates respon­
sibility for the plane to the next controlling unit
when the plane leaves the team’s airspace.
The “radar controller,” who is the senior
team member, observes the planes in the team’s
airspace on radar and communicates with the
pilots when necessary. Radar controllers warn
pilots about nearby planes, bad weather condi­
tions, and other possible hazards. Two planes
on a collision course will be directed around
each other. If a pilot wants to change altitude in
search of better flying conditions, the controller
will check to determine that no other planes will
be along the proposed path. As the flight pro­
gresses, the team responsible for the aircraft
notifies the next team in charge. Through team
coordination, the plane arrives safely at its des­
tination.
Both airport tower and enroute controllers
usually control several planes at one time and
often have to make quick decisions about com­
pletely different activities. For example, a con­
troller might direct a plane on its landing ap­
proach and at the same time provide pilots
entering the airport’s airspace with information
about conditions at the airport. While instruct­
ing these pilots, the controller also would ob­
serve other planes in the vicinity, such as those

175

176/Occupational Outlook Handbook
in a holding pattern waiting for permission to
land, to ensure that they remain well separated.
In addition to airport towers and enroute cen­
ters, air traffic controllers also work in flight
service stations operated at over 300 locations.
These controllers provide pilots with informa­
tion on the station’s particular area, including
terrain, preflight and inflight weather informa­
tion, suggested routes, and other information
important to the safety of a flight.

Working Conditions
Controllers work a basic 40-hour week;
however, they may work additional hours for
which they receive overtime pay or equal time
off. Because most control towers and centers
operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, control­
lers rotate night and weekend shifts.
During busy times, controllers must work
rapidly and efficiently. This requires total con­
centration by each controller. They must keep
track of several planes at the same time and
make certain all pilots receive correct instruc­
tions.

Employment
Air traffic controllers held about 21,000 jobs in
1982, at airports—in towers and flight service
stations—and in enroute traffic control centers.
The overwhelming majority worked for the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA); a small
number of civilian controllers worked for the
Department of Defense.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Air traffic controller trainees are selected
through the competitive Federal Civil Service
System. Applicants must attain a high score on
a written test that measures their ability to learn
the controller’s duties. Arithmetic computa­
tion, abstract reasoning, and three-dimensional

spatial visualization are among the aptitudes
measured by the examination. In addition, ap­
plicants generally must have 3 years of general
work experience or 4 years of college, or a
combination of both. Applicants must pass
physical and psychological examinations and
have vision correctable to 20/20. For airport
tower and enroute center positions, applicants
must be less than 31 years old. Those 31 years
old and over are eligible for positions at flight
service stations.
Potential controllers should be articulate,
since directions to pilots must be given quickly
and clearly. A good memory also is important
because controllers constantly receive informa­
tion which they must immediately grasp, inter­
pret, and remember. Decisiveness is an asset,
since controllers often have to make quick deci­
sions.
Successful applicants receive a combination
of on-the-job and formal training to leam the
fundamentals of the airway system, FAA reg­
ulations, controller equipment, and aircraft per­
formance characteristics. They receive 12 to 16
weeks of intensive training, including practice
on sim ulators, at the FAA Academy in
Oklahoma City. It then takes several years of
progressively more responsible work experi­
ence, interspersed with considerable classroom
instruction and independent study, to become a
fully qualified controller.
At airports, new controllers begin in the tow­
er, where they first serve as ground controller,
then local controller, departure controller, and
finally, arrival controller. At an enroute traffic
control center, new controllers first deliver
printed flight plans to teams, gradually advanc­
ing to radar associate controller and then radar
controller. Failure to become certified in any
position at a facility within a specified time may

result in dismissal. Controllers who fail to com­
plete either the academy or the on-the-job por­
tion of the training are dismissed. Controllers
must pass a physical examination each year and
a job performance examination twice each year.
Controllers can transfer to jobs at different
locations or advance to supervisory positions,
including management or staff jobs in air traffic
control and top administrative jobs in the FAA.

Job Outlook
Competition for air traffic controller jobs is
expected to be keen through the mid-1990’s
because the occupation’s relatively high pay
and liberal retirement program attract many
more qualified applicants than the number of
job openings. College graduates or individuals
who have civilian or military experience as con­
trollers, pilots, or navigators will have the best
employment opportunities.
Employment of air traffic controllers is ex­
pected to show little or no change through the
mid-1990's. Despite the increase in the number
of aircraft flying, few, if any, additional air
traffic controllers will be needed because of the
greater use of new, automated control equip­
ment. Virtually all job openings will arise from
the need to replace experienced controllers who
transfer to other occupations, retire, die, or stop
working for other reasons.
Air traffic controllers who continue to meet
the proficiency and medical requirements enjoy
more job security than most workers. The de­
mand for air travel and the workloads of air
traffic controllers decline during recessions,
but controllers seldom are laid off.

Earnings
Air traffic controllers who started with the FAA
in 1982 averaged about $16,100 (grade 7) a year.
Controllers at the grade 9 level and above earn 5
percent more than other Federal workers in an
equivalent grade. In 1982, controllers averaged
$34,200 a year. Depending on length of serv­
ice, they receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation
and 13 days of paid sick leave each year, life
insurance, and health benefits. In addition,
controllers can retire at an earlier age and with
fewer years of service than other Federal em­
ployees.

Related Occupations
Other occupations which involve the direction
and control of traffic in air transportation are
airline-radio operator and airplane dispatcher.

Sources of Additional Information
For further information, request Government
Careers, publication GA-300-128 (enclose a
self-addressed mailing label), from:
U.S. Government Printing Office, Library and Stat­
utory Distribution Service, 5208 Eisenhower Ave.,
Alexandria, Va. 22304.

Air traffic controllers closely monitor each plane.




A pamphlet providing general information
about controllers and instructions for submit­
ting an application is available from any U.S.
Office of Personnel Management Job Informa­
tion Center. Look under U.S. Government, Of­
fice of Personnel Management, in your tele­
phone book to obtain a local Job Information

Technologists and Technicians/177
Center telephone number and call for a copy of
the Air Traffic Controller Announcement. If
there is no listing in your telephone book, dial
the toll-free number 800-555-1212 and request
the number of the Office of Personnel Manage­
ment Job Information Center for your location.

however, may require technicians to work out of
doors under less favorable conditions.
Network technicians may occasionally have
to work long hours under great pressure to meet
broadcast deadlines.

Employment

Broadcast Technicians
(D.O.T. 193.262-C18, and -038; 194.262-010, .282-010.
.362-010 and -018)

Nature of the Work
Broadcast technicians operate and maintain the
electronic equipment used to record and trans­
mit radio and television programs. They work
with microphones, sound and video tape rec­
orders, light and sound effects, television cam­
eras, transmitters, and other equipment.
In the control room of the radio or television
broadcasting studio, these technicians operate
equipment that regulates the signal strength,
clarity, and range of sounds and colors in the
material being recorded or broadcast. They also
operate control panels that select the source of
the material being broadcast. Technicians may
switch from one camera or studio to another,
from film to live programming, or from net­
work to local programs. By means of hand
signals and, in television, by use of telephone
headsets, they give technical directions to per­
sonnel in the studio.
When events outside the studio are to be
broadcast, technicians go to the site and set up,
test, and operate the remote equipment. After
the broadcast, they dismantle the equipment
and return it to the station.
As a rule, broadcast technicians in small
stations perform a variety of duties. In large
stations and at networks, on the other hand,
technicians are more specialized, although spe­
cific job assignments may change from day to
day. Transmitter operators monitor and log out­
going signals and are responsible for operating
the transmitter. Maintenance technicians set
up, adjust, service, and repair electronic broad­
casting equipment. Audio control engineers
regulate sound pickup, transmission, and
switching, and video control engineers regulate
the quality, brightness, and contrast of televi­
sion pictures. Recording engineers operate and
maintain video and soundrecording equipment.
Some technicians operate equipment designed
to produce special effects, such as the illusions
of a bolt of lightning or the sound of a police
siren. When programs originate outside the stu­
dio, field technicians set up and operate broad­
casting equipment. The terms “operator,”
“engineer,” and “technician” often are used in­
terchangeably in describing these jobs.
Supervisory personnel with job titles such as
chief engineer or transmission engineer direct
activities concerned with the operation and
maintenance of studio broadcasting equipment.

Broadcast technicians held about 17,000 jobs in
radio and television stations in 1982. Television
stations employ, on the average, many more
technicians than radio stations. Although
broadcast technicians are employed in every
State, most are located in large metropolitan
areas. The highest paying and most specialized
jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los
Angeles, and Washington, D.C.—the originat­
ing centers for most of the network programs.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Federal law requires that anyone who operates
broadcast transmitters in radio and television
stations must have a restricted radiotelephone
operator permit for which no examination is
required. Persons who work with microwave or
other internal radio communications equip­
ment, however, must have a general radi­
otelephone operator license, issued after the
applicant passes a series of written examina­
tions. These cover communications law and
regulations, radio operating practices, and
basic communications electronics.
Technical school, community college, or
college training in engineering or electronics is
the best way to prepare for a broadcast techni­
cian job, particularly for those who hope to
advance to supervisory positions or to the more
specialized jobs in large stations and in the

networks. High school courses in algebra, trig­
onometry, physics, electronics, and other sci­
ences also provide valuable background for a
career in this occupation. Building electronic
hobby kits and operating a “ham” or amateur
radio also are good introductions to broadcast­
ing technology. Some persons gain work expe­
rience as temporary employees while filling in
for regular broadcast technicians who are on
vacation.
Broadcast technicians must have an aptitude
for working with electrical and mechanical sys­
tems and equipment. Manual dexterity—the
ability to perform tasks requiring precise, coor­
dinated hand movements—is necessary for
success in this occupation.
Entry level workers are instructed and super­
vised by the chief engineer, or by other experi­
enced technicians, concerning the work pro­
cedures of the station. They generally begin
their careers in small stations, operating the
transmitter and handling other technical duties,
after a brief instruction period. As they acquire
more experience and skill, they are assigned to
more responsible jobs. Those who demonstrate
above-average ability may move into top level
technical positions such as supervisory techni­
cian or chief engineer. A college degree in engi­
neering is becoming increasingly important for
advancement to supervisory and executive
positions.

Job Outlook
People seeking beginning jobs as broadcast
technicians are expected to face strong compe­
tition in major metropolitan areas where the
number of qualified jobseekers greatly exceeds
the number of openings. As is the case with

Working Conditions
Broadcast technicians generally work indoors
in pleasant surroundings. Stations are air-con­
ditioned because transmitters and other elec­
tronic equipment must be operated at cool tem­
peratures. Broadcasts outside the studio,



During a television broadcast, the technician controls what a viewer sees.

178/Occupational Outlook Handbook
other occupations in radio and television broad­
casting, stations in major metropolitan areas
seek highly experienced personnel to fill broad­
cast technician jobs. Prospects for entry level
positions generally are good in small cities for
people with appropriate training in electronics.
Employment of broadcast technicians is ex­
pected to increase about as fast as the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s.
New job opportunities for technicians will arise
as new commercial radio and television stations
go on the air, established stations increase their
broadcasting hours, and cable television sys­
tems originate more of their own programs.
However, demand for broadcast technicians
may not keep pace with the increase in broad­
casting because of laborsaving technical ad­
vances such as computer-controlled program­
ming and remote control of transmitters.
Technological developments such as these have
shifted the emphasis from operations to mainte­
nance work, which frequently is performed by
service personnel employed by broadcasting
equipment manufacturers. Most job openings
will result from the need to replace experienced
technicians who retire, die, or transfer to other
occupations.

Earnings
In 1982, average earnings for technicians at
radio stations were $280 a week. In television,
earnings were somewhat higher, about $320 a
week. As a rule, technician wages are highest in
large cities and large stations. Technicians in
the largest stations earned, on the average,
about twice as much as those in the smallest
stations. Earnings of experienced technicians
were much higher, and technicians who can
perform the full range of tasks are, of course,
the highest paid. Television stations usually pay
higher salaries than radio stations because tele­
vision work is generally more complex. Techni­
cians employed by educational broadcasting
stations generally earn less than those who
work for commercial stations.
Most technicians in large stations work a 40hour week with overtime pay for additional
hours. Broadcast technicians in small stations
generally work a considerable amount of over­
time. Evening, night, and weekend work fre­
quently is necessary since most stations are on
the air 18-24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

Related Occupations
Broadcast technicians need the electronics
training and hand coordination necessary to
operate technical equipment; they generally
complete specialized postsecondary programs,
including courses in electronics and engineer­
ing. Others whose jobs have similar require­
ments include drafters, engineering and sci­
ence technicians, surveyors, air traffic control­
lers, radiologic technologists, respiratory
therapy workers, electrocardiograph techni­
cians, electroencephalographic technicians,
and medical laboratory technicians.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about the general radi­
otelephone operator license, write to:



Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20554.

For inforrrtation on careers for broadcast
technicians, write to:
National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

For a list of schools that offer programs or
courses in broadcasting, contact:
Broadcast Education Association, National Associa­
tion of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington,
D.C. 20036.

Computer
Programmers
(D.O.T. 020.162-014, .167-018. -022, .187-010, -014, and
.262-010)

Nature of the Work
Computers can process vast quantities of infor­
mation rapidly and accurately, but only if they
are given step-by-step instructions to follow.
Because the machines cannot think for them­
selves, computer programmers must write de­
tailed instructions called programs that list in a
logical order the steps the machine must follow
to organize data, solve a problem, or do some
other task.
Programmers usually work from descrip­
tions prepared by systems analysts who have
carefully studied the task that the computer
system is going to perform—perhaps organiz­
ing data collected in a survey or estimating the
stress on portions of a building during a hur­
ricane. These descriptions contain a detailed
list of the steps the computer must follow, such
as retrieving data stored on a tape or disk,
organizing it in a certain way, and performing
the necessary calculations. (A more detailed
description of the work of systems analysts is
contained elsewhere in the Handbook.) An ap­
plications programmer then writes the specific
program for the problem, by breaking down
each step into a series of coded instructions
(software) using one of the languages, such as
assembler, BASIC, COBOL, and FORTRAN,
developed especially for computers.
Some organizations, particularly smaller
ones, do not employ systems analysts. Instead,
workers called programmer-analysts are re­
sponsible for both systems analysis and pro­
gramming.
Programs vary with the type of problem to be
solved. For example, the arithmetical calcula­
tions involved in payroll accounting procedures
are different from the mathematical calcula­
tions required to determine the flight path of a
space probe. Business applications program­
mers developing instructions for billing cus­
tomers would first take the appropriate com­
pany records and then specify a solution by
showing the steps the computer must follow to’
obtain old balances, add new charges, deduct
payments, and calculate finance charges and
the new amount due. Programmers then code
the actual instructions the computer will follow

in a high-level programming language, such as
COBOL, which is commonly used for business
applications. They also insert comments in the
coded instructions so other programmers can
understand the program.
Next, programmers test the operation of the
program to be sure the instructions- are correct
and will produce the desired information. Pro­
grammers prepare sample data that will test
every part of the program and review the results
to see if any errors were made. If errors did
occur, the program must be changed and re­
checked until it produces the correct results.
This is called “debugging” the program.
Finally, programmers prepare an instruction
sheet for the computer operator who will run
the program. (The work of computer operators
is described in the statement on computer oper­
ating personnel.)
Although simple programs can be written in
a few hours, programs that use complex mathe­
matical formulas or many data files may require
more than a year of work. In some cases, sever­
al programmers may work together in teams
under a senior programmer’s supervision.
Applications programmers are usually busi­
ness oriented, engineering oriented, or science
oriented. A different type of specialist, the sys­
tems programmer, maintains the general in­
structions that control the operation of the entire
computer system. These workers make
changes in the sets of instructions that deter­
mine how the central processing unit of the
computer handles the various jobs it has been
given and communicates with peripheral equip­
ment, such as terminals, printers, and disk driv­
es. Because of their knowledge of entire com­
puter system, systems programmers often help
applications programmers determine the source
of problems that may occur with their pro­
grams.

Working Conditions
Programmers work about 40 hours a week, but
their hours are not always from 9 to 5. Program­
mers may report early or work late to use the
computer when it is available; occasionally,
they work on weekends. When a new program
is being tested, programmers may get calls
from computer operators asking for advice at
all hours of the day or night.

Employment
Computer programmers held about 266,000
jobs in 1982. Most were employed by manufac­
turing firms, data processing service organiza­
tions—including firms that write and sell soft­
ware—government agencies, banks, insurance
companies and colleges and universities.
Many applications programmers work for
large firms that need and can afford expensive
computer systems and for small firms that
maintain their own low-cost minicomputers.
Systems programmers usually work for organi­
zations with large computer centers and for
firms that manufacture computers or develop
software.

Technologists and Technicians/179
Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
There are no universal training requirements
for progammers because employers’ needs
vary. Computer programming is taught at pub­
lic and private vocational schools, community
and junior colleges, and universities. High
schools in many parts of the country also offer
introductory courses in data processing. Many
programmers are college graduates; others have
taken special courses in computer program­
ming to supplement their experience in fields
such as accounting, inventory control, or other
business areas.
Employers using computers for scientific or
engineering applications prefer college gradu­
ates who have degrees in computer or informa­
tion science, mathematics, engineering, or the
physical sciences. Graduate degrees are re­
quired for some jobs. Very few scientific organ­
izations are interested in applicants who have
no college training.
Employers who use computers for business
applications prefer to hire people who have had
college courses in programming and business;
however, a bachelor’s degree is not required by
all employers. Also, experience in accounting,
inventory control, and other business skills
generally is preferred by employers. Some em­
ployers promote workers such as computer op­
erators who have taken courses in programming
to programmer jobs because of their work expe­
rience.
An indication of experience and professional
competence at the senior programmer level is
the Certificate in Computer Programming
(CCP). This designation is conferred by the
Institute for Certification of Computer Profes­
sionals upon candidates who have passed a
basic five-part examination. In addition, indi­
viduals may take another section of the exam in
order to specialize in business, science, or sys­
tems applications.
In hiring programmers, employers look for
people who can think logically and are capable
of exacting analytical work. The ability to work
with abstract concepts and do technical analysis
is especially important for systems program­
mers because they work with the software that
controls the computer’s operation. The job calls
for patience, persistence, and the ability to
work with extreme accuracy even under pres­
sure. Ingenuity and imagination are par­
ticularly important when programmers must
find new ways to solve a problem.
Beginning programmers usually spend their
first weeks on the job attending training classes.
After this initial instruction, they work on sim­
ple assignments, such as maintaining existing
programs, while completing further spe­
cialized training. Programmers generally must
spend at least several months working under
close supervision before they can handle all
aspects of their job. Because of rapidly chang­
ing technology, programmers must continue
their training by taking courses offered by their
employer and software vendors. For skilled
workers, the prospects for advancement are



Updating programs is an important aspect of the programmer’s work.
good. In large organizations, they may be pro­
moted to lead programmers and be given super­
visory responsibilities. Some applications pro­
grammers become systems programmers after
they gain experience and take courses in system
software. Both applications programmers and
systems programmers may become systems
analysts or be promoted to managerial posi­
tions.

Job Outlook
Employment of programmers is expected to
grow much faster than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s as computer

usage expands. The demand for applications
programmers will increase as many more pro­
cesses are computerized, but employment is not
expected to grow as rapidly as in the past.
Improved software that can be used by non­
programmers will simplify or eliminate some
programming tasks. More systems program­
mers will be needed to develop and maintain
the complex operating programs that allow the
use of higher level computer languages, and the
networking of computer equipment and sys­
tems.
In addition to jobs resulting from increased
demand for programmers, many openings will

The number of college graduates in computer and information
science has risen sharply.
Bachelor’s degrees (thousands)

1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics

1978-79 1979-80 1980-81

180/Occupational Outlook Handbook
arise each year from the need to replace workers
who leave the occupation. Although the propor­
tion of programmers leaving the occupation
each year is smaller than in most occupations,
most of the job openings for programmers will
result from replacement needs. Most of the
programmers who leave the occupation transfer
to other occupations, such as manager or sys­
tems analyst.
Job prospects should be best for college grad­
uates who have had computer-related courses,
particularly for those with a major in computer
science or computer information systems and
experience or training in an applied field such as
accounting, management, engineering, or sci­
ence. Graduates of 2-year programs in data
processing and people with less than a 2-year
degree or its equivalent in work experience may
face competition. In the past, due to the rapid
growth in demand for programmers, employers
hired people with almost any type of training in
programming. The rapid growth of employ­
ment opportunities, however, has led to sub­
stantial increases in the number of courses in
programming being offered by postsecondary
schools, junior colleges, and 4-year colleges
and, consequently, in the number of people
seeking jobs in this field. As the number and
quality of applicants have increased, employers
have become more selective. Because shorter
curriculums may offer limited training in ap­
plied fields and some aspects of programming,
graduates of those curriculums are expected to
have more difficulty finding jobs than in the
past.

Earnings
Median earnings of programmers who worked
full time in 1982 were about $445 a week. The
middle 50 percent earned between $345 and
$570 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less
than $275 a week, the highest 10 percent more
than $680.
Average earnings of beginning business pro­
grammers in private industry were about $334 a
week in 1982, according to surveys conducted
in urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Systems programmers generally earn more
than applications programmers, and lead pro­
grammers earn more than either systems or
applications programmers. For example, expe­
rienced systems programmers earned about
$460 a week compared to $360 for applications
programmers. Weekly salaries for lead systems
programmers were about $545, compared to
$440 for lead applications programmers. In the
Federal Government, the entrance salary for
programmers with a college degree was about
$300 a week in early 1982.
Programmers working in the North and West
earned somewhat more than those working in
the South. Those working in manufacturing
and public utilities had higher earnings than
programmers employed in other industries.

Related Occupations
Other workers in mathematics, business, and
science who solve detailed problems include
systems analysts, mathematicians, statisti­
cians, engineers, financial analysts, actuaries,




mathematical technicians, and operations re­
search analysts.

Sources of Additional Information
Additional information about the occupation of
programmer is available from:
American Federation of Information Processing So­
cieties, 1815 North Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209.
Computer Careers-DOL, DPMA, 505 Busse Hwy.
Chicago, 111. 60068.

Information about the Certificate in Com­
puter Programming is available from:
The Institute for Certification of Computer Profes­
sionals, 35 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 1752, Chicago, 111.
60601.

Drafters
(D.O.T. 001.261-010 and -014; 002.261-010; 003.281-010,
-014, and -018; 005.281-010 and -014; 007.161-018. .167022. .261-010, -014. -018, -022, and .281-010; 010.281010, -014, -018; 014.281-010; 017; 018.261-010, -014, and
.281)

Nature of the Work
When building a satellite, television set, or
bridge, workers follow drawings prepared by
drafters that show the exact dimensions and
specifications of the entire design and each of its
parts.
Drafters prepare detailed drawings based on
rough sketches, specifications, and calcula­
tions made by scientists, engineers, architects,
and designers. Final drawings contain a de­
tailed view of the object from all sides as well as
specifications for materials to be used, pro­
cedures followed, and other information to car­
ry out the job.
In preparing drawings, drafters use com­
passes, dividers, protractors, triangles, and
other drafting devices. They also use technical
handbooks, tables, and calculators to help
solve problems.
Drafters are increasingly using computeraided design systems which greatly increase
their productivity. Instead of sitting at drafting
boards, drafters who use computer-aided de­
sign systems sit at computer terminals and
make the drawing on a TV-like screen. In some
cases, the design may never be placed on paper.
It may be stored electronically or, in some fac­
tories, may be used to guide automatic machin­
ery.
Drafters are classified according to the work
they do or their level of responsibility. Senior
drafters translate an engineer’s or architect’s
preliminary plans into design “layouts” (scale
drawings of the object to be built). Detailers
draw each part shown on the layout, and give
dimensions, materials, and other information to
make the drawing clear and complete. Check­
ers carefully examine drawings for errors in
computing or recording dimensions and speci­
fications.
Drafters usually specialize in a particular
field of work, such as mechanical, electrical,
aeronautical, structural, or architectural draft­
ing.

Working Conditions
Although drafters usually work in well-lighted
and well-ventilated rooms, they often must sit
and do very detailed work for long periods of
time. This work may cause eye strain and back
discomfort.

Employment
Drafters held about 302,000 jobs in 1982.
About one-third of all drafters worked for engi­
neering and architectural firms, and about onethird worked in durable goods manufacturing
industries, such as fabricated metals, electrical
equipment, and machinery. Drafters also were
employed in the construction, transportation,
communications, and utilities industries.
About 19,000 drafters worked in government
in 1982, primarily at the State and local level.
Most drafters in the Federal Government work­
ed for the Department of Defense. Some draf­
ters were employed in colleges and universities
and nonprofit organizations.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Employers prefer applicants for drafting posi­
tions who have acquired training in technical
institutes, junior and community colleges, ex­
tension divisions of universities, and vocational
and technical high schools. Some persons re­
ceive training and experience in the Armed
Forces. Others qualify through on-the-job
training programs combined with part-time
schooling or through 3- to 4-year appren­
ticeship programs. Over 50 percent of those
who obtained jobs as drafters in 1980 had some
college education and over 10 percent were 4year college graduates. In addition, many had
other postsecondary training.
Training for a career in drafting, whether in a
high school or post-high school program,
should include courses in mathematics, phys­
ical sciences, mechanical drawing, and draft­
ing. Courses in shop practices and shop skills
also are helpful since most higher level drafting
jobs require knowledge of manufacturing or
construction methods. Many technical schools
offer courses in structural design, architectural
drawing, and engineering or industrial tech­
nology. Training in the use of computer-aided
design equipment is becoming increasingly im­
portant. In the future, many drafters will sel­
dom or never work at the traditional drawing
board.
Those planning careers in drafting should be
able to do freehand drawings of three-dimen­
sional objects and also detailed work requiring
a high degree of accuracy. They should have
good eyesight and manual dexterity. In addi­
tion, they should be able to function as part of a
team since they work directly with engineers,
architects, designers, and other workers. Artis­
tic ability is helpful in some specialized fields.
High school graduates usually start out doing
routine work under close supervision. Those
having post-high school technical training may
begin as junior drafters. After gaining experi­
ence, they may advance to checkers, detailers,
senior drafters, designers, or supervisors.
Some may become independent designers.

Technologists and Technicians/"! 81

Drafters are increasingly using computer-aided design systems instead of drafting boards.
Job Outlook
Little change in employment of drafters is ex­
pected through the mid-1990’s. Despite indus­
trial growth and the increasingly complex
design problems associated with new products
and processes, widespread use of computeraided design equipment—which greatly in­
creases drafters’ productivity—is expected to
offset demand. Employers may eliminate many
drafting positions because new equipment al­
lows engineers and architects to produce some
designs and drawings themselves without the
need for drafters. However, most employers
will probably continue to employ some drafters
to add details to the general plans prepared by
engineers and architects. Even though little or
no growth in employment is expected, a large
number of openings will result each year from
the need to replace drafters who transfer to
other occupations, retire, or die. The use of
computer-aided design equipment may change
the nature of the drafter’s work. Since automatic
equipment eliminates much of the less skilled
work, drafters of the future may be designers
rather than drafters—they will design details,
make stuctural strength and other calculations,
and prepare specifications. Therefore, drafters
may need a higher level of training and experi­
ence in engineering and design-related areas.
Drafters are highly concentrated in industries
that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the econ­
omy, such as engineering and architectural
services and durable goods manufacturing.
During an economic recession, drafters may be
laid off as fewer products are designed, less
research and development work is done, and
fewer drafting services are needed.

Earnings
Median annual earnings of drafters were about
$19,000 in 1982; the middle 50 percent earned
between $15,000 and $24,000 annually. Ten
percent earned less than $12,000 and 10 per­
cent more than $31,000.
In private industry, beginning drafters aver­
aged about $11,700 a year in 1982, while more
experienced drafters averaged between



$14,200 and $21,000 a year. Senior drafters
averaged about $25,900 a year in 1982.
The Federal Government paid drafters who
had an associate degree starting salaries of
$11,949 a year in early 1983. Those with less
education or experience generally started at
$10,645. The average Federal Government sal­
ary for all drafters was about $15,600 a year in
1982.

Related Occupations
Other occupations in which workers are re­
quired to prepare or understand detailed draw­
ings, make accurate and precise calculations
and measurements, and use various measuring
devices include architects, engineering techni­
cians, engineers, landscape architects, photogrammetrists, and surveyors.

Sources of Additional Information
General information on careers for drafters is
available from:
American Institute for Design and Drafting, 102
North Elm Place, Suite F, Broken Arrow, Okla.
74012.

Other sources of information are listed at the
end of the following statement on electrical and
electronics technicians.

limited in scope and more practically oriented
than those of engineers or scientists, electrical
and electronics technicians often apply the the­
oretical knowledge developed by engineers and
scientists to actual situations. Electrical and
electronics technicians develop, manufacture,
and service electronic and electrical equipment
and systems such as radios, radar, sonar, televi­
sions, industrial and medical measuring or con­
trol devices, navigational equipment, and com­
puters. Because the field is so broad, electrical
and electronics technicians often specialize in
one area, such as automatic control devices or
electronic amplifiers.
When working in design, production, or cus­
tomer service, electrical and electronics techni­
cians use sophisticated measuring and diag­
nostic devices to test, adjust, and repair
equipment. In many cases, they must under­
stand the purpose for which the electronic de­
vice is being used. To design equipment for
space exploration, for example, a technician
must consider the need for minimum weight
and volume and maximum resistance to shock,
extreme temperature, and pressure. Some elec­
trical and electronics technicians also work in
the radio and television broadcasting industry.
(See the statement on broadcast technicians
elsewhere in the Handbook.)
In research and development, one of the
largest areas of employment, electrical and
electronics technicians set up experiments and
equipment and calculate the results, sometimes
with the aid of computers. They also assist
engineers and scientists by making prototype
versions of newly developed equipment and,
frequently, by doing routine design work.
In production, electrical and electronics
technicians usually follow the general direc­
tions of engineers and scientists, but often with­
out close supervision. They may prepare speci­
fications for components and devise and con­
duct tests to insure product quality. They often
supervise production workers to make sure they
follow prescribed procedures.
As sales workers or field representatives for
manufacturers, electrical and electronics tech­
nicians give advice on the installation and
maintenance of complex equipment and may
write specifications and technical manuals.

Working Conditions

Electrical and
Electronics
Technicians
(D.O.T. 003.161; .261; 019.281; and 828.251)

Nature of the Work
Knowledge of science, mathematics, and elec­
trical and electronic equipment enables elec­
trical and electronics technicians to work in all
phases of business and government—from re­
search and design to manufacturing, sales, and
customer service. Although their jobs are more

Electrical and electronics technicians work un­
der a wide variety of conditions. Most work
regular hours in laboratories, electronic shops,
or industrial plants. Sales workers or service
representatives usually spend much of their
time visiting customers. Some occasionally are
exposed to electric shock hazards from equip­
ment.

Employment
Electrical and electronics technicians held
about 366,000 jobs in 1982. Over 90 percent of
all electrical and electronics technicians
worked in private industry. In the manufactur­
ing sector, the largest employers were the elec­
trical equipment, machinery, and professional

182/Occupational Outlook Handbook

and scientific equipment industries. Almost
one-fourth worked in wholesale trade, mainly
for distributors of machinery, equipment, and
electrical goods. Large numbers also worked
for public utilities and service and repair com­
panies.
In 1982, the Federal Government employed
about 23,000 electrical and electronics techni­
cians, mainly in the departments of Defense
and Transportation. State government agencies
employed almost 2,000 and local governments
about 3,000.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Although persons can qualify for electrical or
electronics technician jobs through many com­
binations of work experience and education,
most employers prefer applicants who have had
some specialized technical training. Spe­
cialized training is available at technical in­
stitutes, junior and community colleges, exten­
sion divisions of colleges and universities, and
public and private vocational-technical
schools. A few engineering and science stu­
dents who have not completed the bachelor’s
degree and others who have degrees in science
and mathematics also may be able to qualify for
some positions with additional training or expe­
rience.
Persons also can qualify for technician jobs
through on-the-job training, apprenticeship
programs, or correspondence schools. Some
qualify on the basis of experience gained in the
Armed Forces.



Some of the types of schools that provide
electrical and electronic training are discussed
in the following paragraphs.
Technical Institutes. Technical institutes offer
training to qualify students for a job imme­
diately after graduation with a minimum of onthe-job training. In general, students receive
intensive technical training but less theory and
general education than they would in engineer­
ing schools or liberal arts colleges. A few tech­
nical institutes and community colleges offer
cooperative programs in which students spend
part of the time in school and part in paid
employment related to their studies. Such prac­
tical work experience can be a decided advan­
tage when seeking full-time employment as an
electrical or electronics technician.
Some technical institutes operate as regular
or extension divisions of colleges and univer­
sities. Other institutions are operated by States
and municipalities, or by private organizations.
Junior and Community Colleges. Curriculums
in junior and community colleges which pre­
pare students for technician occupations are
similar to those in technical institutes but also
emphasize theory and liberal arts. After com­
pleting the 2-year programs, some graduates
qualify for jobs as an electrical or electronics
technician while others continue their educa­
tion at 4-year colleges.
Area Vocational-Technical Schools. These
postsecondary public institutions serve stu­
dents from surrounding areas and emphasize
training in skills needed by employers in the

local area. Most require a high school degree or
its equivalent for admission.
Other Training. Some large corporations con­
duct training programs and operate private
schools to meet their needs for electrical and
electronics technicians trained in specific areas;
such training rarely includes general studies.
Training is also available through formal 2- to
4-year apprenticeship programs. The appren­
tice gets on-the-job training under the close
supervision of an experienced technician and
acquires related technical knowledge in class­
es, usually conducted after working hours.
The Armed Forces train many types of elec­
trical and electronics technicians. Although
military job requirements generally differ from
those in the civilian economy, military techni­
cians often find private or civilian government
jobs with only minimal additional training.
Many private technical and correspondence
schools specialize in electronics. Some of these
schools are owned and operated by large corpo­
rations that have the resources to provide up-todate training in a technical field.
Persons interested in a career as an electrical
or electronics technician should have an ap­
titude for mathematics and science and enjoy
technical work. An ability to do detailed work
with a high degree of accuracy is necessary; for
design work, creative talent also is desirable.
Electrical and electronics technicians are part
of a scientific team, and often work closely with
engineers and scientists as well as other techni­
cians and skilled workers. Some electrical and
electronics technicans, such as those who do
repair and maintenance, should be able to work
independently and to deal effectively with cus­
tomers.
Electrical and electronics technicians usually
begin work as trainees in routine positions un­
der the direct supervision of an experienced
technician, scientist, or engineer. As they gain
experience, they receive more responsibility
and carry out a particular assignment under
only general supervision. Some eventually be­
come supervisors.

Job Outlook
Employment of electrical and electronics tech­
nicians is expected to increase much faster than
the average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s due to increased demand for com­
puters, communications equipment, military
electronics, and electronic consumer goods.
More technicians will be needed to help de­
velop, produce, and service these products. Op­
portunities will be best for graduates of postsec­
ondary school technical training programs,
particularly programs in which students gain
practical work experience.
Although a relatively small proportion of
electrical and electronics technicians leave the
occupation, most job openings will be to re­
place technicians who transfer to other occupa­
tions, retire, or leave the occupation for other
reasons.
Since many jobs for electrical and elec­
tronics technicians are defense related, cut­
backs in defense spending—like those which
took place in 1969 and 1970—could result in
layoffs in defense-related industries.

Technologists and Technicians/183
Earnings
Median annual earnings of full-time electrical
and electronics technicians were about $21,000
in 1982; the middle 50 percent earned between
$16,500 and $26,000. Ten percent earned be­
low $13,000 and 10 percent earned over
$31,000.
Electrical and electronics technicians enter­
ing the Federal Government in early 1983 with a
high school degree and no experience could
expect $10,645 annually to start. With an asso­
ciate degree, the starting salary was $11,949,
and with a bachelor’s degree, $13,369.

Related Occupations
Electrical and electronics technicians apply sci­
entific principles in their work. Other techni­
cians whose work activities involve the applica­
tion of scientific principles include mechanical
and industrial engineering technicians, forestry
technicians, broadcast technicians, drafters,
surveying technicians, television and radio
service technicians, computer service techni­
cians, dental laboratory technicians, and medi­
cal technologists and technicians.

Sources of Additional Information
For information on a career as an electrical and
electronics technician, contact:
Jets Inc., 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
International Society of Certified Electronics Techni­
cians, 2708 W. Berry, Suite 3, Ft. Worth, Tex. 76109.

Information on schools offering programs in
electrical and electronics technology and other
areas is available from:
National Association of Trade and Technical Schools,
2021 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

Legal Assistants
(D.O.T. 119.267-022 and -026)

Nature of the Work
Not all legal work requires a lawyer’s expertise.
In recent years, lawyers have increasingly used
legal assistants—also called “paralegals” or
“legal technicians”—to help provide legal serv­
ices to more persons at less cost.
Legal assistants work directly under the su­
pervision of a lawyer. While the lawyer assumes
responsibility for the legal assistant’s work, a
legal assistant is allowed to perform all the
functions of a lawyer other than accepting cli­
ents, setting legal fees, giving legal advice, or
presenting a case in court.
Legal assistants generally do background
work Tor the lawyer. To help a lawyer prepare a
case for trial, a legal assistant investigates the
facts of the case to make sure that all relevant
information is uncovered. The legal assistant
conducts research to identify the appropriate
laws, judicial decisions, legal articles, and
other material that will be used to determine
whether the client has a good case or not. After
analyzing all the information, the legal assis­
tant prepares a written report that is used by the



attorney to decide how the case should be han­
dled. If the attorney decides to bring a lawsuit
for the client, the legal assistant may prepare
legal arguments, draft pleadings to be filed with
the court, obtain affidavits, and assist the at­
torney during the trial. The legal assistant also
may keep files of all documents and correspon­
dence important to the case.
Besides trial-related work, legal assistants
may help draft documents such as contracts,
mortgages, separation agreements, and trust
instruments for an attorney’s clients. They may
help prepare tax returns and plan estates. Some
legal assistants coordinate the activities of law
office employees and keep financial records for
the law office.
Legal assistants who work for corporations
help attorneys handle corporate matters such as
employee contracts, shareholder agreements,
stock option plans, and employee benefit plans.
They may help prepare and file annual financial
reports and secure loans for the corporation.
Legal assistants also review government reg­
ulations to make sure that the corporation oper­
ates within the law.
The duties of legal assistants who work in
government vary depending on the type of
agency that employs them. Generally, legal as­
sistants in government analyze legal material
for internal use, maintain reference files, con­
duct research for attorneys, collect and analyze
evidence for agency hearings, and prepare in­
formative or explanatory material on the law,
agency regulations, and agency policy for gen­
eral use by the agency and the public.
Legal assistants employed in community
legal service projects help the poor, the aged,
and other persons in need of legal aid. They file
forms, conduct research, and prepare docu­
ments. When authorized by statute, they may
represent clients at administrative hearings.
Some legal assistants, usually those in small
and medium-sized law firms, have varied du­
ties. One day the legal assistant may do re­
search on judicial decisions on improper police
arrests and the next day may help prepare a
mortgage contract. This requires a general
knowledge of many areas of the law.
Most legal assistants—those who work for
large, departmentalized law firms, government
agencies, and corporations—specialize in one
area of the law. Some specialties are real estate,
estate planning, family law, labor law, litiga­
tion, and corporate law. Even within spe­
cialties, functions often are broken down fur­
ther so that a legal assistant deals with one
narrow area of the specialty. For example, legal
assistants who specialize in labor law may deail
exclusively with employee benefits.

Legal assistants handle many routine assign­
ments. Some find that these assignments offer
little challenge and become frustrated with their
duties. On the other hand, many lawyers assign
more responsible tasks as the legal assistant
gains experience. Furthermore, as new laws
and judicial interpretations emerge, legal assis­
tants are exposed to many new legal problems
that make their work more interesting and chal­
lenging.

Employment
Legal assistants held more than 45,000 jobs in
1982; private law firms employed the majority.
Legal assistants are found in nearly every
Federal Government agency; the Departments
of Justice, Treasury, Interior, and Health and
Human Services and the General Services Ad­
ministration are the largest employers. State
and local governments and publicly funded
legal services projects also employ legal assis­
tants. Banks, real estate development com­
panies, insurance companies, accounting
firms, management consulting firms, manufac­
turing firms, and other corporate offices hire
legal assistants.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
There are several ways to enter the legal assis­
tant profession. Increasingly, employers re­
quire formal legal assistant training. Some
employers train other experienced legal person­
nel, such as legal secretaries, for legal assistant
positions. A few employers require only a high
school diploma and train their legal assistants
on the job.
Several hundred formal programs in legal
assistance are available from 4-year colleges
and universities, law schools, community and
junior colleges, business schools, proprietary
schools, legal assistant associations, and a few
law firms. In 1982, about 70 programs had been
approved by the American Bar Association;
approval by the ABA is not required and not all

Working Conditions
Legal assistants do most of their work at desks
in offices and law libraries. Occasionally, they
travel to gather information and perform other
duties. They may work alone or with others.
Most legal assistants work a standard 40hour week. Sometimes, they work very long
hours and are under pressure to meet deadlines.
Usually they do not get paid for overtime work,
although they may receive compensatory time
off.

To help lawyers prepare a case for trial, legal
assistants do research on relevant laws and judi­
cial decisions.

184/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Employment of legal assistants is expected to nearly double
between 1982 and 1995.
Employment (thousands)
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

SO URCE: B u reau of Lab o r S t a tis tic s

programs seek it. The requirements for admis­
sion to formal training programs vary widely.
Some require some college courses or a bach­
elor’s degree. Others accept high school gradu­
ates or persons with legal experience. A few
schools require standardized tests and personal
interviews.
Most legal assistant programs are completed
in 2 years, although some take as long as 4
years. A few programs of very intensive in­
struction last only a few months. Some schools
offer general legal assistant training with
courses in many different areas of the law, in­
cluding legal research techniques. Others
provide training in specialized areas of the law,
such as real estate, estate planning and probate,
litigation, family law, contracts, criminal law,
and income taxation. Many employers prefer
applicants with training in a specialized area of
the law. Many legal assistant training programs
include an internship in which students gain
practical experience by working in a law office,
corporate legal department, or government
agency. Depending on the program, graduates
may receive a certificate, an associate degree,
or, in some cases, a bachelor’s degree in legal
assistance.
The quality of legal assistant training pro­
grams varies widely; the better programs gener­
ally emphasize job placement. Prospective stu­
dents should examine the experiences of recent
graduates of programs in which they are consid­
ering enrolling.
Currently, legal assistants need not be cer­
tified. The National Association of Legal Assis­
tants, however, has established standards for
voluntary certification. Legal assistants who
meet these standards, which require various
combinations of education and experience, are
eligible to take a 2-day examination given by
the Certifying Board of Legal Assistants. This
examination is administered each year at sever­
al regional testing centers. Persons who pass
this examination may use the designation Cer­
tified Legal Assistant (CLA). This designation



is a sign of competence in this field and en­
hances one’s employment and advancement opportunties.
Legal assistants must be able to handle legal
problems logically and effectively communi­
cate (both orally and in writing) their findings
and opinions to their supervising attorney. They
must understand legal terminology and have
good research and investigative skills. Famil­
iarity with the operation and applications of
computers in legal research is increasingly im­
portant. Legal assistants must always stay
abreast of new developments in the law that
affect their duties.
Because legal assistants often deal with the
public and other employees, they must be
courteous and uphold the high ethical standards
of the legal profession. A few States have estab­
lished ethical guidelines that legal assistants in
the State must follow.
Experienced legal assistants usually are
given progressively more responsible duties
and are less closely supervised. In large law
firms, corporate legal departments, and gov­
ernment agencies, experienced legal assistants
may supervise other legal assistants and dele­
gate work assigned by the attorneys. While
advancement opportunities usually are limited,
a few legal assistants are promoted to man­
agerial positions.

Job Outlook
The number of job openings for legal assistants
is expected to increase significantly through the
mid-1990’s, but so will the number of persons
pursuing this career. Thus, competition for jobs
should increase as the number of graduates
from legal assistant training programs rises.
Still, job prospects are expected to be good for
graduates of highly regarded formal programs.
Employment of legal assistants has grown
tremendously since the emergence of this oc­
cupation in the late 1960’s. Although the rate of
growth should slow somewhat through the
mid-1990’s, employment still is expected to

grow much faster than the average for all oc­
cupations. The emphasis on hiring legal assis­
tants should continue in both legal and lawrelated fields so that the cost, availability, and
efficiency of legal services can be improved.
Besides employment growth, numerous job
openings are expected to arise as persons leave
the occupation for various reasons.
Private law firms will continue to be the
largest employers of legal assistants as a grow­
ing population sustains the need for legal serv­
ices. The growth of prepaid legal plans also
should contribute to the demand for the services
of law firms. Other organizations, such as cor­
porate legal departments, insurance com­
panies, real estate and title insurance firms, and
banks will continue to hire legal assistants.
Job opportunities are expected to expand
throughout the private sector as companies be­
come aware of the value of legal assistants.
Job opportunities for legal assistants will ex­
pand even in the public sector. Community
legal services programs provide assistance to
the poor, the aged, minorities, and middle-in­
come families. Because these programs operate
on limited budgets, legal assistants will be used
to keep expenses down without having to limit
services. Federal, State, and local government
agencies, consumer organizations, and the
courts also should continue to hire legal assis­
tants in increasing numbers.
To a limited extent, legal assistant jobs are
affected by the business cycle. During reces­
sions, the demand for some discretionary legal
services, such as planning estates, drafting
wills, and handling real estate transactions, de­
clines. Corporations are less inclined to initiate
litigation when falling sales and profits lead to
fiscal belt tightening. As a result, legal assis­
tants employed in offices adversely affected by
a recession may be laid off. On the other hand,
during recessions, corporations and individuals
face other legal problems, such as bank­
ruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces, that re­
quire legal solutions. Furthermore, the continu­
ous emergence of new laws and judicial
interpretations creates new business for lawyers
and legal assistants without regard to the busi­
ness cycle.
Earnings
Earnings of legal assistants vary greatly. Sal­
aries depend on the training and experience the
legal assistant brings to the job, the type of
employer, and the geographic location of the
job. Generally, legal assistants who work for
large law firms or in large metropolitan areas
earn more than those who work for smaller
firms or in less populated regions. '
According to an Abbott, Langer, and Associ­
ates survey, legal assistants had a median in­
come of about $21,200 a year in 1983. The
lowest 10 percent earned $15,000 or less, while
the highest 10 percent earned $30,000 or more.
Legal assistants hired by the Federal Govern­
ment in 1982 started at $13,000 or $16,100 a
year, depending on their training and experi­
ence. The average annual salary of legal assis­
tants who worked for the Federal Government
in 1982 was about $26,300.

Technologists and Technicians/185
Related Occupations
Several other occupations also call for a spe­
cialized understanding of the law and the legal
system but do not require the extensive training
of a lawyer. Some of these are abstractors, claim
examiners, health and regulatory inspectors,
occupational safety and health workers, patent
agents, police officers, and title examiners.

Sources of Additional Information
General information on a career as a legal assis­
tant and a list of legal assistant schools ap­
proved by the American Bar Association are
available from:
American Bar Association, Standing Committee on
Legal Assistants, 1155 East 60th St., Chicago, 111.
60637.

For information on certification of legal as­
sistants and schools that offer training programs
in a specific State, contact:
National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 1420
South Utica, Tulsa, Okla. 74104.

Information on local training programs and
job prospects is available from your local legal
assistant association. A list of these associa­
tions can be obtained from:
National Federation of Paralegal Associations, P.O.
Box 1410, Ben Franklin Station, Washington, D.C.
20044.

Library Technicians
(D.O.T. 100.367-018)

Nature of the Work
Library technicians perform many support ac­
tivities involved in operating a library. They
help professional librarians to acquire,
organize, and make material accessible to
users. Like librarians, library technicians work
either in technical or user services. Those in
user services work directly with the public to
help find the information needed. Those in
technical services acquire* and prepare mate­
rials for use and deal less frequently with the
public.
Library technicians are also known as li­
brary technical assistants. They answer ques­
tions about use of the card catalog, direct li­
brary users to standard references, perform
routine cataloging of library materials, file
cards in catalog drawers, verify information on
order requests, and may supervise other sup­
port staff. Some library technicians operate and
maintain audiovisual equipment such as projec­
tors and tape recorders. They may also assist
library users with microfilm or microfiche read­
ers, or retrieve information from a computer
data base. Technicians sometimes work on spe­
cial projects. A technician with artistic ability,
for example, might design posters and displays.

may work on special projects such as designing
posters and setting up displays. The job may
require much standing, stooping, bending, lift­
ing, and reaching.
Library technicians in government and other
special libraries—such as those in business and
law firms and research centers—usually work a
regular 40-hour week, but those in public librar­
ies and college and university libraries may
work weekend and evening hours. In schools,
library technicians work regular school hours.

Employment
Library technicians held about 29,000 jobs in
1982. Most worked in school or academic li­
braries.
In late 1982, the Federal Government em­
ployed about 3,500 library technicians. Most
worked in Department of Defense libraries or in
the Library of Congress.

IVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Although some individuals with high school
education may find jobs as library technicians,
most employers prefer people with at least
some college training. Post-high school educa­
tion has become increasingly necessary as li­
braries with tight budgets seek technically
trained individuals who are able to assume
greater responsibilities and because the number
of people with college training seeking library
technician jobs has increased.
Some library technicians are trained on the
job. However, libraries encourage support staff
members to take courses in library technology
to improve their job skills.
In 1981, 82 institutions, mostly 2-year col­
leges, offered training for library technicians.
Junior and community college programs gener­
ally lead to an associate of arts degree in library
technology and include 1 year of liberal arts
courses and 1 year of library-related study. Stu­
dents study the purposes and organization of
libraries and how they operate. They learn to

order, process, catalog, and circulate library
materials. Some receive training in library au­
tomation. Many learn to produce audiovisual
materials such as posters, transparencies, and
audio and video tapes and to use and maintain
audiovisual equipment. Applicants should be
aware that credits earned for an associate degree
in library technology do not apply toward a
professional degree in library science.

Job Outlook
Employment of library technicians is expected
to grow more slowly than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. However,
many library technicians will be needed an­
nually to replace those who transfer to other
fields, retire, or die.
Continued employment growth is expected
in special libraries such as business, medical,
and law libraries. Some growth is expected in
school libraries as enrollments start increasing
in elementary schools after 1984 and in second­
ary schools after 1990. Some growth will also
result as technicians increasingly perform rou­
tine tasks formerly done by librarians. Little or
no growth is expected in academic libraries
because of declining college enrollments or in
public libraries because of tight budgets.

Earnings
Salaries for library technicians vary widely de­
pending on the size of the library or library
system as well as the geographic location and
size of the community.
Salaries of library technicians in the Federal
Government generally were between $11,949
and $16,559 in early 1983.

Related Occupations
Library technicians keep records, catalog, sort
and shelve materials, and assist library users.
Other occupations with similar duties include
records management technicians, information
specialists, data processing control clerks,

Working Conditions
Library technicians work with people, books,
audio-visual materials and mechanical equip­
ment. At times their jobs may be very re­
petitive—when calculating circulation statis­
tics, for example. At other times, however, they



Most employers seek people with some college education for library technical assistant jobs.

186/Occupational Outlook Handbook
medical records technicians, title searchers, in­
surance claims clerks, reservation clerks, sec­
retaries, mail clerks, records custodians, and
teacher aides.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about a career as a library techni­
cian and a directory of schools offering training
programs in this field can be obtained from:
Council on Library/Media Technicians, Cuyahoga
Community College, Attention Margaret R. Barron,
2900 Community College Ave., Cleveland, Ohio
44115.

For information on training programs for li­
brary-media technical assistants, write:
American Library Association, Office for Library
Personnel Resources, 50 East Huron St., Chicago,
111. 60611.

Tool Programmers,
Numerical Control
(D.O.T 007.167-018)

Nature of the Work
Aircraft, automobiles, machinery, and many
other goods contain metal parts. One of the
most common methods of making metal parts is
with machine tools—drill presses, lathes, mill­
ing machines, and others. Most of these ma­
chines are operated by semiskilled or skilled
workers such as machine tool operators and
machinists. A growing number of the machine
tools in use, however, are numerically control­
led machines in which an electronic device (a
controller) controls the machine’s operation.
The controller “reads” a program—a coded list
of the steps necessary to perform a specific
machining job—and runs the machine tool’s
mechanisms through the steps. The efficient
operation of these machine tools depends, in

large part, on the skill of tool programmers,
who develop the programs.
Tool programmers must have a broad knowl­
edge of machining operations, mathematics,
and blueprint reading. They must know how
various machine tools operate and the working
properties of metals such as steel, cast iron, and
aluminum.
Programmers begin the task of writing a pro­
gram by analyzing the blueprints of the item to
be made by the machine. They then outline the
sequence of machine operations and select the
proper cutting tools needed to machine the
workpiece into the desired shape. They com­
pute the size and position of the cuts that must
be made on the metal stock, and also calculate
the machine speed and feed rate needed for the
type of metal being used.
After they have compiled all necessary infor­
mation, programmers prepare a set of instruc­
tions for the machine to follow. These instruc­
tions are then converted into the programming
language used by the machine tool’s controller.
This set of instructions, or program, is then
encoded on paper tape, punch cards, or mag­
netic tape. The programmer also writes an in­
struction list to guide the machine operator in
loading and tending the machine. Finally, the
programmer watches the operation of a trial run
of the machine to insure that it is functioning
properly and checks the output to be sure the
specifications are met. Computer graphics may
be used instead of a trial run to check the pro­
gram.

Working Conditions
Tool programmers work in well-lighted, wellventilated areas. The rooms in which they work
generally are separated from the areas where
the machine tools are in use, so they are not
exposed to the noise of the factory floor. The
work generally is not as strenuous as that of the
workers who operate the machine tools.

Increased use of automated machine tools is expected to make tool
programmers the fastest growing machining occupation.




Projected percent change in employment, 1982-95
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Tool programmers consult reference books for
information on the properties of different metals.
Employment
Tool programmers held about 12,000 jobs in
1982. Almost all worked for manufacturing
firms that produce durable goods such as air­
craft, metalworking machinery, and con­
struction equipment. Most jobs for tool pro­
grammers are in large metropolitan areas where
most factories are located.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Tool programmers learn their jobs through a
combination of work experience and vocational
study. Employers prefer to promote or hire
skilled machinists for programmer jobs. To
learn programming, these experienced workers
take courses at vocational schools or junior
colleges; employers may pay for these courses.
Because programming methods differ among
the brands of numerically controlled machine
tools, manufacturers often provide training in
programming for employees of firms that pur­
chase their machines. Although this is not gen­
erally considered an entry level job, some em­
ployers will hire people without machining
experience if they have completed vocational
school or junior college courses in tool pro­
gramming and demonstrate the ability to learn
machine operations. Those who have com­
pleted high school courses and have displayed
ability in mathematics, physics, drafting, and
blueprint reading will have the best chance of
landing a job.
Tool programmers can advance to superviso­
ry jobs or transfer to skilled machining jobs
such as machinist and toolmaker and diemaker.

Job Outlook
Employment of tool programmers is expected
to increase much faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Besides
openings arising from growth in demand for
these workers many openings are expected to
occur each year as programmers transfer to
other fields of work, retire, or die. However,
since this is a relatively small occupation, the
total number of job openings will be much
smaller than in other machining occupations
such as machine tool operator, job and die set­
ter, machinist, and toolmaker and diemaker.
As the economy grows, the demand for air­
craft, automobiles, metalworking machinery,

Technologists and Technicians/187
and other products that use machined metal
parts will increase. In order to compete with
foreign manufacturers of these goods, Amer­
ican firms are expected to increase their use of
numerical control and other types of automated
machining equipment. This equipment will en­
able these firms to control their costs better and
to machine parts to more exact specifications.
As more firms install numerically controlled
machine tools, the demand for tool program­
mers also will rise.

Earnings
In 1982, tool programmers who worked in met­
ropolitan areas earned about $12.65 an hour. In

comparison, the hourly rate for all production
workers in private industry, except farming,
was $7.67. Tool programmers generally work a
40-hour week; however, overtime is common
during periods of high manufacturing activity.

Related Occupations
Tool programmers apply their knowledge of
machining operations, blueprints, and machine
programming to write programs that run ma­
chine tools. Other highly skilled workers in­
volved in metal machining work are: tool-anddie designers, tool and die drawing checkers,
tool planners, toolmakers and diemakers, and
machinists.

Sources of Additional Information
For more information about this occupation
contact:
The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark
Dr., McLean, Va. 22102.
The National Tooling and Machining Association,
9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, Md. 20744.
The National Screw Machine Products Association,
6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckville, Ohio 44141.
The International Association of Machinists and
Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

OTHER TECHNOLOGISTS AND TECHNICIANS, EXCEPT HEALTH
Title

Definition

Civil engineering
technicians

Apply theory and principles of civil engineering in planning,
designing and overseeing construction and maintenance of structures
and facilities under the direction of engineering staff and physical
scientists.

35,000

Much faster than
average

Embalmers
Industrial
engineering
technicians

Prepare bodies for interment in conformity with legal requirements.

11,000

Expected to decline

Study and record time, motion, methods and speed involved in
performance of production, maintenance, clerical and other worker
operations for such purposes as establishing standard production rates
or improving efficiency. Usually works under the direction of
engineering staff.

27,000

About as fast as
average

Law clerks

Research legal data for briefs or arguments based on statutory law or
decisions. Search for and study legal records and documents to
obtain data applicable to case under consideration. Prepare rough
drafts of briefs or arguments. File pleadings for firm with court
clerk. Serve copies of pleadings on opposing counsels. Prepare
affidavits of documents and keep document files and correspondence
of cases.

40,000

Faster than average

Mechanical
engineering
technicians
Radio operators

Apply theory and principles of mechanical engineering to develop
and test machinery and equipment under direction of engineering
staff and physical scientists.

48,000

Much faster than
average

6,700

About as fast as
average

Title examiners
and abstractors




Includes workers concerned with receiving and transmitting
communications, using radiotelegraph or radiotelephone equipment in
accordance with government regulations. May repair equipment.
Title Examiner: Search public records and examine titles to
determine legal condition of property titles. Copy or summarize
(abstracts) recorded documents, such as mortgages, trust deeds, and
contracts affecting condition of title to property. May prepare and
issue policy that guarantees legality of title. Abstractor: Summarize
pertinent legal or insurance details or sections of statutes or case law
from reference books for purpose of examination, proof, or ready
reference. Search out titles to determine if title deeds are correct.

Employment
1982

11,000

Projected growth
1982-95

Easter than average

Marketing and Sales Occupations
Sales work offers a wide range of career oppor­
tunities. In some sales jobs, people are their
own bosses, determine their own schedules,
and have their earnings depend entirely upon
their performance. Other jobs are more routine,
with structured work schedules and regular pay.
Supervisory positions in sales enable individu­
als to use their leadership and administrative
abilities. Managers plan, organize, and coordi­
nate retail, wholesale, insurance, real estate
and other sales activities and supervise sales
workers. In all kinds of sales work, oppor­
tunities are good for flexible or part-time work­
ing hours.
This section of the Handbook describes sales
workers in retail trade, wholesale trade, man­
ufacturing, insurance, real estate, and se­
curities. Also discussed are travel agents and
cashiers.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Training requirements for sales work are as
varied as the work itself. For jobs selling stan­
dardized merchandise such as magazines, can­
dy, cigarettes, and cosmetics, employers usu­
ally seek high school graduates and have
experienced sales clerks train them on the job.
In some large stores, they may also attend train­
ing courses. Those who sell complex products
or services, such as electronic equipment or
liability insurance, need substantial education
and training. For some sales positions, employ­
ers seek college graduates with majors in sci­
ence or engineering. For other jobs, employers
seek college graduates with majors in any field,
or individuals with comparable job experience,
and train them on the job or in training pro­
grams. Many sales workers learn through years
of on-the-job experience, often supplemented
by home study, employer training, and college
courses. Thus, a real estate agent may take
university extension courses; a department
store beauty counselor may participate in an
industry-sponsored training program; and a
jewelry sales worker may learn through years of
observation and experience on the job.
Even in the most routine kinds of selling, a
high school diploma is an asset to a beginner.
Courses in business, marketing, and merchan­
dising are particularly good preparation. Many
high schools have work-study programs that
allow students to work part time in local busi­
nesses while attending classes in retailing. The
proportion of sales workers who are college
graduates has risen rapidly, from about 12 per­
cent in 1970 to 24 percent in 1982. This is due
in part to a need for more highly trained work­
ers in some jobs. It also reflects the fact that
many more college graduates are seeking sales
jobs.
Digitized for 188
FRASER


Personal attributes are extremely important
in sales occupations—more so than in many
other jobs. Sales workers must be outgoing,
enthusiastic, and persuasive. They have to be
poised and at ease with strangers, and good at
striking up a conversation and relating to other
people. Success in sales takes initiative, ener­
gy, self-confidence, and self-discipline. Arith­
metic skills are an asset. Sales workers often
find their sales ability and product knowledge
can be used in a variety of jobs. For example, a
retail trade furniture sales worker may become
a furniture manufacturers’ sales representative.

Job Outlook
Employment in most sales occupations is ex­
pected to rise about as fast as the average for all
occupations through 1995. In addition to jobs
resulting from growth, millions of openings
will occur each year as experienced workers
transfer to other occupations, retire, or die.

Earnings
For some jobs in sales, such as sales clerks,
earnings are usually low—many pay at or only
a little above the minimum wage, $3.35 an hour
in 1982. For others, such as wholesale and
manufacturers’ sales workers, and insurance
and securities sales workers, earnings can be as
high for professional workers such as accoun­
tants and engineers.

Cashiers
(D.O.T. 211.362-010, .367-010, .462, .467, .482; and
249.467-010)

Nature of the Work
Supermarkets, department stores, movie the­
aters, and restaurants are among the many busi­
nesses that employ cashiers to handle payments
from customers. Most cashiers receive money,
make change, fill out charge forms, and give
receipts. The related occupation of bank teller
is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.
In addition to these duties, cashiers, depend­
ing on their place of employment, may do other
work and have different job titles. Those em­
ployed in theaters, for example, often called
box office cashiers or ticket sellers, operate
ticket-dispensing machines and answer tele­
phone inquiries. Restaurant cashiers, some­
times called cashier checkers may handle reser­
vations for meals and special parties, type
menus, or sell items at the candy and cigarette
counter. In supermarkets and other self-service
stores, cashiers known as checkout clerks,
checkers, or grocery clerks wrap or bag pur­
chases. They also may restock shelves and

mark prices, rearrange displays of merchan­
dise, and take inventory. In many offices, agen­
cy or front-office cashiers type, operate the
switchboard, do bookkeeping, and act as recep­
tionists.
Cashiers operate several types of machines.
Many use cash registers that print the amount of
the sale on a paper tape. A rapidly growing
number of cashiers operate electronic registers,
computerized point-of-sale registers, or com­
puterized scanning systems. Depending upon
its complexity, a computerized system may au­
tomatically calculate the necessary taxes and
the change due as well as record inventory
numbers and other information. Such registers
are replacing less versatile, conventional mod­
els in many stores. Cashiers who work in hotels
and hospitals use machines that record charges
for telephone, medical, and other services and
prepare itemized bils. Cashiers may also oper­
ate adding and change-dispensing machines.

Working Conditions
Most cashiers work indoors, often in small
booths or behind counters located near store
entrances. They may have to stand for long
periods of time. In some cases, they are ex­
posed to cold drafts in the winter and considera­
ble heat during the summer.

Employment
In 1982, cashiers held about 1,570,000 jobs.
Supermarkets and other foodstores employed
the largest number. However, cashiers are
needed in businesses and organizations of all
types and sizes, and many find jobs in depart­
ment stores, drugstores, shoestores, hardware
stores, furniture stores, gasoline service sta­
tions, and other kinds of retail stores. Restau­
rants, hotels, theaters, schools, and hospitals
also employ a large number of cashiers. Busi­
nesses employing cashiers are located in large
cities, suburban shopping centers, small towns,
and rural areas. The Federal Government em­
ploys a small number, primarily in the Depart­
ment of Defense, in clubs, cafeterias, and ex­
changes on military installations.
Opportunities for part-time work are very
good. More than one-half of all cashiers work­
ed part time.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Cashier jobs tend to be entry-level positions
requiring little or no experience and little edu­
cation. Although there are no specific educa­
tional requirements, employers prefer begin­
ning cashiers with high school diplomas.
Courses in business arithmetic, bookkeeping,
typing, and other business subjects are good
preparation for cashier jobs. Training is offered

Marketing and Sales Occupations/189
as part of many public school vocational pro­
grams.
Cashier jobs attract individuals who want to
gain work experience or to earn money while in
school or while tending to household respon­
sibilities. Typically, about one-half of all job
openings are filled by persons who are 19 years
or younger, and almost three quarters are 24
years or younger. About 1 in 4 cashiers is a
student. Relatively few transfer into this oc­
cupation from other jobs.
Many employers offer on-the-job training. In
a small firm, the beginner is trained on the job
by an experienced worker. In large firms, train­
ing programs often include classroom instruc­
tion in the use of electronic or computerized
registers and in other phases of the work. Some­
times employers seek persons who have special
skills or business experience, such as typing or
selling. Many openings, especially full-time
positions, are filled by promoting qualified
part-time workers.
Persons who want to become cashiers should
be able to do repetitious work accurately. They
need finger dexterity, a high degree of eye-hand
coordination, and an aptitude for working with
figures. Because they meet the public, cashiers
should be neat in appearance and able to deal
tactfully and pleasantly with customers.
Promotion opportunities for cashiers tend to
be limited. However, the job affords a good
opportunity to learn an employer’s business and
so may serve as a steppingstone to a more
responsible job, such as bookkeeper or man­
ager. Cashiers working in chainstores and other
large retail businesses, for example, may ad­
vance to department or store managers.

Job Outlook
More job openings are to be available for cash­
iers than for almost ainy other occupation
through the mid-1990’s. The occupation is
large, and employment is expected to grow
faster than the average for all occupations. Pro­
jected population growth as well as rising per­
sonal incomes will create a demand for goods
and services requiring cashiering services.
However, the vast majority of openings will
occur as cashiers transfer to other occupations
or leave the labor force. As is the case for other
sales clerks, the proportion of cashiers who
leave the occupation each year is very high;
about one-third of cashiers leave their job an­
nually—more than one and one-half times the
rate for all workers. Most who leave the labor
force assume full-time household responsibilties or return to school. Cashiers also trans­
fer to other jobs at a higher than the average
rate. Opportunities for part-time employment
are expected to continue to be very good.
Employment of cashiers, despite projected
faster than average growth, will not keep pace
with the expected increase in the volume of
goods and services sold because of the wider
use of computerized checkout systems. These
systems which are replacing cash registers in
many supermarkets are likely to be introduced
in other kinds of retail establishments. An op­
tical or magnetic scanner transmits the code
number (Universal Product Code-UPC) of each



Cashiers should be able to do repetitious work accurately.
purchase to a computer that is programmed to
record a description and price of the item, add
the tax, and print out a receipt. The computer

also keeps track of the store’s inventory and
places orders with the warehouse when stock is
needed. Employment in the retail food store

More than half of all cashiers work part time.
Distribution of employment, 1982

Part time

SO URCE: Bu re au of La b o r S t a tis tic s

Full time

190/Occupational Outlook Handbook
industry is not as sensitive to fluctuations in the
economy as in many other industries, since
people must eat whether they have a job or not.

Earnings
Beginning cashiers often earn only the mini­
mum wage. The minimum in establishments
covered by the Federal law was $3.35 an hour in
1982. In addition, minimum wages in many
establishments are governed by State law.
Where State minimums are higher, the estab­
lishment pays at least that rate. Cashiers earn
wages ranging from the minimum to several
times that amount. Median weekly earnings for
full-time cashiers were about $176 in 1982; the
middle 50 percent earned between $137 and
$250; 10 percent earned above $350.
Wages for union cashiers are generally high­
er than those for nonunion cashiers. Experi­
enced full-time cashiers who were members of
the United Food and Commercial Workers In­
ternational Union, to which many cashiers be­
long, earned average wages of $9.57 per hour in
1982; beginners averaged $4.99 per hour.
Cashiers generally receive health insurance,
annual and sick leave, pension benefits, and
similar benefits available to other workers.
Hours of work may vary depending on needs
of the employer. Cashiers in theaters, restau­
rants, and foodstores often work during rush
periods such as holidays, weekends, late after­
noons, and evenings; many work part time or
on split shifts. Full-time cashiers in super­
markets and other large retail stores usually
work a 5-day, 40-hour week; however, they may
work on weekends and have time off during the
week.

Related Occupations
Cashiers receive and pay money and keep ac­
count of such exchanges. Other workers with
similar duties include bank tellers, ticket sell­
ers, post office clerks, toll collectors, sales
clerks.

Sources of Additional Information
Details about employment opportunities are
available from local businesses and the local
office of the State employment service.

Insurance Agents and
Brokers
(D.O.T. 250.257-010)

Nature of the Work
Most people have their first contact with an
insurance company through an agent or broker.
These professionals help individuals or com­
panies select the right policy for their needs.
Insurance agents and brokers sell policies that
provide individuals and businesses with finan­
cial protection against loss. They plan for the
financial security of individuals, families, and
businesses; advise about insurance protection
for an automobile, home, business, or other
property; prepare reports and maintain records;



or help a policyholder obtain settlement of an
insurance claim. Specialists in group policies
may help an employer provide employees the
opportunity to buy insurance through payroll
deductions.
Insurance agents have contracts with specific
insurance companies; brokers are independent
business persons who sell for many insurance
companies and place policies directly with the
company that best meets a client’s needs. Oth­
erwise, agents and brokers do much the same
kind of work.
Agents and brokers sell one or more of the
three basic types of insurance: Life, propertyliability (casualty), and health. Life insurance
agents offer policies that pay survivors when a
policyholder dies. Depending on the policy­
holder’s circumstances, a life policy also can be
designed to provide retirement income, funds
for the education of children, or other benefits.
Casualty insurance agents sell policies that pro­
tect individuals and businesses from financial
losses as a result of automobile accidents, fire or
theft, or other losses, as well as industrial or
commercial lines, covering workers’ compen­
sation, product liability, or medical malprac­
tice. Many life and casualty agents also sell
health insurance policies covering the costs of
hospital and medical care or loss of income due
to illness or injury. Many agents may also be
licensed to sell securities, such as mutual fund
shares or annuities. (Life insurance agents are
sometimes called life underwriters; see the
statement on underwriters elsewhere in the
Handbook.)

work in or near large population centers. Al­
most all insurance agents and brokers work out
of local company offices or independent agen­
cies.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Although many employers prefer college grad­
uates for jobs selling insurance, most hire high
school graduates with potential or proven sales
ability or those who have been successful in
other types of work. In fact, most entrants have
transferred from other occupations. Under­
standably, they tend to be older, on average,
than entrants to other occupations.
Many colleges and universities offer courses
in insurance, and some schools offer a bach­
elor’s degree in insurance. College courses in
finance, accounting, economics, business law,
government, and business administration en­
able the insurance agent to relate insurance to
other personal finance problems and to eco­
nomic conditions. Courses in psychology, so­
ciology, and public speaking can prove useful
in improving sales techniques. College training
may help the agent grasp the fundamentals and
procedures of insurance selling more quickly.
All agents and brokers must obtain a license
in the State where they plan to sell insurance. In
most States, licenses are issued only to appli­
cants who pass written examinations covering
insurance fundamentals and the State insurance
laws. Agents who plan to sell mutual fund
shares and other securities also must be li­
censed by the State. New agents usually receive
Working Conditions
training at the agencies where they work and
Agents do a considerable amount of local travel frequently also at the insurance company’s
to meet with clients. They generally arrange home office. Beginners sometimes attend com­
their own hours of work, and often schedule pany-sponsored classes to prepare for examina­
evening and weekend appointments for the con­ tions. Others study on their own and accom­
venience of clients. Many agents work more pany experienced sales workers when they call
than 40 hours a week.
on prospective clients.
Agents and brokers can broaden their knowl­
Employment
edge of the insurance business by taking
Insurance agents and brokers held about courses at colleges and universities and attend­
361,000 jobs in 1982. Many work part time, ing institutes, conferences, and seminars spon­
especially beginners who have other jobs while sored by insurance organizations. The Life Un­
they attempt to build up a clientele. About 1 derwriter Training Council (LUTC) awards a
agent in 4 is self-employed. While most agents diploma in life insurance marketing to agents
and brokers specialize in life insurance, a grow­ who successfully complete the Council’s 2-year
ing number of agents (called multiline agents) life program. This program emphasizes prac­
offer both life and property-liability policies. tical selling skills. There also are courses in
The following tabulation presents the percent health insurance and advanced sales tech­
distribution of wage and salary jobs by industry. niques. The National Association of Health Un­
derwriters awards the Registered Health Under­
Percent
writer (RHU) designation to those individuals
Total ...........................................
100.0
who successfully complete a series of courses.
Life insurance agents or brokers can qualify for
Insurance carriers..................................
71.6
the Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) designa­
Life insurance ..............................
60.1
tion or a relatively new designation, Chartered
Fire, marine, and casualty insur­
Financial Consultant (ChFC), by passing a se­
ance ...........................................
8.0
ries of examinations given by the American
Accident and health insurance and
medical service p lan s...............
2.9
College of Bryn Mawr, Pa. The latter designa­
Other insurance carriers .............
.6
tion reflects knowledge of tax laws, estate plan­
Insurance agents, brokers, and services
26.7
ning, securities, and other subjects as insurance
Real estate .............................................
1.1
agents and brokers become increasingly in­
Combined real estate, insurance, loan,
volved in all areas of financial planning. Proper­
and law o ffic e s...................................
.6
ty-liability agents can qualify for the Chartered
Agents and brokers are employed in cities Property Casualty Underwriter (CPCU) desig­
and towns throughout the country, but most nation by passing a series of examinations given

Marketing and Sales Occupations/191
groups and by mail. In addition, each agent
should be able to handle more business as com­
puters take over more routine clerical tasks.
The trend toward multiline agents also will
cause employment to rise more slowly than the
volume of insurance sales.
Most individuals and businesses consider in­
surance a necessity, regardless of economic
conditions. Therefore, agents are not likely to
face unemployment because of a recession.

Earnings

Insurance agents periodically review and reevaluate the insurance needs of their clients.
by the American Institute for Property and Lia­
bility Underwriters. The RHU, CLU, ChFC,
and CPCU designations are recognized marks
of achievement in their respective fields. An­
other designation, Accredited Advisors in In­
surance, is also available. Agents and brokers
can qualify for this by passing a series of three
1-semester courses covering principles of insur­
ance production, multiple-lines insurance pro­
duction, and agency operation and marketing.
A growing number of States have mandatory
continuing education requirements.
Agents and brokers should be enthusiastic,
self-confident, disciplined, hard working, and
able to communicate effectively. They should
be able to inspire customer confidence. Some
companies give personality tests to prospective
employees because personality attributes are
important in sales work. Since agents usually
work without supervision, they must be able to
plan their time well and have initiative to locate
new clients.
An insurance agent who shows sales ability
and leadership may become a sales manager in
a local office. A few agents advance to agency
superintendent or executive positions.
However, many who have built up a good clien­
tele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, par­
ticularly in the property-liability field, establish
their own independent agencies or brokerage
firms.

Job Outlook
Employment of insurance agents and brokers is
expected to grow about as fast as the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s as the
volume of insurance sales continues to expand.
Most job openings, however, are expected to



result from the need to replace agents and
brokers who leave the occupation. Most trans­
fer to other occupations; many are beginners
unable to establish a sufficiently large clientele
in this highly competitive business. Oppor­
tunities should be best for ambitious people
who enjoy sales work and who develop exper­
tise in a wide range of insurance and financial
services.
Future demand for agents and brokers de­
pends on the volume of insurance sales. The
volume of life and health insurance should in­
crease rapidly over the next decade as many
more workers enter the 25-54 age group. People
in this group have the greatest need for life and
health insurance, and protection for homes, au­
tomobiles, and other valuables. Life insurance
sales also should grow as more families select
policies designed to provide retirement income
and educational funds for their children. Addi­
tional life insurance sales will also reflect the
growing need for life insurance and disability
protection for working women. Rising incomes
as well as a concern for financial security also
may stimulate sales of mutual funds, variable
annuities, and other financial products and
services. Sales of property-liability insurance
should rise as more people seek coverage not
only for their homes and cars but also for expen­
sive, advanced technology products such as
home computers and video recorders, and as
complex types of commercial coverage, such as
product liability, workers’ compensation, pre­
paid legal, kidnap, and pollution liability insur­
ance are expanded.
Employment of agents and brokers may not
keep pace with the rising level of insurance
sales because more policies will be sold to

Beginners in this occupation often are guaran­
teed a moderate salary while they learn the
business and build a clientele. In 1982, many
large companies paid new agents a median sal­
ary of about $ 1,200 a month during this training
period, which usually lasts about 6 months, and
subsidized their agents at that level for about 30
months providing they meet established goals.
Thereafter, most agents are paid on a commis­
sion basis. The size of the commission depends
on the type and amount of insurance sold, and
whether the transaction is a new policy or a
renewal. Life insurance agents with 5 or more
years of experience had a median income of
$35,000 in 1982, but thousands of agents and
brokers earned more than $50,000 a year, and
many earned more than $100,000. Casualty
insurance agents usually earned higher in­
comes.
Agents and brokers generally pay their own
automobile and travel expenses. Independent
brokers must also pay office rent, clerical sal­
aries, and other operating expenses out of their
earnings.
Most agents have paid vacations, group life
and health insurance plans, and retirement pen­
sions. The size of most pensions depends on
how much insurance an agent sells.

Related Occupations
Other workers who sell complex or expensive
products or services include real estate agents
and brokers, securities sales workers, financial
advisors, estate planning specialists, and man­
ufacturers’ sales workers.

Sources of Additional Information
General occupational information about insur­
ance agents and brokers is available from the
home office of many life and property-liability
insurance companies. Information on State li­
censing requirements may be obtained from the
department of insurance at any State capital.
Iifformationabout a career as a life insurance
agent also is available from:
American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St.
NW., Washington, D.C., 20006.
The National Association of Life Underwriters, 1922
F St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

For career information on property-liability
agents, contact:
Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St.,
New York, N.Y. 10038.
Independent Insurance Agents of America, 100
Church St., New York, N.Y. 10007.
Alliance of American Insurers, 20 N. Wacker Dr., _
Chicago, 111. 60606.

192/Occupational Outlook Handbook
The National Association of Independent Insurers,
Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des
Plaines, 111. 60018.
Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Washington
St., Alexandria, Va. 22314.

Manufacturers’ Sales
Workers
(D.O.T. 260 through 279.357)

Nature of the Work
Practically all manufacturers employ sales
workers. Manufacturers’ sales workers sell
mainly to other businesses—factories, banks,
wholesalers, and retailers. They also sell to
institutions—hospitals, schools, libraries, and
other institutions.
Manufacturers’ sales workers visit prospec­
tive buyers to inform them about the products
they sell, analyze the buyers’ needs, suggest
how their products can meet these needs, and
take orders. Sales workers visit firms in their
territory, using an approach adapted to their line
of merchandise. Those who handle crackers or
cookies, for example, emphasize their whole­
someness, attractive packaging, and variety.
Sometimes sales workers promote their prod­
ucts at trade shows and conferences.
Sales workers who deal in technical prod­
ucts, such as electronic equipment, often are
called industrial sales workers. Some engi­
neers, often called sales engineers, also sell
technical products. In addition to providing in­
formation on their firms’ products, they help
prospective buyers with technical problems.
For example, they may recommend improved
materials and machinery for a firm’s manufac­
turing process, draw up plans of proposed ma­
chinery layout, and estimate cost savings from

buying their equipment. They present this in­
formation to company officials and negotiate a
sale, a process which may take many months.
They may work with engineers in their own
companies, adapting products to a customer’s
special needs. Technical sales workers some­
times train customers’ employees to operate
and maintain new equipment, and make fre­
quent visits to make certain that it is functioning
properly.
Manufacturers’ sales workers spend most of
their time visiting prospective customers. They
also prepare reports on sales prospects or cus­
tomers’ credit ratings, plan their work sched­
ules, draw up lists of prospects, make appoint­
ments, handle correspondence, and study
literature about their products.

Working Conditions
Some manufacturers’ sales workers have large
territories and do considerable traveling. They
may be away from home for several days or
weeks at a time. Others usually work near their
“home base.” Manufacturers' sales workers
call at the time most convenient to customers
and may have to travel at night or on weekends.
Frequently, they spend evenings writing re­
ports. However, some are able to plan their
schedules for time off when they want it.

Employment
Manufacturers’ sales workers held 414,000
jobs in 1980. Some worked out of their com­
pany’s home office, often located at a manufac­
turing plant. The majority, however, worked
out of branch offices, usually in big cities near
prospective customers.
Large numbers of sales workers are em­
ployed by the printing and publishing, chemi­
cals, fabricated metal products, electrical, and
other machinery industries, as well as the trans­
portation and food products industries. In addi­
tion, there are many independent sales repre­
sentatives who are self-employed and who
work for a straight commission based on the
dollar amount of their sales.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

The earnings of many manufacturers’ sales work­
ers depend on how much they sell.




Although a college degree is increasingly desir­
able for a job as a manufacturers’ sales worker,
many employers hire individuals without a de­
gree who have appropriate work experience.
Most entrants to this occupation, even those
with college degrees, transfer from other oc­
cupations, but some are recent graduates. En­
trants are older, on average, than entrants to
other occupations. Manufacturers of non­
technical products usually seek persons with
degrees in liberal arts or business administra­
tion. Manufacturers of technical products usu­
ally seek those with degrees in science or engi­
neering. Drug sales workers, also known as
pharmaceutical detailers, usually need a back­
ground in biology and chemistry. Manufac­
turers of electrical equipment, heavy machin­
ery, and some types of chemicals prefer to hire
people who have studied engineering, physics,
or chemistry. (Information on chemists, engi­
neers, and others with the technical training

suitable for work as manufacturers’ sales work­
ers is given elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Many companies, especially those that man­
ufacture technical products, have formal train­
ing programs for beginning sales workers that
last 2 years or longer. In some programs, train­
ees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to
learn all phases of production, installation, and
distribution of the product. In others, trainees
take formal classroom instruction at the plant,
followed by on-the-job training in a branch
office under the supervision of a field sales
manager.
A pleasant personality and appearance and
the ability to get along well with people are
important. Because sales workers may have to
walk, stand for long periods, or carry product
samples, some physical stamina is necessary.
As in most selling jobs, arithmetic skills are an
asset.
Sales representatives who have good sales
records and leadership ability may advance to
sales supervisors, branch managers, or district
managers. Those with managerial ability even­
tually may advance to sales manager or other
executive positions; many top executives in in­
dustry started as sales workers.
Frequent contact with business people in
other firms helps sales workers transfer to other
jobs. Some go into business for themselves as
independent representatives. Others find oppor­
tunities in advertising and marketing research.
\

Job Outlook
Employment in this field is expected to grow
more slowly than the average for all occupa­
tions through 1995. Industrial firms,
chainstores, and institutions that purchase large
quantities of goods at one time frequently buy
directly from the manufacturer. The need for
sales workers should continue as manufacturers
emphasize sales activities to compete for the
growing number of these valuable accounts.
However, some manufacturers have switched to
wholesalers to sell their products, particularly
during economic downturns, decreasing the
need for manufacturers’ sales workers.
Many openings will occur each year because
of the need to replace workers who transfer to
other occupations, retire, or die. As is the case
for other sales jobs, this is a large occupation
and turnover is fairly high. Each year, a number
of new manufacturers’ sales workers discover
that they are not cut out for selling and leave the
occupation. Because sales are affected by
changing economic conditions and consumer
preferences, employment opportunities and
earnings may fluctuate from year to year.

Earnings
Earnings of manufacturers’ sales workers de­
pend on the type of compensation plan. Some
manufacturers pay experienced sales workers a
straight commission, based on the dollar
amount of their sales (as in the case of indepen­
dent representatives); others pay a fixed salary.
Most use a combination of salary and commis­
sion; salary and bonus; or salary, commission,
and bonus. Bonus payments may depend on
individual performance, on the performance of

*

all sales workers in the group or district, or on
the company’s performance.
Median annual earnings of full-time man­
ufacturers’ salesworkers were about $24,000 in
1982, the middle 50 percent earned between
$17,000 and $33,000 a year; 10 percent earned
less than $13,000; and 10 percent earned more
than $44,000 a year. According to a survey
conducted by the American Management Asso­
ciation, total compensation (salary plus bonus
or commission) for inexperienced sales work­
ers ranged between $16,300 and $20,600 a year
in 1981. Experienced sales workers received
between $24,300 and $27,800, while sales su­
pervisors earned between $35,400 and $41,200
during the same year. The highest total com­
pensation was generally paid by industrial
goods manufacturers.

Related Occupations
Manufacturers’ sales workers must have sales
ability and a specific knowledge of the products
they sell. Some related occupations that require
these skills are buyers, field-contact techni­
cians, wholesale trade sales workers, real estate
sales workers, insurance sales workers, and
securities sales workers.

Sources of Additional Information
For details about work opportunities for man­
ufacturers’ sales workers, contact manufac­
turers in your area.

Real Estate Agents
and Brokers
(D.O.T. 186.117-058; 250.157-010. .357-014 and -018)

Brokers also manage their own offices, adver­
tise properties, and handle other business mat­
ters. Some combine other types of work, such
as the sale of insurance or the practice of law,
with their real estate business.
Real estate agents generally are independent
sales workers who contract their services with a
licensed broker. Today, relatively few agents
work as employees of a broker or realty firm.
In selling or renting real estate, agents gener­
ally first meet with potential buyers to get a
feeling for the type of home they would like and
can afford. Then, they may take the client to see
a number of homes that appear to meet the
needs and income of the client. Because real
estate is so expensive, agents may have to meet
several times with a prospective buyer to dis­
cuss properties. In answering questions, agents
emphasize those selling points that are likely to
be most important to the buyer. To a young
family looking at a house, for example, they
may point out the convenient floor plan and the
fact that schools and shopping centers are close
by. To a potential investor seeking the tax ad­
vantages of owning a rental property, they may
point out the proximity to the city and the ease
of finding a renter. Whenever bargaining over
price becomes necessary, agents carefully fol­
low the seller’s instructions and may present
counteroffers in order to get the best possible
price.
There is more to agents’ jobs, however, than
just selling. Since they must have properties to
sell, agents spend a significant amount of time
obtaining “listings” (owner agreements to place
properties for sale with the firm). Much time is
spent on the telephone exploring leads gathered
from advertisements and personal contacts.
When listing property for sale, agents make
comparisons with similar property being sold
to determine its fair market value.

Nature of the Work
A house or an apartment, whether purchased as
a residence or an investment property to be
rented out, is the single most expensive item in
most people’s budgets. Thus, people generally
seek the help of a real estate agent or broker
when buying or selling a home. These workers
have a thorough knowledge of the housing mar­
ket in their community. They know which
neighborhoods will best fit their clients’ life­
styles and budgets, local zoning and tax laws,
and where to obtain financing for the purchase.
Agents and brokers also act as a medium for
price negotiations between buyer and seller.
Brokers are independent business people
who not only sell real estate owned by others,
but also rent and manage properties, make ap­
praisals, and develop new building projects. In
closing sales, brokers often arrange for loans to
finance the purchases, for title searches, and for
meetings between buyers and sellers when de­
tails of the transactions are agreed upon and the
new owners take possession. A broker’s resour­
cefulness and creativity in arranging financing
that is most favorable to the prospective buyer
often mean the difference between success and
failure in closing a sale. In some cases, agents
assume the responsibilities in closing sales.



Many real estate agents work part time.

Marketing and Sales Occupations/193
Most real estate agents and brokers sell resi­
dential property. A few, usually in large firms,
specialize in commercial, industrial, agri­
cultural, or other types of real estate. Each
specialty requires knowledge of that particular
type of property and clientele. Selling or leas­
ing business property, for example, requires an
understanding of leasing practices, business
trends, and location needs. Agents who sell or
lease industrial properties must know about
transportation, utilities, and labor supply. To
sell residential properties, the agent must know
the location of schools, religious institutions,
shopping facilities, and public transportation,
and be familiar with tax rates and insurance
coverage.

Working Conditions
Although real estate agents and brokers gener­
ally base their operations in offices, most of
their time is spent outside the office—showing
properties to clients, evaluating properties for
sale, meeting with prospective clients, and per­
forming a wide range of other duties. Brokers
provide office space, but agents generally fur­
nish their own automobiles.
Agents and brokers often work more than 50
hours a week. In addition, they often work
evenings and weekends to suit the convenience
of their clients.

Employment
Real estate agents and brokers held about
337,000 jobs in 1982. Many worked part time.
Most real estate firms are relatively small;
indeed, some brokers operate a one-person
business. Some large firms have several hun­
dred real estate agents operating out of- many
branch offices. About one-third of all brokers
have franchise agreements with national or re­
gional real estate organizations. Under this type

194/Occupational Outlook Handbook
of arrangement, similar to many fast-food res­
taurant operations, the broker pays a fee in
exchange for the privilege of using the more
widely known name of the parent organization.
Although franchised brokers often receive help
in training salespeople and in running their of­
fices, they bear the ultimate responsibility for
the success or failure of the firm.
Real estate is sold in all areas, but employ­
ment is concentrated in large urban areas and in
smaller but rapidly growing communities.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Real estate agents and brokers must be licensed
in every State and in the District of Columbia.
All States require prospective agents to be a
high school graduate, be at least 18 years old,
and pass a written test. The examination—more
comprehensive for brokers than for agents—
includes questions on basic real estate transac­
tions and on laws affecting the sale of property.
Most States require candidates for the general
sales license to complete at least 30 hours of
classroom instruction and those seeking the
broker’s license to complete 90 hours of formal
training in addition to a specified amount of
experience in selling real estate (generally 1 to 3
years). Some State waive the experience re­
quirements for the broker’s license for appli­
cants who have a bachelor’s degree in real es­
tate. State licenses generally must be renewed
every year or two, usually without reexamina­
tion. Some States, however, require continuing
education for license renewal.
Persons who take real estate sales positions
are older, on average, than entrants to most
other occupations. Many homemakers and re­
tired persons are attracted by the flexible work
schedules characteristic of this field. Many of
these people enter, leave, and later reenter the
occupation, depending on the strength of the
housing market, family responsibilities, and
other personal factors. In addition to labor force
entrants and reentrants, others transfer into real
estate sales jobs from a wide range of occupa­
tions.
As real estate transactions have become more
complex, many of the large firms have turned to
college graduates to fill sales positions. A large
number of agents have some college training,
and the number of college graduates selling real
estate has risen substantially in recent years.
However, personality traits are fully as impor­
tant as academic background. Brokers look for
applicants who possess such characteristics as a
pleasant personality, honesty, and a neat ap­
pearance. Maturity, tact, and enthusiasm for
the job are required in order to motivate pro­
spective customers in this keenly competitive
field. Agents also should have a good memory
for names and faces and business details, such
as taxes, zoning regulations, and local land-use
laws.
Persons interested in beginning jobs as real
estate agents often apply in their own commu­
nities, where their knowledge of local neigh­
borhoods is an advantage. The beginner usually
learns the practical aspects of the job, including
the use of computers to locate or list available
properties, under the direction of an experi­
enced agent.




Many firms offer formal training programs
for both beginners and experienced agents.
Larger firms generally offer more extensive
programs than smaller firms. Over 1,000 uni­
versities, colleges, and junior colleges offer
courses in real estate. At some, a student can
earn an associate or bachelor’s degree with a
major in real estate; several offer advanced de­
grees. Many local real estate boards that are
members of the National Association of Real­
tors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals
and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses
in appraisal, mortgage financing, property de­
velopment and management, and other subjects
also are available through various National As­
sociation affiliates.
Trained and experienced agents can advance
in many large firms to sales or general manager.
Persons who have received their broker’s li­
cense may open their own offices. Training and
experience in estimating property value can
lead to work as a real estate appraiser, and
people familiar with operating and maintaining
rental properties may specialize in property
management. Those who gain general experi­
ence in real estate and a thorough knowledge of
business conditions and property values in their
localities may enter mortgage financing or real
estate investment counseling.

Job Outlook
Employment of real estate agents and brokers is
expected to rise faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s in order to
satisfy the growing sales and rental demand for
housing and other properties. However, most
job openings will occur each year as workers
transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop
working for other reasons. Many beginners be­
come discouraged by their inability to close a
sufficient number of sales and subsequently
leave the occupation.
Employment growth in this field will stem
primarily from increased demand for home pur­
chases and rental units. Shifts in the age dis­
tribution of the population over the next decade
will result in a larger number of young adults
with careers and family responsibilities. This is
the most geographically mobile group in our
society and the one that traditionally makes
most of the home purchases. As their incomes
rise, these people also may be expected to in­
vest in additional real estate. During periods of
declining economic activity and tight credit,
the volume of sales and the resulting demand
for sales workers may decline. During these
periods, the number of persons seeking sales
positions may outnumber openings.
Real estate sales positions should continue to
be relatively easy to obtain. Not everyone is
successful selling real estate, however; welltrained, ambitious people who enjoy selling
should have the best chance for success. The
proportion of part-time real estate agents has
declined in recent years as brokers have de­
manded greater skill and professionalism from
those selling real estate. This decline is ex­
pected to continue as agents need more spe­
cialized knowledge to handle real estate trans­
actions.

Earnings
Commissions on sales are the main source of
earnings—very few real estate agents work for

a salary. The rate of commission varies accord­
ing to the type of property and its value; the
percentage paid on the sale of farm and com­
mercial properties or unimproved land usually
is higher than that paid for selling a home.
Commissions may be divided among several
agents and brokers. The broker and agent in the
firm that obtained the listing generally share
their part of the commission when the property
is sold; the broker and agent in the firm that
made the sale also generally share their part of
the commission. Although an agent’s share var­
ies greatly from one firm to another, often it is
about half of the total amount received by the
firm.
The median salary of full-time real estate
agents was about $17,000 a year in 1982. Real
estate brokers earned nearly $34,000 a year.
The most successful agents and brokers earn
considerably more. Some firms, especially the
large ones, furnish group life, health, and acci­
dent insurance.
Income usually increases as an agent gains
experience, but individual ability, economic
conditions, and the type and location of the
property also affect earnings. Sales workers
who are active in community organizations and
local real estate boards can broaden their con­
tacts and increase their earnings. A beginner’s
earnings often are irregular because a few
weeks or even months may go by without a
sale. Although some brokers allow an agent a
drawing account against future earnings, this
practice is not usual with new employees. The
beginner, therefore, should have enough money
to live on until commissions increase.

Related Occupations
Selling expensive items such as homes requires
certain personal characteristics including matu­
rity, tact, and a sense of responsibility. Other
sales workers who find these character traits
important in their work include automobile
sales workers, securities sales workers, insur­
ance agents and brokers, yacht brokers, travel
agents, and manufacturers’ representatives.

Sources of Additional Information
Details on licensing requirements for real estate
agents and brokers are available from most lo­
cal real estate organizations or from the State
real estate commission or board.
For more information about opportunities in
real estate work, as well as a list of colleges and
universities offering courses in this field, con­
tact:
National Association of Realtors, 430 North Michi­
gan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.

Retail Trade Sales
Workers
(D.O.T. 260 through 290.477, and 299.677-014)

Nature of the Work
The success of any retail business depends
largely on its sales workers. Courteous and
efficient, service from behind the counter or on

Marketing and Sales Occupations/195
the sales floor does much to satisfy customers
and build a store’s reputation.
Whether selling furniture, electrical ap­
pliances, or clothing, a sales worker’s primary
job is to interest customers in the merchandise
by describing its construction, demonstrating
its use, and showing various models and colors.
For some jobs, particularly those selling expen­
sive “big ticket” items, special knowledge or
skills are needed. Stereo equipment sales work­
ers, for example, must have sufficient knowl­
edge of electronics to explain features of vari­
ous brands and models, and the meaning of
manufacturers’ specifications to customers.
However, in jobs selling standardized articles
such as food, hardware, linens and housewares,
sales workers often do little more than take
payments and wrap purchases. (Cashiers also
wrap or bag purchases, receive payments, and
make change. See the statement on cashiers
elsewhere in the Handbook.)
In addition to selling, most retail sales work­
ers make out sales checks, receive cash pay­
ments, and give change and receipts. They also
handle returns and exchanges of merchandise
and keep their work areas neat. In small stores,
they may help order merchandise, stock shelves
or racks, mark price tags, take inventory, and
prepare displays.

Working Conditions
Most sales workers in retail trade work in clean,
com fortable, w ell-lighted stores. Some,
however, work outside the store. Kitchen
equipment sales workers may visit prospective
customers’ homes, for example, to help them
plan renovations, and used-car sales workers
may spend much time at an outdoor lot. Many
sales workers must stand for long periods.
Although many sales workers have a 5-day,
40-hour week, in some stores, the standard
workweek is longer. Because Saturday is a busy
day in retailing, employees usually work that
day and have a weekday off. Longer than nor­
mal hours may be scheduled before Christmas
and during other peak periods. Some, es­
pecially those employed by stores in suburban
shopping centers, regularly work one evening
or more a week.
Part-time sales workers generally work dur­
ing peak hours of business—daytime rush
hours, evenings, and weekends.

Employment
Retail sales workers held 3,367,000 jobs in
1982. They worked in stores ranging from the
small drug or grocery store employing one parttime sales person to the giant department store
with hundreds of sales workers. In addition,
some were self-employed representatives of di­
rect sales companies and mail-order houses.
The largest employers of retail trade sales
workers are department and other general mer­
chandise stores, apparel and accessories stores,
food, drug, and furniture stores, and car deal­
ers. Sales workers in motor vehicle dealerships
are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.
The following tabulation shows the distribu­
tion of wage and salary retail trade jobs by
industry.



The success of any retail business depends largely on its sales workers.
Department stores ................................
Grocery stores .......................................
Women’s ready-to-wear stores.............
Drug and proprietary store .................
Motor vehicle dealers (new and used)
Shoe stores.............................................
Variety stores .........................................
Family clothing stores ..........................
Furniture and home furnishing stores ex­
cept appliances..................................
Auto and home supply stores .............
Lumber and other building materials
dealers ...............................................
Men’s and boys’ clothing and furnishings
stores .................................................
Radio, television, and music stores . .
Liquor stores .........................................
Hardware stores .....................................
Retail bakeries . . . .................................
All other retail stores............................

859,000
239,000
202,000
190,000
155,000
131,000
I l l ,000
105,000
96,000
71,000
69,000
66,000
64,000
61,000
60,000
58,000
830,000

Most of the sales workers who sell “bigticket” items work full time; three-fifths of
other sales workers work part time.
Retail sales jobs are distributed geograph­
ically much the same way as the population;
most sales workers are employed in cities and
their nearby suburbs.

IVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
For many persons, a job as a retail sales worker
serves as a source of income rather than a ca­
reer. Most entrants are under 25 years of age.
Many have little or no work experience and are
students or homemakers looking for part-time
work.
Thousands of high schools across the coun­
try have distributive education programs, gen­
erally a cooperative arrangement between the
school and businesses. Students work part time

at local stores while taking courses in merchan­
dising, accounting, and other aspects of retail­
ing. The experience and education gained can
improve their prospects for permanent employ­
ment.
Many distributive education programs are
available in adult and continuing education pro­
grams. In addition, a federally funded project
called “70,001” focuses on the training needs of
disadvantaged youth and high school dropouts.
In collaboration with schools and colleges
across the Nation, this program offers full-time
employment with part-time instruction after
hours.
Persons interested in sales jobs should apply
to the personnel offices of large retail stores,
where they are likely to be interviewed and, in
some cases, given an aptitude test. Employers
prefer persons who enjoy working with people
and have the tact to deal with difficult custom­
ers. Among other desirable characteristics are
an interest in sales work, a pleasant personality,
a neat appearance, and the ability to communi­
cate clearly.
In most small stores, an experienced em­
ployee or the proprietor instructs newly hired
sales personnel in making out sales checks and
operating the cash register. In many larger
stores, training programs are more formal and
include specialized training in selling certain
products.
Inexperienced sales workers in department
stores typically begin in housewares, notions,
and other departments where a customer needs
little assistance. As they gain experience and
seniority, they move to positions of greater re­
sponsibility. The most experienced—and the
highest paid—sales workers sell “big ticket”
items such as large appliances, furniture, and
rugs. This work requires the most knowledge of

196/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Almost half of all retail trade sales workers have part-time jobs.
Distribution of employment, 1982

products they sell. These skills are used by
people in a number of other occupations, in­
cluding demonstrators, route drivers, real es­
tate sales agents, telephone solicitors, buyers,
insurance agents and brokers, and manufac­
turers’ representatives.

Sources of Additional Information

Part time |— t

4Q%

51 %

— I Full time

Information on careers in retail sales may be
obtained from the personnel offices of local
stores; from State merchants’ associations; or
from local unions of the United Food and Com­
mercial Workers International Union.
Information on distributive education pro­
grams may be obtained from your State em­
ployment service.
A list of schools that offer programs in retail­
ing is available from:
U.S. Department of Education, Division of Vocational/Technical Education, Washington, D.C.

20202.

For information about a “70,001” program in
your area, write:

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

“70,001” Limited, 600 Maryland Ave. SW., Wash­
ington, D.C. 20024.

the product and the greatest talent for persua­
sion.
Traditionally, capable sales workers without
a college degree could advance to management
positions. However, a college education is now
becoming increasingly important for advance­
ment. Large retail businesses generally prefer
to hire college graduates as management train­
ees. Despite this trend, capable employees with
less than a college degree should still be able to
advance to administrative or supervisory work
in large stores.
Opportunities for advancement are limited in
small stores where one person, often the owner,
does most of the managerial work. Retail sell­
ing experience may be an asset in qualifying for
sales work with wholesalers or manufacturers.

Job Outlook
Employment of retail trade sales workers is
expected to grow about as fast as the average for
all workers through 1995. While the volume of
goods sold is expected to grow rapidly, the
adoption of self-service and computerized
checkout systems by more retailers will limit
the need for additional sales workers. However,
employment in stores selling “big ticket” items
will be much less affected since these items are
not likely to be sold self-service.
Retail trade sales work will continue to
provide more job openings than almost any
other occupation through the mid-1990’s. Pros­
pects for sales jobs are good because retail
selling is a large occupation and turnover is
high. There will continue to be many oppor­
tunities for part-time workers, as well as for
temporary workers during peak selling periods
such as the Christmas season.
During recessions, the volume of sales and
the resulting demand for sales workers may
decline. Purchases of durable goods and “big
ticket” items, such as cars and appliances, are
likely to be postponed during difficult econom­
ic times. In areas of high unemployment, sales



of all types of goods may decline. Layoffs,
however, are unlikely. Since sales worker turn­
over is usually very high, employers often can
cut employment simply by not replacing all
those who leave.

Earnings
In 1982, the starting wage for most retail sales
positions (including part time and temporary)
not covered by union contracts was the Federal
minimum wage, $3.35 an hour. Some stores
doing less than $362,500 in business per year
paid less, since they are not required to pay the
minimum wage. Median weekly earnings of
full-time sales workers in stores selling mostly
“big ticket” items were about $300 in 1982; the
middle 50 percent earned between $215 and
$420 a week; 10 percent earned less than $ 160 a
week; and 10 percent earned more than $530 a
week. In other types of stores, sales workers
tend to earn less since their jobs do not require
much sales ability or technical knowledge of
the product. Median weekly earnings of full­
time sales workers in stores selling mostly other
products were about $190; the middle 50 per­
cent earned between $140 and $270 a week; 10
percent earned less than $115; and 10 percent
earned more than $390 a week.
Some sales workers receive salary plus com­
missions—that is, a percentage of the sales they
make. Others are paid only commissions.
Those paid by commission may find their earn­
ings greatly affected by ups and downs in the
economy.
Sales workers in many retail stores may buy
merchandise at a discount, often from 10 to 25
percent below regular prices. This privilege
sometimes is extended to the employee’s fam­
ily. Some stores, especially the large ones, pay
part or all of the cost of life insurance, health
insurance, and a pension.

Related Occupations
Sales workers apply a general knowledge of
sales techniques and specific knowledge of the

Securities Sales
Workers
(D.O.T. 251.157-010)

Nature of the Work
Most investors—whether they are individuals
with a few hundred dollars or large institutions
with millions to invest—call on securities sales
workers when buying or selling stocks, bonds,
shares in mutual funds, or other financial prod­
ucts. Securities sales workers often are called
registered representatives, account executives,
or brokers.
When an investor wishes to buy or sell se­
curities, sales workers may relay the order
through their firms’ offices to the floor of a
securities exchange, such as the New York
Stock Exchange on Wall Street. If a security is
not traded on an exchange, the sales worker
sends the order to the firm’s trading department
which trades it directly with a dealer in the overthe-counter market. After the transaction has
been completed, the sales worker notifies the
customer of the final price.
Securities sales workers also provide many
related services for their customers. Depending
on a customer’s knowledge of the market, they
may explain the meaning of stock market terms
and trading practices; offer financial counsel­
ing; devise an individual financial portfolio for
the client including securities, life insurance,
tax shelters, mutual funds, annuities, and other
investments; and offer advice on the purchase
or sale of a particular security.
Not all customers have the same investment
goals. Some individuals may prefer long-term
investments designed either for capital growth
or to provide income over the years; others
might want to invest in short-term securities

Marketing and Sales Occupations/197
that they hope will rise in price quickly. Se­
curities sales workers furnish information
about the advantages and disadvantages of an
investment based on each person’s objectives.
They also supply the latest price quotations on
any security in which the investor is interested,
as well as information on the activities and
financial positions of the corporations issuing
these securities.
Securities sales workers may serve all types
of customers or they may specialize in one type
only, such as institutional investors. In institu­
tional investing, most sales workers specialize
in a specific financial product such as stocks,
bonds, options, annuities, or commodity futur­
es. Some handle the sale of new issues, such as
corporation securities issued to finance plant
expansion.
Beginning securities sales workers spend
much of their time searching for customers—
relying heavily on t elephone solicitation. They
may meet some clients through business and
social contacts. Many sales workers find it
useful to get additional exposure by teaching
adult education investment courses or giving
lectures at libraries or social clubs.

Working Conditions
Securities sales workers usually work in offices
where there is much activity. Sales workers
have access to “quote boards” or computer ter­
minals that continually provide information on
the prices of securities. When sales activity
increases, due perhaps to unanticipated
changes in the economy, the pace may become
very hectic.
Established sales workers usually work the
same hours as others in the business communi­
ty. Beginners who are seeking customers may
work much longer hours, however. Most sales
workers accommodate customers by meeting
with them in the evenings or on weekends.

Many employers consider personal qualities
and skills more important than academic train­
ing. Employers seek applicants who have good
communication skills, are well groomed, and
have a strong desire to succeed. Self-Con­
fidence and an ability to handle frequent rejec­
tions also are important ingredients for success.
Because maturity and the ability to work
independently also are important, many em­
ployers prefer to hire those who have achieved
success in other jobs. Some firms prefer candi­
dates with sales experience, particularly those
who have worked on commission in areas such
as real estate or insurance. Understandably, the
overwhelming majority of entrants to this oc­
cupation transfer from other jobs. Some begin
working as securities sales workers following
retirement from other fields.
Securities sales workers must meet State li­
censing requirements, which generally include
passing an examination and, in some cases,
furnishing a personal bond. In addition, sales
workers must register as representatives of their
firm according to regulations of the securities
exchanges where they do business or the Na­
tional Association of Securities Dealers, Inc.
(NASD). Before beginners can qualify as regis­
tered representatives, they must pass the Se­
curities and Exchange Commission’s General
Securities Examination, or examinations pre­
pared by the securities exchanges or the NASD.
Large national brokerage firms may require a
second examination—the Uniform Securities
Agents State Law Examination—that allows
sales workers to do business nationwide. These
tests measure the prospective representative’s
knowledge of the securities business, customer
protection, and recordkeeping procedures.
Most employers provide on-the-job training
to help sales workers meet the requirements for
registration. Because potential earnings are

high in this occupation, competition for avail­
able training spots usually is keen. In most
firms, the training period is at least several
months. Trainees in large firms may receive
classroom instruction in securities analysis,
effective speaking, and the finer points of sell­
ing, take courses offered by business schools
and other institutions and associations, and un­
dergo a period of on-the-job training lasting up
to 2 years. In small firms, sales workers gener­
ally receive training in outside institutions and
on-the-job training.
Sales workers periodically take training,
through their firms or- outside institutions, to
keep abreast of new financial products as they
are introduced on the market. Training in the
use of computers is important as the securities
sales business is highly automated.
The principal form of advancement for se­
curities sales workers is an increase in the
number and size of the accounts they handle.
Although beginners usually service the ac­
counts of individual investors, eventually they
may handle very large institutional accounts
such as those of banks and pension funds. Some
experienced sales workers become branch of­
fice managers and supervise other sales work­
ers while continuing to provide services for
their own customers. A few representatives ad­
vance to top management positions or become
partners in their firms.

Job Outlook
The number of securities sales workers is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most job
openings, however, are expected to be created
by those who transfer to other jobs, retire, die,
or stop working for other reasons. Due to the
highly competitive nature of securities sales
work, many beginners leave the field because

Employment
Securities sales workers held about 78,000 jobs
in 1982. In addition, a substantial number of
people in other occupations also sold securities.
These include partners and branch office man­
agers in securities firms as well as insurance
agents and brokers offering securities to their
customers.
Securities sales workers are employed by
brokerage and investment firms in all parts of
the country. Many of these firms are very small.
Most sales workers, however, work for a small
number of large firms with main offices in big
cities (especially in New York) and approx­
imately 9,300 branch offices in other areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Because securities sales workers must be well
informed about economic conditions and
trends, a college education is increasingly im­
portant, especially in the larger securities
firms. In fact, the overwhelming majority of
entrants to this occupation are college gradu­
ates. Although employers seldom require spe­
cialized academic training, courses in business
administration, economics, and finance are
helpful.



Securities sales workers spend a lot of time on the telephone with clients.

198/Occupational Outlook Handbook
they are unable to establish a sufficient clien­
tele. Once established, however, securities
sales workers have a relatively strong attach­
ment to their occupation because of high earn­
ings and the considerable investment in train­
ing.
Employment of securities sales workers is
expected to expand as economic growth and
rising personal incomes increase the funds
available for investment. Growth in the number
and size of institutional investors will be par­
ticularly strong as more people enroll in pen­
sion plans, establish trust funds, and contribute
to the endownment funds of colleges and other
nonprofit institutions. In addition, more work­
ers will be needed to sell securities issued by
new and expanding corporations and by State
and local governments financing public im­
provements. Job opportunities should be best
for mature individuals with successful work
experience.
The demand for securities sales workers fluc­
tuates as the economy expands and contracts.
Thus, in an economic downturn the number of
persons seeking jobs usually exceeds the
number of openings— sometimes by a great
deal. Over the long run, however, job oppor­
tunities for securities sales workers are ex­
pected to be favorable. During severe slumps in
market activity, sales workers who are able to
provide their clients with complete financial
services should enjoy greater job prospects and
income stability than those who rely solely on
commissions from stock transactions.

Sources of Additional Information
Further information concerning a career as a
securities sales worker is available from:
Securities Industry Association, 120 Broadway, New
York, N.Y. 10271. (There is a $1 charge for this
material.)

Career information also may be obtained
from the personnel departments of individual
securities firms.

Travel Agents
(D.O.T. 252.157-010)

Nature of the Work

Related Occupations

Planning your vacation or a business trip can be
frustrating and time consuming. Many trav­
elers, therefore, seek the assistance of travel
agents—specialists who have the information
and know-how to make the best possible travel
arrangements, with their clients’ tastes, bud­
gets, and other requirements in mind.
Consider, for example, the contrast between
arrangements for an executive with a tight
schedule and those for a family of four on a
restricted budget, both planning a visit to Wash­
ington, D.C. The executive might want to fly
first class, stay in a hotel suite he or she could
use for business meetings, and have a limousine
ready upon arrival to make business calls. The
agent would make the necessary arrangements,
and perhaps send the bill to the executive’s
company. For the family, on the other hand, the
travel agent would recommend less expensive,
off-season, all-inclusive packages and special
air fares. The agent would describe a wide
range of hotel facilities and arrange the most
economical but pleasurable trip. The agent also
would arrange for car rental or escorted bus
tours, suggest local tourist attractions and res­
taurants, and acquaint the family with the city’s
climate.
For international travel, the agent would also
provide information on customs regulations,
required papers (passports, visas, and certifi­
cates of vaccination), and the most recent cur­
rency exchange rates.
When making travel arrangements, travel
agents consult a variety of sources for informa­
tion on departure and arrival times, fares, and
hotel ratings and accommodations. They often
use their own travel experiences as a basis for
making recommendations. Travel agents, may
devote some of their time to visiting different
hotels, resorts, and restaurants to rate their
comfort, cleanliness, and quality of food and
service.
Travel agents also do considerable promo­
tional work. They may give slide or movie
presentations to social and special interest
groups, arrange advertising displays, and meet
with business managers to suggest companysponsored trips.

Similar sales jobs requiring specialized knowl­
edge include insurance agents and real estate
agents. Other occupations in the securities
business are broker floor representatives and
commodities brokers.

Travel agents spend most of their time behind a
desk conferring with clients, completing paper­
work, contacting airlines and hotels for travel

Earnings
According to the Securities Industry Associa­
tion, earnings of full-time, experienced se­
curities sales workers who serviced individual
investors averaged over $60,000 a year in 1982.
The relatively small number of sales workers
who serviced institutional accounts averaged
about $150,000.
Trainees usually are paid a salary until they
meet licensing and registration requirements.
After registration, a few firms continue to pay a
salary until the new representative’s commis­
sions increase to a stated amount. The salaries
paid during training usually range from $900 to
$1,200 a month.
After candidates are licensed and registered,
their earnings depend on commissions from the
sale or purchase of stocks and bonds, life insur­
ance, or other securities for customers. Com­
mission earnings are likely to be high when
there is much buying and selling and lower
when there is a slump in market activity. Most
firms provide sales workers with a steady in­
come by paying a “draw against commis­
sion”—that is, a minimum salary based on the
commissions which they can be expected to
earn.




Working Conditions

arrangements, and promoting group tours.
Many agents, especially those who are selfemployed, frequently work long hours. When
they do travel, travel agents usually get substan­
tially reduced rates. Sometimes hotels or re­
sorts offer travel agents free promotional holi­
days.

Employment
Travel agents held 62,000 jobs in 1982. A very
small portion of these people worked as travel
accommodation appraisers who evaluated vari­
ous hotels and restaurants.
Though travel agents work in every part of
the country, they are concentrated in major pop­
ulation centers where the best business oppor­
tunities exist. About one-half of all travel agen­
cies are in large cities; one-third, in suburban
areas; and one-fifth, in small towns and rural
areas.
Some travel agents are self-employed. Gen­
erally, these persons gained experience and re­
cognition in an established travel agency before
going into business for themselves.

IVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Travel courses are offered in vocational
schools, adult education programs in public
high schools, community colleges, and 4-year
colleges. A few colleges offer a bachelor’s de­
gree in travel, service/marketing, and tourism.
Although few college courses relate directly to
the travel industry, a college education is some­
times preferred by employers. Courses in geog­
raphy, foreign languages, history, and com­
puter science are most useful. Courses in
accounting and business management also are
important, especially for those who expect to
start their own travel agencies. Several homestudy courses provide a basic understanding of
the travel industry.
Persons can prepare for careers as travel
agents by working part time as reservation cler­
ks or receptionists in travel agencies. As they
gain experience, they may enter either a formal
or informal training program given by the agen­
cy, take on greater responsibilities, and even­
tually assume the full workload of a travel
agent. Experience as an airline reservation
agent also is a good background for a travel
agent. Broad experience as a national or inter­
national traveler is an asset, since the ability to
speak with some personal knowledge about a
city or foreign country often helps to influence
clients’ travel plans.
As a sales representative, the travel agent
must be pleasant and patient. Agents often must
demonstrate their efficiency and sense of re­
sponsibility to hard-to-please clients.
Experienced travel agents can take an ad­
vanced course, leading to the designation of
Certified Travel Counselor, offered by the In­
stitute of Certified Travel Agents. Another rec­
ognized mark of achievement in this field is a
certificate of proficiency from the American
Society of Travel Agents. It is awarded to those
who pass four tests covering the duties of travel
agents.
Travel agents who start their own agencies
must gain formal conference approval before

Marketing and Sales Occupations/199
Experience, sales ability, and the size and
location of the agency determine the salary of
travel agent. Based on limited information, sal­
aries of travel agents generally ranged from
$10,000 to over $20,000 a year in 1983. Sal­
aried agents usually have standard benefits—
pension plans, insurance coverage, paid vaca­
tions—that self-employed agents must provide
for themselves.

Related Occupations
Travel agents organize and schedule business,
educational or recreational travel or activities.
Other workers with similar responsibilities in­
clude secretaries, tour guides, airline reserva­
tion agents, rental car agents, and travel coun­
selors.

Sources of Additional Information
For further information on training oppor­
tunities, contact:
American Society of Travel Agents, 4400 MacArthur
Blvd. NW., Washington, D.C. 20007.

Travel agents spend much of their time making arrangements with airlines and hotels.

Wholesale Trade Sales
Workers
(D.O.T. 260 through 279.357)

they can receive commissions. Conferences are
organizations of airlines, shiplines, or rail
lines. The International Air Transport Associa­
tion, for example, is the conference of interna­
tional airlines. To gain conference approval, an
agency must be in operation, be financially
sound, and employ at least one experienced
travel agent.
Since conference approval can take time to
obtain, most self-employed agents make very
little profit in their first year. Their income gen­
erally is limited to commissions from hotels
and tour operators and to nominal fees for mak­
ing complicated arrangements. For those start­
ing their own agency, working capital of more
than $30,000 will be needed to carry the agency
through a profitless first year.
There are no Federal licensing requirements
for travel agents. However, Ohio and Hawaii
now have licensing requirements. In Califor­
nia, travel agents not approved by a conference
are required to have a license.

Job Outlook
Employment of travel agents is expected to
grow faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Many job openings
will arise as new agencies open and existing
agencies expand, but most will occur as experi­
enced agents transfer to other occupations,
leave the labor force, or die. However, since the
industry generally is sensitive to the fluctua­
tions of the economy, opportunities at any given
time depend heavily upon whether or not peo­
ple can afford to travel. Long-distance travel
plans are likely to be deferred during economic
downturns.
Despite economic fluctuations, spending on
travel is expected to increase significantly



through the mid-1990’s. As business activity
expands, so will business-related travel. Also,
with rising incomes and increasing emphasis on
leisure-time activities, more people are ex­
pected to travel—and to do so more fre­
quently—than in the past.
The use of charter flights and larger, more
efficient planes, especially for trips to other
countries, has brought air transportation within
the budget of many Americans. The recent eas­
ing of government regulation of air fares and
routes should also help increase traveling by
fostering greater competition among airlines to
offer better and more affordable service. More
travel agents will be needed to handle this extra
business. In addition, American travel agents
and travel wholesalers often organize tours for
the growing number of foreign visitors.

Earnings
Earnings of travel agents who own their agen­
cies depend mainly on commissions from air­
lines and other carriers, tour operators, and
lodging places. Commissions for domestic
travel arrangements are about 10 percent; for
cruises, about 10 percent; for hotels, sightsee­
ing tours, and car rentals, 10 percent; and for
international travel, about 8 percent. When
travel agents arrange individual plans that re­
quire several connections on different transpor­
tation modes, they generally charge the cus­
tomer a service fee for the time and expense
involved. For most services, however, commis­
sions constitute the agent’s only compensation.
During the first year or two, while awaiting
conference approval, self-employed travel
agents generally have very low earnings. Even
established agents experience less profitable
years during periods of economic downturn.

Nature of the Work
Sales workers in wholesale trade help move
goods from the factory to the consumer. They
represent wholesalers who distribute to stores
selling directly to the consumer. A wholesale
drug sales worker, for example, may sell many
brands of drugs, soap, and cosmetics to local
pharmacies. Likewise, a wholesale con­
struction materials distributor sells lumber,
bricks, glass, and other construction materials
to builders who would otherwise have to deal
with many manufacturers.
Wholesale trade sales workers visit buyers
for retail, industrial, and commercial firms, and
institutions such as schools and hospitals. They
show samples, pictures, or catalogs that list
items their company stocks. They may also
show customers how their products can save
money and improve productivity. For example,
when selling electrical machinery, they may
demonstrate how new equipment would cut the
firm’s costs. These sales workers seldom urge
customers to purchase any particular product,
since they handle a large number of items. In­
stead, they offer prompt, dependable service so
buyers will become regular customers.
Wholesale sales workers perform many serv­
ices for retailers, such as checking the store’s
stock and ordering items that will be needed
before the next visit. Some wholesale sales
workers help retailers improve and update or­
dering and inventory systems and advise them
about advertising, pricing, and window and
counter displays. Sales workers who handle
machinery may give technical assistance on
installation and maintenance.
Sales workers keep records of sales, forward
orders to their wholesale firms, prepare reports

200/Occupational Outlook Handbook
and expense accounts, plan work schedules,
draw up lists of prospects, make appointments,
and study literature describing their products.
Some collect payments for their companies.

Working Conditions
Sales workers often have long, irregular work
hours. Although they call on customers during
business hours, they may travel at night or on
weekends in order to meet their schedules.
However, most sales workers seldom are away
from home for more than a few days at a time.
They may spend evenings writing reports and
orders, carry heavy catalogs and sample cases,
and be on their feet for long periods.

Employment
Wholesale trade sales workers held 1,093,000
jobs in 1982. Firms selling machinery to indus­
trial and business users are the largest employ­
ers of wholesale sales workers. Other large
employers are companies that sell food prod­
ucts, motor vehicles and parts, hardware and
plumbing, and electrical goods. In addition,
self-employed sales workers, who sell products
of manufacturers for a commission, accounted
for about 1 out of 10 jobs.
Most wholesale trade sales workers operate
out of the home office of their firm, which
usually is located in a large city. Sales workers
may cover a territory in a small section of a city
with many retail stores and industrial users; or,
in less populated regions, they may cover half a
State or more.

Most wholesale trade sales workers must be fa­
miliar with a large number of products.




Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
The background needed for sales jobs varies by
product line and market. Complex products re­
quire technical backgrounds. Drug whole­
salers, for example, seek people with a college
degree in chemistry, biology, or pharmacy as
trainees. Wholesalers provide training on
characteristics of their products and how to sell
them. For nontechnical products such as food,
sales ability and familiarity with manufacturers
and brands are more important than knowledge
about the product itself.
Most wholesale sales workers get their jobs
by working up the ladder, or by transferring into
the firm if they have the appropriate back­
ground. Some employers hire high school grad­
uates for nonselling jobs or as sales trainees.
These beginners usually work in several kinds
of nonselling jobs before being assigned to
sales. They may start in the stockroom or ship­
ping department to become familiar with the
thousands of items the wholesaler carries or in
the bookkeeping department to learn about
prices and recordkeeping. They are likely to
work on “inside” sales, writing telephone or­
ders, before they actually observe and work
with experienced sales workers on visits to cus­
tomers. Usually, it takes 2 years or longer to
prepare trainees for outside selling.
In very large wholesale firms, sales trainees
participate in formal training programs that
combine classroom instruction with short rota­
tions in nonselling jobs. In most firms,
however, trainees learn informally by observing
experienced workers and trying the different
aspects of the work. As they become familiar
with customers and procedures, they gradually
take on the full responsibility of the job.
Experienced sales workers also transfer from
manufacturing and retail trade sales positions.
Their experience with a particular product line
gives them an advantage over the newcomers to
the field because they don’t require much onthe-job training.
Sales workers sometimes can augment their
on-the-job training with college courses rele­
vant to wholesale distribution. Trade associa­
tions also sponsor training programs.
Experienced sales workers with leadership
and sales ability may advance to supervisor,
sales manager, or other executive positions.

Job Outlook
The number of wholesale sales workers is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through 1995, as the volume and
kinds of goods produced in the economy ex­
pand. Businesses and institutions will require a
wide variety of products for their own use and
for eventual resale. Most firms will continue to
purchase these products from wholesaler-dis­
tributors. Also, manufacturers are expected to
rely more extensively on wholesalers, includ­
ing independent sales representatives, who sell
manufacturers’ products solely on a commis­
sion basis. In addition to new positions created
by increased demand for wholesale trade sales
workers, most openings each year will result as
experienced sales workers transfer to other
jobs, retire, or stop working for others reasons.
The number of replacements will be quite large
because the occupation is large and turnover is
very high.

Earnings
Compensation plans differ among firms. One
plan is salary plus a commission based on sales;
others are straight commission or straight sal­
ary. Some include a bonus. Although most
wholesale sales workers have steady, yearround work, sales (and commissions) on prod­
ucts like air-conditioners fluctuate through the
year. To provide sales workers with a steady
income, many companies pay them a “draw”
against annual commissions.
Median weekly earnings of full-time whole­
sale trade sales workers were about $410 in
1982; the middle 50 percent earned between
$300 and $530 a week; 10 percent earned less
than $220; and 10 percent earned more than
$700 a week.

Related Occupations
In addition to sales ability, wholesale trade
sales workers often have a knowledge of hun­
dreds of similar products. Some occupations
requiring the same skills are buyers, sales-service promoters, manufacturing sales workers,
field contact technicians, and demonstrators.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on jobs in wholesale selling may
be obtained directly from local wholesale
houses or from associations of wholesalers in
many of the larger cities.

Marketing and Sales Occupations/201
OTHER MARKETING AND SALES OCCUPATIONS
Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Title

Definition

Appraisers, real
estate

Appraise improved or unimproved real property to determine its
value for purchase, sale, investment, mortgage, or loan purposes.

32,000

Faster than average

Brokers and
market operators,
commodities

Buy and sell commodities on commission at customers’ orders
through commodity exchange. Notify customers when additional
margins required because of price fluctuations and changes in
governmental regulations.

5,800

Faster than average

Broker’s floor
representatives,
securities traders
and securities
specialists

Buy or sell securities on floor of exchange and over-the-counter
market. Study market conditions to determine buy or sell points of
securities and to determine long range trends of market. In the case
of the broker’s floor representative, a license issued by the state is
required. The securities specialist buys and sells assigned securities
where prices are out of line in order to stabilize the market.

Contribution
solicitors

13,000

About as fast as
average

Contact individuals and firms by telephone, in person, or by other
means to solicit funds for charitable organizations.

7,700

About as fast as
average

Crating-andmoving estimators

Solicit freight or storage business by visiting homes or business
establishments to estimate cost of packing, crating, moving,
shipping, and delivering household goods, machinery, or other
material. May estimate storage or shipping space required.

7,200

Faster than average

Managers,
automotive parts
department

Manage retail automotive parts establishment or department of repair
shop or service station. Requisition new stock; verify cash receipts
and keep sales records; hire, train, and discharge workers. May sell
parts.

44,000

Faster than average

Restaurant, cafe,
and bar managers

Supervise and coordinate the activities of workers in a restaurant,
coffee shop, or an establishment selling alcoholic beverages for
consumption on the premises.

574,000

About as fast as
average
*

Sales managers,
retail trade

Formulate merchandising activities in a retail establishment.
Determine markup and markdown percentages necessary to insure
profit, amount of merchandise to be stocked, and direct buyers in
purchase of supplies for resale.

271,000

Faster than average

Store managers

Manage retail store, performing the following duties personally or
through subordinates: hire, train, and discharge employees; plan
work schedules and supervise workers; prepare purchase orders;
formulate price policies; etc.

971,000

Faster than average

Vendors

Sell refreshments, programs, cushions, or novelties at entertainment
events, circulating among patrons and calling out articles for sale.
Hand, pass or throw articles to purchasers and receive payment,
making change when necessary.

Wholesalers

Manage wholesale trade enterprise engaged in buying merchandise
and selling it to retailers or to industrial or commercial consumers.




7,700

247,000

More slowly than
average

About as fast as
average

Administrative Support Occupations,
Including Clerical
In 1982, there were about 19 million jobs in
administrative support occupations, including
clerical. Workers in this group prepare and
keep records; operate office machines; arrange
schedules and make reservations; collect, dis­
tribute, or account for money, material, mail, or
messages; or perform similar administrative
duties.
While administrative support jobs are lo­
cated in virtually all industries, they are con­
centrated in the fast-growing service and fi­
nance sectors. Because of this concentration,
these jobs are expected to grow more rapidly
than the average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s.
Employers prefer high school graduates for
clerical jobs. They look for people who under­
stand what they read, know basic spelling and
grammar, and can use arithmetic. The ability to
type and do neat, accurate paperwork is re­
quired for nearly all entry level positions; some
employers give applicants typing or clerical
aptitude tests. For jobs such as bank clerk,
bookkeeper, cashier, collection worker, and sta­
tistical clerk, an ability to work with numbers is
particularly important. For bank teller, hotel
clerk, receptionist, and reservation and pas­
senger agent jobs—jobs requiring constant
contact with customers—employers seek per­
sons who are pleasant, tactful, and outgoing.
Many employers prefer applicants who have
some knowledge of office practices. High
schools, community and junior colleges, busi­
ness schools, and home study schools teach
these skills. Business education programs typ­
ically include courses in typing, shorthand,
clerk-typist skills, and office procedures.
Work-study programs provide students with ex­
perience in a clerical job while still in school.
Whether or not they have had formal busi­
ness training, beginning clerical workers gener­
ally receive on-the-job training. They learn
how their employers keep records and become
familiar with the kinds of business forms used.
Workers may learn to operate duplicating ma­
chines, calculators, and word processing
equipment, or learn stock handling or inventory
control procedures.
Continuing advances in office automation
have increased the demand for clerical workers
who are versatile enough to learn new tech­
nologies. Secretaries and typists, for example,
may periodically attend classes to learn to oper­
ate new word processing equipment, informa­
tion storage systems, and other automated
equipment.
Opportunities for advancement to other cler­
ical occupations are good, and sometimes there

202




are opportunities, especially in large establish­
ments, to move into professional and man­
agerial positions. Many employers facilitate ca­
reer advancement by providing courses in skills
needed for more demanding jobs. As workers
become more highly skilled, they are assigned
more difficult tasks. Junior typists, for exam­
ple, may be promoted to senior typists as their
speed and accuracy improve. Receptionists
who learn typing and office procedures may
become secretaries. Promotion to such jobs as
administrative assistant, office manager, or
clerical supervisor generally depends on lead­
ership ability, work experience, and knowledge
of the organization.

Sources of Additional Information
The “Where to Go for More Information” sec­
tion at the beginning of the Handbook identifies
directories of schools offering courses in secre­
tarial science, accounting, business, data pro­
cessing, and travel and tourism. For the names
of organizations that can provide information
about specific occupations, see the discussions
of individual clerical occupations that follow.

avoid errors. Often a customer withdraws
money in the form of a cashier’s check, which
the teller types up and verifies. When accepting
a deposit, the teller checks the accuracy of the
deposit slip and enters the total in a passbook or
on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use machines
to make change and total deposits. In some
banks, tellers use computer terminals to record
deposits and withdrawals. In other banks, they
write deposit receipts and passbook entries by
hand.
Tellers’ duties begin before and continue
after banking hours. They begin the day by
receiving and counting an amount of working
cash for their drawer; this amount is verified by
a supervisor, usually the head teller. Tellers use
this cash for payments during the day and are
responsible for its safe and accurate handling.
After banking hours, tellers count cash on
hand, list the currency-received tickets on a
settlement sheet, and balance the day’s ac­
counts. They also sort checks and deposit slips.
Paying and receiving tellers may supervise one
clerk or more.

Working Conditions

Bank Tellers
(D.O.T. 205.362-026; 211.362-014, -018, -022, -026;
216.362-018; and 219.462-010)

Nature of the Work
Most bank customers have contact with the
teller, the individual who cashes checks and
processes deposits or withdrawals. Many banks
employ one or two “all-purpose” tellers; larger
banks employ tellers in more specialized func­
tions. One teller, for example, sells savings
bonds; another accepts payment for customers’
utility bills. A third receives deposits for
Christmas club accounts; and a fourth keeps
records and performs the necessary paperwork
for customer loans. Others process the pro­
liferating variety of certificates of deposit and
money market accounts. Still other tellers han­
dle foreign currencies, sell travelers’ checks, or
compute interest on savings accounts.
Commercial tellers, the most common kind
of teller, cash customers’ checks and handle
deposits and withdrawals from checking and
savings accounts. Before cashing a check, the
teller must see that the written and numerical
amounts agree, verify the identity of the person
to receive payment, and be certain that the
account has sufficient funds to cover the check.
The teller must carefully count out the cash to

Although some tellers work evenings or on
Saturdays, most generally work during the day,
Monday through Friday. Continual communi­
cation with customers, repetitive tasks, and
prolonged standing within a fairly small area
characterize the job.

Employment
Bank tellers held about 539,000 jobs in 1982;
about one-fifth worked part time. The follow­
ing tabulation indicates the distribution of wage
and salary jobs by industry.
Banking ..................................................
418,000
Commerical and stock savings
banks ..........................................
384,000
Mutual savings banks ..................
32,000
Establishments closely related to
banks .........................................
2,000
Other banks .. . .............................
1,000
Credit agencies other than banks . . . .
121,000
Savings and loan associations .. .
98,000
Personal credit agencies .............
22,000
Other credit agen cies........
1,000

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
In hiring tellers, banks seek people who have
good clerical skills and who are friendly and
attentive. Although not required, a high school
diploma is generally preferred. Most entrants
to this occupation have at least a high school

Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/203
items with customers. Other workers with sim­
ilar duties include cashiers, toll collectors, post
office clerks, auction clerks, and ticket sellers.

Sources of Additional Information
General information about banking occupa­
tions, training opportunities, and the banking
industry itself is available from:
American Bankers Association, 1120 Connecticut
Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Bank Administration Institute, 60 Gould Center,
Rolling Meadows, 111. 60008.
National Association of Bank Women, Inc., National
Office, 500 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.

Information on careers with the Federal Re­
serve System is available from:
Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve System,
Personnel Department, Washington, D.C. 20551, or
from the personnel department of the Federal Reserve
bank serving each geographic area.

Drive-in tellers provide speedy, convenient customer services.
education and tend to be relatively young. Ma­
turity, neatness, tact, and courtesy are also im­
portant because customers deal with tellers far
more frequently than with other bank em­
ployees. Although a teller works indepen­
dently, his or her recordkeeping is closely su­
pervised. One should enjoy working with
numbers and feel comfortable handling large
amounts of money.
New tellers usually observe experienced
workers for a few days before doing the work
themselves. Training may last from a few days
to 3 weeks or longer. Beginners usually start as
commercial tellers; in large banks which have a
separate savings teller’s “cage,” they may start
as savings tellers. Often banks simultaneously
train tellers for other clerical duties.
Experienced tellers may advance to head tell­
er or customer service representative. Banks
encourage this upward mobility by providing
access to education and other sources of addi­
tional training. Outstanding tellers who have
had some college or specialized training of­
fered by the banking industry may be promoted
to an officer or a managerial position. (See the
statement on bank officers and managers
elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Tellers can prepare for better jobs by taking
courses accredited by the American Institute of
Banking (AIB) and the Bank Administration
Institute (BAI). AIB, an arm of the American
Bankers Association, has over 450 chapters in
cities across the country and numerous study
groups in small communities. Most banks use
AIB and BAI facilities. Both institutes assist
local banks in conducting cooperative training
programs or developing independent training
programs. Some banks have their own training
programs which result in teller certification—a
sign of competence in this field. Experienced



tellers qualify for certification by taking re­
quired courses and passing examinations.

State bankers’ associations can furnish spe­
cific information about job opportunities in
their State. And writing directly to a particular
bank to inquire about job openings can produce
favorable results. For the names and addresses
of banks in a specific location as well as the
names of their principal officers, consult one of
the following directories, which are published
twice each year:

Job Outlook

T he A m e r ic a n B a n k D ir e c to r y

The number of bank tellers is expected to in­
crease about as fast as the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s despite the
increasing use of automatic teller machines and
other electronic equipment. Qualified appli­
cants should have good prospects for both full­
time and part-time employment, since this oc­
cupation provides a relatively large number of
job openings.
The overwhelming majority of job openings
for tellers are expected to be created by replace­
ment needs—characteristic of occupations that
generally require limited formal education and
offer relatively low pay. Most tellers who leave
transfer to other occupations. Others stop work­
ing—primarily to assume household duties or
return to school. Cyclical swings in the econo­
my seem to have little immediate effect on bank
activities. Consequently, tellers are generally
immune to layoffs.

McFadden Business Publications).

Earnings
In 1982, average annual earnings of full-time
tellers were $10,300. The lowest 10 percent
earned less than $7,900 while the top 10 per­
cent earned over $16,800. In general, a greater
range of responsibilities results in a higher sal­
ary. However, experience, length of service,
and, especially, the location and size of the
bank are also important.

Related Occupations
Tellers combine a knowledge of bank pro­
cedures with quickness and accuracy to ex­
change money, checks, and other financial

P o lk ’s W o rld B a n k D ir e c to r y

(Norcross, Ga.,

(Nashville, R.L. Polk &

Co.).
R a n d M c N a lly I n te r n a tio n a l B a n k e r s D ir e c to r y

(Chi­

cago, Rand McNally & Co.).

Bookkeepers and
Accounting Clerks
(D.O.T. 210, 214, 216, 219, and 249. D.O.T. index
which begins on p. 364 lists the nine-digit codes included
under this occupation.)

Nature of the Work
Every business needs systematic and up-to-date
records of accounts and business transactions.
Bookkeepers and accounting clerks maintain
these records in journals, ledgers, and—in­
creasingly—in the memory of a computer.
They also prepare periodic financial statements
showing all money received and paid out. The
duties of bookkeeping workers and the “tools of
the trade” vary with the size of the business.
However, virtually all of these workers use cal­
culating machines and many work with com­
puters, using printouts and terminals.
In many small firms, a general bookkeeper
handles all the bookkeeping. He or she ana­
lyzes and records all financial transactions,
such as orders and cash sales. General book­
keepers also check money taken in against
money paid out to be sure accounts “balance,”

204/Occupational Outlook Handbook
calculate the firm’s payroll, and make up em­
ployees’ paychecks. General bookkeepers also
prepare and mail customers’ bills and answer
telephone requests for information about orders
and bills.
In large businesses, several bookkeepers and
accounting clerks work under the direction of a
head bookkeeper or accountant. In these organ­
izations, bookkeeping workers often specialize
in certain types of work. Some, for example,
prepare statements of a company’s income from
sales or its daily operating expenses. Some en­
ter information on accounts receivable and ac­
counts payable into a computer and review
computer printouts for accuracy and com­
pleteness. Others record business transactions,
including payroll deductions and bills paid and
due, and compute interest, rental, and freight
charges. They also may type vouchers, invoi­
ces, and other financial records.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

High school graduates who have taken business
arithmetic, bookkeeping, and principles of ac­
counting meet the minimum requirements for
most bookkeeping jobs. Some employers pre­
fer applicants who have completed accounting
programs at the community or junior college
level or those who have attended business
school. The ability to use bookkeeping ma­
chines and computers is an asset. A knowledge
of typing also is useful.
Training for this occupation is widely avail­
able. Bookkeeping is taught in high schools,
community and junior colleges, and business
schools and colleges. Business education pro­
grams typically include bookkeeping-account­
ing, business arithmetic, office practices, and
principles of data processing and computer op­
eration for office workers. Some programs give
business students an opportunity to learn on the
Working Conditions
job through work-study programs arranged by
For the most part, working conditions for book­ high schools and local businesses. The work
keepers and accounting clerks are the same as
experience, together with the first-hand knowl­
those for other office employees in the same
edge of office procedures, can help when stu­
company. Bookkeeping requires sitting for
dents look for jobs after graduation.
long periods and involves examining detailed
In a few States, bookkeepers and accounting
numerical information. Some persons may find
this tiring, and eye strain may be a problem. clerks who work on tax returns must be li­
Workers who operate older bookkeeping ma­ censed. State licensing agencies can provide
chines may be exposed to high noise levels. information on the requirements in your area.
Bookkeeping workers need to be good at
Newer equipment is relatively quiet, however.
working with numbers and concentrating on
details. Small mistakes can be very serious in
Employment
Bookkeepers and accounting clerks held about this field, so bookkeepers need to be careful,
1,713,000 jobs in 1982. Jobs for bookkeeping accurate, and orderly in their work. Because
workers are found throughout the economy—in they often work with others, bookkeepers
business firms mostly, but also in schools, hos­ should be cooperative and able to work as part
pitals, nonprofit organizations, and govern­ of a team.
Newly hired bookkeeping workers begin by
ment agencies. Approximately 1 bookkeeper in
3 works for a retail or wholesale firm. About a recording routine transactions such as accounts
quarter of all bookkeepers and accounting receivable or accounts payable. As they gain
experience, they advance to more responsible
clerks work part time.

assignments, such as preparing income state­
ments, reconciling accounts, and reviewing
computer printouts.
Some bookkeeping workers are promoted to
supervisory jobs. Others who enroll in college
accounting programs may advance to jobs as
accountants. Bookkeeping experience provides
a good background for college courses in ac­
counting but normally cannot be credited to­
wards a degree in accounting.

Job Outlook
Employment of bookkeepers and accounting
clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the
average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Job prospects should be good,
nonetheless, in view of the large number of
openings that will occur because of the need to
replace workers who transfer to other occupa­
tions or stop working. Employment patterns are
much like those in other clerical occupations
and reflect the fact that bookkeepers and ac­
counting clerks are predominantly female. As
in most other clerical occupations, there is con­
siderable movement in and out of the labor
force due to homemaking responsibilities.
Since the occupation is exceptionally large, re­
placement needs produce numerous openings.
The volume of business transactions is ex­
pected to grow rapidly, with a corresponding
increase in the need for accounting records.
However, the need for bookkeeping workers,
who maintain these records, will not increase
nearly as fast because of the increasing use of
advanced computers that process data more ac­
curately, rapidly, and economically than older
computers or workers processing it by hand.

Earnings
Beginning accounting clerks in private firms
averaged $11,190 a year in 1983. Salaries are
higher for more complex jobs, up to an average
of $19,455 a year for top-level accounting
clerks.
Median annual earnings of full-time book­
keepers were about $13,000 in 1982; the mid­
dle 50 percent earned between $10,000 and
$16,000 a year. Ten percent earned less than
$8,000 and 10 percent more than $21,000.
In 1982, the Federal Government paid ac­
counting clerks with 2 years of experience or
postsecondary education a starting salary of
about $12,000 a year.
According to a survey by the International
Personnel Management Association, in 1982
the average beginning salary for account clerks
in municipal, State, and Federal Government
was $ 11,364 a year; the average salary for expe­
rienced workers was $14,496. An Admin­
istrative Management Society survey showed
entry-level accounting clerks averaged $11,856
a year in 1982, while accounting clerks with
more responsibility averaged $14,040.

Related Occupations

Calculators are essential tools for bookkeepers and accounting clerks.



Workers in a number of other jobs also must be
good at working with numbers. Among such
workers are bank tellers, collection workers,
insurance clerks, and statistical clerks.

Administrative Support Occupations, Including Cierical/205
Sources of Additional Information

Employment

State employment service offices can provide
information about job openings for bookkeep­
ing workers.

Computer operating personnel held 580,000
jobs in 1982: Computer operators 211,000, pe­
ripheral equipment operators 49,000, and data
entry operators 320,000. About 1 of every 7
data entry operators worked part time.
Although computer and peripheral equip­
ment operators and data entry operators are
employed in almost every industry, most work
in manufacturing firms, banks, insurance
firms, colleges and universities, wholesale and
retail trade establishments, and firms that
provide data processing services for a fee.

Computer Operating
Personnel
(D.O.T. 203.382-018, .582-022, -026, -030, -070;
206.387-030; 208.685-030; and 213.132-010 and -014,
.362-010, .382-010, and .685-010)

Nature of the Work
All computer systems require specialized
workers to enter data and instructions, operate
the computer, and retrieve the results. The data
to be processed and the instructions for the
computer are called “input;” the results are
called “output.”
Information is entered into a computer sys­
tem by data entry personnel in a variety of
ways. In some systems, keypunch operators
using a machine similar to a typewriter prepare
input by punching patterns of holes in computer
cards to represent specific letters, numbers, and
special characters. In others, data typists use
special machines that convert the information
they type toJioles in cards or magnetic impulses
on tapes or disks. In some systems, data enter
the computer at the source of the transaction
being recorded, for example, at the loading
dock or at a supermarket checkout line. Work­
ers entering data in this manner often are in
other occupations—cashiers, for example.
Once the input is coded—prepared in a form
the computer can read—it is ready to be pro­
cessed. Computer operators, who monitor and
control the computer, set up the equipment for
each job following the special instructions that
the programmer has written out. To process the
input, they make sure the computer has been
loaded with the correct cards, magnetic tapes,
or disks. While it is running, they watch the
computer console, paying special attention to
signals, such as error lights, that could indicate
a malfunction. If the computer stops or an error
is signalled, operators must locate the problem
and solve it or terminate the program. In most
systems, devices such as high-speed printers
and disk drives that are directly connected to
the computer provide input and output in the
form desired by the programmer. These devices
are run by peripheral equipment operators.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
In some firms, other clerical workers such as
tabulating and bookkeeping machine operators
may be transferred to jobs as data entry, pe­
ripheral equipment, or computer operators.
Most often, however, employers recruit work­
ers who already have some of the necessary
skills to operate the equipment.
Many high schools, public and private voca­
tional schools, private computer schools, busi­
ness schools, and community or junior colleges
offer training in computer operating skills. The
military services also offer valuable training in
a number of computer skills. In addition, a
growing number of business firms across the
country hold weekend seminars on data pro­
cessing for high school students.
Employers in private industry usually require
a high school education, and many prefer to
hire computer operators who have some com­
munity or junior college training, especially in
data processing. The Federal Government re­
quires a high school diploma, unless applicants
have had specialized training or experience.
Many employers test applicants to determine
their aptitude for computer work, particularly
their ability to reason logically. Data entry per­
sonnel often are tested for their ability to work
quickly and accurately.

Beginners usually are trained on the job. The
length of training needed varies—peripheral
equipment operators can learn their jobs in a
few weeks, but computer operators require sev­
eral months of training because they must be­
come sufficiently familiar with the computer
equipment to be able to identify the causes of
equipment failures.
Data entry and peripheral equipment oper­
ators should be able to work under close super­
vision as part of a team. They also must feel
comfortable working with machines and doing
repetitive, organized tasks. Computer oper­
ators, however, must use independent judg­
ment, especially when working without super­
vision on second and third shifts.
Advancement opportunities for data entry
and peripheral equipment operators are limited
because data entry techniques are becoming
more specialized. However, promotion to a su­
pervisory position is possible after several
years on the job. With additional training, often
including community or junior college study, a
few data entry and peripheral equipment oper­
ators advance to jobs as computer operators.
Computer operators also may be promoted to
supervisory positions, or to jobs that combine
supervision and computer operation. Through
on-the-job experience and additional training,
some computer operators advance to jobs as
programmers.

Job Outlook
Changes in data processing technology will
have differing effects on computer operating
occupations. Employment of computer and pe­
ripheral equipment operators, for example, is
expected to rise much faster than the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Em­
ployment of data entry operators, on the other
hand, is expected to decline.
Recent advances in miniaturizing circuits
have enabled manufacturers to reduce both the
size and the cost of computer components. As

Working Conditions
Because electronic computers must be operated
at carefully controlled temperatures, computer
operating personnel work in well-ventilated
rooms; air-conditioning counteracts the heat
generated by machine operations. When the
equipment is operating, however, the computer
room can be noisy.
Some computer and peripheral equipment
operators work evening or night shifts because
many organizations use their computers 24
hours a day.



The operator communicates with the computer by entering instructions on a console.

206/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Technological advances will increase the demand for computer and
peripheral equipment operators but lessen the need for data entry
operators.
8

•«r
f

Computer operators

i

o

o
C
N
J

Projected percent change in employment, 1982-95
C
80
n

-2 0

111: , -

i

r

100

‘

Peripheral equipment
operators
Data entry operators

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

this technology develops, a continued expan­
sion in the use of computers is expected, in­
creasing the need for computer and peripheral
equipment operators. In addition to jobs result­
ing from employment growth, many openings
will arise from the need to replace computer
and peripheral equipment operators who trans­
fer to other occupations or leave the labor force.
Improvements to data processing technology
will reduce demand for data entry operators.
The primary reason for this decline is the in­
creased use of direct data entry by on-site com­
puter terminals, optical scanners, and other de­
vices. Despite the anticipated decline in
employment, many openings, including parttime openings, will occur each year due to the
need to replace workers who transfer to other
occupations, retire, or die.

Earnings
In 1982, median weekly earnings of full-time
computer operating personnel were $285 for
computer and peripheral equipment operators
and $240 for data entry operators. The middle
50 percent earned between $220 and $380 and
between $205 and $300, respectively. The
lowest 10 percent of computer and peripheral
equipment operators earned $180 or less a
week, and the top 10 percent earned more than
$485. The bottom 10 percent of data entry oper­
ators earned less than $170 while the top 10
percent earned more than $390 weekly.
Weekly earnings of data entry operator train­
ees in private industry averaged around $220 in
1982, according to surveys conducted in urban
areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and
firms engaged in research on data processing
occupations. Lead operators earned from $250
to $270 weekly.
Weekly earnings of beginning computer op­
erators averaged about $230. Experienced
workers earned from $270 to $300, and lead
operators earned from $350 to $450 weekly.
Computer operators and data entry operators
had higher earnings in the North and West than




in the South. Operators employed in manufac­
turing, transportation and public utilities, and
wholesale trade had higher earnings than those
employed in retail trade, banking, insurance,
and services.
In the Federal Government, computer oper­
ators and data entry operators without work
experience started at about $205 a week in early
1982.

Related Occupations
Other occupations in which workers organize
data and process information on electronic
equipment include secretaries and typists,
printing typesetters and compositors, transcrib­
ing machine operators, and file clerks.

Sources of Additional Information
People who want further information about
work opportunities in computer operations
should contact firms that use computers such as
banks, manufacturing and insurance firms, col­
leges and universities, and data processing
service organizations. The local office of the
State employment services is another source of
information about employment and training op­
portunities.

Mail Carriers and
Postal Clerks
(D.O.T. 209.687-014; 230.363-010, .367-010; 239.367018; and 243.367-014)

Nature of the Work
The United States Postal Service employs ap­
proximately 670,000 workers to move the Na­
tion’s mail. About four-fifths of them are mail
carriers or postal clerks.
Most mail carriers travel planned routes de­
livering and collecting mail. Carriers start work
at the post office early in the morning, where

they spend a few hours arranging their mail for
delivery and taking care of other details.
A carrier may cover the route on foot, by
vehicle, or a combination of both. On foot,
carriers carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or
push it in a cart. In some areas, they use a car or
small truck. Residential carriers cover their
routes only once a day, but some carriers as­
signed to a business district may make two trips
a day. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to
roadside mailboxes, and to large buildings,
such as offices or apartments, which generally
have all the mailboxes on the first floor.
Besides delivering and collecting mail, car­
riers collect money for postage-due and c.o.d.
(cash on delivery) fees and obtain signed re­
ceipts for registered, certified, and insured
mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier
leaves a notice that tells where special mail is
being held.
After completing their routes, carriers return
to the post office with mail gathered from street
collection boxes, homes, and businesses. They
turn in the mail receipts and money collected
during the day and may separate letters and
parcels for further processing by clerks.
Many city carriers have more specialized
duties. Some deliver only parcel post while
others collect mail from street boxes and re­
ceiving boxes in office buildings. In contrast,
rural carriers provide a wide variety of postal
services. In addition to delivering and picking
up mail, they sell stamps and money orders and
accept parcels, letters, and items to be regis­
tered, certified, or insured.
All carriers answer customers’ questions
about postal regulations and services and
provide change-of-address cards and other
postal forms when requested.
Most people are familiar with the post office
window clerk behind the counter who sells
stamps and accepts parcel post. However, most
postal clerks are distribution clerks who sort
incoming and outgoing mail in workrooms out
of public view.
Postal clerks work at local post offices or at
large central mail processing facilities. Those
at local post offices sort local mail for delivery
to individual customers. Incoming mail col­
lected from local collection boxes is forwarded
to the nearest mail processing center. There,
clerks sort and prepare the mail for delivery.
A bout 425 m ail pro cessin g centers
throughout the country service post offices in
surrounding areas. There, mailhandlers unload
the sacks of incoming mail and separate it into
groups of letters, parcel post, magazines, and
newspapers. They feed letters through stamp­
canceling machines, then take the mail to other
workrooms to be sorted by postal clerks accord­
ing to destination. There, clerks operating elec­
tronic letter sorting machines push keys corre­
sponding to the ZIP code of the local post office
to which each letter will be delivered; the ma­
chine drops letters into proper slots. Other
clerks sort odd-sized letters, magazines, and
newspapers by hand. Finally, the mail is sent to
local post offices for further sorting according
to delivery route.

Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/207
In addition to selling stamps and money or­
ders, clerks at post office windows weigh pack­
ages to determine postage and check to see if
their condition is satisfactory for mailing.
Clerks also register, certify, and insure mail and
answer questions about postage rates, mailing
restrictions, and other postal matters. Occa­
sionally they may help a customer file a claim
for a damaged package.

Working Conditions
Most carriers begin work early in the morning,
in some cases as early as 4 a.m. if they have
routes in the business district. Carriers spend
most of their time outdoors, and deliver mail in
all kinds of weather. Even those who drive often
must walk when making deliveries and must lift
heavy sacks of parcel post when loading their
vehicles.
A carrier’s schedule has its advantages: Car­
riers who begin work early in the morning are
through by early afternoon, and they spend
most of the day on their own, relatively free
from direct supervision.
Working conditions of clerks vary according
to work assignments and type of laborsaving
machinery available. In small post offices,
clerks may use a hand truck to move heavy mail
sacks from one part of the building to another
and sort mail by hand. In large post offices and
mail processing centers, chutes and conveyors
move the mail, and much of the sorting is done
with machines. When not operating a letter
sorting machine, clerks usually are on their
feet, reaching for sacks and trays of mail and
placing packages and bundles into sacks and
trays.
Distribution clerks may become bored with
the routine of sorting mail unless they try to
improve their speed and accuracy. They also
may have to work at night or on weekends,
because most large post offices process mail
around the clock.
A window clerk, on the other hand, has a
greater variety of duties, frequent contact with
the public, and a generally less strenuous job.
Window clerks rarely have to work at night.

lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70
pounds. Applicants for mail carrier positions
must have a driver’s license, a good driving
record, and pass a road test. Those applying for
jobs as postal clerks operating an electronic
sorting machine must pass a special examina­
tion which includes a machine aptitude test.
Applicants should apply at the post office or
mail processing center where they wish to work
to determine when an exam will be given. Ap­
plicants’ names are listed in order of their exam­
ination scores. Five points are added to the
score of an honorably discharged veteran, and
10 points to the score of a veteran wounded in
combat or disabled. When a vacancy occurs,
the appointing officer chooses one of the top
three applicants; the rest of the names remain on
the list to be considered for future openings
until their eligibility expires, usually 2 years
from the examination date.
Relatively few people under the age of 25 are
hired as career mail carriers or postal clerks, a
result of keen competition for these jobs and the
customary waiting period of 1-2 years or more
after passing the examination. It is not surpris­
ing, therefore, that most entrants transfer from
other occupations.
Mail carriers and postal clerks are classified
as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular,
or full time. Casual workers are not career em­
ployees, but are hired to help process and deliv­
er mail during peak mailing or vacation periods
of the year. Part-time flexible workers are career
employees who do not have a regular work
schedule, but replace absent workers and help
with extra work as the need arises. Part-time
regulars have a set work schedule of less than 8
hours a day. Full-time mail carriers usually
work a 40-hour week over 5 or 6 days, but may
work additional overtime hours when required.

Employment
The U.S. Postal Service employed about
234.000 mail carriers and 307,000 postal
clerks in 1982. Three-quarters of them worked
full time. Although most mail carriers worked
in cities and suburban communities, about
60.000 were rural carriers. Most postal clerks
work at mail processing centers, although some
sort mail and provide window service at local
post offices throughout the country.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Mail carriers and postal clerks must be U.S.
citizens or have been granted permanent resi­
dent-alien status in the United States. They
must be at least 18 years old (or 16, if they have
a high school diploma). They must qualify on a
written examination that measures speed and
accuracy at checking names and numbers and
ability to memorize mail distribution pro­
cedures. Applicants must pass a physical exam­
ination and may be asked to show that they can



Mail carriers must work in all types of weather.

Full-time postal clerks usually work a 40-hour
week over 5 days.
New mail carriers are trained on the job.
They may begin as part-time flexible city car­
riers and become regular or full-time carriers in
order of seniority as vacancies occur. Carriers
can look forward to obtaining preferred routes
as their seniority increases, or higher level jobs
such as carrier technician, or promotion to su­
pervisory positions.
New postal clerks also are trained on the job.
Most clerks begin with simple tasks to learn
regional groupings of States, cities, and ZIP
codes. To help clerks learn these groups, many
post offices offer classroom instruction.
A good memory, good coordination, and the
ability to read rapidly and accurately are impor­
tant. Distribution clerks work closely with
other clerks, frequently under the tension and
strain of meeting deadlines. Window clerks
must be courteous and tactful when dealing
with the public, especially when answering
questions or receiving complaints.
Most clerks begin as part-time flexible em­
ployees and become full-time workers in order
of seniority as vacancies occur. Full-time clerks
may bid for preferred assignments such as the
day shift, a window job, or a higher level nonsupervisory position as expediter or window
service technician. Clerks also may advance to
supervisory positions.

Job Outlook
In recent years, the number of applicants for
mail carrier and postal clerk positions has great­
ly exceeded the number of openings. This situa­
tion is expected to continue, and persons seek­
ing jobs in the Postal Service should anticipate
keen competition.
Conflicting factors will influence the em­
ploym ent of mail carriers through the

208/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Technological improvements have eliminated the jobs of many
postal workers.

Rural delivery carriers had average base sal­
aries of $21,736 in late 1982. Their earnings are
determined through an evaluation of the amount
of work required to service their routes. Car­
riers with heavier workloads generally earned
more than those with lighter workloads. Rural
carriers also received a maintenance allowance
when required to use their own vehicles.
Most mail carriers and postal clerks belong
to one of the four unions organizing postal
workers: American Postal Workers Union, Na­
tional Association of Letter Carriers, National
Post Office Mail Handlers, and National Rural
Letter Carriers Association.

Related Occupations

1970

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

SOURCE: U.S. Postal Service

mid-1990’s. On the one hand, despite competi­
tion from alternative delivery systems and new
forms of electronic communication, the volume
of mail handled by the Postal Service is ex­
pected to continue to grow, third class mail
from businesses to households in particular. A
growing population— and the even more
rapidly growing number of households—will
stimulate demand for mail deliveries. On the
other hand, with the full implementation of the
“ZIP+ 4” routing program, mail carriers will
spend less time sorting their mail before deliv­
ering it. In addition, the Postal Service is mov­
ing towards more centralized mail delivery,
such as utilizing more cluster boxes, to cut
down on the number of door-to-door deliveries.
These trends are expected to have an offsetting
effect, and employment of mail carriers is ex­
pected to remain stable.
Employment of postal clerks is expected to
decline through the mid-1990’s. In spite of the
anticipated increase in the total volume of mail,
automation will continue to raise postal clerks’
productivity, and fewer will be needed. Postal
clerks who sort the mail will be affected most.
Automation in the Postal Service encompasses
such things as the further implementation of
computer forwarding, presorting programs,
and the “ZIP+ 4” routing program, as well as
the installation of optical character readers, bar
code sorters, and flat-sorting machines that me­
chanically process large envelopes, magazines,
and circulars. These and other technological
advances have already eliminated thousands of
postal jobs, as shown in the accompanying
chart. Little change is expected in the number
of postal clerks who work at post office win­
dows, although their productivity should in­
crease as more electronic scales are installed for
their use. In addition, the proliferation of selfservice stamp machines may tend to hold down
the number of customers normally served by
postal clerks.
Even though employment is not expected to
increase, some jobs will be available because of



the need to replace mail carriers and postal
clerks who retire or stop working for other
reasons. The factors that make entry to these
occupations highly competitive—attractive sal­
aries, a good pension plan, steady work, and
modest educational requirements—contribute
to a high degree of job attachment, so that
replacement needs produce fewer job openings
than in most other occupations. In contrast to
the typical pattern, postal workers generally
remain in their jobs until they retire; relatively
few transfer to other occupations.
Although the volume of mail to be processed
and delivered rises and falls with the level of
business activity, as well as with the season of
the year, full-time mail carriers and postal
clerks have never been laid off. When mail
volume is high, full-time carriers and clerks
work overtime, part-time carriers and clerks
work additional hours, and casual carriers and
clerks may be hired. When mail volume is low,
overtime is curtailed, part-timers work fewer
hours, and casual workers are discharged. The
projected long-term employment decline of
postal clerks probably will not cause layoffs of
permanent workers, but will be achieved by
elimination of some positions vacated by work­
ers who leave voluntarily, as was the case dur­
ing the 1970’s.

Earnings
In late 1982, experienced full-time city deliv­
ery mail carriers earned an average salary of
$21,591 a year, about one and one-half times as
much as average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming.
For full-time carriers and postal clerks, base
pay for beginners was $20,130 a year, rising to
a maximum of $22,792 after 8 years. A 10percent supplement is paid for hours worked
between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Carriers and postal
clerks working part-time flexible schedules be­
gan at $9.95 an hour in late 1982, with periodic
increases up to $11.28 an hour after 8 years.

Mail carriers, mailhandlers, and postal clerks
play an important role in moving the Nation’s
mail, and their work and qualifications are
closely related. Other occupations with duties
related to those of mail carrier include mes­
sengers, merchandise deliverers, deliveryroute truckdrivers, newspaper delivery drivers,
and newspaper carriers. Other occupations
whose duties are related to those of postal clerk
include mail clerks, file clerks, routing clerks,
sorters, medical record clerks, clerk-typists,
cashiers, keypunch operators, and ticket
sellers.

Sources of Additional Information
Local post offices and State employment serv­
ice offices can supply details about entrance
examinations and specific employment oppor­
tunities for mail carriers and postal clerks.

Receptionists
(D.O.T. 205.367-038, 237.367-010 and -038)

Nature of the Work
All organizations want to make a good first
impression on the public. This is an important
part of the job of the receptionist, who generally
is the first person a caller sees.
Receptionists greet customers and other vis­
itors, determine their needs, and refer callers to
the person who can help them. Receptionists’
day-to-day duties vary a great deal, depending
on where they work. Those in hospitals and
doctors’ offices, for example, may obtain per­
sonal and financial information and then direct
patients to the proper waiting rooms. In beauty
shops, receptionists arrange appointments and
may show customers to the operator’s booth. In
factories or large business firms, they provide
identification cards and arrange for escorts to
take callers to the proper office.
Many receptionists keep records of callers,
the times at which they called, and the persons
to whom they were referred. When they are not
busy with callers, receptionists may type, file,
or operate a switchboard. Some receptionists
open and sort mail and collect and distribute
messages. Still others prepare travel vouchers
and do simple bookkeeping.

Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/209
throughout the country. College or business
school training also can be helpful in advancing
to better paying office jobs. Many companies
have their own training programs so that the
skills needed for advancement can be learned
on the job.

Sources of Additional Information
State employment service offices can provide
information about earnings, hours, and em­
ployment opportunities in this and other cler­
ical jobs.

Job Outlook

Receptionists may handle a variety of clerical
duties.
Working Conditions
Because receptionists greet customers and vis­
itors, they usually work in areas that are care­
fully designed and furnished to make a good
impression. Working conditions usually are
pleasant; offices are clean, well lighted, and
relatively quiet.
Although most have regular hours, recep­
tionists in hospitals and some professional of­
fices may work weekends or in the evenings.
Some receptionists work part time.

Employment
Receptionists held about 594,000 jobs in 1982.
Although receptionists work in almost every
kind of organization, about one-third of all jobs
are located in doctors’ and dentists’ offices,
hospitals, nursing homes, and other health
service facilities. Factories, wholesale and re­
tail stores, real estate offices, and firms provid­
ing a wide range of business and personal serv­
ices also employ large numbers of recep­
tionists.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Many receptionist jobs are entry level and do
not require office or business experience. The
occupation accordingly attracts people outside
the labor force, including homemakers and re­
cent high school and college graduates. Em­
ployers usually require a high school diploma.
Personal characteristics are very important in
this occupation. A receptionist should like
meeting new people and have a desire to be
helpful and informative. A neat appearance, a
pleasant voice, and an even disposition also are
important. Because receptionists do not work
under close supervision, common sense and a
thorough understanding of how the business is
organized help them handle various situations
that arise.
Promotion opportunities for receptionists are
limited, especially in small offices. In large
workplaces, however, a receptionist who has
clerical skills may advance to a better paying
job as a secretary, administrative assistant, or
bookkeeper.
English, typing, shorthand, business arith­
metic, basic accounting and bookkeeping, of­
fice procedures, and other useful subjects for
receptionists are taught in high schools



Employment of receptionists is expected to
grow faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Although many open­
ings are expected to occur each year as busi­
nesses expand, most job openings for recep­
tionists will result from the need to replace
experienced workers who transfer to other jobs,
stop working for personal reasons, or retire. As
in the past, replacement needs will create an
exceptionally large number of job openings, for
the occupation is large and turnover is higher
than average.
Employment of receptionists is expected to
grow more rapidly than employment of all cler­
ical workers combined. This is largely because
so many receptionists work for firms providing
business and professional services—sectors of
the economy that are expected to continue to
show strong growth—particularly doctors’ and
dentists’ offices, hospitals, and other health
service facilities. In addition, more and more
firms are beginning to recognize the impor­
tance of the receptionist in promoting good
public relations. Because the receptionist’s
work is of a person-to-person nature, it is un­
likely to be affected by office automation.
Since many receptionists also perform secre­
tarial duties, persons with good typing, ste­
nographic, and other skills should have the best
job prospects.

Earnings
Full-time switchboard operator-receptionists
working in urban areas averaged $11,362 a year
in 1982, compared with an average of $13,880
a year for all nonsupervisory and production
workers in private industry, except farming.
Receptionists working in the West had the high­
est average annual earnings, $11,934, while
those in the South had the lowest, $10,790. A
1982 survey of Federal, State, and local govern­
ment workers conducted by the International
Personnel Management Association showed
that beginning telephone operator-receptionists
averaged $10,332 per year, while those with
experience averaged $12,876. According to the
Administrative Management Society’s 1982
survey of workers in both the public and private
sectors, switchboard operator-receptionists
earned $11,648 a year, on the average. In the
Federal Government, beginning information
receptionists with a high school diploma or 6
months of work experience earned about
$9,800 a year in 1982. Average salaries for
receptionists employed by the Federal Govern­
ment were around $12,800 a year in 1982.

Related Occupations
A number of other workers deal with the public,
receive and provide information, or direct peo­
ple to others who can assist them. Among these
are information clerks, information and referral
aides, and customer service representatives.

Reservation Agents
and Transportation
Ticket Clerks______
(D.O.T. 237.267-010; 238.167-014, .367-010, -014, 018, and -026; and 248.382-010)

Nature of the Work
The manner in which a company’s employees
deal with the public, and the quality of the
service they provide, often make the difference
between a satisfied customer and a dissatisfied
one. In transportation companies, reservation
agents and transportation ticket clerks provide
this important personal contact.
Reservation agents and transportation ticket
clerks are employed by airline, railroad, bus,
and steamship companies, automobile clubs,
hotels, government agencies, and business
firms to facilitate passenger travel in a variety of
ways. They help passengers plan their trips by
answering questions and offering suggestions
on travel arrangements such as routes, time
schedules, rates, and types of accommodation.
They make and confirm reservations, calculate
expenses, and write and sell tickets. When pas­
sengers are about to embark on their trips, these
agents and clerks check their baggage, direct
them to the point of departure, and help them to
board.
Airlines employ reservation agents, gate
agents, and ticketing clerks. Airline reservation
agents work in large central offices answering
customer telephone inquiries and booking res­
ervations. Each agent has access to a computer
terminal and, by typing instructions on the key­
board, can quickly obtain the necessary infor­
mation and make the reservations. Agents also
can change or cancel reservations at the cus­
tomer’s request, simply by modifying the rec­
ord on the computer. Airline ticketing clerks
compile and record information to assemble
airline tickets which then are sent to pas­
sengers. Airline gate agents work in airports
and assist passengers to board the correct air­
plane. Their duties include checking flight tick­
ets, directing passengers to the right boarding
area, allowing passengers to board the airplane,
and assisting elderly, disabled, or young pas­
sengers to board or depart from the airplane.
Airlines, as well as railroad, bus, and steam­
ship companies, also employ ticket agents
(sometimes referred to by other titles, such as
passenger agent, passenger-booking clerk, res­
ervation clerk, ticket clerk, and ticket seller). In
addition to selling tickets, these workers an­
swer inquiries, plan routes, ensure passenger
seating, check baggage, and sell travel insur­
ance.
Railroads employ reservation clerks to han­
dle customers’ requests for passenger space on

210/Occupational Outlook Handbook
trains. They assign space after consulting the
chart diagram of each car, and then make the
proper arrangements with other company em­
ployees to ensure that passengers can complete
their trips smoothly.
Passenger rate clerks work for bus com­
panies. They arrange charter trips by providing
fares to customers, planning travel routes, com­
puting rates, and keeping customers informed
of appropriate details. They may also arrange
travel accommodations for tourists.
Automobile clubs have travel counselors and
information clerks who plan trips for club
members. Using a road map, they show the best
route from the point of origin to the destination,
as well as the return. They indicate the points of
interest, restaurants, hotels, or other housing
accommodations along the route, as well as
explain what emergency repair services are
available during the trip. They may make reser­
vations for club members and calculate their
expenses and mileage.

Working Conditions
Because the transportation industry operates at
all hours, reservation agents and transportation
ticket clerks may have irregular schedules.
Agents and clerks with the least seniority often
work nights and weekends. Reservation agents
in central offices making reservations by tele­
phone generally sit while on duty. Ticket clerks
in transportation terminals dealing face-to-face
with passengers, however, usually stand most
of the time. In contrast to most other clerical
occupations, there is little part-time work in
these jobs.
During holidays and other busy periods,
agents and clerks may find the work hectic due
to the large number of passengers who must be

accommodated rapidly. When operations are
interrupted, such as when weather conditions
lead to delays or rerouting of airplane flights,
agents and clerks serve as buffers between the
companies and their customers. Trying to
pacify irate passengers under these conditions
can be very difficult.

Employment
Reservation agents and transportation ticket
clerks held about 108,000 jobs in 1982. Airlines
employed nearly 50,000 reservation agents and
38.000 ticket clerks. Railroad companies had
about 7,000 reservation clerks and 10,000 tick­
et clerks. Bus companies employed almost
4.000 ticket clerks; automobile clubs, approx­
imately 8,500 travel counselors and informa­
tion clerks. Water transportation companies
employed about 500 ticket clerks. Most agents
and clerks worked in downtown ticket and res­
ervation offices and at large metropolitan trans­
portation terminals where most passenger business originates. Some were employed in
smaller communities served by transportation
companies.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Hiring requirements vary from company to
company within the transportation industry.
High school graduation generally is required
and often some college is preferred. In fact,
compared to other clerical occupations, a higher-than-average percentage of persons entering
these occupations have attended college. While
the airline industry has traditionally drawn job­
seekers who have had some college, passenger
service jobs throughout the transportation in­
dustry are being sought more often by college

graduates as competition closes off other job
opportunities.
Previous experience dealing with the public,
prior employment in the transportation indus­
try, or both, may pave the way to a passenger
service job. Survey data show that the majority
of openings are filled by persons in their twen­
ties or thirties, many of whom transfer from
other occupations. Because reservation agents
and transportation ticket clerks must deal di­
rectly with the public, a good appearance and a
pleasant personality are important, as are prob­
lem-solving ability and good interpersonal
skills. A good speaking voice is essential be­
cause these employees frequently use the tele­
phone or public address system. Courses useful
to persons wanting to enter these occupations
include basic math and English, geography,
U.S. history, and public speaking. Typing abil­
ity often is needed and experience with word
processing equipment and computers may be
useful.
Orientation and training for new reservation
agents and transportation ticket clerks vary
with the company. In some cases, formal in­
struction is given, whereas in other cases, all
the training is given on the job. In airlines, for
example, new reservation agents receive about
a month of classroom instruction. They are
taught company policy and government regula­
tions that cover ticketing procedures and other
matters related to the airline. They learn to read
schedules, calculate fares, and plan passenger
itineraries. They also are taught to use the com­
puter to obtain information on schedules and
seat availability, and to reserve space for pas­
sengers. They are tested daily and homework
usually is assigned. To maximize their produc­
tivity, reservation agents are expected to mini­
mize the time spent on each call without, of
course, alienating customers. It takes practice
to cut off garrulous callers without offending
them. Thus, learning how to carry on con­
versations in an organized, yet pleasing manner
is an important part of their training. After
completing classroom instruction, new agents
work under supervisors or experienced agents
for several weeks. On the pther hand, auto­
mobile clubs train their travel counselors on the
job, without formal classes.
Advancement opportunities are limited.
Some reservation agents and transportation
ticket clerks are promoted to supervisory posi­
tions, and a small number eventually become
field sales agents or city and district sales man­
agers. In unionized establishments, entry-level
positions may be the only ones open to individ­
uals outside the firm; higher level positions are
generally filled through promotion from the
ranks of company employees.

Job Outlook

Reservation agents rely on computer terminals for information on airline schedules.




Little change in employment of reservation
agents and transportation ticket clerks is ex­
pected through the mid-1990’s, for automation
and other productivity improvements will en­
able the transportation industry to handle more
passengers without substantially increasing the
number of agents and clerks. Most job openings
will arise as experienced agents and clerks
transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force.

Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/211
Applicants are likely to encounter considerable
competition for openings, for the supply of
qualified applicants far outstrips demand. For
one thing, entry requirements are not restric­
tive. Moreover, airline jobs in particular attract
many applicants because of the travel benefits
and the glamour associated with the industry.
Employment of reservation agents and trans­
portation ticket clerks is sensitive to cyclical
swings in the economy. Some agents and clerks
are likely to be laid off or demoted during
recessions, when demand for. passenger travel
declines and few new agents and clerks are
hired.

Earnings
According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics sur­
vey of the airline industry, reservation agents
earned average weekly salaries of $445 in 1982,
while gate agents averaged $492 and ticket
agents, $497. AMTRAK paid reservation cler­
ks between $8.39 and $9.44 an hour in 1982,
and ticket clerks received $8.96 to $10.08.
According to a union contract, a major bus
company in 1982 paid its telephone informa­
tion clerks hourly rates ranging from $8.12 to
$8.74, while ticket agents were paid from
$8.16 to $9.35. In 1982, travel counselors
working for a national automobile club earned
starting salaries of $162 to $179 a week; after a
few years’ experience, travel counselors aver­
aged between $202 and $221, with a top salary
of $296. Fringe benefits for agents and clerks
often include discounts on travel on their com­
pany’s carriers for themselves and their imme­
diate families.
Many agents and clerks belong to labor
unions. Five unions cover most of the
organized agents and clerks: The Air Line Em­
ployees Association; the Amalgamated Transit
Union; the Brotherhood of Railway, Airline and
Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express
and Station Employes; the International Broth­
erhood of Teamsters, C haffeurs, Ware­
housemen and Helpers of America; and the
Transport Workers Union of America.

Related Occupations
Other workers who must be friendly and pleas­
ant while providing information or assisting
people include ground hosts/hostesses (air
transportation), appointment clerks, informa­
tion clerks, and receptionists.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about jobs in a particular transpor­
tation company may be obtained by writing to
the personnel manager of the company. Ad­
dresses of airlines are available from:
Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New
York Ave. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006.

Secretaries and
Stenographers
(D.O.T. 201.162-010, .362-010, -014, -018, -022, and
-030; 202.362-010, -014, -018, and -022)

Nature of the Work
The efficiency of any organization depends in
part upon secretaries and stenographers, who



are at the center of communications within the
firm. They process and transmit information to
the staff and to other organizations.
Secretaries perform a variety of admin­
istrative and clerical duties so that their employ­
ers can work on other matters. They schedule
appointments, give information to callers,
organize and maintain files, fill out forms, and
take and transcribe dictation. The amount of
time secretaries spend on these and other du­
ties—including typing—depends on the way
office work is handled within the organization.
In offices that have word processing centers,
administrative secretaries handle everything
except dictation and typing. Their duties range
from filing, routing mail, and answering tele­
phones to more complex work such as answer­
ing letters, doing research, and preparing statis­
tical reports. Administrative secretaries often
work in clusters of three or four so that they can
help each other. Because they are released from
dictation and typing, they can serve several
members of the professional staff.
Some secretaries do highly specialized work
for which training is available in business
schools and colleges as well as community col­
leges. Legal secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-010)
prepare legal papers and correspondence such
as summonses, complaints, motions, and sub­
poenas. They may also review law journals and
assist in other ways with legal research. Medi­
cal secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-014) tran­
scribe dictation, prepare correspondence, and
assist physicians or medical scientists with re­
ports, speeches, articles, and conference pro­
ceedings. They need to know medical termi­
nology and be familiar with hospital or
laboratory procedures. Technical secretaries
assist engineers or scientists. In addition to the
usual secretarial duties, they may prepare much
of the correspondence, maintain the technical
library, and gather and edit materials for scien­
tific papers.
Another specialized secretary is the social
secretary (D.O.T. 201.162-010), who arranges
social functions, answers personal correspon­
dence, and keeps the employer informed about
all social activities. Membership secretaries
(D.O.T. 201.362-018) compile and maintain
membership lists, record the receipt of dues and
contributions, and give out information to
members of organizations and associations.
They may have such other duties as sending out
newsletters and promotional materials. School
secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-022) handle sec­
retarial duties in elementary and secondary
schools; they may take care of correspondence,
prepare bulletins and reports, keep track of
money for school supplies and student ac­
tivities, and maintain a calendar of school
events.
Stenographers (D.O.T. 202.362-014) and
stenotype operators (D.O.T. 202.362-022) take
dictation and then transcribe their notes on a
typewriter. They may either take shorthand or
use a stenotype machine that prints symbols as
certain keys are pressed. General ste­
nographers, including most beginners, take
routine dictation and do other office tasks such
as typing, filing, answering telephones, and
operating office machines. Experienced and

Men hold a small but growing number of secre­
tarial jobs.
highly skilled stenographers take difficult dic­
tation and do more responsible clerical work.
They may sit in on staff meetings and later give
a summary report or a word-for-word record of
the proceedings. They also supervise other ste­
nographers, typists, and clerical workers. Tech­
nical stenographers must know the terms used
in a particular profession. They include medi­
cal, legal, and engineering or scientific ste­
nographers. Some experienced stenographers
take dictation in foreign languages; others work
as public stenographers serving traveling busi­
ness people and others.
Shorthand reporters (D.O.T. 202.362-010)
are specialized stenographers who record all
statements made in a proceeding. Shorthand
reporters often work as court reporters. They
take down all statements made at legal proceed­
ings and present their record as the official
transcript. Many other shorthand reporters
work as freelance reporters who record out-ofcourt testimony for attorneys, proceedings of
meetings and conventions, and other private
activities. Still others record the proceedings in
the U.S. Congress, in State legislatures, and in
State and Federal agencies. Many reporters dic­
tate notes on magnetic tapes that a typist can
transcribe later. Many other reporters transcribe
their notes with the help of note readers, per­
sons skilled in reading back shorthand notes. A
growing number of reporters use Computer
Aided Transcription (CAT), a system in which a
computer directly translates the reporter’s
shorthand notes into English. Because the re­
porter’s transcript is the official record of a
proceeding, accuracy is vitally important.
Print shop stenographers (D.O.T. 202.362018) take dictation and use typewriters to tran­
scribe the dictated material and to prepare metal
printing plates to be used by addressing ma­
chines.

Working Conditions
Secretaries usually work in offices that are
clean, well lighted, and free from high noise
levels except during peak typing periods. Their
jobs often involve sitting for long periods, and
typing often requires working from materials
that are difficult to read. Executive secretaries,

212/Occupaiional Outlook Handbook
who perform a number of duties, have the vari­
ety in their jobs that many people prefer.
Secretaries and stenographers generally
work a standard 40-hour week. In some cities,
especially in the Northeast, the scheduled
workweek is 37 hours or less.
Office work lends itself to alternative or flexi­
ble working arrangements, and many secre­
taries hold part-time or temporary jobs. Some
participate in job-sharing arrangements, in
which two people divide responsibility for a
single job. A few employers are experimenting
with “home based” offices; sophisticated equip­
ment installed in secretaries’ homes enables
them to transcribe material at home and, almost
instantly, produce printed copy in an office
miles away.

Employment
Secretaries held about 2,441,000 jobs in 1982,
making this one of the largest occupations in the
U.S. economy. Stenographers held approx­
imately 270,000 jobs.
Secretaries are employed in organizations of
every description. They work for businesses
that engage in manufacturing, mining, con­
struction, wholesale and retail trade, transpor­
tation, and communications. Banks, insurance
companies, investment firms, and real estate
firms are important employers, too. Secretaries
work in Federal, State, and local government
agencies. About half of them, however, are
employed by organizations that provide serv­
ices: Educational institutions, hospitals and
other health facilities, law firms, membership
organizations, and companies that provide
business services. Among the latter are em­
ployment agencies that provide “office tempor­
aries” and word processing service bureaus.
S ten o g rap h ers, too, are em ployed
throughout the economy. Almost a third,
however, work for government agencies, a re­
flection of the large number of shorthand re­
porters working in courts, legislatures, and
agencies in the executive branch.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
High school graduates qualify for most secre­
tarial positions provided they have basic office
skills. Secretaries must be proficient in typing
and good at spelling, punctuation, grammar,
and oral communication. Shorthand is neces­
sary for some positions. Word processing expe­
rience is increasingly important and some em­
ployers require it. Others, however, provide
word processing instruction to newly hired
workers.
The skills needed for a secretarial job can be
acquired in various ways. Although formal
training or refresher courses are not essential
for most jobs, training is an asset and may lead
to higher paying jobs. Secretarial training
ranges from high school vocational education
programs that teach office practices, shorthand,
and typing to 1- to 2-year programs in secre­
tarial science offered by business schools, vo­
cational-technical institutes, and community
colleges.
In addition to a solid grounding in secretarial
skills, employers look for a good command of




the English language and an aptitude for num­
bers. Some firms look for individuals with ex­
cellent interpersonal skills, since secretaries
must be tactful in their dealings with many
different people. Discretion, judgment, organi­
zational ability, and initiative are important for
the more responsible secretarial positions.
Continuing changes in the office environ­
ment, many made possible by the computer,
have increased the demand for secretaries and
stenographers who are adaptable and versatile.
Workers must be prepared to be retrained
whenever an employer introduces new equip­
ment. Secretaries may have to attend classes to
learn to operate word processing equipment,
information storage systems, and other auto­
mated equipment. The frequency with which
office equipment is changed or updated makes
retraining and continuing education an integral
part of the job, and employers seek workers
who understand and accept the inevitability of
change.
Employers usually have no preferences
among the many different shorthand methods.
For court reporters, however, the preference is
for stenotype (machine shorthand), not only
because reporters can write faster using steno­
type, but also because they can feed stenotype
notes to a computer for high-speed transcrip­
tion. The most important factors in hiring and
promotion are speed and accuracy. To qualify
for jobs in the Federal Government, ste­
nographers must be able to take dictation at a
minimum of 80 words per minute and type at
least 40 words per minute. Workers must
achieve higher rates to advance to more respon­
sible positions. In private firms, the require­
ments vary, but applicants with the best speed
and accuracy will receive first consideration in
hiring. Many shorthand reporting jobs require
more than 225 words of dictation per minute;
shorthand reporters in the Federal Government
generally must take at least 175 words a minute.
Several States require each court reporter to
be a Certified Shorthand Reporter (CSR). A
certification test is administered by a board of
examiners in each of the States that have CSR
laws. The National Shorthand Reporters Asso­
ciation confers the designation Registered Pro­
fessional Reporter (RPR) upon those who pass
a two-part examination and participate in con­
tinuing education programs. The RPR designa­
tion is recognized as the mark of excellence in
the profession.
Advancement for secretaries and ste­
nographers generally comes about in one of two
ways; Promotion to more responsible secre­
tarial positions, or transfer to another kind of
job. As secretaries gain experience, they can
qualify for the designation Certified Profession­
al Secretary (CPS) by passing a series of exams
given by the Institute of Certifying Secretaries,
a department of Professional Secretaries Inter­
national. This designation is recognized by a
growing number of employers as the mark of
achievement in the secretarial field. Ste­
nographers may advance to secretarial jobs;
those who acquire the necessary speed through
additional training can become shorthand re­
porters.

Qualified secretaries who broaden their
knowledge of their company’s operations may
be promoted to positions such as administrative
assistant, clerical or secretarial supervisor, and
office manager. By taking college courses or
completing a degree program in a field such as
business, marketing, accounting, or personnel
administration, secretaries may progress into
entry level management positions.
Secretaries and stenographers with word
processing experience can advance to jobs as
word processing trainers, supervisors, or man­
agers within their own firms or in a secretarial
or word processing service bureau. They also
can get jobs with manufacturers of word pro­
cessing and other office equipment in positions
such as instructor or sales representative.

Job Outlook
Employment of secretaries is expected to in­
crease about as fast as the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s due to the
steadily growing need to process information.
Demand for secretaries will rise as new organi­
zations are established and existing ones ex­
pand. Hospitals, nursing homes, and university
medical centers; insurance companies offering
new forms of protection; and banks providing
financial services to a growing and increasingly
affluent population are just a few of the organi­
zations that will need more secretaries in the
years ahead.
An exceptionally large number of jobs will
be available through the mid-1990’s due to ex­
pansion in employment and the need to replace
experienced secretaries who leave the occupa­
tion. As in most other occupations, replace­
ment needs will be the primary source of jobs.
The impact of office automation on employ­
ment of secretaries is a subject of intense scru­
tiny. However, experts disagree as to the timing
and probable consequences of widespread ap­
plication of new technologies. Nonetheless, de­
velopments in office technology are certain to
continue, and they will bring about further
changes in the secretary’s work environment.
One thing seems certain: Automated office
equipment cannot substitute for those personal
qualities that are essential to the job.
Highly qualified secretaries are in great de­
mand, and this situation is expected to con­
tinue. Job prospects are excellent for secretaries
with strong typing, shorthand, and word pro­
cessing skills, and such personal qualities as
organizational ability, good judgment, and ini­
tiative.
Opportunities are excellent for temporary or
part-time work in the secretarial field. Employ­
ers are increasingly receptive to such arrange­
ments because of the shortage of qualified sec­
retaries in many parts of the country.
Employment of stenographers is expected to
continue the decline of recent years. The wide­
spread use of dictation machines has greatly
reduced the need for office stenographers, and
the traditional “steno pool” is becoming a thing
of the past. In contrast, demand for skilled
shorthand reporters should remain strong as
State and Federal court systems expand to han­
dle the rising number of criminal court cases
and civil lawsuits. Competition for entry level

Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/213
jobs as shorthand reporters is increasing, as
more students enter the field. Opportunities
will be best for those who have earned certifica­
tion by the National Shorthand Reporters Asso­
ciation.

Earnings
Secretaries and stenographers’ salaries vary a
great deal, usually reflecting differences in
skill, experience, and level of responsibility.
Salaries in different parts of the country also
vary; earnings generally are lowest in southern
cities and highest in northern and western urban
areas. In 1982, for example, secretaries aver­
aged $16,016 a year in the Northeast, $16,848
in the North Central region, $17,784 in the
West, and $15,548 in the South.
In addition, salaries vary by industry. Sal­
aries of secretaries and stenographers tend to be
highest in public utilities and manufacturing
and lowest in finance, insurance, and real es­
tate.
Stenographers in private industry averaged
$16,307 a year in 1983; experienced ste­
nographers averaged $19,367. Secretaries to
supervisors in small offices averaged $14,732 a
year in 1983. Secretaries to officers in small
companies had an average yearly salary of
$16,031; those working for middle manage­
ment in large companies averaged $18,254.
Secretaries holding greater responsibilities,
such as executive secretaries to corporate of­
ficers, earned an average salary of $20,232 per
year.
Beginning clerk-stenographers in the
Federal Government earned from $10,645 to
$13,369 a year in 1982 depending on educa­
tion, training, and experience. Shorthand re­
porters generally earn higher salaries than ste­
nographic office workers. Earnings vary, de­
pending on speed, education, experience, and
geographic location (earnings are generally
higher in large cities than in rural areas).
Starting salaries for secretaries in the Federal
Government ranged from $10,645 to $16,559 a
year. Clerk-stenographers and secretaries em­
ployed by the Federal Government in 1982 had
average annual salaries of about $13,300 and
$16,000, respectively.
Employers usually pay secretaries and ste­
nographers who have word processing experi­
ence higher salaries than those without such
experience.
Most secretaries and stenographers in large
cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and
a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With
added years of service, vacations may range to
4 weeks or more. Group life and health insur­
ance, pension plans, and other fringe benefits
often are provided.

Related Occupations
A number of other workers type, record infor­
mation, and process paperwork. Among these
are bookkeepers, receptionists, office man­
agers, personnel clerks, typists, administrative
assistants, medical assistants, and legal assis­
tants.

Sources of Additional Information
For career information, write to:



Professional Secretaries International, 2440 Pershing
Rd., Suite G10, Kansas City, Mo. 64108.

High school students interested in careers as
legal secretaries may request the pamphlet So
You Want To Be A Legal Secretary. Write to:
National Association of Legal Secretaries (Interna­
tional), 3005 East Skelly Dr., Suite 120, Tulsa, Okla.
74105.

For information about shorthand reporting,
contact:
National Shorthand Reporters Association, 118 Park
St. SE., Vienna, Va. 22180.

Brochures describing a career as a secretary,
legal secretary, or shorthand reporter are avail­
able upon request from the Association of Inde­
pendent Colleges and Schools (AICS). AICS
also issues an annual directory of accredited
business schools that offer training in such
fields as secretarial science, accounting, data
processing, fashion merchandising, and travel.
Contact:
Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1
Dupont Circle, NW., Suite 350, Washington, D.C.
20036.

State employment offices can provide infor­
mation about job openings for secretaries and
stenographers locally and nationwide.

Shipping and
Receiving Clerks
(D.O.T. 209.367-042; 219.367-030; 222.367-010 and
-066, .387-010, -014, -018, and -050, .567-010 and 014, .587-034, -038, and -058. .687-018, -030, and 034; 248.362-010 and .367-014; and 919.687-010)

Nature of the Work
Shipping and receiving clerks keep track of
goods transferred between businesses and their
customers and suppliers. In small companies,
one clerk may record all shipments sent out and
received; in larger companies, a number of
clerks take care of this recordkeeping.
Shipping clerks are responsible for all ship­
ments leaving a place of business. Before goods
are sent to a customer, these clerks check to be
sure the order has been filled correctly, or may
fill the order themselves. They obtain merchan­
dise from the stockroom and wrap it or pack it
in shipping containers. Clerks also put ad­
dresses and other identifying information on
packages, look up and compute either freight or
postal rates, and record the weight and cost of
each shipment. They also may prepare invoices
and furnish information about shipments to an­
other part of the company, such as the account­
ing department. Once a shipment is checked
and ready to go, shipping clerks may move it to
the shipping dock and direct its loading into
trucks according to its destination. Shipping
and receiving clerks in small businesses may
perform some stock clerk duties.
When shipments arrive, receiving clerks per­
form tasks similar to those of shipping clerks.

They determine whether their employer’s or­
ders have been correctly filled by verifying in­
coming shipments against the original order
and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice.
They record the shipment and the condition of
its contents. Clerks also arrange for adjust­
ments with shippers whenever merchandise is
lost or damaged. The job may also include
routing or moving shipments to the proper de­
partment, warehouse section, or stockroom and
providing information that is needed to com­
pute inventories.

Working Conditions
Although shipping and receiving clerks gener­
ally work in warehouses or in shipping and
receiving rooms, they may spend considerable
time on outside loading platforms. Workplaces
often are large, unpartitioned areas that may be
drafty, cold, and littered with packing mate­
rials.
Most clerks have to stand for long periods
while they check merchandise. Locating num­
bers and descriptions on cartons often requires
a great deal of bending, stooping, and stretch­
ing. Also, under the pressure of getting ship­
ments moved on time, clerks sometimes may
help load or unload materials in the warehouse.
Night work and overtime, including work on
Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays, may be nec­
essary when shipments have been unduly de­
layed or when materials are needed imme­
diately on production lines. Shipping and
receiving clerks receive time and one-half for
work over 40 hours.

Employment
Shipping and receiving clerks held about
365,000 jobs in 1982. Nearly half were em­
ployed by wholesale houses or retail stores and
over one-third worked in factories. About 1 in
10 worked part time. Although jobs for ship­
ping and receiving clerks are found throughout
the country, most clerks work in urban areas,

Shipping and receiving clerks must make sure
that invoices correspond to shipments.

214/Occupational Outlook Handbook
where many factories and wholesale houses are
located.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
High school graduation is usually required for
beginning jobs in shipping and receiving de­
partments. Business arithmetic, typing, and
other high school business subjects are helpful.
The ability to write legibly and keep orderly
records is important. In general, jobseekers
must demonstrate that they can master com­
pany procedures, including the use of auto­
mated equipment. With the rapidly growing use
of computers for inventory control and other
recordkeeping purposes, the job of shipping
and receiving clerk is increasingly machine ori­
ented.
Willingness to work at repetitive tasks, de­
pendability, and an interest in learning about
the firm’s products and business activities are
other qualities that employers seek.
New employees usually are trained on the job
by an experienced worker. As part of their train­
ing, they often file, check addresses, attach
labels, and check items included in shipments.
As clerks gain experience, they may be as­
signed tasks requiring a good deal of indepen­
dent judgment, such as handling problems with
damaged merchandise, or supervising other
workers in shipping or receiving rooms.
A job as a shipping or receiving clerk offers a
good opportunity for new workers in a firm to
learn about their company’s products and busi­
ness practices. Some clerks may be promoted to
head shipping or receiving clerk, warehouse
manager, or purchasing agent. Very experi­
enced workers with a broad understanding of
shipping and receiving may enter related fields
such as industrial traffic management. (Pur­
chasing agents are discussed elsewhere in the
Handbook.)

Job Outlook
Employment of shipping and receiving clerks is
expected to increase more slowly than the aver­
age for all occupations through the mid-1990’s,
in part because so many clerks work in man­
ufacturing and wholesale trade, industry sec­
tors that are growing more slowly than the over­
all economy.
Employment^ growth will continue to be af­
fected by automation, as all but the smallest
firms move to hold down labor costs by using
computers to store and retrieve shipping and
receiving records. The use of common carriers
instead of company trucks to move shipments
also will limit the need for shipping and receiv­
ing clerks.
Nevertheless, numerous job openings will
occur every year as shipping and receiving
clerks transfer to other jobs or leave the labor
force. Because this is an entry level occupation,
many vacancies are created by normal career
progression.
While the amount of movement in and out of
the occupation is about average for a clerical
occupation, the reasons for that movement are
atypical. Unlike office clerical workers, who
tend to be women, the majority of shipping and
receiving clerks are men. Thus, few clerks



leave their jobs because of homemaking re­
sponsibilities, for example. Openings for ship­
ping and receiving clerks generally occur be­
cause workers have taken other jobs.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of full-time shipping
and receiving clerks were about $260 in 1982;
the middle 50 percent earned between $200 and
$340 a week. Ten percent earned less than $ 160
and 10 percent more than $450.
Shipping and receiving clerks in urban areas
averaged $302 a week in 1982, according to a
recent survey. This was about as much as the
average for all nonsupervisory workers in pri­
vate industry, except farming. Salaries varied
substantially, however, by type of employer.
Shipping and receiving clerks employed by
manufacturing firms averaged $301, those
working for wholesale houses averaged $322,
and those employed by public utilities averaged
$345. In addition, shipping and receiving cler­
ks working in the West tended to have the high­
est salaries, while those in the South had the
lowest.

Related Occupations
Shipping and receiving clerks record, check,
and often store the materials that a company
receives. They also process and pack goods for
shipment. Other workers who perform similar
duties are stock clerks, material clerks, dis­
tributing clerks, routing clerks, and order fill­
ers.

Sources of Additional Information
State employment service offices can provide
information about job openings for shipping
and receiving clerks.

Teacher Aides
(D.O.T. 099.327-010, 219.467-010 and 249.367-074)

aide’s job. Sometimes, teacher aides stock sup­
plies, operate audiovisual equipment, and keep
classroom equipment in order. They also may
supervise students during lunch and recreation
periods and school bus loading.

Working Conditions
More than half of all teacher aides work part
time (less than 35 hours a week). They may
work inside or outdoors and may spend much of
their time standing, walking, or kneeling.
Working closely with the students can be both
physically and emotionally tiring.

Employment
Teacher aides held 463,000 jobs in 1982. Al­
though they are employed in both elementary
and secondary schools, aides are concentrated
in the early grades. A substantial number have
been hired in recent years to assist special edu­
cation teachers who work with physically, men­
tally, or emotionally handicapped children.
Many aides work in large city schools or in
suburban schools bordering major metropolitan
areas. However, aides are also employed in
small schools, notably in rural areas that find it
difficult to retain enough qualified teachers.
Many school systems also rely on the services
of volunteers, who may perform the same du­
ties as teacher aides.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Educational requirements for teacher aides vary
widely. Some school districts require a high
school diploma; others do not. Still others re­
quire some college training. Districts that dele­
gate a significant amount of classroom respon­
sibility to aides usually require more training
than those which primarily assign them clerical
or monitor duties.
Teacher aides generally receive their training
for classroom work on the job. However, a
number of 2-year and community colleges offer
associate degree programs that prepare gradu­
ates to work directly in the classroom as teacher
aides.

Nature of the Work
Teacher aides handle routine activities to give
teachers more time for teaching. They help and
supervise students in the classroom, cafeteria,
or school yard. They record grades, setup
equipment, or help prepare materials for in­
struction.
Aides’ responsibilities vary greatly by school
district. In some, aides help with the instruction
of children, under the supervision and guidance
of teachers. They work with students individu­
ally or in small groups—listen to students read,
help them find information for reports, and
watch them demonstrate a skill. Sometimes,
aides take charge of special projects and pre­
pare equipment or exhibits for a science demon­
stration, for example.
In other districts, teacher aides primarily
handle routine nonteaching tasks. They may
grade tests and papers, check homework, and
keep health and attendance records. Secretarial
duties such as typing, filing, and duplicating
materials for the teacher’s use may be part of the

Teacher aides work in the classroom under a
teacher’s supervision or grade papers and tests.

Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/215
Newly hired teacher aides undergo a period
of orientation and training in which they learn
how to help the classroom teacher. Aides are
taught how to operate audiovisual equipment,
administer first aid, and keep records. They
learn to make charts and other instructional
materials and to prepare bulletin boards and
work with other art media. In addition, they are
made familiar with the organization and opera­
tion of a school and the methods used to teach
handwriting, reading, math, science, and other
school subjects.
Personal traits are among the most important
characteristics for the teacher aide’s job. Aides
should be able to work with children and to
handle classroom situations with fairness and
patience. Preference may be given in hiring to
those with previous experience in working with
children. Aides also must demonstrate ini­
tiative and a willingness to follow the class­
room teacher’s directions. They must have
basic speech and writing skills and be able to
communicate effectively with students and
teachers. Clerical skills may be necessary also.
Thirteen States have certification procedures
for teacher aides. To qualify, a teacher aide may
need a high school diploma or general equiv­
alency degree (G.E.D.), or even some college
training. Kansas, Louisiana, Texas, and
Wisconsin grant permits for paraprofessionals
in the field of special education.
Many schools may have additional regula­
tions regarding the hiring of teacher aides. For
example, some school districts give preference
to persons residing within the school district;
some require that teacher aides pass a physical
examination.
The local superintendent of schools and the
State department of education can provide de­
tailed information on employment require­
ments.
Advancement for teacher aides, usually in
the form of higher earnings or increased respon­
sibility, comes primarily with experience.
Some school districts provide release time so
that aides may take college courses. Aides who
earn bachelor’s degrees may become certified
teachers.

Job Outlook
Employment of teacher aides is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. The pro­
jected increase in elementary school enroll­
ments beginning in the mid-1980’s and in sec­
ondary schools after 1990 is expected to
increase the demand for aides. Enrollment
growth will not occur at the same rate in all
parts of the country, however. Largely because
of migration to the South and West, enrollment
increases are expected to be greater in those
regions than in the Northeast and North Central
States.
Teacher aide employment is highly sensitive
to changes in State and local expenditures for
education. Pressures from taxpayers to limit tax
and spending increases are likely to continue.
However, pressures on education budgets are
far greater in some States and localities than in
others. Moreover, school systems respond to
budget constraints in different ways. Severe



curtailment of educational spending would un­
doubtedly result in staff cutbacks in some
school districts, while other districts might re­
spond by hiring more teacher aides and fewer
teachers. A number of teacher aide positions
are financed through Federal programs; reduc­
tions in Federal funding would affect some dis­
tricts more than others.
Because of relatively high turnover in the
occupation, most openings for teacher aides are
expected to occur as a result of the need to
replace workers who transfer to other occupa­
tions, leave the labor force to assume full-time
housekeeping responsiblities, return to school,
or for other reasons.

Earnings
In 1982-83, teacher aides involved in teaching
activities earned an average of about $5.30 an
hour; those performing only nonteaching ac­
tivities averaged about $5.00 an hour. Earnings
varied by region and also by the work experi­
ence and academic qualifications of the aide.
Many aides are covered by collective bargain­
ing agreements and have health and pension
benefits similar to those of the teachers in their
schools.

Related Occupations
The educational support activities that teacher
aides perform, demand organizational skills,
cooperativeness, recordkeeping abilities, and a
talent for getting along with people. Other oc­
cupations requiring some or all of these skills
include childcare attendants, career guidance
technicians, home health aides, library atten­
dants, medical record technicians, nurse aides,
receptionists, record custodians, and retail
sales clerks.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on a wide range of education-re­
lated issues, including teacher aide unioniza­
tion, can be obtained from:
American Federation of Teachers, 11 Dupont Circle,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

Telephone Operators
(D.O.T. 235.222-010, .462-010, .562-014, .662-014, 018, -022, and -026; and 239.367-026)

Nature of the Work
Although millions of telephone numbers are
dialed directly each day, making a call some­
times requires the assistance of a telephone
operator. An operator may be needed because a
caller wants to reverse long-distance charges,
find out a telephone number in another city, or
know the cost of a call. Operators also help
contact the police or fire departments in an
emergency or arrange conference calls for busi­
ness executives.
Providing these services are two groups of
telephone operators. The operators who work
in telephone company central offices probably
are the most familiar. But many businesses and
large organizations receive so many calls that

they employ operators to run their private
branch exchange (PBX) switchboards. Some­
times operators place calls by inserting and
removing plugs in switchboards and by listen­
ing and speaking into their headsets. However,
many switchboards, especially those in tele­
phone company central offices, are operated by
pushbuttons.
Telephone company operators known as cen­
tral office operators help customers with calls
that require assistance, such as person-to-person, coin-station, and collect calls. They obtain
the information needed to complete the call and
record the details for billing. Those who make
long-distance connections are called long-dis­
tance operators. Directory assistance oper­
ators look up and provide telephone numbers.
PBX operators, sometimes called PBX at­
tendants or switchboard operators, run switch­
boards for business firms and other establish­
ments. They connect interoffice or house calls,
answer and relay outside calls, assist company
employees in making outgoing calls, supply
information to callers, and record charges. In
small establishments, PBX operators may do
other office work such as typing or sorting mail.
Many act as receptionists or information clerks.
Qualified telephone company operators can
become private-branch-exchange service ad­
visors, sometimes called customer instructors
or telephone usage counselors. They conduct
training classes in the operation of switchboard
and teletype equipment on behalf of the tele­
phone company either at the company’s train­
ing school or on the customer’s premises.
Qualified operators also can become service
observers. Service observers monitor the tele­
phone conversations between operators and
customers to observe the operator’s behavior,
technical accuracy, and adherence to company
policies.
Police district switchboard operators run
switchboards to receive and transmit police
communications, such as calls from citizens for
assistance or police officers in the field. Com­
munication-center operators handle airport au­
thority communication systems and monitor
electronic equipment alarms. For example,
they use the public address system to page pas­
sengers or visitors. Telephone-answering-service operators manage switchboards to provide
answering service for clients.

Working Conditions
Telephone company operators generally work
37 1/2 hours a week. The scheduled hours of
PBX operators generally are the same as those
of other clerical workers in the firm. In tele­
phone companies, however, and in hotels, hos­
pitals, and other places where telephone service
is needed on a 24-hour basis, operators work on
shifts, on holidays, and on weekends. Some
operators work split shifts—that is, they are on
duty during the peak calling periods in the late
morning and early evening and have time off in
between. Telephone companies normally as­
sign shifts by seniority. These operators, like all
telephone company employees, are subject to
24-hour call. In general, though, they work
overtime only during emergencies. Because an

216/Occupational Outlook Handbook
business math provide a helpful background for
persons interested in this occupation.
New operators are taught how to use the
equipment and keep records of calls. Once they
have learned the procedure, they put through
practice calls. In the telephone companies,
classroom instruction usually lasts up to 3
weeks and is followed by on-the-job training.
Classroom instruction covers the time zones
and geography so that central office operators
understand rates and know where major cities
are located. Tapes are used to familiarize train­
ees with the dial tone, busy signal, and other
telephone sounds and to improve diction and
courtesy by giving them an opportunity to hear
their own voices. Training is tailored to the
knowledge required of the section where the
employee is going to work. Close supervision
continues after training is completed.
PBX operators who handle routine calls usu­
ally have a somewhat shorter training period
than telephone company operators. In large
businesses, an instructor from the local tele­
phone company may train new employees.
Telephone company operators may be pro­
moted, after 1 or 2 years of experience, to
junior service assistant or service observer, as­
sisting the supervisor by monitoring telephone
conversations. Promotion to supervisor also is
possible. Some operators advance to other cler­
ical jobs or to telephone craft jobs such as
installer and repairer. Large firms may advance
PBX operators to more responsible clerical
positions; however, many small businesses
have limited advancement opportunities.

Job Outlook

Telephone company operators work at consoles.
operator cannot make up time missed, tele­
phone companies strictly regulate attendance
and punctuality.
Operators usually work in pleasant, welllighted, air-conditioned surroundings. The job
of a telephone operator requires little physical
exertion; however, during peak calling periods,
the pace at the switchboard may be hectic.
Often operators are unable to leave their work
stations during these periods. An operator’s
work generally is quite repetitive and, in the
telephone companies, is closely supervised.

Employment
Telephone operators held about 323,000 jobs in
1982. More than one-half worked as PBX oper­
ators in manufacturing plants, hospitals, de­
partment stores, or businesses. The remainder
worked in telephone companies. Roughly onefifth of all operators work part time, although
relatively few of those employed by telephone
companies do so.




Employment is concentrated in heavily pop­
ulated areas, and large numbers of telephone
operators work in the New York City, Chicago,
and Los Angeles metropolitan areas. An in­
creasing number work in rapidly growing areas
such as Houston and Denver.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Persons interested in becoming telephone oper­
ators should like to serve the public, be pleas­
ant, courteous, and patient, and not mind
sitting for long periods of time. A clear, pleas­
ing voice and good hearing are important. In
addition to being good listeners, prospective
operators should have good reading, spelling,
and arithmetic ability. Good eye-hand coordi­
nation and manual dexterity are useful. Many
telephone companies and business firms re­
quire applicants, including operators, to pass a
physical examination. Some employers require
a high school diploma for operator jobs. High
school courses in speech, office practices, and

Overall employment of telephone and PBX op­
erators is expected to grow more slowly than
the average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Most openings will occur because
of the need to replace experienced operators
who stop working or transfer to other occupa­
tions.
Employment of telephone company oper­
ators has been declining for the past 25 years as
technological innovations have reduced labor
requirements. Productivity improvements that
reduce the need for operators are expected to
continue, and they will more than offset the
employment gains from strong growth in resi­
dential and business demand for telephone
services and the development of new markets,
including electronic funds transfer systems and
home data processing. As a result, employment
of telephone company operators is expected to
decline sharply into the 1990’s.
Technological innovations have taken place
in a number of areas. Many telephone com­
panies have installed electronic switching sys­
tems in their central offices, thus reducing the
need for manual switching. Traffic service posi­
tion systems have been added; these automat­
ically feed data about each telephone connec­
tion, such as the length and cost of the call, into
a computer that processes the billing state­
ments. Formerly an operator tabulated and then
transferred this information to the statement. It
is now possible in many places to dial numbers
in other countries directly, without the help of

Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/217
an operator. The task of responding to “inter­
cept” calls (vacant, changed, or disconnected
numbers) is being automated. A device auto­
matically answers those calls with a computerassembled voice response explaining the reason
for interception and giving new number infor­
mation. The monitoring and computing of
charges on calls from pay telephones also is
being automated, eliminating another function
normally performed by operators. Calls using
telephone company credit cards are being auto­
mated and will no longer require the assistance
of an operator. Directory assistance operators
now can find numbers more quickly because
they use a computerized system that shows the
information on a screen, whereas before they
had to leaf through paper directories. In addi­
tion, computer-assembled voice responses are
starting to be used to read the number to the
caller once it has been found by the operator.
Another change, while not of a technological
nature, is expected to reduce the demand for
directory assistance operators. A number of
telephone companies now charge customers for
directory assistance calls, thus prompting cus­
tomers to use telephone directories to locate
unknown numbers.
Employment of PBX operators is expected to
grow about as fast as the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s as the number of
businesses grows. While many new PBX sys­
tems will have the Direct-Inside-Dialing op­
tion, thereby relieving operators of the need to
handle every incoming or outgoing call, PBX
operators will still be needed to handle some
calls.
Operators are less sensitive to fluctuations in
the business cycle than other workers in the
telephone industry. The volume of telephone
calls is affected very little by the upswings and
downturns in the economy. Telephone com­
panies report that they hire fewer operators dur­
ing recessions, but that is because there is less
turnover (and consequently fewer openings)
when other jobs are relatively hard to find. Few
PBX operators are laid off during recessions
because even in slow times, businesses must
keep their lines of communication open.
Technological change has had a far greater
effect than the business cycle on employment of
telephone company operators. However, oper­
ators are seldom laid off, for collective bargain­
ing agreements ensure that the companies re­
duce employment either through attrition or by
retraining or reassignment.

Earnings
Telephone companies in 1982 paid operators
the following average hourly wages:
All telephone operators ...........

farming. A 1982 survey by the International
Personnel Management Association of workers
at all levels of government showed that begin­
ning telephone operators averaged $10,332 per
year, while those with experience averaged
$12,876. In 1982, the Federal Government
paid starting telephone operators $9,756 per
year. The average annual salary in 1982 for all
operators employed by the Federal Government
was $12,600.
PBX operators nationwide averaged $11,648
a year in 1982, according to a survey by the
Administrative Management Society.
Most telephone company operators are
members of the Communications Workers of
America, the International- Brotherhood of
Electrical Workers, or the Telecommunications
International Union. For these operators, union
contracts govern wage rates, wage increases,
and the time required to advance from one step
to the next (it normally takes 4 years to rise from
the lowest paying, nonsupervisory operator
position to the highest). Contracts also call for
extra pay for work beyond the normal 7 1/2
hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all Sunday
and holiday work. Most contracts provide a pay
differential for nightwork and split shifts. Paid
vacations are granted according to length of
service. Many contracts provide for a 1-week
vacation beginning with 6 months of service; 2
weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years;
4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25
years and over. Depending on locality, holidays
range from 9 to 11 days a year. Additional
provisions may include paid sick leave; group
life, medical, and dental insurance; sickness
and accident benefits; retirement and disability
pensions; a savings plan; and an employee
stock ownership plan.
Insurance, pensions, holidays, vacations,
and other benefits for PBX operators are the
same as those for other clerical employees in
the firm.

Related Occupations
Other workers who provide information to the
general public include customer service repre­
sentatives, dispatchers, hotel clerks, informa­
tion clerks, police aides, receptionists, reserva­
tion agents, taxicab starters, and travel clerks.

Sources of Additional Information
For more details about employment oppor­
tunities, contact your local telephone company
or union that represents telephone workers. For
general information on telephone operator
jobs, write to:
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers,
1125 15th St. NW., Washington. D.C. 20005.

$10.38

Telecommunications International Union, P.O. Box
5132, Hamden, Conn. 06518.

12.46
10.08
6.75
11.93

For general information on the independent
(non-Bell) telephone industry and career oppor­
tunities in it, request copies of Independent
Phonefacts and Is it for You? A Career in the
Independent Telephone Industry from:

Earnings of experienced telephone operators
are about the same as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except

United States Independent Telephone Association,
1801 K St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C.
20006.

Chief operators..................
16.42
Service assistants and instructors . . . .
Experienced switchboard operators . . .
Operators in training ............................
Other switchboard employees .............




Typists
(D.O.T. 203.362-010, -018, -022, .382-010, -026, .582010, -014, -018, -034, -038, -054, -058, and -066)

Nature of the Work
A rapid flow of written communication is es­
sential to the modem office. The typist helps to
maintain this flow by making neat, typed copies
of handwritten, printed, and recorded words.
Beginning or junior typists usually type
headings on form letters, copy directly from
handwritten drafts, and address envelopes.
Often, they perform other office tasks as well:
Answering telephones, filing, and operating
copiers, calculators, and other office machines.
More experienced typists do work that re­
quires a high degree of accuracy and indepen­
dent judgment. Senior typists work from rough
drafts which are difficult to read or which con­
tain technical material. They may plan and type
complicated statistical tables, combine and re­
arrange materials from different sources, or
prepare master copies to be reproduced on
copying machines.
Clerk typists (D.O.T. 203.362-010) combine
typing with filing, sorting mail, answering tele­
phones, and other general office work. Varitype
operators (D.O.T. 203.382-026) produce mas­
ter copies, such as stencils, on machines similar
to typewriters. Bordereau clerks (D.O.T.
203.382-010) compile data and type applica­
tions for insurance companies. Perforator typ­
ists (D.O.T. 203.582-038) operate special type­
writers that perforate tape or paper to facilitate
the subsequent automatic reproduction from
master copy of data such as letters and reports.
Cryptographic-machine operators (D.O.T.
203.582-018) operate cryptographic equip­
ment to code, transmit, and decode secret mes­
sages for units of the Armed Forces, law enfor­
cement agencies, or business organizations.
Braille operators (D.O.T. 203.582-010) oper­
ate typewriter-like machines that impress dots
in metal sheets used in making braille books.
Braille typists (D.O.T. 203.582-014) use
braille typewriters to transcribe reading mate­
rial for use by the blind. Transcribing-machine
operators (D.O.T. 203.582-058), sometimes
called dictaphone-machine operators, listen to
recorded dictation and transcribe it.
In many organizations, word processing cen­
ters handle the transcription and typing for sev­
eral departments. In these centers, magnetictape-typewriter operators (D.O.T. 203.582034) produce letters and reports on high-speed
machines that use a magnetic tape card or disk
to store typed material in a programmed memo­
ry. These “computer-typewriters” eliminate a
great deal of retyping because corrections can
be made before the final copy is produced.
Terminal-system operators (D.O.T. 203.362018) operate a keyboard linked to a computer
terminal to produce business, scientific, or
technical publications in a printlike format.
These operators use a coded command to enter,
store, retrieve, or delete information, and to
secure a finished copy. Terminal operators
(D.O.T. 203.582-054) type letters or numbers

218/Occupational Outlook Handbook
onto the keyboard of an on-line computer type­
writer terminal to transmit and receive data
from a computer in another location. They
compare the readout on a printed copy or view­
ing screen with the source documents to detect
and then correct errors. Word-processing-machine operators (D.O.T. 203.362-022) use
word processing equipment to record, edit,
store, and revise correspondence, reports, sta­
tistical tables, forms, and other materials. They
also may operate equipment that extends word
processing capabilities, such as cathode ray
tube displays (CRT’s), single or multiple
printers, or optical character readers (OCR’s).

Working Conditions
Typists usually work in offices that are clean
and well lighted. They sit for long periods and
sometimes must contend with high noise levels
caused by various office machines.
Typists generally work a standard 40-hour
week. In some cities, especially in the North­
east, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or
less.
Office work lends itself to alternative or flexi­
ble working arrangements and many typists
hold part-time or temporary jobs. Some are
freelance typists who are self-employed; others
get short-term jobs through employment agen­
cies that specialize in “office temporaries.”

Employment
Typists held about 990,000 jobs in 1982. They
work in every sector of the economy. Approx­
imately 35 percent work for business firms—
chiefly those in danufacturing; wholesale and
retail trade; transportation, communications,
and public utilities; and finance, insurance, and

real estate. Another 35 pircent work in service
organizations of various kinds, including
edncational institutions, hospitals, mem­
bership organizations, and firms thag provide
business services. Among the latter are “office
temporaries” agen ies and word processing
service bureaus. About 30 percent work in
Federal, State, and local government agencies.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Employers generally hire high schooll gradu­
ates who can meet their requirements for typing
speed. Some employees expect applicants to
have word processing training or experience.
Good sperling, punctuation, and grammar are
important skills, and familiarity with standard
office equipment and procedures is an asset.
Typing can be learned in different ways. Typ­
ing is taught in high schoocs, community col­
leges, business schools, and home study
schools. Some individuals learn on their own,
using self-teaching aids like books and records.
Some people learn to type for personal con­
venience, or because it is a useful skill for other
jobs.
Large companies and government agencies
generally have training programs to help cler­
ical employees upgrade their skills and advance
to more responsible positions, including that of
typist. Nonetheless, the proportion of job open­
ings filled by workers who transfer from other
occupations is lower than average. People who
become typists tend to come from outside the
labor force; they are younger than average, and
many probably have never worked before. The
proportion who transfer to other occupations is
higher than average, suggesting that typing
serves as a steppingstone to higher paying,
more responsible jobs. It is common for typists
to transfer to another clerical job, such as secre­
tary, statistical clerk, or stenographer, or to be
promoted to a supervisory job in a word pro­
cessing center.

Job Outlook

The ability to use word-processing equipment is
increasingly important for typists.




The number of typists is expected to grow more
slowly than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s as the spread of word
processing equipment raises typists’ productiv­
ity. However, because the occupation is excep­
tionally large, many openings will occur every
year because of replacement needs alone.
In typing, as in most occupations, replace­
ment needs are the main source of jobs. Every
year, a substantial number of typists transfer to
other kinds of jobs or leave the labor force

temporarily—chiefly because of household re­
sponsibilities or to attend school. Compared to
those who leave for other reasons, relatively
few typists stop working because of disability
or retirement.
There is no consensus among experts about
the impact of office automation on employment
of typists. Productivity has risen dramatically,
for word processing equipment allows work to
be undertaken of a degree of complexity and in
amounts that would have been unthinkable in
the past. Whether or not typists are being dis­
placed by new office technologies is difficult to
determine, however. It is also important to bear
in mind that many typists work in very small
firms—in 2- or 3-person offices, for example.
Future employment pa/tems in firms such as
these will depend upon the speed with which
word processing becomes cost effective for
them.

Earnings
Beginning typists averaged $11,428 a year in
1983; those with experience averaged $15,085.
Median annual earnings of full-time typists
were about $12,000 in 1982; the middle 50
percent earned between $10,000 and $15,000
annually. Ten percent earned less than $8,000
and 10 percent more than $18,000.
In 1982, the Federal Government paid start­
ing clerk-typists from $9,756 to $11,949 a year,
depending on education, training, and experi­
ence. Average yearly earnings for all clerktypists in the Federal Government were about
$11,700 in 1982.
Typists’ salaries vary by industry. They tend
to be highest in public utilities, mining, and
manufacturing, and lowest in finance, insur­
ance, and real estate.
Typists generally receive higher salaries if
they have word processing experience.
Most typists in large cities receive 7 paid
holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation
after working 1 year. With added years of serv­
ice, vacations may range to 4 weeks or more.
Group life and health insurance, pension plans,
and other fringe benefits often are provided.

Related Occupations
Many other office workers use typing skills.
Among these are secretaries, stenographers,
receptionists, office machine operators, per­
sonnel clerks, and administrative assistants.

Sources of Additional Information
State employment offices can provide informa­
tion about job openings for typists locally and
nationwide.

Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/219
OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT OCCUPATIONS, INCLUDING CLERICAL
Title

Definition

Adjustment clerks

Investigate customer complaints about unsatisfactory service,
damaged merchandise, or incorrect billing of accounts.

Bookkeeping and
billing machine
operators

Operate special bookkeeping or billing machines to prepare
statements, bills, and invoices, and compile records of transactions.
May sort and record bank transactions using proof machines.

Brokerage clerks

Employment
1982
36,000

Projected growth
1982-95
Faster than average

172,000

About as fast as
average

Perform any combination of the following in a brokerage house.
Record purchase and sales of securities; compute Federal and State
transfer taxes and commission rates; type data on customer’s
confirmation form to effect the transfer of securities; accept and
deliver customer’s securities and cash for firm; as directed by
brokers, may write orders for stock purchases and sales and record
information on journal sheet; may phone customers to inform them
of market fluctuations and of stock purchases and sales affecting their
accounts; total daily transactions and summarize effects on broker’s
holdings.

17,000

About as fast as
average

Car rental clerks

Rent automobiles to customers at hotels and transportation stations.
Examine drivers’ licenses of customers, and determine amount of
deposit required. Quote cost of rentals based on per-day and per-mile
rates. Complete rental contracts and obtain customers’ signatures and
deposits. Telephone rental office to request delivery of automobiles.

16,000

Easter than average

Circulation clerks.

Compile records concerned with city or mail order distribution of
newspapers or magazines to subscribers, carriers or dealers and
adjust complaints.

9,500

Claim adjusters

Investigate claims for losses or damages filed in conjunction with
insurance policies and try to effect settlement out of court.

66,000

Easter than average

Claim examiners,
life, accident and
health insurance

Analyze insurance claims to determine extent of company’s liability
and settle claims with claimants in accordance with policy
provisions. Check claim applications for completeness and accuracy.
May correspond with or interview medical specialists, agents or
claimants to verify information. Calculate benefit payments and
approve payment of claims within a certain limit.

47,000

Easter than average

Claims clerks

Obtain claims information from insured or designated persons to
settle claims with insurance carrier.

66,000

Easter than average

Clerical
supervisors, office
or plant

Supervise and coordinate activities of workers engaged chiefly in one
type of clerical function such as typing, filing, bookkeeping,
tabulating data, etc. May assume responsibility for completion of
work assignments by clerical force being supervised and for the
accuracy of completed assignments.

467,000

Easter than average

Collectors

Collect payments on installment, insurance premiums, or overdue
accounts; trace addresses of customers changing residences without
notification; and collect money from coin boxes.

94,000

Easter than average

Court clerks

Perform clerical duties in court of law. Prepare dockets of cases to be
called. Secure information for judges and contact witnesses,
attorneys, and litigants to obtain information for court.

27,000

More slowly than
average

Credit authorizers
Credit clerks,
banking and
insurance

Authorize credit charges against customers’ accounts.

21,000

Easter than average

Process applications of individuals applying for loans and credit.
Typical duties include: Interviewing applicant to obtain personal and
financial data contacting credit bureaus, employers, or personal
references to determine credit worthiness; verifying credit limit and
notifying customer of acceptance or rejection for credit.

50,000

Much faster than
average

Investigate history and credit status of individuals or business
establishments applying for credit, employment, or insurance.
Prepare reports for customers or subscribers.

16,000

Faster than average

Credit reporters




About as fast as
average

220/Occupational Outlook Handbook
OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT OCCUPATIONS, INCLUDING CLERICAL
Title

Definition

Dispatchers,
police, fire and
ambulance

Receive complaints from public concerning crimes and police
emergencies and broadcast orders to police radio patrol units in
vicinity to investigate. Operate radio and telephone equipment to
receive reports of fires and medical emergencies and relay
information or orders to proper officials.

48,000

More slowly than
average

Dispatchers,
vehicle, service or
work

Dispatch buses, taxis, trucks and other motor vehicles for
conveyance of freight or passengers. Dispatch work crews or service
workers for normal installation, service, or emergency repairs. May
use radio or telephone.

90,000

About as fast as
average

Duplicating
machine operators

Operate one or a variety of duplicating machines to make copies of
data. Machines frequently used are Dualith, Multilith, Masterlith,
Mimeograph, Dupligraph, Multigraph, Compotype, Graphotype and
Xerox.

38,000

More slowly than
average

Eligibility
workers, welfare

Process initial applications for welfare, determine continuing
eligibility by client affidavits and, with the aid of a computer,
determine grant amounts.

32,000

Little change is
expected

File clerks

File correspondence, cards, invoices, receipts, and other records in
alphabetical or numerical order, or according to the filing system
used. Locate and remove material from file when requested. May be
required to classify and file new material.

General office
clerks

Duties of general office clerks are varied and may include a
combination of bookkeeping, typing, stenography, office machine
operation, etc.

Insurance
checkers

Verify accuracy of insurance company records by performing any
combination of the following duties: Compare computations on
premiums, interest and dividends with same data on other records;
verify data on applications and policies, such as age, name, address,
principal sums, and value of property; verify computations, using
calculating machine. May proofread printed material concerning
insurance programs.

Insurance clerks,
medical
Insurance clerks,
except medical

Verify hospitalization insurance coverage and compute benefits for
patients in hospitals, clinics, and other medical facilities.

Employment
1982

295,000

2,348,000

Projected growth
1982-95

More slowly than
average

Faster than average

15,000

Much faster than
average

86,000

Much faster than
average

Examine life insurance policies held as security for commercial or
personal credit loans and keep records of bank-owned insurance and
fire insurance on commodity loans. Place and renew insurance for
bank’s premises and property under control of bank.

11,000

Faster than average

Insurance
investigators

Investigate and gather facts to determine insurance companys’
liabilities claims or actions. Correspond with or interview doctors or
other hospital personnel, witnesses, and claimants to compile all
available information.

11,000

Faster than average

Mail clerks

Receive, prepare, record, and transmit incoming, outgoing or
internal mail.

100,000

Faster than average

Messengers

Run errands and deliver letters, packages, and messages to homes,
between departments, or to other businesses. May sort mail and
furnish other workers with clerical supplies.

51,000

Faster than average

Meter readers,
utilities
Order clerks

Read electric, gas, water, or steam consumption meters and record
volume used by residential and commercial customers.

31,000

About as fast as
average

265,000

About as fast as
average




%

Process orders for material or merchandise from customers or
establishment employees. Inform customers of receipt of orders,
prices, shipping dates, delays, or additional information needed on
the orders. May route orders to departments for filling and follow up
on orders to insure prompt delivery. May be designated according to
method of receiving orders, such as Mail-Order Clerk or TelephoneOrder Clerk; or according to type of order handled, such as BackOrder Clerk.

Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/221
OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT OCCUPATIONS, INCLUDING CLERICAL
Title

Definition

Payroll and
timekeeping' clerks

Compute wages and post wage data to payroll records and/or keep a
daily record showing time of arrival and departure from work of
employees. Compute earnings from timesheets and work tickets,
using calculator. Operate posting machine to compute and subtract
deductions. Enter net wages on earnings record card, check stub, and
payroll sheet.

202,000

Faster than average

Personnel clerks

Compile and keep personnel records. Record data for .each employee
such as address, weekly earnings, absences, amount of sales or
production, supervisory reports on ability and on date of and reason
for termination. Compile and type reports from employment records.
File employment records. Search employee files and furnish
information to authorized persons.

103,000

About as fast as
average

Procurement
clerks
Production clerks

Compile information and records to draw up purchase orders for
procurement of material.

47,000

About as fast as
average

Work involves most of the following: Expedite flow of work within
or between departments of an establishment according to work
schedules; review number, type, and proposed completion date of
units to be produced; confer with department supervisors to
determine progress of work and completion dates; compile reports on
progress of work and machine, tool, and equipment failures to
inform planning department of production delays. May expedite
material and may keep inventory of material in department.

201,000

Proofreaders

Check written or typed materials for error in grammar, spelling, and
punctuation. A few specialize in proofing Braille copy for the blind.

16,000

About as fast as
average

Real estate clerks

Perform duties concerned with regtal, sale and management of real
estate, such as typing copies of listings; computing interest owed or
penalty payments; holding collateral in escrow; checking due notices
on taxes and renewal dates of insurance and mortgage loans.

17,000

Faster than average

Safe-deposit clerks

Rent safe-deposit boxes to customers, interview customers to obtain
necessary data. Type rental contract and obtain customers’ signatures.
Collect rental fees and writes receipts. Keep safe-deposit records.
May admit customers to bank vault.

14,000

Faster than average

Shipping packers

Assemble, pack, address, stamp, load, and ship merchandise or
material. Specific duties may include the following: Count and
compare quantity and identification numbers of units against orders;
assemble wooden or cardboard containers or select preassembled
containers; insert items into containers; move containers to shipping
dock. May be designated according to specialty, such as Freight
Clerk; Reshipping Clerk.

340,000

More slowly than
average

Stock clerks,
stockroom,
warehouse or
storage yard

Receive, store, and issue equipment, material, merchandise,
supplies, tools, dies or foodstuffs and compile stock records in
stockroom, warehouse, or storage yard. Work involves a combination
of the following: Checking incoming orders, classifying and
inspecting when necessary; storing supplies; applying identification
to articles; issuing supplies; taking periodic or perpetual inventory;
making up necessary reports.

831,000

More slowly than
average

Survey workers

Interview public and compile statistical information on topics, such
as public issues or consumer buying habits.

53,000

Faster than average

Tax preparers

Prepare tax returns for individuals or small businesses. May work in
office for established tax return firm. Do not have the background or
responsibilities of accredited accountants.

32,000

Faster than average

Telegraph
operators

Send and receive messages using telegraphic typewriter, teletype
machine, telephone, or manual or semi-automatic key (for Morse
code). Prepare messages according to prescribed formats, and verify
and correct errors in messages. May adjust office instruments for
proper operation.

13,000

Little change is
expected




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Easter than average

Jt

222/Occupational Outlook Handbook
OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT OCCUPATIONS, INCLUDING CLERICAL
Title

Definition

Traffic agents

Contact firms to solicit freight business and contact travel agencies,
schools, clubs, and other organizations to solicit passenger
patronage. May specialize in soliciting freight or passenger contracts.

18,000

About as fast as
average

Transportation
agents

Expedite movement of freight, mail, baggage, and passengers
through airline terminals. May prepare airway bill of lading on
freight; record baggage, mail and freight, weights and number of
passengers on airplane. Route inbound and outbound air freight
shipments.

21,000

Faster than average

Weighers

Weigh materials or products for primarily record-keeping purposes.
Does not include production workers who weigh materials for other
than recordkeeping purposes such as weighing preparatory to mixing.

25,000

More slowly than
average

Worksheet clerks

Compile abstract sheets (worksheets) used in preparing insurance
documents, such as record files, insurance policies, and statements.

11,000

Easter than average.




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Service Occupations
Guarding and cleaning buildings, preparing
and serving food, helping physicians examine
patients, cutting and styling hair, and caring for
children and elderly persons all are jobs per­
formed by service workers. In 1982, service
workers held about 15.5 million jobs. The ma­
jor groups of service occupations are discussed
below:
Protective service workers, who held nearly
1.7 million jobs in 1982, were employed to
safeguard lives and property. The majority
were police officers, guards, or firefighters.
Others included sheriffs and bailiffs, crossing
guards, correction officers, fish and game war­
dens, private investigators, and store detec­
tives. Most protective service workers are gov­
ernment employees, working primarily at the
local level. Protective service work is generally
routine, but sometimes it can be dangerous.
Food and beverage preparation and service
workers—the largest group of service work­
ers—held about 6.2 million jobs in 1982. They
prepare and serve food in restaurants, caf­
eterias, schools, hospitals, and other institu­
tions. Workers in this group include cooks and
chefs, waiters and waitresses, bakers, butchers
and meatcutters, bartenders, kitchen workers,
and food counter workers.
Health service workers, who held nearly 1.5
million jobs in 1982, include medical assistants
and nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants.
These workers are employed in hospitals, nurs­
ing homes, rehabilitation centers, and doctors’
and dentists’ offices. They typically perform
routine but essential tasks that involve a great
deal of personal contact.
Cleaning and building service workers held
over 2.8 million jobs in 1982; they clean and
maintain buildings such as apartments, houses,
schools, and offices. The group includes jan­
itors, elevator operators, maids, and pest con­
trollers.
Personal service workers, who held nearly
1.7 million jobs in 1982, range from barbers and
cosmetologists to sightseeing guides and flight
attendants. The ability to deal with all kinds of
people is a “must” in these jobs.
Private household service workers, who held
more than 1 million jobs in 1982, are domestic
workers who clean their employers’ homes,
prepare meals, and care for children. Others
include launderers and housekeepers.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Training and skill requirements differ greatly
among the various service occupations. FBI




special agents, for example, must have a col­
lege degree. Barbers and cosmetologists need
specialized vocational training and a license.
Still other occupations—household workers,
building custodians, and hotel bellhops, for
example—have no specific educational require­
ments for entry, although a high school diploma
is always an advantage.
For many service occupations, personality
traits and special abilities may be as important
as formal schooling. Thus, physical strength
and endurance are a necessity for work as a
porter, lifeguard, or firefighter; and a pleasing
manner and appearance are especially impor­
tant for a flight attendant or a waiter or waitress.
Other service workers, such as police officers
and travel guides, need good judgment and
should be skillful in dealing with people.
Some service workers eventually go into
business for themselves as caterers or restaurant
operators, for example, or proprietors of barber
or beauty shops. A good basic education and
extensive experience in their chosen fields are
decided assets for prospective business owners.

Job Outlook
More job openings are expected to be available
for service workers than for almost any other
major occupational group. The overwhelming
majority of openings will result from replace­
ment needs, as a relatively high proportion of

service workers transfer to other occupations,
assume full-time household responsibilities,
return to school, or stop working for other rea­
sons each year. Job turnover is particularly high
among food and beverage preparation and serv­
ice workers and private household workers.
The service occupations are expected to
grow about as fast as the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. However, em­
ployment growth in the major groups of service
occupations is expected to vary, as shown in the
accompanying chart. Demand for health serv­
ice workers will be particularly strong as a
result of population growth, an aging popula­
tion, and continued emphasis on using auxili­
ary health personnel. More protective service
workers will be needed as the population in­
creases and the need for protection against
crime, theft, and vandalism grows. Rising in­
comes, increasing leisure time, and the grow­
ing number of men and women who combine
family responsibilities and a job are likely to
cause the demand for food and beverage prepa­
ration and service workers to grow as more
people dine out. Employment of private house­
hold workers, on the other hand, is expected to
decline despite a strong demand for these work­
ers.
Detailed information on the nature of the work,
working conditions, employment, training re­
quirements, job outlook, and earnings in many
of the service occupations mentioned here is
presented in the following statements.

Among service occupations, those in health services are expected
to grow the most rapidly.
Projected percent change in employment, 1982-95

-2 0

-1 0

0

10

20

30

40

Protective services
Food and beverage preparation
and services
Health services
Cleaning and building services
Personal services
Private household services
SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

223

Protective Service Occupations
A civilized society, if it is to survive, must
safeguard the lives and property of its mem­
bers. Protective service workers check crime,
prevent and minimize loss of life and property,
and enforce regulations that protect our safety
and rights at home and on the job. In 1982, they
held nearly 1.7 million jobs.
As the accompanying chart illustrates, about
3 out of 5 protective service workers are gov­
ernment employees—working primarily at the
local level. Most of the remainder work in the
services sector. Through the mid-1990’s, em­
ployment of protective service workers is ex­
pected to increase about as fast as the average
for all occupations, as rapid growth in the serv­
ices sector is offset by an anticipated general
slowdown in State and local government em­
ployment.
High school graduates are preferred for most
protective service jobs, but persons with less
formal education are occasionally hired as
guards or correction officers if they read, write,
and speak English adequately. A relatively
small number of workers, such as FBI special
agents, must have at least a bachelor’s degree.
In any case, a college degree is an asset for
advancement.
Most protective service workers must under­
go formal training programs and get on-the-job
experience before they are fully qualified.
Training programs last from several days to a
few months and emphasize specific job-related
skills.
Physical fitness, a sense of fairness, honesty,
and an understanding of human nature are im­
portant personal qualities for these jobs. Fur­
thermore, persons seeking careers in protective

service occupations should desire to serve the
community and be able to exercise good judg­
ment under a variety of conditions.
Protective service workers face substantially
higher risks of death or personal injury than
most other occupations when confronting acts
of violence, public disorder, or destruction of
property. Most of the time, however, their jobs
are routine in nature. Some afford an oppor­
tunity to exercise a great deal of responsibility,
to work with a minimum of direct supervision,
and to work outdoors. Because protecting lives
and property is an around-the-clock respon­
sibility, many protective service personnel
work at night and on weekends.
This section describes the work of several
protective service occupations: Correction of­
ficers, firefighters, guards, and police officers
and detectives.

Correction Officers
(D.O.T. 372.367-014. .567-014, .667-018. and .677; and
375.367)

Nature of the Work
Correction officers are charged with the safe­
keeping of persons who have been arrested, are
awaiting trial, or who have been tried and con­
victed of a crime and sentenced to serve time in
a correctional institution. They maintain order
within the institution, enforce rules and regula­
tions, and often supplement the counseling that

3 out of 5 protective service jobs are in government.
Distribution of employment, 1982
Government

Service industries

SO URCE: Bu reau of Lab o r S t a tis tic s

224



All other industries

inmates receive from mental health profession­
als.
To make sure inmates are orderly and obey
rules, correction officers keep a close watch on
everything the immates do, such as working,
exercising, eating, and bathing. They assign
and supervise inmates’ work assignments, as
well as instruct and help them on specific tasks.
Sometimes it is necessary to search inmates and
their living quarters for weapons or drugs, to
settle disputes between inmates, and to enforce
discipline. Correction officers cannot show fa­
voritism and must report any inmate who vio­
lates the rules. To prevent escapes, officers ser­
ve as guards on towers and at gates. They count
inmates periodically to make sure all are pres­
ent.
Correction officers inspect the facilities to
assure the safety and security of the prisoners.
They check cells and other areas of the institu­
tion for unsanitary conditions, fire hazards, and
evidence of infraction of rules by inmates.
Periodically, they inspect locks, window bars,
grill doors, and gates for signs of tampering.
Correction officers report orally and in writ­
ing on inmate conduct and on the quality and
quantity of work done by inmates. Officers also
report disturbances, violations of rules, and any
unusual occurrences. They usually keep a daily
record of their activities.
Correction officers escort inmates to and
from cells and other areas and admit and ac­
company authorized visitors within the facility.
From time to time, they may inspect mail for
contraband, administer first aid, or assist police
authorities by investigating crimes committed
within the institution and by searching for es­
caped inmates.
Counseling and helping inmates with prob­
lems also are important parts of the correction
officer’s job. Correctional institutions usually
employ psychologists and social workers to
counsel inmates, but correction officers infor­
mally supplement the work of the profession­
als. Officers help inmates adjust to institutional
life, prepare for later civilian life, and avoid
future criminal behavior. They may arrange a
change in a daily schedule so that an inmate can
visit the library, help inmates get news of their
families, talk over personal problems that may
have led to committing a crime, or suggest
where to look for a job after release from pris­
on. In some institutions, officers have a more
formal counseling role and may lead or partici­
pate in group counseling sessions.
Correction sergeants directly supervise cor­
rection officers. They usually are responsible
for maintaining security and directing the ac­
tivities of a group of inmates during an assigned
watch or in an assigned area.

Service Occupations/225
Working Conditions

Job Outlook

Correction officers may work indoors or out­
doors, according to their duties. Some indoor
areas are well lighted, heated, and ventilated,
but others are overcrowded, hot, and noisy.
Outdoors, they may be subject to disagreeable
weather conditions. Working in a correctional
institution can be stressful and hazardous; cor­
rection officers occasionally have been injured
or killed during disturbances.
Correction officers usually work an 8-hour
day, 5 days a week. Prison security must be
provided around the clock, which means some
officers work weekends, holidays, and nights.
During emergencies, officers may work over­
time.

Employment of correction officers is expected
to increase faster than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s as additional
officers are hired to supervise inmates more
closely and to relieve tensions in crowded cor­
rectional institutions. Expansion and new con­
struction of correctional facilities are also ex­
pected to create many new jobs for correction
officers. Most job openings, however, will re­
sult from the need to replace experienced work­
ers who retire or transfer to other occupations.
The difficult working conditions and oppor­
tunities to transfer into other corrections or pro­
tective service occupations contribute to a par­
ticularly high turnover rate.
Employment of correction-officers is not usu­
ally affected by changes either in economic
conditions or the overall level of government
spending because security must be maintained
in correctional institutions at all times. When
government spending is trimmed, corrections
programs are usually affected less than other
programs. Even when corrections budgets are
cut, correction officers are rarely laid off. With
the high turnover of jobs in this occupation,
staffs can be cut quickly just by not replacing
those who leave.

Employment
Correction officers held about 111,000 jobs in
1982. More than half worked at State correc­
tional institutions such as prisons, prison
camps, and reformatories. Most of the re­
mainder worked at city and county jails or other
institutions run by local governments. A few
thousand correction officers worked at Federal
correctional institutions.
Most correction officers work in relatively
large institutions located outside metropolitan
areas, although a significant number work in
jails and other smaller facilities located in cities
and towns.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most institutions require that correction of­
ficers be at least 18 years old and have a high
school education or its equivalent, or qualifying
work experience. They must be in good health.
Many States require candidates to meet formal
standards of physical fitness, eyesight, and
hearing. Strength, good judgment, and the abil­
ity to think and act quickly are assets. A few
States require candidates to pass a written ex­
amination.
The Federal Government, as well as almost
every State and a few localities, provides train­
ing for correction officers. Some States have
special training academies. Most States,
however, provide informal on-the-job training.
Academy trainees generally receive at least 1
to 8 weeks of instruction on institutional pol­
icies, regulations, and operations; inmate be­
havior and contraband; custody and security
procedures; administrative responsibilities and
preparing reports; self-defense, including the
use of firearms; and physical fitness training.
On-the-job trainees receive 2 to 6 months of
similar training in an actual job setting under an
experienced officer. Experienced officers some­
times receive inservice training to keep abreast
of new ideas and procedures.
With additional education, experience, or
training, qualified officers may advance to cor­
rection sergeant or other supervisory, admin­
istrative, or counseling positions. Many correc­
tional institutions require experience as a
correction officer for other corrections posi­
tions. Officers sometimes transfer to related
areas, such as probation and parole.



Earnings
According to a 1982 survey by the International
Personnel Management Association, earnings
of correction officers varied widely by level of
government. At the local level, correction of­
ficers had median earnings of $15,300 a year.
Starting pay averaged $13,900 a year in jails
and other county and municipal correctional
institutions, and top earnings of correction of­
ficers averaged $17,900 a year.
At the State level, correction officers had
median earnings of $15,700 a year in 1982.
Starting pay averaged $14,000 a year and max­
imum earnings averaged $18,800 a year.
At the Federal level, the starting salary was
$13,000 per year; correction sergeants and
other supervisory officers could advance to
maximum salaries of more than $30,000 per
year. The average salary for all Federal correc­
tion officers and correction sergeants was
$23,300 per year in 1982.
Correction officers usually are provided uni­
forms or an allowance to purchase their own.
Most are provided or can participate in hospi­
talization or major medical insurance plans;
many officers can get disability and life insur­
ance. Officers employed by the Federal Gov­
ernment and most State governments are cov­
ered by civil service systems or merit boards.

Related Occupations
A number of related careers are open to high
school graduates who are interested in the pro­
tective services and the field of security. Bailiffs
guard offenders and maintain order in
courtrooms during proceedings. Bodyguards
escort and protect people from injury or inva­
sion of privacy. House or store detectives patrol
business establishments to protect against theft
and vandalism and to enforce standards of good
behavior. Security guards protect government,
commercial, and industrial property against

Correction officers periodically check cells and
other areas of the institution to assure the se­
curity and safety of prisoners.
theft, vandalism, illegal entry, and fire. Police
officers and deputy sheriffs maintain law and
order, prevent crime, and arrest offenders.
Other corrections careers are open to persons
interested in working with offenders. Probation
and parole officers counsel offenders, process
their release from correctional institutions, and
evaluate their progress in becoming productive
members of society. Recreation leaders
organize and instruct offenders in sports,
games, arts, and crafts. Some related occupa­
tions are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about entrance requirements,
training, and career opportunities for correc­
tion officers may be obtained from Federal and
State civil service commissions, State depart­
ments of correction, or nearby correctional in­
stitutions and facilities.
Information on corrections careers, as well
as information about schools that offer criminal
justice education, financial assistance, and job
listings, is available from:
CONTACT, Inc., P.O. Box 81826, Lincoln, Neb.
68501.

Additional information on careers in correc­
tions is available from:
The American Correctional Association, 4321 Hartwick Rd., College Park, Md. 20740.

Firefighters
(D.O.T. 373 except .267-014 and .367-010; and 452.134010, .364-014, and .687-014)

Nature of the Work
Every year, fires take thousands of lives and
destroy property worth billions of dollars. Fire­
fighters help protect the public against this dan­
ger. This statement gives information only

226/Occupational Outlook Handbook
about career firefighters; it does not cover the
many thousands of volunteer firefighters in
communities across the country.
During duty hours, firefighters must be pre­
pared to respond to a fire and handle any emer­
gency that arises. Because firefighting is dan­
gerous and complicated, it requires organiza­
tion and teamwork. At every fire, firefighters
perform specific duties assigned by an officer
such as a lieutenant, captain, or chief. They
may connect hose lines to hydrants, operate a
pump, or position ladders. Their duties may
change several times while the company is in
action. They may rescue victims and administer
emergency medical aid, ventilate smoke-filled
areas, operate equipment, and salvage the con­
tents of buildings. Some firefighters operate fire
apparatus, ambulances, emergency rescue ve­
hicles, and fireboats.
Most fire departments also are responsible
for fire prevention. They provide specially
trained personnel to inspect public buildings for
conditions that might cause a fire. They may
check building plans, the number and working

condition of fire escapes and fire doors, the
storage of flammable materials, and other pos­
sible hazards. In addition, firefighters educate
the public about fire prevention and safety mea­
sures. They frequently speak on this subject
before school assemblies and civic groups,
and, in some communities, they inspect private
homes for fire hazards.
Between alarms, they have classroom train­
ing, clean and maintain equipment, conduct
practice drills and fire inspections, and partici­
pate in physical fitness activities.

Working Conditions
Firefighters spend much of their time at fire
stations, which usually have facilities for din­
ing and sleeping. When an alarm comes in,
firefighters must respond rapidly, regardless of
the weather or hour. They may spend long peri­
ods outdoors at fires and other emergencies in
adverse weather.
Firefighting is one of the most hazardous
occupations. It involves risk of death or injury
from sudden cave-ins of floors or toppling walls

and from exposure to flames and smoke. Fire­
fighters also may come in contact with poi­
sonous, flammable, and explosive gases and
chemicals.
In some cities, firefighters are on duty for 24
hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an
extra day off at intervals. In other cities, they
work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a
night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or
4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. On aver­
age, firefighters work 50 hours a week. In addi­
tion, firefighters often work extra hours at fires
and other emergencies. Fire lieutenants and fire
captains work the same hours as the firefighters
they supervise. Duty hours may include some
time when firefighters are free to read and
study.

Employment
Firefighters held about 252,000 jobs in 1982.
More than 9 out of 10 worked in municipal fire
departments. Some very large cities have sever­
al thousand firefighters, while many small
towns have only a few. Some firefighters work
in fire departments on Federal and State in­
stallations, including airports.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Firefighters risk injury from toppling walls, floor cave-ins, and exposure to smoke and flames.



Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs may
have to pass a written test, a medical examina­
tion, and tests of strength, physical stamina,
and agility. These examinations are open to
persons who are at least 18 years of age and have
a high school education or the equivalent. In
fact, most entrants to this occupation are in
their 20’s or early 30’s and have no more than a
high school education. Those who receive the
highest scores have the best chances for ap­
pointment. Extra credit usually is given for
military service. Experience as a volunteer fire­
fighter or in the Armed Forces and completion
of community college courses in fire science
also may improve an applicant’s chances for
appointment.
As a rule, beginners in large fire departments
are trained for several weeks at the department’s
training center. Through classroom instruction
and practical training, the recruits study fire­
fighting techniques, fire prevention, local
building codes, and emergency medical tech­
niques; also, they learn how to use axes, saws,
chemical extinguishers, ladders, and other fire­
fighting and rescue equipment. After complet­
ing this training, they are assigned to a fire
company where they are evaluated during a
probationary period.
A small but growing number of fire depart­
ments have accredited apprenticeship programs
lasting 3 to 4 years. These programs combine
formal, technical instruction with on-the-job
training under the supervision of experienced
firefighters. Technical instruction covers sub­
jects such as firefighting techniques and equip­
ment, chemical hazards associated with various
combustible building materials, emergency
medical techniques, and fire prevention and
safety.
Experienced firefighters often continue to
study to improve their job performance and

Service Occupations/227
prepare for promotion examinations. To pro­
gress to higher level positions, firefighters must
acquire expertise in firefighting, building con­
struction, emergency medical techniques, writ­
ing, public speaking, management and budget­
ing procedures, and labor relations. Fire
departments frequently conduct training pro­
grams, and many colleges and universities offer
courses such as fire engineering and fire science
that are helpful to firefighters.
Among the personal qualities firefighters
need are mental alertness, courage, mechanical
aptitude, endurance, and a sense of public serv­
ice. Initiative and good judgment are extremely
important because firefighters often must make
quick decisions in emergency situations. Be­
cause members of a crew eat, sleep, and work
closely together under conditions of stress and
danger, they should be dependable and able to
get along well with others in a group. Lead­
ership qualities are assets for officers, who must
establish and maintain discipline and efficiency
as well as direct the activities of firefighters in
their companies.
Opportunities for promotion are good in
most fire departments. As firefighters gain ex­
perience, they may advance to a higher rank.
After 3 to 5 years of service, they may become
eligible for promotion to the grade of lieuten­
ant. The line of further promotion usually is to
captain, then battalion chief, assistant chief,
deputy chief, and finally to chief. Advancement
generally depends upon scores on a written
examination, performance on the job, and sen­
iority.

Job Outlook
Employment of firefighters is expected to in­
crease more slowly than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Although
the Nation’s fire protection needs will increase,
slow growth in local government spending
through the mid-1990’s is expected to limit
growth of firefighter jobs. Employment should
rise as new fire departments are formed and as
others enlarge their fire prevention sections.
Much of the expected increase will occur in
smaller communities with expanding popula­
tions that replace volunteer with career fire­
fighters to better meet growing, increasingly
complex fire protection needs.
Turnover of firefighter jobs is unusually low,
particularly for an occupation that requires a
relatively limited investment in formal educa­
tion. Nevertheless, most job openings are ex­
pected to result from the need to replace those
who retire, transfer from the occupation, or
stop working for other reasons.
Firefighting attracts many people because a
high school education is sufficient, earnings are
relatively high, a pension is guaranteed upon
retirement, and promotion is possible to pro­
gressively more responsible positions on the
basis of merit. In addition, the work is fre­
quently exciting and challenging and affords an
opportunity to perform a valuable public serv­
ice. Consequently, the number of qualified ap­
plicants in most areas generally exceeds the
number of job openings, even though the writ­
ten examination and physical requirements



eliminate many applicants. This situation is ex­
pected to persist through the mid-1990’s. Op­
portunities should be best in smaller commu­
nities.
Layoffs of firefighters are not common. Fire
protection is an essential service, and citizens
are likely to exert considerable pressure on city
officials to expand or at least preserve the level
of fire-protection coverage. Even when budget
cuts do occur, local fire departments usually cut
expenses by postponing equipment purchases
or the hiring of new firefighters, rather than by
laying off staff.

Information about firefighter professional
qualifications may be obtained from:

Earnings

Guards

According to a 1982 survey by the International
Personnel Management Association, nonsupervisory firefighters had a median salary of about
$18,200 a year, but their earnings varied consid­
erably depending on city size and region of the
country. Earnings for firefighters are lowest in
the South and highest in the West, and gener­
ally are higher in large cities than in small ones.
Entrance salaries for beginning full-time fire­
fighters averaged nearly $16,200 a year, while
maximum salaries averaged nearly $20,000 a
year.
Fire lieutenants had a median annual salary
of about $22,500 in 1982. Their starting annual
salaries averaged nearly $21,100, and max­
imum salaries around $24,000.
Fire captains had a median salary of more
than $24,700 a year in 1982. They started at an
average annual salary of more than $22,900,
and could advance to an average maximum
salary of nearly $26,900. Some fire captains
had salaries in excess of $45,000 a year.
Practically all fire departments provide pro­
tective clothing (helmets, boots, and coats) and
many also provide dress uniforms.
Firefighters generally are covered by liberal
pension plans that often provide retirement at
half pay at age 50 after 25 years of service or at
any age if disabled in the line of duty.
The majority of career firefighters are mem­
bers of the International Association of Fire
Fighters (AFL-CIO).

Related Occupations
Firefighters work to prevent fires and to save
lives and property when fires do occur. Related
fire protection occupations include fire rangers,
forest-fire fighters, and fire-protection engi­
neers who identify fire hazards in homes and
workplaces and design prevention programs
and automatic fire detection and extinguishing
systems. Other occupations in which workers
respond to emergencies include police officers
and emergency medical technicians.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on obtaining a job as a firefighter is
available from local civil service offices or fire
departments.
Information about a career as a firefighter
may be obtained from:
International Association of Fire Chiefs, 1329 18th
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 New
York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch
Park, Quincy, Mass. 02269.

Additional information on the salaries and
hours of work of firefighters in various cities is
published annually by the International City
Management Association in its Municipal
Yearbook, which is available in many libraries.

(D.O.T. 372.267 through -010; .563, .567-010, .667-010
and -030 through -038; and 376.667-010 and -018)

Nature of the Work
Guards patrol and inspect property to protect
against fire, theft, vandalism, and illegal entry.
Their duties vary with the size, type, and loca­
tion of their employer.
| In office buildings, banks, hospitals, and de­
partment stores, guards protect records, mer­
chandise, money, and equipment. In depart­
ment stores, they often work with undercover
detectives watching for theft by customers or
store employees.
At ports, airports, and railroads, guards pro­
tect merchandise being shipped as well as prop­
erty and equipment. They insure that nothing is
stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and
watch for fires, prowlers, and trouble among
work crews. Sometimes they direct traffic.
Guards who work in public buildings, such
as museums or art galleries, protect paintings
and exhibits. They also answer routine ques­
tions from visitors and sometimes guide traffic.
In factories, laboratories, government build­
ings, and military bases where valuable proper­
ty or information must be protected, guards
check the credentials of persons and vehicles
entering and leaving the premises. University,
park, or recreation guards perform similar du­
ties and also may issue parking permits and
direct traffic.
At social affairs, sports events, conventions,
and other public gatherings, guards maintain
order, give information, and watch for persons
who may cause trouble.
In a large organization, a security officer
often is in charge of the guard force; in a small
organization, a single worker may be responsi­
ble for security. Patrolling usually is done on
foot, but if the property is large, guards may
make their rounds by car or motor scooter.
As they make their rounds, guards check all
doors and windows, see that no unauthorized
persons remain after working hours, and insure
that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprinkler sys­
tems, furnaces, and various electrical and
plumbing systems are working properly. They
sometimes set thermostats or turn on lights for
janitorial workers.
Guards usually are uniformed and often car­
ry a nightstick and gun. They also may carry a
flashlight, whistle, two-way radio, and a watch
clock—a device that indicates the time at which
they reach various checkpoints.

228/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Correction officers, guards who work in pris­
ons and other correctional institutions, are dis­
cussed separately in this section of the Hand­
book.

Working Conditions
Guards work indoors and outdoors patrolling
buildings, industrial plants, and grounds. In­
doors, they may be stationed at a guard desk to
monitor electronic security and surveillance de­
vices or check the credentials of persons enter­
ing or leaving the premises. They also may be
stationed at gate shelters or may patrol grounds
in all weather.
Since guards often work alone, no one is
nearby to help if an accident or injury occurs.
Some large firms, therefore, use a reporting
service that enables guards to be in constant
contact with a central station outside the plant.
If they fail to transmit an expected signal, the
central station investigates. Guard work is usu­
ally routine, but guards must be constantly alert
for threats to themselves and to the property
that they are protecting. Guards who work dur­
ing the day may have a great deal of contact with
other employees and members of the public.

Many guards work alone at night; the usual
shift lasts 8 hours. Some employers have three
shifts where guards rotate to divide daytime,
weekend, and holiday work equally. Guards
usually eat on the job instead of taking a reqular
lunch break.

Employment
Guards held about 637,000 jobs in 1982. Indus­
trial security firms and guard agencies employ
about one-half of all guards. These organiza­
tions provide security services on contract, as­
signing their guards to buildings and other sites
as needed. The other half were distributed
across all other industries, with large numbers
employed by banks; building management
companies; hotels; hospitals; retail stores; res­
taurants and bars; schools, colleges, and uni­
versities; and Federal, State, and local govern­
ments.
Although guard jobs are found throughout
the country, most are located in metropolitan
areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most employers prefer guards who are high
school graduates. Applicants with less than a

high school education also can qualify if they
pass reading and writing tests and demonstrate
competence in following written and oral in­
structions. Some jobs require a driver’s permit.
Employers also seek people who have had ex­
perience in the military police or in State and
local police departments. Most persons who
enter guard jobs have prior work experience,
although it is usually unrelated. Some have
retired from military careers or other protective
services, and guard employment is a second
career.
Candidates for guard jobs in the Federal
Government must have some experience as
guards and pass a written examination. Armed
Forces experience also is an asset. For most
Federal guard positions, applicants must
qualify in the use of firearms.
The amount of training guards receive varies.
Many employers give newly hired guards in­
struction before they start the job and also
provide several weeks of on-the-job training.
Guards at nuclear power plants may undergo
several months of training before being placed
on duty under close supervision. Guards may
be taught to use firearms, to administer first aid,
to operate alarm systems and electronic se­
curity equipment, and to spot and deal with
security p roblem s. Some guards are
periodically tested in the use of firearms.
Applicants are expected to have good
character references, no police record, good
health—especially in hearing and vision—and
good personal habits such as neatness and de­
pendability. They should be mentally alert and
emotionally stable. Guards must be physically
fit to cope with emergencies, and some guards
are regularly tested for strength and endurance.
Although guards in small companies receive
periodic salary increases, advancement is like­
ly to be limited. However, most large organiza­
tions use a military type of ranking that offers
advancement in position and salary. Guard ex­
perience enables some persons to transfer to
police jobs that offer higher pay and greater
opportunities for advancement. Guards with
some college education may advance to jobs
that involve administrative duties or the preven­
tion of espionage and sabotage.

Job Outlook

When patrolling alone, guards use 2-way radios to keep the security office informed of their location
and activities.




Job openings for persons seeking work as
guards are expected to be plentiful through the
mid-1990’s. High turnover in this large occupa­
tion makes it rank among those providing the
greatest number of job openings in the entire
economy. Many opportunities are expected for
persons seeking full-time employment, as well
as for those seeking part-time or second jobs at
night or on weekends. However, competition is
expected for better paying positions.
Employment of guards is expected to grow
faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. The level of business
investment in plant and equipment—and se­
curity systems to protect them—has a major
influence on how many guards will be required.
Greater investment would cause greater growth
in the number of guard jobs. Increased concern
about crime and vandalism will also heighten
the need for security in and around plants,

Service Occupations/229
stores, and recreation areas and is expected to
cause growth of agency guard employment.
While job growth will be concentrated in the
guard and security agencies that provide guards
on a contract basis, additional guards will be
needed by banks, manufacturing plants, and
Federal, State, and local governments to
provide better security and monitor remote
cameras, alarm systems, and other electronic
surveillance equipment.
Guards employed by industrial security and
guard agencies occasionally are laid off when
the firm where they work does not renew its
contract with their agency. Most are able to find
employment with other agencies, however.
Guards employed directly by the firm at which
they work are seldom laid off because a plant or
factory must still be protected even when eco­
nomic conditions force it to close temporarily.

Earnings
Guards working in 23 urban areas averaged
$4.98 an hour in 1982. Those working in the
North Central States earned more than the aver­
age, while guards employed in the South earned
somewhat less. Hourly wages of guards were
estimated to average $8.62 in manufacturing;
$8.57 in public utilities; $6.37 in banking, fi­
nance, insurance, and real estate; $6.33 in
wholesale trade; $5.64 in retail trade; and $4.06
in the various service industries, including se­
curity and guard agencies. Guards with spe­
cialized training or some supervisory respon­
sibilities averaged $7.16 an hour, while those
with less training and responsibility averaged
$4.68 an hour. Guards employed by industrial
security and guard agencies generally started at
the minimum wage, $3.35 an hour in 1982.
Depending on their experience, newly hired
guards in the Federal Government earned be­
tween $10,300 and $11,600 a year in 1982.
Guards employed by the Federal Government
averaged $14,600 a year. These workers usually
receive overtime pay as well as a wage differen­
tial for the second and third shifts. Many guards
have paid vacations, sick leave, and insurance
and pension plans.

Related Occupations
Guards protect property, maintain security, and
enforce standards of conduct. Other related se­
curity and protective service occupations in­
clude: Bailiffs, border guards, correction of­
ficers, deputy sheriffs, fish and game wardens,
house or store detectives, police officers, and
private investigators.

Sources of Additional Information
Further information about work opportunities
for guards is available from local employers and
the nearest State employment service office.

Police and Detectives,
Public Service
(D.O.T. 375.133-010 through .137-018, .137-026 through
.167-022, .167-030 through -046, .263-010 through .363,
.384, and .587; 377.117, .137 through .264, .267-010,
and .667-018; and 379.263-014)

Nature of the Work
The safety of our Nation’s cities, towns, and
highways greatly depends on the work of police



officers and sheriffs’ deputies whose respon­
sibilities range from controlling traffic to pre­
venting and investigating crimes. Whether on
or off duty, these officers are expected to exer­
cise their authority whenever necessary.
Police officers and sheriffs’ deputies who
work in small communities and rural areas have
many duties. In the course of a day’s work, they
may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investi­
gate a housebreaking, and give first aid to an
accident victim. In a large police department,
by contrast, officers usually are assigned to a
specific type of duty. Most officers are detailed
either to patrol or to traffic duty; smaller num­
bers are assigned to special work such as acci­
dent prevention or operation of communica­
tions systems. Others are experts in chemical
and microscopic analysis, firearms identifica­
tion, and handwriting and fingerprint identi­
fication. In very large cities, a few officers may
work with special units such as mounted and
motorcycle police, harbor patrols, helicopter
patrols, canine corps, mobile rescue teams, and
youth aid services.
Detectives and special agents are plain­
clothes investigators who gather facts and col­
lect evidence for criminal cases. They conduct
interviews, examine records, observe the ac­
tivities of suspects, and participate in raids or
arrests.
State police officers (sometimes called State
troopers or highway patrol officers) patrol high­
ways and enforce laws and regulations that
govern their use. They issue traffic tickets to
motorists who violate the law. At the scene of an
accident, they direct traffic, give first aid, call
for emergency equipment including am­
bulances, and write reports which may be used
to determine the cause of the accident. In addi­
tion, State police officers provide services to
motorists on the highways. For example, they
radio for road service for drivers with mechan­
ical trouble, direct tourists to their destination,
or give information about lodging, restaurants,
and tourist attractions.
State police officers also provide traffic assis­
tance and control during road repairs, fires, and
other emergencies, as well as during special
occurrences such as parades and sports events.
They sometimes check the weight of commer­
cial vehicles, conduct driver examinations, and
give information on highway safety to the pub­
lic.
In addition to highway responsibilities, State
police in the majority of States also enforce
criminal laws. In communities and counties
that do not have a local police force or a large
sheriff’s department, the State police are the
primary law enforcement agency, investigating
crimes such as burglary or assault. They also
may help city or county police catch law­
breakers and control civil disturbances. State
highway patrols, however, normally are re­
stricted to apprehending criminals on State
highways, and to vehicle safety and traffic mat­
ters.
Most new police recruits begin on patrol
duty, riding in a police vehicle or walking on
“foot” patrol. They may work alone or with
other officers in such varied areas as congested

business districts or outlying residential neigh­
borhoods. In any case, new officers become
thoroughly familiar with conditions throughout
their area and, while on patrol, remain alert for
anything unusual. They note suspicious cir­
cumstances, such as open windows or lights in
vacant buildings, as well as hazards to public
safety such as burned-out street lights or fallen
trees. Officers enforce traffic regulations and
also watch for stolen automobiles. At regular
intervals, officers report to police headquarters
from call boxes, radios, or walkie-talkies.
Police officers and detectives also write re­
ports and maintain police records. They may
testify in court when their arrests result in legal
action. Some officers, such as division or bu­
reau chiefs, are responsible for training or in­
vestigation and those who command police op­
erations in an assigned area have administrative
and supervisory duties.

Working Conditions
Police officers usually work 40 hours a week.
Because police protection must be provided
around the clock in all but the smallest commu­
nities, some officers work weekends, holidays,
and nights. Police officers are subject to call
any time their services are needed and may
work overtime during emergencies.
Police officers may have to work outdoors for
long periods in all kinds of weather. The injury
rate among police and detectives is higher than
in many occupations and reflects the risks of­
ficers take in pursuing speeding motorists, ap­
prehending criminals, and dealing with public
disorders.

Employment
Police officers and detectives held nearly
550,000 jobs in 1982. Most were employed by
local governments, primarily in cities with
more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have
very large police forces while hundreds of small
communities employ fewer than 25 officers
each. State police and investigative agencies
employed about 10 percent of the officers and

Police officers should enjoy working with people
and serving the public.

230/Occupational Outlook Handbook
detectives, while various Federal agencies,
such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation and
the Secret Service, employed an additional 5
percent.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Civil service regulations govern the appoint­
ment of police officers and detectives in prac­
tically all States and large cities and in many
small ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens,
usually at least 21 years of age, and must meet
rigorous physical and personal qualifications.
Eligibility for appointment depends on perfor­
mance in competitive written examinations as
well as on education and experience. Physical
examinations often include tests of vision,
strength, and agility.
Because personal characteristics such as
honesty, good judgment, and a sense of respon­
sibility are especially important in police and
detective work, candidates are interviewed by a
senior officer at police headquarters, and their
character traits and background are investi­
gated. In some police departments, candidates
also may be interviewed by a psychiatrist or a
psychologist, or be given a personality test.
Although police officers work independently,
they must perform their duties in accordance
with laws and departmental rules. They should
enjoy working with people and serving the pub­
lic.
In large police departments, where most jobs
are found, applicants usually must have a high
school education. An increasing number of cit­
ies require some college training and some hire
law enforcement students as police interns. A
few jobs, such as special agents for the Federal
Bureau of Investigation or the Internal Revenue
Service, require a college degree. A few police
departments accept applicants who have less
than a high school education as recruits, par­
ticularly if they have worked in a field related to
law enforcement.
More and more, police departments are en­
couraging applicants to take post-high school
training in law enforcement. About half of all
entrants to police and detective jobs have com­
pleted some formal postsecondary education;
many are college graduates. Many junior col­
leges, colleges, and universities offer programs
in law enforcement or administration of justice.
Other courses helpful in preparing for a police
career include psychology, counseling, En­
glish, American history, public administration,
business law, chemistry, physics, and driver
education. Physical education and sports are
especially helpful in developing the stamina




and agility needed for police work. A knowl­
edge of Spanish is an asset in areas with large
Spanish-speaking populations.
Some large cities hire high school graduates
who are still in their teens as civilian police
cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and
attend classes and are appointed to the regular
force at age 21 if qualified.
Before their first assignments, officers usu­
ally go through a period of training. In small
communities, recruits work for a short time
with experienced officers. In State and large
city police departments, they get more formal
training that may last several weeks or a few
months. This training includes classroom in­
struction in constitutional law and civil rights,
State laws and local ordinances, and accident
investigation. Recruits also receive training and
supervised experience in patrol, traffic control,
use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and
handling emergencies.
Police officers usually become eligible for
promotion after a probationary period ranging
from 6 months to 3 years. In a large depart­
ment, promotion may allow an officer to be­
come a detective or specialize in one type of
police work such as laboratory analysis of evi­
dence, traffic control, communications, or
working with juveniles. Promotions to ser­
geant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made
according to a candidate’s position on a promo­
tion list, as determined by scores on a written
examination and on-the-job performance.
Many types of training help police officers
and detectives improve their job performance
and advancement. Through training given at
police department academies and colleges, of­
ficers keep abreast of crowd-control tech­
niques, civil defense, legal developments that
affect their work, and advances in law enforce­
ment equipment. Many police departments of­
fer higher salaries and pay all or part of the
tuition for officers to work toward college asso­
ciate and bachelor’s degrees in law enforce­
ment, police science, administration of justice,
or public administration.

Job Outlook
Employment of police officers and detectives is
expected to grow more slowly than the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Al­
though the Nation’s population and police pro­
tection needs will increase, slow growth in gov­
ernment revenues is expected to limit growth in
police employment. Employment growth will
also be tempered by increased use of civilian
police department employees in parking enfor­
cement and various clerical, administrative,

and technical support positions. Although turn­
over of police and detective jobs is among the
lowest of all occupations, the need to replace
workers who retire, transfer to other occupa­
tions, or stop working for other reasons will be
the source of most job openings.
Police work is attractive to many. The job
frequently is challenging and involves much
responsibility. Furthermore, in some commu­
nities, police officers may retire with a pension
to pursue a second career before age 50. Al­
though written examinations and strict physical
requirements always eliminate many appli­
cants, competition is expected to be keen for
job openings through the mid-1990’s. The out­
look should be best for persons having some
college training in law enforcement.
The level of government spending influences
the employment of police officers and detec­
tives. Layoffs are rare because early retirements
enable most staffing cuts to be handled through
attrition. However, police officers who lose
their jobs from budget cuts usually have little
difficulty finding jobs with other police depart­
ments.

Earnings
According to a 1982 survey by the International
Personnel Management Association, police pa­
trol officers had a median annual salary of
$18,600. They started at an average of $16,400
a year and could reach an average maximum of
more than $21,300 a year.
Police and detective sergeants had a median
annual salary of $22,600 in 1982. They started
at an average of $20,900 a year and could ad­
vance to an average maximum of $25,200 a
year. Police and detective lieutenants had a me­
dian annual salary of $25,500 and started at an
average of $23,300 a year. With experience and
satisfactory job performance, they could ad­
vance to an average maximum salary of nearly
$28,100 a year in 1982.
Police departments usually provide officers
with special allowances for uniforms and fur­
nish revolvers, night sticks, handcuffs, and
other required equipment. Because police of­
ficers generally are covered by liberal pension
plans, many retire at half pay after 20 or 25
years of service.

Related Occupations
Police officers maintain law and order in the
Nation’s cities, towns, and rural areas. Other
related law enforcement occupations include
guards, correction officers, fire marshals, and
fish and game wardens.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about entrance requirements may
be obtained from Federal, State, and local civil
service commissions or police departments.

i

Food and Beverage Preparation and Service
Occupations
This section of the Handbook deals with work­
ers who prepare and serve food and beverages
in restaurants, catering firms, hotels, clubs,
bars, factories,.^school cafeterias, hospitals,
rest homes, and other establishments that offer
food and beverages. These workers cook and
serve food, mix and serve drinks, and do many
other related tasks. Since so many of these jobs
involve dealing with the public, tact, courtesy,
and a pleasant personality are important. The
work is often hectic, and the ability to work
efficiently under pressure while maintaining an
even disposition and a sense of humor is neces­
sary. Physical stamina is also very important,
since most of these workers spend long periods
of time on their feet and sometimes carry heavy
loads of food and dishes.
Food and beverage preparation and service
workers make up one of the largest occupa­
tional groups in the Nation’s labor force. They
accounted for over 6.2 million jobs in 1982—
almost three times as many jobs as in the auto­
mobile and steel manufacturing industries com­
bined. Part-time workers account for over onehalf of total employment in these occupations.
Vacation resorts employ these workers on a
seasonal basis.
Job opportunities exist almost everywhere
and for almost any interested person, including
those who have limited skills or little formal
education. The widespread availability of parttime jobs which easily fit into people’s sched­
ules makes these occupations attractive to stu­
dents, homemakers, and others who want a job
as a source of income rather than a career.

Skills usually are learned through on-the-job
training. Many restaurants hire inexperienced
persons as waiters’ assistants, kitchen helpers,
food counter workers, waiters and waitresses,
or bartenders. Previous employment as a kitch­
en helper or assistant cook sometimes is neces­
sary, however, to get a job in a large restaurant
or catering firm. Also, courses in cooking, ca­
tering, and bartending offered by public and
private vocational schools can be helpful. Ex­
perienced workers may advance to food service
manager, maitre d’hotel, head cook, or chef.
Completion of a college program in hotel and
restaurant administration is valuable for the top
managerial positions.
Starting pay for many of these jobs is very
low. However, tips may add substantially to
income.
Although employment of these workers is
expected to increase faster than the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s, the
overwhelming majority of job openings are ex­
pected to result from replacement needs. A
large proportion of food and beverage prepara­
tion and service workers transfer to other oc­
cupations or leave the labor force to assume
household duties or return to school each year.
New jobs will be generated as additional
restaurants, cafeterias, and bars open in re­
sponse to population growth and increased
spending for food and beverages outside the
home. Higher average incomes and more lei­
sure time will enable people to dine out and take
vacations more often. Also, as more women

Part-time workers account for a large proportion of employment in
food service occupations.
Percent employed part time, 1982
80

60

40

20

0
fountain
workers

attendants

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics




waitresses workers,
not elsewhere
classified

work, more families may find dining out a wel­
come convenience.
Detailed discussions of the work, training,
job outlook, and earnings of bartenders, cooks
and chefs, and waiters and waitresses are pre­
sented in the statements that follow.

Bartenders
(D.O.T. 312.474;.477; and .677)

Nature of the Work
At a moment’s notice, a skillful bartender has
prepared your drink. It may be a cool, sparkling
glass of champagne or a colorful, exotic mix­
ture such as a Singapore Sling. Bartenders
make these concoctions by combining, in exact
proportions, ingredients selected from what
may seem to be a bewildering variety of alco­
holic beverages, mixes, and garnish. A wellstocked bar contains dozens of types and brands
of liquors, beer, and wines, plus soft drinks,
fruits and fruit juices, cream, and soda and
tonic water.
Bartenders fill the drink orders that waiters
and waitresses serve customers seated in the
restaurant or lounge, as well as orders from
customers seated at the bar. Because some peo­
ple like their cocktails made a certain way,
bartenders often are asked to mix drinks to suit
a customer’s taste. Most bartenders must know
dozens of drink recipes and be able to mix
drinks, by sight alone, accurately, quickly, and
without waste, even during the busiest periods.
Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders
collect payment, operate the cash register, clean
up after customers have left, and may also serve
limited food items or snacks to customers seat­
ed at the bar.
More operations, especially larger ones, are
using equipment to automatically mix drinks of
varying complexity at the push of a button.
However, bartenders still must be efficient and
knowledgeable to handle unusual orders and to
work when the automatic equipment is not
functioning; and equipment is no substitute for
the friendly socializing most customers prefer.
Bartenders usually are responsible for order­
ing and maintaining an inventory of liquor,
mixes, and other bar supplies. They also ar­
range the bottles and glassware into attractive
displays and often wash glassware used at the
bar.
Some bartenders own a tavern or bar and,
therefore, also must keep their own business
records and hire, train, and direct staff.

231

232/Occupational Outlook Handbook

A friendly bartender is greatly appreciated by
customers.
,
Working Conditions
Many bartenders work more than 40 hours a
week; and night and weekend work and split
shifts are common. Better than average
strength sometimes is necessary to lift heavy
cases of liquors or mixes. Also, bartenders have
to work quickly and under pressure in a popular
bar during busy periods.
For many bartenders, however, the oppor­
tunity for friendly conversation with customers
and the possibility of someday managing or
owning a bar or restaurant more than offset
these disadvantages. For others, the oppor­
tunity to get part-time work is important—for
example, college students or other persons
seeking supplemental income.

Employment
Seventy-percent of the 384,000 jobs held by
bartenders in 1982 were in restaurants and bars;
about 20 percent were in hotels and private
clubs. Most of the rest were in amusement and
recreation establishments. More than 1 bar­
tender in 9 was self-employed.
One out of every three bartenders works part
time. Part-time work may involve bartending at
banquets and private parties at restaurants,
hotels, clubs, or even in private homes.
Seasonal employment is available in vacation
resorts, and some bartenders migrate between
summer and winter resorts rather than remain in
one area the entire year.

IVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most bartenders learn their trade on the job.
Although preparing drinks at home can be good
practice, it does not qualify a person to be a
bartender. Besides knowing a variety of cock­
tail recipes, bartenders must know how to stock
a bar properly and be familiar with State and
local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic bev­
erages.
Persons who wish to become bartenders can
get good experience by working as bartenders’
helpers, waiters’ assistants, or waiters or wait­
resses. By watching a bartender at work, they
can learn how to mix drinks and do other bartending tasks. However, one must practice to
become proficient.
Some people acquire their skills by attending
a bartending school or taking vocational and



technical school courses that include instruc­
tion on State and local laws and regulations,
cocktail recipes, attire and conduct, and stock­
ing a bar. Some of these schools help their
graduates find jobs.
Since they deal with the public, bartenders
should have a pleasant personality and a neat
and clean appearance. Physical stamina also is
necessary, because they stand while working
and may be required to lift heavy kegs of beer or
cases of beverages. Some States require barten­
ders to have health certificates assuring that
they are free of contagious diseases. In some
instances, they must be bonded.
Generally, bartenders must be at least 21
years of age. Some employers prefer those who
are 25 or older.
Small restaurants, neighborhood bars, and
resorts usually offer a beginner the best oppor­
tunities. After gaining experience, a bartender
may wish to work in a large restaurant or cock­
tail lounge where pay is higher and oppor­
tunities for promotion are greater. Although
opportunities for promotion in this field are
limited, it is possible to advance to head bar­
tender, wine steward, or beverage manager.
Some bartenders open their own businesses.

Job Outlook
Job opportunities for bartenders are expected to
be plentiful. Because many bartenders are stu­
dents, homemakers, or others who do not plan
careers in this occupation, job turnover is very
high. As a result, most job openings will arise
from the need to replace bartenders who trans­
fer to other occupations or stop working for a
variety of reasons.
Employment of bartenders is expected to in­
crease faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s, as new restau­
rants, hotels, and bars open in response to
population growth and as spending on food and
beverages outside the home increases.

Earnings
In 1982, median annual earnings (excluding
tips) of full-time bartenders were $10,200. The
middle 50 percent earned from $8,100 to
$13,500; the top 10 percent earned at least
$15,800. Besides wages, bartenders may re­
ceive tips that substantially increase their earn­
ings. Bartenders usually receive free meals at
work and may be furnished bar jackets or com­
plete uniforms.
Some large hotels require bartenders to be
unionized. The principal union is the Hotel
Employees Restaurant Employees International
Union (AFL-CIO).

Related Occupations
Bartenders’ duties include taking orders, serv­
ing drinks, and collecting payment from cus­
tomers. Other workers who serve customers in
a similar way include short-order cooks, food
counter workers, and waiters and waitresses.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about job opportunities may be
obtained from local employers and the local
offices of the State employment service.

General information about bartenders is
available from:
National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20
North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606.

For a directory of colleges and other schools
offering programs and courses in hospitality
education, write to:
Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Edu­
cation, Henderson Human Development Building,
Room 118, University Park, Pa. 16802.

Cooks and Chefs
(D.O.T. 313.281-010; .361-014 through -034; .381-014,
-022, -030, -034; .671-010; 315.361-010, -018, -022; .371010; and .381)

Nature of the Work
A reputation for serving fine food is an asset to
any restaurant or hotel, whether it prides itself
on “home cooking” or exotic foreign cuisine.
Cooks and chefs are largely responsible for the
reputation a restaurant acquires. Although the
terms chef and cook are often used inter­
changeably, the professional chef generally is a
far more skilled, trained, and experienced per­
son. Many chefs have earned fame for both
themselves and the restaurants and hotels where
they work because of their skill in artfully pre­
paring the traditional favorites and in creating
new dishes and improving familiar ones.
A cook’s duties depend partly on the size and
kind of restaurant. Smaller restaurants usually
feature a limited number of easy-to-prepare,
short-order specialties and readymade desserts.
Typically, one cook prepares all of the food with
the help of a short-order cook and one or two
kitchen helpers.
Large eating places usually have more varied
menus and prepare, from start to finish, more of
the food they serve. Kitchen staffs often include
several cooks, sometimes called assistant or
apprentice cooks, and many kitchen helpers.
Each cook usually has a special assignment and
often a special job title—pastry, fry, or sauce
cook, for example. Head cooks or chefs coordi­
nate the work of the kitchen staff and often
direct certain kinds of food preparation. They
decide the size of servings, sometimes plan
menus, and buy food supplies.

Working Conditions
Many restaurant kitchens have modem equip­
ment, convenient work areas, and air-con­
ditioning; but others, particularly in older and
smaller eating places, are frequently mar­
ginally equipped. Other variations in working
conditions depend on the type and quantity of
food being prepared and the local laws govern­
ing food service operations. In most kitchens,
cooks must stand most of the time, lift heavy
pots and kettles, and work near hot ovens and
ranges. Hours in restaurants may include late
evening, holiday, and weekend work, while
hours in cafeterias, factories, or other institu­
tions may be more regular. Cooks employed in
public and private schools may work during the
school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months.

Service Occupations/233
Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment for
cooks and chefs.
Job hazards include falls, cuts, and bums,
but injuries are seldom serious.

Employment
Cooks and chefs held over 1.2 million jobs in
1982. Over one-half worked in restaurants and
over one-fifth worked in educational institu­
tions; others worked in hotels and health-care
institutions. Government agencies, factories,
private clubs, and many other organizations
also employed cooks and chefs.
Almost two-fifths of all cooks and chefs
work part time, a larger proportion than in most
occupations.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Many cooks start work in an unskilled position
such as kitchen helper and acquire their skills
on the job; however, an increasing number are
obtaining their training through high school or
post-high school vocational programs, and 2or 4-year colleges. Cooks may also be trained
in apprenticeship programs offered by profes­
sional culinary institutes, industry associa­
tions, and trade unions. An example is the 3year apprenticeship program administered by
local chapters of the American Culinary
Federation in cooperation with local employers
and junior colleges or vocational education in­
stitutions. In addition, some large hotels and
restaurants operate their own training programs
for new employees.
Only a short period of training or experience
is required to become an assistant or fry cook,
but many years of training and experience are
necessary to achieve the level of skill required
of an executive chef or cook in a fine restaurant.
Even though a high school diploma is not re­
quired for beginning jobs, it is recommended
for those planning a career as a cook or chef.
High school or vocational school courses in
business arithmetic and business administra­
tion are particularly helpful. To get experience,
high school students can work part time in fastfood or other restaurants.
Persons who have had courses in commercial
food preparation will have an advantage when
looking for jobs in large restaurants and hotels,
where hiring standards often are high. Some
vocational programs in high schools offer this
kind of training. But usually these courses,
which range from a few months to 2 years or
more and are open in some cases only to high
school graduates, are given by trade schools,
vocational centers, colleges, professional asso­
ciations, and trade unions. The Armed Forces
also are a good source of training and experi­
ence.
Although curricula may vary, students usu­
ally spend most of their time learning to prepare
food through actual practice. They learn to
bake, broil, and otherwise prepare food, and to
use and care for kitchen equipment. Training
programs often include courses in menu plan­
ning, determination of portion size, food cost
control, purchasing food supplies in quantity,
selection and storage of food, and use of left­
overs. Students also learn hotel and restaurant



The cook is the mainstay of a food establishment.
sanitation and public health rules for handling
food. Training in supervisory and management
skills sometimes is emphasized in courses of­
fered by private vocational schools, profession­
al associations, and university programs.
Many school districts, in cooperation with
school food services divisions of State depart­
ments of education, provide on-the-job training
and sometimes summer workshops for caf­
eteria workers who wish to become cooks.
Some junior colleges, State departments of ed­
ucation, and school associations also offer
training programs. Cafeteria employees who
have participated in these training programs
often are selected for jobs as cooks.
Many persons accept jobs as cooks to earn
supplemental income rather than begin a career.
In fact, many entrants to this occupation are
teen-age students and middle-age homemakers
who primarily work part time. Relatively few
people transfer into this occupation from other
jobs.
Persons who want to become cooks or chefs
should be able to work as part of a team and to
withstand the pressure and strain of working in
close quarters during busy periods. A keen
sense of taste and smell, the physical stamina to
stand for hours at a time, and personal clean­
liness also are important qualifications. Most
States require health certificates indicating that
cooks and chefs are free from contagious dis­
eases.
Advancement opportunities for cooks are
better than for most other food and beverage
preparation and service occupations. Many
cooks acquire higher paying positions and new
cooking skills by moving from one operation to
another. Others gradually advance to chef posi­
tions or supervisory or management positions,
particularly in hotels, clubs, or the larger, more
elegant restaurants. Some eventually go into
business as caterers or restaurant owners; others
may become instructors in vocational programs

in high schools, junior and community col­
leges, and other academic institutions.

Job Outlook
Job openings for cooks and chefs are expected
to be plentiful. Most openings will arise from
the need to replace large numbers of cooks and
chefs who transfer to other occupations or stop
working for a variety of reasons.
Employment of cooks and chefs is expected
to increase faster than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. Contributing
to demand will be population growth, higher
family and personal incomes, and more leisure
time that allow people to dine out and take
vacations more often. Also, as more women
join the work force, families increasingly may
find dining out a welcome convenience.
Particularly fast growth in employment of
cooks is expected in hospitals, nursing homes,
residential care facilities, and other health-care
institutions that serve the growing numbers of
elderly people. While fast-food establishments
will continue to increase, the trend towards
restaurants that offer table service and fuller
menus should spur demand for skilled cooks.
Further, the increasing demand for more expen­
sive restaurants that offer more exotic foods will
require more highly skilled cooks and chefs.

Earnings
In 1982, median annual earnings of full-time
cooks and chefs were $9,300. The middle 50
percent earned between $7,100 and $12,300;
and the top 10 percent earned at least $16,400.
Wages of cooks and chefs vary depending on
the part of the country and, especially, the type
of establishment in which they work. Shortorder cooks in fast-food establishments may be
paid no more than the minimum wage. Wages
generally are higher in large, well-known res­
taurants and hotels. Cooks and chefs in famous
restaurants, of course, earn much more than the
above salaries; those with national reputations

234/Occupational Outlook Handbook
earn $40,000 or more a year. Employers gener­
ally provide free meals and uniforms.
Some large hotels require cooks and chefs to
be unionized. The principal union is the Hotel
Employees Restaurant Employees International
Union (AFL-CIO).

Related Occupations
Cooks and chefs may manage facilities ranging
in size from a two-person sandwich shop to a
large restaurant or hotel kitchen employing doz­
ens of people. Other workers with similar man­
agement responsibilities include food service
directors, executive housekeepers, and pursers.
In addition, cooks and chefs in expensive res­
taurants create and then display a product to its
best advantage. Other workers similarly in­
volved include artists, bakers, clothes design­
ers, and decorators.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about job opportunities may be
obtained from local employers and local offices
of the State employment service.
General information about restaurant cooks
and chefs is available from:
National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20
North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606.

For information on the American Culinary
Federation’s apprenticeship program for cooks,
write to:
American Culinary Federation, P.O. Box 3466, St.
Augustine, Fla. 32084.

customers. For example, they may suggest a
certain kind of wine as a complement to a par­
ticular entree and may explain how items on the
menu are prepared.
Depending on the type of restaurant, waiters
and waitresses may perform duties other than
waiting on tables. These tasks may include set­
ting up and clearing tables and carrying soiled
tableware to the kitchen. Although very small
restaurants usually combine waiting on tables
with counter service or cashiering, larger or
more formal restaurants frequently relieve their
waiters and waitresses of these additional du­
ties.

Employment
Waiters and waitresses held almost 1.7 million
jobs in 1982. Four-fifths worked in restaurants;
about 10 percent worked in hotels; and others
worked in recreational, social, and other clubs.
Jobs are located throughout the country but are
most plentiful in large cities and tourist areas.
Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment,
and some waiters and waitresses alternate be­
tween summer and winter resorts instead of
remaining in one area the entire year.
About 3 out of 5 waiters and waitresses work
part time (less than 35 hours a week), a larger
proportion than in almost any other occupation.

Working Conditions

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Some waiters and waitresses work split shifts—
that is, they work for several hours during the
middle of the day, take a few hours off in the
afternoon, and then return to their jobs for the
evening hours. Most are expected to work on
holidays and weekends. The wide range in din­
ing hours creates a good opportunity for flexi­
ble part-time work schedules attractive to stu­
dents, homemakers, and others. Waiters and
waitresses stand most of the time and often have
to carry heavy trays of dishes and food. During
dining hours, they may have to rush to serve
several tables at once. The work is relatively
safe, but they must be careful to avoid slips or
falls and bums.

Most waiters and waitresses pick up their skills
on the job, learning to set tables, take orders
from customers, and serve food in a courteous
and efficient manner. Some advance to this job
after working as a waiter’s assistant, carhop, or
food counter worker. Experience is preferred
by the larger restaurants and hotels which also
usually have higher educational standards than
smaller, less formal establishments. Some pub­
lic and private vocational schools, restaurant
associations, and large restaurant chains
provide classroom training in a generalized
food service curriculum. Other employers use
self-instruction programs to train new em­
ployees. In these programs, an employee learns

For career information and a directory of
accredited institutions offering programs in the
culinary arts, write to:
National Association of Trade and Technical Schools,
2021 K St. NW„ Washington D.C. 20006.

For a directory of colleges and other schools
offering programs and courses in hospitality
education, write to:
Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Edu­
cation, Henderson Human Development Building,
Room 118, University Park, Pa. 16802.

Waiters and
Waitresses
(D.O.T. 311.477-018 through -030; .674-018; 350.677030; and 352.677-018)

Nature of the Work
Whether they work in small, informal diners or
large, fancy restaurants, all waiters and wait­
resses have jobs that are essentially the same.
They take customers’ orders, serve food and
beverages, make out checks, and sometimes
take payments. The manner in which waiters
and waitresses go about their work may vary
considerably, however. In coffee shops, they
are expected to provide fast, efficient service.
In restaurants where meals are served elab­
orately and a great deal of emphasis is placed on
the satisfaction and comfort of each guest, wait­
ers and waitresses serve food at a more leisurely
pace and offer more personal service to their



Successful waiters and waitresses offer good service and make people feel comfortable.

Service Occupations/235
food preparation and service skills by attending
audiovisual presentations and reading instruc­
tional booklets.
A neat and clean appearance is important
because waiters and waitresses are in close and
constant contact with the public. An even dis­
position is also important since they must serve
customers quickly and under pressure during
busy periods. Physical stamina is necessary, as
waiters and waitresses are on their feet for hours
at a time, lifting and carrying trays of food from
kitchen to table. Waiters and waitresses also
should be good at arithmetic, if they have to
total bills without the aid of a calculator. In
restaurants specializing in foreign foods where
some customers may not speak English, knowl­
edge of a foreign language is helpful. State laws
often require waiters and waitresses to obtain
health certificates showing that they are free of
contagious diseases.
For many persons, a job as a waiter or wait­
ress serves as a source of income rather than a
career. Many entrants to the occupation are in
their late teens or early twenties and have a high
school education or less. Usually, they have
little or no work experience. Many are full-time
students or homemakers.
Due to the small size of most food-serving
establishments, opportunities for promotion
are limited. After gaining some experience,
however, a waiter or waitress may transfer to a
larger restaurant where earnings and prospects
for advancement are better. Successful waiters
and waitresses genuinely like people, provide




good service, and make customers feel com­
fortable. Advancement can be to supervisory
jobs, such as host or hostess, maitre d’hotel, or
dining room supervisor. Some supervisory
workers advance to jobs as restaurant man­
agers.

Job Outlook
Job openings for waiters and waitresses are
expected to be plentiful through the mid-1990’s.
Most openings will arise from the need to re­
place the high proportion of waiters and wait­
resses who leave this very large occupation
each year. There is substantial movement into
and out of the occupation due to the limited
formal education and training requirements and
predominance of part-time jobs. Many waiters
and waitresses simply move to other occupa­
tions; others stop working to assume household
responsibilities or to attend school.
Employment of waiters and waitresses is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Demand
will stem from population growth, rising per­
sonal incomes, and increased leisure time
which combined create more business for res­
taurants. Also, with more women joining the
work force, families may increasingly find din­
ing out a welcome convenience.
The best opportunities for employment will
be in moderately priced restaurants. Because
potential earnings are greatest in expensive res­
taurants, keen competition exists for the jobs
that become available in these establishments.

Earnings
In 1982, median annual earnings (excluding
tips) of full-time waiters and waitresses were
$8,200. The middle 50 percent earned between
$6,200 and $11,100; the top 10 percent earned at
least $14,800. For many waiters and waitresses,
however, tips are greater than hourly wages.
Tips generally average between 10 and 20 per­
cent of guests’ checks. Most waiters and wait­
resses receive meals at work, and many are
furnished with uniforms.
Some large hotels require waiters and wait­
resses to be unionized. The principal union is
the Hotel Employees Restaurant Employees In­
ternational Union (AFL-CIO).

Related Occupations
Other workers whose jobs involve serving cus­
tomers and helping them feel at ease and enjoy
themselves include flight attendants, butlers,
counter workers, hosts and hostesses, and bell­
hops.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about job opportunities may be
obtained from local employers and local offices
of the State employment service.
General information on waiter and waitress
jobs is available from:
National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20
North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606.

For a directory of colleges and schools offer­
ing programs and courses in hospitality educa­
tion, write to:
Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Edu­
cation, Henderson Human Development Building,
Room 118, University Park, Pa. 16802.

Health Service Occupations
These workers assist health professionals such
as physicians, dentists, optometrists, nurses,
and therapists. They typically perform routine
but essential tasks that involve a great deal of
personal contact: Conversing with patients,
making them comfortable, and setting them at
ease. Depending on their place of work, health
service workers might make appointments,
greet patients, keep records, set up equipment,
deliver food trays, change bed linen, transport
patients, help them do exercises, and escort
those who cannot walk unassisted.
Little formal training is required, although
some workers prepare by completing 1- or 2year programs offered by community colleges,
vocational-technical insititutes, and trade
schools. Employers generally provide all the
necessary training on the job. While high
school graduates are preferred, employers do
not always insist on a diploma. More important
are the personal traits these jobs require: De­
pendability, common sense, emotional sta­
bility, a cheerful disposition, and willingness to
assume responsibility. A fair amount of phys­
ical effort is involved, and at times the work is
strenuous and tiring.
Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants
make up the largest of these occupations; they
held more than 1.2 million jobs in 1982. Much
of their workday is spent answering patients’
bell calls, delivering and collecting food trays,
feeding patients, and relieving the nursing staff
of other routine tasks. Psychiatric aides held
about 132,000 jobs in 1982. Most work in men­
tal hospitals, where they help patients with
bathing, dressing, grooming, and meals. Am­
bulance drivers and ambulance attendants also
provide essential services.
There were an estimated 300,000 medical or
dental assisting jobs in 1982. Assistants usually
work in the office of a practitioner, and handle a
combination of office and patient-care duties.
Optometric assistants and ophthalmic medical
assistants, for example, maintain records, give
preliminary eye examinations and help patients
do prescribed exercises. Dental assistants held
153,000 jobs in 1982 and medical assistants
held 100,000 jobs. (Medical assistants should
not be confused with physician assistants, high­
ly skilled health professionals who undergo
several years of rigorous training to acquire
their skill in patient care. Their work is de­
scribed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other as­
sisting jobs include those of chiropractor assis­
tant and podiatric assistant.
Physical th erapists and occupational
therapists also work with the support of assis­
tants and aides. The different job titles reflect
different levels of training and expertise. Assis­
tants have more formal preparation than aides;
many are graduates of 2-year associate degree

236



programs. Assistants help the therapist test pa­
tients and administer treatments. Aides are less
directly involved in diagnosis and treatment.
Instead, they help patients dress and undress,
organize and maintain the equipment, make
appointments, and perform other clerical du­
ties.
Employment in most of these occupations is
expected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. This re­
flects anticipated demand for health care serv­
ices on the part of a growing and longer-living
population, and continued emphasis on using
support personnel to increase the productivity
of highly trained practitioners. Most job open­
ings, however, will result from replacement
needs, which will continue to be substantial.
Turnover in these occupations tends to be very
high, in part because entry requirements are
minimal and pay scales are low. Growth rates
and job prospects are not the same for all the
health service occupations; see the Handbook
statements that follow for information on spe­
cific occupations.

Dental Assistants
(D.O.T. 079.371-010)

Nature of the Work
Dental assistants, or “chairside dental assis­
tants,” work with dentists as they examine and
treat patients. The assistant makes the patients
comfortable in the dental chair, prepares them
for treatment, and obtains their dental records.
The assistant hands the dentist the proper in­
struments and materials and keeps the patient’s
mouth clear by using suction or other devices.
Dental assistants prepare materials for making
impressions and restorations, and expose radi­
ographs and process dental X-ray film as di­
rected by the dentist. They sterilize and disin­
fect instruments and equipment; prepare tray
set-ups for dental procedures; provide post-op­
erative instruction; and instruct patients in oral
health practices.
Dental assistants may perform a variety of
laboratory, clinical, and office duties; some
make casts of the teeth and mouth from impres­
sions taken by the dentist. In some States, assis­
tants apply medications to the teeth and oral
tissue, remove excess cement used in the filling
process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to
isolate them for individual treatment. In small,
single-dentist practices, dental assistants may
manage the office and arrange and confirm ap­
pointments, receive patients, keep treatment
records, send bills, receive payments, and
order dental supplies and materials.

The work of the dental assistant should not be
confused with that of the dental hygienist, who
must be licensed to scale and polish teeth. (See
the statement on dental hygienists elsewhere in
the Handbook.)

Working Conditions
Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean
environment. They must be careful in handling
radiographic equipment; the occupation is one
of several covered by the Consumer-Patient Ra­
diation Health and Safety Act of 1981, which
encourages the States to adopt uniform stan­
dards for the training and certification of indi­
viduals who perform medical and dental radi­
ologic procedures.
Dental assistants, like dentists, work in ei­
ther a standing or sitting position. Their work
area is near the dental chair, so that they can
arrange instruments, materials, and medica­
tion, and hand them to the dentist when needed.
They must be a dentist’s “third hand,” and,
therefore, should exhibit some manual dex­
terity and be able to deal with people who may
be under stress.
Although the 40-hour workweek prevails for
dental assistants, the schedule is likely to in­
clude work on Saturday.

Employment
Dental assistants held about 153,000 jobs in
1982. About 1 out of 4 worked part time, some­
times in more than one dentist’s office.
Most dental assistants work in private dental
offices, either for individual dentists or for
groups of dentists. Others work in dental
schools, hospital dental departments, State and
local public health departments, or private
clinics. The Federal Government employs den­
tal assistants in hospitals and dental clinics of
the U.S. Public Health Service and the Veterans
Administration.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Dental assisting is an entry level job; the prin­
cipal requirements are a congenial personality
and the ability to learn the job. Consequently,
entrants to this occupation tend to be young; for
many, it is their first experience in the world of
work.
Many dental assistants learn their skills on
the job. Some, however, are trained in dental
assisting programs offered by community and
junior colleges, trade schools, and technical
institutes. About 290 such programs were ac­
credited by the Commission on Dental Ac­
creditation in 1982. More than three-fourths of
the programs take 1year to complete and lead to
a certificate or diploma. Graduates of 2-year
programs offered in community and junior col­
leges earn an associate degree. The minimum

Service Occupations/237
have completed a formal training program in
dental assisting command higher pay.
In 1982, median earnings for dental assis­
tants working full time were about $200 a week.
The middle 50 percent earned between $170
and $250 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned
less than $150 a week, the highest 10 percent,
more than $300.
In the Federal Government, experience and
the amount and type of education determine
starting salaries. In 1982, a high school gradu­
ate who had 6 months of experience started at
about $10,600 a year; graduates of a 1-year
accredited dental assisting program who had a
year of general experience could expect to start
at nearly $12,000 a year. Dental assistants
working for the Federal Government earned
average salaries of about $13,700 in 1982.

Related Occupations

The assistant’s use of dental X-ray equipment is regulated by law in a number of States
requirement for any of these programs is a high
school diploma or its equivalent. Some schools
require typing or a science course for admis­
sion. Some private vocational schools offer 4to 6-month courses in dental assisting, but these
are not accredited by the dental profession.
Those receiving dental assistant training in the
Armed Forces usually qualify for civilian jobs
as dental assistants.
High school students interested in careers as
dental assistants should take courses in biology,
chemistry, health, typing, and office practices.
Accredited dental assisting programs include
classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruc­
tion in dental assisting skills and related theory.
In addition, students gain practical experience
in affiliated dental schools, local clinics, or
selected dental offices.
A correspondence course offered by the Uni­
versity of North Carolina School of Dentistry is
among those programs accredited by the Com­
mission on Dental Accreditation. This course is
available for employed dental assistants who
are learning on the job or who otherwise are
unable to participate in accredited training pro­
grams on a full-time basis. The correspondence
program is equivalent to 1 academic year of
study but generally requires about 2 years to
complete.
Certification is available through the Dental
Assisting National Board; it is an acknowledg­
ment of an assistant’s qualifications but is not
generally required for employment.
Twenty-one States require dental assistants
to complete specified training and/or an exam­
ination before performing dental X-rays under
a dentist’s supervision; the remaining States
have no training or examination requirements
for dental radiography.
After working as dental assistants, some
individuals seek to acquire the skills and quali­
fications for practicing as dental hygienists.
Prospective dental assistants who foresee this
possibility should plan carefully, since credit



earned in a dental assistant program often is not
applicable toward requirements for a dental
hygiene certificate. Some dental assistants be­
come sales representatives for firms that man­
ufacture dental products. The field of dental
assisting education offers opportunities in
teaching and program administration.

Job Outlook
Employment of dental assistants is expected to
grow faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s, reflecting dentists’ in­
terest in improving their productivity as well as
increased demand for dental care. An increase
in demand for dental care is expected because of
population growth, rising real incomes, and
participation in dental prepayment plans. When
they delegate routine tasks to dental assistants,
dentists with a large enough practice can use
their time for more remunerative procedures.
Nonetheless, if the rapidly rising supply of den­
tists causes a decline in dentists’ patient load,
they may choose to perform more functions
themseleves and hire fewer assistants. Employ­
ment growth would then be slower than cur­
rently expected.
Most job openings will be created by the
need to replace assistants who leave the occupa­
tion. Since dental assisting offers relatively low
pay and limited advancement, a large propor­
tion of dental assistants leave the occupation
annually, thus creating openings for others.
This is largely an occupation of young women,
and many of them leave the job to take on
family responsibilities. Others return to school.
Very few leave for retirement or disability.

Earnings
Salary depends largely on the duties and re­
sponsibilities attached to the particular job and
on geographic location. Dentists’ policies with
respect to assistants’ salaries vary widely, but
there is little evidence that individuals who

Dental assistants perform a variety of duties
that do not require the dentist’s professional
knowledge and skill. Other workers who
provide similar services under the supervision
of a health practitioner include medical assis­
tants, chiropractor assistants, optometric assis­
tants, podiatric assistants, and surgical techni­
cians.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about career opportunities, schol­
arships, accredited dental assistant programs,
including the correspondence program, and re­
quirements for certification is available from:
American Dental Assistants Association, 666 N.
Lake Shore Dr., Suite 1130, Chicago, 111. 60611.
Commission on Dental Accreditation, American
Dental Association, 211E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814,
Chicago, 111. 60611.
Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 666 N. Lake
Shore Dr., Suite 1136, Chicago, 111. 60611.

Medical Assistants
(D.O.T. 079.367-010)

Nature of the Work
Medical assistants help physicians examine and
treat patients and perform most of the admin­
istrative tasks needed to keep an office running
smoothly.
The duties of medical assistants, who some­
times are called medical office assistants, con­
sist of administrative and clinical activities.
The size of the office in which the medical
assistant works determines the scdpe of the job:
Those in small offices typically handle both
clerical and clinical duties, whereas in offices
with a sizable staff, medical assistants usually
specialize in either the “office” or “patient care”
aspects of the job.
Clinical duties most commonly include:
Recording patients’ height, weight, tem­
perature, and blood pressure; obtaining medi­
cal histories; performing basic laboratory tests;
preparing patients for examination or treat­
ment; assisting the physician examine patients;

238/Occupational Outlook Handbook
and sterilizing instruments. Other clinical du­
ties may be instructing patients about medica­
tion and self-treatment, drawing blood, taking
X-rays and EKG’s, and applying dressings.
Medical assistants also may arrange instru­
ments and equipment in the examining room;
check office and laboratory supplies; and main­
tain the waiting, consulting, and examination
rooms in a neat and orderly condition.
Medical assistants perform a variety of ad­
ministrative duties. They may answer the tele­
phone, greet patients and other callers, record
and file patient data and medical records, fill
out medical reports and insurance forms, han­
dle correspondence, schedule appointments,
and arrange for hospital admission and labora­
tory services. Along with other office duties,
they may transcribe dictation and handle the
bookkeeping and billing. Medical secretaries
and medical receptionists also perform admin­
istrative tasks in medical offices, but, unlike
medical assistants, they rarely have clinical du­
ties. (See the statements on receptionists and on
secretaries and stenographers elsewhere in the
Handbook.)

Working Conditions
Medical assistants work in a well-lighted, clean
environment.

Employment
Medical assistants held about 100,000 jobs in
1982. Most jobs were in the offices of physi­
cians and other health practitioners, including
optometrists, podiatrists, and chiropractors.
The remaining jobs were in hospitals, clinics,
health maintenance organizations, and other fa­
cilities. The following tabulation shows the dis­
tribution of wage and salary jobs in 1982:
Percent
Total ............................................

100.0

Offices of physicians (M. D.’s and D.O.’s)
Offices of other health practitioners . .
Hospitals..................................................
Outpatient care facilities ................. .. .
All oth er..................................................

77.0
7.8
5.4
3.8
6.0

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Medical assistants generally are trained on the
job. Applicants usually need a high school di­
ploma or the equivalent. High school courses in
mathematics, health, biology, typing, book­
keeping, computers, and office practices are
helpful.
Many medical assistants receive their train­
ing in formal programs offered in some high
schools and, at the postsecondary level, by vo­
cational-technical institutes, trade schools, and
community and junior colleges.
Community college programs in medical as­
sisting usually last 2 years and lead to an associ­
ate degree; the other programs take up to 1 year
to complete and graduates receive a diploma.
Approximately 23,000 persons completed
medical assisting programs in 1980, but the
number seeking work as medical assistants was
smaller than this. Every year, many who com­
plete the program take other kinds of jobs; some



undertake additional training in nursing, radi­
ologic technology, medical laboratory tech­
nology, or other allied health fields.
Two agencies are recognized by the U.S.
Department of Education to accredit programs
in medical assisting: The Committee on Allied
Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA)
and the Accrediting Bureau for Health Educa­
tion Schools (ABHES). The 167 programs cur­
rently approved by CAHEA graduated about
5,600 students in 1982. The ABHES currently
accredits 103 programs, and graduates num­
bered about 4,700 in 1982. The curriculum in
these programs consists of courses in biology,
anatomy and physiology, typing, transcription,
accounting, records and recordkeeping, and
medical terminology. Many students receive
instruction in computer skills as they apply to
the medical office. Students also receive super­
vised clinical experience and learn laboratory
techniques, use of medical equipment, clinical
procedures, and first-aid techniques. In addi­
tion, students receive instruction in admin­
istrative and office practices including com­
munications skills, human relations, and medi­
cal law and ethics.
There are no licensing requirements for med­
ical assistants. Credentialing, which is volun­
tary, consists of certification or registration of­
fered by two organizations upon successful
completion of an examination. The American
Association of Medical Assistants (AAMA)
awards the Certified Medical Assistant (CMA)
credential, and the American Medical Tech­
nologists awards the Registered Medical Assis­
tant (RMA) credential.
For medical assistants, advancement gener­
ally means leaving the occupation, for career
lines are short. Clinical health occupations such
as radiologic technologist or registered nurse
require additional education, whereas admin­
istrative and managerial jobs may not. Medical
assistants who demonstrate leadership abilities
may, for example, be promoted to the position
of office manager. (The trend toward group
practice, clinics, free-standing emergency cen­
ters, and other alternatives to solo practice is
likely to heighten demand for office managers.)
Medical assistants with computer skills are
qualified for a wide variety of research and
management support positions.
A neat, well-groomed appearance and a
courteous, pleasant manner are necessary traits
for medical assistants, who have a great deal of
contact with the public. Communication skills
are especially important. Medical assistants
must not only be good at putting patients at
ease, but be good listeners and interpret a phy­
sician’s instructions correctly the first time they
are given. Conscientiousness, a sense of re­
sponsibility, and respect for the confidential
nature of medical information are all necessary
qualities in a medical assistant. Clinical duties
require a reasonable level of manual dexterity
and visual acuity. Medical assistants must be
able to deal with people who are under stress.

Job Outlook
Employment of medical assistants is expected
to grow faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s because of the

Medical assistants help maintain the records in
physicians’ offices.
projected rapid increase in the number of physi­
cians in practice. The growing complexity and
sheer volume of the paperwork associated with
medical care also will spur demand. Most job
openings, however, will result from the need to
replace experienced assistants who leave the
occupation.
In view of the preference of many physicians
for trained personnel, job prospects should be
very good for medical assistants with formal
training, experience, or both.

Earnings
The earnings of medical assistants vary widely.
The assistant’s qualifications and experience
and the size and location of the physician’s
practice all help to determine the level of pay.
From the limited information available, inex­
perienced medical assistants generally start at
about $8,000 a year. Medical assistants with 5
years of experience usually earn about $15,000
a year.
Although medical assistants usually work 40
hours a week, some work on Saturday may be
required.

Related Occupations
Other health occupations that entail a combina­
tion of administrative and clinical duties and
require only a limited amount of specialized
training include pharmacy helpers, dental as­
sistants, optometric assistants, podiatric assis­
tants, occupational therapy aides, and physical
therapist aides.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about career opportunities,
CAHEA-accredited educational programs in
medical assisting, and requirements for the
CMA exam is available from:
The American Association of Medical Assis­
tants, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chi­
cago, 111. 60606.

Service Occupations/239
Information about career opportunities and
requirements to become an RMA are available
from:
American Medical Technologists, Registered
Medical Assistants, 710 Higgins Rd., Park
Ridge, 111. 60068.
For a list of ABHES-approved educational
programs in medical assisting, write:
Accrediting Bureau of Health Education
Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20
West, Elkhart, Ind. 46514.
A list of accredited and nonaccredited
postsecondary programs in medical assisting,
arranged by State, may be found in Postsecond­
ary Schools with Occupational Programs,
1982, a publication of the U.S. Department of
Education’s National Center for Education Sta­
tistics. This publication and similar directories
put out by commercial publishers may be avail­
able in counseling centers or large public librar­
ies.

Nursing Aides,
Orderlies, and
Attendants*
0
1
8
D.O.T. 354.374-010 and .377-010; 355.674-014 and
018)

health aides, home health aides, and psychi­
atric aides. They are not covered in this state­
ment, however.

Working Conditions
With few exceptions, the scheduled workweek
of attendants in hospitals is 40 hours or less.
Because patients need care 24 hours a day,
scheduled work hours include nights, week­
ends, and holidays. Workers spend many hours
standing and may have to move patients in bed
or help them stand or walk.
Nursing aides often empty bed pans, change
soiled bed linens, and care for disoriented and
irritable patients. Many gain personal satisfac­
tion, however, from assisting those in need.

Employment
Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants held
about 1,218,000 jobs in 1982. Most wage and
salary jobs were in hospitals or nursing homes,
as the accompanying chart shows.
About a quarter of all nursing aide, orderly,
and attendant jobs are part time.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
These are entry level jobs that do not ordinarily
require work experience. Educational require­
ments are minimal. Although employers prefer
high school graduates, many, such as Veterans
Administration hospitals, do not require a high

school diploma. Employers often accept appli­
cants who are 17 or 18 years of age.
In addition to providing young people with
an entry to the world of work, these occupations
offer good opportunities for middle-aged and
older women seeking to reenter the labor force
after attending to family responsibilities. Many
in this group do not have a high school diploma.
The fact that personal qualifications such as
warmth, dependability, and levelheadedness
outweigh formal educational requirements is a
distinctive feature of the nursing assistant oc­
cupations. However, hiring requirements are
beginning to change in the direction of more
formal preparation.
In many States, nursing aides must be cer­
tified. To receive certification, they must pass
an approved course of instruction from a Stateapproved school. These courses, which range
in length from 65 to 240 hours, are offered in
high schools, vocational education schools,
and schools affiliated with nursing homes. Sub­
jects taught include body mechanics, nutrition,
anatomy and physiology, infection control, and
communications skills.
In States which do not require certification,
nursing aides generally are trained after they
are hired. Some institutions combine on-thejob training, under registered nurses or licensed
practical nurses, with classroom instruction.
Trainees learn to take and record temperatures,
bathe patients, change linens on beds occupied

Nature of the Work
Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants help
care for people who are sick, disabled, or in­
firm. Job titles vary; in some places, these
workers are known as nursing assistants, hos­
pital attendants, birth attendants, and geriatric
aides.
The duties of nursing aides, orderlies, and
attendants depend on the policies of the institu­
tions where they work, the type of patient being
cared for, and—equally important—the work­
er’s skill level and capacity for independent
judgment. These workers care for hospital and
nursing home patients, for the most part. Typ­
ical duties oab02f a nursing aide include answering
patients’ bell calls and delivering messages,
serving meals, feeding patients who are unable
to feed themselves, making beds, and bathing
and dressing patients. Aides also may give mas­
sages, take temperatures, and assist patients in
getting out of bed and walking. In some hospi­
tals, nursing aides may clean patients’ rooms
and do similar housekeeping tasks. In others,
they may help registered nurses and licensed
practical nurses care for patients. The work
depends on whether the patient is confined to
bed after major surgery, is recovering after a
disabling accident or illness, or needs assis­
tance in daily activities because of advanced
age.
Orderlies escort patients to operating and
examining rooms and transport and set up
heavy equipment. Attendants may store and
move supplies in hospital pharmacies or supply
rooms.
Examples of workers who perform similar
tasks in other settings are homemaker-home



Assisting at mealtime is an important part of a nursing aide’s job.

240/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Nursing homes provide nearly as many jobs as hospitals for nursing
aides, orderlies, and attendants.
Distribution of employment, 1982

Hospitals

Nursing homes

Other
SOURCE: Bu reau of Lab o r S t a tis tic s

by patients, and move and lift patients. Training
may last several days or a few months, depend­
ing on the policies of the institution, the com­
plexity of the duties, and the aide’s aptitude for
the work.
Courses in home nursing and first aid, of­
fered by many public school systems and other
community agencies, provide a useful back­
ground of knowledge for the work. Volunteer
work and temporary summer jobs in hospitals
and similar institutions also are helpful. Appli­
cants should be healthy, tactful, patient, under­
standing, emotionally stable, and dependable.
Nursing aides, as other health workers, should
have a genuine desire to help people, be able to
work as part of a team, and be willing to per­
form repetitive, routine tasks.
Opportunities for advancement within these
occupations are limited. Career ladders, where
they exist at all, are very short. Nonetheless,
the large and rapidly growing health industry—
which comprises hundreds of occupations and
employment settings—offers excellent oppor­
tunities for aides, orderlies, and assistants who
are suitable candidates for additional training.
Experience in the health care system almost
invariably is an asset when applying for formal
training, which is offered by community col­
leges, vocational-technical institutes, and trade
schools. Hospital occupations requiring ap­
proximately 1 year of training beyond high
school include surgical technician, licensed




practical nurse, EEG technologist. EKG tech­
nologist, respiratory therapy technician,
clinical laboratory assistant, and dietetic tech­
nician. Many of these are discussed elsewhere
in the Handbook.

Job Outlook
Job prospects for nursing aides, orderlies, and
attendants are expected to be good through the
mid-1990's due to the widespread availability of
jobs and the relative ease of entry into the oc­
cupation. Growth in demand for these workers
and the need to replace experienced workers
who leave their jobs will create far more open­
ings than in most other occupations.
Employment is expected to grow faster than
the average for all occupations in response to
the health care needs of a growing and aging
population. Opportunities are expected to be
especially favorable in nursing homes and other
long-term care facilities, due to the very rapid
growth projected for services for the disabled
and the elderly. Employment of these workers is
projected to grow more slowly in hospitals than
in nursing homes through the mid-1990s. Nev­
ertheless, hospitals employ so many nursing
aides, orderlies, and attendants that a substan­
tial proportion of openings will continue to be
in the hospital sector.
Replacement needs constitute the major
source of openings. Turnover in these occupa­
tions, as in other service occupations, is high, a

reflection of relatively low skill requirements
and low pay.

Earnings
Median annual earnings of nursing aides, or­
derlies, and attendants who worked full time in
1982 were about $9,000. The middle 50 percent
earned between $8,000 and $12,000. The
lowest 10 percent earned about $6,000 or less.
The top 10 percent earned $15,000 or more.
Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants
earned salaries that were below the average for
all nonsupervisory workers in private industry,
except farming. Nursing aides employed full
time by nursing homes and related facilities
earned less than those in hospitals. For exam­
ple, according to surveys conducted by the Bu­
reau of Labor Statistics, nursing aides em­
ployed full time in nursing homes in large
metropolitan areas earned annual average sal­
aries ranging from $8,000 to $14,000 in 1982.
Full-time nursing aides in hospitals in large
metropolitan areas earned from $10,000 to
$18,000. In 1982, Federal hospitals paid inex­
perienced nursing aides who were high school
graduates annual salaries of $9,756. Nursing
aides with a year of experience received
$10,645, while those with 2 years received
$11,949. The average salary of nursing aides
employed by the Federal Goverment was about
$14,000 a year in 1982.
Attendants in hospitals and similar institu­
tions generally receive at least 1 week’s paid
vacation after 1 year of service. Paid holidays
and sick leave, hospital and medical benefits,
extra pay for late-shift work, and pension plans
also are available to many hospital employees.

Related Occupations
Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants help
with the care and treatment of people who are
sick, disabled, or infirm. They may move and
assemble heavy equipment and perform house­
keeping chores. Workers with similar duties
include homemaker-home health aides, psychi­
atric aides, child care attendants, companions,
occupational therapy aides, physical therapy
aides, caretakers, and central supply workers.

Sources of Additional Information
For information on nursing careers in hospitals,
contact:
American Hospital Association, Division of Nursing,
840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611.

For a copy of Health Careers in Long-Term
Care, write:
American Health Care Association, 1200 15th St.
NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005.

Information about employment also may be
obtained from local hospitals and nursing
homes.

Cleaning and Building Service Occupations
Every public building, office, and apartment
house needs to be kept clean and in good con­
dition for the comfort and safety of the people
who work or live there. This work is done by
people in cleaning and building service occupa­
tions, who clean, do routine maintenance and
repair, replenish supplies, operate elevators, or
exterminate insects and rodents.
Workers who have limited skills or little edu­
cation can often find jobs in this field. Skills
usually are learned on the job, but other training
sometimes is available. Building custodians,
for example, may attend training programs of­
fered by unions and government agencies.
Maids and housekeepers may take homestudy
or classroom courses in housekeeping pro­
cedures offered by their employer. Workers
who learn their jobs thoroughly and show that
they can handle responsibility may advance to
supervisory positions.
Besides a knowledge of their job, these
workers must be courteous, tactful, and neat if
their job requires contact with the public. They
should be able to follow instructions and work
well on their own. Some of these workers per­
form repetitive and tiring tasks, such as scrub­
bing and waxing floors or making up beds, and
must be able to tolerate the boredom of the job.
Starting pay for most cleaning and building
service workers is relatively low.
Employment of these workers should in­
crease as additional hotels, office buildings,
and other structures that require cleaning and
maintenance are built. Job turnover is high in
these occupations. Thus, besides jobs created
by increased demand for cleaning and building
services, many job openings will occur each
year as workers transfer to other occupations,
leave their jobs for personal reasons, retire, or
die.

Building Custodians
(D.O.T. 187.167-190; 381.137-010, .687-014, -018, -022;
382.664-010; and 891.137-010)

Nature of the Work
Building custodians, also called janitors or
cleaners, keep office buildings, hospitals,
stores, apartment houses, and other types of
buildings clean and in good condition. Some
custodians only do cleanings, others have a
wide range of duties. They may fix leaky
faucets, empty trash cans, do painting and car­
pentry, replenish bathroom supplies, mow
lawns, and see that heating and air-conditioning
equipment works properly. On a typical day,
custodians may wet- or dry-mop floors, vacuum
carpets, dust furniture, make minor repairs,
and exterminate insects and rodents.




Custodians use many different tools and
cleaning materials. For one job they may need a
mop and bucket; for another, an electric polish­
ing machine and a special cleaning solution.
Chemical cleaners and power equipment have
made many tasks easier and less time consum­
ing, but custodians must know how to use them
properly to avoid harming floors'and fixtures.
Some custodians supervise a group of
custodial workers and are responsible for main­
taining a section of a building or an entire build­
ing. They assign tasks to each worker, give
instructions, and see that jobs, such as floor
waxing or window washing, are done well.

Working Conditions
Because most office buildings are cleaned
while they are empty, custodians may work
evening hours. Some, however, such as school
custodians, work in the daytime. In buildings
requiring 24-hour maintenance, custodians
may work on shifts.
Although custodians usually work inside
heated, well-lighted buildings, they sometimes
work outdoors sweeping walkways, mowing
lawns, or shoveling snow. Working with ma­
chines can be noisy and some tasks, such as
cleaning bathrooms and trash rooms, can be
dirty and unpleasant. Custodial workers may
suffer minor cuts, bruises, and bums from ma­
chines, handtools, and chemicals.
Building custodians spend most of their time
on their feet, sometimes lifting or pushing
heavy furniture or equipment. Many tasks,
such as dusting or sweeping, require constant
bending, stooping, and stretching.

simple arithmetic and be able to follow instruc­
tions. High school shop courses are helpful for
minor plumbing or carpentry work.
Most building custodians learn their skills on
the job. Usually, beginners do routine cleaning
and are given more complicated duties as they
gain experience.
In some cities, programs run by unions, gov­
ernment agencies, or employers teach custodial
skills. Students learn how to clean buildings
thoroughly and efficiently, and how to operate
and maintain machines used on the job, such as
wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polishers.
Instruction in minor electrical, plumbing, and
other repairs may also be given. As part of their
training, students learn to plan their work, to
follow safety and health regulations, to deal
with people in the buildings they clean, and to
work without supervision.
Building custodians usually find work by
answering newspaper advertisements or apply­
ing directly to a company where they would like
to work or to a building maintenance service.
They also get jobs through State employment
offices. Custodial jobs in the government are
obtained by applying to the civil service per­
sonnel headquarters.
Advancement opportunities for custodial
workers usually are limited because in many
buildings, the custodian is the only mainte­
nance worker. Where there is a large mainte­
nance staff, however, custodians can be pro­
moted to supervisory jobs. A high school

Employment
Building custodians held almost 2.8 million
jobs in 1982. One-third worked part time (less
than 35 hours a week).
Custodians worked in every type of estab­
lishment. About 1 in 5 worked in a school,
including colleges and universities. One in 10
worked in a hotel and another 1 in 10 in a
hospital or nursing home. One in 7 worked for a
firm supplying building maintenance services
on a contract basis. Others were employed by
restaurants, operators of apartment buildings
and other types of real estate, churches and
other religious organizations, manufacturing
firms, and government agencies.
Although custodial jobs can be found in all
cities and towns, most are located in highly
populated areas where there are many office
buildings, stores, and apartment houses.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
No special education is required for most
custodial jobs, but the beginner should know

Custodians use many different machines and
cleaning materials.
241

242/Occupational Outlook Handbook
diploma improves the chances for advance­
ment. Some custodians go into the maintenance
business for themselves.

Job Outlook
Employment of building custodians is expected
to grow about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s as the
number of office buildings, factories, hospitals,
and apartment houses, schools, and other
buildings increases. However, the need to re­
place workers who transfer to other occupations
or leave the labor force will create most job
openings. Persons seeking part-time or evening
work can expect to find many opportunities.

Earnings
Custodians who usually worked full time aver­
aged $210 a week in 1982; the middle 50 percent




earned between $160 and $255. Ten percent
earned less than $145, 10 percent more than
$350.
In 1982, average straight-time earnings of
building custodians in metropolitan areas were
$5.49 an hour, which is almost three-fourths as
much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farm­
ing. The average for custodians in manufactur­
ing industries was $7.67 and for non-manufac­
turing industries, $4.86. Earnings, however,
vary by industry and area of the country. Work­
ers in large cities of the Northeast, North Cen­
tral, and Western regions usually earn the high­
est wages.
Most building service workers receive paid
holidays and vacations, and health insurance.

Related Occupations
Custodians are not the only workers who clean
and maintain buildings. Some workers who
have similar skills and job duties are trash col­
lectors, floor waxers, sweepers, window clean­
ers, private household workers, gardeners,
boiler tenders, hotel housekeepers, and pest
controllers.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about custodial jobs and training
opportunities may be obtained from the local
office of your State employment service.
For information on job opportunities in local
areas, contact:
Service Employees International Union, 2020 K St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

Personal Service Occupations
Personal service workers perform a variety of
tasks for other people. They cut hair, make
airplane passengers comfortable, conduct
tours, take theater tickets, distribute equipment
and collect fees at amusement and recreation
facilities, shine shoes, care for costumes of
entertainers, check coats, carry baggage, care
for children, and do household chores for peo­
ple who cannot manage for themselves. Be­
cause the work involves doing things for others,
the ability to deal effectively with all kinds of
people is a “must.” A pleasant personality, tact,
and a sense of humor are assets.
Personal service workers held nearly 1.7 mil­
lion jobs in 1982. Cosmetologists and child care
workers (who supervise children in nursery
schools, play groups, and babysitters’ own
homes) held by far the largest number of jobs,
about half a million each.
Some personal service jobs require formal
training that lasts from several weeks to a year
or so. Right attendants go to training schools
run by the airlines themselves; barbers and cos­
metologists generally learn their trade in public
or private vocational schools. Most other per­
sonal service workers, however, acquire their
skills on the job. A high school diploma is
necessary for some of these jobs. All employers
stress the importance of such personal charac­
teristics as poise, good grooming, and a pleas­
ant disposition. Physical stamina is important,
for much of the work involves being on one’s
feet for long periods of time.
For many young people, a personal service
job serves as entry to the work force. The abun­
dance of part-time job opportunities attracts
#

persons of all ages who want to combine a job
with family, school, or other responsibilities.
Starting pay in many of these jobs is at or
only slightly above the minimum wage. Often,
however, workers also receive tips that add sub­
stantially to their income. Some workers—cos­
metologists in particular—are employed on a
commission basis. Many of these workers
eventually open their own businesses.
Indeed, the large proportion of people who
work for themselves is a distinguishing charac­
teristic of the personal service occupations. In
1982, about two-fifths of these workers were
self-employed, compared to about one-tenth of
all workers. Running one’s own business is
especially prevalent among barbers, cos­
metologists, and child care workers (see ac­
companying chart). People who aspire to work
for themselves must not only be good enough at
what they do to maintain a steady flow of cus­
tomers, they also must have the drive and busi­
ness acumen to handle finances, suppliers, and
staff.
Most job openings for personal service
workers will result from the need to replace
those who transfer to other occupations, as­
sume full-time household duties, or stop work­
ing for other reasons. Replacement needs are
substantial because turnover is high—a charac­
teristic of occupations that require a relatively
limited investment in training. There are excep­
tions, however. Barbers, for example, tend to
have a relatively strong attachment to their oc­
cupation.
Employment of personal service workers is
expected to increase about as fast as the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s in

Many personal service workers are self-employed.
Employment, 1982 (thousands)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

response to population growth, higher in­
comes, and more multieamer families. For ex­
ample, demand for child care workers should
grow because the labor force participation of
mothers of preschool or school-age children is
expected to increase through the mid-1990’s.
Employment of welfare service aides, a catego­
ry that includes geriatric aides and homemakerhome health aides, will rise in response to in­
creased demand for community and in-home
services for the elderly.
For specific information on prospects for bar­
bers, cosmetologists, and flight attendants, see
the Handbook statements that follow.

Barbers
(D.O.T. 330.371-010 and -014)

Nature of the Work
Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair.
Many people still go to a barber for just a
haircut, but more and more seek services such
as hairstyling and permanents. Barbers trained
in these areas are called “hairstylists” and work
in styling salons, “unisex” salons, and some
barbershops. They cut and style hair to suit each
customer and may color or straighten hair and
fit hairpieces. Most barbers offer hair and scalp
treatments, shaves, and facial massages.
By tradition, most customers are men.
However, a small but growing number of bar­
bers cut and style women’s hair. They usually
work in unisex salons—shops that have male
and female customers. Some States require a
cosmetologist’s license as well as a barber’s
license, however, to permanent wave or color
women’s hair. (The Handbook statement on
cosmetologists follows this statement.)
As part of their responsibilities, barbers keep
their scissors, combs, and other instruments
sterilized and in good condition. They clean
their work areas and may sweep the shop as
well. Some sell lotions, tonics, and other cos­
metic supplies. Those who own or manage a
shop order supplies, pay bills, keep records,
and hire employees.

Working Conditions

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics




Barbers usually work in clean, pleasant sur­
roundings, with good lighting and ventilation.
Good health and stamina are important because
barbers must stand on their feet a great deal and
work with both hands at shoulder level—a posi­
tion that can be tiring.
Most barbers work more than 40 hours a
week, and a workweek of over 50 hours is not
uncommon. Although weekends and lunch
hours are generally very busy, a barber may

243

244/Occupational Outlook Handbook
for a one-chair shop averaged about $5,000 in
1982. Some shopowners buy used equipment
and fixtures at reduced prices, however.

Job Outlook

More than half of all barbers operate their own business.
have some time off during slack periods. To
assure an even workload, some barbers ask
customers to make appointments.

Employment
Barbers held about 115,000 jobs in 1982. Most
worked in barbershops, some worked in beauty
shops and unisex salons, and a few worked in
department stores, hotels, hospitals, and pris­
ons. About 3 out of every 4 barbers operate
their own businesses.
Almost all cities and towns have bar­
bershops, but employment is concentrated in
the most populous cities and States. Hairstylists
usually work in large cities where the greatest
demand for their services exists.
*

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All States require barbers to be licensed. The
qualifications necessary to get a license vary
from one State to another, however. Generally a
person must be a graduate of a state-approved
barber school and be at least 16 years old (18 in
some states). In addition, education require­
ments vary from State to State—some require
graduation from high school while others have
no requirement at all.
Many States require a beginner to take an
examination for an apprentice license and serve
1 or 2 years as an apprentice before taking the
examination required for a license as a regis­
tered barber. In the examinations, the applicant
usually is required to pass a written test and
demonstrate an ability to perform the basic
services. Fees for these examinations range
from $15 to $85.
Some States have reciprocity agreements
that allow licensed barbers to practice in a dif­
ferent State without additional formal training.



However, some States do not recognize train­
ing, apprenticeship work, or licenses obtained
in another State; consequently, persons who
wish to become barbers should review the laws
of the State in which they want to work before
entering a barber school or seeking employ­
ment.
Barber training is offered in about 285
schools; 9 out of 10 barber schools are private.
Some public high schools offer barbering in
their vocational programs. Barber school pro­
grams usually last 9 to 12 months. Students buy
their own tools, which cost about $600. They
study the basic services—haircutting, shaving,
facial massaging, and hair and scalp treat­
ments—and, under supervision, practice on
customers in school “clinics.” Most schools
now teach unisex hairstyling and chemical styl­
ing as part of their regular curriculum. Besides
attending lectures on barber services and the
use and care of instruments, students take
courses in sanitation and hygiene, and learn
how to recognize certain skin conditions. In­
struction also is given in selling and general
business practices. Advanced courses are avail­
able in some localities for barbers who wish to
update their skills or specialize in hairstyling,
coloring, and the sale and service of hairpieces.
Dealing with customers requires patience
and a better than average disposition. In addi­
tion, good eye-hand coordination is required.
Barbers also should have sound judgment about
what hair style is most flattering.
Beginners usually get their first jobs through
the barber school they attended.
Some experienced barbers advance by be­
coming managers of large shops or by opening
their own shops. A few may teach at barber
schools. Barbers who go into business for
themselves must have the capital to buy or rent
a shop and install equipment. New equipment

Over the last 15 years, the demand for barbers
has decreased. However, this trend will end,
and the demand for barbers should increase—
stimulated by population growth and by the
increasing popularity of hairstyling. The oc­
cupation is expected to grow through the
mid-1990’s, but more slowly than the average
for all occupations.
Barbers have a relatively strong attachment
to their occupation—unlike most workers in
occupations that require less than a year of
formal training. Nevertheless, most job open­
ings will result from the need to replace experi­
enced barbers who retire, die, or stop working
for other reasons. Most barbers remain in the
occupation until they retire—perhaps because
most barbers are self-employed.
The shift in consumer preferences from reg­
ular haircuts to more personalized and intensive
services also has greatly affected the occupa­
tion. Barbers who specialize in hairstyling have
been much more successful than those who
offer conventional services. This trend is ex­
pected to continue, and employment oppor­
tunities should be better for hairstylists than for
other barbers.

Earnings
Barbers receive income from commissions or
wages and tips. Most barbers who are not shopowners normally receive 60 to 70 percent of the
money they take in; a few are paid straight
salaries.
Most barbers and hairstylists in their first few
years of employment earned between $13,000
and $18,000 a year in 1982, according to lim­
ited information available. Many experienced
barbers and hairstylists earned over $20,000 a
year. Hairstylists’
’Usually earn more than bar­
bers because the services they provide are more
personalized and therefore more expensive.
Earnings depend on the size and location of
the shop, customers’ tipping habits, competi­
tion from other barbershops, and the barber’s
ability to attract and hold regular customers.
Some barbers receive 1- or 2-week paid vaca­
tions, insurance, and medical benefits.
The principal union that organizes barbers—
both employees and shopowners—is the United
Food and Commercial Workers International
Union. The principal association that repre­
sents and organizes shopowners, managers,
and employees is the Associated Master Bar­
bers and Beauticians of America.

Related Occupations
Other workers whose main activity consists of
improving a patron’s personal appearance in­
clude cosmetologists, electrologists, makeup
artists, manicurists, scalp treatment operators,
and shampooers.

Sources of Additional Information
Lists of barber schools, by State, are available
from:

Service Occupations/245
National Association of Barber Schools, Inc., 304
South 11th St., Lincoln, Nebr. 68508.
National Association of Trade and Technical Schools,
2021 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006.

Every State maintains information on State
licensing requirements and approved barber
schools. For details, contact the State board of
barber examiners or the equivalent authority at
your State capital.
Additional information on this occupation is
available from:
National Barber Career Center, 3839 White Plains
Rd., Bronx, N.Y. 10467.
Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of Amer­
ica, 219 Greenwich Rd., P.O. Box 220782, Charlotte,
N.C. 28222.

Cosmetologists
(D.O.T. 331.674-010; 332.271-010. -014, and -018; and
339.371-014)

Nature of the Work
Hair has been a center of attention since people
first began to care about their appearance.
Throughout history, a great deal of effort has
gone into acquiring a fashionable hairstyle or a
perfectly trimmed beard. Although styles
change from year to year, the cosmetologist’s
task remains the same—to help people look
attractive.
Cosmetologists, also called beauty oper­
ators, hairstylists, or beauticians, shampoo,
cut, and style hair, and advise patrons on how to
care for their hair. Frequently they straighten or
permanent wave a patron’s hair to keep the style
in shape. Cosmetologists may also lighten or
darken the color of the hair. Cosmetologists
may give manicures and scalp and facial treat­
ments; provide makeup analysis for women;
and clean and style wigs and hairpieces.
Most cosmetologists make appointments and
keep records of hair color and permanent wave
formulas used by their regular patrons. They
also keep their work area clean and sanitize
their hairdressing implements. Those who op­
erate their own salons also have managerial
duties which include hiring and supervising
workers, keeping records, and ordering sup­
plies.

Women’s hairstylists ............................
Manicurists . ............................................
Shampooers and scalp treatment oper­
ators ....................................................

491,000
16,000
12.000

Most worked in beauty salons, some worked in
“unisex” salons, barber shops, or department
stores, and a few were employed by hospitals
and hotels. About one-half of all cos­
metologists operate their own businesses.
About two-fifths of all cosmetologists work
part time. The abundance of part-time jobs at­
tracts many persons who want to combine a job
with family, school, or other responsibilities.
All cities and towns have beauty salons, but
employment is concentrated in the most popu­
lous cities and States. Those cosmetologists
who set fashion trends with their hairstyles usu­
ally work in New York City, Los Angeles, and
other centers of fashion and the performing
arts.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Although all States require cosmetologists to be
licensed, the qualifications necessary to obtain
a license vary. Generally, a person must have
graduated from a State-licensed cosmetology
school, pass a physical examination, and be at
least 16 years old. In addition, education re­
quirements vary from State to State—some re­
quire graduation from high school while others
have no requirement at all. In some States,
completion of an apprentice training program

can substitute for graduation from a cos­
metology school, but very few cosmetologists
learn their skills in this way.
Cosmetology instruction is offered in both
public and private vocational schools, in either
daytime or evening classes. A daytime course
usually takes 6 months to 1year to complete; an
evening course takes longer. Many public
school programs include the academic subjects
needed for a high school diploma and last 2 to 3
years. An apprenticeship program usually lasts
1 or 2 years.
Both public and private programs include
classroom study, demonstrations, and practical
work. Most schools provide students with the
necessary hairdressing implements, such as
manicure implements, combs, scissors, razors,
and hair rollers, and include their cost in the
tuition fee. Sometimes students must purchase
their own. A good set of implements costs be­
tween $55 and $110. Beginning students work
on mannequins or on each other. Once they have
gained some experience, students practice on
patrons in school “clinics.” Most schools now
teach unisex hairstyling as part of their regular
curriculums. (See the preceding Handbook
statement on barbers.)
After graduating from a cosmetology pro­
gram, students take the State licensing exam­
ination. The examination consists of a written
test and a practical test in which applicants
demonstrate their ability to perform the re­
quired services. In some States, an oral exam­
ination is included, and the applicant is asked to
explain the procedures he or she is following
while taking the practical test. In some States, a

Working Conditions
Cosmetologists generally work in clean, pleas­
ant surroundings, with good lighting and com­
fortable temperatures. Their work can be
arduous and physically demanding because
they must be on their feet for hours at a time and
work with their hands at shoulder level. Many
full-time cosmetologists work more than 40
hours a week, including evenings and week­
ends when beauty salons are busiest.

Employment
Cosmetologists held about 519,000 jobs in
1982. The overwhelming majority of cos­
metologists were women’s hairstylists, as indi­
cated by the following tabulation.



Cosmetologists cut and style hair and advise customers on how to care for their hair.

246/Occupational Outlook Handbook
separate examination is given for persons who
want only a manicurist’s license or a skin care
license. Some States have reciprocity agree­
ments that allow a cosmetologist licensed in
one State to work in another without reex­
amination.
For many young people, cosmetology serves
as an entry point to the world of work. The field
is also characterized by a pattern of movement
from family responsibilities into the labor
force—when employment and earnings oppor­
tunities are attractive enough—and back to the
home again. In fact, most entrants to this oc­
cupation come from outside the labor force—
from homemaking and from school in roughly
equal numbers. Relatively few transfer from
other occupations.
Persons who want to become cosmetologists
must have finger dexterity and a sense of form
and artistry. They should enjoy dealing with the
public and be willing and able to follow pa­
trons’ instructions. Because hairstyles are constantlychanging, cosmetologists must keep
abreast of the latest fashions and beauty tech­
niques. Business skills are important for those
who plan to operate their own salons.
Many schools help their students find jobs.
During their first months on the job, new cos­
metologists are given relatively simple tasks,
such as giving manicures or shampoos, or are
assigned to perform the simpler hairstyling pat­
terns. Once they have demonstrated their skills,
they are gradually permitted to perform the
more complicated tasks such as hair coloring
and permanent waving.
Advancement usually is in the form of higher
earnings as cosmetologists gain experience and
build a steady clientele, but many manage large
salons or open their own after several years of
experience. Some teach in cosmetology
schools or use their knowledge and skill to
demonstrate cosmetics in department stores.
Others become sales representatives for cos­
metics firms, or open businesses as beauty or
fashion consultants. Some cosmetologists
work as examiners for State cosmetology
boards.

Job Outlook
Job openings for cosmetologists are expected to
be plentiful through the mid-1990’s. Most
openings will result from the need to replace the
large number of workers who leave the occupa­
tion each year—primarily to devote full time to
household responsibilities. Employment of
cosmetologists is expected to grow about as fast
as the average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s in response to population growth,
particularly among middle-age persons who
are the primary users of cosmetology services,
and the rising number of working women. Hair­
styling for men also contributes to the demand
for cosmetologists because many men go to
unisex shops or beauty salons for styling serv­
ices. Opportunities for part-time work will con­
tinue to be very good.
Most people regard spending on grooming
care as discretionary. During hard economic
times, they tend to visit cosmetologists less



frequently, which reduces cosmetologists’ ear­
nings. Rarely, however, are cosmetologists laid
off solely because of economic downturns.

Earnings
Cosmetologists receive income from commis­
sions or wages, and from tips. Those who are
not salon owners receive a percentage of the
money they take in, usually 50 percent; a few
are paid straight salaries.
Weekly earnings (including tips) of begin­
ning cosmetologists generally ranged between
$110 and $160 in 1982, according to limited
information available. Experienced cos­
metologists usually earned between $250 and
$350 a week.
Earnings also depend on the size and location
of the salon, patrons’ tipping habits, competi­
tion from other beauty salons, and the individu­
al cosmetologist’s ability to attract and hold
regular patrons.
Large salons and department stores offer
group life and health insurance and other bene­
fit plans. Nearly all employers provide annual
paid vacations of at least 1 week after a year’s
service.
The principal union which organizes cos­
m etologists—both employees and salon
owners—is the United Food and Commercial
Workers International Union. The principal
trade association which represents and
organizes salon owners, managers, and em­
ployees is the National Hairdressers and Cos­
metologists Association, Inc. Other organiza­
tions include the Associated Master Barbers
and Beauticians of America; the National Asso­
ciation of Cosmetology Schools, Inc., which
represents school owners and teachers; and the
National Beauty Culturists’ League, represent­
ing black cosmetologists, teachers, managers,
and salon owners.

National Association of Cosmetology Schools, 1990
M St. NW., Suite 650, Washington, D.C. 20036.

Flight Attendants
(D.O.T. 352.367-010)

Nature of the Work

Other workers whose main activity consists of
helping patrons improve their personal ap­
pearance include barbers, electrologists,
makeup artists, and health club managers.

Flight attendants (also called stewardesses and
stewards) are aboard almost all passenger plan­
es to look after the passengers’ flight safety and
comfort.
Before each flight, attendants are briefed by
the captain on expected weather conditions,
special passenger problems, and other matters.
They see that the passenger cabin is in order,
that supplies of food, beverages, blankets, and
reading material are adequate, and that first aid
kits and other emergency equipment are
aboard. As passengers come aboard, attendants
greet them, check their tickets, and assist them
in storing coats and carry-on luggage.
Before the plane takes off, attendants instruct
passengers in the use of emergency equipment
and check to see that all passengers have their
seat belts fastened. In the air, they answer ques­
tions about the flight, distribute magazines and
pillows, and help care for small children and
elderly and handicapped persons. They may
administer first aid to passengers who become
ill. Attendants also serve cocktails and other
refreshments and, on many flights, heat and
distribute precooked meals. After the plane has
landed, the flight attendant assists passengers
as they leave the plane. They then prepare re­
ports on medications given to passengers, lost
and found articles, and cabin equipment condi­
tions. Some flight attendants straighten up the
plane’s cabin.
Assisting passengers in the rare event of an
emergency is one of the most important func­
tions of attendants. This may range from reas­
suring passengers during occasional encounters
with strong turbulence to opening emergency
exits and inflating evacuation chutes following
an emergency landing.

Sources of Additional Information

Working Conditions

Related Occupations

A list of licensed training schools and licensing
requirements can be obtained from State boards
of cosmetology or from:
National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology
Arts and Sciences, 1990 M St. NW., Suite 650,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

Additional information about careers in cos­
metology and State licensing requirements is
available from:
National Beauty Career Center, 3839 White Plains
Rd., Bronx, N.Y. 10467.
National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists Associa­
tion, 3510 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo. 63103.

For general information about the occupa­
tion, contact:
Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of Amer­
ica, 219 Greenwich Rd., P.O. Box 220782, Charlotte,
N.C. 28222.

Since airlines operate around the clock year
round, attendants may work at night and on
holidays and weekends. They usually fly 75 to
85 hours a month, but they may work up to 50
hours a month on the ground to prepare planes
for flight. Because of variations in scheduling
and limitations on flying time, many attendants
have 15 days or more off each month. Atten­
dants may be away from their home bases at
least one-third of the time. During this period,
the airlines provide hotel accommodations and
an allowance for meal expenses.
Flight attendants have the opportunity to
meet interesting people and see new places.
The combination of free time and discount air
fares provides substantial opportunity for trav­
el. However, the work can be strenuous and
trying. Short flights require speedy service if
meals are served. A rough flight can make
serving drinks and meals difficult. Attendants

Service Occupations/247
stand during much of the flight and must remain
pleasant and efficient regardless of how tired
they are or how demanding passengers may be.

Employment
Flight attendants held 54,000 jobs in 1982.
Commercial airlines employed the vast major­
ity of all flight attendants, most of whom were
stationed in major cities at the airlines’ home
bases. A small number of flight attendants
worked for large companies that operate their
own aircraft for business purposes.

Draining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
The airlines like to hire poised, tactful, and
resourceful people who can deal comfortably
with strangers. Applicants usually must be at
least 19 years old, but some airlines have higher
minimum age requirements. Flight attendants
must have excellent health, good vision, and
the ability to speak clearly.
Applicants must be high school graduates.
Those having several years of college or experi­
ence in dealing with the public are preferred.
Flight attendants for international airlines gen­
erally must speak an appropriate foreign lan­
guage fluently.
Most large airlines require that newly hired
flight attendants complete 4 to 6 weeks of inten­
sive training in their own schools. The few
airlines that do not operate schools generally
send new employees to the school of another
airline. Transportation to the training centers
and an allowance for board, room, and school
supplies may be provided. Trainees learn emer­
gency procedures such as evacuating an air­
plane, operating an oxygen system, and giving
first aid. Attendants also are taught flight reg­
ulations and duties, and company operations
and policies. Trainees receive instruction on
personal grooming and weight control. Train­
ees for the international routes get additional
courses in passport and customs regulations.
Towards the end of their training, students go on
practice flights. Attendants periodically receive
additional training in emergency procedures
and passenger relations throughout their ca­
reers.
After completing initial training, flight atten­
dants are assigned to one of their airline’s bases.
New attendants are placed in “reserve status”
and either are called on to staff extra flights or
fill in for attendants who are sick or on vacation.
Reserve attendants on duty must be available on
short notice. Attendants usually remain on re­
serve for at least 1 year; at some cities it may
take as long as 5 years to advance from reserve
status. Advancement takes longer today than in
the past because experienced attendants are re­
maining in this career for more years than they
used to. Attendants who no longer are on re­
serve bid for regular assignments. Because
these assignments are based on seniority, usu­




Flight attendants help make a passenger’s flight safer and more comfortable.
ally only the most experienced attendants get
their choice of base and flights.
Opportunities for advancement to other jobs
are limited. However, some attendants may ad­
vance to flight service instructor, customer
service director, recruiting representative, or
various other administrative positions.

Job Outlook
Competition for jobs as flight attendants is ex­
pected to remain very keen through the
mid-1990’s because the number of applicants is
expected to greatly exceed the number of job
openings. The glamour of the airline industry
and opportunity to travel attract many appli­
cants. Those with at least 2 years of college and
experience in dealing with the public have the
best chance of being hired.
Employment of flight attendants is expected
to grow about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Growth in
population and income is expected to increase
the number of airline passengers. Airlines usu­
ally enlarge their capacity by increasing the
number and size of planes in operation. Since
Federal Aviation Administration safety rules re­
quire 1 attendant for every 50 seats, more flight
attendants will be needed.
As more career-minded people enter this oc­
cupation, job turnover will decline. Nev­
ertheless, most job openings are expected from
the need to replace attendants who stop working
or transfer to other occupations.
Employment of flight attendants is sensitive
to cyclical swings in the economy. During re­
cessions, when the demand for air travel de­

clines, many flight attendants are put on parttime status or are laid off. Until demand in­
creases, few new attendants are hired.

Earnings
Beginning flight attendants averaged about
$16,000 a year in 1982. Annual earnings of
flight attendants averaged about $21,000. In
addition, flight attendants and their immediate
families are entitled to reduced fares on their
own and most other airlines.
Many flight attendants belong to the Asso­
ciation of Flight Attendants. Others are mem­
bers of the Transport Workers Union of Amer­
ica or several other unions.

Related Occupations
Other jobs that involve helping people and re­
quire the ability to be pleasant even under try­
ing circumstances include tour guide, gate
agent, host or hostess, waiter or waitress, and
camp counselor.

Sources of Additional Information
For further information, request Flight Atten­
dants, publication GA-300-127 (enclose a selfaddressed mailing label), from: U.S. Govern­
ment Printing Office, Library and Statutory
Distribution Service, 5208 Eisenhower Ave.,
Alexandria, Va. 22304.
Information about job opportunities in a par­
ticular airline and the qualifications required
may be obtained by writing to the personnel
manager of the company. Addresses of com­
panies are available from:
Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New
York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

248/Occupational Outlook Handbook
OTHER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
Title

Definition

Bakers, bread and
pastry

Mix and bake ingredients according to recipes to produce breads,
pastries, and other baked goods. Goods are produced in smaller
quantities for consumption on premise or for sale as specialty baked
goods.

36,000

About as fast as
average

Bellhops, bag
porters, and
doorkeepers

Perform general services concerned with catering to wants of guests
at hotels or related establishments such as escorting guests to rooms;
carrying luggage; running errands; delivering ice, beverages, and
packages; and paging guests.

26,000

More slowly than
average

Child care
attendants

Entertain children or groups of children in homes or business
establishments.

47,000

About as fast as
average

Child-care
workers

Serve and assist children in their daily activities and needs in
institutions, special schools, day-care centers or nursery schools.
May be under direction of professional staff.

414,000

About as fast as
average

Crossing or bridge
tenders

Guard railroad crossings to warn motorists and pedestrians of
approaching trains. Many control adjustable bridges over waterways
to permit passage of vessels.

27,000

More slowly than
average

Exterminators

Spray chemical solutions or toxic gases and set mechanical traps to
kill pests that infest buildings and surrounding areas.

22,000

Faster than average

Food service
workers, fast food
restaurants

These workers are employed in fast food type restaurants whose
menus are limited to a few primary items such as hamburgers, roast
beef or chicken. Duties are rotated between counter service and
kitchen duties in such a way that any one worker will perform all or
most duties and operate all or most equipment over a period of time.
From day to day the job title may change according to duties (i.e.,
Grill Worker, French Frier, or Counter Worker).

809,000

Faster than average

Game operators,
ride operators and
concession workers

Includes workers in carnivals, stadiums, parks or other amusement
places who operate or tend games of chance or skill, mechanical
riding devices, or refreshment or souvenir concession stands. May
also solicit patronage, collect tickets or fees, or clean and repair
booths and mechanical devices.

Hosts/hostesses,
restaurant, lounge
or coffee shop

Welcome patrons, seat them at tables or in lounge, and insure quality
of facilities and service.

113,000

Faster than average

Housekeepers

Supervise work activities of cleaning personnel to insure clean,
orderly, attractive rooms in hotels, hospitals, educational institutions,
and similar establishments. Assign duties, inspect work, investigate
complaints regarding housekeeping service and equipment, and take
corrective action. May purchase housekeeping supplies and
equipment, and take periodic inventories. May screen applicants,
train new employees, and recommend dismissals.

101,000

About as fast as
average

Kitchen helpers

Perform tasks to maintain kitchen work areas and restaurant
equipment and utensils in clean and orderly condition.

850,000

Faster than average

Lifeguards

Monitor activities in swimming areas to prevent accidents. May teach
swimming or water safety.

34,000

Faster than average

Pantry, sandwich
and coffee makers

Pantry makers prepare salads, appetizers, sandwich fillings and other
cold dishes. Sandwich makers prepare sandwiches to individual
orders of customers. Coffee makers make coffee, tea or hot
chocolate.

84,000

Faster than average

Pharmacy helpers

Mix pharmaceutical preparations, under direction of pharmacists.
Issue medicines, label and store supplies, and clean equipment and
work areas.

33,000

Faster than average

Private household
workers

Perform household tasks such as cleaning, cooking, and caring for
children.

1,023,000

Expected to decline

Psychiatric aides

Working under direction of nursing and medical staff, assist mentally
ill patients.

132,000

Faster than average




Employment
1982

53,000

Projected growth
1982-95

More slowly than
average

Service Occupations/249
OTHER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
Title

Definition

Recreation facility
attendants

Schedule and coordinate use of recreation facilities such as golf
courses or tennis courts. May collect fees, issue or sell athletic
equipment, or clean and repair equipment and facilities.

72,000

About as fast as
average

School crossing
guards

Guard street crossings during hours when children are going to or
coming from school.

38,000

More slowly than
average

Store detectives

Protect property, merchandise, and money of stores or similar
establishments by detecting theft, shoplifting, or other unlawful
practices by public or by employees.

19,000

Faster than average

Ushers, lobby
attendants, and
ticket takers

Assist patrons at entertainment events such as sporting events, drivein or motion picture performances. May assist in finding seats,
searching for lost articles, and locating such facilities as restrooms
and telephones. Collect admission tickets and passes from patrons.

40,000

Little change is
expected

Waiter’s assistants

Carry dirty dishes from dining room to kitchen. Replace soiled table
linens and set tables with silverware and glassware, etc. Replenish
supply of clean linens, silverware, glassware, and dishes. Supply
services bar with food, such as soups, salads, and desserts. Serve
water and coffee to patrons.

302,000

About as fast as
average

Welfare service
aides

Provide various specified duties to help clients obtain and use social
and related services under supervision of professional staff or as part
of a team.

93,000

About as fast as
average




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Agricultural and Forestry Occupations
Agricultural and forestry workers are involved
in the development, production, and distribu­
tion of basic products that meet our country’s
needs for food, clothing, and shelter. Agri­
cultural workers raise crops and livestock that
provide food as well as material for clothing.
Forestry workers harvest trees that provide
lumber for housing and other buildings as well
as material for a variety of paper products.
Producing these goods requires many different
kinds of workers, ranging from scientists who
develop high-yield seeds and fertilizers to the
farmers, ranchers, and timbercutters who har­
vest the crops.
Training requirements vary widely among
agricultural and forestry occupations. Farm la­
borers and loggers, for example, can learn their

jobs in a few weeks by observing and helping
experienced workers. Because of the complex­
ity of modern agriculture and forestry, however,
many jobs in these fields require some technical
training. Forestry technicians, for example,
need 1 or 2 years of specialized, postsecondary
training. College training is required for many
agriculture and forestry engineering, research,
and administrative jobs.
Growing up on a family farm and participat­
ing in farming programs for young people such
as Future Farmers of America or the 4-H Clubs
is still an important source of training for pro­
spective farmers. However, because of the sci­
entific and business complexities of modem
farming, an increasing number of young people

While employment in farm occupations is expected to decline, other
agricultural occupations are expected to grow.
Wage and salary employment (thousands)
1,200

1,000

800
600
400

'In c lu d e s all agriculture, forestry, an d fishery w orkers not e m p lo ye d on fa rm s
SO URCE: Bu reau of Lab o r S t a tis tic s


250


who live on farms find it desirable to attend a 2or 4-year college of agriculture.
Demand for food, fiber, and wood will in­
crease as the world population grows. The agri­
cultural and forestry processing and distribu­
tion system is expected to grow to accommo­
date this higher demand. However, the develop­
ment and use of more productive farming and
forestry methods will limit employment growth
in many agricultural and forestry occupations.
The number of farmers is expected to decline
as farms become more expensive to buy and
operate. Both the average size of farms and the
price of farmland have increased greatly in re­
cent years, which add considerably to the cost
of buying a farm. Because operating costs—
feed, seed, fertilizer, fuel, and financing—also
have risen substantially, large farms are more
economical than small ones. The trend toward
fewer and larger farms is expected to reduce the
number of jobs for farm operators.
Employment of farm laborers and logging
workers is expected to decline as machinery
makes it possible to harvest more crops and
timber with fewer workers.
As farming becomes more complex, the de­
mand for farm managers with specialized skills
and knowledge is expected to increase. The
need for farm managers also may increase be­
cause people who inherit farms often do not
want to work the land themselves.
Opportunities for employment in agri­
cultural and forestry research, engineering, and
administration will vary among occupations.
However, job prospects generally will be better
than in other farm and forestry occupations.
The following tabulation presents informa­
tion on the work, employment, and growth
adjective for several agricultural and forestry
occupations.

Agricultural and Forestry Occupations/251
OTHER AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY OCCUPATIONS
Title

Definition

Animal caretakers

Feed, water, groom, exercise or otherwise care for small or large
animals, fish or birds in zoos, circuses, pounds, laboratories, animal
hospitals, aquariums, kennels or stables. Clean and repair cages,
pens, or fish tanks. May administer tests to experimental animals or
give treatments to sick or injured animals. May keep records of
feedings, tests and treatments, and or animals received and
discharged.

105,000

Forest
conservation
workers

Develop, maintain, and protect forest, forested areas, and woodlands
through such activities as raising and transplanting tree seedlings;
locating and combating fires, insects, pests, and diseases harmful to
trees; and controlling erosion and leaching of forest soil.

12,000

Gardeners and
groundskeepers,
except farm
Timbercutting and
logging workers

Maintain lawns, trees, and gardens in places such as private estates,
golf courses, memorial parks. May also care for buildings and
equipment in these places.

664,000

Cut down trees marked for harvesting and saw limbs and trunks into
logs. May clear land for building sites and utility lines.

62,000




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95
More slowly than
average

Little change is
expected

More slowly than
average
Expected to decline

Mechanics and Repairers
In our high-technology society, machines of
one type or another touch almost all aspects of
our lives. Machines, including robots, produce
our goods. Transportation equipment carries
both goods and people anywhere in the world.
Telephones and other communication equip­
ment convey information quickly and effi­
ciently. Appliances make our household chores
easier. Mechanics and repairers maintain and
repair these and the many other types of ma­
chines we rely on.
One-fourth of all mechanics and repairers
work on motor vehicles in occupations such as
automobile mechanic, truck or bus mechanic,
and automobile body repairer. The remaining
three- fourths work on a variety of machines in
occupations such as appliance repairer, com­
puter service technician, telephone repairer,
and musical instrument repairer.
Mechanics and repairers work in all indus­
tries in the economy. Almost one-fifth work in
manufacturing industries— the majority in

plants that produce durable goods such as steel,
automobiles, and aircraft. Another one-fifth
work in retail trade—mainly in firms that sell
and service automobiles, household ap­
pliances, farm implements, and other mechan­
ical equipment. About one-seventh work in
shops that service machines of all types. Most
of the remaining mechanics and repairers work
for transportation, construction, and public
utilities companies, and all levels of govern­
ment.
Training for most mechanic and repairer oc­
cupations requires both classroom instruction
in machine operation and practice in repair
work. Mechanics get this training through high
school and postsecondary programs and onthe-job training.
For almost all mechanic and repairer occupa­
tions, employers prefer high school graduates.
Courses in shop math, blueprint reading, draft­
ing, woodworking, metalworking, and elec­
tronics give students basic mechanical knowl­
edge and skills.

The unemployment rate for mechanics generally is much lower than
the rate for blue-collar workers as a whole.
Percent unemployed

16
14
12

10

8
6

4

SO URCE: Bu reau of L ab o r S t a t is t ic s


252


Training in specific areas—appliance repair,
automobile maintenance and repair, television
repair—is available through high schools, pri­
vate vocational schools, community colleges,
correspondence schools, and the Armed
Forces. These vocational programs include in­
struction in machine operation and experience
with actual or demonstration machinery. Al­
though completion of such training does not
assure a job, employers increasingly prefer to
hire people with some training or experience.
New mechanics and repairers usually receive
on-the-job training from their employer. This
training may involve classroom instruction and
practice work with demonstration machines.
However, it frequently consists only of supervi­
sion by an experienced worker.
To keep up with improved technology, me­
chanics and repairers must continue their train­
ing throughout their careers. They study the
repair books and technical manuals that accom­
pany new equipment and attend classes run by
equipment manufacturers.
Physical requirements for work in this field
vary greatly. For example, telephone lineworkers must be strong and agile to lift heavy
equipment and work in awkward positions.
Watch repairers need good vision and excellent
finger dexterity. For occupations in which the
repairer deals with customers, the ability to
work with people is important.
For most mechanic occupations, advance­
ment is limited to supervisory positions. Some
of these occupations, however, offer good op­
portunities for self-employment.
Employment of mechanics and repairers as a
group is expected to increase about as fast as the
average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s to keep up with maintenance and
repair work associated with increased use of
household appliances, automobiles, com­
puters, and industrial and other machinery. Al­
though thousands of jobs will be created by
growth in demand, most openings will arise in
this relatively large occupational category as
experienced workers leave the field for a variety
of reasons.

Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Mechanics and
Repairers
Vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics and
repairers maintain and repair a wide variety of
automotive vehicles and mobile equipment.
They service vehicles such as automobiles,
trucks, buses, aircraft, boats, and motorcycles.
They also work on heavy construction, logging,
railroad, and farm machinery, as well as smaller
gasoline-powered equipment such as portable
generators and lawnmowers.
Mechanical aptitude and manual skills are
essential to vehicle and mobile equipment me­
chanics and repairers. They also need reading
and writing skills in order to consult repair and
technical manuals, read work orders, and write
parts lists and descriptions of their work. They
must be able to work efficiently and with preci­
sion since their earnings often depend on how
rapidly they can correctly perform maintenance
or repairs. They must also be capable of hand­
ling heavy or unwieldy parts or components.
Employers usually prefer to hire high school
graduates, but frequently hire those without
high school diplomas if they can read and write
adequately. Most mechanics and repairers ac­
quire their skills on the job following the in­
structions of experienced workers, reading re­
pair manuals, and solving problems on their
own. Formal mechanic training acquired in
high school, vocational or technical school, or
in the Armed Forces is an asset to persons
entering mechanic and repairer careers.
This section describes five groups of vehicle
and mobile equipment mechanics and re­
pairers: Aircraft mechanics; automotive body
repairers; automotive mechanics; diesel me­
chanics; and farm equipment mechanics. Other
mechanic and repairer careers are described in
subsequent sections.

days, or a combination of these factors, me­
chanics inspect the engines, landing gear, in­
struments, and other parts of the aircraft and do
the necessary maintenance. For example, they
may examine an engine through specially de­
signed openings while working from ladders or
scaffolds, or use hoists or lifts to remove the
entire engine from the craft. After taking the
engine apart, mechanics may use sensitive in­
struments to measure parts for wear, and use Xray and magnetic inspection equipment to
check for invisible cracks. Worn or defective
parts are replaced. They also may repair sheetmetal surfaces, measure the tension of control
cables, or check for rust, distortion, and cracks
in the fuselage and wings. Mechanics test the
equipment to make sure the repairs were made
properly.
Mechanics specializing in repair work use
the pilot’s description of a problem to find and
fix faulty equipment. For example, during a
preflight check, a pilot may discover that the
aircraft’s gas gauge does not work. To solve the
problem, mechanics may check the electrical
connections, replace the gauge, or use elec­
trical test equipment to make sure no wires are
broken or shorted. They work as fast as safety
permits so that the aircraft can be put back into
service quickly.
Mechanics may work on one or many dif­
ferent types of aircraft, such as jets, propeller-

driven airplanes, and helicopters, or, for effi­
ciency, may specialize in one section of a par­
ticular type of aircraft, such as the engine or
electrical system. Mechanics employed by
companies that own their own aircraft usually
must handle all repair and maintenance work
such as body, air-conditioning, plumbing, and
electrical repair. In small, independent repair
shops, mechanics usually inspect and repair
many different types of aircraft.

Working Conditions
Mechanics usually work in hangars or other
indoor areas. However, if the hangars are full or
if repairs must be made quickly, they may work
outdoors, sometimes in unpleasant weather.
This occurs most often to airline mechanics
who work at airports because, to save time,
minor repairs and preflight checks often are
made at the terminal. Mechanics often work
under the pressure of time to maintain flight
schedules or, in general aviation, to keep from
inconveniencing customers. At the same time,
mechanics must maintain safety standards.
Frequently, mechanics must lift or pull as
much as 50 pounds. They often stand, lie, or
kneel in awkward positions and occasionally
must work in precarious positions on scaffolds
or ladders. Noise and vibration are common
when testing engines. Aircraft mechanics gen­
erally work 40 hours a week on 8-hour shifts
around the clock.

Aircraft Mechanics
(D.O.T. 621.281 except -030, .381 except -018; 693.260014; 806.281-038; 807.261-010, .381-014; 825.281-018;
and 862.381-010)

Nature of the Work
Most travelers hardly think twice about flying
thousands of feet above the ground. The con­
fidence they have in aircraft is a tribute to the
mechanics who maintain them. To keep aircraft
in top operating condition, mechanics perform
scheduled maintenance, make repairs, and
complete inspections required by the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA).
Many mechanics specialize in scheduled
maintenance. Following a schedule that is
based on the number of hours flown, calendar



Mechanics make sure a plane is safe for flight.
253

254/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Employment
Aircraft mechanics held about 108,000 jobs in
1982. Nearly two-fifths worked for airlines,
about one-fourth for the Federal Government,
and about one-fifth for aircraft assembly firms.
Most of the rest were general aviation mechan­
ics, the majority of whom worked for indepen­
dent repair shops or companies that operate
their own planes to transport executives and
cargo. Very few mechanics were self-em­
ployed. (The accompanying chart indicates the
percent distribution of wage and salary jobs by
industry.)
Most airline mechanics work near large cit­
ies at the airlines’ main stops. Many employees
of the Federal Government are civilians em­
ployed by the Armed Forces and work at mili­
tary aviation installations. Others work for the
FAA, many in the headquarters at Oklahoma
City. Mechanics for independent repair shops
work at airports in every part of the country.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
The majority of mechanics who work on civil­
ian aircraft are licensed by the FAA as “air­
frame mechanics,” “powerplant mechanics,”
or “aircraft inspectors.” Airframe mechanics
are qualified to work on the fuselage, wings,
landing gear, and other structural parts of the
plane; powerplant mechanics are qualified only
for work on the engine. Combination airframeand-powerplant mechanics can work on any
part of the plane, and those with an inspector’s
license can certify inspection work completed
by other mechanics. Unlicensed mechanics are
supervised by those with licenses.
The FAA requires at least 18 months of work
experience for an airframe or powerplant li­
cense. For a combined license, at least 30
months of experience working with both en­
gines and airframes are required. To obtain an
inspector’s license, a mechanic must have held
an airframe-and-powerplant license for at least
3 years. Applicants for all licenses also must

pass written and oral tests and demonstrate that
they can do the work authorized by the license.
Although a few people become mechanics
through on-the-job training, most learn their
job in the Armed Forces or in trade schools
certified by the FAA. Courses in these trade
schools last from 18 months to 2 years and
provide training with the tools and equipment
used on the job. For an FAA license, attendance
at such schools may substitute for work experi­
ence. However, these schools do not guarantee
jobs or FAA licenses.
Some aircraft mechanics in the Armed
Forces acquire enough general experience to
satisfy the work experience requirements for
the FAA license. With additional study, they
may pass the licensing exam. Generally,
however, jobs in the military services are too
specialized to provide the broad experience re­
quired by the FAA. Most have to complete the
entire training program at a trade school, al­
though a few receive some credit for the mate­
rial they learned in the service. Military experi­
ence is a great advantage when seeking
employment; employers consider trade school
graduates who have this experience to be the
most desirable applicants.
A high school diploma or its equivalent is
necessary for all prospective aircraft mechan­
ics. Courses in mathematics, physics, chemis­
try, electronics, computer science, and me­
chanical drawing are helpful because knowl­
edge of the principles involved in the operation
of an aircraft often is necessary to make repairs.
As new and more complex aircraft are de­
signed, mechanics must update their skills. Re­
cent technological advances in aircraft mainte­
nance necessitate a strong background in
electronics—both for acquiring and retaining
jobs in this field.
Aircraft mechanics must do careful and thor­
ough work and have the strength to lift heavy
parts and tools. Agility is important for the
reaching and climbing necessary for the job.
Aircraft mechanics must not be afraid of

Although aircraft mechanics are concentrated in the transportation
industry, a substantial proportion work for the Federal Government
and in aircraft manufacturing.
Distribution of employment, 1982
Federal
Government

Aircraft and
parts manufacturing
I Other
SO URCE: B u reau of Lab o r S t a t is t ic s




heights since they work on the top of wings and
fuselages on large jet planes.
As aircraft mechanics gain experience, they
advance to more responsible jobs. Oppor­
tunities are best for those who have an aircraft
inspector’s license as well as an airframe-andpowerplant license. A mechanic may advance
to head mechanic (or crew chief), to inspector,
to head inspector, and to shop supervisor. In the
airlines, where promotion is often determined
by examination, a few supervisors advance to
executive positions. With additional business
training, some may open their own repair
shops.

Job Outlook
The number of aircraft mechanics is expected to
increase more slowly than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. A grow­
ing population and rising incomes are expected
to stimulate the demand for airline transporta­
tion, and the number of private and commercial
aircraft is expected to grow. However, laborsaving advances in aircraft maintenance should
limit employment of mechanics. Most job
openings are expected to arise from the need to
replace mechanics who transfer to other fields
of work, retire, die, or stop working for other
reasons.
Job opportunities are expected to be best in
general aviation, particularly for qualified me­
chanics who are willing to relocate. Since
wages in small companies tend to be relatively
low, there is less competition for these jobs than
in the airlines. Also, some jobs will become
available as experienced mechanics leave for
better paying jobs with airlines or large private
companies. In contrast with general aviation,
competition for airline jobs should remain keen
because the high wages attract more qualified
applicants than the number of available open­
ings.
The number of mechanics employed by the
Federal Government is expected to grow slow­
ly—consistent with the pattern of growth ex­
pected for the Federal work force as a whole.
Opportunities will fluctuate with changes in
defense spending.
Declines in air travel during recessions force
airlines to curtail the number of flights. Fewer
flights mean less aircraft maintenance and con­
sequently layoffs for aircraft mechanics.

Earnings
In 1982, the median annual salary of aircraft
mechanics was $21,500. Mechanics who work­
ed on jets generally earned more than those
working on other aircraft. The top 10 percent of
all aircraft mechanics earned over $33,000 a
year. Airline mechanics and their immediate
families receive reduced fare transportation on
their own and most other airlines.
Mechanics employed by most major airlines
are covered by union agreements. Their earn­
ings generally are higher than mechanics work­
ing for other employers. The principal unions in
this field are the International Association of
Machinists and Aerospace Workers, and the
Transport Workers Union of America. Some
mechanics are represented by the International

Mechanics and Repairers/255
Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware­
housemen and Helpers of America.

Related Occupations
Some other occupations that involve similar
mechanical and electrical work are automotive
body repairers, automotive mechanics, electri­
cians, elevator repairers, and telephone mainte­
nance mechanics.

Sources of Additional Information
For general information about aircraft mechan­
ics, write to:
Aviation Maintenance Foundation, P.O. Box 739,
Basin, Wyo. 82410.

For further information, request Aviation
Maintenance, publication GA-300-133 (en­
close a self-addressed mailing label), from:
U.S. Government Printing Office, Library and Stat­
utory Distribution Service, 5208 Eisenhower Ave.,
Alexandria, Va. 22304.

Information about jobs in a particular airline
may be obtained by writing to the personnel
manager of the company. For addresses of air­
line companies, write to:
Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New
York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

For information on jobs in a particular area,
contact employers at local airports or local of­
fices of the State employment service.

Automotive Body
Repairers
(D.O.T. 620.684-034; 807.281-010, .381-010, and .684-

010)

Nature of the Work
Thousands of motor vehicles are damaged in
traffic accidents every day. Although some are
wrecked, most can be made to look and drive
like new. Automotive body repairers straighten
bent frames, remove dents, and replace
crumpled parts that are beyond repair. Usually,
they can fix all types of vehicles, but most body
repairers work on cars and small trucks. A few
work on large trucks, buses, or tractor trailers.
When a damaged vehicle is brought into the
shop, body repairers generally receive instruc­
tions from their supervisors, who have deter­
mined which parts are to be restored or replaced
and how much time the job should take.
Automotive body repairers use special ma­
chines to restore damaged frames and body
sections to their original shape and location.
They chain or clamp the frames and sections to
alignment machines that usually use hydraulic
pressure to align the damaged metal.
Body repairers remove badly damaged sec­
tions of body panels with a pneumatic metal­
cutting gun or acetylene torch and weld in new
sections to replace them. Repairers push out
less serious dents with a hydraulic jack or hand
prying bar, or knock them out with handtools or
pneumatic hammers. They smooth out small
dents and creases by holding a small anvil



against one side of the damaged area while
hammering the opposite side. They remove
very small pits and dimples with pick hammers
and punches.
Body repairers also repair or replace the plas­
tic body parts used increasingly on newer
model automobiles. They remove the damaged
panels and determine the type of plastic from
which they are made. With most types, they can
apply heat from a hot air welding gun or by
immersion in hot water, and press the softened
panel back into its original shape by hand. They
replace plastic parts which are more difficult to
repair.
Body repairers use plastic or solder to fill
small dents which cannot be worked out of the
plastic or metal panel. On metal panels, they
then file or grind the hardened filler to the
original shape and sand it before painting. In
many shops, automotive painters do the paint­
ing. (These workers are discussed elsewhere in
the Handbook.) In smaller shops, workers
often do both body repairing and painting.
Some body repairers also replace safety glass.
A few specialize in repairing fiberglass bodies.
Body repair work has variety and chal­
lenge—each damaged vehicle presents a dif­
ferent problem. Repairers must develop appro­
priate methods for each job, using their broad
knowledge of automobile construction and re­
pair techniques.
Body repairers usually work alone with only
general directions from supervisors. In some
shops, they may be assisted by helpers or ap­
prentices. In large shops, body repairers may
specialize in one type of repair, such as frame
straightening or door and fender repairing.

Working Conditions
Automotive body repairers work indoors in
body shops which are noisy because of the
banging of hammers against metal and the whir
of power tools. Most shops are well ventilated,

but often they are dusty and smell of paint.
Body repairers often work in awkward or
cramped positions, and much of their work is
strenuous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from
sharp metal edges, bums from torches and heat­
ed metal, and injuries from power tools.

Employment
Automotive body repairers held about 155,000
jobs in 1982. Most worked for shops that spe­
cialized in body repairs and painting, and for
automobile and truck dealers. Others worked
for organizations that maintain their own motor
vehicles, such as trucking companies and bus­
lines. A few worked for motor vehicle man­
ufacturers. About 1 automotive body repairer
out of 4 was self employed.
Automotive body repairers work in every
section of the country. Jobs are distributed in
about the same way as the population.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most automotive body repairers enter the oc­
cupation by transfer from related helper posi­
tions. Helpers learn the trade on the job,
picking up skills from experienced body re­
pairers. Helpers begin by assisting body re­
pairers in tasks such as removing damaged
parts and installing repaired parts. They learn to
remove small dents and to make other minor
repairs. They then progress to more difficult
tasks such as straightening frames. Generally
skill in all aspects of body repair requires 3 to 4
years of on-the-job training.
A 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship pro­
gram is a desirable way to learn the trade, but
relatively few employers are willing to make
such a lengthy commitment. When these pro­
grams are available, apprenticeship includes
both on-the-job training and classroom instruc­
tion. Apprentices spend most of their time
learning on the job, but they also attend classes

Automotive body repairers use alignment machines to straighten damaged frames and body sections

256/Occupational Outlook Handbook
in related subjects such as mathematics, job
safety procedures, and business management.
Persons who want to learn this trade should
be in good physical condition and know how to
use tools. Although completion of high school
generally is not required, many employers pre­
fer to hire high school graduates. Courses in
automotive body repair offered by high
schools, vocational schools, private trade
schools, and community colleges are helpful,
as are courses in automotive mechanics. Com­
pletion of a formal training program in auto­
motive body repair can enhance chances for
employment and promotion to a journeyman
position.
Voluntary certification by the National In­
stitute for Automotive Service Excellence is
recognized as a standard of achievement for
automotive body repairers. To be certified, a
body repairer must pass a written examination
and must have at least 2 years of experience ih
the trade. Completion of a high school, voca­
tional school, or trade school program in auto­
motive body repair may be substituted for 1year
of work experience. Automotive body repairers
must retake the examination at least every 5
years to retain certification.
Automotive body repairers must buy their
own tools, but employers sometimes furnish
power tools. Trainees generally accumulate
tools as they gain experience, and many work­
ers have hundreds of dollars invested in tools.
An experienced automotive body repairer
with supervisory ability may advance to shop
supervisor. Many workers open their own body
repair shops. A few become automobile
damage appraisers for insurance companies.

Many body repairers employed by auto­
mobile dealers and repair shops are paid a com­
mission, usually about half of the labor cost
charged to the customer. Under this method,
earnings depend on the amount of work as­
signed to the repairer and how fast it is com­
pleted. Employers frequently guarantee com­
missioned workers a minimum weekly salary.
Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly
rate until they are skilled enough to work on
commission. Body repairers who work for
trucking companies, buslines, and other organ­
izations that maintain their own vehicles usu­
ally receive an hourly wage. Most body re­
pairers work 40 to 48 hours a week.
Many automotive body repairers are mem­
bers of unions, including the International As­
sociation of Machinists and Aerospace Work­
ers; the International Union, United Auto­
mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement
Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’
International Association; and the International
Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware­
housemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Most
body repairers who are union members work
for large automobile dealers, trucking com­
panies, and buslines.

Job Outlook

Sources of Additional Information

Employment of automotive body repairers is
expected to increase about as fast as the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990s, as
more motor vehicles are damaged in accidents
as the number of motor vehicles grows. Al­
though turnover in body repair jobs is lower
than in most other occupations, the need to
replace experienced repairers who retire, trans­
fer to other occupations, or stop working for
other reasons will account for most job open­
ings.
The automotive repair business is not very
sensitive to changes in economic conditions,
and experienced body repairers are rarely laid
off. Although major body damage must be re­
paired if an automobile is to be restored to safe
operating condition, repair of minor dents and
crumpled fenders can often be deferred. As a
result, most employers hire fewer new workers
during an economic slowdown. Thus, persons
seeking to enter this occupation may face in­
creased competition for jobs during recessions.

More details about work opportunities may be
obtained from automotive body repair shops
and automobile dealers; locals of the unions
previously mentioned; or the local office of the
State employment service. The State employ­
ment service also is a source of information
about apprenticeship and other training pro­
grams.
For general information about the work of
automotive body repairers and apprenticeship
training, write to:

Earnings
Body repairers employed by automobile deal­
ers in 24 large metropolitan areas had average
hourly earnings of about $12.31 in 1982. Aver­
age earnings varied by region as follows:
West ........................................................
South ......................................................
North Central .........................................
Northeast ................................................

$13.00
12.85
12.62
10.17

Helpers and trainees usually earn from 30 to
60 percent of the earnings of skilled workers.




Related Occupations
Repairing damaged motor vehicles often in­
volves working on their mechanical compo­
nents as well as their bodies. Automotive body
repairers often work closely with the following
related occupations: Automotive repair service
estimators, mechanics, painters and body
customizers, and diesel mechanics.

Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North
Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.
Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Industrial
Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126.
National Institute for Automotive Service Excel­
lence, 1825 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

Automotive
Mechanics
(D.O.T. 619.380-018; 620.261-010, -012, -030, and -034,
.281-010, -026 through -038, -046, -054, -062, -066, and
-070, .381-010 and -022, .684-018 through -026; 706.381046; 721.281-010; 806.684-118; 807.664-010; 825.281-022
and .381-014)

Nature of the Work
Automotive mechanics repair and service
motor vehicles with gasoline engines. (Me­
chanics who work on diesel-powered trucks,

buses, and equipment are discussed in the suc­
ceeding Handbook statement on diesel me­
chanics.) Anyone whose car, truck, or bus has
broken down knows the importance of the auto­
motive mechanic’s job. The ability to make a
quick and accurate diagnosis, one of the me­
chanic’s most valuable skills, requires good
reasoning ability and a thorough knowledge of
automobiles. In fact, many mechanics consider
diagnosing “hard to find” troubles one of their
most challenging and satisfying duties.
When mechanical or electrical troubles oc­
cur, mechanics first get a description of the
symptoms from the owner or, if they work in a
dealership, the repair service estimator who
wrote the repair order. The mechanic may have
to test drive the car or use testing equipment,
such as motor analyzers, spark plug testers, or
compression gauges, to locate the problem.
Once the cause of the problem is found, me­
chanics make adjustments or repairs. If a part is
damaged or worn beyond repair, or cannot be
fixed at a reasonable cost, they replace it.
Automotive mechanics use a variety of tools
in their work. They use power tools such as
pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly;
machine tools such as lathes and grinding ma­
chines to rebuild brakes and other parts; weld­
ing and flame-cutting equipment to remove and
repair exhaust systems and other parts; jacks
and hoists to lift cars and engines; and common
handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and
wrenches to work on small parts and get at
hard-to-reach places.
Most automotive mechanics perform a vari­
ety of repairs; others specialize. For example,
automatic transmission mechanics work on
gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and
other parts of automatic transmissions. Because
these are complex mechanisms, their repair re­
quires considerable experience and training, in­
cluding a knowledge of hydraulics. Tune-up
mechanics adjust the ignition timing and val­
ves, and adjust or replace spark plugs and other
parts to ensure efficient engine performance.
They often use scientific test equipment to help
them adjust and locate malfunctions in fuel,
ignition, and emissions control systems.
Automotive air-conditioning mechanics in­
stall air-conditioners and service components
such as compressors and condensers. Frontend mechanics align and balance wheels and
repair steering mechanisms and suspension
systems. They frequently use special alignment
equipment and wheel-balancing machines.
Brake repairers adjust brakes, replace brake
linings and pads, repair hydraulic cylinders,
and make other repairs on brake systems. Some
mechanics specialize in both brake and frontend work.
Automotive-radiator mechanics clean radi­
ators with caustic solutions, locate and solder
leaks, and install new radiator cores. They also
may repair heaters and air-conditioners, and
solder leaks in gasoline tanks.
Automotive electricians repair and overhaul
electrical systems and components. They may
use electricians’ handtools to repair or replace
defective wiring and electrical units, such as

Mechanics and Repairers/257
starters and generators. To locate electrical sys­
tem malfunctions, they often use ammeters,
ohmmeters, and voltmeters.
To prevent breakdowns, mechanics check
parts and adjust, repair, or replace them before
they go bad. Mechanics usually follow a check­
list to be sure they examine all important parts,
such as belts, hoses, steering systems, spark
plugs, brake and fuel systems, wheel bearings,
and other potentially troublesome items.

Working Conditions
Generally, mechanics work indoors. Modem
automotive repair shops are well ventilated,
lighted, and heated, but older shops may not be.
Mechanics frequently work with dirty and
greasy parts, and in awkward positions. They
often must lift heavy parts and tools. Minor cuts
and bruises are common, but serious accidents
may be avoided when the shop is kept clean and
orderly and safety practices are observed.

Employment
Automotive mechanics held about 844,000
jobs in 1982. Most worked for automotive deal­
ers, automotive repair shops, gasoline service
stations, and department stores that have auto­
motive service facilities. Others were employed
by Federal, State, and local governments, taxi­
cab and automobile leasing companies, and
other organizations that repair their own fleets
of automobiles and gasoline-powered trucks.
Motor vehicle manufacturers employed some
mechanics to adjust and repair cars at the end of
assembly lines. About 1 out of 5 automotive
mechanics was self-employed.
Automobile mechanics work in every sec­
tion of the country. Geographically, employ­
ment is distributed about the same as the popu­
lation.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Although there is no formal educational re­
quirement for entry into automotive mechanics,
training in automotive mechanics at a com­
munity college or a vocational or technical
school is desirable. These programs usually
take 1or 2 years and lead to an associate degree
or a certificate in automotive technology. As the
complexity of automotive technology continues
to increase, the importance of formal instruc­
tion as a foundation for later on-the-job training
has grown. Courses in electronics are highly
desirable because electronic controls are in­
creasingly being designed into automotive
components.
Many automotive mechanics still learn the
trade primarily on the job. Beginners usually
start as helpers, lubrication workers, or gas­
oline station attendants and gradually acquire
skills by working with experienced mechanics.
Although a beginner can make simple repairs
after a few months’ experience, it usually takes
1 to 2 years of experience to become a service
mechanic and make the more difficult types of
routine service and repairs. An additional 1to 2
years are usually required to reach the jour­
neyman level and become familiar with all
types of repairs. An additional year or two is
necessary to learn a difficult specialty, such as



automatic transmission repair. In contrast, radi­
ator mechanics and brake specialists, who do
not need an all-round knowledge of automobile
repair, may learn their jobs in about 2 years.
A small number of persons enter the occupa­
tion through a 3- or 4-year formal appren­
ticeship program. Apprenticeship programs are
offered through motor vehicle dealers and inde­
pendent repair shops, but the number of em­
ployers willing to make such a long-term com­
mitment is declining. Typical 4-year appren­
ticeship programs consist of about 8,000 hours
of shop training to obtain practical experience
working on brakes, chassis, transmissions, en­
gines, electrical systems, exhaust emission
controls, and other components. Programs usu­
ally require that at least 576 of these hours
consist of formal instruction about these sub­
jects and topics such as motor theory, use of
blueprints and shop manuals, and safety.
For entry jobs, employers look for people
with mechanical aptitude and a knowledge of
automobiles. Experience working on cars in the
Armed Forces or as a hobby is valuable. Com­
pletion of high school is also an advantage in
obtaining an entry job. Courses in automotive
repair, physics, chemistry, and mathematics
can help a person better understand how an
automobile operates.
Mechanics usually buy their handtools, and
beginners are expected to accumulate tools as
they gain experience. Many experienced me­
chanics have thousands of dollars invested in
tools. Employers furnish power tools, engine
analyzers, and other test equipment.
Employers increasingly send experienced
mechanics to factory training centers to learn to
repair new models or to receive special training
in automatic transmission or air-conditioning
repair. Motor vehicle dealers may also send
promising beginners to factory-sponsored me­
chanic training programs. Factory represen­
tatives come to many shops to conduct short
training sessions. Mechanics also must read
service and repair manuals to keep abreast of
new technology.
Voluntary certification by the National In­
stitute for Automotive Service Excellence is
widely recognized as a standard of achievement
for automobile mechanics. Mechanics are cer­
tified in 1 or more of 8 different service areas,
such as tune-ups, brake and front-end work, or
electrical system repair. General automotive
mechanics are certified in all eight areas. For
certification in each area, mechanics must have
at least 2 years of experience and pass a written
examination; completion of an automotive me­
chanic program in high school, vocational or
trade school, or community or junior college
may be substituted for 1 year of experience.
Certified mechanics must retake the examina­
tion at least every 5 years.
Experienced mechanics who have leadership
ability may advance to shop supervisor or serv­
ice manager. Mechanics who work well with
customers may become automotive repair serv­
ice estimators.

and vocational and technical schools. Persons
without training beyond high school are likely
to face competition for entry level jobs. Al­
though more job openings are expected for au­
tomotive mechanics than for most other oc­
cupations, careers in automotive mechanics are
attractive to many because they afford the op­
portunity for good pay and the satisfaction of
skilled work with one’s hands.
Employment of automotive mechanics is ex­
pected to increase faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. The
number of mechanics is expected to increase
because expansion of the driving age popula­
tion and rising consumer purchasing power will
increase the number of motor vehicles on the
road. The growing complexity of automotive
technology, particularly the use of electronics,
increasingly necessitates that cars and trucks be
serviced by professionals, contributing to
growth in demand for automotive mechanics.
Employment also is expected to grow because
more automobiles will have pollution control
and safety devices, air-conditioning, and other
features that require maintenance.
Despite projected faster-than-average
growth in employment, the main source of job
openings for automotive mechanics will be the
need to replace experienced workers who trans­
fer to other occupations, retire, or stop working
for other reasons. Replacement needs will be
substantial, in large part, because of the size of
the occupation.
Most persons who enter the occupation may
expect steady work because changes in eco­
nomic conditions have little effect on the auto­
motive repair business. During a downturn,
however, some employers may be more reluc­
tant to hire inexperienced workers.

Earnings
Highly skilled journey automotive mechanics
employed by automobile dealers in 24 cities
had average hourly earnings of $11.63 in 1982.
Less skilled service mechanics who perform
routine service and make minor repairs had

Job Outlook
Job opportunities in automotive mechanics are
expected to be plentiful for persons who com­
plete training programs at community colleges

Automotive mechanics frequently must work in
awkward positions.

258/Occupational Outlook Handbook
average hourly earnings of $8.79, and lubri­
cators averaged an estimated $8.01 an hour in
1982.
Many experienced mechanics employed by
automotive dealers and independent repair
shops receive a commission related to the labor
cost charged to the customer. Under this meth­
od, weekly earnings depend on the amount of
work completed by the mechanic. Employers
frequently guarantee commissioned mechanics
a minimum weekly salary.
Most mechanics work between 40 and 48
hours a week, but many work even longer hours
during busy periods.
Some mechanics are members of labor
unions. The unions include the International
Association of Machinists and Aerospace
Workers; the International Union, United Au­
tomobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple­
ment Workers of America; the Sheet Metal
Workers’ International Association; and the In­
ternational Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf­
feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America
(Ind.).

Related Occupations
Other workers who repair and service motor
vehicles include automotive body repairers,
customizers, painters, and repair service es­
timators as well as diesel mechanics.

Sources of Additional Information
For more details about work opportunities,
contact local automotive dealers and repair
shops; locals of the unions previously men­
tioned; or the local office of the State employ­
ment service. The State employment service
also may have information about appren­
ticeship and other training programs.
For general information about the work of
automotive mechanics and apprenticeship
training, write to:

such as heavy trucks, buses, and locomotives;
and construction equipment such as bulldozers,
cranes, and road graders. A small, but growing
number work on diesel-powered automobiles.
Diesel mechanics also service a variety of other
diesel-powered equipment, such as electric
generators and compressors and pumps used in
oil well drilling and in irrigation.
Most diesel mechanics work on heavy
trucks. Heavy trucks are used by industries
such as mining and construction to carry ore
and building materials, and by commercial
trucking lines for general freight hauling. Most
light trucks are gasoline powered, and although
some diesel mechanics service gasoline en­
gines, most work primarily on diesel. For infor­
mation on mechanics who work primarily on
gasoline engines, see the preceding Handbook
statement on automotive mechanics.
Mechanics who work for organizations that
maintain their own vehicles may spend much
time doing preventive maintenance to assure
safe operation, prevent wear and damage to
parts, and reduce costly breakdowns. During a
maintenance check on a truck, for example,
they usually follow a regular check list that
includes the inspection of brake systems, steer­
ing mechanisms, wheel bearings, and other im­
portant parts. They usually can repair or adjust
a part that is not working properly. Parts that
cannot be fixed are replaced.
In many shops, mechanics do all kinds of
repair work. For example, they may work on a
vehicle’s electrical system one day and do ma­
jor engine repair the next. In some large shops,
mechanics specialize in one or two types of
work. For example, one mechanic may spe­
cialize in major engine repair, another in trans­
mission work, another in electrical systems,
and yet another in suspension or brake systems.

Diesel mechanics use a variety of tools in
their work. They use power tools such as pneu­
matic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; ma­
chine tools such as lathes and grinding ma­
chines to rebuild brakes and other parts;
welding and flame-cutting equipment to re­
move and repair exhaust systems and other
parts; common handtools such as screwdrivers,
pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and
get at hard-to-reach places; and jacks and hoists
to lift and move large parts. Diesel mechanics
also use a variety of testing equipment. For
example, when working on electrical systems,
they may use ohmmeters, ammeters, and volt­
meters; to locate engine malfunctions, they
often use tachometers and dynamometers.
For heavy work, such as removing engines
and transmissions, two mechanics may work as
a team, or a mechanic may be assisted by an
apprentice or helper. Mechanics generally get
their assignments from shop supervisors or
service managers who may check the mechan­
ics’ work or assist in diagnosing problems.

Working Conditions
Diesel mechanics usually work indoors, al­
though they may occasionally work or make
repairs on the road. They are subject to the
usual shop hazards such as cuts and bruises.
Mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and
may stand or lie in awkward or cramped posi­
tions to repair vehicles and equipment. Work
areas usually are well lighted, heated, and ven­
tilated, and many employers provide locker
rooms and shower facilities.

Employment
Diesel mechanics held about 173,000 jobs in
1982. Most worked for firms that owned fleets
of trucks, including construction and trucking

Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North
Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.
Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Industrial
Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126.

Information on how to become a certified
automotive mechanic is available from:
National Institute for Automotive Service Excel­
lence, 1825 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

Diesel Mechanics
(D.O.T 625.261-010, .281-010 and -014, and .361-010)

Nature of the Work
Diesel engines are stronger and thus last longer
than gasoline engines. In addition, they use fuel
more efficiently than gasoline engines because
the higher compression ratios found in diesel
engines convert a higher percentage of the fuel
into power. Because of their greater durability
and efficiency, diesel engines are used to power
most of the Nation’s heavy vehicles and equip­
ment.
Diesel mechanics repair and maintain diesel
engines that power transportation equipment,




Diesel mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and may stand or lie in awkward or cramped
positions.

Mechanics and Repairers/259
companies and businesses that haul their own
products, such as dairies and bakeries. Others
worked for heavy truck dealers, dealers of die­
sel-powered light trucks and automobiles, truck
repair shops, firms that rent or lease trucks, and
Federal, State, and local governments. About
one-fifth worked for companies that sell and
service construction and mining machinery and
industrial equipment, such as compressors,
pumps, and generators. A small number of die­
sel mechanics serviced buses for local transit
companies and intercity buslines. Others main­
tained diesel locomotives for railroads.
Diesel mechanics are employed in every sec­
tion of the country, but most work in large
towns and cities where trucking companies,
buslines, and other fleet owners have large re­
pair shops.

framing, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most diesel mechanics learn their skills on the
job. Beginners usually do tasks such as clean­
ing parts, fueling, lubricating, and driving ve­
hicles in and out of the shop. As beginners gain
experience and as vacancies become available,
they usually are promoted to mechanics’ help­
ers. In some shops, beginners— especially
those having automobile service experience—
start as mechanics’ helpers.
Most helpers can make minor repairs after a
few months’ experience and advance to in­
creasingly difficult jobs as they prove their abil­
ity. After they master the repair and service of
diesel engines, they learn to work on related
components such as brakes, transmissions, or
electrical systems. Generally, at least 3 to 4
years of on-the-job experience are necessary to
qualify as an all-round diesel truck or bus me­
chanic. Additional training may be necessary
for mechanics who wish to specialize in diesel
equipment.
For entry jobs, employers generally look for
applicants who have mechanical aptitude and
are at least 18 years of age and in good physical
condition. Completion of high school also is
desirable. A State chauffeur’s license is needed
for test driving trucks or buses on public roads.
Most employers prefer graduates of formal
training programs in diesel mechanics. These
1-2 year programs, given by vocational and
technical schools and community and junior
colleges, lead to a certificate of completion or
an associate degree. They provide a foundation
in the basics of the latest diesel technology,
such as the use of electronics, and speed ad­
vancement to the journeyman mechanic level.
A formal 4-year apprenticeship is another
good way to learn diesel mechanics. While
never plentiful, apprenticeships are becoming
rare because employers are reluctant to make
such a long-term investment in training, es­
pecially when graduates of postsecondary die­
sel mechanic programs are. increasing in
number. Typical apprenticeship programs for
diesel truck and bus mechanics consist of ap­
proximately 8,000 hours of practical experi­
ence working on transmissions, engines, and
other components and at least 576 hours of
formal instruction to learn blueprint reading,



mathematics, engine theory, and safety. Fre­
quently, these programs include training in both
diesel and gasoline engine repair.
High school auto shop and science and math­
ematics classes help a mechanic understand
how engines and vehicles operate. Practical
experience in automobile repair in a gasoline
service station or the Armed Forces or from a
hobby also is valuable.
Most mechanics must buy their own handtools. Experienced mechanics often have thou­
sands of dollars invested in tools.
Employers sometimes send experienced me­
chanics to special training classes conducted by
truck, bus, diesel engine, parts, and equipment
manufacturers where they learn the latest tech­
nology or receive special training in subjects
such as diagnosing engine malfunctions. Me­
chanics also must read service and repair man­
uals to keep abreast of engineering changes.
Voluntary certification by the National In­
stitute for Automotive Service Excellence is
recognized as a standard of achievement for
diesel mechanics. Mechanics may be certified
as general heavy duty diesel truck mechanics or
may be certified in 1 or more of 6 different areas
of heavy duty diesel truck repair: Brakes, gas­
oline engines, diesel engines, drive trains, elec­
trical systems, and suspension and steering. A
general truck mechanic may also meet the re­
quirements for certification in gasoline instead
of diesel engines, and the other four areas. For
certification in each area, mechanics must pass
a written examination and have at least 2 years
of experience. High school, vocational or trade
school, or community or junior college training
in gasoline or diesel engine repair may sub­
stitute for up to 1 year of experience. Certified
mechanics must retake the tests at least every 5
years.
Experienced mechanics who have leadership
ability may advance to shop supervisors or
service managers. Mechanics who have sales
ability sometimes become sales represen­
tatives. A few mechanics open their own repair
shops.

community and junior colleges and vocational
and technical schools.

Job Outlook

Sources of Additional Information

Employment of diesel mechanics is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s as freight
transportation by truck increases. More trucks
will be needed for both local and intercity haul­
ing due to the increased production of goods.
Additional diesel mechanics will be needed to
repair and maintain growing numbers of buses
and heavy construction graders, cranes, and
earthmovers. The increasing popularity of die­
sel-powered automobiles and light trucks for
personal transportation will also create new die­
sel mechanic jobs. The majority of job open­
ings, nevertheless, will arise from the need to
replace diesel mechanics who transfer to other
occupations, retire, or stop working for other
reasons.
Careers in diesel mechanics are attractive to
many because wages are relatively high and
skilled repair work is challenging and varied.
Opportunities will be best for persons who
complete formal training in diesel mechanics at

Earnings
Diesel mechanics employed by trucking com­
panies, buslines, and other firms that maintain
their own vehicles had average hourly earnings
of $11.19 in 1982. Earnings generally were
highest in the West and lowest in the South, and
varied by industry as follows:
Transportation.........................................
Manufacturing .......................................
Retail trade..............................................
Wholesale trade .....................................
Services ..................................................

$11.73
10.97
10.60
10.24
9.41

Beginning apprentices usually earn one-half
the rate of skilled workers and receive increases
about every 6 months until they complete their
apprenticeship and reach the rate of skilled me­
chanics.
Most mechanics work between 40 and 48
hours per week. Those employed by truck and
bus firms which provide service around the
clock may work evenings, nights, and week­
ends. They usually receive a higher rate of pay
for this work.
Many diesel mechanics are members of labor
unions, including the International Association
of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the
Amalgamated Transit Union; the International
Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and
Agricultural Implement Workers of America;
the Transport Workers Union of America; the
Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associa­
tion; and the International Brotherhood of
Teamsters, Chauffers, Warehousemen and
Helpers of America (Ind.).

Related Occupations
Diesel mechanics repair trucks and buses and
keep them in good working order. Related
motor vehicle service occupations include auto­
motive body repairers, customizers, mechan­
ics, painters, and repair service estimators.
More details about work opportunities for die­
sel mechanics may be obtained from local em­
ployers such as trucking companies, truck
dealers, or bus lines; locals of the unions pre­
viously mentioned; or the local office of the
State employment service. Local State employ­
ment service offices also may have information
about apprenticeships and other training pro­
grams.
For general information about the work of
diesel mechanics and apprenticeship training,
write to:
American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North
Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.
International Association of Machinists and Aero­
space Workers, Apprenticeship Department, 1300
Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Information on how to become a certified
heavy duty diesel mechanic is available from :

260/Occupational Outlook Handbook
National Institute for Automotive Service Excel­
lence, 1825 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

Farm Equipment
Mechanics
(D.O.T. 624.281, .361-014, and .381)

Nature of the Work
Many years ago, farmers planted, cultivated,
and harvested their crops using only handtools
and simple, animal-drawn equipment. Few re­
pairs were required, and if a stray rock or stump
broke a plow blade, the metal pieces could be
joined together by the local blacksmith. Even
when tractors began to replace animals as the
prime source of power, the early models were
not very complicated and most farmers did their
own repair work.
But in the last quarter century, farm equip­
ment has grown enormously in size, complex­
ity, and variety. Many farms have both diesel
and gasoline tractors, some equipped with 300horsepower and larger engines. Harvesting
combines, hay balers, com pickers, crop dry­
ers, planters, tillage equipment, and elevators
also are common. In today’s world of largescale, mechanized agriculture, few if any types
of farming can be done economically without
specialized machines.
As farm machinery grew more complex, it
became important for the sellers of farm equip­
ment to be able to service and repair the ma­
chines they sold. Almost every dealer employs
farm equipment mechanics to do this work and
to maintain and repair the smaller lawn and
garden tractors dealers sell to surburban homeowners.
In addition, som e mechanics w ho work for
dealers and equipment wholesalers assem ble
new implements and machinery and som etim es
do body work, repairing dented or tom sheet
metal on the tractors or other machinery.

Mechanics spend much of their time repair­
ing and adjusting malfunctioning equipment
that has been brought to the shop. But during
planting and harvesting, they may travel to the
farm to make emergency repairs on equipment
so that critical farming operations are not undu­
ly delayed.
Mechanics also perform preventive mainte­
nance. Periodically, they test, adjust, and clean
parts and tune engines. In large shops, mechan­
ics may specialize in certain types of work,
such as gasoline or diesel engine overhaul,
hydraulics, or clutch and transmission repair.
Others specialize in repairing the air-con­
ditioning units often included in the cabs of
combines and large tractors, or in repairing
certain types of equipment such as hay balers.
Some mechanics also repair plumbing, elec­
trical, irrigation, and other equipment on
farms.
Mechanics use many basic handtools includ­
ing wrenches, pliers, hammers, and screw­
drivers. They also may use precision equipment
such as micrometers and torque wrenches and




engine testing equipment, such as dyna­
mometers to measure engine performance, or
compression testers to find worn piston rings or
leaking cylinder valves. They may use welding
equipment or power tools to repair broken
parts.

Working Conditions
Generally, farm equipment mechanics work in­
doors. Modem farm equipment repair shops are
well ventilated, lighted, and heated, but older
shops may not offer these advantages. During
planting and harvesting seasons, mechanics
often make emergency repairs in the field. To
do so, mechanics may have to travel many
miles and work in all types of weather. Farm
equipment mechanics come in contact with
grease, gasoline, rust, and dirt, and there is
danger of injury when they repair heavy parts
supported on jacks or by hoists. Care must also
be used to avoid bums from hot engine parts,
cuts from sharp edges of machinery, and injury
from farm chemicals.

Employment
Farm equipment mechanics held nearly 26,000
jobs in 1982. Most worked in service depart­
ments of farm equipment dealers. Others work­
ed in independent repair shops, in shops on
large farms, and in service departments of retail
lawn and garden supply stores. Most farm
equipment mechanics work in small repair
shops. About one-fifth of the farm equipment
mechanics are self-employed.
Because some type of farming is done in
nearly every area of the United States, farm
equipment mechanics are employed throughout
the country. Employment is concentrated in
small cities and towns, making this an attractive
career choice for people who do not wish to live
the fast-paced life of an urban environment.
However, many mechanics work in the rural

fringes of metropolitan areas, so farm equip­
ment mechanics who prefer the conveniences
of city life need not live in rural areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Employers prefer applicants who have an ap­
titude for mechanical work. A farm back­
ground is an advantage since growing up on a
farm usually provides experience in basic farm
equipment repairs. Employers also prefer high
school graduates, but some will hire applicants
who have less education. In general, employers
stress previous experience or training in diesel
and gasoline engines, the maintenance and re­
pair of hydraulics, and welding—subjects that
may be learned in many high schools and voca­
tional schools. Mechanics also must be able to
read circuit diagrams and blueprints in order to
make complex repairs to electrical and other
systems.
Most farm equipment mechanics are hired as
trainees and learn the trade on the job by assist­
ing qualified mechanics. The length of training
varies with the helper’s aptitude and prior expe­
rience. At least 2 years of on-the-job training
usually are necessary before a mechanic can do
the more routine types of repair work, and addi­
tional training and experience are required for
highly specialized repair and overhaul jobs.
Many farm equipment mechanics enter this
occupation from a related occupation. For in­
stance, they may gain experience as farmers
and farm laborers, or as heavy equipment me­
chanics, auto mechanics, or air-conditioning
mechanics. People who enter from related oc­
cupations also may start as helpers, but they
may not require a long period of on-the-job
training.
With the development of more complex farm
implements, technical training has become
more important. A growing number of large

Farm equipment mechanics often work long hours making emergency repairs in the field during
planting and harvesting seasons.

Mechanics and Repairers/261
employers prefer applicants who have com­
pleted 1 or 2 years of training in agricultural
mechanics, including electronics, at a voca­
tional or technical school or community or
junior college.
A few farm equipment mechanics learn the
trade by completing an apprenticeship pro­
gram, which lasts from 3 to 4 years and in­
cludes on-the-job as well as classroom training
in all phases of farm equipment repair and
maintenance. Applicants for these programs
usually are chosen from shop helpers.
Keeping abreast of changing farm equipment
technology requires a great deal of careful study
of service manuals and analysis of complex
diagrams. Many farm equipment mechanics
and trainees receive refresher training in short­
term programs conducted by farm equipment
manufacturers. These programs usually last
several days. A company service representative
explains the design and function of equipment
and teaches maintenance and repair on new
models of farm equipment. In addition, some
dealers may send employees to local vocational
schools that teach special weeklong classes in
subjects such as air-conditioning repair or
hydraulics.
Persons considering a career in this field
should have the manual dexterity needed to
handle tools and equipment. Occasionally,
strength is required to lift, move, or hold heavy
parts in place. Difficult repair jobs require
problem-solving abilities to diagnose the
source of the machine’s malfunction. Experi­
enced mechanics should be able to work inde­
pendently with minimum supervision.
Farm equipment mechanics may advance to
shop supervisor, service manager, or manager
of a farm equipment dealership. Some mechan­
ics open their own repair shops. A few farm
equipment mechanics earn 2-year associate de­
grees in agricultural mechanics and advance to
service representatives for farm equipment
manufacturers.




Job Outlook
Little or no change in the employment of farm
equipment mechanics is expected through the
mid-1990’s. Most job openings will arise each
year as experienced mechanics transfer to other
occupations, retire, or stop working for other
reasons. Opportunities will be best for persons
with technical training and for applicants who
have lived or worked on farms and know how to
operate farm machinery and make minor re­
pairs.
Continued consolidation of farm land into
fewer and larger farms, requiring less farm
equipment, is expected to restrict growth of
farm equipment mechanic jobs. The develop­
ment of more technically advanced farm equip­
ment, however, should make it more difficult
for farmers to do their own repairs. Thus, farm­
ers will have to rely more on skilled mechanics
in the future. For instance, many newer tractors
have much larger, more complex engines and
air-conditioned cabs, which have improved the
comfort of the operator, and feature advanced
transmissions with many speeds. More com­
plex electrical systems also are used to operate
the great variety of gauges and warning devices
now used to alert the operator to problems such
as brake wear, low oil pressure in the transmis­
sion, or insufficient coolant in the radiator. In
addition to the development of larger and more
complex farm machinery, sales of smaller lawn
and garden equipment have increased vastly
over the past decade and are expected to con­
tinue to do so. Most of the large manufacturers
of farm equipment now offer a line of these
smaller tractors and sell them through their
established dealerships. Although relatively
few mechanics service this equipment, more
will be needed.
As with most agricultural occupations, the
demand for farm equipment mechanics is high­
est during planting and harvesting seasons.
During these busy periods, mechanics often
work 6 or 7 days a week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In
winter months, however, mechanics may work

less than 40 hours a week and some may be laid
off.
The agriculture equipment industry experi­
ences periodic declines—mostly in sales.
Layoffs of mechanics, however, are uncommon
because farmers often elect to repair old equip­
ment rather than purchase new equipment.

Earnings
Salaried farm equipment mechanics had medi­
an annual earnings of $14,000 in 1982, accord­
ing to the limited information available. Half
earned between $11,000 and $17,300 a year.
The highest salaries were paid to workers with
the most experience and to those performing the
most complicated repairs. In addition, higher
salaries were paid in the heavily agricultural
regions where competition is greatest for the
more highly skilled mechanics. Most farm
equipment mechanics also have the opportunity
to work overtime during the planting and har­
vesting seasons, for which they generally are
paid time and one-half.
Very few farm equipment mechanics belong
to labor unions, but those who do are members
of the International Association of Machinists
and Aerospace Workers; the International Uni­
on, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agri­
cultural Implement Workers of America; and
the International Brotherhood of Teamsters,
Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of
America (Ind.).

Related Occupations
Other workers who work on large machinery
and whose jobs often are in small towns and
other nonmetropolitan areas include auto­
motive mechanics, diesel mechanics, and con­
struction equipment mechanics.

Sources of Additional Information
Details about work opportunities may be ob­
tained from local farm equipment dealers and
local offices of the State employment service.
For general information about the occupation,
write to:
National Farm and Power Equipment Dealers Asso­
ciation, 10877 Watson Rd., St. Louis, Mo. 63127.

Electrical and Electronic Equipment Repairers
Electrical and electronic equipment are among
the hallmarks of our high-technology society.
Electrical and electronic equipment repairers
install, maintain, and repair this equipment.
Many of them deal with the highly complex
communications and data transmission equip­
ment that, within a very short time, has brought
computers into everyday use in factories, busi­
ness offices, hospitals, schools, stores, ticket
offices, and private homes.
Mechanical aptitude and a knowledge of
electrical theory are essential in these occupa­
tions. For many of them, some knowledge of
advanced electronic theory and skill in the use
of electronic testing equipment are also neces­
sary.
At the entry level, some repairers may need
only a high school diploma. They acquire spe­
cific job skills through on-the-job training, a
formal apprenticeship, or an employer’s train­
ing program. For many of these jobs, however,
employers require formal training in elec­
tronics, which may be obtained in Armed
Forces schools, vocational-technical institutes,
community colleges, or private trade schools.
Continuing education is important in this
rapidly changing field, and many electronic
equipment repairers periodically attend com­
pany-sponsored training sessions to learn about
new technological advances and to sharpen
their repair skills.
This section of the Handbook describes six
repair occupations: Communications equip­
ment mechanics, line installers and cable
splicers, computer service technicians, ap­
pliance installers and repairers, telephone and
PBX installers and repairers, and television and
radio service technicians.

Appliance service technicians usually spe­
cialize in servicing either portable appliances
such as toasters and vacuum cleaners or major
appliances such as refrigerators, freezers,
washers, and dryers. Repairers in large shops
generally are more specialized than those in
small shops.
Portable appliances are worked on in shops.
Major appliances usually are repaired in cus­
tomers’ homes by appliance repairers who car­
ry their tools and a number of commonly used
parts with them in a truck.
To determine why an appliance fails to oper­
ate or work properly, technicians look for fre­
quent sources of trouble, such as faulty elec­
trical connections, and consult service manuals
and troubleshooting guides. They may dis­
assemble the appliance to examine its parts. To
check electric systems, repairers follow wiring
diagrams and use testing devices, such as am­
meters, voltmeters, and wattmeters.
After identifying the problem, the technician
makes the necessary repairs or replacements.
To fix a portable appliance such as a toaster, the
repairer may replace a defective heating ele­
ment. To fix a major appliance such as a washer,
the repairer may replace worn bearings, trans­
mission belts, or gears. To remove old parts and

install new ones, repairers use common handtools, including screwdrivers, soldering irons,
files, pliers, and special tools designed for par­
ticular appliances. After completing a repair,
technicians operate the appliance to check their
work.
Repairers answer customers’ questions and
complaints about appliances and frequently ad­
vise customers about the care and use of the
appliance. For example, they may demonstrate
how to load automatic washing machines or
arrange dishes in dishwashers.
Appliance technicians may estimate and col­
lect the cost of repairs. They also keep records
of parts used and hours worked on each job.

Working Conditions
Repair shops generally are quiet, well lighted,
and adequately ventilated. Working conditions
outside the shop vary. For example, repairers
sometimes work in narrow spaces and uncom­
fortable positions amidst dirt and dust. Those
who repair appliances in homes may spend
several hours a day driving.
Although the work generally is safe, techni­
cians must exercise care when handling elec­
trical parts and lifting and moving large ap­
pliances. Inexperienced workers are shown

Appliance Installers
and Repairers
(D.O.T. 637.261-010 and -018; 723.381, .584-010;
729.281-022; 731.684-022; and 827.261, .464-010, and
.661-010)

Nature of the Work
Household chores such as cooking and cleaning
that once took a great deal of time and physical
effort are today much simpler to do—thanks to
a variety of laborsaving appliances. Microwave
ovens cook meals in minutes. Washers and dry­
ers clean clothes with little physical effort. In­
deed, the number of household jobs machines
can do is almost limitless. Installing and servic­
ing these machines is the job of the appliance
installer and repairer—often called appliance
service technician.

262



Jobs for appliance installers and repairers are available in nearly every community.

Mechanics and Repairers/263
how to use tools safely and how to avoid elec­
tric shock.
Appliance technicians usually work with lit­
tle or no direct supervision, a feature of the job
that appeals to many people.

Employment
Appliance repairers held about 80,000 jobs in
1982, many in independent appliance stores
and repair shops. Others worked for service
centers operated by appliance manufacturers,
department stores, wholesalers, and gas and
electric utility companies. About 1 out of 4
repairers is self-employed.
Appliance technicians are employed in al­
most every community, but are concentrated in
the more highly populated areas.

framing, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Appliance repairers generally learn their trade
on the job. Many entrants acquire their skills in
other occupations and transfer into appliance
repair. Some technicians complete formal train­
ing in appliance repair and related subjects in
high schools, private vocational schools, and
community colleges. No matter how their basic
skills are developed, repairers usually get addi­
tional training from their employer.
The type of training provided by employers
varies among companies. In shops that fix port­
able appliances, new employees work on a sin­
gle type of appliance, such as vacuum cleaners,
until they master its repair. Trainees then move
on to work on a different type of appliance; this
process continues until they can repair a variety
of appliances. In companies that repair major
appliances, beginners may be trained by experi­
enced repairers during repair visits. In other
cases, they are taught in the shop while rebuild­
ing used parts such as washing machine trans­
missions. Up to 3 years of on-the-job training
may be needed to become skilled in all aspects
of repair of the more complex appliances.
Some large companies such as appliance
manufacturers and department store chains
have formal training programs, which include
home study courses and shop classes, where
trainees work with demonstration appliances
and other training equipment.
Many repairers receive supplemental in­
struction through seminars that are conducted
periodically by appliance manufacturers.
These seminars usually last 1 or 2 weeks and
deal with the repair of one of the manufacturer’s
appliances. To become familiar with new ap­
pliances and the proper ways to repair them,
experienced repairers attend training classes or
study service manuals.
Persons who want to become appliance re­
pairers generally must have a high school diplo­
ma. Courses in basic electricity and electronics
are desirable because most repairs involve work
with electrical equipment, and more and more
appliances have electronic components. Me­
chanical aptitude is also desirable. Appliance
technicians who work in customers’ homes
must be courteous and tactful.
Appliance repairers in large shops or service
centers may be promoted to supervisor, assis­
tant service manager, or service manager. A few



may advance to managerial positions such as
regional service manager or parts manager for
appliance manufacturers. Preference is given to
those who show ability to get along with cow­
orkers and customers. Experienced repairers
who have sufficient funds may open their own
appliance stores or repair shops.

Job Outlook
Employment of appliance technicians is ex­
pected to grow more slowly than the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s. The
number of appliances in use is expected to in­
crease as the number of households grows and
new and improved appliances are introduced.
But increasing use of electronic parts in ap­
pliances should make them more reliable and
lessen the need for repairers. Although a small­
er than average proportion of appliance re­
pairers leave the occupation, virtually all open­
ings for appliance repairers will arise from the
need to replace workers who transfer to other
occupations, retire, or die.
Technicians with a strong background in
electronics should have the best job prospects.
Employment is relatively steady because the
demand for appliance repair services continues
even during economic downturns.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of appliance repairers
who were not self-employed were $340 in 1982;
the middle 50 percent earned between $250 and
$425 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less
than $230, while the highest 10 percent earned
over $490. Variations in wages reflect dif­
ferences in repairers’ skill and experience, geo­
graphic location, and the type of equipment
serviced.
Some appliance repairers belong to the Inter­
national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers.

Related Occupations
Other workers who service electrical and elec­
tronic equipment include air-conditioning me­
chanics, bowling-pin-machine mechanics,
business machine repairers, electric sign re­
pairers, electronic organ technicians, television
and radio repairers, and vending machine me­
chanics.

Sources of Additional Information
For further information about jobs in the ap­
pliance service field, contact local appliance
repair shops, appliance dealers and utility com­
panies, or the local office of the State employ­
ment service.
Information about training programs or work
opportunities also is available from:
Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers, 20
N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606.
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers,
1200 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

Communications
Equipment Mechanics
(D.O.T. 722.281-010; 822.261-010, .281-010, -014, and
-034, .361-014, -026, and -030; .381-010 and -022, and
.684-010)

Nature of the Work
The ability to communicate quickly and easily
is a necessity in modem society. Because com­
munication is vital to a healthy economy, it is

essential that the communications system oper­
ate smoothly. Installing, repairing, and main­
taining the wide array of complex and sophisti­
cated communications equipment are the re­
sponsibilities of communications equipment
mechanics. Most of this work is done in tele­
phone company central offices by highly spe­
cialized workers.
Central office equipment installers, or equip­
ment installation technicians, set up, rearrange,
and remove the complex switching and dialing
equipment used in central offices. They install
equipment in new central offices, add equip­
ment in expanding offices, or replace outdated
equipment.
Installers follow work order information,
blueprints, circuit diagrams, electrical sche­
matics, and floor plans to position and wire
equipment. They often use hoists to lift heavy
items, and handtools, such as screwdrivers or
soldering guns, to connect equipment once it is
in place. For example, they construct and erect
iron and steel frames and connect these to the
central office equipment. The newer electronic
equipment, however, comes in preassembled
components and often requires only simple
plug-in connections.
After the new equipment has been put in
place, installers connect the outgoing and in­
coming telephone trunklines, consulting di­
agrams to insure that connections are made
correctly. Once this is completed, installers test
and troubleshoot the system to see that every­
thing is working correctly. They use communi­
cation testing equipment, such as pulsing test
sets, oscilloscopes, ohmmeters, and volt­
meters , to measure the strength and consistency
of the current flow. If the system is not function­
ing properly, they must determine the cause of
the difficulty and correct the malfunction.
Frame wirers, sometimes referred to as
frame workers or frame attendants, connect,
disconnect, inspect, and repair wires that run
from telephone lines and cables to the central
office. The frame has many terminal lugs
mounted on it, each of which is assigned a
specific telephone number. It also contains one
pair of wires for each telephone that is con­
nected to that central office. To connect a new
telephone, the frame wirer attaches the custom­
er’s pair of wires to a set of terminal lugs, using
small handtools, such as pliers, screw drivers,
and soldering irons. To disconnect a telephone,
the frame wirer melts the solder or otherwise
removes the wires from the terminal. Frame
wirers occasionally change a customer’s phone
number by reconnecting the customer’s pair of
wires to a different set of terminal lugs. Frame
wirers inspect and repair all parts of the frames
after checking for breaks or loose wires. They
also may help other craft workers locate and
correct malfunctions. To gain experience,
frame wirers generally work on residential tele­
phone service. Later, they may work on more
complex special services, such as circuitry for
large business systems, civil defense warning
sirens, or burglar alarms.
Central office repairers, often referred to as
central office technicians or switching equip­
ment technicians, test, repair, and maintain all
types of local and toll switching equipment that

264/Occupational Outlook Handbook
automatically connects lines when customers
dial numbers. Most of these switching systems
are electromechanical—that is, they contain
moving parts and must be cleaned and oiled
periodically. Newer switching systems, which
are electronic and have no moving parts, must
be checked occasionally for breakages.
When customers report trouble with their
telephones, trouble locators work at special
switchboards—sometimes called testboards—
to find the source of the problem. To do this,
they have the telephone repairer connect a port­
able phone at various places on the customer’s
line until a connection can be made to the cen­
tral office. For a problem at the central office,
the trouble locator repeats this procedure with a
central office repairer. Trouble locators who

work for cable television companies must in­
sure that subscribers’ television sets receive the
proper signal. They may work with cable in­
stallers to track down the cause of the inter­
ference and make repairs.
Within the last few years, some telephone
companies have started replacing trouble lo­
cators with maintenance administrators. These
workers perform many of the functions of trou­
ble locators but generally do not have as much
technical training. Their jobs are largely auto­
mated; instead of using test boards and associ­
ated equipment to perform the complex circuit
testing, they do so by entering instructions into
a computer terminal. Maintenance admin­
istrators also update and maintain com­
puterized files of trouble status reports.

Other communications equipment mechan­
ics include instrument repairers, sometimes re­
ferred to as shop repairers or shop technicians,
who use handtools and power tools to repair,
test, and modify communications equipment
such as telephones, teletypewriters, and
switchboards. In addition, they may paint vari­
ous types of equipment and cut and weld iron
for special work equipment. Transmission test­
ers test and operate telephone equipment in
central offices that service lines between com­
munities. Office electricians make operating
adjustments in submarine cable repeater and
terminal circuits and related equipment. When
trouble arises, they may rearrange cable con­
nections to insure that service is not inter­
rupted. A closely related specialist is the sub­
marine cable equipment technican, who re­
pairs, adjusts, and maintains the machines and
equipment used in submarine-cable offices or
stations to control cable traffic. Some mechan­
ics specialize in working on telegraphic equip­
ment. Called automatic equipment technicians,
telegraph plant maintainers, or teletype in­
stallers, these workers install, repair, and main­
tain a variety of transmitting and receiving
equipment in telegraph company offices and on
customers’ premises.

Working Conditions
Because most communications systems operate
24 hours a day, 7 days a week, many communi­
cations equipment mechanics have work sched­
ules that include shifts, weekends, and holi­
days. Where shift work is required, the
assignments are made on the basis of seniority.
To cope with any emergency that may arise,
these workers are subject to 24-hour call. Me­
chanics generally work in clean, well-lighted,
air-conditioned surroundings. Depending on
the job, they may have to stand for long periods,
climb ladders, and do some reaching, stooping,
and light lifting. Some wear headsets most of
the time and communicate constantly over tele­
phone circuits with others. Because much of the
older communications equipment continually
produces sounds, these workers must learn to
“block out” noise.

Employment
Communications equipment mechanics held
about 92,000 jobs in 1982. Most worked for
telephone and telegraph companies. A small
number worked for cable television and related
companies.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Communications equipment mechanics generally work in clean, well-lighted, air-conditioned
surroundings.



Requirements vary by employer. Preference in
filling mechanic jobs generally is given to em­
ployees already with the company, such as op­
erators, clerical workers, or line installers. Oc­
casionally, trainees are hired from outside.
Employees not presently in a craft position and
those persons seeking employment from out­
side the company may be required to take
qualification exams. These exams usually test
the applicant’s arithmetic, verbal, and abstract
reasoning skills. In addition, work involving 2way radio or microwave transmission requires a
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

Mechanics and Repairers/265
general radiotelephone license. Driving may be
necessary. If so, a valid State license and good
driving record are required.
Because wires are usually color coded, per­
sons who are considering this job should be
able to distinguish colors. Physical strength and
agility are needed for carrying equipment and
climbing and working from ladders, and phys­
ical examinations generally are required. In ad­
dition to manual dexterity (to work with small
tools), applicants should have the analytical
skills and judgment to resolve mechanical diffi­
culties. Self-discipline is needed to follow de­
tailed instructions without close supervision.
Prospective workers should be able to work as
part of a team, since cooperation with others
often is essential in solving complex problems.
Reading comprehension, logic, and arithmetic
ability are helpful in understanding company
manuals and circuit wiring diagrams. Verbal
skills are needed for those jobs that require
interaction with the public and coordination of
activities with other employees. A basic knowl­
edge of electricity and electronics and tele­
phone training in the Armed Forces are helpful.
Experience in data systems technology or com­
puter maintenance is valuable for work with
electronic switching systems.
Trainees generally begin as frame wirers.
This is an entry job, and there are no set educa­
tional requirements. Although local hiring
practices vary, many companies do not require
a high school diploma. The ability to read and
understand company manuals and work orders
is important, however. New workers receive
about 6 months of classroom instruction and
on-the-job training. Within the past few years,
some telephone companies have started to use
modular training programs to supplement the
more traditional methods of training. Modular
training programs include entry tests, vid­
eotapes, movies, computer terminals, pro­
grammed workbooks that allow employees to
leam new skills at their own pace, and tests
upon completion of training. Trainees gain
practical experience by observing and helping
experienced frame wirers. After 1 or 2 years of
satisfactory performance, frame wirers may be
selected to train for a more skilled job, such as
trouble locator, central office repairer, or instru­
ment repairer.
The more demanding repair jobs sometimes
are filled by inexperienced entry workers who
have previous electrical or electronic experi­
ence. More often, however, trainees come from
the ranks of the company’s frame wirers, tele­
phone installer-repairers, or line installer-re­
pairers. Depending upon the complexity of the
equipment to be maintained, companies
provide up to 7 months of initial classroom
instruction, followed by a lengthy period of onthe-job training. Communications equipment
mechanics must continue to study throughout
their careers. For example, they return to the
classroom from time to time to leam about new
types of equipment, which may include elec­
tronic switching systems, data transmission
equipment, and picturephones.
These workers have a number of oppor­
tunities for advancement, which usually in­
volve further technical training. They may be



promoted to jobs maintaining more sophisti­
cated equipment, or to jobs as engineering tech­
nicians. Some advance to sales or personnel
work.

Job Outlook
Overall, little change in employment is ex­
pected for communications equipment me­
chanics through the mid-1990’s. However,
many job openings will arise each year as expe­
rienced workers transfer to other occupations,
retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons.
Employment will be subject to conflicting
trends through the period. On one hand, tech­
nological advances that have made possible
new telecommunications services will stimu­
late the demand for workers to install switching
and transmission equipment in new central of­
fices and control centers. In addition, con­
version of older electro-mechanical central of­
fices and toll centers to digital electronic
switching centers is expected to continue. Ad­
vances in mobile telephones and other spe­
cialized communications services such as tele­
conferencing, teletext, videotex, electronic
mail, and simultaneous transmission of voice
and data over the same channel will generate
demand for expanded central offices and toll
centers. Deregulation of the telephone industry,
along with increasing competition, will con­
tinue to allow more firms to build long- distance
communications networks that utilize central
office equipment. The expansion of cable tele­
vision systems also will stimulate demand for
skilled workers.
Conversion to electronic switching requires
fewer installers because much of this equipment
is prefabricated and therefore is easier to in­
stall. It also permits a greater use of centralized
maintenance. As telephone companies use
more computer-based support programs to au­
tomate central offices, maintenance and repair
personnel can be stationed at various control
centers. Mobile crews of repairers then can
provide the necessary modifications by rotating
among several automated central offices. Con­
siderably fewer maintenance and repair work­
ers will be needed with centralized mainte­
nance. Moreover, these new electronically
equipped central offices use sophisticated, selfdiagnosing test equipment that requires fewer
repair and maintenance personnel.
Any decreased labor requirements in central
office occupations are not likely to result in
layoffs, however. Labor-management coopera­
tion in minimizing the adverse effects of tech­
nological change is well established in the tele­
phone industry. The planned use of attrition is a
major technique for reducing employment. In
addition, unneeded workers are being retrained
and transferred to other jobs or localities.

Earnings
Wage rates for communications equipment me­
chanics vary by employer and locality. In 1982,
starting weekly pay for mechanics ranged from
about $210 to about $250. Top pay was between
$450 and $555. Average hourly earnings for
these workers were about $12.50 in 1982, com­
pared to $7.67 for all nonsupervisory workers

in private industry, except farming. Since com­
munications equipment mechanics tend to re­
main in their jobs, most are at or near the top of
the pay scale.
Most communications equipment mechanics
are members of the Communications Workers
of America, the International Brotherhood of
Electrical Workers, or the Telecommunications
International Union. For these workers, union
contracts determine wage rates, wage in­
creases, and the time needed to advance from
one step to the next. Contracts also require extra
pay for work beyond the normal 8 hours a day or
5 days a week, and for all work on Sundays and
holidays. Additional pay for nightwork is
provided for in most contracts. Paid vacations
are based on time in service. Generally, con­
tracts provide for a 1-week vacation beginning
with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 6
years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks for 15
to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over.
Depending on locality, holidays range from 9 to
12 days a year. Other contract provisions in­
clude the following: Paid sick leave; group life,
medical, and dental insurance; vision care;
sickness and accident benefits; retirement and
disability pensions; a savings plan; and an em­
ployee stock ownership plan.

Related Occupations
Other workers who have the skills needed to do
technical, manual work with tools and elec­
trical or electronic machines include computer
service technicians, office machine repairers,
biomedical equipment technicians, electrical or
electronic electricians, and sound technicians.

Sources of Additional Information
For more details about employment oppor­
tunities, contact your local telephone or tele­
graph company or write to:
Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers,
1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.
Telecommunications International Union, 2341
Whitney Ave., Hamden, Conn. 06518.

For 'more information on the telephone in­
dustry and career opportunities in it, request
copies of Phonefacts and Is It For You? A Ca­
reer in the Independent Telephone Industry
from:
United States Independent Telephone Association,
1801 K St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C.
20006.

Computer Service
Technicians
(D.O.T. 828.261-014 and .281-010, 014)

Nature of the Work
Computer systems play a vital role in our lives.
They help us make telephone calls, receive
paychecks on time, and reserve hotel rooms and
tickets for travel and entertainment. In business

266/Occupational Outlook Handbook
and industry, computer systems perform count­
less tasks—from maintaining business records
to controlling manufacturing processes.
A computer system consists of a central pro­
cessing unit and additional equipment such as
remote terminals, tape and disk storage units,
and high-speed printers. Systems vary in size
from small personal computers to large main­
frame systems that occupy entire floors of office
buildings. Keeping this intricate equipment in
good working order is the job of the computer
service technician.
At regular intervals, computer service tech­
nicians (often called field engineers or custom­
er engineers) service machines or systems to
keep them operating efficiently. They routinely
adjust, oil, and clean mechanical and elec­
tromechanical parts. They also check elec­
tronic equipment for loose connections and de­
fective components or circuits.
When computer equipment breaks down,
technicians must quickly find the cause of the
failure and make repairs. Determining where in
the system the malfunction has occurred is the
most difficult part of the technician’s job and
requires a logical, analytical mind as well as
technical knowledge.
Breakdowns can occur in the central process­
ing unit itself; in one of the peripheral ma­
chines, such as a reader or a printer; in mini­
computers that are connected to the central unit;
or in the cables or data communications hook­
ups that connect these machines. To locate the
cause of electronic failures, technicians use
several kinds of tools, including voltmeters,

ohmmeters, and oscilloscopes. They run spe­
cial diagnostic programs that help pinpoint cer­
tain malfunctions. Although it may take several
hours to locate a problem, fixing the equipment
may take just a few minutes. To replace a faulty
circuit board, solder a broken connection, or
repair a mechanical part, technicians use a vari­
ety of handtools, including needle-nosed
pliers, wirestrippers, and soldering equipment.
The employer supplies tools and test equip­
ment, but technicians are responsible for keep­
ing them in good working order.
Computer technicians often help install new
equipment. They lay cables, hook up electrical
connections between machines, thoroughly test
the new equipment, and correct any problems
before the customer uses the machine.
Some technicians specialize in maintaining a
particular computer model or system, or in
doing a certain type of repair. For example,
some technicians are experts in correcting
problems caused by errors in the computer’s
internal programming.
Besides knowing how to use specialized
tools and test equipment, computer technicians
must be familiar with technical and repair man­
uals for each piece of equipment. They also
must keep up with the technical information
and revised maintenance procedures issued
periodically by computer manufacturers.
Technicians keep a record of preventive
maintenance and repairs on each machine they
service. In addition, they fill out time and ex­
pense reports, keep parts inventories, and order
parts.

Although technicians spend most of their
time working on machines, they work with peo­
ple also. They listen to customers’ complaints,
answer questions, and sometimes offer tech­
nical advice on ways to keep equipment in good
condition. In many ways, technicians act as
public relations workers for their employer,
promoting customer satisfaction and good will.
In addition, experienced technicians often help
train new technicians and sometimes have lim­
ited supervisory duties.

Working Conditions
Large computer installations generally run
around the clock, and working time lost be­
cause of a breakdown can be very expensive.
For this reason, technicians must be available to
make emergency repairs at any time, day or
night. Although the normal workweek is 40
hours, overtime is commonplace. The method
of assigning overtime varies by employer. Some
technicians are on call 24 hours a day, others
work rotating shifts—days one week, nights the
next.
Most technicians are assigned several cli­
ents, depending on the technician’s specialty
and the type of equipment the user has. Workers
with several accounts must travel from place to
place to maintain these systems and to make
emergency repairs. In some cases, more than
one technician will share an account and serv­
ice different parts of a system. In other cases, an
experienced technician may be assigned to
work full time at a client’s installation in order
to maintain all phases of that operation.
For most technicians, travel is local; they
usually are not away from home overnight. Em­
ployers pay for travel, including reimbursement
for job-related uses of the technician’s car. In
some cases the employers provides a car for the
technician’s use. Technicians who work for a
nationwide organization must sometimes trans­
fer to another city or State.
Although some bending and lifting are nec­
essary, the job is not strenuous. Work hazards
are limited mainly to minor burns and electric
shock, but these can be avoided if safety prac­
tices are followed.

Employment
Computer service technicians held about
55,000 jobs in 1982. Most were employed by
wholesalers and manufacturers of computer
equipment and by firms that provide mainte­
nance services for a fee. A small number were
employed directly by organizations that have
large computer installations. Computer techni­
cians generally work out of regional offices
located in large cities, where computer equip­
ment is concentrated.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Computer service technicians install and test new equipment.



Most employers require applicants for techni­
cian jobs to have 1 to 2 years’ post-high school
training in basic electronics or electrical engi­
neering. This training may be from a public or
private vocational school, a college, or a junior
college. Basic electronics training offered by
the Armed Forces and by some vocational high
schools also is acceptable preparation for some

Mechanics and Repairers/267
technician jobs. Many entrants transfer from
other occupations, such as business machine
repairer, television service technician, and en­
gineering technician, where a knowledge of
electronics provides a good background for
work in this field.
A high school student interested in becoming
a computer service technician should take
courses in mathematics and physics. High
school courses in electronics and computer pro­
gramming also are helpful. Hobbies that invol­
ve electronics, such as operating ham radios or
building stereo equipment, also provide valu­
able experience.
Besides technical training, applicants for
trainee jobs must have good vision and normal
color perception to work with small parts and
color-coded wiring. Normal hearing is needed
since some breakdowns are diagnosed by
sound. Because technicians usually handle jobs
alone, they must have the initiative to work
without close supervision. Also important are a
pleasant personality and neat appearance, since
the work involves frequent contact with cus­
tomers. Patience is an asset, because some mal­
functions occur intermittently, making the
cause difficult to pinpoint. In some companies,
applicants must pass a physical examination. A
security clearance may be required in cases
where technicians regularly service machines
located in restricted buildings, such as Federal
Government installations engaged in classified
activities.
Newly hired technicians usually receive 3 to
6 months of training from their employer. They
may study elementary computer theory, com­
puter math, and circuitry theory in addition to
expanding their knowledge of basic elec­
tronics. This training includes hands-on experi­
ence with computer equipment, doing basic
maintenance, and using test equipment to lo­
cate malfunctions.
In addition to formal instruction, trainees
must complete 6 months to 2 years of on-thejob training. At first, they work closely with
experienced technicians, learning to maintain
machines that are relatively simple, but that
have the basic mechanical and electronic fea­
tures of more complex equipment. Some com­
panies have trainees gain experience by spe­
cializing in a certain type of equipment for a
time. When trainees have mastered repair of
that device they specialize in another. This pro­
cess continues till the technician can work with
a variety of equipment.
Because manufacturers continually redesign
equipment and develop new uses for com­
puters, experienced technicians must attend
training sessions to keep up with these changes
and to broaden their technical skills. Many
technicians take advanced training to specialize
in a particular computer system or type of re­
pair. Instruction also may include program­
ming, systems analysis, and other subjects that
improve the technician’s general knowledge of
the computer field.
Experienced technicians with advanced
training may become specialists or trou­
bleshooters who help technicians throughout
their territory diagnose difficult problems.



They also may work with engineers in design­
ing equipment and developing maintenance
procedures. Technicians with leadership ability
may become supervisors or service managers.
Most computer equipment operates on the
same basic principles, but machines built by
different companies may be unique in design
and construction. For this reason, technicians
may find it difficult to transfer between com­
panies that maintain different brands of equip­
ment. However, because of the pressing need
for experienced technicians, many oppor­
tunities exist for well-qualified workers to
transfer to other firms that handle the same type
of computer hardware.
Experience in computer maintenance when
combined with additional education may also
help qualify a technician for a job in equipment
sales, programming, or management. (See the
statements on programmers and manufacturers’
sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Job Outlook
Employment of computer technicians is ex­
pected to grow much faster than the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s. As the
Nation’s economy expands, more computer
equipment will be used, and more technicians
will be needed to install and maintain it. Busi­
ness, government, and other organizations will
buy, lease, or rent additional equipment to man­
age vast amounts of information, control man­
ufacturing processes, and aid in scientific re­
search. The development of new uses for
computers in fields such as education and medi­
cine also will spur demand.
Employment of service technicians may
grow more slowly than in recent years as im­
provements to computers and related equip­
ment make them more reliable and easier to
repair. The latest equipment can diagnose the
cause of its malfunctions. For some computer
equipment, the diagnosis of the malfunction
will be done by another computer via telephone
hookup. As computer equipment becomes

smaller and more portable, much diagnosis and
repair will be done in centralized repair facili­
ties, so that technicians will not have to spend
as much time traveling to job sites. These fac­
tors will lessen the time needed to make repairs
and should slow somewhat the rise in employ­
ment.
Despite the faster than average growth in
employment, most job openings for technicians
will result from the need to replace workers
who transfer to other occupations such as serv­
ice manager, or who leave the labor force.
Computer service technicians have been less
likely than other workers to be laid off during
downturns in economic activity. However,
firms do restrict hiring of new technicians dur­
ing recessions, making it harder to enter the
occupation.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of full-time computer
service technicians were about $430 in 1982.
The middle 50 percent earned between $320
and $540. The lowest 10 percent of all techni­
cians earned less than $250 a week. Many of
these probably were trainees. The top 10 per­
cent of technicians earned over $665 a week.
Technicians earn more in the North and West
than in the South.

Related Occupations
Workers in other occupations who repair and
maintain the circuits and mechanical parts of
electronic equipment include appliance re­
pairers, automotive electricians, business ma­
chine repairers, electronic organ technicians,
instrument repairers, radio repairers, radar me­
chanics, and television service technicians.

Sources of Additional Information
For general information on careers in computer
maintenance, contact the personnel department
of computer manufacturers and computer main­
tenance firms in your area. The State depart­
ment of education in your State capital can

Among the computer occupations, computer service technicians are
expected to have the fewest new jobs.
Projected change in employment, 1982-95 (thousands)

0

Systems analysts

Programmers

Computer operating
personnel
Computer service
technicians

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

25

50

75

100

125 150

175

200 225

268/Occupational Outlook Handbook
furnish information about approved technical
institutes, junior colleges, and other institu­
tions offering postsecondary training in basic
electronics.
Additional information about the occupation
is available from:
Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers’
Association, Human Resources, 311 1st St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20001.

The State employment service office in your
area may also be able to provide information
about local job opportunities.

Line Installers and
Cable Splicers
(D.O.T. 821.261-010 and -014, .281-010, .361-010, -018,
-022, -026, -030, and -038, .687-010; 822.281-030, .361010, .381-014; 829.361-010 and -014, and .667-010)

Nature of the Work
A vast network of wires and cables links the
electric power produced in generating plants to
individual customers and connects telephone
central offices to each other and to customers’
telephones and switchboards. This network is
constructed and maintained by line installers
and cable splicers and their helpers.
To install new electric power or telephone
lines, line installers, often referred to as outside
plant technicians or construction line workers,
place wires and cables that lead from the central
office or generating plant to customers’ prem­
ises. They usually use power-driven equipment
to dig holes and set in the poles that support
cables. Line installers climb the poles or use
truck-mounted buckets (aerial work platforms)
and then use various handtools to attach the
cables. When working with electric power
lines, installers must bolt or clamp insulators
onto the pole before the cable can be attached.
They may add other equipment, such as light­
ning arrestors, transformers, or switches. For
both electric power and telephone wires, in­
stallers usually leave the ends free for cable
splicers to connect later.
In cities where power and telephone lines are
below the streets, installers place cables in un­
derground conduits. In many other residential
and rural areas, installers use trenchers, plows,
and other special power-driven equipment to
bury cable directly underground. Submarine
cable is installed by using barges or ships and
specially designed sea plows. Installers aboard
the ship can monitor the plow’s progress by
television and measure the plow’s position and
movements by using a telemetry system.
After line installers place cables on poles,
towers, or in underground conduits and
trenches, cable splicers, also referred to as ca­
ble splicing technicians, generally complete the
line connections. Splicers work on poles, aerial
ladders and platforms, in manholes, or in base­
ments of large buildings. When splicing fiber
optic cables, which contain tiny, hair thin glass
fibers that transmit voice, data, or video infor­
mation by light, the delicate connections are




made in vans positioned close to the splice
point. Splicers connect individual wires or fi­
bers within the cable and rearrange wires when
lines have to be changed. They must first read
and interpret service orders and circuit di­
agrams in order to determine the proper splic­
ing specification. Splices are then made by
twisting, soldering, or joining wires and cables
with small handtools, epoxy, and mechanical
equipment. At each splice, they place insula­
tion over the conductor, and seal the splice with
a lead sleeve or cover the splice with some other
type of protective covering. For example, they
may fill the cable sheathing on critical transmis­
sion routes with compressed air so that leaks in
the sheathing can be monitored and repaired.
Line installers and cable splicers spend much
of their time maintaining and repairing tele­
phone and power lines. In some areas, this is
done by a separate group of workers called
cable repair technicians or cable testing techni­
cians. Installers periodically check to keep the
lines clear of dead trees or limbs that could
cause problems. Cable splicers routinely check
to make sure that insulation on cables is in good
condition and that insulators and other equip­
ment on line poles are working properly. This
preventive maintenance is extremely impor­
tant, because a single defect in a cable may
interrupt service for many customers. When
wires or cables break, or when poles are knock­
ed down or underground ducts collapse, these
workers must make emergency repairs as
rapidly as possible. These repairs are most
common in parts of the country that have hur­
ricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, and heavy
snowfalls.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Line installer usually is an entry level job. Al­
though local hiring policies vary, few employ­
ers require a high school diploma. High school
courses are valuable, however, for developing
the reading and arithmetic skills essential for
understanding company manuals and work or­
ders. Many employers test applicants for basic
verbal, arithmetic, and abstract reasoning
skills. In addition, there are entry tests of phys­
ical ability such as balance, coordination, and
strength. Applicants also may be tested for me­
chanical aptitude. Knowledge of the basic prin­
ciples of electricity and training in installing
telephone systems with the Armed Forces or
vocational education programs may be helpful.
Because the work entails a lot of climbing,
applicants should have stamina and must be
unafraid of heights. The ability to distinguish
colors is necessary because wires and cables
usually are coded by color. Motivation, selfdiscipline, and the ability to work as part of a
team are needed to work efficiently and safely.
Training programs for line installers and ca­
ble splicers include classroom instruction as
well as on-the-job training. In addition, some
employers are beginning to use other teaching
aids to supplement classroom instruction.
These may include computer assisted instruc­
tion, video cassettes, movies, or “program­
med” workbooks. Some classroom s are
equipped with actual equipment, such as poles,
cable-supporting clamps, and other fixtures to
simulate working conditions as closely as pos­
sible. Trainees learn to climb poles while keep­
ing their hands free to work. For example, in
one classroom exercise, they play catch with a
basketball while on the poles. Trainees also are
taught safe working practices to avoid falls and
Working Conditions
Line installers and cable splicers usually work contact with power wires. Classroom training,
outdoors in all kinds of weather. They must do a which also includes instruction in electrical
lot of climbing and lifting, and often work in codes, blueprint reading, and beginning elec­
trical theory, is followed by on-the-job training.
stooped and cramped positions. They face haz­
Trainees are assigned to a crew to work with
ards such as falls and electric shocks, but these
experienced line installers under a line super­
have been greatly reduced by safety precautions visor.
developed over the years. For example, work­
In addition to the training by employers, line
ers stringing high-voltage lines must wear rub­ and cable workers may attend a training school
ber gloves. Line installers and cable splicers provided by manufacturers who sell cable in­
also must wear safety equipment when entering stallation equipment to telephone or electric
manholes. In addition, they are required to test power companies. At other times, manufac­
for the presence of gas before going under­ turers send instructors to the job site.
ground. These workers are subject to 24-hour
Some small companies, particularly those in
call. For example, when severe weather rural areas, do not have adequate facilities to
damages telephone or power lines, they may be train their employees. Therefore, they may rely
called upon to work long and irregular hours to on local vocational and technical schools to
restore service. At times they may travel to provide classroom training to craft employees.
Line installers and cable splicers continue to
distant locations—and occasionally stay for a
receive training throughout their careers to
lengthy period to help restore damaged facili­
qualify for more difficult assignments and to
ties or build new ones.
keep up with technological changes. For exam­
ple, crews of cable splicers are introduced to the
Employment
techniques of fiber optic cable splicing by hav­
Line installers and cable splicers held about ing several days of training and several addi­
195,000 jobs in 1982. Nearly all worked full tional days of field supervision. They may re­
time for publicly and privately owned power ceive this continuing education not just from
companies, construction companies specializ­ their employer, but also from short courses in
ing in power line construction, and telephone colleges, universities, private firms, and State
telephone associations.
companies.

Mechanics and Repairers/269
For installers, advancement may come about
through promotion to splicer, telephone in­
staller or repairer, or communications equip­
ment mechanic. Promotion to a supervisory
position is also possible.
Cable splicers may transfer to other highly
skilled jobs—in the telephone industry, for ex­
ample, cable splicers can advance to central
office equipment installer or PBX installer—or
may move into other kinds of work, such as
sales. Promotion also is possible to crew super­
visor or instructor of new employees.

Job Outlook
Employment of line installers and cable splicers
is expected to grow about as fast as the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s.
Most openings will be to replace workers who
transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop
working for other reasons.
A growing and increasingly mobile popula­
tion will require more telephone and electric
power lines. Building these new cable systems
and modernizing and maintaining existing sys­
tems will require many more line installers and
cable splicers.
Despite the strong demand for telephone
services and electricity, technological advances
that improve productivity should keep employ­
ment from rising as fast as demand. For exam­
ple, improvement such as plows that can dig a
trench in a single operation have eliminated
much of the heavier physical work of the linecrews and have caused reductions in crew size.
Also, satellites and other electronic devices
such as microwave systems are expected to car­
ry an increasing volume of telephone traffic,
thus reducing the emphasis on cable installa­
tion. New kinds of splices and the telephone
splicing van that uses a self-contained engine to
heat and ventilate manholes and drive power
tools and equipment also will continue to im­
prove the efficiency of cable splicers.
Although improved technology has reduced
labor requirements in some occupations,
layoffs are rare. Unneeded workers usually are
given a choice of transferring to other geo­
graphic areas where they are needed, or of
being placed in a different job in the same area.
Telephone and electric power companies lay off
workers only as a last resort and have done so
infrequently in recent years. The policy of pref­
erence for company employees may, however,
limit the number of job openings available to
others.

Earnings
Pay rates for line installers and cable splicers
vary greatly across the country; specific infor­
mation may be obtained from local telephone
and electric power companies. Earnings also
depend on length of service. It generally takes
about 5 years to go from the bottom to the top of
the pay scale. Beginning weekly salaries for
members of a line crew ranged from $220 to
$245 in 1982. The most experienced workers
earned salaries that ranged from $480 to $620.
Because of low job turnover in these occupa­
tions, many workers earn salaries near the top



Line installers and cable splicers may have to work long and irregular hours to restore service after a
storm.
of the pay scale, which is about twice the aver­
age for all nonsupervisory workers in private
industry, except farming.
Most line installers and cable splicers belong
to unions, principally the Communications
Workers of America, the International Broth­
erhood of Electrical Workers, and the Telecom­
munications International Union. For these
workers, union contracts set wage rates, wage
increases, and the time needed to advance from
one step to the next. These contracts require
extra pay for work beyond the normal 8 hours a
day or 5 days a week, and for all work on
Sundays and holidays. Most contracts provide
for additional pay for nightwork. Time in serv­
ice determines the length of paid vacations. In
general, contracts provide for a 1-week vacation
beginning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for
1 to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 weeks
for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and

over. Depending on the locality,there are 9 to 12
holidays a year. Other provisions in contracts
include many or all of the following: Paid sick
leave; group life, medical, and dental insur­
ance; sickness and accident benefits; vision
care; retirement and disability pensions; a sav­
ings plan; and an employee stock ownership
plan.

Related Occupations
Workers in other skilled crafts and trades who
do manual work with tools and machines in­
clude automobile mechanics, biomedical
equipment technicians, carpenters, cement
masons, electricians, machinists, plumbers,
sound technicians, toolmakers, and welders.

Sources of Additional Information
For more details about employment oppor­
tunities, contact the telephone or electric power

270/Occupational Outlook Handbook
company in your community or local offices of
the unions that represent these workers. For
general information on line installer and cable
splicer jobs, write to:
Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers,
1125 15th St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C.
20005.
Telecommunications International Union, 2341
Whitney Ave., Hamden, Conn. 06518.

Radio and Television
Service Technicians
(D.O.T. 720.281, 823.361-010, and 828.261-010)

Nature of the Work
Radio and television service technicians repair
a wide range of home electronic products, of

which radios and television sets are the most
numerous. Stereo components, video and au­
dio tape recorders, video games and disk play­
ers, home computers, home security systems,
and even electronic organs are repaired by these
technicians. Some service technicians spe­
cialize in repairing one kind of equipment—for
example, television sets or car radios. Others
repair several types—television sets, video
tape machines, intercoms, and public address
systems.
Electronic equipment may fail to operate
properly for many reasons, such as worn-out or
defective parts, faulty circuits, or poor connec­
tions. Service technicians first conduct a rou­
tine check to detect common causes such as
loose connections or defective components.
Talking to customers may help technicians
identify the problem.
When routine checks do not locate the trou­
ble, technicians refer to wiring diagrams and
service manuals that show connections and
provide instructions on how to locate problems.

Using test equipment, such as voltmeters, os­
cilloscopes, signal generators, and frequency
counters, they check circuits. For example,
they may measure voltages or wave forms in the
circuits of a television set for unusual or irreg­
ular measurements that indicate the faulty
parts. To make repairs, technicians replace
faulty parts or make adjustments, such as
focusing and converging the picture or correct­
ing the color balance of a television set. In their
work, technicians use pliers, soldering irons,
wire cutters, and other handtools. Technicians
who make customer service calls carry a variety
of solid-state components, modules, and other
parts that can be easily replaced in the custom­
er’s home.
Self-employed service technicians have
managerial responsibilities in addition to their
regular duties. They have to order equipment
and supplies, keep records, and supervise other
technicians.

Working Conditions
Service technicians work in shops or custom­
ers’ homes, where working conditions gener­
ally are good. They usually work alone and
receive little supervision. Technicians who
service electronic products in homes may do
considerable driving. Potential hazards include
electrical shock and strains from lifting and
carrying.
Service technicians generally work 40-44
hours per week, usually in 5 or 5 1/2 days.

Employment
Radio and television service technicians held
about 80,000 jobs in 1982, about 3,000 fewer
than in 1980. This decline reflects the severe
dropoff in economic activity during the 1981-82
recession. More than one-half were self-em­
ployed, a much larger proportion than in most
skilled trades. Most service technicians, either
self-employed or working for others, worked in
television repair shops and stores that sell and
service television sets, radios, and other elec­
tronic products.
Radio and television service technicians
work in almost every city. Geographically, em­
ployment is distributed in much the same way
as the Nation’s population.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Service technicians usually work alone with little supervision.



Training in electronics—acquired formally or
through on-the-job training in another, related
occupation—generally is required to get an en­
try level job as a radio and television service
technician. The military services also offer
training and work experience that are very
useful in civilian electronics work.
Formal training is offered by high schools,
private vocational schools, and junior colleges.
Programs in these schools include subjects such
as mathematics, physics, schematic reading,
electricity, and hands-on work with television
sets, radios, and other electronic equipment.
The training lasts from 1 to 2 years. Additional
training in radio and television electronics gen­
erally is required by employers.
A few radio and television service techni­
cians complete 3- or 4-year formal appren­
ticeship programs.

Mechanics and Repairers/271
New technicians usually begin by working in
the shop or in the field under the supervision of
an experienced worker. Large repair stores may
provide in-house training combined with home
study to familiarize new workers with par­
ticular brands and models of equipment.
Technicians must keep abreast of changes in
technology. Manufacturers, employers, and
trade associations conduct training seminars to
teach technicians how to service new models or
products. Technicians also keep up with de­
velopments by studying manufacturers’ service
manuals and technical magazines.
Radio and television service technicians
must be able to manipulate small parts and
tools, and must have good eye-hand coordina­
tion, normal hearing, and good eyesight and
color perception. Courtesy and tact are essen­
tial in dealing with customers.
Some States require radio and television
technicians to be licensed. To obtain a license,
applicants must pass an examination designed
to test their knowledge of electronic circuits and
components and their skill in the use of testing
equipment.
Service technicians who work in large repair
shops may be promoted to supervisor or service
manager. Some technicians obtain jobs as elec­
tronics “troubleshooters” in manufacturing in­
dustries or government agencies. Those inter­
ested in advancing to positions such as
electronics technician can improve their oppor­
tunities by taking courses in automatic controls,
electronic engineering, television engineering,
and mathematics.
Technicians who have sufficient funds may
open their own service shops. Those planning
to go into business for themselves should take
some business administration courses, par­
ticularly accounting and consumer relations.

Job Outlook
Employment of radio and television service
technicians is expected to increase about as fast
as the average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Some of this growth reflects a re­
bounding of employment to pre-recession lev­
els.
Employment of service technicians is ex­
pected to increase in response to the growing
number of television sets, video games, home
computers, disk players, radios, phonographs,
tape recorders, and other home entertainment
products. Rising population and personal in­
comes will contribute to this growth. Closedcircuit television, which is being used in­
creasingly to monitor production processes in
manufacturing plants, protect buildings, and to
bring educational programs into classrooms,
will create additional demand for service tech­
nicians. Improvements in technology that re­
duce service requirements, however, will keep
employment from rising as fast as otherwise
would be expected.
Despite the rising demand for these workers,
the need to replace workers who leave the oc­
cupation will account for most job openings.
Because experience in radio and television elec­
tronics is good preparation for other jobs—
business machine repairer, computer service



technician, broadcast technician, for exam­
ple—an unusually large proportion of radio and
television service technicians transfer to other
occupations.

Earning
Median earnings of radio and television service
technicians who are not self-employed were
about $300 a week in 1982; the middle 50 per­
cent earned between $250 and $450 weekly.
The lowest 10 percent earned less than $180,
while the top 10 percent earned more than $550.
The wide variation in wage rates reflects dif­
ferences in skill levels, types of employers, and
geographic location.
A few service technicians are members of
labor unions. Most of these belong to the Inter­
national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers.

Related Occupations
Other occupations in which workers repair
electronic equipment include appliance re­
pairers, business machine repairers, computer
service technicians, and electronic organ tech­
nicians.

Sources of Additional Information
For more information about jobs in this field,
contact local shops and stores that service radio
and television sets and. other electronic equip­
ment. Technical and vocational schools that
offer courses in radio and television repair or
electronics may provide information about
training. In addition, locals of the International
Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and the local
office of the State employment service may
have information about programs that provide
training opportunities.
Information about the work of radio and tele­
vision service technicians is available from:
National Association of Television and Electronic
Servicers of America (NATESA), 5930 S. Pulaski
Rd., Chicago, 111. 60629.
Electronics Industries Association, 2001 Eye St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.
National Electronic Sales and Service Dealers Asso­
ciation and the International Society of Certified
Electronics Technicians, 2708 West Berry St., Fort
Worth, Tex. 76109.

Telephone and PBX
Installers and
Repairers
(D.O.T. 822.261-022, .281-018 and -022, .361-014. and
.381-018)

Nature of the Work
Telephone and PBX installers and repairers are
craft workers who install, service, and repair
telephones, switchboard systems, mobile radio
and microwave systems, and other communica­
tions equipment on customers’ property. Often
referred to as services and systems technicians,
they generally travel to customers’ homes and
offices in vehicles equipped with telephone

tools and supplies. Before making any installa­
tions or repairs, they read and interpret service
orders, technical manuals, and circuit wiring
diagrams. They also keep detailed and accurate
records of all work activity. When customers
move or request new types of service, installers
relocate telephones or make changes on exist­
ing equipment. For example, they may install a
switchboard in an office, or change a two-party
line to a single-party line in a residence. In­
stallers also may add an extension in another
room or replace an old telephone with a new
model. After installation, they test the equip­
ment to make sure that it is working properly. In
some areas, these workers may handle special
cases such as public service commission com­
plaints, illegal or unauthorized use of equip­
ment, and electric or acoustic shocks. Many
installers and repairers promote improved cus­
tomer service by demonstrating various kinds
of telephone equipment or services.
Telephone installers, sometimes called sta­
tion installers, install, rearrange, and remove
telephones in homes and business places. They
assemble equipment and install wiring at the
customers’ premises using a variety of handtools. They connect telephones to outside serv­
ice wires and sometimes must climb poles or
ladders to make these connections. Occasion­
ally, especially in apartment buildings, the
service wires or terminals are in the basement of
the building. In many large building complex­
es, these wires or terminals are located in wire
closets.
PBX installers, also called systems techni­
cians, specialize in more complex telephone
system installations. Using equipment that in­
cludes handtools, signal generators, ohmmeters, and oscilloscopes, these workers con­
nect wires from terminals to switchboards and
power cabinets and make tests to check their
installations. Some PBX installers also set up
equipment for the wire and microwave trans­
mission of mobile radiotelephones, picturephones, ship to shore communications,
data processing, and telephone switchboard
systems for radio and television broadcasts that
receive phone calls from the audience.
Telephone repairers test, clean, fix, or re­
place faulty equipment. Working closely with
trouble locators in the central office, they locate
and analyze trouble on customers’ equipment
and in outdoor public facilities. A repairer finds
the source of the problem by connecting a test
set to the customer’s telephone line and then
testing in conjunction with the trouble locator
in the central office.
PBX repairers, with the assistance of trouble
locators, locate the malfunction in customers’
PBX, CENTREX, KEY, or other telephone
systems and make the necessary repairs. They
also maintain associated equipment such as bat­
teries, relays, and powerplants. Some PBX re­
pairers maintain and repair equipment for radio
and television broadcasts, mobile radi­
otelephones, microwave transmission equip­
ment, switching equipment, and data process­
ing equipment.

272/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Telephone installers usually are chosen from the ranks of telephone company employees.
Working Conditions
Telephone and PBX installers and repairers
work in many kinds of places, both indoors and
outdoors, and in all kinds of weather. Their
work involves lifting, climbing, reaching,
stooping, crouching, and crawling. They must
not be afraid to work in high places such as
rooftops and microwave towers. Because tele­
phone service must be maintained at all times,
these workers are subject to 24-hour call, as are
all telephone company employees. Workers
also may be required to work evening and night
shifts. Because breakdowns in lines or equip­
ment can occur at any time, work on holidays
and on nonscheduled days may be required.

Employment
Telephone and PBX installers and repairers
held about 134,000 jobs in 1982. The vast ma­
jority worked full time.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Trainees usually are chosen from the ranks of
telephone company employees such as oper­
ators, clerical workers, and line installers. A
basic knowledge of electricity and electronics
gained from previous employment experience
or schooling, and telephone training in the
Armed Forces, are assets in being accepted for
training. In addition, applicants must have
good eyesight and the ability to distinguish col­
ors. Physical examinations may be required
because the work may involve strenuous ac­
tivities such as climbing poles and lifting and



carrying heavy objects. Good balance is neces­
sary in order to work in high places and for
crouching or stooping in cramped areas. Prac­
tical problem-solving ability is essential, as in
all repair jobs. Because these workers deal with
the public, a pleasant and patient disposition is
an advantage.
Applicants for telephone installer or repairer
jobs must have the ability to learn a craft, and
may have to take a mechanical aptitude test as
well as tests that measure mathematical skills.
Workers in these jobs must be adept at handling
small tools, such as pliers and screwdrivers,
and know how to read blueprints and interpret
work orders and circuit diagrams. Local hiring
practices vary, but many employers no longer
require a high school diploma for telephone
craft jobs. However, applicants must be able to
read and understand company manuals and di­
rections for telephone installation and repair.
Telephone installer-repairer trainees receive
classroom instruction in subjects such as elec­
trical and electronic theory. Practical instruc­
tion is provided in training facilities equipped
with telephone poles, lines and cables, terminal
boxes, and other equipment. There, in a simu­
lated work environment, trainees practice in­
stalling telephones and connecting wires just as
they would on the job. After several weeks of
classroom training, new employees are as­
signed to assist experienced workers before
going out alone to install telephones.
Because many small telephone companies,
especially in rural areas, do not have training
facilities, they use vocational and technical

schools in these areas to train telephone in­
stallers and repairers. If travel is required dur­
ing training—to a regional training school, for
example—the company pays the cost.
In recent years, some telephone companies
have begun to use modular training programs
for their workers. Modular training is used to
supplement other, more traditional forms of
training. Training modules may include some
or all of the following: Entry tests; video mod­
ules such as computer terminals, movies, and
video cassettes; programmed workbooks; exit
tests; and skill mastery tests where the trainee
demonstrates the skills he or she has learned.
Workers using training modules can learn vari­
ous aspects of their craft at their own con­
venience and pace.
PBX installer or repairer jobs require pre­
vious training and experience in the installation
of communication equipment. These are not
entry level jobs. Often, the necessary experi­
ence has been obtained as an installer-repairer
of telephones in private homes. As newer PBX
systems require more knowledge of electronics
and familiarity with computer software on the
part of the installation and repair workers, some
telephone companies are beginning to require
applicants to demonstrate a knowledge of elec­
tronics. After 2 to 4 weeks of initial classroom
training, new PBX installers usually begin to
work with basic PBX equipment and gradually
learn, through classroom and on-the-job train­
ing, to install increasingly complex equipment.
Further advancement to PBX repairer requires
more experience and additional classroom
training. PBX installer-repairers who work on
radiotelephone or any other 2-way communica­
tions equipment must have an FCC general
radiotelephone operator license (second class
license) or acquire one within a short time
period (usually 6 months) after assignment.
Telephone craft workers receive training
throughout their careers to qualify for more
responsible assignments and to keep up with
technological changes. Courses are offered by
colleges, universities, private firms, and State
telephone associations, as well as by the tele­
phone companies themselves. With further
training, telephone installer-repairers can ad­
vance to supervisor, to sales and customer serv­
ice jobs or, with additional study of electronics,
to more advanced technical jobs such as PBX
installer or switching equipment technician.

Job Outlook
Employment of telephone and PBX installers
and repairers is expected to increase about as
fast as the average for all occupations through
the mid-1990’s. Although turnover is usually
low in this occupation, most of the openings
result from the need to replace persons who
transfer to other occupatons, retire, or leave the
labor force for other reasons.
Technological improvements will result in
differing employment trends for those working
on telephones and those specializing in PBX
and other sophisticated equipment. Employ­
ment of telephone installers and repairers will
grow only moderately as this work becomes
less labor intensive. For example, changes such
as pre-wired buildings that enable the customer

Mechanics and Repairers/273
to select a telephone, take it home, and plug it
in have effectively eliminated the functions of
the installer. The modular assembly of tele­
phones, where components plug in and out,
also has reduced the time and skills needed for
repair. However, more telephone repairers may
be needed to repair phone units within the
growing number of business telephone sys­
tems. In addition, communities near military
bases or colleges, where there is substantial
movement in and out, will continue to provide
relatively strong demand for telephone installa­
tion and removal. Openings for telephone in­
stallers and repairers usually are filled by work­
ers in other telephone jobs, such as operators,
service representatives, line installers, clerks,
or drivers. As technology continues to displace
telephone workers, competition for these open­
ings should intensify, making it more difficult
for “outsiders” to compete for jobs.
On the other hand, employment of PBX in­
stallers and repairers is expected to increase
substantially due to the growing demand for
more sophisticated telephone services such as
PBX, KEY, and CENTREX systems, advanced
mobile radiotelephones, energy control sys­
tems, computer data networks, satellites and
microwave radio systems, advanced video sys­
tems, teletext, videotex, and electronic mail.
The increasing utilization of these sophisticated
systems is expected to outweigh the reduction
in labor requirements resulting from gains in
productivity. Because this is not an entry level
occupation, most openings will be filled by
other telephone workers. Employment is ex­
pected to increase most rapidly in the South­
west and other areas where the population is
growing rapidly.




Earnings
Pay scales vary greatly across the country; spe­
cific information may be obtained from local
telephone companies. Earnings also depend on
length of service. Generally, it takes about 5
years to progress from the beginning rate to the
top of the pay scale. In 1982, average hourly
pay for telephone and PBX installers and re­
pairers was $13.02. By comparison, average
hourly earnings for nonsupervisory workers in
all private industries, except farming, were
$7.67. Starting weekly pay rates for telephone
installers and repairers ranged from $220 to
$240 in 1982. The typical top pay range was
$480 to $520. For PBX installers and repairers,
the beginning weekly pay typically ranged
from $235 to $260, while the highest pay rates
ranged from $500 to about $550. Because there
is relatively little turnover in these occupations,
most telephone and PBX installers and re­
pairers are near or at the top of the pay scale.
Most telephone and PBX installers and re­
pairers belong to unions, principally the Com­
munications Workers of America, the Interna­
tional Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, and
the Telecommunications International Union.
Union contracts govern wage rates, wage in­
creases, and the time needed to progress from
one grade to the next. Contracts stipulate extra
pay for work performed beyond the normal 8
hours a day or 5 days a week, as well as for that
performed on holidays and Sundays. Most con­
tracts provide a pay differential for nightwork.
Paid vacations are granted according to length
of service. Normally, contracts provide for a 1week vacation beginning with 6 months of serv­
ice; 2 weeks for 1to 6 years; 3 weeks for 7 to 14
years; 4 weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5 weeks

for 25 years and over. Depending on the lo­
cality, holidays range from 9 to 12 days a year.
Other benefits include the following: Paid sick
leave; group life, medical, and dental insur­
ance; vision care; sickness and accident bene­
fits; retirement and disability pensions; a sav­
ings plan; and an employee stock ownership
plan.

Related Occupations
Other skilled workers whose jobs require man­
ual dexterity and technical knowledge of tools
and machines include automobile mechanics,
biomedical equipment technicians, carpenters,
cement masons, electricians, machinists,
plumbers, sound technicians, toolmakers, and
welders.

Sources of Additional Information
For more details about employment oppor­
tunities, contact the telephone company in your
community or local offices of the unions that
represent telephone workers. For general infor­
mation on telephone and PBX installer and
repairer jobs, write to:
Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers,
1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.
Telecommunications International Union, 2341
Whitney Ave., Hamden, Conn. 06518.

For additional information on the telephone
industry and career opportunities in it, request
copies of Phonefacts and Is Itfor You? A Career
in the Independent Telephone Industry from:
United States Independent Telephone Association,
1801 K St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C.
20006.

Other Mechanics and Repairers

Air-Conditioning,
Refrigeration, and
Heating Mechanics
(D.O.T. 637.261-010, -014, -018, -026, and -030, and
.381-010, -014; 827.361-014; 862.281-018, .361-010; and
869.281-010)

Nature of the Work
People always have sought ways to make their
environment more comfortable. Today air-con­
ditioning and heating systems control the tem­
perature, humidity, and even the cleanliness of
the air in homes, offices, factories, and schools.
In addition, refrigeration systems make it pos­
sible to safely store food, drugs, and other
perishable items. Air-conditioning, heating,
and refrigeration mechanics are skilled workers
who install, maintain, and repair such systems.
Air-conditioning, heating, or refrigeration
requires more than a single machine. In central
air-conditioning systems, for example, fans,
compressors, condensers, and evaporators
work to cool and dehumidify the air. Metal and
fiberglass ducts or special piping distribute the

treated air throughout the building. Mechanics
must be able to work with the complete sys­
tem—the ducts and pipes as well as all the
machinery.
Mechanics may specialize in installation or
in service—maintenance and repair. Some
work only with certain equipment, such as gas
furnaces or commercial refrigerators. However,
mechanics may do both installation and service
and work with cooling, heating, and refrigera­
tion equipment. The following are some specif­
ic jobs in this field.
Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechan­
ics install and service central air-conditioning
systems and a variety of refrigeration equip­
ment. For air-conditioning or refrigeration sys­
tems, mechanics follow blueprints, design
specifications, and manufacturers’ recom­
mended procedures to install motors, com­
pressors, condensing units, evaporators, and
other components. They connect this equip­
ment to the duct work, refrigerant lines, and
electrical power source. After making the con­
nections, they charge the system with re­
frigerant if necessary and check it for proper
operation.
When air-conditioning and refrigeration
equipment breaks down, mechanics diagnose

Air-conditioning mechanics use gauges to check equipment during installation.
274



the cause and make repairs. To find defects,
they test parts such as compressors, relays, and
thermostats. During the winter, air-con­
ditioning mechanics inspect the systems and do
required maintenance, such as overhauling
compressors. Some air-conditioning and re­
frigeration mechanics also service heating sys­
tems.
Furnace installers, also called heating equip­
ment installers, follow blueprints or other spec­
ifications to install oil, gas, electric, solid-fuel,
and multifuel heating systems. After setting the
furnace in place, they install fuel supply lines,
air ducts, pumps, and other components. They
then connect electrical wiring and controls, and
check the unit for proper operation.
Oil burner mechanics keep oil-fueled heating
systems in good operating condition. During
the fall and winter, when the system is needed
most, they service and adjust oil burners. If a
system is not operating properly, mechanics
check the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls,
and other parts to locate the problem. The me­
chanic corrects the problem by adjusting or
replacing parts. During the summer, mechanics
do maintenance work, such as replacing oil and
air filters and vacuum-cleaning vents, ducts,
and other parts of the heating system that ac­
cumulate soot and ash.
Gas burner mechanics, also called gas ap­
pliance servicers, have duties similar to those of
oil burner mechanics. During the winter, they
locate malfunctions in gas-fueled heating sys­
tems and make necessary repairs and adjust­
ments. During the summer, they inspect and
clean the heating system to prepare it for the
heating season. Some mechanics also repair
cooking stoves, clothes dryers, hot water heat­
ers, and outdoor lights and grills.
Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating
mechanics use a variety of tools, including
hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric
drills, pipe cutters and benders, and acetylene
torches, to work with refrigerant lines and air
ducts. They use volt-ohmmeters, manometers,
and other testing devices to check electrical
circuits, burners, and other components.
Cooling and heating systems sometimes are
installed or repaired by other craft workers. For
example, on a large air-conditioning installa­
tion job, especially where workers are covered
by union contracts, duct work might be done by
sheet-metal workers; electrical work by electri­
cians; and installation of piping, condensers,
and other components by pipefitters. Room airconditioners and household refrigerators are
serviced by appliance repairers. Additional in­
formation about these occupations appears
elsewhere in the Handbook.

Mechanics and Repairers/275
Working Conditions
Mechanics work in homes, office buildings,
factories—anywhere there is climate control
equipment. They carry their tools and some
spare parts to the job sites in trucks and are
dispatched to jobs by radio or telephone. For
major repairs, mechanics transport broken ma­
chinery or parts to the repair shop.
Mechanics may work outside in cold or hot
weather or in buildings that are uncomfortable
because the air-conditioning or heating equip­
ment is broken. Mechanics often work in awk­
ward or cramped positions and sometimes are
required to work in high places. Hazards in this
trade include electrical shock, torch burns,
muscle strains, and other injuries from hand­
ling heavy equipment.

Employment
Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration
mechanics held 168,000 jobs in 1982, nearly
4,500 less than in 1980. This decline reflects the
slump in construction activity associated with
the 1981-82 recession.
Cooling and heating contactors employed
most air-conditioning and refrigeration me­
chanics and furnace installers. Fuel oil dealers
employed most oil burner mechanics, and gas
utility companies, most gas burner mechanics.
Mechanics also work for foodstore chains,
school systems, manufacturers, and other or­
ganizations that operate large air-conditioning,
refrigeration, or heating systems. Approx­
imately 1 out of 5 mechanics is self-employed.
Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechan­
ics, gas burner mechanics, and furnace in­
stallers work in all parts of the country. Gener­
ally, the geographic distribution of these
workers is similar to that of the population. Oil
burner mechanics are concentrated in the north­
eastern States where oil is a major heating fuel.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Many air conditioning, refrigeration, and heat­
ing mechanics start as helpers and acquire their
skills by working for several years with experi­
enced mechanics. New workers usually begin
by assisting experienced mechanics and doing
simple jobs. They may carry materials, insulate
refrigerant lines, or clean furnaces. In time,
they do more difficult jobs, such as cutting and
soldering pipes and sheet metal and checking
electrical circuits. In 4 to 5 years, new mechan­
ics are capable of doing all types of repairs and
installations.
Many high schools, private vocational
schools, and junior colleges offer programs in
air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration.
Students study air-conditioning, heating, and
refrigeration theory and the design and con­
struction of the equipment. They also learn the
basics of installation, maintenance, and repair.
Although completion of such a program does
not assure a job, employers may prefer to hire
graduates of these programs because they re­
quire less on-the-job training. These programs
also help students determine if they have an
interest and aptitude for the trade.
Apprenticeship programs are run by local
joint apprenticeship committees made up of



locals of the United Association of the Plumb­
ing and Pipefitting Industry and some local
chapters of the Air-Conditioning Contractors of
America and by local chapters of the Associ­
ated Builders and Contractors. In addition to
on-the-job training, apprentices receive 144
hours of classroom instruction each year in re­
lated subjects, such as the use and care of tools,
safety practices, blueprint reading, and air-con­
ditioning theory. Applicants for appren­
ticeships must meet requirements of local ap­
prenticeship committees; for example, they
may have to have a high school diploma or pass
a mechanical aptitude test. Apprenticeships last
4 years.
When hiring helpers, employers prefer high
school graduates with mechanical aptitude who
have had courses in shop math, mechanical
drawing, electricity, and blueprint reading.
Many of these people have prior work experi­
ence. Good physical condition is necessary be­
cause workers sometimes have to lift and move
heavy equipment.
To keep up with changes in technology and to
expand their skills, experienced mechanics
may take courses offered by associations such
as the Refrigeration Service Engineers Society,
the Petroleum Marketing Education Founda­
tion, and the Air Conditioning Contractors of
America.
Mechanics can advance to positions as super­
visors. Those with sufficient money and man­
agerial skill can open their own contracting
businesses.

Job Outlook
Employment of air-conditioning, refrigeration,
and heating mechanics is expected to increase
faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Some of this growth
reflects a rebounding of employment to pre­
recession levels. Employment will increase as
more homes and commercial and industrial
buildings are constructed. Installations of new

energy-saving heating and air-conditioning sys­
tems in existing homes and buildings also will
increase employment of mechanics. Most job
openings, however, will result from the need to
replace workers who transfer to other occupa­
tions, retire, or leave the occupation for other
reasons.
Employment of air-conditioning, heating,
and refrigeration mechanics usually is not as
sensitive to downturns in the economy as some
other construction occupations because mainte­
nance of existing systems and installation of
new, more efficient equipment in existing
buildings make up a large part of their work.
Because people and businesses depend on their
air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration sys­
tems, the need for mechanics to do mainte­
nance work is relatively strong even during
economic downturns.
Because the high earnings and good job pros­
pects of this trade attract many people, begin­
ning mechanics may face competition for jobs
as helpers or apprentices. Graduates of training
programs that emphasize hands-on experience
and those with related work experience will
have an advantage in getting a job.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of air-conditioning,
heating, and, refrigeration mechanics who
were not self-employed were $360 in 1982. The
middle 50 percent earned between $270 and
$465. The lowest ten percent earned less than
$205 a week, and the same proportion earned
more than $610 a week.
Hourly rates for experienced air-con­
ditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics
working under union contracts ranged from $12
to $15 in 1982. In comparison, all production
and nonsupervisory workers in private industry,
except farming, averaged $7.67 an hour. Ap­
prentices receive a percentage of the wage paid
experienced workers, about 40 percent at the
beginning of their training and about 85 percent
during the fourth year. Mechanics who work on

About half of all air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating
mechanics hold jobs in the construction industry.
Distribution of wage and salary employment, 1982

Construction

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

276/Occupational Outlook Handbook
both air-conditioning and heating equipment
frequently have higher rates of pay than those
who work on only one type of equipment.
Mechanics usually work a 40-hour week.
However, during peak seasons they often work
overtime or irregular hours. Most employers
try to provide a full workweek the year round,
but they -may temporarily reduce hours or lay
off some mechanics when the season is over.
Employment in most shops that service both
air-conditioning and heating equipment is fairly
stable throughout the year.
Some mechanics are members of the United
Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of
the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry or the
Sheet Metal Workers International Associa­
tion.

Related Occupations
Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration
mechanics work with sheet metal and piping,
and repair machinery, such as electrical motors,
compressors, and burners. Other workers who
have similar skills are boilermakers, electrical
appliance servicers, electricians, pipefitters,
plumbers, and sheet metal workers.

Sources of Additional Information
For more information about employment and
training opportunities in this trade, contact lo­
cal air-conditioning refrigeration, and heating
contractors; a local of the unions previously
mentioned; a local joint union-management ap­
prenticeship committee; a local chapter of the
Associated Builders and Contractors; or the
nearest office of the State employment service
or State apprenticeship agency.
For information on career opportunities and
training, write to:
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 1815 N.
Fort Myer Dr., Arlington, Va. 22209.
Air Conditioning Contractors of America, 1228 17th
St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036.

meal to games of skill. Coin machine mechan­
ics keep these machines in good working order.
They generally specialize in either merchan­
dize vending machine repair or amusement ma­
chine repair.
Before new machines are placed on location
for use, mechanics make sure they operate cor­
rectly. When checking complicated electrical
and electronic machines, such as beverage dis­
pensers, they make sure that the machines mix
drinks properly and that refrigerating-and heat­
ing units work correctly. They test electronic
games for proper operation prior to installation.
On the relatively simple gravity-operated ma­
chines, mechanics check handles, springs,
plungers, and merchandise chutes. They also
test coin and change-making mechanisms.
When installing machines on location, mechan­
ics make the necessary water and electrical con­
nections and recheck the machines for proper
operation.
If a machine breaks down, mechanics must
determine the cause of the trouble. They first
inspect the machine for obvious problems, such
as loose electrical wires, malfunctions of the
coin mechanism, and leaks. If the problem can­
not be readily located, they may refer to trou­
bleshooting manuals and wiring diagrams and
use testing devices such as electrical circuit
testers to find defective parts. Mechanics may
repair faulty parts at the site. However, they
often install replacements and take broken parts
to the company shop for repair.
Preventive maintenance—avoiding trouble
before it starts—is another major part of the
job. For example, mechanics periodically clean
electrical contact points, lubricate mechanical
parts, and adjust machines to perform properly.
In repair and maintenance work, mechanics
who repair vending machines use pipe cutters,
soldering irons, wrenches, screwdrivers, ham­
mers, and other handtools. In the repair shop,
they may use power tools, such as grinding

wheels, saws, and drills. Those who repair
electronic amusement machines may use volt­
meters, ohmmeters, and oscilloscopes to repair
electronic panels.
Because many vending machines dispense
food, mechanics must know State and local
public health and sanitation standards as well as
those established under local plumbing codes.
They also must know and follow safety pro­
cedures, especially when lifting heavy objects
and working with electricity and gas.
Mechanics must do some clerical work, such
as filing reports, preparing repair cost esti­
mates, and ordering parts. Those employed by
small operating companies may service as well
as repair m achines. These combination
“mechanic-routeworkers” stock machines, col­
lect money, fill coin and currency changers, and
keep daily records of merchandise distributed.

Working Conditions
Some mechanics work in company repair
shops, others work in the field, but many do
both. Since coin machines can be operated
around the clock, mechanics sometimes work
at night and on weekends and holidays.
Coin machine repair shops generally are
quiet, well lighted, and have adequate work
space. However, when servicing machines on
location, mechanics may work where pedestri­
an traffic is heavy or work in noisy, crowded
game arcades Repair work is relatively safe,
although mechanics are subject to hazards such
as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools
and metal objects.

Employment
Coin machine servicers and repairers held
about 31,000 jobs in 1982. Some repairers work
for vending companies that sell food and other
items through machines. Some work for soft
drink bottling companies that have their own

Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.
Refrigertion Service Engineers Society, 1666 Rand
Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60016.

For information about training in oil heating
systems, write to:
Petroleum Marketing Education Foundation, P.O.
Box 11187, Columbia, S.C. 29211.

1

iflP

Coin Machine
Servicers and
Repairers
(D.O.T. 639.281-014)

Nature of the Work
Coin-operated machines have become a famil­
iar part of everyday life. In places of recreation,
work, and education, these machines provide
many types of entertainment, food, and re­
freshments, from a piece of candy or a complete



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Mechanics often make repairs on the customer’s premises.

Mechanics and Repairers/277
coin-operated machines. Others work for man­
ufacturers and distributors of electronic games.
Other mechanics, who are employed as instruc­
tors by machine manufacturers, teach mechan­
ics to repair new machines. Although mechan­
ics are employed throughout the country, most
are located in areas with large populations
where there are many coin machines.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Coin machine servicers who repair electronic
games generally are reqired to have an associate
degree in electronics, including training or rele­
vant work experience in computer micro­
processors. Equivalent military training is also
acceptable. Most vending machine repairers,
however, enter this occupation as general shop
helpers or route drivers, where they learn infor­
mally on the job by observing, working with,
and receiving instruction from experienced me­
chanics. Trainees usually start out by doing
simple jobs such as cleaning, painting, or refur­
bishing machines. From there, they learn to
rebuild machines—removing defective parts,
repairing, adjusting, and testing the machines.
Next, they accompany an experienced mechan­
ic on service calls, and then go out on their
own. They call upon the expertise of other me­
chanics, when necessary. This learning process
takes from 6 months to 3 years, depending on
the individual’s abilities, previous education,
and the quality of instruction.
Many beginners are high school graduates,
but employers may not require a diploma. High
school or vocational school courses in elec­
tricity, refrigeration, and machine repair help
beginners to qualify for entry jobs. Some voca­
tional high schools and junior colleges offer 1to 2-year training programs for mechanics.
Many schools offer the training in basic elec­
tronics that is becoming more important for
these workers.
The National Automatic Merchandising As­
sociation has established an apprenticeship pro­
gram to help employers train present and new
workers. Apprentices receive periods of train­
ing in various skills. The program also calls for
144 hours of related instruction each year in
subjects such as basic electricity, blueprint
reading, customer relations, and safety. Ap­
prenticeships last 3 years. The NAM A program
includes optional certification of mechanics
upon completion of their on-the-job training,
and passing performance and written tests.
To learn about new machines, mechanics
sometimes attend manufacturer-sponsored
training sessions in repair shops, or in manufac­
turers’ service facilities. Employers usually pay
wages and expenses during these sessions,
which may last from a few days to several
weeks.
Some employers encourage both trainees and
experienced mechanics to take evening courses
in subjects related to coin machine operation
and repair—for example, basic electricity,
electronics, and refrigeration. Employers often
pay for at least part of the tuition and book
expenses for these courses.
Employers require applicants for mechanic
jobs to demonstrate mechanical ability, either



through their work experience or by scoring
well on mechanical aptitude tests. Since me­
chanics are exposed to thousands of dollars in
merchandise and cash, employers want appli­
cants who have a record of honesty and respect
for the law. The ability to deal tactfully with
people also is important. A commercial driver’s
license and a good driving record are essential
for most coin machine repairer jobs.
Skilled mechanics may be promoted to su­
pervisory jobs. Some open their own com­
panies.

National Automatic Merchandising Association, 7 S.
Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60603.

Industrial Machinery
Repairers
(D.O.T. 620, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, and 709. The
D.O.T. index which begins on page 364 lists the nine
digit codes included under this occupation.)

Job Outlook

Nature of the Work

Employment of coin machine repairers is ex­
pected to grow about as fast as the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s as more
coin machines are installed to meet the demand
for food and other vending machine items and
as more industrial plants, hospitals, and stores
move to suburban areas where restaurants are
not always close by. In addition, companies
will increase the variety of products sold
through the machines. The growing number of
coin-operated electronic games also will stimu­
late demand. Job openings also will arise as
experienced mechanics transfer to other oc­
cupations or leave the labor force.
Persons with some background in electronics
should have excellent job prospects, as more
electronic components are used in coin ma­
chines. Job prospects for workers without expe­
rience or vocational training often depend on
local job market conditions. If firms need more
mechanics and cannot find trained or experi­
enced ones, they are likely to train qualified
route drivers or hire inexperienced people who
have acquired some mechanical or electrical
aptitude by taking high school or vocational
courses.

When a machine breaks down in a plant or
factory, not only is the machine idle, but raw
materials and human resources are wasted. It is
the industrial machinery repairer’s job to pre­
vent these costly breakdowns and to make re­
pairs as quickly as possible.
Industrial machinery repairers—often called
maintenance mechanics—spend much time
doing preventive maintenance. This includes
keeping machines well oiled and greased, and
periodically cleaning parts. Repairers regularly
inspect machinery and check performance.
They use tools such as micrometers, calipers,
and depth gauges to measure and align all parts.
For example, forearms on industrial robots in
motor vehicle manufacturing plants need fre­
quent adjustment, and gears, bearings, and
other mechanical parts have to be aligned and
lubricated. By keeping complete and up-todate records, mechanics try to anticipate trou­
ble and service the machinery before the facto­
ry’s production is interrupted.
When repairs become necessary, the mainte­
nance mechanic must first locate the specific
cause of the problem. This requires knowledge
reinforced by experience. For example, after
hearing a vibration from a machine, the me­
chanic must decide whether it is due to worn
belts, weak motor bearings, or any number of
other possibilities.
After diagnosing the problem, the mainte­
nance mechanic disassembles the equipment
and then repairs or replaces the necessary parts.
A wide range of tools may be used. For exam­
ple, repairers may use a screwdriver and
wrench to adjust an engine, or a hoist to lift a
printing press off the ground. Repairers use
catalogs to order replacements for broken or
defective parts. When parts are not readily
available, or when a machine must be quickly
returned to production, repairers may sketch a
part that can be fabricated by the plant’s ma­
chine shop. Repairers often follow blueprints
and engineering specifications in maintaining
and fixing equipment.
The repairer reassembles and tests each piece
of equipment after it has been serviced, for
once it is back in operation, the machine is
expected to operate satisfactorily.
Some of the industrial machinery repairer’s
duties may be performed by millwrights. (See
the statement on millwrights elsewhere in the
Handbook.)

Earnings
Wage rates for coin machine repairers ranged
from $6.50 to $13 an hour in 1982. Apprentices
start at 50 percent of the rate paid experienced
mechanics and receive periodic increases.
Most coin machine repairers work 8 hours a
day, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay
for overtime. Some union contracts stipulate
higher pay for nightwork and for emergency
repair jobs on weekends and holidays.
Many coin machine mechanics are members
of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters,
Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of
America.

Related Occupations
Other workers who repair equipment with elec­
trical and mechanical components include
bowling-pin-machine mechanics, electricalappliance servicers, laundry machine mechan­
ics, maintenance mechanics, business machine
repairers, and sewing machine mechanics.

Sources of Additional Information
Further information on job opportunities can be
obtained from local coin machine firms and
local offices of the State employment or apprenticehsip service. For general information and a
list of schools offering courses in vending ma­
chine mechanics, write to:

Working Conditions
Repairers may work in stooped or cramped
positions, to reach the underside of a generator,

278/Occupational Outlook Handbook
mechanics or become machinists or tool-anddie makers.

Job Outlook
Employment of industrial machinery repairers
is expected to increase about as fast as the
average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s as manufacturers invest in more in­
dustrial machinery. Also, as machinery be­
comes more complex, repair work and preven­
tive maintenance will become more time
consuming. Besides jobs that will be created
from increased demand for industrial machin­
ery repairers, many openings will result each
year from the need to replace repairers who
transfer to other occupations, retire, or die.
Industrial machinery repairers are not usu­
ally affected by seasonal changes in produc­
tion. During slack periods, when some plant
workers are laid off, repairers often are retained
to do major overhaul jobs. Although these
workers may face layoff or a reduced workweek
when economic conditions are particularly se­
vere, they generally are less affected than other
workers because machines have to be main­
tained regardless of the level of production.

Earnings
According to the available data, industrial ma­
chinery repairers had average hourly wages of
$11.28 in 1982, about one-half higher than the
average for all nonsupervisory workers in pri­
vate industry, except farming. Average hourly
earnings of industrial machinery repairers in 22
areas that represent various regions of the coun­
try are shown in table 1.

Employment of industrial machinery repairers is heavily concentrated in industrialized areas.

Table 1. Average hourly earnings of industrial
machinery repairers selected areas, 1982

courses offered by machine manufacturers.
Some learn the trade through apprenticeship
programs sponsored by the United Auto­
mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement
Workers of America and the International Uni­
on of Electronics, Electrical, Technical, Sal­
aried and Machine Workers. This training usu­
ally lasts 4 years and consists of on-the-job
training and related classroom instruction in
Employment
subjects such as shop mathematics, shop theo­
Industrial machinery repairers held about ry, blueprint reading, welding, and safety. Op­
330,000 jobs in 1982, about 37,000 fewer than tional electronics training is offered as a part of
in 1980. This decline reflects the severe dropoff the apprenticeship program but is not required.
in economic activity during the 1981-82 reces­ However, a growing number of employers pre­
sion. Repairers work in every industry in which fer this background.
a great deal of machinery is used. Six of every
Graduation from high school is preferred,
10 work in manufacturing industries, primarily but not always required, for entry into this oc­
in machine shops, printing plants, oil refin­ cupation. High school courses in mechanical
eries, garment shops, automobile and aircraft drawing, mathematics, blueprint reading,
companies, and food processing plants.
physics, and electronics are useful for those
Because industrial machinery repairers work interested in entering this trade.
in a wide variety of plants, they are employed in
Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity
every section of the country. Employment is are important qualifications for workers in this
concentrated, however, in heavily indus­ trade. Good physical condition and agility are
trialized areas.
also necessary because repairers sometimes
have to lift heavy objects or climb to reach
equipment located high above the floor.
TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
E xam inations may be ad m inistered
Advancement
Most workers who become industrial machin­ periodically by employers to determine the re­
ery repairers start as helpers and pick up the pairer’s ability to maintain more advanced ma­
skills of the trade informally and by taking chinery. Some repairers are promoted to master

Area

for example. They also may work from the top
of a ladder when repairing a large machine.
These workers are subject to common shop
injuries such as cuts and bruises. In addition to
their regular work schedule, industrial machin­
ery repairers may be called to the plant at night
or on weekends for emergency repairs.




Hourly rate

Detroit ....................................................
$ 12.86
Baltimore ................................................
12.48
Houston ..................................................
11.97
Chicago ..................................................
11.32
Los Angeles ............................................
11.10
Minneapolis-St. P au l.............................
10.62
New York ................................................
10.47
Atlanta ............................................................
9.86
M ia m i..............................................................
9.80
Boston ............................................................
9.33
Portland, Maine .............................................
7.41
SOURCE: Bureau of Labor S a i t c .
ttsis

Labor unions to which most industrial ma­
chinery repairers belong include the United
Steelworkers of America; the International
Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and
Agricultural Implement Workers of America;
the International Association of Machinists and
Aerospace Workers; and the International Uni­
on of Electronic, Electrical, Technical, Salaried
and Machine Workers.

Related Occupations
Other occupations which involve repairing ma­
chinery include aircraft mechanics, automobile
mechanics, bowling-pin-machine mechanics,

Mechanics and Repairers/279
machinists, millwrights, tool-and-die makers,
and vending machine mechanics.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about employment and appren­
ticeship opportunities in this field may be avail­
able from local offices of the State employment
service or from:
International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Tech­
nical, Salaried and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Millwrights
(D.O.T. 638.261-010, -014, -018, .281-018, and -022)

Nature of the Work
With the coming of the Industrial Revolution,
machines and factories replaced many hand­
crafts. The textile industry in England was one
of the first to use machinery to mass produce its
goods. The workers who planned and built the
textile mills and set up the equipment that was
needed were called millwrights. The occupa­
tion gradually expanded to other factories, and
today the millwright installs and dismantles
machinery and heavy equipment used in almost
every industry, from food processing to coal
mining.
The millwright’s responsibilities begin when
machinery arrives at the job site. The new
equipment must be unpacked and unloaded,
inspected for damaged and missing parts, and
then moved into position. To lift and move light
machinery, millwrights may use rigging and
hoisting devices such as pulleys and cables.
Moving machinery sometimes requires the as­
sistance of a hydraulic lift-truck operator. In
cases where machinery and parts are too heavy
for handtools and lift-trucks, millwrights must
work with a crane operator, signalling the oper­
ator while the crane carries the machinery to its
new site.
Because millwrights often choose the de­
vices for moving machinery, they must know
the load-bearing properties of ropes, cables,
hoists, and cranes. For example, when install­
ing a new oven in a food processing plant, a
millwright sets up steel cables and a small hoist
to move the oven from the truck on which it
arrived to the conveyor that will carry it into the
plant. The oven is then lifted, with other hoist­
ing devices and perhaps the aid of a crowbar for
leverage, onto a dolly and taken to the founda­
tion for proper positioning.
New machinery sometimes requires a new
foundation. Since they either personally pre­
pare or supervise the construction of the foun­
dation, millwrights must know how to read
blueprints and work with building materials
such as concrete, wood, and steel.
In assembling machinery, millwrights fit
bearings, align gears and wheels, attach
motors, and connect belts according to the man­
ufacturer’s blueprints and drawings. Precision
leveling and alignment are important in the
assembly process; millwrights must have good



mathematical skills so that they can measure
angles, material thickness, and small distances
with tools such as squares, calipers, and mi­
crometers. In some cases, particularly when
lining up conveyor machinery or tracks, a mill­
wright may use laser equipment to “shoot” a
straight line over long distances. Millwrights
also use hand and power tools, cutting torches,
welding machines, and soldering guns. Some
millwrights use lathes to grind or turn parts to
specifications.
A growing number of millwrights install in­
dustrial robots in manufacturing plants. In
these factories, millwrights also rearrange ma­
chinery, install and/or reroute conveyors and
tracks in order to make better use of available
space.
A millwright is often called a “jack of all
trades” because of the variety of skills the job
entails. In addition to installing and disman­
tling machinery, many millwrights repair and
maintain equipment. This includes preventive
maintenance, such as oiling and greasing, and
fixing or replacing worn parts. (For further in­
formation on machinery maintenance occupa­
tions, see the statement on industrial machinery
repairers elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Millwrights employed by contract installa­
tion and construction companies do a variety of
installation work. Those employed in factories
usually install only the particular types of ma­
chinery used by their employers.

Working Conditions
Millwrights employed by factories ordinarily
work year round. Those employed by con­
struction companies and companies that man­
ufacture and install machinery may experience

periods of unemployment; however, they usu­
ally are compensated with a higher hourly wage
rate. These millwrights may travel long dis­
tances every day to and from the job site.
Millwrights are subject to the usual shop
hazards such as cuts and bruises. They also face
injury from falling objects or machinery that is
being moved, and from falls when climbing up
walkways and platforms to install equipment.
These dangers can be reduced by the use of
protective devices such as safety belts and hard
hats, however.

Employment
Millwrights held about 91,000 jobs in 1982,
about 11,000 fewer than in 1980. This decline
reflects the drop in economic activity during the
1981-82 recession, especially in those industry
sectors where most millwrights are em­
ployed—manufacturing and construction.
Although millwrights work in every State,
employment is concentrated in heavily indus­
trialized areas where most manufacturing and
heavy construction take place.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most millwrights start as helpers to skilled
workers and learn the trade informally on the
job. This process can take from 6 to 8 years.
Others learn through 4-year formal appren­
ticeship programs that combine on-the-job
training with classroom instruction. Appren­
ticeship programs include training in disman­
tling, moving, erecting, and repairing machin­
ery. Apprentices also may work with concrete

Millwrights install and maintain a wide range of plant equipment.

280/Occupational Outlook Handbook
and receive instruction in related skills such as
carpentry, welding, and sheet-metal work.
Classroom instruction is given in shop mathe­
matics, blueprint reading, hydraulics, elec­
tricity, and safety.
Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs must
be at least 17 years old. Most employers prefer
applicants with a high school diploma or its
equivalent. Courses in science, mathematics,
mechanical drawing, and machine shop prac­
tice are useful. Because millwrights often take
apart complicated machinery, mechanical ap­
titude is important. Strength and agility also are
important, because the work can require a con­
siderable amount of lifting and climbing.

Table 1. Average hourly earnings of
millwrights in selected areas, 1982
Area
Cleveland ...............................................
Indianapolis ...........................................
Sacramento.............................................
Baltimore ...............................................
Louisville ...............................................
Philadelphia ...........................................
Houston ..................................................
Chicago ..................................................
New York ...............................................
Boston ....................................................
Atlanta ....................................................

Hourly rate
$13.33
13.18
12.78
12.70
12.47
11.99
11.97
11.32
10.47
9.94
9.86

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor S a i t c .
ttsis

Job Outlook
Employment of millwrights is expected to in­
crease faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Some of this
projected growth reflects the anticipated re­
bound in employment to pre-recession levels.
Employment will increase as new plants are
built, as existing plant layouts are improved,
and as increasingly complex machinery is in­
stalled and maintained. Besides job openings
created by increased demand for millwrights,
many openings will arise annually as experi­
enced millwrights retire or transfer to other
occupations.
Employment of millwrights is somewhat
sensitive to changes in economic conditions. In
the construction industry, for example, employ­
ment fluctuates with the level of commercial
and industrial building activity. When interest
rates are high and construction activity falls,
jobs are scarce and even experienced mill­
wrights may face layoffs or a shortened work­
week. They are also subject to seasonal layoff
caused by snow, rain, and other bad weather
conditions. Millwrights who work in manufac­
turing plants, however, usually have more sta­
ble employment. They are not subject to sea­
sonal layoffs because they generally work
indoors. During poor economic conditions,
jobseekers may find fewer opportunities be­
cause employers are not installing new equip­
ment. Unlike millwrights in construction, few
millwrights in manufacturing are laid off when
high interest rates discourage the purchase of
new equipment. Existing machinery still needs
to be maintained and repaired. Layoffs do oc­
cur, however, when plants operate at reduced
levels or are closed.

Earnings
Median hourly earnings of most millwrights
were $11.50 per hour in 1982; the middle 50
percent earned between $9.50 and $13.75 per
hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than
$7.00, and the top 10 percent earned more than
$16.00. In contrast, the average hourly wage for
all nonsupervisory workers in private industry,
except farm was $7.67. Earnings for mill­
wrights in 10 areas that represent various re­
gions of the country appear in table 1.



Many millwrights belong to labor unions.
Among these are: International Association of
Machinists and Aerospace Workers; United
Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of
America; United Steelworkers of America; In­
ternational Union, United Automobile, Aero­
space and Agricultural Implement Workers of
America; United Paperworkers International
Union; International Union of Electrical, Radio
and Machine Workers; and International Broth­
erhood of Firemen and Oilers.

Related Occupations
To set up machinery for use in a plant, mill­
wrights must know how to use hoisting devices,
and how to assemble, disassemble, and in some
cases repair machinery. Other workers with
similar job duties are industrial machinery re­
pairers, ironworkers, and machine assemblers.

Sources of Additional Information
For further information on apprenticeship pro­
grams, write to the Apprenticeship Council of
your State’s labor department, local offices of
your State employment service, local firms that
employ millwrights, or the Associated General
Contractors of America, 1957 E St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20006.

Musical Instrument
Repairers
(D.O.T. 730.281-014, -026, -038, -050, -054, .361-010,
-014, .381-010, -026, -034, -038, -042, -058, .681-010,
.684-022, -026, and -094)

Nature of the Work
Whether they are used to perform the classics or
contemporary rock, musical instruments are
sources of entertainment and recreation for mil­
lions of people. Maintaining these instruments
so they perform properly is the job of piano and
instrument repairers. There are many different
kinds of musical instrument repairers. Five of
the most common are piano tuners, piano tech­
nicians, pipe-organ tuners and repairers, and
brass and wind instrument repairers.
Piano tuners adjust piano strings so that they
will be in proper pitch. When a piano key is

struck, a felt-covered wooden hammer strikes
one or more strings, causing them to vibrate.
The number of times a string vibrates in a sec­
ond is called its pitch. For the piano to sound
right, all its strings must be set at their proper
pitch.
Tuners begin by adjusting the pitch of the
“A” or “C” string. Striking the key, the tuner
compares the string’s pitch to that of a tuning
fork. Using a tuning hammer (also called a
tuning lever or wrench), the tuner turns a steel
pin to tighten or loosen the string until its pitch
matches that of the tuning fork. The pitch of all
the other strings is set in relation to the “A” or
“C” string. The standard 88-key piano has
about 230 strings and can be tuned in about an
hour and a half.
The sound of the piano also can be affected
by problems in and of the thousands of wooden,
steel, iron, ivory, and felt parts in its works.
Piano technicians locate and correct these prob­
lems. Technicians also tune pianos.
To get an idea of what is wrong with the
piano, technicians talk with the customer. They
also may play the instrument or partially dis­
mantle it to inspect the parts. When technicians
discover the problem, they make repairs or ad­
justments. They may realign hammers that do
not strike the strings properly. They may re­
place worn felt or broken strings or rebuild or
replace the wooden sounding board that ampli­
fies the string’s vibrations. Sometimes techni­
cians completely rebuild pianos. To dismantle
and repair pianos, technicians use common
handtools as well as special ones, such as reg­
ulating, repinning, and restringing tools.
Although organs and pianos may look some­
what alike, they work differently, and few tune­
rs and repairers work on both instruments.
Moreover, people who service organs spe­
cialize in either pipe or electronic organs. Elec­
tronic organs are not included in this statement.
Pipe-organ repairers tune, repair, and install
organs that make music by forcing air through
one of two kinds of pipes—flue pipes or reed
pipes. The flue pipe sounds when a current of
air strikes a metal lip in the side of the pipe. The
reed pipe sounds when a current of air vibrates a
brass reed inside the pipe.
To tune an organ, repairers first match the
pitch of the “A” pipes with that of a tuning fork.
The pitch of other pipes is set by comparing it
with that of the “A” pipes. To tune a flue pipe,
the technician moves the metal slide that in­
creases or decreases the pipe’s “speaking
length.” To tune a reed pipe, the technician
alters the length of the brass reed inside the
pipe. A day or more may be needed to finish
one of these jobs, because most organs have
hundreds of pipes.
Like piano technicians, pipe-organ repairers
must locate and correct problems in the organ’s
components that affect its sound. This may
involve replacing worn parts of the pipes, the
console, or other components. Repairers also
do maintenance work, such as cleaning the
pipes, on a regular schedule.
Occasionally, pipe-organ repairers assemble
organs onsite in churches and auditoriums.
They follow the designer’s blueprints and use a
variety of hand and power tools to install and

Mechanics and Repairers/281

The ability to play the instrument is helpful.
connect the air chest, blowers, air ducts, pipes,
and other components. Technicians may work
in teams or be assisted by helpers. A job may
take several weeks or even months, depending
on the size of the organ.
Violin repairers adjust and repair bowed in­
struments, such as violins, violas, and cellos,
using a variety of handtools. They find defects
by close inspection and by playing the instru­
ment. They remove cracked or broken sections
with heated knives so that the delicate instru­
ment is not damaged. The defective parts are
replaced, and the instrument is restrung. In
order to restore an old or severely damaged
instrument to its original condition, the repairer
must fill in scratches with putty, sand the rough
spots, and apply paint or varnish.
Brass and wind instruments include trum­
pets, comets, tubas, clarinets, flutes, and sax­
ophones. Brass and wind instrument repairers
clean, adjust, and repair these instruments.
They may move mechanical parts or play scales
to find any defects in the instrument. They may
unscrew and remove rod pins, keys, and
pistons, and may remove soldered parts by
using gas torches. These repairers remove
dents in metal instruments by using mallets or
burnishing tools. They fill cracks in wood in­
struments by inserting pinning wire into the
cracks and covering them with filler.



Working Conditions
The work of musical instrument repairers is
relatively safe, although they may suffer small
cuts and braises when making repairs. Work is
performed in shops, music stores homes, and
public buildings, such as churches and schools,
where working conditions usually are good.

Employment
Musical instrument repairers held about 14,000
jobs in 1982. Most worked on pianos. About
three-fourths worked in music stores or for mu­
sical instrument manufacturers. Most of the rest
worked in repair shops; about half were selfemployed. Most musical instrument repairers
work in large metropolitan areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Musical instrument repairers generally learn
their trade on the job. Some music stores, large
repair shops, and self-employed technicians
hire inexperienced people as trainees. Trainees
do general cleanup work, help move and install
instruments, and do other routine tasks. Train­
ees tune and repair instruments under the super­
vision of experienced workers. Usually 2 to 5
years of training and practice are needed to
become a competent musical instrument re­
pairer.

For those people who are interested in piano
tuning and repair, a small number of technical
schools and colleges offer courses in piano
technology that last 6 months to 2 years. Home
study (correspondence school) courses in piano
technology also are available. These courses
emphasize practice tuning and piano repair.
Graduates of these courses generally are en­
couraged to refine their skills by working for a
time with an experienced tuner or technician.
Employers generally prefer to hire workers
with some knowledge of the trade.
For those who are interested in other types of
instrument repair, a few music repair schools
offer a 1 or 2-year course in complete overhaul­
ing and refinishing of brass, woodwind and
string instruments. Beginners may also learn
these skills as apprentices under the supervision
of experienced technicians.
Employers prefer high school graduates for
beginning jobs in musical instrument repair.
Music courses help develop the student’s ear for
tonal quality. Courses in woodworking also
may be useful because many of the moving
parts of some instruments are made of wood.
People interested in a career in these fields
should have good hearing, mechanical ap­
titude, stamina, and manual dexterity. Because
work frequently is done in the customer’s
home—especially piano repair—a neat ap­
pearance and a pleasant, cooperative manner
also are important. Ability to play the instru­
ment helps but is not essential.
Musical instrument repairers keep up with
new developments in their fields by studying
trade magazines and manufacturers’ service
manuals. The Piano Technicians Guild helps its
members improve their skills through training
programs conducted at local chapter meetings
and at regional and national seminars. Guild
members also can take a series of tests to earn
the title Registered Piano Tuner-Technician.
The title is an acknowledgment of the techni­
cian’s skills.
Repairers and technicians who work for
large dealers or repair shops can advance to
supervisory positions. Some people in this
field, however, go into business for themselves.
Opening a repair business is fairly easy because
only a small investment in tools is required.
Basic music instrument repair tools cost only a
few hundred dollars. However, the musical in­
strument repair business is very competitive.
People without adequate training often fail to
attract enough customers to stay in business.
Self-employed tuners and repairers operate out
of their own homes and use either a car or a
small track for service calls. They also may
work at another job until their clientele is large
enough to support a repair business.

Job Outlook
Employment of musical instrument repairers is
expected to increase about as fast as the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Be­
sides growth in employment, job openings will
arise from the need to replace experienced
workers who transfer to other occupations, re­
tire, or leave the occupation for other reasons.
However, since this is a very small occupation,
the total number of job openings will be small.

282/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Millions of musical instruments already are
in use and the number will increase as the
population grows and as people have more lei­
sure time. The large number of instruments in
use will assure a demand for repair work.
However, opportunities for untrained workers
in these occupations are few. Most music store
owners and self-employed tuners and repairers
are reluctant to train persons who do not have at
least a basic understanding of instrument repair.
Training such people requires time that could be
more profitably spent doing tuning or repair
work. Individuals with some familiarity of the
trade may find it easier to get a trainee job.
Because musical instrument tuning and re­
pair are a luxury for most consumers, these
occupations are sensitive to the downturns in
the economy. During poor economic condi­
tions, tuners and repairers may lose income
because their customers put off tuning and re­
pairing instruments. People wishing to enter
the trade usually find music store owners and
self-employed repairers and technicians es­
pecially reluctant to hire trainees when business
is slow.

Earnings
Median annual earnings of most musical instru­
ment repairers were $14,500 in 1982; the mid­
dle 50 percent earned between $10,400 and
$15,600 annually. Ten percent earned less than
$7,800, and 10 percent earned more than
$18,200.
Self-employed tuners and repairers earned
from $15,000 to $25,000 a year in 1982, ac­
cording to limited available information. Earn­
ings of the self-employed depend on the size of
the community, their ability to attract and keep
customers, their operating expenses, and the
amount of competition from other tuners and
repairers.

Office Machine
Repairers
(D.O.T. 633, 706.381-010 and -030)

Nature of the Work
Office or business machine repairers maintain
and repair the machines that are used to process
paperwork in business and government. These
machines include typewriters, adding and cal­
culating machines, cash registers, dictating ma­
chines, postage meters, and duplicating and
copying equipment. (Computer service techni­
cians, who work on data processing equipment,
are discussed in a separate statement elsewhere
in the Handbook.)
Office machine repairers (often called field
engineers, customer engineers, or service tech­
nicians) make regular visits for preventive
maintenance to the offices and stores of custom­
ers in their assigned area. The frequency of
these service calls depends upon the type of
equipment being serviced. For example, an
electric typewriter may require preventive
maintenance only three or four times a year,
while a complex copier probably may require
more frequent attention. During these calls, the
engineer inspects the machine for unusual wear
and replaces any worn or broken parts. Then
the machine is cleaned, oiled, and adjusted to
ensure peak operating efficiency and to prevent
future breakdowns. The engineer also may ad­
vise machine operators how to use the equip­
ment more efficiently and how to spot a prob­
lem in its early stages.
Despite frequent maintenance, business ma­
chines do occasionally malfunction. When no­
tified of a breakdown, a field engineer promptly
goes to the customer’s place of business, exam­
ines the machine, and determines the cause of
the malfuction. Once the problem has been

isolated, repairs can be made. Minor repairs
generally can be made on the spot since most
repairers carry a complete line of repair parts;
more serious repairs, however, may require that
a component or the entire machine be taken to
the repair shop.
Office machine repairers generally specialize
in one type of machine. Those employed by
manufacturing companies or dealers usually
are familiar only with the brand produced or
sold by their employer. Repairers who work for
small independent repair shops must be able to
work on equipment from several different man­
ufacturers.
Repairers use common handtools, such as
screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches, as well as
other tools especially designed to fit certain
kinds of business machines. In addition, they
use meters, oscilloscopes, and other types of
test equipment to check for malfunctions in
electronic circuits.

Working Conditions
Servicing office machines is cleaner and less
strenuous than the work in most other mechan­
ical trades. Repairers generally wear business
clothes and do most of their work in the custom­
er’s office.
Workers travel a great deal because they usu­
ally visit a number of customers each workday.
They generally use their own cars and are reim­
bursed on a mileage basis. Major manufac­
turers usually provide vehicles for their re­
pairers. Injuries are uncommon.

Employment
Office machine repairers held about 56,000
jobs in 1982. Most worked on typewriters, cal­
culators, copiers, and duplicators. Others serv­
iced proof machines in banks, accountingbookkeeping machines, cash registers, and

Related Occupations
Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are
qualities that are needed in musical instrument
repair. Other workers who possess these traits
are radio and television service repairers, coin
machine repairers, pinsetter mechanics, house­
hold appliance repairers, instrument repairers,
and office machine repairers.

Sources of Additional Information
Details about job opportunities may be avail­
able from local music instrument dealers and
repair shops.
For general information about piano techni­
cians and a list of schools offering courses in
piano technology, write to:
Piano Technicians Guild, 113 Dexter Ave. N., Seat­
tle, Wash. 98109.

For general information on musical instru­
ment repair, write to:
Allied Music Corporation, P.O. Box 288, Elkhom,
Wise. 53121.
National Association of Professional Band Instru­
ment Repair Technicians (NAPBIRT), P.O. Box 51,
Normal, 111. 61761.




Much of the office machine repairer’s time is spent doing preventive maintenance.

Mechanics and Repairers/283
postage and mailing equipment. A small
number repaired dictating machines.
About 3 out of 4 repairers work for firms that
sell and service business machines. The re­
mainder work for equipment manufacturers,
independent repair shops, and for organizations
large enough to employ their own staff of full­
time repairers.
Office machine repairers work throughout
the country. Even relatively small communities
usually have at least one or two repair shops.
Most repairers, however, work in large cities.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
The amount of formal education required for
entry jobs for office machine repairers varies.
Some employers hire applicants with a high
school education, while many others require at
least 1 year of technical training in basic elec­
tricity or electronics. Employers agree that
electronics training received in the Armed
Forces is valuable.
A large proportion of job openings for office
machine repairers are filled by experienced
workers who transfer from other occupations,
most probably from a related job where they
serviced mechanical and electronic equipment.
Applicants for entry jobs may have to pass
tests that measure mechanical aptitude, knowl­
edge of electricity or electronics, manual dex­
terity, and general intelligence. Good eyesight,
including color vision, is needed to inspect and
work on small, delicate parts. Persons consider­
ing this type of work should have good hearing
to detect malfunctions which may be revealed
by sound.
Employers seek applicants who have a pleas­
ant, cooperative manner. Because most ma­
chine servicing is done in customers’ offices,
the ability to work without interrupting the of­
fice routine is very important. A neat ap­
pearance and the ability to communicate effec­
tively are essential.
Office machine repairers must be trustworthy
because they sometimes are exposed to large
sums of money and other valuables in banks and
offices. Some employers require that they be
bonded. They must work without direct super­
vision and must be able to set up maintenance
schedules for their customers’ equipment and
arrange their own schedules so that they can
meet service deadlines and also handle emer­
gency repairs.
Trainees who work in a manufacturer’s
branch office or for a franchised dealer usually
attend a school sponsored by the manufacturer.
Training programs at company schools usually




last several weeks to several months, depending
on the type of machine the repairer will service.
Trainees then receive from 1 to 3 years of prac­
tical experience and on-the-job training before
they become fully qualified repairers. These
workers generally learn to service only the
company’s line of equipment.
Independent repair shops usually offer less
formal training, consisting of a self-study
course plus on-the-job instruction under the
supervision of an experienced repairer. Because
small repair shops usually do not specialize in
the more sophisticated types of equipment,
their repairers are expected to be familiar with
the more common machines produced by many
manufacturers. For example, office machine re­
pairers in small shops should be able to repair
several different makes of typewriters, adding
machines, and calculators.
Office machine repairers frequently attend
training seminars sponsored by equipment
manufacturers for special instruction in new
business machines. They also are encouraged
to broaden their technical knowledge during
nonworking hours. Many companies pay the
repairer’s tuition for work-related courses in
college and technical schools.
Because of their familiarity with equipment,
office machine repairers are particularly well
qualified to advance to sales jobs as manufac­
turers’ sales workers. Repairers who show
management abilities also may become service
managers or supervisors. Experienced re­
pairers sometimes open their own repair shops;
those who work in manufacturers’ branch of­
fices may become independent dealers or buy
sales franchises from the company.

Job Outlook
Employment of office machine repairers is ex­
pected to grow much faster than the average for
all occupations through the 1990’s, as business
and government buy more machines to handle a
growing volume of paperwork. Most job open­
ings will arise from the need to replace experi­
enced repairers who transfer to other occupa­
tions—such as computer service technician or
manufacturer’s sales worker—retire, or stop
working for other reasons.
Employment opportunities for qualified be­
ginners are expected to be excellent. In recent
years, many technical changes have occurred in
business machines. Electronic calculating ma­
chines have replaced mechanical models, for
example, and electronic cash registers are re­
placing mechanical registers. Because of the
greater use of such equipment, opportunities

w ill be particularly favorable for repairers w h o
have training in electro n ics.

Office machine repairers have steadier em­
ployment than many other skilled workers. Of­
fice machines must be maintained even when
business slackens, since records must be kept,
correspondence processed, and statistical re­
ports prepared.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of full-time office ma­
chine repairers were about $370 in 1982; the
middle 50 percent earned between $280 and
$400. Ten percent earned less than $200, and 10
percent earned more than $550.
In 1982, trainees started at about $180 to
$290 a week, according to the limited informa­
tion available. Even during training, salaries
often are increased as workers advance to more
complicated assignments. People who have
previous electronics training in the Armed
Forces or civilian technical schools generally
receive somewhat higher beginning wages than
high school graduates.
Experienced repairers earned from $300 to
$380 a week, while highly skilled specialists
earned from $400 to $550. Repairers who can
work on more than one type of equipment may
earn substantially more than those who are fa­
miliar with only one type of machine.
In many areas, earnings for office machine
repairers are comparable to those of computer
service technicians with similar skills, respon­
sibilities, and experience. (See the statement on
computer sevice technicians, a closely related
occupation, elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Related Occupations
Other workers who service complicated elec­
tronic and mechanical equipment include ap­
pliance repairers, automotive electricians,
computer service technicians, electronic organ
technicians, instrument repairers, radio re­
pairers, radar mechanics, and television service
technicians.

Sources of Additional Information
For m ore d etails about jo b op p ortu n ities, c o n ­
tact lo ca l firm s that m anu factu re, sell and serv­
ice b u sin ess m ach in es and the lo ca l o ffice o f the
State em p loym en t se r v ic e. T h e State depart­
m ent o f ed u cation in you r State capital can
furnish in form ation abou t approved tech n ical
institu tes, ju n ior c o lle g e s , and other in stitu ­
tion s offerin g p o stsecon d ary training in b asic
e lectro n ics. For gen eral in form ation about the
w ork o f office m ach in e repairers, contact:
Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturer’s
Association, 311 First St. NW., Washington, D.C.

20001.

284/Occupational Outlook Handbook
OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS
Projected growth
1982-95

Title

Definition

Automobile repairservice estimators

Inspect and test automobiles and trucks to determine the need and
cost of repairs.

11,000

Faster than average

Bicycle repairers

Repair and service bicycles, using hand tools.

14,000

About as fast as
average

Car repairers,
railroad

Repair and rebuild railway freight cars, tank cars, or locomotives,
following Federal and company regulations and specifications, and
using hand tools, welding equipment, powertools, and measuring
instruments.

24,000

Expected to decline

Electric motor
repairers

Repair electric motors, generators and accessory equipment, such as
starting devices and switches, using hand tools, power tools,
precision gages, and electrical test instruments. Disassemble motors
and test armatures and other parts for wear. Rewind armatures,
stators, and field coils. May be designated according to parts
repaired as Stator Repairers; Coil Winders, etc.

19,000

Faster than average

Instrument
repairers

Install, repair, maintain, and adjust indicating, recording,
telemetering, and controlling instruments used to measure and
control variables such as pressure, flow, temperature, motion, force,
and chemical composition.

41,000

About as fast as
average

Locksmiths

Repair and open locks, make keys, and change lock combinations,
using hand tools and special equipment.

13,000

Faster than average

Maintenance
repairers, general
utility

Perform work involving two or more maintenance skills to keep the
machines, and mechanical equipment and structures of
establishments in repair. This occupation is generally found in small
establishment repairing, carpentry and electrical work, as well as
planning and laying out of work relating to repairs; repairing
electrical and mechanical equipment; installing, alining and
balancing new equipment; and repairing buildings, floors, or stairs.

694,000

Managers,
automobile service
departments

Coordinate and supervise activities of workers in one or more service
departments of automobile accessories sales-service establishments;
assist sales personnel in adjusting customers’ service complaints;
hire, transfer, and discharge workers; supervise activities of workers
engaged in testing new equipment and recommend purchase, or
rejection of equipment; determine work standards and evaluate
workers’ performance.

54,000

Faster than average

Oilers

Oil and grease moving parts of friction surfaces of mechanical
equipment, such as shaft and moving bearings, sprockets, drive
chains, gears, and pulleys, according to specified procedures and oral
instructions.

36,000

About as fast as
average

Watchmakers

Repair, clean, and adjust mechanisms of instruments such as
watches, time clocks and timing switches, using hand tools and
measuring instruments.

14,000

Expected to decline




Employment
1982

About as fast as
average

Construction and Extractive Occupations
Construction and extractive workers make up
two of the most important groups of occupa­
tions in the Nation’s labor force. Construction
workers build the houses that shelter the popu­
lation and construct the factories in which the
Nation’s goods are produced. Extractive work­
ers mine the fuels and raw materials needed in
all industries.
Construction, mining, and oil and gas drill­
ing are complex operations that require workers
with many kinds of skills. Construction and
extractive workers accomplish their tasks using
tools, machinery, and materials that frequently
are peculiar to their occupation. Brickmasons
work with mortar, trowels, and brick. Blasters
shatter ores and stone with explosives. Al­
though construction and extractive workers use
laborsaving machinery and tools, the work in
most of these occupations is physically de­
manding.
Workers in the construction and extractive
occupations usually acquire their skills through
on-the-job training. Although many employers
prefer to hire high school graduates, physical
strength, stamina, and mechanical aptitude
often are as important as an applicant’s level of
education. New workers learn by doing the job
under the supervision of experienced workers.
For some occupations, new workers also re­
ceive classroom instruction in related topics.




Electricians, for example, learn electrical theo­
ry, mathematics, and blueprint reading, and
coal miners take safety classes. The type and
length of training vary among the occupations.
Union-management contracts frequently set the
rules governing opportunities for training and
entry into the construction and extractive oc­

cupations. Many construction workers, for ex­
ample, learn their trades through appren­
ticeships administered by union-management
committees.
The occupational statements in this chapter
describe in detail the work, training, and job
outlook for 15 construction occupations.

Oil and gas drilling and special trade contractors account for more
than half of all workers in mining and construction.
Employment, 1982 (millions)
0

.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Mining

Metal mining
Coal mining
Oil and gas drilling
Nonmetallic mining
Construction

General building contractors
Heavy construction contractors
Special trade contractors

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

285

Construction Occupations
Construction craft workers represent the largest
group of skilled workers in the Nation’s labor
force. The construction trades offer especially
good opportunities for young people who are
not planning to go to college, but who are
willing to spend several years learning a skilled
occupation. Construction workers can find job
opportunities in all parts of the country. Their
hourly wage rates generally are much higher
than those of most other manual workers. Con­
struction trade workers with business ability
have greater opportunities to open their own
businesses than workers in most other skilled
occupations.

What are the Construction TVades?
Workers in the construction trades build, repair,
and modernize homes and all kinds of build­
ings. They also work on a variety of other pro­
jects including airports, mass transportation
systems, and recreation facilities.
Construction workers may be divided into
three categories: Structural, finishing, and me­
chanical. Structrual workers include: Brick­
layers, carpenters, cement masons, iron­
workers, construction machinery operators,
stonemasons, and boilerm akers, finishing
workers include: Floor covering installers,
glaziers, insulation workers, marble setters,
painters, paperhangers, plasterers, roofers, and
terrazzo workers; and mechanical workers in­
clude: Electricians, pipefitters, plumbers,
sheet-metal workers, and millwrights.
Most construction trades are described indi­
vidually later in this section. Boilermakers and
millwrights are described elsewhere in the
Handbook.

Working Conditions
Construction work frequently requires pro­
longed standing, bending, and working in
cramped quarters. Exposure to weather is com­
mon since much of the work is done outdoors or
in partially enclosed structures. Many people
prefer construction work because it permits
them to be outdoors.
Construction workers may need to work with
sharp tools, amidst a clutter of materials. In
addition, they often work on scaffolding. As a
result, they are more prone to injuries than
workers in other jobs. Indeed, the construction
industry has the highest injury and illness rate
of all industries. However, employers in­
creasingly are emphasizing safe working con­
ditions and stressing safe work habits—prac­
tices that reduce the risk of injuries. “Hard
hats,” steel-toed shoes, safety belts, and nets
are some of the devices that help reduce risk.

Employment
Construction craft workers held 3.1 million
jobs in 1982, about 250,000 fewer than in 1980.

286



This define reflects the severe dropoff in con­
struction activity during the 1981-82 recession.
Most construction workers are employed by
contractors in the construction industry. The
vast majority of construction contractors em­
ploy fewer than 10 people. A few large con­
tractors, however, employ thousands. Large
numbers of construction trade workers are em­
ployed in other industries, such as mining and
manufacturing, mainly to do maintenance and
repair work. Chemical manufacturers, for ex­
ample, need plumbers and pipefitters to main­
tain the complex pipe networks in their process­
ing plants. Government agencies employ con­
struction trade workers to maintain highways,
buildings, and sanitation systems.
About 1 out of 4 construction craft workers is
self-employed and contracts with homeowners
and businesses for small jobs. Self-employ­
ment is most common in paperhanging, paint­
ing, and floor covering work, but it also is
found in other trades.
Employment in the construction trades is dis­
tributed geographically in much the same way
as the Nation’s population. Thus, construction
workers are concentrated in industrialized and
highly populated areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most training authorities recommend formal
apprenticeship training as the best way to ac­
quire the all-round skills of the construction
trades. Apprenticeship is a prescribed period of
on-the-job training, supplemented by related
classroom instruction that is designed to famil­
iarize apprentices with the materials, tools, and
principles of their trade. Formal apprenticeship
agreements are registered with a State appren­
ticeship agency or the U.S. Department of La­
bor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training.
Apprentices generally must be at least 18
years old and in good physical condition. A
high school or vocational school education or
its equivalent, including courses in mathe­
matics and mechanical drawing, is desirable.
Courses in construction trades, such as carpen­
try and electricity, also are recommended.
Often, applicants are given tests to determine
their aptitudes.
The formal apprenticeship agreement gener­
ally calls for 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training
and 144 hours or more of related classroom
instruction each year. On the job, most instruc­
tion is given by a particular craft worker to
whom the apprentice is assigned.
Classroom instruction varies among con­
struction trades, but usually includes courses
such as history of the trade, characteristics of
materials, shop mathematics, and basic con­
struction principles.

In most communities, apprenticeship pro­
grams are supervised by joint apprenticeship
committees composed of local employers and
local union representatives. The committee de­
termines the need for apprentices in the com­
munity and establishes minimum standards of
education, experience, and training. Whenever
an employer cannot provide all-round instruc­
tion or relatively continuous employment, the
committee transfers the apprentice to another
employer. Where specialization by contractors
is extensive—for instance, in electrical work—
customarily the committee rotates apprentices
among several contractors at intervals of about
6 months.
In areas where these committees have not
been established, the apprenticeship agreement
is solely between the apprentice and the em­
ployer or employer group. Many people have
received valuable training under these pro­
grams, but they have some disadvantages. No
committee is available to supervise the training
offered and settle differences over the terms and
conditions of training. What the apprentice
learns depends largely on the employer’s busi­
ness prospects and policies. If the employer
lacks continuous work or does only a restricted
type of work, the apprentice may find it difficult
to develop all-round skills.
Although apprenticeship provides the most
thorough training, many people acquire con­
struction skills informally by working as la­
borers and helpers and observing experienced
craft workers. Some acquire skills by attending
vocational or trade schools or by taking corre­
spondence school courses.
In many localities, craft workers—most
commonly electricians and plumbers—are re­
quired to have a license. To qualify for these
licenses, they must pass an examination to dem­
onstrate a broad knowledge of the job and of
State and local regulations.
Since construction requires a team effort, the
ability to work well with supervisors, peers,
and subordinates is vital. Manual dexterity is
necessary to work quickly and accurately with
trowels, hammers, chisels, saws, drills, and
other tools and machinery. The ability to solve
mechanical and structural problems is impor­
tant for many highly skilled construction
trades. With guidelines from an architect, for
example, a plumber might have to plan the
layout of a plumbing system for a kitchen or
bathroom to make the best use of limited mate­
rials and space. Precision, an eye for detail, the
ability to picture objects from blueprints, and
color discrimination also are vital in many con­
struction trades.
Construction craft workers may advance in a
number of ways. Many become supervisors. In
most localities, small jobs are run by “working
supervisors” who work along with members of

Construction and Extractive Occupations/287

The unemployment rate in construction generally is about twice that
in all industries combined.

Percent unemployed1

_ l____ I
____ I
____ L

'

'

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

'Unemployment rates for wage and salary workers
SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

their crews. On larger jobs, the supervisors do
only supervisory work. Craft workers also can
become estimators for contractors. In these
jobs, they estimate material requirements and
labor costs to enable the contractor to bid on a
particular project. Some craft workers advance
to jobs as superintendents on large projects.
Others become instructors in trade and voca­
tional schools or sales representatives for build­
ing supply companies. A large number of craft
workers have become contractors in the homebuilding field.
Starting a small contract construction busi­
ness is easier than starting a small business in
many other industries. Only a moderate finan­
cial investment usually is needed to conduct a
substantial business from o n e ’s home.
However, the field is very competitive, and the
rate of business failure is high among small
contractors.

pair on highway systems, dams, bridges, and
similar projects.
The increase in employment is not expected
to be as great as the expansion in construction
activity. Continued technological develop­
ments in construction methods, tools and
equipment, and materials will raise output per
worker. One important development is the
growing use of prefabricated units at the job
site. For example, preassembled walls and
modules can be lifted into place in one opera­
tion.
The rates of employment growth will differ
among the various construction trades. Growth
is expected to be relatively fast for construction
machinery operators and cement masons, and
relatively slow for painters and paperhangers.
Since construction is sensitive to changes in the
Nation’s economy, employment may fluctuate
from year to year. Construction trade workers
can experience periods of unemployment dur­
ing downturns in construction activity.

Job Outlook

The average hourly union wage rate for all
construction trades was about $14.30 in
mid-1982, according to limited available infor­
mation. The hourly wage rate for all nonsupervisory and production workers in private indus­
try, except farming, averaged $7.67. Wage

Employment in the construction trades is ex­
pected to increase faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Some of
this growth reflects a rebounding of employ­
ment to prerecession levels. Despite rapid
growth, most job openings will result each year
from the need to replace experienced workers
who transfer to other jobs, retire, or leave the
labor force for other reasons. Increases in popu­
lation and the number of households are ex­
pected to create pressure for new housing. Mi­
gration to the South and West may create
pressure in those regions for housing and also
for hospitals, schools, recreation facilities, and
other structures. Among other factors that will
stimulate construction activity are higher levels
of personal income and a rise in spending for
new industrial plants and equipment. Addi­
tional money will be spent to build and renovate
mass transit systems and to develop and con­
struct powerplants. Also, the demand will grow
for alteration and modernization of existing
structures, as well as for maintenance and re­



Earnings

Table 1. Average hourly union wage rates for
selected construction occupations, 1982

Occupation
Electricians.............................................
Pipefitters ...............................................
Plumbers..................................................
Carpenters .............................................
Structural ironworkers ..........................
Bricklayers .............................................
Insulation workers ................................
Painters....................................................
Cement finishers ..................................
Roofers, composition . ..........................
Plasterers ...............................................
Roofers, slate and tile ..........................
SOURCE: Bureau of Labor S a i t c .
ttsis

Hourly rate
$16.00
15.75
15.50
15.00
14.90
14.80
14.75
14.50
14.25
14.15
14.05
13.70

rates for apprentices and other trainees usually
start at 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced
workers and increase at 6-month to 1-year inter­
vals until the full rates are achieved upon the
completion of training. The accompanying ta­
ble shows union hourly averages for selected
construction trades in 1982.
Wage rates generally were highest in the
West and lowest in the South. Except for a few
trades, such as electricians, and plumbers and
pipefitters, yearly earnings for experienced
workers and their apprentices generally are
lower than hourly rates would indicate because
poor weather and fluctuations in construction
activity may adversely affect the number of
hours they can work a year.
Traditionally, winter is the slack period for
construction activity, particularly in colder re­
gions. Some workers, such as laborers and
roofers, may not work for several weeks.
However, not only cold but also rain may
slow—even stop—work on a construction pro­
ject. Also, because construction trades depend
on one another—particularly on large pro­
jects—work delays or strikes in one trade can
delay or stop the work of others. The accom­
panying chart shows that the unemployment
rate in the construction industry is about twice
that in the Nation as a whole.
A large proportion of construction workers
are members of trade unions affiliated with the
Building and Construction Trades Department
of the AFL-CIO.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about opportunities for appren­
ticeship or other training can be obtained from
local construction firms and employer associa­
tions, the local office of the State employment
service or State apprenticeship agency, or the
local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and
Training, U.S. Department of Labor. Many ap­
prenticeship programs are supervised by local
union-management committees. In these in­
stances, an apprentice applicant may apply di­
rectly to the coordinator of the committee.
For additional information on jobs in the
construction trades, contact:
Associated General Contractors of America, Inc.,
1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.
Building and Construction Trades Department, AFLCIO, 815 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.
National Association of Home Builders, 15th and M
Sts. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

For the names of labor organizations and
trade associations concerned with specific
trades, see the discussions of individual build­
ing trades that follow.

Bricklayers and
Stonemasons
(D.O.T. 861.361-014, .381-010, -014, -018, -022, -026,
-030, -038, -042, .684-010, and -014)

Nature of the Work
Bricklayers and stonemasons work in closely
related trades, each producing attractive, dura­
ble surfaces. Bricklayers build walls, floors,

288/Occupational Outlook Handbook
partitions, fireplaces, and other structures with
brick, cinder or concrete block, and other ma­
sonry materials. They also install firebrick lin­
ings in industrial furnaces.
Stonemasons build stone walls as well as set
stone exteriors and floors. They work with two
types of stone—natural cut, such as marble,
granite, and limestone; and artificial stone
made from cement, marble chips, or other ma­
sonry materials. Because stone is expensive,
stonemasons work mostly on high-cost build­
ings, such as churches, hotels, and offices.
In putting up a wall, bricklayers use plumblines and a level to build the comers. They then
stretch a line from comer to comer to guide
each course or layer of brick. Bricklayers
spread a bed of mortar (cement mixture) with a
trowel (a flat, metal tool with a handle), place
the brick on the mortar bed, and then tap it into
place. As blueprints specify, they cut bricks
with a hammer and chisel to fit around win­
dows, doors, and other openings. Mortar joints
are finished with jointing tools to leave a neat
and uniform appearance. Although bricklayers
generally use steel supports at window and door
openings, they often build brick arches that
enhance the beauty of the brickwork.
Bricklayers are assisted by hod carriers, or
helpers, who supply bricks and other materials,
mix mortar, and set up and move scaffolding.
(See the statement on construction laborers that
appears elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Stonemasons often work from a set of draw­
ings in which each stone has been numbered for
identification. Helpers may locate and bring the
prenumbered stones to the masons. A derrick
operator using a hoist may be needed to lift
large pieces into place.
When building a stone wall, masons set the
first course of stones into a shallow bed of
mortar. They align the stones with plumblines
and levels, and adjust them into position with a
hard rubber mallet. Masons build the wall by

A bricklayer applies a brick face or veneer.



alternating layers of mortar and stone. As the
work progresses, they fill the joints between
stones and use a pointed metal tool, called a
tuck pointer, to smooth the mortar to an attrac­
tive finish. To hold large stones in place, stone­
masons attach brackets to the stone and weld or
bolt them to anchors within the wall. Finally,
masons wash the stone with a cleansing solu­
tion to remove stains and dry mortar.
When setting stone floors, which often con­
sist of large and heavy pieces of stone, masons
first trowel a layer of damp mortar over the
surface to be covered. Using crowbars and hard
rubber mallets for aligning and leveling, they
then set the stone in the mortar bed. To finish,
workers fill the joints and wash the stone slabs.
To make various shapes and sizes, masons
use a special hammer to cut each stone along
the grain. Valuable pieces often are cut with a
saw that has a diamond blade.
Setting marble is very much like setting
stone. For marble floors, and for walls where
the holding strength of mortar alone is suffi­
cient, masons often handset each marble piece
into the mortar and leave the face of the marble
exposed. For heavy pieces, workers employ a
hoist to lift and position the marble. To secure
heavy pieces on walls, masons use bolts embed­
ded into the marble slabs which are then at­
tached to brackets in the structure. Once the
marble pieces are positioned and secured,
workers finish the joints and clean the marble’s
surface.
In addition to construction, masons do repair
work. They repair imperfections and cracks in
marble with mortar prepared and finished to
match the marble. They also polish and replace
marble. Masons use a special saw to cut large
pieces of marble.
Refractory repairers or masons are brick­
layers who install firebrick and refractory tile in
high temperature boilers, furnaces, cupolas,

ladles, and soaking pits in industrial establish­
ments. Many work in steel mills, where molten
materials flow on refractory beds from furnaces
to rolling machines.

Working Conditions
Bricklayers and stonemasons usually work out­
doors. They stand, kneel, and bend for long
periods and may have to lift heavy materials to
complete a job. They also are subject to injuries
from tools and falls from scaffolds. Despite the
physical demands and general hazards of con­
struction, however, these workers are less likely
to be injured than other construction workers.

Employment
Bricklayers and stonemasons held about
124,000 jobs in 1982, about 30,000 fewer than
in 1980. This decline reflects the severe dropoff
in construction activity during the 1981-82 re­
cession. The vast majority were bricklayers.
Workers in these crafts are employed primarily
by special trade, building, or general con­
tractors. Some work in industrial plants. A rela­
tively small number of bricklayers work for
government agencies or businesses that do their
own construction and alteration.
Workers in these trades are employed
throughout the country but, like the general
population, are concentrated in metropolitan
areas. Many masons are qualified to work with
a variety of materials and, in areas that are too
small to have a demand for full-time stone­
masons, bricklayers also will install stone and
marble.
About 1out of 4 bricklayers and stonemasons
is self-employed. Many of the self-employed
specialize in contracting on small jobs such as
patios, walks, and fireplaces.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most bricklayers and some stonemasons pick
up their skills informally by working as helpers
or hod carriers and by observing and learning
from experienced workers. The remainder
learn their skills through apprenticeship, which
generally provides the most thorough training.
Individuals who learn the trade informally
usually start as laborers. They carry materials,
move scaffolds, and mix mortar. When the op­
portunity occurs, they are taught to spread mor­
tar, lay brick, or set stone or marble. As they
gain experience, they make the transition to
full-fledged craft workers. The learning period
generally lasts much longer than an appren­
ticeship program, however.
Apprenticeships for bricklayers and stone­
masons usually are sponsored by local con­
tractors or by local union-management com­
mittees. The apprenticeship program requires 3
years of on-the-job training in addition to 144
hours of classroom instruction each year in sub­
jects such as blueprint reading, mathematics,
layout work, and sketching. Apprentices learn
the general applications of brick, stone, and
marble.
Apprentices often start by working with la­
borers carrying materials, mixing mortar, and
building scaffolds. This period generally lasts
about a month and familiarizes them with job

Construction and Extractive Occupations/289
routines and materials. Next, they learn to lay,
align, and join brick. Apprentices often learn to
work with stone, marble, and concrete. Subse­
quently, they may be certified to work with
more than one masonry material.
Applicants for apprenticeships must be at
least 17 years old. Apprentice and helper appli­
cants should be in good physical condition. A
high school or vocational school education is
preferable, as are courses in mathematics, me­
chanical drawing, and shop.
Experienced workers can advance to super­
visory positions or become estimators. They
also can open contracting businesses of their
own.

Job Outlook
Employment of bricklayers is expected to grow
faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s, as population and busi­
ness growth create a need for new homes, facto­
ries, offices, and other structures. Stimulating
this growth will be the increasing use of brick
for decorative work on building fronts and in
lobbies and foyers. The use of brick is growing,
particularly for interior load-bearing walls and
sidewalks, and will add to overall employment
needs. Employment of bricklayers who spe­
cialize in refractory repair may grow more
slowly because the primary metal industries,
where these workers are concentrated, are not
expected to grow as fast as other sectors.
Employment of stonemasons is expected to
grow more slowly than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. Stone, in­
cluding marble, has lost some popularity as a
building material because it has become much
more expensive than materials such as con­
crete.
Although many jobs will be created by an
increase in demand for these workers, most
openings will result from the need to replace
bricklayers and stonemasons who retire, trans­
fer to other occupations, or leave the trades for
other reasons.
Employment of bricklayers and stone­
masons, like that of many other construction
workers, is sensitive to changes in the econo­
my, particularly changes in the level of con­
struction of homes, factories, and other build­
ings. Workers in these trades can experience
periods of unemployment, particularly when
the level of construction activity drops.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for bricklayers and
stonemasons were about $395 in 1982. The
middle 50 percent earned between $300 and
$455 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less
than $255, and the highest 10 percent earned
more than $550 weekly.
Hourly union wage rates in metropolitan
areas were $14.80 for bricklayers, and $14.40
for stonemasons in mid-1982. The average
wage for all nonsupervisory and production
workers in private industry, except farming,
was $7.67 an hour. Limited information indi­
cates that nonunion rates for experienced work­
ers were less than union rates. However, yearly
earnings for workers in these trades generally



are lower than hourly rates would indicate be­
cause poor weather and fluctuations in con­
struction activity adversely affect the annual
number of hours they can work.
In each trade, apprentices or helpers start at
about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experi­
enced workers. The rate increases as they gain
experience.
A large number of bricklayers and stone­
masons are members of the International Union
of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen.

Related Occupations
Bricklayers and stonemasons combine a thor­
ough knowledge of brick, stone, and marble
with manual skill to erect very attractive yet
highly durable structures. Other occupations
involving similar skills include cement ma­
sons, plasterers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters.

Sources of Additional Information
For details about apprenticeships or other work
opportunities in these trades, contact local
bricklaying, stonemasonry, or marble setting
contractors; a local of the union listed above; a
local joint union-management apprenticeship
committee; or the nearest office of the State
employment service or State apprenticeship
agency.
For general information about the work of
either bricklayers or stonemasons, contact:
International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craft­
smen, International Masonry Institute Appren­
ticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington,
D.C. 20005.

Information about the work of bricklayers
also may be obtained from:
Associated General Contractors of America, Inc.,
1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.
Brick Institute of America, 1750 Old Meadow Rd.,
McLean, Va. 22102.

floors, while one who is employed by a general
building contractor may build wall frames, put
in insulation, and install paneling. Although
each carpentry task is somewhat different, most
tasks involve the following steps.
Working from blueprints, instructions from
supervisors, or both, carpenters first do the
layout—measuring and marking the building
materials. Local building codes often dictate
where certain materials can arid cannot be used.
Carpenters have to know these requirements.
Carpenters cut and shape materials, such as
wood, plastic, fiberglass, and dry wall with
hand and power tools, such as chisels, planes,
saws, and drills. Carpenters then join the mate­
rials with nails, screws, or glue. They check the
accuracy of their work with levels, rulers, and
framing squares. To complete a task, carpenters
may work in teams or be assisted by a helper.
In all assignments, carpenters must work
quickly and economically. Taking too much
time can delay other steps in the construction.
Wasting material can cut the employer’s profit.
A small proportion of carpenters are em­
ployed outside the construction industry in in­
stallation and maintenance work. For example,
school districts employ carpenters to replace
glass, ceiling tiles, and doors, and to repair
desks, cabinets, and other furniture. In facto­
ries, carpenters may install machinery. (Mill­
wrights who usually install machinery are dis­
cussed elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Working Conditions
As in other building trades, the work is active
and sometimes strenuous. Prolonged standing,
climbing, and squatting often are necessary.
Carpenters risk injury from slips or falls, from
contact with sharp or rough materials, and from
the use of sharp tools and power equipment.
Many carpenters work outdoors.
Some carpenters change employers each
time they finish a construction job. Others alter­
nate between working for a contractor and
working for themselves on small jobs.

Carpenters
(D.O.T. 860.281-010 through 860.381-054, 860.381-066
through 860.664-010, 860.681-010 through 860.684-014,
863.684-010, 869.361-018,.381-010, and -034)

Nature of the Work
Almost all construction projects employ car­
penters, the largest group of building trade
workers. Carpenters perform a variety of jobs.
In home building, for example, carpenters
build the house framework, erect the walls and
roof, and install doors, windows, flooring, cab­
inets, wood paneling and molding, and ceiling
tiles. Other construction jobs done by carpen­
ters include building wooden forms and chutes
for placing concrete, erecting scaffolding, and
bi Ming wooden bridges, piers, trestles, tunnel
supports, temporary shelters, and cofferdams.
The duties of carpenters vary by type of con­
struction, type of company, skill of the car­
penter, and size of the community. A carpenter
employed by a special trade contractor, for ex­
ample, may specialize in laying hardwood

Job opportunities for carpenters depend on the
level of construction activity.

290/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Employment
Carpenters held about 863,000 jobs in 1982,
nearly 133,000 fewer than in 1980. This decline
reflects the severe dropoff in construction ac­
tivity during the 1981-82 recession. Most car­
penters work for contractors who construct,
remodel, or repair buildings and other struc­
tures. Some do construction and maintenance
for government agencies, utility companies,
and manufacturing firms. About 1 out of 3 are
self-employed.
Because of their versatility, carpenters are
much less concentrated geographically than
any other construction occupations.

IVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Carpenters learn their trade through on-the-job
training, and through formal training pro­
grams. Many pick up skills informally by
working under the supervision of experienced
workers. Some acquire skills through voca­
tional education. Others participate in employ­
er training programs or apprenticeships.
Most training authorities recommend the
completion of an apprenticeship as the best way
to learn carpentry. Because the number of ap­
prenticeship programs is limited, however, a
small portion of carpenters learn their trade
through apprenticeship.
Apprenticeship programs are administered
by local chapters of the Associated Builders and
Contractors, Inc., and local chapters of the As­
sociated General Contractors, as well as by
local joint union-management committees of
the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and
Joiners, and the Associated General Con­
tractors, or the National Association of Home
Builders. The programs consist of on-the-job
training and related classroom instruction. Ap­
prenticeship applicants generally must be 17
years old and meet local requirements. For ex­
ample, some locals give tests designed to mea­
sure an applicant’s aptitude for carpentry. The

length of the program, usually about 3 to 4
years, varies with the apprentice’s skill.
On the job, apprentices learn elementary
structural design and become familiar with
common carpentry jobs such as form building,
rough framing, and outside and inside finish­
ing. They also learn to use the tools, machines,
equipment, and materials of the trade. Appren­
tices receive classroom instruction in safety,
first aid, blueprint reading and freehand sketch­
ing, basic mathematics, and different carpentry
techniques. Both in the classroom and on the
job, they learn the relationship between carpen­
try and the other building trades.
Informal on-the-job training usually is less
thorough than an apprenticeship. The degree of
training and supervision often depends on the
size of the employing firm. A small contractor
who specializes in homebuilding may provide
training in only one area—rough framing, for
example. In contrast, a large general contractor
may provide training in several carpentry skills.
A high school or vocational school education
is desirable, including courses in carpentry,
shop, mechanical drawing, and general mathe­
matics. Manual dexterity, good physical con­
dition, and a good sense of balance are impor­
tant. The ability to solve arithmetic problems
quickly and accurately and to work closely with
others is helpful.
Carpenters may advance to supervisors or
general construction supervisors. Carpenters
usually have greater opportunities than most
other construction workers to become general
construction supervisors because they learn
more about the entire construction process in
their work. Carpenters with sufficient money
and managerial skill can become independent
contractors.

Job Outlook
Employment of carpenters is expected to in­
crease as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Some of this growth
reflects a rebounding of employment to pre­

By 1995, employment of carpenters is expected to be only about 10
percent above the pre-recession level.
Employment (thousands)




recession levels. Over the long run, con­
struction activity should increase in response to
increasing demand for new housing and indus­
trial plants, and the need to renovate existing
industrial plants to make them more productive
and energy efficient.
In addition to the jobs resulting from in­
creased demand for carpenters, many openings
will occur as carpenters transfer to other oc­
cupations or leave the labor force. The total
number of job openings for carpenters each
year usually is greater than for other craft oc­
cupations because the occupation is large and
turnover is high. Since there are no strict train­
ing requirements for entry, many people with
limited skills take jobs as carpenters but even­
tually leave the occupation because they find
they dislike the work or cannot find steady em­
ployment.
Although the employment outlook for car­
penters is expected to be good over the long
run, people entering the occupation should ex­
pect to experience periods of unemployment.
This results from the short-term nature of many
construction projects and the cyclical nature of
the construction industry. Building activity de­
pends on many factors—interest rates, avail­
ability of mortgage funds, government spend­
ing, and business investment—that vary with
the state of the economy. During economic
downturns, job openings for carpenters are re­
duced. Carpenters with all-round skills will
have better opportunities than those who can
only do relatively simple, routine types of car­
pentry.
Job opportunities for carpenters also vary by
geographic area. Construction activity parallels
the movement of people and businesses and
reflects differences in local economic condi­
tions. Therefore, the number of job oppor­
tunities in a given year may fluctuate widely
from area to area.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of carpenters who
were not self employed were $340 in 1982.
Weekly earnings for the top 10 percent of all
carpenters were more than $580.
Union wage rates in metropolitan areas for
construction carpenters were about $15.00 an
hour in 1982. In comparison, the average
hourly rate for production and nonsupervisory
\korkers in private industry, except farming,
was $7.67. Annual earnings, however, may be
lower than hourly rates would indicate, because
carpenters lose worktime in bad weather and
when jobs are unavailable. Maintenance car­
penters, who generally have more steady em­
ployment, averaged $11.00 an hour in 1982,
according to a survey of selected metropolitan
areas.
Apprentices usually start at about 50 percent
of the rate paid to experienced carpenters and
receive an increase of about 5 percent every 6
months.
A large proportion of carpenters are mem­
bers of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters
and Joiners of America.

Construction and Extractive Occupations/291
Related Occupations
Carpenters are highly skilled workers who spe­
cialize in construction and repair work with
wood and similar materials. Other skilled con­
struction occupations are bricklayers, cement
masons, electricians, pipefitters, plasterers,
plumbers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about carpentry appren­
ticeships or other work opportunities in this
trade, contact local carpentry contractors, a lo­
cal of the union mentioned above, a local joint
union-contractor apprenticeship committee, or
the nearest office of the State employment serv­
ice or State apprenticeship agency.
For general information about this trade,
contact:
Associated General Contractors of America, Inc.,
1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.
National Association of Home Builders, Manpower
Development and Training Department, 15th and M
St. NW., Washington, D .€ . 20005.
United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of
America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington,
D.C. 20005.
Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 729 15th
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

Cement Masons and
Terrazzo Workers
(D.O.T. 844.364-010, -014, .461-010, .684-010; and
861.381-046, and -050)

Nature of the Work
Cement masons place and finish concrete for
many types of construction projects. The pro­
jects range from small jobs, such as patios and
floors, to huge dams or miles of concrete high­
way. On small projects, a mason, assisted by
one or two laborers, may do all of the masonry
work; on large projects, a crew of several ma­
sons and many laborers may be employed.
Among other tasks, cement masons may color
concrete surfaces, expose aggregate in walls
and sidewalks, or fabricate concrete beams,
columns, and panels.
Terrazzo workers create attractive walkways,
floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble
chips and other fine aggregates on the surface of
finished concrete. However, much of the pre­
liminary work of terrazzo workers is similar to
that of cement masons.
In preparing a site for placing concrete, ce­
ment masons make sure the forms for holding
the concrete are set for the desired pitch and
depth and are properly aligned. Masons direct
the placing of the concrete and supervise la­
borers who use shovels or special tools to
spread the concrete. Masons then guide a
straightedge (a long, straight piece of wood or
metal) back and forth across the top of the forms
to level the freshly poured concrete.
Immediately after leveling the concrete,
masons carefully pass a bull float, a tool about 8



by 48 inches with a long handle, over the sur­
face with sweeping motions which cover
coarser materials and bring a rich mixture of
concrete to the surface.
After floating, masons wait until any excess
water evaporates and the concrete is firm and
workable enough to complete the finishing pro­
cess. Finishers first press an edger gently be­
tween the forms and the concrete and guide it
carefully along the edge and the surface. This
produces slightly rounded edges and helps pre­
vent chipping or cracking. For joints, finishers
use a flat tool that has a smooth ridge protruding
from the center. At specified spacings, workers
make joints or grooves that help control crack­
ing on the surface.
Next, finishers trowel the surface with a
powered trowel or by hand with a float—a
small, smooth, rectangular metal tool—over
the entire surface. Floating embeds the heavier
material deeper into the concrete, removes
most imperfections, and brings the finer mate­
rial—sand and cement—to the surface.
As the final step, masons sweep the concrete
surface back and forth with a trowel to create a
smooth finish. Although powered trowels may
be used for large areas, comers, edges, and
other relatively inaccessible areas must be
finished by hand.
Masons also produce other finishes. For a
coarse, nonskid finish, masons brush the sur­
face with a broom or stiff bristled brush. For a
pebble finish, they embed small gravel chips
into the surface, leaving the tops of the chips
exposed. For a neat appearance, they wash any
excess cement from the exposed chips with a
mild acid solution. For color, they sprinkle on a
dye which they work into the surface with float
and trowel.
On concrete surfaces that will remain ex­
posed after forms are stripped, such a s ,c ol­
umns, ceilings, and wall panels, cement mas­
ons locate and correct any defects. First, they
chisel away high spots and loose concrete, fill
any large indentations with a mortar mixture,
and smooth the surface with a rubbing brick.
Finally, they coat the exposed area with a rich
cement mixture and use either a rubber float or a
coarse cloth to mb the concrete to a uniform
finish.
Some cement masons specialize in laying a
mastic coat (a fine asphalt mixture) over con­
crete, particularly in buildings where soundinsulated or acid-resistant floors are specified.
Cement masons must know their materials
and be familiar with various chemical additives
that speed or slow the setting time. The effects
of heat, cold, and wind on the setting time of
cement must also be considered.
Attractive, marble-chipped terrazzo requires
three layers of materials. First, either cement
masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level
concrete foundation that is 3 to 4 inches deep.
After the forms are removed from the foun­
dation, workers place a l-inch deep mixture of
sandy concrete. Before this layer sets, terrazzo
workers partially embed metal dividing strips
into the concrete wherever there is to be a joint
or change of color in the terrazzo. Workers
make sure the tops of the ferrule strips are level
with one another because they are to become a

network of rigid dividers to separate the dif­
ferent designs and colors of the terrazzo panels.
The strips also help prevent cracks in the
finished terrazzo.
For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend
and pour a fine marble chip mixture that may be
color dyed into each of the panels, then hand
trowel each panel until it is level with the tops of
the ferrule strips. While the mixture is soft,
workers toss additional marble chips of various
colors into each panel. To completely embed
the marble chips, workers roll a lightweight
roller over the entire surface.
When the terrazzo is thoroughly dry, helpers
grind it with a terrazzo grinder (somewhat like a
floor polisher, only much heavier). The surface
is ground until it is even with the tops of the
ferrule strips. Next, slight depressions left by
the grinding are filled with a matching grout
material and hand troweled for a smooth, uni­
form surface. Terrazzo workers then clean, pol­
ish, and seal the dry surface for a rich, lustrous
finish.

Working Conditions
Concrete or terrazzo work is fast paced and
strenuous. Since most finishing is done at floor
level, workers must bend and kneel. Some jobs
are outdoors; however, work generally is halted
during rain or freezing weather. To avoid chem­
ical bums from uncured concrete and sore
knees from frequent kneeling, many workers
wear kneepads. Workers usually wear waterrepellent boots to protect their shoes.

Employment
Cement masons and terrazzo workers held
about 95,000 jobs in 1982; terrazzo workers
accounted for a very small proportion of this
group. This estimate represents about 15,000
fewer jobs than in 1980, a decline that reflects
the severe dropoff in construction activity dur­
ing the 1981-82 recession. Cement masons
work for general contractors who construct pro­
jects such as highways or large buildings, and
for contractors who do only concrete work. A
small number of masons are employed by mu­
nicipal public works departments, public util­
ities, and manufacturing firms that do their own
construction work. Most terrazzo workers
work for special trade contractors who install
decorative floors and wall panels.
About 1 out of 10 cement masons and ter­
razzo workers is self-employed, a smaller pro­
portion than in other building trades. Most selfemployed masons specialize in small jobs, such
as driveways, sidewalks, and patios; most ter­
razzo workers specialize in floors.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Cement masons and terrazzo workers learn
their trades either through on-the-job training
as helpers or through 2- or 3-year appren­
ticeship programs. Many masons first gain ex­
perience as construction laborers.
On-the-job training programs consist of in­
formal instruction from experienced workers in
which helpers learn to use the tools, equipment,
machines, and materials of the trade. They be­
gin with tasks such as edging and jointing and

292/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Association of the United States and Canada, or
to the International Union of Bricklayers and
Allied Craftsmen.

Related Occupations
Cement masons and terrazzo workers combine
skill with knowledge of building materials to
construct buildings, highways, and other struc­
tures. Other occupations involving similar
skills and knowledge include bricklayers, form
builders, marble setters, ironworkers, plas­
terers, stonemasons, and tilesetters.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about apprenticeships and
work opportunities, contact local cement
finishing contractors; locals of unions pre­
viously mentioned; a local joint union-manage­
ment apprenticeship committee; or the nearest
office of the State employment service or ap­
prenticeship agency.
For general information about cement ma­
sons and terrazzo workers, contact;

A cement mason uses edging tool to provide a finished appearance.
using a straightedge on freshly placed concrete.
As they advance, assignments become more
complex, and apprentices usually can do finish­
ing work within a short time.
Two- and three-year apprenticeship pro­
grams, usually jointly sponsored by local
unions and contractors, provide on-the-job
training in addition to 144 hours of classroom
instruction each year. A written test and a phys­
ical exam may be required in certain areas. In
the classroom, apprentices learn applied math­
ematics and safety. Apprentices generally re­
ceive special instruction in layout work and
estimating costs.
When hiring helpers and apprentices, em­
ployers prefer high school graduates who are at
least 18 years old, in good physical condition,
and licensed to drive. The ability to get along
with others also is important because cement
masons work in groups. High school courses in
shop mathematics and blueprint reading or me­
chanical drawing provide a helpful back­
ground.
Experienced cement masons or terrazzo
workers may advance to supervisors or contract
estimators, or may open concrete contracting
businesses.

Job Outlook
Employment of cement masons and terrazzo
workers is expected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Some of this growth reflects a re­
bounding of employment to prerecession lev­
els. As the population and the economy grow,
more masons will be needed to help build apart­
ments, highways, offices, industrial buildings,
and other structures. The greater use of con­
crete as a building material—particularly in
nonresidential construction—also will add to
the demand for these workers. Prestressed con­
crete columns and beams, for example, are
increasingly replacing structural steel in large
buildings. Although many job openings will be




created by increased demand for these workers,
most openings will arise as experienced work­
ers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other
reasons.
Employment of cement masons and terrazzo
workers, like that of many construction occupa­
tions, is sensitive to ups and downs in the econ­
omy. Workers in these trades can experience
periods of unemployment, particularly when
the level of nonresidential building falls. On the
other hand, temporary shortages of these work­
ers may occur in some areas during peak peri­
ods of building activity.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for cement masons
were about $370 in 1982. The middle 50 per­
cent had earnings that ranged between $217 and
$430 weekly. Self-employed masons may earn
more. Union wage rates in metropolitan areas
for cement masons were $14.25 an hour; and
mosaic and terrazzo workers averaged $13.90
an hour. In comparison, the average wage for all
nonsupervisory and production workers in pri­
vate industry, except farming, was $7.67 an
hour. Union workers generally have higher
wage rates than nonunion workers. Apprentices
usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid
to experienced cement masons or terrazzo
workers.
Annual earnings for cement masons, ter­
razzo workers, and apprentices generally are
lower than hourly rates would indicate because
the annual number of hours they work can be
adversely affected by poor weather and fluctua­
tions in construction activity.
Cement masons usually receive premium
pay for hours worked in excess of the regularly
scheduled workday or workweek. They often
work overtime, because once concrete has been
poured, the job must be completed.
A large proportion of cement masons and
terrazzo workers belong either to the Operative
Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International

Associated General Contractors of America, Inc.,
1957 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006.
International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craft­
smen, International Masonry Institute Appren­
ticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington,
D.C. 20005.
Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ Interna­
tional Association of the United States and Canada,
1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard
Rd., Skokie, 111. 60077.
Prestressed Concrete Institute, 201 N. Wells St., Chi­
cago, 111. 60606.

Drywall Applicators
and Tapers
(D.O.T. 842.381-010, .664-010, and .681-010; and
869.684-050)

Nature of the Work
Developed as a substitute for wet plaster, drywall consists of a thin layer of plaster sand­
wiched between two pieces of heavy paper. It is
used today for walls and ceilings of many new
homes and buildings because it saves both time
and money compared to traditional con­
struction using plaster.
Two occupations have emerged from the
widespread use of this construction material:
Drywall applicators and dry wall tapers. Ap­
plicators, also called installers, fasten drywall
panels to the framework inside houses and other
buildings. Tapers, or finishers, do touchup
work to get the panels in shape for painting.
Because drywall panels are manufactured in
standard sizes—for example, 4 feet by 8 or 12
feet—installers must measure and cut some
pieces to fit around doors and windows. They
also saw holes in panels for electric outlets, airconditioning units, and plumbing. After mak­
ing these alterations, applicators may glue,

Construction and Extractive Occupations/293
nail, or screw the wallboard panels to the wood
or metal framework. Because drywall is heavy
and cumbersome, a helper assists the installer
in positioning and securing the panel. When
placing ceiling panels, a lift often is used to
assist the crew.
After installing the drywall, tapers fill joints
between panels with a joint compound. Using
the wide, flat tip of a special trowel, and
brushlike strokes, they spread the joint com­
pound into and along each side of the joint.
Immediately, the finishers use trowels to press a
perforated paper tape into the wet compound
and to scrape away excess material. Nail and
screw depressions also are covered with this
compound. On large commercial projects,
finishers may use automatic taping tools to ap­
ply the joint compound and tape in one step.
When the first application of compound is dry,
finishers apply another coat to fill any depres­
sions and to make a smooth surface. The third
or finish coat is applied in the same manner as
the second coat and effectively covers all joints
and fasteners. Sanding makes patched areas as
smooth as the rest of the wall surface. Some
finishers apply textured surfaces to walls and
ceilings with trowels, brushes, or spray guns.
Finishers also repair nicks and cracks caused by
the installation of air-conditioning vents and
other fixtures. Some finishers specialize in
sanding, taping, or repair work.
In many instances, carpenters install dry wall
and painters tape and finish it.

Working Conditions
As in other construction trades, dry wall work
sometimes is strenuous. Applicators and tapers
spend most of the day on their feet, either stand­
ing, bending, or squatting. Installers have to lift
and maneuver heavy panels. Hazards include
the possibility of falls from ladders and injuries
from power tools. Because sanding joint com­
pound to a smooth finish may create a great deal
of dust, some finishers wear masks for protec­
tion.

Employment
Drywall applicators and tapers held about
76,000 jobs in 1982, about 10,000 fewer than in
1980. This decline reflects the severe dropoff in
construction activity—particularly homebuilding—during the 1981-82 recession. Most work­
ed for contractors who specialize in drywall
installation; others worked for contractors who
do all kinds of construction.
Installers and finishers are employed
throughout the country, but are concentrated in
urban areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most drywall applicators and tapers start as
helpers and learn most of their skills on the job.
Applicator helpers start by carrying materials,
lifting and holding panels, and cleaning up de­
bris. Within a few weeks, they learn to mea­
sure, cut, and install panels. Eventually, they
become experienced installers.
Taper helpers begin by taping joints and
touching up nail holes and scratches. They soon
learn to install comer guards and to conceal
openings around pipes. Near the end of their
training, both applicator helpers and taper help­
ers learn to estimate cos*s of installing and
finishing drywall.
Some installers learn their trade in an appren­
ticeship program. The United Brotherhood of
Carpenters and Joiners of America, AFL-CIO,
in cooperation with local contractors, admin­
isters an apprenticeship program in carpentry
that includes instruction in drywall installation.
In addition, local affiliates of the Associated
Builders and Contractors conduct a similar
training program for nonunion workers. The
International Brotherhood of Painters and Al­
lied Trades conducts a 2-year apprenticeship
program for drywall finishers.
Employers prefer high school graduates who
are in good physical condition, but they fre­
quently hire applicants with less education.
High school or vocational school courses in
carpentry provide a helpful background for drywall work. Installers must be good at simple
arithmetic.
After qualifying as an installer or finisher, a
person who has leadership ability may become
a supervisor within a few years. Some workers
start their own drywall contracting businesses.

Job Outlook

Drywall applicators use screwguns to attach pan­
els to framework.



Employment of drywall workers is expected to
grow faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Besides workers hired
to fill openings arising from increased demand,
many will be needed to replace those who take
jobs in other occupations, retire, or die.
Employment opportunities may be more
favorable in commercial construction than in
residential construction, which is usually more
sensitive to increases in interest rates.
Drywall installation and finishing is indoor
work. Unlike some other construction trades,
these workers seldom lose time because of ad­
verse weather conditions.
Most job openings will be in metropolitan
areas. Building contractors in small cities may

not have enough business to hire full-time drywall workers.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for drywall ap­
plicators and tapers were about $355 in 1982.
One-half earned between $260 and $490 week­
ly, and the top 10 percent earned more than $615
a week.
Union drywall tapers in metropolitan areas
had estimated hourly earnings of $14.55 in
1982, according to limited information avail­
able. This was nearly twice the hourly average
for all nonsupervisory and production workers
in private industry, except farming. Trainees
start at about half the rate paid to experienced
workers.
Some contractors pay installers and finishers
according to the number of drywall panels they
install or finish per day. A 40-hour week is
standard for installers and finishers, but they
sometimes work longer. Those who are paid
hourly rates receive premium pay for overtime.
Some installers are members of the United
Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of
America, and some finishers are members of
the International Brotherhood of Painters and
Allied Trades.

Related Occupations
Drywall installers and finishers combine
strength and dexterity and a capacity for preci­
sion and accuracy to make materials fit accord­
ing to a set plan. Other occupations that require
similar abilities include insulation workers,
lathers, floor covering installers, plasterers,
and form builders.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about work opportunities in
drywall application and finishing, contact local
drywall installation contractors; a local of the
unions previously mentioned; a local joint un­
ion-management apprenticeship committee; a
State or local chapter of the Associated Builders
and Contractors; or the nearest office of the
State employment service or State appren­
ticeship agency.
For details about job qualifications and train­
ing programs, write to:
Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 729 15th
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.
International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied
Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C.
20006.
National Joint Painting, Decorating, and Drywall Ap­
prenticeship and Training Committee, 1750 New
York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

Electricians
(D.O.T. 820.261, .381-010; 821.261-018, .381-014, -018;
824.261-010, -014, .281-010, -014, .681-010; 825.281-010,
-014, -026, .381-018, -022, -030, -034, -038; 828.381010; and 829.281-014)

Nature of the Work
Heating, lighting, power, air-conditioning, and
refrigeration components all operate through

294/Occupational Outlook Handbook
electrical systems that are assembled, installed,
and maintained by electricians. Electricians
generally specialize in either construction or
maintenance, although some workers do both.
To install the electrical systems in factories,
homes, and other structures, electricians follow
blueprints as well as instructions from super­
visors. To install wiring in factories and offices,
they first place conduit (pipe or tubing) inside
partitions, walls, or other concealed areas as
designated by building plans. Workers also fas­
ten to the wall small metal and plastic boxes that
will house electrical switches and outlets. To
complete circuits between these boxes, they
then pull insulated wires or cables through the
conduit. They work carefully to avoid damag­
ing any wires or cables. In lighter construction,
such as housing, plastic-covered wire usually is
used rather than conduit.
Regardless of the type of wire being used,
electricians connect it to circuit breakers, trans­
formers, or other components. Wires are joined
by twisting ends together with pliers and cover­
ing the ends with special plastic connectors.
When additional strength is desired, they may
use an electric “soldering gun” to melt metal
onto the twisted wires, then cover them with
durable, electrical tape. When the wiring is
finished, they test the circuits for proper con­
nections.
Maintenance work varies greatly, depending
on where the electrician is employed. Electri­
cians who work in large factories may repair
particular items, such as motors or electronic
devices. Those in office buildings and small
plants usually fix all kinds of electrical equip­
ment. Electricians spend much of their time

doing preventive maintenance—periodic in­
spection of equipment to locate and correct
defects before breakdowns occur. When trouble
occurs, they must find the cause and make re­
pairs. Electricians may replace items such as
fuses, switches, or wire. They also may advise
management whether continued operation of
equipment would be hazardous, and they may
install new electrical equipment.
Electricians use handtools such as screw­
drivers, pliers, knives, and hacksaws. They
also use power tools and test meters.

Working Conditions
Electricians’ work is active and sometime stren­
uous. They often climb ladders and work on
scaffolds. They frequently work in awkward or
cramped positions. Electricians risk injury
from electrical shock, falls, and cuts from sharp
objects. They are taught to use protective equip­
ment and clothing and to follow National Elec­
tric Code specifications and procedures as well
as requirements of State, county, and municipal
electrical codes.

Employment
Electricians held 542,000 jobs in 1982, 15,000
fewer than in 1980, reflecting the decline in
construction and manufacturing during the
1981-82 recession. About half the jobs were in
the construction industry. Maintenance jobs for
electricians are concentrated in manufacturing
industries such as automobile, ship, machinery,
chemical, and iron and steel production. Public
utilities, mines, railroads, and governments
also employ some electricians. About 1 out of 8
electricians is self-employed. Like the general

population, electricians are concentrated in in­
dustrialized and urban areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most training authorities recommend the com­
pletion of a 4-year apprenticeship program as
the best way to leam the electrical trade because
apprenticeship gives trainees a thorough
knowledge of the trade and improves their abil­
ity to find jobs during their work life. Com­
pared to most other trades, a large proportion of
electricians are trained through apprenticeship.
Apprenticeship programs are sponsored
through and supervised by local union-manage­
ment committees or by company management
committees. Because the training is com­
prehensive, people who complete appren­
ticeship programs qualify to do both mainte­
nance and construction work. These programs
provide 144 hours of classroom instruction each
year in addition to on-the-job training. In the
classroom, apprentices leam blueprint reading,
electrical theory, electronics, mathematics,
electrical code requirements, and safety and
first aid practices. On the job, under the super­
vision of experienced electricians, apprentices
must demonstrate mastery of the electrician’s
work. At first, apprentices drill holes, set an­
chors, and set up conduit. Later, they measure,
bend, and install conduit, as well as install,
connect, and test wiring. They also leam to set
up and draw diagrams for entire electrical sys­
tems.
Beginners who are not apprentices can pick
up the trade informally by working as helpers
for experienced electricians. While learning to
install conduit, connect wires, and test circuits,
helpers are also taught safety practices. Many
helpers gain additional knowledge through
trade school or correspondence courses, or
through special training in the Armed Forces.
All applicants should be in good health and
have at least average physical strength. Agility
and dexterity also are important. Good color
vision is needed because workers frequently
must identify electrical wires by color. Appli­
cants for apprentice positions usually must be at
least 18 years old and have a high school or
vocational school diploma. Courses in elec­
tricity, electronics, mechanical drawing, sci­
ence, algebra, and shop provide a good back­
ground.
To obtain a license, necessary for employ­
ment in most localities, electricians must pass
an examination that tests their knowledge of
electrical theory, the National Electric Code,
and local electric and building codes.
Experienced electricians can become super­
visors. Electricians with sufficient capital and
management skill can start their own con­
tracting businesses. In many areas, a contractor
must have an electrical contractor’s license.

Job Outlook

About half of all electricians work in the construction industry.




Employment of electricians is expected to in­
crease faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Some of this
growth reflects a rebounding of employment to
prerecession levels. As population and the
economy grow, more electricians will be

Construction and Extractive Occupations/295

The unemployment rate for electricians generally is lower than the
rates for other construction workers.
Percent unemployed

sociated Builders and Contractors; a local uni­
on of the International Brotherhood of Elec­
trical Workers; a local union-management ap­
prenticeship committee; local firms that employ
maintenance electricians; or the nearest office
of the State employment service or State ap­
prenticeship agency. Some local employment
service offices screen applicants and give ap­
titude tests.
For general information about the work of
electricians, contact:
Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., 1101 Con­
necticut Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, D.C.
20036.

5

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

less than $255 while the highest 10 percent
earned more than $675. Union wage rates in
metropolitan areas for construction electricians
were about $16.00 an hour in 1982, compared
with $7.67 an hour for all production and nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except
farming. Maintenance electricians in metro­
politan areas earned about $12.00 in 1982. They
generally earn more in the Midwest and West
than in the Northeast and South. Because the
seasonal nature of construction affects electri­
cians less than workers in most building trades,
annual earnings also tend to be higher.
Apprentice wage rates start at from 40 to 50
percent of the rate paid to experienced electri­
cians and increase periodically.
Many construction electricians are members
of the International Brotherhood of Electrical
Workers.
Among unions organizing maintenance elec­
tricians are the International Brotherhood of
Electrical Workers; the International Union of
Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the
International Association of Machinists and
Aerospace Workers; the International Union,
United Automobile, Aerospace and Agri­
cultural Implement Workers of America (Ind.);
and the United Steelworkers of America.

Related Occupations
To install and maintain electrical systems, elec­
tricians combine manual skill and a knowledge
of electrical materials and concepts. Other oc­
cupations involving similar skills include airconditioning mechanics, cable installers and
repairers, electronics mechanics, and elevator
constructors.

Sources of Additional Information
Earnings
Median weekly earnings for full time electri­
cians, who were not self-employed, were $430
in 1982. Most earned between $335 and $560
weekly in 1982. The lowest 10 percent earned



National Electrical Contractors Association, 7315
Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20814.
National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Commit­
tee for the Electrical Industry, 9700-E George Fulmer
Hwy., Lanham, Md. 20706.

1977

needed to maintain the electrical systems used
by industry and to install electrical fixtures and
wiring in new homes, factories, offices, and
other structures.
In addition to jobs created by increased de­
mand for electricians, many openings will oc­
cur as electricians transfer to other occupations
or leave the labor force. The total number of job
openings for electricians each year is among the
highest for all craft occupations, mainly be­
cause the occupation is large. A smaller propor­
tion of electricians than of other craft workers
leave their occupation each year. Electricians
have a strong attachment to their occupation
because they must spend about 4 years acquir­
ing their training and enjoy relatively high earn­
ings.
Although the employment outlook for elec­
tricians is expected to be good over the long
run, people wishing to become construction
electricians should expect to experience periods
of unemployment. These result from the limited
duration of construction projects and the
cyclical nature of the construction industry.
During economic downturns, job openings for
electricians are reduced as the level of con­
struction declines. Although employment of
maintenance electricians is steadier than that
for construction electricians, electricians work­
ing in the automobile, steel, and other indus­
tries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the
economy may be laid off during recessions.
Job opportunities for electricians also vary
by geographic area. Employment opportunities
follow the movement of people and businesses
among States and local areas and reflect dif­
ferences in local economic conditions. The
number ofjob opportunities in a given year may
fluctuate widely from area to area.

International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers,
1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

For details about apprenticeships or other work
opportunities in this trade, contact local elec­
trical contractors; local chapters of the Indepen­
dent Electrical Contractors, Inc., the National
Electrical Contractors Association, or the As­

Floor Covering
Installers
(D.O.T. 622.381-026; 789.484-010; 861.381-034; 864.381010, .481-010, and -014; and 929.381-010)

Nature of the Work
Floor covering installers (also called floor
covering mechanics) install and replace carpet
or resilient floor covering materials such as tile,
linoleum, and vinyl sheets. These workers in­
stall coverings over floors made of wood, con­
crete, or other materials. They generally spe­
cialize in either carpet or resilient floor cover­
ing installation, although some do both.
Before putting down resilient covering, such
as vinyl tile, installers first inspect the floor to
be sure that it is firm, dry, smooth, and free of
oil, grease, or paint. Some floors have to be
prepared for covering. For example, installers
may sand a rough or painted floor and fill cracks
and indentations. An extremely uneven floor
may be resurfaced with wood or other approved
underlayments.
On newly poured concrete floors or floors
laid below grade level, installers must test for
moisture. If too much moisture is present, they
may suggest postponing installation of floor
covering or recommend a covering technique
more appropriate for the floor’s condition.
Resilient flooring installers measure and
mark off the floor according to a plan. The plan
may be architectural drawings that specify
every detail of the covering design, or a simple,
verbal description by the supervisor. When the
measurements are completed, installers, often
assisted by apprentices or helpers, cut, fit, and
cement the flooring into place. After the floor­
ing mechanic lays out the room, square tile is
set and aligned by hand to match with adjacent
tiles. Sheet flooring is laid out and rolled with a
roller in a fashion similar to that of rolling out
pie dough. The flooring must be carefully cut,

296/Occupational Outlook Handbook
particularly at door openings, along irregular
wall surfaces, and around fixtures, such as col­
umns or pipes. Installers also must take special
care in cutting out and arranging decorative
designs. After the flooring is in place, they use a
roller to insure good adhesion.
Carpet installers, like installers of resilient
coverings, first inspect the floor to determine its
condition. Then they plan the layout after al­
lowing for expected traffic patterns and, if nec­
essary, for seams so that best appearance and
long wear will be obtained.
For wall-to-wall carpet, installers lay and
tack an underlay—a foam rubber pad 1/4 to 1/2
inch thick that is cut slightly smaller than the
entire floor. Next, they roll out, measure, mark,
and cut the carpet, allowing for 3 to 4 inches of
extra carpet on each side. This provides some
leeway for the final fitting. Workers then lay the
carpet and stretch it to fit evenly against the
floor and snugly against each wall and door
threshold. With the carpet stretched, the excess
around the perimeter is cut to fit the room pre­
cisely. To hold the carpet in place, workers
either tack or tape each edge of the carpet to the
floor.
Because carpet comes in standard 12-foot
widths, wall-to-wall installations in large
rooms require that the sections be joined. To do
this, installers either hand-sew seams with a
large needle and special thread or heat-tape
seams with a hot, flat iron to melt the plastic
surface of a foil-backed tape placed beneath the
joined sections of carpet. Sections of carpet
placed edge to edge are pressed to the surface of
the melted plastic to force it into the carpet’s
backing. When cooled, the hardened plastic
joins the sections.
For precut, edge-bound carpet, installers
simply lay a foam rubber pad on the floor and
roll the carpet over the slightly smaller pad. To
hold the pad and carpet in place, installers may
apply tape that has adhesive on both sides to the
bottom edges of the carpet.

Working Conditions
Installers work under better conditions than
most other construction workers. Because floor

coverings are finished products designed al­
most exclusively for interior use and display,
work areas usually are clean, safe, and com­
fortable.
Installers generally work regular daytime
hours. Particular circumstances, however, such
as installing a floor covering in a store or office,
may require work during evenings and week­
ends.
On the job, installers kneel, reach, bend,
stretch, and frequently lift heavy loads, such as
a roll of carpet, activities that require strength
and stamina. They also must drill, cut, hammer,
and use hot irons. Despite continual movement
and frequent use of hand and power tools, in­
stallers experience fewer injuries than most
other construction workers.

Employment
Floor covering installers held about 79,000
jobs in 1982. About two-thirds of all installers
work primarily with carpet, and the remainder
with resilient flooring. Most work for flooring
contractors. Many others work for retailers of
floor covering. About 4 of 10 floor covering
installers are self-employed, a higher propor­
tion than the average for all construction oc­
cupations.
Installers are employed throughout the Na­
tion, but are concentrated in urban areas that
have high levels of construction activity.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
The vast majority of floor covering installers
learn their trade informally on the job by work­
ing as helpers to experienced installers. Others
learn through formal apprenticeship programs,
which include on-the-job training as well as
related classroom instruction.
Informal training programs usually are spon­
sored by individual contractors and generally
last about 1 1/2 to 2 years. Helpers begin with
simple assignments. Helpers on resilient floor­
ing jobs carry materials and tools, prepare
floors for the tile, and help with its installation.
Carpet helpers install tackless stripping and

padding, and help stretch newly installed car­
pet. With experience, helpers in either trade
take on more difficult assignments, such as
measuring, cutting, and fitting the materials to
be installed.
Apprenticeship programs and some contractor-sponsored programs provide com­
prehensive training that covers both carpet and
resilient flooring work.
Floor covering installers occasionally attend
manufacturers’ schools to upgrade job skills
and learn about new flooring materials.
Applicants for helper or apprentice jobs
should be at least 16 years old, have manual
dexterity, and be mechanically inclined. Since
trainees often are required to drive company
vehicles, employers prefer individuals who are
licensed to drive and who have good driving
records. Employers also want individuals who
will be courteous, tactful, and an asset in their
dealings with customers. A high school educa­
tion also is preferred, though not necessary.
Courses in general mathematics and shop may
provide a helpful background.
Floor covering installers may advance to su­
pervisors or installation managers for large
floor laying firms. Some installers become
salespersons or estimators. Installers also may
go into business for themselves.

Job Outlook
Employment of floor covering installers is ex­
pected to grow about as fast as the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s. In ad­
dition to job openings resulting from growth in
demand for floor covering installers, additional
openings will arise as experienced installers
transfer to other occupations, retire, or die.
Employment of floor covering installers is ex­
pected to keep pace with the expected expan­
sion in construction and the widespread use of
resilient floor coverings and carpeting. Because
many new buildings have plywood rather than
hardwood floors, wall-to-wall carpet or re­
silient floors will be a necessity. Carpet and
resilient flooring also will continue to be used
extensively in renovation work. Moreover, ver­
satile materials and colorful patterns will con­
tribute to the growing demand for floor cover­
ings.
This occupation is less sensitive to changes
in economic conditions than most other con­
struction crafts. Because much of their work is
done in existing buildings, employment gener­
ally remains stable even when construction ac­
tivity declines.

Earnings

Floor covering installers spend most of their workday in a kneeling or squatting position.




Median weekly earnings for full-time carpet
installers were about $300 in 1982. One-half
earned between $220 and $440 a week; the top
10 percent earned over $545. Limited informa­
tion indicates that installers who work with
resilient flooring earn similar wages. Starting
wage rates for apprentices and other trainees
usually are about half of the experienced work­
er’s rate.
Most installers are paid by the hour. In some
shops, part of the pay may be in bonuses. In
others, installers receive a monthly salary or are
paid according to the amount of work they do.

Construction and Extractive Occupations/297
Some floor covering installers belong to the
United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners
of America, or the International Brotherhood of
Painters and Allied Trades.

the molding, and force springlike metal clips
between the glass and the molding. The clips
exert pressure and keep the glass firmly in
place.
When using putty, workers first spread it
neatly against and around the edges of the
molding on the inside of the window opening.
Next, they install the glass. Pressing it against
the putty on the inside molding, workers screw
or nail outside molding that loosely holds the
glass in place. To hold it firmly, they pack the
space between the molding and the glass with
putty and then trim any excess putty with a
putty knife.
For some jobs, the glazier must cut the glass
manually. To prepare the glass for cutting,
glaziers rest it either on edge- on a rack or Aframe or flat against a cutting table. They then
measure and mark the glass for the cut.
Glaziers cut glass with a special tool that has
a very hard metal wheel about 1/6 inch in diam­
eter. Using a “straighted” as a guide, the glazier
presses the cutter’s wheel firmly on the glass,
guiding and rolling it carefully to make a score
just below the surface. To help the cutting tool
move smoothly across the glass, workers brush
a thin layer of light weight oil along the line of
the intended cut or dip the cutting tool in oil.
Immediately after cutting, the glazier presses
on the short end to break the glass cleanly along
the cut.
In addition to handtools such as glasscutters
and putty knives, glaziers use power tools such
as hoists, saws, drills, cutters, and grinders.

On the job, apprentices learn to use the tools
and equipment of the trade; handle, measure,
cut, and install glass and metal framing; cut and
fit moldings; and install and balance glass
doors. In the classroom, they are taught basic
mathematics, blueprint reading and sketching,
general construction techniques, safety prac­
tices, and first aid.
Glaziers who learn this trade through infor­
mal on-the-job training usually start by carry­
ing glass and cleaning up debris in glass shops.
Eventually, helpers assist experienced workers
on a simple installation job. Learning the trade
this way may not provide training as complete
as an apprenticeship and may take longer.
Local apprenticeship administrators deter­
mine how apprentices are recruited and se­
lected. Applicants for apprenticeships gener­
ally must be in good physical condition and at
least 17 years old. In some areas, applicants
must take mechanical aptitude tests. Persons
applying for helper positions will find that em­
ployers prefer high school or vocational school
graduates. Courses in general mathematics,
blueprint reading or mechanical drawing, gen­
eral construction, and shop provide a helpful
background.
For most glaziers, advancement consists of
increases in pay; some may advance to super­
visory jobs. Some glaziers become contractors;
however, the contracting business is very com­
petitive and managerial skill is needed to oper­
ate successfully.

Nature of the Work

Working Conditions

Job Outlook

Glass serves many uses in modem buildings.
Insulating glass keeps in warmed or cooled air;
tempered and wire glass makes doors and win­
dows more secure; and large glass panels give
skyscrapers a distinctive look while reducing
the need for artificial lighting. Glaziers select,
cut, install, and remove all types of glass as well
as plastics and similar materials used in place of
glass. They also install mirrors, tempered glass
doors, the metal hardware used in setting glass,
and automatic doors.
For most jobs, the glass is precut and
mounted in metal frames at a factory. It arrives
at the job site ready to be positioned and se­
cured in place by glaziers. Glaziers may use a
crane or hoist with suction cups attached to lift a
large, heavy piece of glass. In all cases,
however, to prevent shattering, glaziers use
their hands to guide and position the glass.
For some jobs glass is cut at a contractor’s
shop by automated scoring and breaking ma­
chines. At the site glaziers secure glass in place
with materials such as mastic—a pastelike ce­
ment—bolts, rubber gaskets, putty, metal
clips, and metal or wood molding. When using
a rubber gasket—a thick molded rubber half
tube with a split running its length—to secure
window glass they first position the gasket
around the window opening, then set the glass
into the split side of the gasket, causing it to
clamp to the edges and hold the glass firmly in
place.
When metal clips and molding are used to
secure window glass, glaziers secure the mold­
ing to the window opening, place the glass in

When installing large pieces of glass, glaziers
work in teams. They may travel for a day or two
to job sites in areas where few people, if any,
are equipped and qualified to install glass in
commercial buildings such as stores.
Glaziers may work outdoors in uncomforta­
ble weather. Sometimes they work on scaffolds
at great heights. In addition, the job requires a
considerable amount of bending, stooping, lift­
ing, and standing. Glaziers may be injured by
broken glass or cutting tools, falls from scaf­
folds, or from lifting glass.

Related Occupations
Floor covering installers skillfully combine
strength and stamina with an eye for accuracy
and an appreciation for detail to produce attrac­
tively finished floors. Other occupations invol­
ving different products but which require sim­
ilar skills include appliance repairers, house
repairers, lathers, meatcutters, painters,
riveters, and roofers.

Sources of Additional Information
For details about apprenticeships or work op­
portunities, contact local flooring contractors
or retailers; locals of the unions previously
mentioned; or the nearest office of the State
apprenticeship agency or the State employment
service.
For general information about the work of
floor covering installers, contact:
Carpet and Rug Institute, P.O. Box 2048, Dalton, Ga.
30720.

Glaziers
(D.O.T. 865.361-010, .381-010 and -014, .484-010, .684018 and -022)




Employment of glaziers is expected to increase
faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Besides jobs created
by increased demand for glaziers, openings
will arise as experienced glaziers transfer to
other occupations, retire, or die. However, be­
cause this occupation is fairly small, only a

Employment
Glaziers held about 41,000 jobs in 1982. Most
worked for glazing contractors engaged in new
construction, alteration, and repair or for glass
and hardware stores that install or replace glass.
Others worked for government agencies or
businesses that do their own construction.
Glaziers work throughout the country, but jobs
are concentrated in metropolitan areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Training authorities recommend that glaziers
learn the trade through an apprenticeship pro­
gram that lasts 3 to 4 years. However, many
glaziers learn the trade informally on the job by
assisting experienced workers.
Apprenticeship programs, which are admin­
istered by local union-management committees
or local contractors’ associations, consist of onthe-job training as well as 144 hours of class­
room instruction and/or home study each year.

Glaziers install mirrors as well as window glass.

298/Occupational Outlook Handbook
limited number of openings will become avail­
able. Employment opportunities should be
greatest in metropolitan areas, where most
glazing contractors and retailers are located.
Over the long run, population and business
growth will create a rising demand for new
residential and commercial buildings, such as
apartments, offices, and stores. Since glass will
continue to be popular in building design, the
demand for glaziers to install and replace glass
also will grow.
Glaziers may experience periods of unem­
ployment between construction projects and
during downturns in construction activity. Peo­
ple planning to enter the trade can improve their
chances of avoiding layoffs by learning to use a
variety of tools and materials because employ­
ers try to keep their most skilled workers even
during business slumps.
People wishing to enter glazing appren­
ticeships may face competition for positions
because high wages and all-round training at­
tract many people to these programs.

Earnings
In 1982, union construction glaziers in metro­
politan areas earned about $13.80 an hour. In
comparison, the average hourly wage for all
production or nonsupervisory workers in pri­
vate industry, except farming, was $7.67. Ap­
prentice wage rates usually start at 50 percent of
the rate paid to experienced glaziers and in­
crease every 6 months. During the final year of
their training, apprentices receive 90 percent of
the rate for experienced workers. Yearly earn­
ings of glaziers and apprentices, however, gen­
erally are slightly lower than hourly rates would
indicate because the annual number of hours
they work can be adversely affected by poor
weather and fluctuations in construction ac­
tivity. Glaziers also may receive health insur­
ance,, pensions, paid vacation, and holidays
Many glaziers employed in construction are
members of the International Brotherhood of
Painters and Allied Trades.

Related Occupations
Glaziers use their knowledge of construction
materials and techniques to install glass. Other
construction workers whose jobs also involve
skilled, custom work are bricklayers, dry-wall
applicators, floor layers, painters, paperhangers, stucco masons, terrazzo workers, and
tile setters.

Sources of Additional Information
For more information about glazier appren­
ticeships or work opportunities, contact local
glazing or general contractors; a local of the
International Brotherhood of Painters and Al­
lied Trades; a local joint union-management
apprenticeship agency; or the nearest office of
the State employment service or State appren­
ticeship agency.
For general information about the work of
glaziers, contact:
International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied
Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C.
20006.




Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

Insulation Workers
(D.O.T.

863.364-010 and -014, .381-010 and -014, and
.664-010)

Nature of the Work
Properly insulated homes and buildings reduce
energy consumption by preventing loss of cool
air on warm days and hot air on cold days. Meat
storage rooms, steam pipes, and boilers are
other examples where the wasteful transfer of
heat to or from the space inside can be mini­
mized by insulation. Installing insulating mate­
rial is the responsibility of insulation workers.
Insulation workers may paste, staple, wire,
tape, or spray insulation to an appropriate sur­
face. When covering a steam pipe, for example,
insulation workers measure and cut a tube of
insulation to the necessary length, stretch it
open along a cut that runs the length of the tube,
and then slip it over the pipe. To secure the
insulation, they wrap and fasten wire bands
around it, tape it, or wrap a cover of tar paper,
cloth, or canvas over it and then sew or staple
the cover in place. Sometimes insulation work­
ers must weld sheet metal around insulated
pipes to waterproof the insulation. Care is re­
quired to cover joints completely.
When covering a wall or other flat surface,
workers may use a hose to spray foam insula­
tion onto a wire mesh. The wire mesh provides
a rough surface to which the foam can cling and
adds strength to the finished wall. If desired,
workers apply a final coat for a finished ap­
pearance.
In attics or exterior walls, which do not re­
quire either wire mesh for adhesion or a final
coat for appearance, workers often use a com­
pressor to blow in loose-fill insulation. This is
the fastest and most popular insulation method,
especially in older homes that lack insulation
altogether. A tender feeds the machine with
shredded fiberglass insulation or rock wool,
and the compressor forces this insulation
through a hose. Another worker sprays the in­
sulation from the compressor hose into the attic
or between the interior and exterior walls until
the required amount is installed.
In another method, insulation workers staple
fiberglass batts in walls and ceilings to enclose
living or working spaces in a protective blanket
of insulation. This technique is used during the
construction stages of the building.
Insulation workers use common handtools—
trowels, brushes, scissors, sewing equipment,
and stapling guns. Powersaws, as well as'handtools, are used to cut and fit insulating mate­
rials. Welding machines are often used to join
sheet metal or secure clamps. Compressors for
blowing or for spraying insulation are also
used. Some insulation workers are responsible
for cleaning these machines and keeping them
in good working condition.

Working Conditions
Insulation workers generally work indoors
amid the clutter of construction. They spend
most of the workday on their feet, either stand­
ing, bending, or squatting. Sometimes they
work from ladders or in tight spaces. However,
the work is not strenuous; it requires more coor­
dination than strength. Insulation work is often
dusty and dirty. The minute particles from in­
sulation material can irritate the eyes, skin, and
respiratory system. Removing asbestos mate­
rials—at one time the most common form of
insulation but rarely used today—can be very
dangerous. To protect themselves from the haz­
ards of asbestos and other irritants, workers
wear filtering masks and protective clothing.
They also try to keep work areas as well venti­
lated as possible.

Employment
Insulation workers held about 47,000 jobs in
1982; most worked for insulation contractors.
Others altered and maintained insulation sys­
tems in chemical factories, petroleum refin­
eries, powerplants, and similar structures that
have extensive installations for power, heating,
and cooling.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most insulation workers learn their trade
through on-the-job training programs. Trainees
are assigned to experienced insulation workers
for instruction and supervision. They begin
with simple tasks, such as blowing insulation,
supplying insulation to experienced workers, or
holding the material while it is fastened in
place. On-the-job training can take from 1 to 2
years, depending on where the trainee works.
Learning home insulation generally requires
less training than maintenance and construction
work in industrial plants. When they gain expe­
rience, trainees receive less supervision, more
responsibility, and higher pay.

Insulation workers wear masks and other protec­
tive gear to minimize exposure to irritants found
in some insulating materials.

Construction and Extractive Occupations/299
In contrast, trainees in apprenticeship pro­
grams receive in-depth instruction in almost all
phases of insulation. Apprenticeship programs
are provided by a joint committee of local in­
sulation contractors and the local union of the
International Association of Heat and Frost In­
sulators and Asbestos Workers. Programs con­
sist of 4-years of on-the-job training coupled
with classroom instruction, and trainees must
pass practical and written tests to demonstrate a
knowledge of the trade.
For entry jobs, insulation contractors prefer
high school graduates who are in good physical
condition and licensed to drive. High school
courses in blueprint reading, shop math, sheetmetal layout, and general construction provide
a helpful background. Applicants seeking ap­
prenticeship positions must have a high school
diploma or its equivalent, and be at least 18
years old.
Skilled insulation workers may advance to
supervisor, shop superintendent, or insulation
contract estimator. Many insulation workers are
members of the International Association of
Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Work­
ers.

Job Outlook
Employment of insulation workers is expected
to grow faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s, as greater empha­
sis is placed upon energy efficiency. The need
to insulate boilers and pipes in new factories
and power plants will stimulate employment
growth. Moreover, existing buildings that need
extra insulation to save fuel will add to employ­
ment requirements. In addition to jobs created
by increased demand for insulation work,
openings will arise as workers transfer to other
occupations, retire, or die.
Insulation workers in the construction indus­
try may experience periods of unemployment.
Building activity is affected not only by sea­
sonal patterns, but also by fluctuations in the
business cycle.
Workers maintaining and repairing insula­
tion systems in industrial plants will experience
more stable employment than those in con­
struction because maintenance and repair must
be done regardless of the state of the economy.
Unlike other construction occupations, in­
sulation workers usually do not lose worktime
when weather conditions are poor. Most insula­
tion is applied after buildings are enclosed.
Employment opportunities will be best in
metropolitan areas, where most insulation con­
tractors are located. In small towns, much of
the insulation work is done by persons in other
trades, such as heating and air-conditioning in­
stallers, carpenters, and drywall installers.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for insulation workers
working full time were about $325 in 1982.
Most insulation workers earned between $250
to $450 a week; some earned more than $600
weekly. Union insulation workers working pri­
marily in commercial and industrial con­
struction had estimated average wages of
$14.75 an hour in 1982, according to the limited
information available. This was about twice the



hourly rate paid to all nonsupervisory and pro­
duction workers in private industry, except
farming. Apprentice wage rates start at about
half the rate paid to experienced workers and
increase periodically.
The wide disparity in earnings for insulation
workers can be explained simply. One group
works primarily in commercial and industrial
projects in nonresidential construction. An­
other larger, less skilled group installs insula­
tion in residential construction (new and exist­
ing dwellings) and earns substantially less.

Related Occupations
Insulation workers combine a knowledge of
insulation materials with their skills of applica­
tion to provide effective barriers to heat,
moisture, and sound. Other occupations invol­
ving similar skills include air-conditioning in­
stallers, carpet layers, dry wall applicators,
floor layers, lathers, and roofers.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about training programs or
other work opportunities in this trade, contact a
local insulation contractor; a local of the Inter­
national Association of Heat and Frost In­
sulators and Asbestos Workers; the nearest of­
fice of the State employment service or State
apprenticeship agency, or:
National Insulation Contractors Association, 1025
Vermont Ave. NW., Suite 410, Washington, D.C.
20005.

Ironworkers
(D.O.T. 801.361-014, -018 and .684-026)

Nature of the Work
Ironworkers erect the steel framework of build­
ings, bridges, and other structures. In addition,
ironworkers install steel stairs or add window
guards to buildings, and do repair work, such as
replacing metal bridge parts. They also position
steel bars and wire mesh to reinforce concrete
floors, columns, and other structural spans.
High-rise buildings, bridges, and power
transmission towers have frames made of steel
columns, beams, and girders. Ironworkers
erect these steel frames and assemble the cranes
and derricks that move structural steel, rein­
forcing bars, buckets of concrete, and other
materials around the construction site. The
hoisting equipment arrives at the construction
site in sections, where it is lifted into position
by a mobile crane. Ironworkers then connect
the sections and set up the cables that do the
hoisting.
Working from blueprints or instructions
from supervisors, these workers erect fra­
meworks by connecting steel columns, beams,
and girders. The steel is delivered to the con­
struction site ready for assembly—cut to the
proper size with holes drilled in the ends for
bolts. Numbers written on the steel indicate
where a piece fits in the framework. Iron­
workers unload and stack the steel so it can be
hoisted easily when a piece is needed.

To hoist the steel, the ironworkers attach
cables from the crane or derrick. One worker
directs the hoisting equipment operator with
hand signals. Another worker holds a rope at­
tached to the piece of steel to prevent it from
swinging on the hoisting cable.
The steel is hoisted to the desired position in
the framework, where several workers are wait­
ing. These workers may be high off the ground.
As the steel on the hoisting cable is lowered, the
workers position it with connecting bars, jacks,
and handtools. Workers use driftpins or the
handle of a spud wrench—a long wrench with a
pointed handle—to align the holes in the piece
of steel with the holes in the framework. Then
they bolt the piece in place temporarily.
Before the steel piece can be permanently
fixed to the framework, the workers must make
sure it is vertically and horizontally straight.
They check the alignment with plumb bobs and
levels. When the piece is properly set, the
workers bolt or weld it permanently in place.
Reinforced concrete—concrete containing
steel bars or mesh—is an important material in
buildings, bridges, and other structures. The
steel gives the concrete additional strength.
Ironworkers set the bars in the forms that hold
concrete as it hardens, following blueprints that
show the location, size, and number of rein­
forcing bars to be used in the structure. They
fasten the bars together by wrapping wire
around them with pliers. When reinforcing
floors, workers place blocks or metal chairs
under the reinforcing bars to hold them off the
deck. These workers sometimes must cut the
bars with acetylene torches, bend them if nec­
essary, or weld bars together with arc-welding
equipment. When concrete is reinforced with a
coarse mesh made of welded wire, workers cut
and fit the mesh before placing it in the area to
be reinforced. While a concrete crew pours the
slab, ironworkers use hooked rods to correctly
position the wire mesh in the concrete mixture.
At construction sites, heavy structural steel
and other large materials or equipment may
have to be moved. Ironworkers assemble the
rigging—cables, pulleys, and hooks—to move
materials safely. They study the size, shape,
and weight and select points of attachment that
will provide a safe and secure hold on the load.
Next, they hook or bolt one or more cables to
both the hoisting equipment and the item to be
moved. Workers then direct the load into posi­
tion by giving hand signals and other directions
to the hoisting machine operator.
Ironworkers also install metal stairways, catwalks, floor gratings, ladders, metal cabinets,
and window frames, as well as lampposts,
fences, and decorative ironwork. In addition,
they bolt or weld prefabricated aluminum,
brass, and bronze frames and panels to build­
ings.
Most ornamental metal is fabricated away
from the construction site, so ironworkers
spend most of their time fitting, aligning, and
assembling. On the job, ironworkers make sure
ornamental pieces fit correctly and hold firmly.
They cut oversized pieces to size and some­
times drill holes. For secure connections, they
bolt, braze, or weld the metals.

300/Occupational Outlook Handbook
physical condition. Agility and balance also are
required in order to work a* great heights on
narrow beams and girders.
Advancement opportunities for ironworkers
are limited. Experienced ironworkers can be­
come supervisors. Ironwork offers relatively
few opportunities for self-employment because
the work requires large expenditures for equip­
ment.

Job Outlook

Ironworkers position reinforcing bars that strengthen concrete components.
Working Conditions
Most ironworkers work outside a great deal of
the time, in all kinds of weather. However, those
who must work at great heights do not work
when it is wet, slippery because of snow or ice,
or extremely windy.
Ironworkers may be injured in falls.
However, they use safety devices such as nets,
safety belts, and scaffolding to reduce the risk
of injuries.
Ironwork can involve considerable travel,
because work available locally may be insuffi­
cient to keep crews employed.

Employment
Ironworkers held about 93,000 jobs in 1982,
about 13,000 fewer jobs than in 1980. This
decline reflects the severe dropoff in con­
struction activity during the 1981-82 recession.
Most of these workers are employed by general
contractors, steel erection contractors, or orna­
mental iron fabricators. Some are employed by
large steel companies or their subsidiaries en­
gaged in the construction of bridges, dams, and
large buildings. Some work for government
agencies, public utilities, or large industrial
firms that do their own construction work. Very
few are self-employed.
Ironworkers are employed in all parts of the
country, but most work in metropolitan areas
where most commercial and industrial con­
struction takes place.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most training authorities recommend the com­
pletion of an apprenticeship as the best way to



learn this trade. However, a large number of
ironworkers learn informally on the job.
Apprenticeship programs are administered
by joint union-management committees made
up of representatives of local unions of the Inter­
national Association of Bridge, Structural and
Ornamental Ironworkers and local chapters of
contractors’ associations. The apprenticeship
consists of 3 years of on-the-job training and a
minimum of 144 hours a year of classroom
instruction.
In the classroom, apprentices study the
basics of structural erecting, rigging, reinforc­
ing, and ornamental assembling, as well as
blueprint reading, the care and safe use of tools
and materials, and mathematics for layout
work. On the job, apprentices get experience in
all aspects of the trade, such as unloading and
storing materials at the job site, rigging mate­
rials for movement by crane or derrick, con­
necting structural steel, and welding.
Ironworkers who learn the trade informally
generally do not receive classroom training,
although some large contractors have extensive
training programs. Nonapprentice trainees re­
ceive on-the-job training similar to the training
of apprentices, but they are not guaranteed ex­
perience in all aspects of the trade.
Applicants for ironworker jobs generally
must be at least 18 years old. A high school
diploma may be preferred by employers and is
required by most local apprenticeship commit­
tees. Courses in general mathematics, mechan­
ical drawing, and shop provide a helpful back­
ground.
Because materials used in ironworking are
heavy and bulky, ironworkers must be in good

Employment of ironworkers is expected to in­
crease faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s to meet rising
demand for nonresidential buildings, power
transmission towers, and highway and bridge
maintenance—types of construction that re­
quire extensive use of structural steel and rein­
forced concrete. Although many jobs will re­
sult from growth in demand for these workers,
most openings will result from the need to re­
place experienced ironworkers who transfer to
other fields of work, retire, or die.
The number of job openings will fluctuate
from year to year as economic conditions
change. Construction activity is sensitive to
changes in the level of interest rates, the amount
of business investment, and the level of govern­
ment spending. When these conditions are un­
favorable, the level of construction generally
falls, reducing job openings for ironworkers.
Job opportunities for ironworkers also vary
by geographic area. The level of construction
activity reflects differences in local economic
conditions. Therefore, the number of job op­
portunities in a given year may vary widely
from area to area.
Job openings for ironworkers usually are
more abundant during the spring and summer
months when the level of construction activity
increases.
Many people are attracted to ironworker ap­
prenticeship programs by the high wages and
the opportunity for all-round training, thereby
causing stiff competition for available posi­
tions.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for ironworkers were
about $500 in 1982. About one-half had weekly
earnings that ranged between $380 and $620.
Union wage rates in metropolitan areas for
ironworkers were about $15.00 an hour in 1982,
about twice the average wage of all nonsupervisory and production workers in private indus­
try, except farming. Apprentices start at 60 to
70 percent of the hourly rate paid to experienced
workers. During apprenticeship, they receive
increases every 6 months. Annual earnings for
ironworkers, however, are generally lower than
hourly wages would indicate because the
number of hours they work in a year can be
affected by adverse weather and time off be­
tween jobs.
Many workers in this trade are members of
the International Association of Bridge, Struc­
tural and Ornamental Iron Workers.

Construction and Extractive Occupations/301
Related Occupations
Ironworkers play an essential role in erecting
buildings, bridges, powerlines, and other struc­
tures. Other occupations important in these
types of construction are operating engineers,
rough carpenters, and welder fitters.

Sources of Additional Information
For more information on apprenticeships or
other work opportunities, contact local general
contractors; a local of the International Asso­
ciation of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental
Iron Workers; a local joint union-management
apprenticeship committee; a local or State
chapter of the Associated Builders and Con­
tractors, or the nearest office of the State em­
ployment service or apprenticeship agency.
For general information about ironworkers,
contact:
Associated General Contractors of America, Inc.,
1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

Painters and
Faperhangers
(D.O.T. 749.684-046; 840.381-010, -014, -018, and .681010; 841.381-010; and 845.681-010)

Nature of the Work
Paint and wall coverings make rooms more at­
tractive and comfortable. In addition, paints
and similar materials protect outside walls from
wear caused by the weather. Although some
people do both types of work, painting and
paperhanging are separate skilled trades.
Painters apply paint, varnish, and other
finishes to buildings and other structures. They
prepare the surface to be covered so that the new
paint will adhere properly. Sometimes it is nec­
essary to remove the old coating before the new
paint or coating is applied. Painters use several
methods to remove old coatings including:
Stripping with solvents, sanding, wire brush­
ing, and water and sand blasting. Painters also
wash walls and trim to remove dirt and grease,
fill nail holes and cracks, sandpaper rough
spots, and brush off dust. When painting new
surfaces, they cover them with a primer or sea­
ler to make a suitable surface for the finish coat.
Painters use brushes, rollers, and spray guns
to apply paint thoroughly, uniformly, and
rapidly to surfaces such as wood, concrete,
metal, masonary, plastic, or drywall. Brushes
of many sizes and shapes are used on a wide
variety of surfaces. Rollers and spray guns are
used on surfaces such as walls and ceilings,
where they permit faster painting than brushes.
Spray guns also are used on surfaces that are
difficult to paint with a brush, such as cinder
block and metal fencing.
Painters mix paints and match colors, using a
knowledge of paint composition and color har­
mony. They also know the characteristics of
common types of paints and finishes from the
standpoints of durability, ease of handling, and
application.



When working on tall buildings and similar
structures, painters erect scaffolding, including
“swing stages” (scaffolds suspended by ropes
or cables attached to roof hooks). When paint­
ing steeples and similar conical structures, they
use a “bosun chair” (a device somewhat like a
swing).
Plaperhangers cover walls and ceilings of
rooms with decorative wall coverings made of
fabric, vinyl, paper, or other materials. The first
step in hanging wall coverings, as in painting,
is to prepare the surface to be covered. To do
this, paperhangers apply “sizing,” a material
that seals the surface and enables the covering
to stick better. In redecorating, they may have to
remove the old covering by wetting it with
water-soaked sponges or by applying mild sol­
vents. If there are many layers they may steam
the old off the surface. Frequently, it is neces­
sary for paperhangers to patch holes before
hanging the new wall covering.
When the surface is prepared, paperhangers
measure the area to be covered and cut the
covering into strips of the proper size. While
cutting the strips, paperhangers check the
covering for flaws and closely examine the pat­
tern, so it can be matched when the strips are
hung.
Paperhangers prepare paste or other ad­
hesives according to manufacturers’ directions,
and brush or roll the adhesive on the covering.
When they place the cut strips on the wall or
ceiling, paperhangers must make sure they are
hung straight with the edges carefully butted
together to make tight, closed seams. Using
broad knives and brushes, paperhangers
smooth the strips to make them stick and to
remove air bubbles and wrinkles. They trim the
excess covering from the top and bottom of
each strip with a razor knife.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Painting and paperhanging are learned through
apprenticeship or informal, on-the-job instruc­
tion. Most training authorities recommend
completion of a formal apprenticeship as the
best way to become a painter or paperhanger,
although many new workers begin as helpers to
experienced painters. Few opportunities for in­
formal training exist for paperhanger trainees
because there are relatively few paperhangers,
and most work alone.
The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers consists of 3 years of on-the-job train­
ing, in addition to 144 hours of related class­
room instruction each year. The apprenticeship
agreement outlines the terms and conditions of
training. Apprentices receive instruction in
subjects such as color harmony, use of tools,
surface preparation, application of coating,
paint mixing and matching, care and use of
tools and equipment, staining, glazing, gold
leafing, blueprint reading, use of ladders and
scaffolding, wood finishing, and safety. They
also learn the relationship between painting and
paperhanging and the work performed by the
other building trades.
On-the-job instruction covers similar skills
for apprentices and helpers. Under the direction
of experienced workers, trainees carry sup­
plies, erect scaffolds, and do other simple tasks
while they learn about the different kinds of
paint and painting equipment. Within a short
time, trainees learn to prepare surfaces for
painting and paperhanging, to mix paints, and
to apply paint and wall coverings efficiently.

Working Conditions
Painters and paperhangers must stand for long
periods. Their jobs also require a considerable
amount of climbing and bending. These work­
ers must have strong arms because much of the
work is done with arms raised overhead. Paint­
ers and paperhangers risk injury from slips or
falls off ladders and scaffolds. Painters often
work outdoors.

Employment
Painters held 362,000 jobs in 1982; paperhangers held 19,000. Many worked for con­
tractors engaged in new construction, repair,
alteration, or remodeling work. Organizations
that own or manage large buildings, such as
hotels, offices, and apartment complexes, em­
ploy maintenance painters, as do schools, hos­
pitals, and factories.
A high proportion of workers in these trades
are in business for themselves. About 1of every
2 painters and 2 of every 3 paperhangers are
self-employed, compared to one-eighth of all
building trades workers. In addition, a much
larger proportion of painters than of other work­
ers in the building trades work part time.

Painters use rollers to paint ceilings and walls.

302/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Paperhangers and painters have the highest proportions of selfemployed of all construction craft occupations.
Percent self-employed, 1982

0

10

20

30 40

50

60

70

80

90 100

painters, shipyard painters, metal sprayers, undercoaters, and transportation equipment paint­
ers.
Paperhangers decorate walls with paper, vin­
yl, and fabrics; related occupations include
stucco masons, plasterers, and cement masons.

Sources of Additional Information
For details about painting and paperhanging
apprenticeships or other work opportunities in
these trades, contact local painting and decorat­
ing contractors; a local of the International
Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a
local joint union-management apprenticeship
committee; or the nearest office of the State
apprenticeship agency or State employment
service. To find out who administers the ap­
prenticeship program in your area, contact:
International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied
Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C.
20006.
Painting and Decorating Contractors Association of
America, 7223 Lee Hwy., Falls Church, Va. 22046.

For general information about the work of
painters and paperhangers, contact:
Near the end of their training, they may learn
decorating concepts, color coordination, and
cost-estimating techniques.
Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs gen­
erally must be at least 16 years old and in good
physical condition. A high school or vocational
school education that includes courses in math­
ematics may be preferred by employers and
local apprenticeship committees. Applicants
should have manual dexterity and a good color
sense.
Painters and paperhangers may advance to
supervisory jobs with painting and decorating
contractors. A sizable number establish their
own painting and decorating businesses.

Job Outlook
Employment of both painters and paperhangers
is expected to grow about as fast as the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s.
Business growth will create a demand for new
buildings and industrial structures. More paint­
ers will be needed to paint them and to repaint
older buildings. The continued popularity of
wallpaper and other wall coverings will in­
crease the demand for paperhangers as the
number of buildings continues to rise.
Replacement needs will account for most of
the job openings for painters and paperhangers.
Each year thousands of jobs will become avail­
able as painters transfer to other occupations,
retire, die, or stop working for other reasons.
Since there are no strict training requirements
for entry, many people with limited skills work
as painters for a short time and then leave the
labor force or transfer to other types of work,
thus creating many job openings. Because there
are few paperhangers, the number of openings
in that trade is relatively small.
Painters and paperhangers experience peri­
ods of unemployment because of the short dura­
tion of many construction projects and the
cyclical nature of construction activity.
However, remodeling and maintenance projects




provide many jobs for painters and paperhangers even when overall construction activity
declines. Painters and paperhangers can im­
prove their chances of avoiding layoffs by
learning to use a variety of tools, paints, and
wall coverings because employers try to keep
their most skilled workers even during business
slumps.
People wishing to enter painting and paper­
hanging apprenticeships may face competition
for positions. High wages and good training
offered by these programs attract many people.

National Joint Painting, Decorating, and Drywall
Finishing Apprenticeship and Training Committee,
1750 New York Ave. NW., Lower Level, Wash­
ington, D.C. 20006.
Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.

Plasterers
(D.O.T. 842.361-018, -022, and -026, and .381-014)

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for painters who were
not self-employed were about $295 in 1982.
Most earned between $215 and $370 weekly.
The top 10 percent earned over $530 and the
bottom 10 percent earned less than $160 a week.
The hourly rate for union painters and paperhangers in the construction industry was about
$14.50 in 1982. The hourly rate for mainte­
nance painters was about $10.75 in 1982. In
comparison, the average rate for all nonsupervisory or production workers in private indus­
try, except farming, was $7.67 an hour. Annual
income for painters and paperhangers may not
be as high as hourly rates would indicate be­
cause some worktime is lost due to bad weather
and occasional unemployment.
Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually
start at 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced
workers and increase every 6 months until the
full rate of pay is reached at the completion of
apprenticeship.
A large proportion of painters and paperhangers are members of the International
Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. A
few are members of other unions.

Related Occupations
Painters use paints, varnishes, and lacquers to
decorate and protect wood, metal, and other
surfaces. Other occupations in which workers
apply paints and similar finishes include spray

Nature of the Work
Plasterers finish interior walls and ceilings with
many types of plaster materials that form fireresistant and relatively soundproof surfaces,
and they apply durable cement plasters, epoxy
finishes, and stucco to exterior surfaces. They
also cast ornamental designs in plaster.
To interior surfaces such as cinder block and
gypsum lath, plasterers apply two coats of plas­
ter. The first or brown coat is a brown mixture
that provides a base; the second or finish coat
(also called white coat) is a lime-based plaster.
When the foundation consists of metal lath (a
supportive wire mesh), plasterers first apply a
preparatory or scratch coat to the lath, using
either spray or a trowel (a flat, 4-inch by 10-inch
metal plate with a handle), in wavelike motions
to spread a rich plaster mixture into and over the
metal lath. Before the plaster on the lath sets,
workers scratch its surface with a tool similar to
a rake, producing ridges so the brown coat will
cling tightly.
For the brown coat—whether applied to a
scratch coat, cinder block, or gypsum lath—
laborers prepare a thick but smooth plaster.
Plasterers then either spray or trowel this mix­
ture onto the surface, and smooth the plaster to
an even, level surface for finishing.
For the finish coat, plasterers prepare a mix­
ture of lime, plaster of Paris, and water. They
quickly apply it onto the brown coat using a

Construction and Extractive Occupations/303
hawk (a light, metal plate with handle), trowel,
brush, and water. This mixture, which sets very
quickly, produces a very smooth, durable
finish.
Plasterers also work with a plaster material
that can be finished in a single coat. Thin-coat
or veneer plaster, made of lime and plaster of
Paris and mixed with water on the job site, can
be applied on interior masonry surfaces, spe­
cially manufactured wallboard, or drywall pre­
pared with a bonding agent. Thin-coat plaster,
applied like white coat, also provides a smooth,
durable finish.
Plasterers create decorative surfaces as well.
For example, while the final coat is still soft,
they press a brush or trowel firmly against the
surface and use a circular hand motion to create
decorative swirls.
For exterior work, plasterers usually apply a
mixture of white cement and sand—stucco—
over cement, concrete, and masonry. Some­
times stucco is applied directly to a wire lath
scratch coat. As an alternative, they embed
marble or gravel chips into the finish coat to
achieve a uniform, pebblelike, decorative
finish.
Some plasterers apply insulation systems to
the exteriors of new and old buildings. They
cover the outer wall with insulation board and
fiberglass cloth and then trowel on a scratch
coat. They then apply an additional coat of
plaster material, often with a decorative finish.
Plasterers sometimes do complex decorative
and ornamental work that requires much more
skill than other plastering and provides an op­
portunity for an individual to be creative. For
example, they may mold intricate designs for
the walls and ceilings of public buildings. To
make these designs from an architect’s blue­
print, plasterers pour a special plaster into a
mold and allow it to set. Workers then remove
the molded plaster and cement it to the desired
surface.

trade by working as helpers, observing and
learning from experienced plasterers.
Apprenticeship programs, sponsored by lo­
cal joint committees of contractors and unions,
generally consist of at least 2 years of on-thejob training, in addition to at least 144 hours
annually of classroom instruction in drafting,
blueprint reading, and mathematics for layout
work. Nonunion contractors often conduct sim­
ilar programs for trainees.
In class, apprentices start with a history of
the trade and the industry. They also learn about
the uses of plaster, costs, and many other sub­
jects. On the job, they learn about lath bases,
plaster mixes, methods of plastering, blueprint
reading, and safety. Experienced plasterers di­
rect and help apprentices. Some apprenticeship
programs allow individuals to obtain training in
related occupations such as cement masonry
and bricklaying.
Those who learn the trade informally as help­
ers usually start by carrying materials, setting
up scaffolds, and mixing plaster. In a short
time, they learn to apply the scratch and brown
coats. Learning to apply the finish coat takes
considerably longer.
Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs gen­
erally must be at least 17 years old, be in good
physical condition, and have manual dexterity.
Applicants who have a high school or voca­
tional school education are preferred. Courses
in general mathematics, mechanical drawing,
and shop provide a useful background.
Plasterers may advance to supervisors, su­
perintendents, or estimators for plastering con­
tractors, or may become self-employed, con­
tracting for small plastering jobs.

Job Outlook
Employment of plasterers is expected to in­
crease more slowly than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most job

openings will result from the need to replace
workers who transfer to other occupations, re­
tire, or die. Throughout much of the 1960’s and
early 1970’s, employment of plasterers declined
steadily as more builders switched to drywall
construction, which saves both time and
money. This decline has halted in recent years,
however, and employment of plasterers may
rebound somewhat as a result of increased em­
phasis on durability and hardness that trowelled
finishes provide. Thin-coat plastering, in par­
ticular, is expected to gain greater acceptance as
more builders and developers recognize its ease
of application, durability, and quality of finish.
In addition, plasterers will be needed to reno­
vate plaster work in older structures and create
special architectural shapes such as curved sur­
faces, which are not practical for drywall mate­
rials.
Because most plasterers work in con­
struction, employment prospects may fluctuate
from year to year due to changing economic
conditions. High interest rates, which generally
discourage building activity, may result in ex­
perienced plasterers as well as apprentices and
helpers being laid off or having limited job
openings.
Adverse weather conditions affect plastering
less than other construction trades because
much of this work is indoors. When applying
finishes to exterior surfaces, however, plas­
terers may lose worktime because some mate­
rials cannot be applied under wet or freezing
conditions.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for plasterers were
about $310 in 1982. About one-half had earn­
ings between $220 and $445 a week. Self-em­
ployed plasterers may earn considerably more.
Union wages for plasterers in metropolitan
areas averaged an estimated $14.05 an hour in

Working Conditions
Plasterers work outside when applying stucco
but most jobs are indoors. Sometimes plas­
terers work on scaffolds high above the ground
to finish walls and ceilings.
Plastering is physically demanding—requir­
ing considerable standing, bending, lifting,
and reaching overhead.

Employment
Plasterers held about 20,000jobs in 1982. Most
plasterers work on new construction and altera­
tion jobs, particularly where special architec­
tural and lighting effects are part of the work.
Some repair and renovate older buildings.
Many plasterers are employed in Florida, Cal­
ifornia, and the Southwest, where stucco work
is very popular.
Most plasterers work for independent con­
tractors. About 1 out of every 3 plasterers is
self-employed.

Training, Other Qualification, and
Advancement
Most training authorities recommend comple­
tion of an apprenticeship as the best way to learn
plastering. However, most people learn the



Plaster provides a very hard, durable finish that lasts for many years.

304/Occupational Outlook Handbook
1982, or nearly twice the average wage of all
nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex­
cept farming. Nonunion workers and workers
in small cities and rural communities generally
earn less. Apprentice wage rates start at about
half the rate paid to experienced plasterers and
increase 10 percent every 6 months. However,
yearly earnings for plasterers and apprentices
are generally lower than hourly rates would
indicate because poor weather and fluctuations
in construction can adversely affect the annual
number of hours they work.
A large proportion of plasterers are members
of unions. They are represented by either the
Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ In­
ternational Association of the United States and
Canada, or the International Union of Brick­
layers and Allied Craftsmen.

Related Occupations
Other construction occupations in which work­
ers use a trowel as the primary tool include
cement masons, bricklayers, stonemasons, and
tilesetters.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about apprenticeships or other
work opportunities, contact local plastering
contractors; locals of the unions previously
mentioned; a local joint union-management ap­
prenticeship committee; or the nearest office of
the State apprenticeship agency or the State
employment service.
For general information about the work of
plasterers, contact:
International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craft­
smen, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.
Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ Interna­
tional Association of the United States and Canada,
1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Plumbers and
Pipefitters
(D.O.T. 862.261-010, .281-010 and -014, .361-014 and
-018, and .381-014, -018, -022, -026, -030, and -034,
.681-010, .682-010, and .684-034)

Nature of the Work
By simply turning on a faucet, a person acti­
vates a long, complex system of pipes. Small
copper or plastic pipes connect the faucet to the
building’s main water pipes. These pipes in turn
are connected to the cast iron or concrete pipes
of the municipal water system that run under­
ground for miles to a water treatment plant.
Larger pipes connect the plant to a river, reser­
voir, or other water source.
Other pipe systems dispose of waste, provide
water to fight fires, and transport water and
steam for cooling and heating. Pipe systems in
powerplants play an essential role in producing
electricity by carrying the steam that powers
huge turbines. Pipes also are used in manufac­
turing plants to move material through the pro­
duction process.




Plumbers must make sure their work meets local building codes.
Plumbers and pipefitters install and maintain
all these vitally important pipe systems. Al­
though plumbing and pipefitting are sometimes
considered a single trade, workers may spe­
cialize in either craft. Plumbers build and repair
the water, waste disposal, drainage, and gas
systems in homes and commercial and indus­
trial buildings. They also install plumbing fix­
tures—bathtubs, sinks, and toilets—and ap­
pliances such as dishwashers. Pipefitters build
and repair both high and low pressure pipe used
in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning of
buildings, manufacturing, generation of elec­
tricity, and transportation. They may specialize
further, according to the type of pipe system
with which they work. Steamfitters, for exam­
ple, install pipe systems that move liquids or
gases under high pressure. Sprinklerfitters in­
stall automatic fire control sprinkler systems in
buildings.
Because the purpose, size, and operation of
pipe systems differ, the materials and con­
struction techniques used by plumbers and
pipefitters vary by construction project. Water
systems in homes, for example, use copper,
plastic, and galvanized steel pipe that can be
handled and installed by one or two workers.
Municipal sewage systems, on the other hand,
are made of large clay pipe. Installation nor­
mally requires crews of pipefitters. Despite
these differences, all plumbers and pipefitters
must be able to follow building plans and in­
structions from supervisors, lay out the job, and
work efficiently with the materials and tools of
the trade. The following example illustrates
how plumbers use these skills to install piping
in a house.
Working from blueprints or shop drawings
that show the planned location of pipes, plumb­
ing fixtures, and appliances, plumbers lay out
the job to fit the piping into the structure of the

house with the least waste of material and with­
out damaging the structure. They measure and
mark areas where pipe will be installed and
connected. They also check for obstructions,
such as electrical wiring, and plan how to in­
stall pipe around the problem.
To install the piping, plumbers may saw
holes in walls, ceilings, and floor. They may
hang steel supports from ceilings that will hold
the pipe in place. To assemble the system,
plumbers cut and bend lengths of pipe using
saws, pipe cutters, and pipe bending machines.
They connect lengths of pipe with fittings; the
method depends on the type of pipe used. For
copper pipe, plumbers slide fittings over the
end of the pipe and solder the fitting in place
with a torch. For steel pipe, plumbers thread the
end with a pipe threading machine and screw
the pipe into the fitting.
When the piping is in place, plumbers install
the fixtures and appliances and connect the sys­
tem to the outside water and sewer lines. Using
pressure gauges, they check the system to in­
sure that the plumbing works properly.

Working Conditions
Plumbing and pipefitting work is demanding.
Workers do a lot of heavy lifting and must stand
for long periods. Plumbers and pipefitters work
both indoors and outside in all types of weather.
They often work in cramped and dirty places.
They can be injured by falls from ladders, cuts
from sharp tools, and bums from hot pipes.

Employment
Plumbers and pipefitters held 388,000 jobs in
1982, nearly 9,000 fewer than in 1982. This
decline reflects the severe dropoff in con­
struction activity during the 1981-82 recession.
Most worked for mechanical and plumbing
contractors engaged in new construction or re­
pair, alteration, or modernization work. About

Construction and Extractive Occupations/305
1 out of 6 plumbers and pipefitters is self-em­
ployed. Some plumbers install and maintain
pipe systems for government agencies and pub­
lic utilities, and some work on the construction
of ships and aircraft. Others do maintenance
work in industrial and commercial buildings.
Pipefitters, in particular, are employed as main­
tenance personnel in the petroleum, chemical,
and food-processing industries where manufac­
turing operations require the moving of liquids
and gases through pipes.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Apprenticeship is the best way for plumbers or
pipefitters to learn all aspects of these trades. A
large number of people, however, learn plumb­
ing and pipefitting by working for several years
as helpers to experienced plumbers and pipefit­
ters.
Apprenticeship programs for plumbers and
pipefitters are administered by local unionmanagement committees comprised of mem­
bers of the United Association of Journeymen
and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefit­
ting Industry and the Mechanical Contractors
Association of America, Inc. or the National
Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling
Contractors. Apprenticeship programs also are
administered by local chapters of the Associ­
ated Builders and Contractors and the National
Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling
Contractors. Apprenticeships consist of 4 years
of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 216
hours annually of related classroom instruction.
Classroom subjects include drafting and blue­
print reading, mathematics, applied physics
and chemistry, safety, and local plumbing
codes and regulations.
On the job, apprentices first learn basic skills
such as identifying grades and types of pipe, the
use of the tools of the trade, and the safe unload­
ing of materials. As apprentices gain experi­
ence, they learn how to work with various types
of pipe and to install different piping systems
and plumbing fixtures.
People learning the trade as helpers acquire
their skills by observing and assisting experi­
enced plumbers and pipefitters. These workers
may not learn to work with as wide a variety of
materials and piping systems as apprentices.
Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs gen­
erally must be at least 18 years old and in good
physical condition. Employers prefer high
school graduates. Courses in shop, plumbing,
general mathematics, drafting, blueprint read­
ing, and physics are helpful. Applicants may be
given tests to determine whether they have the
mechanical aptitude required in these trades.
Most communities require plumbers to be
licensed. To obtain a license, workers must
pass a special examination to demonstrate
knowledge of the trade and of local plumbing
codes.
Some plumbers and pipefitters may become
supervisors for mechanical and plumbing con­
tractors. Others go into business for them­
selves. As they expand their activities, they
may employ other workers and become con­
tractors.



Job Outlook

Related Occupations

Employment of plumbers and pipefitters is ex­
pected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Some of
this growth represents a rebounding of employ­
ment to prerecession levels. Over the long run
construction and renovation of oil refineries,
chemical plants, powerplants, pipelines, office
buildings, factories, and other projects that
have large, complex pipe systems are expected
to spur the demand for pipefitters. Residential
construction also is expected to increase the
demand for plumbers.
In addition to jobs created by increased de­
mand for plumbers and pipefitters, many open­
ings will occur each year from the need to
replace experienced workers who retire, die, or
stop working for other reasons. Relatively few
plumbers and pipefitters transfer to other oc­
cupations, reflecting their lengthy investment
in training. Nevertheless, most job openings
will stem from replacement needs.
Because of the temporary nature of con­
struction projects, plumbers and pipefitters
may become unemployed for short periods
when the project on which they are working
ends. Some plumbers and pipefitters may face
longer periods of unemployment when overall
construction activity declines and fewer jobs
are available. Employment of these workers,
however, generally is less sensitive to changes
in economic conditions than many other con­
struction trades. Maintenance of existing pip­
ing systems provides jobs for many plumbers
and pipefitters even when construction activity
declines.
People wishing to enter plumbing and
pipefitting apprenticeships are likely to face
competition. High wages and opportunities for
all-round training attract many people to these
programs.

Other occupations in which workers install and
repair mechanical systems in buildings are
boilermakers, electricians, elevator con­
structors, environmental control system in­
stallers and servicers, hot air furnace installers
and repairers, millwrights, oil burner servicers
and installers, and sheet-metal workers.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for plumbers and
pipefitters who are not self-employed were
$420 in 1982. Most earned between $310 and
$560 weekly. The lowest 10 percent earned less
than $230; the highest 10 percent earned over
$670.
Hourly wage rates for union plumbers and
pipefitters in construction in 1982 were about
$15.50. Maintenance pipefitters averaged
$12.30 an hour in metropolitan areas. In com­
parison, the average wage for all nonsupervisory and production workers in private industry,
except farming, was $7.67. Apprentice wage
rates start at 40 to 50 percent of the rate paid to
experienced plumbers or pipefitters and in­
crease every 6 months.
Many plumbers and pipefitters are members
of the United Association of Journeymen and
Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting
Industry of the United States and Canada. Some
plumbers and pipefitters who have become con­
tractors are members of the Associated Builders
and Contractors, the Mechanical Contractors
Association of America and the National Asso­
ciation of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Con­
tractors.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about apprenticeships or work
opportunities in plumbing and pipefitting, con­
tact local plumbing, heating, and air-con­
ditioning contractors; a local chapter of the Me­
chanical Contractors Association; a local of the
union mentioned above; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committee; or the
nearest office of the State employment service
or State apprenticeship agency.
For general information about the work of
plumbers, pipefitters, and sprinklerfitters, con­
tact:
National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling
Contractors, 1016 20th St. NW., Washington, D.C.
20036.
Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.
National Fire Sprinkler Association, P.O. Box 1000,
Patterson, N.Y. 12563.
Mechanical Contractors Association of America,
5530 Wisconsin Ave., Suite 750, Washington, D.C.
20015.

Roofers
(D.O.T. 866.381-010, -014, and .684-010)

Nature of the Work
A leaky roof can damage ceilings, walls, and
furnishings. To keep out water, roofers install
and repair various kinds of materials such as tar
and gravel, rubber, slate, asphalt or fiberglass
shingles, and tiles. Reroofing—installing new
roofs on existing buildings—accounts for about
70 percent of all roofing work. Roofers also
may waterproof foundation walls and floors.
There are two types of roofs, flat and pitched
(slanted). Most commercial and industrial
buildings have flat roofs. Most houses have
pitched roofs. Roofers may work with both
types, although many roofing contractors spe­
cialize in residential installation and repair. A
roofer’s work varies with the type of roof and
roofing involved.
Most flat roofs are covered with several
layers of materials. Roofers first put a layer of
insulation on the roof deck. They then spread a
coat of hot bitumen (a tar-like substance) over
the roof’s insulation. Next, they lay roofing felt
(fabric saturated in bitumen) over the entire
surface. Roofers then use a mop to spread hot
bitumen over and under the felt. This seals the
seams and makes the surface watertight. Roof­
ers repeat these steps to build up the desired
number of layers (called plies), ending with a
thick layer of bitumen over the surface. The top
layer is sometimes glazed to make a smooth

306/Occupational Outlook Handbook
finished coat or gravel is embedded while it is
still hot.
Some flat roofs are covered with a single ply
system often made of waterproof rubber. Roof­
ers roll the rubber over the roof’s insulation, and
seal the seams. They cement it with an adhesive
and hold it in place with blocks or stone until it
dries.
Most house roofs are covered with shingles
made of asphalt, fiberglass, tile, slate, or wood.
When applying these shingles, roofers first lay,
cut, and tack 3-foot strips of roofing felt length­
wise over the entire roof. Then, starting from
the bottom edge, they nail overlapping rows of
shingles to the roof. Workers measure and cut
the felt and shingles to fit intersecting roofs, and
to fit around vent pipes and chimneys. Wherev­
er two, roof surfaces intersect or shingles reach a
vent pipe or chimney, roofers cement or nail
flashing (strips of metal or shingle) over the
joints to make them watertight. Applying flash­
ing around chimneys is particularly difficult
and requires special knowledge and skill. Fi­
nally, roofers cover exposed nailheads with ce­
ment to prevent rust and water leakage.
Some roofers also waterproof and dampproof
masonry and concrete walls and floors. To pre­
pare surfaces for waterproofing, they hammer
and chisel away rough spots or remove them
with a rubbing brick before brushing on a coat
of liquid waterproofing compound. They also
may paint or spray surfaces with a waterproof­
ing material or nail waterproofing fabric to sur­
faces. When dampproofing, they usually spray
a coating of tar on interior or exterior surfaces.

Working Conditions
Roofers’ work is strenuous. It involves heavy
lifting, as well as climbing, bending, and squat­
ting. Roofers risk injuries from slips or falls
from scaffolds, ladders, or roofs, and bums
from hot bitumen. In fact, the accident rate in
the roofing industry generally is the highest in
all construction. Roofers work outdoors in all

types of weather, particularly when making re­
pairs. Roofs are extremely hot during the sum­
mer.

Employment
Roofers held about 102,000 jobs in 1982, nearly
8,000 fewer than in 1980. This decline reflects
the severe dropoff in construction activity dur­
ing the 1981-82 recession. Most roofers work
for roofing contractors on construction or repair
jobs. Some work for businesses and govern­
ment agencies that do their own construction
and repair work. About 3 out of every 10 roofers
are self-employed.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
The majority of roofers acquire their skills in­
formally by working as helpers for experienced
roofers. They start by carrying equipment and
material and erecting scaffolds and hoists.
Within 2 or 3 months they are taught to mea­
sure, cut, and fit roofing materials. Soon, they
are able to lay asphalt or fiberglass shingles. It
can take 5 years or more to get experience
installing all types of roofing materials, because
some materials are not used frequently.
Some roofers train through 3-year appren­
ticeship programs administered by local unionmanagement committees. The apprenticeship
program generally consists of a minimum of
1,400 hours of on-the-job training annually, in
addition to 144 hours of classroom instruction
in subjects such as tools and their use, arith­
metic, and safety. On-the-job training for ap­
prentices is similar to that for helpers, except
that the apprenticeship program is more struc­
tured. Apprentices also learn to dampproof and
waterproof walls.
Good physical condition and a good sense of
balance are essential. A high school education
or its equivalent is helpful, as are courses in
mechanical drawing and basic mathematics.

Applicants for apprenticeship programs must
be at least 18 years old.
Roofers may advance to supervisor for a
roofing contractor; some become contractors
themselves.

Job Outlook
Employment of roofers is expected to increase
as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Part of this projected
growth reflects the rebound in employment to
prerecession levels. Because turnover is high,
the need to replace experienced roofers who
leavfe the occupation will, account for most job
openings. Jobs should be easiest to find during
spring and summer when most roofing is done.
Buildings need new roofs about every 10 to
20 years depending upon the type of the roofing
material and the area of the country. Some roof­
ing materials, such as slate, tile, or cedar, will
last for 50 years or more with proper care. As
the number of buildings in use grows, more
roofers will be needed to do the additional re­
roofing work.
Roofing is less sensitive to general economic
conditions than other construction occupations.
Because reroofing accounts for most of the roof­
er’s work, employment opportunities are not
tied to the level of new construction, which
tends to fall during economic downturns.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for roofers working
full time were about $310 a week in 1982. One
out of 2 roofers earned between $215 and $455 a
week and 1 out of 10 earned more than $600
weekly.
Union roofers in metropolitan areas had esti­
mated average wages of about $14.15 an hour in
1982, according to the limited information
available. In comparison, the average hourly
rate for all nonsupervisory or production work­
ers in private industry, except farming, was
$7.67. Apprentices usually start at 55 percent
of the skilled roofer’s pay rate and receive in­
creases every 6 months. Yearly earnings for
roofers and apprentices, however, generally are
lower than hourly rates would indicate because
the annual number of hours they work can be
adversely affected by poor weather and fluctua­
tions in construction.
Some roofers are members of the United
Union of Roofers, Waterproofers and Allied
Workers.

Related Occupations
Roofers cover and waterproof roofs using dif­
ferent types of shingles, bitumen and gravel, or
other materials. Workers in other occupations
also cover surfaces with special materials for
protection and decoration. These occupations
include acoustical carpenters, compositionweatherboard appliers, dry-wall applicators
and tapers, floor covering installers, glaziers,
siding applicators, terrazzo workers, and
tilesetters.

Sources of Additional Information
•

•

:* r

" ’ ’t .

7 T-

••

Roofers put down felt paper before attaching the roofing shingles.



For information about roofing apprenticeships
or work opportunities in this trade, contact lo­
cal roofing contractors; a local of the union

Construction and Extractive Occupations/307
previously mentioned; a local joint union-man­
agement apprenticeship committee; or the near­
est office of the State employment service or
State apprenticeship agency.
For information about the work of roofers,
contact:
National Roofing Contractors Association, 8600
Bryn Mawr Ave., Chicago, 111. 60631.

Sheet-Metal Workers
(D.O.T. 804.281-010, -014, and 809.381-014)

Nature of the Work
Sheet-metal workers make, install, and main­
tain a variety of sheet-metal products for homes
and commercial and industrial buildings. These
products include ducts for air-conditioning,
heating, and ventilating and pollution control
systems, kitchen equipment, roofs, siding, rain
gutters, skylights, and outdoor signs. Some
workers specialize in fabrication, installation,
or maintenance; but most do all three jobs.
(This statement covers only sheet-metal work­
ers employed in the construction industry. It
does not include those employed in the mass
production of sheet-metal products.)
Sheet-metal workers usually fabricate their
products at a shop away from the construction
site. Working from blueprints or instructions
from supervisors, they measure, cut, bend,
shape, and fasten pieces of sheet metal to make
duct work, counter tops, and other custom
products. Workers use tapes and rulers for mea­
suring sheet metal and laying out the work;
hand shears, hack saws, and power saws for
cutting; and specially designed, heavy steel
presses and shears for cutting, bending, and

shaping. In some shops, workers use com­
puterized equipment to lay out and cut the sheet
metal. After it has been cut and shaped sheet
metal workers fasten the seams and joints to­
gether with bolts, cement, drive slips, rivets,
solder, or by welding.
At the construction site, sheet-metal workers
assemble and install pieces fabricated at the
shop. They also use hammers, shears, and drills
to make parts by hand at the worksite and to
alter parts made in the shop.
Workers install ducts, pipes, and tubes by
joining them end to end and hanging them with
metal hangers secured to a ceiling or a wall. To
hold the pieces together, workers may bolt,
weld, rivet, glue, or solder, or use specially
formed sheet metal drive slips.
Molded and pressed sheet metal, such as
roofing and siding, usually is measured and cut
on the job. After securing the first panel in
place, workers interlock and fasten the grooved
edge of the next panel into the grooved edge of
the first. They nail or weld the free edge of the
panel to the structure. This two-step process is
repeated for each additional panel. Finally, at
joints, along comers, and around windows and
doors, workers fasten machine-made molding
for a neat, finished effect.
Some sheet-metal workers specialize in test­
ing, balancing, adjusting and servicing of exist­
ing air-conditioning and ventilation systems to
make sure they are functioning properly.

Working Conditions
Sheet-metal workers do considerable bending,
lifting, standing, and squatting in close quar­
ters or in awkward positions. They often work
high above ground. They may get cuts and
burns from materials and tools. Because most
work is done indoors, sheet-metal workers gen­
erally lose less work time than other con­
struction workers due to bad weather.

Employment
Sheet-metal workers held about 87,000 wage
and salary jobs in the construction industry in
1982—nearly 12,000 less than in 1980. This
decline reflects the severe dropoff in con­
struction activity during the 1981-82 recession.
Construction employers include roofing,
sheet-metal, and air-conditioning and heating
contractors and general contractors engaged in
residential, industrial, and commercial build­
ing. Very few sheet-metal workers are selfemployed. Sheet-metal workers are employed
throughout the country, but jobs are concen­
trated in metropolitan areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Most sheet-metal workers learn their trade
through apprenticeship.



Unlike many other construction workers, the
vast majority of sheet-metal workers learn their
trade through apprenticeship. Only a very small
proportion acquire their skills informally on the
job.
The apprenticeship program usually consists
of 4 years of on-the-job training and related
classroom instruction. The programs are ad­
ministered by joint committees of locals of the
Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association
and local chapters of the Sheet Metal and Air-

Conditioning Contractors’ Association, or by
local chapters of the Associated Builders and
Contractors. The apprenticeship agreement
usually provides a worker on-the-job experi­
ence in most aspects of the trade. Appren­
ticeship also is the best way to learn the mathe­
matics needed for layout work.
On the job, apprentices use the tools, ma­
chines, equipment, and materials of the trade.
They learn to measure, cut, bend, fabricate,
and install sheet metal. They begin with duct
work and gradually advance to more difficult
jobs, such as making complex ducts, fittings,
and decorative pieces. Toward the end of their
training, they use materials such as pressed
fiberglass, plastics, and acoustical tile, which
may be substituted for metal on some jobs.
In the classroom, apprentices learn drafting,
blueprint reading, trigonometry and geometry
applicable to layout work, welding, and the
principles of heating, air-conditioning, and
ventilating system s. Safety is stressed
throughout the program. In addition, appren­
tices learn the relationship between sheet-metal
work and other construction work.
Workers who pick up the trade informally
usually begin by carrying metal and cleaning
up debris in a metal shop while they learn about
materials and tools and their uses. Then, as
employers permit, helpers learn to set switches
and operate levers on machines that bend or cut
metal. In time, helpers go out on the a to learn
installation.
Applicants for jobs as apprentices or helpers
should be in good physical condition and have
mechanical aptitude. Local apprenticeship
committees and employers may require a high
school or vocational school education. Courses
in trigonometry, geometry, mechanical draw­
ing, and shop provide a helpful background for
learning the trade.
Sheet-metal workers may advance to super­
visory jobs or may go into the contracting busi­
ness. Because a sheet-metal contractor must
have a shop with equipment to fabricate prod­
ucts, this type of contracting business is more
expensive to start than other types of con­
struction contracting.

Job Outlook
Employment of sheet-metal workers in con­
struction is expected to increase faster than the
average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Some of this growth reflects a re­
bounding of employment to prerecession lev­
els. Most openings will arise as experienced
workers leave the occupation, retire, or die.
Relatively few sheet-metal workers transfer to
another occupation, reflecting the lengthy ap­
prenticeship most workers have completed.
More sheet-metal workers will be needed to
install air-conditioning and heating duct work
and other sheet-metal products in new houses,
stores, offices, and other buildings. A growing
demand for new, more energy-efficient air-con­
ditioning and heating systems in existing build­
ings also will boost employment opportunities
for sheet-metal workers. Installation of solar
heating equipment will provide additional de­
mand.

308/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Although employment of sheet-metal work­
ers is expected to increase over the long run,
workers may experience periods of unemploy­
ment when construction projects end and when
economic conditions reduce the amount of con­
struction. However, employment of sheet-metal
workers is less sensitive to declines in new
construction than employment of some con­
struction workers, such as carpenters. Mainte­
nance of existing sheet-metal equipment—
which is less affected by economic fluctuations
than new construction—makes up a large part
of the work done by sheet-metal workers. In­
stallations of new air-conditioning and heating
systems in existing buildings also continue dur­
ing construction slumps as individuals and
businesses seek more energy-efficient equip­
ment to cut utility bills.
People wishing to enter sheet-metal appren­
ticeships will face keen competition for posi­
tions because high wages and good training
attract many people.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of full-time sheet-met­
al workers were about $400 in 1982. Most
earned from $320 to $510 weekly. The top 10
percent earned more than $640 a week while the
bottom 10 percent earned less than $240 a
week.
The average hourly rate for union sheet-met­
al workers in large metropolitan areas were
about $15.00 in 1982. This was about twice the
average for all nonsupervisory workers in pri­
vate industry, except farming. In some areas
union sheet-metal workers receive financial aid
when they are unemployed. Hourly earnings
for maintenance sheet-metal workers in metro­
politan areas ranged from $10.14 to $14.27.
Apprentices generally start at 40 percent of the
rate paid to experienced sheet-metal workers
and usually earn pay raises every 6 months
during their apprenticeship.
A large proportion of sheet-metal workers
are members of the Sheet Metal Workers’ Inter­
national Association.

Related Occupations
Other occupations in which workers lay out and
fabricate metal products include bench die
makers, layout workers, machinists, metal fab­
ricators, metal patternmakers, shipfitters, and
tool-and-die makers.

Sources of Additional Information
For more information about apprenticeships or
other work opportunities, contact local sheetmetal contractors or heating, refrigeration, and
air-conditioning contractors; a local of the uni­
on mentioned above; a local joint union-man­
agement apprenticeship committee; or the near­
est office of the State employment service or
apprenticeship agency.
For general information about sheet-metal
workers, contact:
Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.




Employment

Tilesetters
(D.O.T. 861.381-054, -058. and .684-018)

Nature of the Work
In ancient Egypt and Rome, tile was used for
the design and construction of mosaics—an art
form using small, decorative ceramic squares.
Today, in a fashion similar to that of the ancient
artists, tilesetters apply tile to floors, walls, and
ceilings.
To set tile, which generally ranges in size
from 1/2 inch to 6 inches square, workers use
either cement or mastic (a very sticky paste).
When using cement or mortar to set tile, tileset­
ters first must tack a support of metal mesh to
the wall or ceiling. They use a trowel to apply a
cement plaster, called a scratch coat, onto the
metal screen and a tool, similar to a rake, to
scratch the surface of the soft plaster. After the
scratch coat has dried, tilesetters apply a rich
coat of cement to the back of the tile and then
place it onto the surface to be tiled.
To set tile in mastic or a cement adhesive
(called “thin set” ), tilesetters need a flat, solid
surface such as dry wall, concrete, plaster, or
wood. They use a tooth-edged trowel to spread
the mastic on the surface or apply the cement
adhesive to the back of the tile. When properly
positioned by the tilesetter, the tiles readily
adhere to the surface without slippage.
Since tile varies in color, shape, and size,
workers sometimes prearrange tiles on a dry
floor according to a specified design. This al­
lows workers to examine the pattern and make
any necessary changes.
Whether or not tiles are prearranged, tileset­
ters place each tile onto the cement or mastic.
Some tiles are cut with a machine saw or a
special cutting tool to fit into corners and
around pipes, tubs, and wash basins. Once the
tile is placed, tilesetters gently tap the surface
with their trowel handle or a small block of
wood so the tiles seat evenly.
When the cement oi*mastic has set, tileset­
ters use a rubber float to fill the joints with
grout—a very fine cement. They then scrape
the surface with a rubber-edged device called a
squeegee to further dress the joints and to re­
move excess grout from the face of the tile.
Before the grout sets, tilesetters finish the joints
with a damp sponge for a uniform appearance.

Tilesetters held about 20,000 jobs in 1982,
mainly in nonresidential construction, such as
schools, hospitals, and public and commercial
buildings. About 1 out of 3 tilesetters is selfemployed.
Tilesetters are employed throughout the
country but are found largely in urban areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most training authorities recommend comple­
tion of a 3-year apprenticeship program, which
generally consists of on-the-job training and
related classroom instruction in subjects such
as blueprint reading, layout, and basic mathe­
matics.
Apprentices begin by familiarizing them­
selves with the tools of the trade. They are
taught to mix and apply cement and to apply
mastic. Then, they learn to cut and install tile,
and to apply grout and finishing techniques.
A substantial proportion of tilesetters,
however, acquire skills informally by working
as helpers to experienced workers. They start
by carrying supplies, cleaning work areas, and
grouting and cleaning tile. Depending on the
employer, a helper may learn to spread cement
or mastic. Eventually, a helper is taught to cut
and set tile.
When hiring apprentices or helpers, employ­
ers usually prefer high school or vocational
school graduates who have had courses in gen­
eral mathematics, mechanical drawing, and
shop. Good physical condition, manual dex­
terity, and a good sense of color harmony also
are important assets. Apprenticeship pro­
grams, while often recommended, may be
more difficult to enter than other forms of train­
ing. In some localities, a written test and a
physical examination are required.

Working Conditions
Tilesetters generally work indoors and are not
exposed to the weather. Since most of the struc­
ture has been completed, the work area is rela­
tively clean and uncluttered. Much of the work­
day is spent bending, kneeling, and reaching,
activities that require endurance but not excep­
tional strength. To protect their knees, some
workers wear kneepads.
Although workers are subject to cuts from
tools or materials, falls from ladders, and
strained muscles, the occupation is not consid­
ered as hazardous as some other construction
occupations.

Tilesetters need physical endurance because
much of the work involves kneeling, bending, and
reaching.

Construction and Extractive Occupations/309
Skilled tilesetters may become supervisors
or start their own contracting businesses.

Job Outlook
Employment of tilesetters is expected to in­
crease faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s. Although growth
in demand for these workers will provide some
new job opportunities, most will result from the
leed to replace tilesetters who retire, die, or
eave the occupation for other reasons. Because
:ilesetting is a small occupation, however, there
will be relatively few job openings annually.
Population and business growth are expected
to cause an increase in the construction of
houses and other buildings, and thus increase
the demand for tilesetters. Continued prefer­
ence for tile in kitchens and bathrooms and an
expected increase in the use of tile in other areas
of homes and other buildings will spur employ­
ment in this trade. Tile floors are increasingly
being used in foyers, entranceways, and com­
mon areas of many office and commercial
buildings. For example, tile is widely used in
restaurants because of its durability and low
maintenance costs.




Employment of tilesetters, like that of many
construction occupations, is sensitive to
changes in the economy, particularly changes
in the level of housing and commercial con­
struction. Workers in this trade can experience
periods of unemployment, particularly when
construction activity is down. On the other
hand, temporary shortages of tilesetters may
occur in some areas during peak periods of
building activity.

on organizes the helpers associated with tileset­
ters.

Related Occupations
Tilesetters use their knowledge of tools and
materials along with skill and dexterity to pro­
duce attractive, durable surfaces. Other work­
ers requiring similar abilities include brick­
layers, cement masons, marblesetters, plas­
terers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers.

Sources of Additional Information
Earnings
Median weekly earnings for tilesetters were
nearly $390 in 1982. Earnings for the middle 50
percent ranged between $215 and $500 weekly.
Union wage rates in metropolitan areas were
$14.35 an hour, compared with an average
hourly rate of $7.67 for all nonsupervisory and
production workers in private industry, except
farming. Hourly wage rates for apprentices
start at about 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to
experienced workers and increase periodically.
The principal union organizing workers in
this trade is the International Union of Brick­
layers and Allied Craftsmen. In addition, the
Tile, Marble, Terrazzo Finishers, Shopworkers, and Granite Cutters International Uni­

For details about apprenticeship or other work
opportunities in this trade, contact local tileset­
ting contractors; locals of the unions previously
mentioned; or the nearest office of the State
employment service or State apprenticeship
agency.
For general information about the work of
tilesetters, contact:
International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craft­
smen, International Masonry Institute Appren­
ticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington,
D.C. 20005.
Tile, Marble, Terrazzo Finishers, Shopworkers, and
Granite Cutters International Union, Suite 116, 801
N. Pitt St., Alexandria, Va. 22314.

Extractive Occupations
The mining and petroleum drilling industries
provide most of our Nation’s fuels and raw
materials. Oil and gas drilling supply fuel for
transportation, manufacturing, and home heat­
ing. Metallic mining produces iron, copper,
and silver for manufacturing. Quarrying fur­
nishes limestone and gravel for building. And
coal mining provides fuel for generating elec­
tricity. The workers who drill for oil and gas,
and mine coal, and metallic and nonmetallic
ores make up the extractive occupations.
Workers in extractive occupations usually learn

their skills on the job. New workers are hired
from the area around the wells and mines. Phys­
ical strength, stamina, and mechanical aptitude
often are the most important traits sought by
employers. A high school diploma generally is
not required.
After receiving safety training, new workers
are assigned to laborer jobs around the well or
mine. Opportunities for training and promotion
usually are based on seniority and ability to do
higher level work. In many cases, union-man­
agement agreements set the rules governing

Coal mining will account for most of the growth in employment of
extractive workers.
Projected change in employment, 1982-95 (thousands)
- 30

0

30

60

90

training and promotion. Workers learn by
doing the job under the supervision of experi­
enced workers.
Advancement opportunities for extractive
workers are limited. Some workers become su­
pervisors; however, additional education is
needed to advance to higher supervisory or
management jobs.
Overall, employment in extractive occupa­
tions is expected to grow mainly because of
increased demand for coal. Demand for coal is
expected to increase greatly through the
mid-1990’s as the Nation seeks alternative
sources of energy to imported oil. The in­
creased use of surface mining is expected to
increase the need for bulldozer operators, drag­
line operators, and power shovel operators. In
underground mines, the demand for continuous
mining machine operators and longwall miner
operators also is expected to grow.
Coal also is an important resource in the
production of goods such as steel and cement.
Because the demand for these goods is sensitive
to changes in the level of economic activity, the
demand for coal may decline during economic
downturns. Miners may be laid off when de­
mand for coal drops.
In other mining industries, most of the pro­
jected employment growth reflects the re­
bounding of employment from the 1981-82 re­
cession. Improvements in mining techniques
are expected to limit employment growth over
the long run.
Information on the work, employment, and
growth adjective for a variety of extractive oc­
cupations appears in the tabulation at the end of
this section.

OTHER CONSTRUCTION AND EXTRACTIVE OCCUPATIONS
Title

Definition

Mine operatives

Includes workers involved in operating a variety of equipment to
remove coal, petroleum, and other minerals from the earth.

Rotary drill
operators

Shipwrights

310



Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

204,000

Little change is
expected

Operate gasoline, diesel, electric or steam draw works to drill oil or
gas wells. May also drill shallow boreholes to obtain samples of
earth formations, for placement of explosives in seismic prospecting,
or for other prospecting tests to discover petroleum. May specialize
in drilling underwater wells and be designated Rotary Driller,
Marine.

28,000

Little change is
expected

Construct or repair ships, following blueprints or ships’ plans, build
keel and bilge blocks, cradles, and shoring for supporting ships in
drydock, marine railways, shipways, or building docks, using power
and hand woodworking tools.

5,500

About as fast as
average

Production Occupations
*

Cars, gasoline, newspapers, eyeglasses, dia­
mond rings, guided missiles, and most other
products have at least one thing in common—
they are made by production workers. Most
production workers are found in manufacturing
plants, but others work in settings as different
as shoe repair shops, movie theaters, jewelry
stores, and meat markets.
There are thousands of production occupa­
tions. In many, workers do only one task in a
process that mass produces a single product. A
lens inserter, for example, fits lenses into eye­
glass frames. In other production jobs, workers
do a variety of tasks to produce many different
goods. Instrument makers, for example, build
precise measuring and regulating devices,
completing all of the steps that are required to
finish the devices. Some workers perform sim­
ple, repetitive operations on large machine
tools, while others—jewelers, for example—
use handtools to do delicate work. Not all pro­
duction workers turn out products, however.
Some operate complex systems of boilers, gen­
erators, pumps, and valves that produce clean
water or energy.
Training requirements for production work­
ers vary widely. Some workers who do re­
petitive tasks can learn their job in a few days.
Other jobs require years of experience. Many
production workers learn their skills through
apprenticeship programs that combine class­
room instruction with on-the-job training. Oth­
ers receive training in public and private voca­
tional schools and in the Armed Forces.
The occupational statements in this chapter
describe in detail the work, training, and job
outlook for 24 production occupations.

Blue-Collar Worker
Supervisors________
Nature of the Work
In any organization, someone has to be boss.
For the millions of workers who assemble tele­
vision sets, service automobiles, lay bricks,
unload ships, or perform any of thousands of
other activities, a blue-collar worker supervisor
is the boss. These supervisors direct the ac­
tivities of other employees and frequently en­
sure that millions of dollars worth of equipment
and materials are used properly and efficiently.
While blue-collar worker supervisors are most
commonly known as foremen or forewomen,
they also have many other titles. In the textile
industry, they are referred to as second hands;
on ships, they are known as boatswains; and in
the construction industry, they are often called
overseers, strawbosses, or gang leaders.



Although titles may differ, the job of all bluecollar worker supervisors is similar. They tell
other employees what work has to be done and
make sure the work is done correctly. For exam­
ple, manufacturing supervisors may inspect
products during and after the production pro­
cess to make sure that they conform to customer
specifications and company standards. Loading
supervisors at truck terminals assign workers to
load trucks, and then check that the material is
loaded correctly and that each truck is fully
used. They may mark freight bills and record
the load and weight of each truck. Mine car
dispatchers control the transport of coal
through underground mines.
Because they are responsible for the output of
other workers, supervisors make work sched­
ules and keep production and employee rec­
ords. They plan employees’ activities and must
allow for unforeseen problems such as absent
workers and machine breakdowns. Supervisors
teach employees safe work practices and en­
force safety rules and regulations. They also
may demonstrate timesaving or laborsaving
techniques to workers and insure that new em­
ployees are properly trained. They often assign
trainees to work with experienced workers to
learn different aspects of the job.
In addition to their other duties, blue-collar
worker supervisors tell their subordinates about
company plans and policies; recommend good
performers for wage increases, awards, or pro­
motions; and deal with poor performers by re­
training them in proper methods, issuing warn­
ings, or recommending that they be disciplined
or fired. In companies where employees belong
to labor unions, supervisors meet with union
representatives to discuss work problems and
grievances. They must know the provisions of
laboF-management contracts and run their oper­
ations according to these agreements.

Employment
Blue-collar worker supervisors held about 1.2
million jobs in 1982, about 60,000 fewer than in
1980. This decline reflects the severe dropoff in
economic activity during the 1981-82 reces­
sion. Although they worked for almost all busi­
nesses and government agencies, over half of
them worked in manufacturing, supervising the
production of cars, washing machines, and
thousands of other products. Most of the rest
worked in the construction industry, wholesale
and retail trade, public utilities, transportation,
and government agencies. Employment is dis­
tributed in much the same way as the popula­
tion, and jobs are located in all cities and towns.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
When choosing supervisors, employers gener­
ally look for experience, skill, and leadership
qualities. Employers place emphasis on the
ability to motivate employees, maintain high
morale, command respect, and get along with
people. Completion of high school often is the
minimum educational requirement, and 1 or 2
years of college or technical school can be very
helpful to workers who want to become super­
visors.
About 3 of every 4 supervisors rise through
the ranks—that is, they are promoted from jobs
where they operated a machine, worked on an
assembly line, or at a construction craft. This
work experience gives them the advantage of

Working Conditions
Although working conditions vary from indus­
try to industry, most blue-collar worker super­
visors work in a normal shop environment.
They may be on their feet much of the time
overseeing the work of subordinates and may be
subjected to the noise and grime of machinery.
Since these supervisors are responsible for
the work of other blue-collar workers, they may
work longer hours in order to be on the job
before other workers arrive and after they leave.
First-line supervisors sometimes are caught
in the middle between the work force and man­
agement. New supervisors who are hired from
outside the firm also may face initial hostility
from workers who feel they should have been
promoted to the job. For many supervisors,
these problems are offset by the satisfaction that
they may find in having more challenging and
prestigious jobs than most blue-collar workers.

Blue-collar worker supervisors develop work
schedules and m onitor the production of
employees.

311

312/Occupational Outlook Handbook
knowing how jobs should be done and what
problems may arise. It also provides them with
insight into employee attitudes towards man­
agement policies. Supervisors are sometimes
former union representatives who are familiar
with grievance procedures and union contracts.
To supplement this work experience, many
companies have training programs to help de­
velop supervisory skills.
Although few blue-collar worker supervisors
are college graduates, a growing number of
employers are hiring trainees with a college or
technical school background. This practice is
most prevalent in industries with highly tech­
nical production processes, such as the aero­
space, oil, and electronics industries. Employ­
ers generally prefer backgrounds in business
administration, industrial relations, mathe­
matics, engineering, or science. New em­
ployees undergo on-the-job training until they
are able to accept supervisory responsibilities.

Outstanding supervisors, particularly those
with college education, may move up to higher
management positions. In manufacturing, for
example, they may advance to jobs such as
department head and plant manager. Some su­
pervisors, particularly in the construction in­
dustry, use the experience and skills they gain to
go into business for themselves.

Job Outlook
Employment of blue-collar worker supervisors
is expected to increase about as fast as the
average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Rising incomes will stimulate de­
mand for goods such as houses, air-con­
ditioners, TV sets, personal computers, and
cars. As a result, more blue-collar workers will
be needed to produce these items, and more
supervisors will be needed to direct their ac­
tivities. Although most of these supervisors
will continue to work in manufacturing, a large

The unemployment rate for blue-collar worker supervisors is about
one-third of the rate for all blue-collar workers.

Percent unemployed




part of the increase in jobs will be in non­
manufacturing industries, especially in the
trade and service sectors.
In addition to the jobs resulting in increased
demand for supervisors, many openings will
arise from the need to replace workers who
leave their occupation. Supervisors have a rela­
tively strong attachment to the occupation, but
because the occupation is so large, turnover
results in a large number of openings.
Because blue-collar worker supervisors are
so important to the successful operation of a
firm, they are often protected from layoffs dur­
ing recession. Supervisors in the construction
industry, however, may experience periodic
layoffs when interest rates cause construction
activity to decline.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for blue-collar worker
supervisors were about $425 in 1982. The mid­
dle 50 percent earned between $310 and $560.
The lowest 10 percent earned less than $235 and
the highest 10 percent earned over $700. Super­
visors receive a salary determined by the wage
rates of the highest paid workers they supervise.
For example, some companies keep wages of
supervisors about 10 to 30 percent higher than
those of their subordinates. Some supervisors
receive overtime pay.

Related Occupations
Other workers with similar supervisory duties
include those who supervise professional and
technical, sales, clerical, and service workers.
Some of these are retail store or retail depart­
ment managers; bank officers and head tellers;
hotel managers, housekeepers, and assistants;
postmasters and line supervisors; head cooks;
head nurses; and surveyors.

Sources of Additional Information
A bibliography of literature on management
occupations is available from:
American Management Association, 135 West 50th
St., New York, N.Y. 10020.

Precision Production Occupations
The workers discussed in this section of the
Handbook produce goods that require a high
degree of precision and must meet rigid quality
standards. In addition, many of these workers
must interpret very detailed instructions and
specifications. Tool makers, for example, pro­
duce tools such as guides for drill presses that
must be made to precise specifications because
they are used to make hundreds or even thou­
sands of identical parts. To do the job correctly,
the tool maker must be able to read and follow
exactly the blueprints provided by the tool de­
signer.
There are no universal training requirements
for these workers. Most precision production
jobs can be learned informally—starting as a
helper and observing experienced workers.
Some companies offer in-house training pro­
grams on specific areas of the work. The pre­
ferred training for many of the more highly
skilled occupations—machinists, tool-and-die
makers, and lithographers, for example—is
completion of a formal apprenticeship pro­
gram. These programs, which usually last from
3 to 5 years, combine classroom instruction
with on-the-job training.
Job prospects for precision production work­
ers vary widely. See the Handbook statements
that follow for information on the job outlook in
specific occupations.

Boilermakers
(D.O.T. 805.261-010, -014, .361-010, -014, and .381-010)

Nature of the Work
Boilers, vats, and other large vessels that hold
liquids and gases are essential to many indus­
tries. Boilers, for example, supply the steam
that drives the huge turbines in electric utility
plants and ships. Tanks and vats are used to
process and store chemicals, oil, beer, and hun­
dreds of other products. Boilermakers assem­
ble, erect, and repair these vessels and related
equipment.
Boilermakers follow blueprints and tem­
plates in marking off lines, curves, holes, and
dimensions on metal plates and tubes used to
make the various parts of a boiler, vat, or tank.
Markings must be planned and measured care­
fully, allowing for the curvature and thickness
of the metal. Because errors in size or shape
may be difficult or impossible to correct after
the metal is cut, these workers use instruments,
such as compasses, protractors, gauges, and
scales, to make precise measurements.
After they cut and shape the metal to specifi­
cations, boilermakers use bolts or temporary
welds, called tackwelds, to hold the parts in




place while they check to see that parts line up
according to the blueprints. They use grinders
or cutting torches to remove excess metal, and
welding machines to fill in small gaps. A new
piece may have to be cut for large gaps.
Small boilers may be assembled at the plant
where they are made; however, once the pieces
for a larger boiler or tank have been cut out and
checked for proper fit, they are transported to
the shop or construction site for installation.
There, boilermakers assemble and erect the
vessels using rigging equipment such as hoists
and jacks to lift heavy metal parts into place,
and then weld or rivet the parts together. Be­
cause installation work must meet statutory
safety standards, boilers are carefully tested for
leaks and other defects.
Boilermakers also install auxiliary equip­
ment on boilers and other vessels. For example,
they install vapor barriers on open-top oil, gas,
and chemical storage tanks to prevent fumes
from polluting the air, and air pollution control
equipment, such as precipitators and smoke
scrubbers, in electric plants that burn highsulfur coal.
Some highly skilled boilermakers (called
mechanics) also maintain and make repairs so
that boilers remain safe and in good working
condition. For example, when boilers occa­
sionally develop leaks, boilermaker mechanics
may dismantle the boiler, patch weak spots with
metal stock, replace defective sections, or
strengthen joints.

for boiler repair firms and in Federal Govern­
ment installations, principally in Navy
shipyards and Federal powerplants. Boiler­
makers who lay out and fit structural parts to­
gether work mainly in plants that make firetube and water-tube boilers, heat exchangers,
heavy tanks, and similar products.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Although many people have become boiler­
makers by working for several years as helpers
to experienced boilermakers, most training au­
thorities agree that a formal apprenticeship is
the best way to leant this trade. Apprenticeship
programs usually consist of 4 years of on-thejob training, supplemented by about 150 hours
of classroom instruction each year in subjects
such as blueprint reading, shop mathematics,
and welding. Apprentices often have to travel if
work is not available in their locality. If they are
laid off, their apprenticeship will take longer
than 4 calendar years to complete.
Helpers who learn the craft by working with
experienced boilermakers generally reach the
journeyman level after at least 4 years on the
job. They generally lack the wide range of skills
acquired through the apprenticeship process,
however.
When hiring apprentices or helpers, employ­
ers prefer high school or vocational school

Working Conditions
When laying out, fitting, assembling, or repair­
ing boilers, workers often use potentially dan­
gerous equipment, such as acetylene torches
and power grinders, and handle heavy mate­
rials. Work may be done in cramped quarters
inside boilers, vats, or tanks, which are often
damp and poorly ventilated. Because workers
occasionally work at great heights on top of
large vessels, this occupation is more hazard­
ous than many other metalworking occupa­
tions. To reduce the chance of injuries, many
workers wear protective equipment, such as
safety harnesses, safety glasses, and helmets.

Employment
Boilermakers held about 40,000 jobs in 1982,
about 4,000 fewer than in 1980. This decline
reflects the severe dropoff in manufacturing and
construction activity during the 1981-82 reces­
sion. About 4 of every 10 boilermakers work in
the construction industry, mainly to assemble
and erect boilers and other pressure vessels. In
addition, many work in the maintenance and
repair departments of iron and steel plants, pe­
troleum refineries, railroads, shipyards, and
electric powerplants. Large numbers also work

Boilermakers test for leaks or other defects be­
fore installation is completed.
313

314/Occupational Outlook Handbook
graduates. Courses in shop, mathematics, blue­
print reading, welding, and machine metal­
working provide a useful background for all
boilermaking jobs. Most firms require appli­
cants to pass a physical examination because
good health and the capacity to do heavy work
are necessary in these jobs. Mechanical ap­
titude and the manual dexterity needed to han­
dle tools also are important qualifications.
Boilermakers who become skilled in the
practical and technical aspects of the trade may
advance to supervisory positions. A few go into
business for themselves.

Job Outlook
Employment of boilermakers is expected to in­
crease more slowly than the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most
openings will arise each year from the need to
replace experienced workers who transfer to
other fields of work, retire, or die.
The expected construction of many new elec­
tric powerplants will create a need for addi­
tional boilers and will cause employment of
boilermakers to increase. However, an antici­
pated slowdown in other industries that use
boiler products, such as chemical and pe­
troleum refining, would offset much of this
increase.
Most of the industries that purchase boilers
are sensitive to economic conditions. There­
fore, during economic downturns some boiler­
makers may be laid off, and some may have to
move from one area of the country to another to
find employment. Because existing boilers
must be maintained and repaired even during
economic downturns, boilermaker mechanics
generally have stable employment prospects.
When economic activity declines, some experi­
enced construction boilermakers move into me­
chanic positions.

Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. Other work­
ers are members of the Industrial Union of Ma­
rine and Shipbuilding Workers of America; the
Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers Interna­
tional Union; and the United Steelworkers of
America.

Related Occupations
Workers in a number of other occupations as­
semble, install, or repair metal equipment or
machines. These include assemblers, black­
smiths, instrument makers, ironworkers, ma­
chinists, millwrights, patternmakers, plumb­
ers, setup workers, sheet-metal workers, tooland-die makers, and welders.

Sources of Additional Information
For further information regarding boilermaking
apprenticeships or other training opportunities,
contact local offices of the unions previously
mentioned, local construction companies and
boiler manufacturers, or the local office of the
State employment service.

Bookbinders
(D.O.T. 640.685-010; 641.682-014; 649.685-090;
653.382-010, .682-014, .685-018 and -026; 794.687-026;
795.684-010; 977.381-010 and -014, .684-010, -018, and
- 022 )

Nature of the Work
Bookbinding—the assembly of books in quan­
tity from large, flat printed sheets of paper—is
one of the most complicated occupations of the
printing industries. Skilled bookbinders oper­
ate machines that first fold the printed sheets
into units, known as “signatures,” so that the
pages will be in the right order. They then insert
any illustrations that have been printed sepa­
rately, gather and assemble signatures in proper

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of full time boiler­
makers were about $490 in 1982; the middle 50
percent earned between $350 and $600 weekly.
The lowest 10 percent earned less than $250
and, the top 10 percent earned more than $700.
According to a national survey of workers in the
construction industry, union wage rates for
boilermakers averaged $15.54 an hour. Annual
earnings for boilermakers working in the build­
ing trades generally are lower than hourly rates
would indicate because poor weather condi­
tions and fluctuations in construction activity
may adversely affect the number of hours they
can work.
Comparable wage data are not available for
boilermakers employed in industrial plants.
However, hourly wage rates for many union
boilermakers employed in fabricated plate
work and in the petroleum and shipbuilding
industries ranged from about $10 to $14 in 1982.
In contrast, the average hourly wages for all
nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex­
cept farm, was $7.67.
Most boilermakers belong to labor unions.
The principal union is the International Broth­
erhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders,



Today most bookbinding is done by machine.

order, and sew them together. They shape the
book bodies with presses and trimming ma­
chines and reinforce them with glued fabric
strips. Covers are glued or pasted onto the book
bodies, and then the books undergo a variety of
finishing operations including, often, wrapping
in paper jackets. Machines are used extensively
throughout the process. Many skilled bookbin­
ders also bind magazines.
Bookbinders seldom perform all the dif­
ferent binding tasks, but many have had train­
ing in all of them. In large shops, bookbinders
may be assigned to one or a few operations,
most often to the operation of complicated ma­
chines, such as a large papercutter or a folding
machine. When necessary, they repair and ad­
just bindery equipment.
Some bookbinders work in hand binderies,
where they design original or special bindings
for a limited edition or restore and rebind rare
books. This skilled work requires creative abil­
ity, knowledge of materials, and a thorough
background in the history of binding. Hand
bookbinding is perhaps the only kind of binding
that gives the individual an opportunity to work
at a variety of jobs.

Working Conditions
The job is physically demanding, as bookbin­
ders do considerable lifting, standing, stoop­
ing, and carrying. Some large machines, such
as cutting machines, require a great deal of
physical effort to operate.

Employment
Bookbinders held nearly 30,000 jobs in 1982.
Machine bookbinders accounted for approx­
imately 4 out of 5 jobs. Although some jobs are
in large libraries or in shops that specialize in
bookbinding, most are in commercial printing
plants. Because very few publishers maintain

Production Occupations/315
their own manufacturing facilities, this opera­
tion generally is contracted out to independent
book printers or trade binders.
Most bookbinders are employed full time.
Although bookbinders work in all parts of the
country, employment is concentrated in large
printing centers such as New York, Chicago,
and Los Angeles.

according to a limited number of union con­
tracts.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Sources of Additional Information

A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship, which includes
on-the-job training as well as related classroom
instruction, generally is required to qualify as a
skilled bookbinder. Apprenticeship applicants
usually must have a high school education,
mechanical aptitude, and be at least 18 years of
age. Apprentices may receive training in all
phases of bookbinding, such as renovating old
and worn bindings and operating bindery
equipment and cutting and trimming machines.
In most plants, bookbinders are taught to oper­
ate and maintain at least three different pieces
of bindery equipment.
High school students interested in bookbind­
ing careers should take shop courses to develop
their mechanical skills. Accuracy, patience,
neatness, and good eyesight are among
qualities needed by bookbinders. Good finger
dexterity is essential for those who count, in­
sert, paste, and fold. Artistic ability and imag­
ination are required for hand bookbinding.
Advancement opportunities are limited. In
large binderies, experienced bookbinders may
advance to supervisory positions.

Job Outlook
Employment of bookbinders is expected to
grow as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s in response to antici­
pated growth in the printing industry. A moder­
ate increase in book publishing is expected as
leisure time activities become more attractive
and as the Nation’s reading population—es­
pecially those in the 35- to- 54 age bracket—
continues to grow. As in other occupations,
however, most job openings will result from the
need to replace experienced bookbinders who
change jobs or leave the labor force.
The bookbinding process has become in­
creasingly mechanized through technologies
such as conveyor belt systems which transport
materials and integral folders which fold pages
automatically as they come off the press. Labor
requirements have been reduced, and jobs of
many bindery workers who assisted skilled
bookbinders in the past have been eliminated.
While emphasis on productivity improvement
is expected to continue in bindery operations,
no radical technological changes are on the
horizon. The application of modem binding
technology is already widespread.
Opportunities for hand bookbinders are lim­
ited by the small number of establishments that
do this highly specialized work.

Earnings
The basic wage rate for skilled bookbinders
varies across the country. In early 1983, basic
wage rates for skilled bookbinders in unionized
firms ranged from $8.12 to $15.46 an hour,



Related Occupations
Other workers who set up and operate produc­
tion machinery include papermaking machine
operators, press operators, and precision ma­
chine operators.

Details about apprenticeships and other train­
ing opportunities may be obtained from local
bookbinding shops, local offices of the Graphic
Communications International Union, or the
local office of the State employment service.
For general information on bookbinding oc­
cupations, write to:
Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes
Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213.
Graphic Communications International Union, 1900
L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn
St., Arlington, Va. 22209.

Butchers and
Meatcutters
(D O T. 316)

Nature of the Work
Butchers and meatcutters prepare meat, fish,
and poultry in supermarkets or wholesale food
outlets. They cut animal carcasses into whole­
sale cuts such as rounds, loins, ribs, and chucks
to facilitate handling and marketing. They use
knives and saws to separate wholesale cuts into
retail cuts or individual size servings, such as
steaks, chops, roasts, filets, and poultry parts.
Boneless cuts are fabricated using knives,
slicers, or power cutters while bandsaws are
required on bony pieces. Meat trimmings are
used to prepare hamburgers, sausages, and
luncheon meats. M eatcutters in retail
foodstores arrange and display meat items in
refrigerated cases and assist customers.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most butchers and meatcutters acquire their
skills informally on the job or through appren­
ticeship programs. A few learn their basic skills
by attending private schools specializing in this
trade. However, graduates of these schools may
need additional on-the-job training and experi­
ence to work as butchers and meatcutters.
Generally, on-the-job trainees begin by
doing odd jobs, such as removing bones and fat
from retail cuts. Under the guidance of skilled
butchers and meatcutters, they learn the proper
use of tools and equipment and how to prepare
various cuts. After demonstrating skill with
tools, they learn to divide quarters into whole­
sale cuts and wholesale cuts into retail and
individual portions. Trainees may learn to cut
and prepare fish and poultry, roll and tie roasts,
prepare sausage, and cure meat. Later, they may
learn marketing operations such as inventory
control, meat buying, and recordkeeping.
Butchers and meatcutters who learn the trade
through apprenticeship programs generally
complete 2 years of supervised on-the-job
training supplemented by classroom work. At
the end of the training period, apprentices must
pass a meatcutting test. In some areas, appren­
tices may become meatcutters without com­
pleting the entire training program if they can
pass the test.
Most employers prefer applicants who have a
high school diploma. Skills important in meat­
cutting are manual dexterity, good depth per­
ception, color discrimination, and good eyehand coordination. A pleasant personality, a
neat appearance, and the ability to communi­
cate clearly are important qualifications for
butchers and meatcutters who wait on custom­
ers. Also, strength is needed to lift and move
heavy pieces of meat. A health certificate may
be required for employment.

Working Conditions
Butchers and meatcutters work in cold rooms to
prevent meat from spoiling. The low tem­
perature, combined with the need to stand for
long periods of time demand stamina; physical
strength may be needed for lifting heavy pieces
of meat. To avoid injury, butchers and meatcut­
ters must be careful when working with sharp
tools—especially power tools. Health and safe­
ty standards require that work areas be clean
and sanitary.

Employment
Butchers and meatcutters held about 191,000
jobs in 1982. Most butchers and meatcutters
were employed in retail foodstores. A few were
employed by restaurants, hotels, hospitals, and
other institutions. Jobs are located in almost
every city and town in the Nation.

Manual dexterity, color discrimination, and good
eye-hand coordination are important in cutting
meat.

316/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Butchers and meatcutters may progress to
supervisory jobs, such as meat department
managers in supermarkets. A few become meat
buyers for wholesalers and supermarket chains.
Some become grocery store managers or open
their own meat markets.

Job Outlook
Employment of butchers and meatcutters is expected to decline slightly through the
mid-1990’s. Nevertheless, thousands of jobs
will be available each year because of the need
to replace experienced workers who transfer to
other occupations or leave the labor force. As
the Nation’s population grows, the demand for
meat should increase. However, this increase in
demand will be more than offset by two trends
in meatcutting. One is the increasing practice of
central cutting—the cutting and wrapping of
meat for several stores at one location. In cen­
tral cutting meatcutters specialize in both a type
of meat they process and the type of cut they
prepare, thus increasing efficiency. A second
trend is the increasing prevalence of “boxing”
here meat is cut and boxed at the meatpacking
plant.

Earnings
The median earnings for full time meatcutters
in 1982 were about $340 a week. The middle 50
percent earned between about $235 and $440 a
week. The lowest tenth earned less than $175 a
week, the highest tenth, more than $515.
Hourly earnings of meatcutters averaged
$12.17 in 1983, according to a survey of union
wage rates for grocery store employees in cities
of 100,000 inhabitants or more.
Many butchers and meatcutters are members
of the United Food and Commercial Workers
International Union.

Related Occupations
Butchers and meatcutters must be skilled at
both hand and machine work and must have
some knowledge of processes and techniques
involved in preparing food. Other occupations
in food preparation which require similar skills
and knowledge are bakers, cooks, and kitchen
supervisors.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about work opportunities can be
obtained from local employers or local offices
of the State employment service. For informa­
tion on training and other aspects of the trade,
contact:
United Food and Commercial Workers International
Union, 1775 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

Compositors and
Typesetters
(D.O.T. 203.382-026, .582-042, -046, -062, and -074;
221.167-010; 650.582-010, -014, -018, and -022, .682010, .685-010; 654.382-010, .582-010; and 973.381-010,
-014; and 979.381-018 and -022)

Nature of the Work
In small shops, one person may do all the work
needed to complete a printing job. In large



Computerized typesetting and composing machines are used in many printing establishments today.
shops, however, the work is divided among
specialists. Among these is the compositors
who prepares preliminary printing plates for
pressroom workers who do the actual printing.
Compositors specialize in typesetting either by
“hot type,” “cold type,” or photocomposition.
There are several ways of setting and produc­
ing printed material. Hand compositors make
up the oldest composing room occupation but
exist only in “hot type” operations. Today, hand
typesetting is rarely used except for small spe­
cialty jobs in which the setting of type by ma­
chine is impractical. Hand typesetters read
from the copy and set each line of type, letter by
letter, on a “composing stick,” a device that
holds type in place. They select the place where
words will be divided and a hyphen placed if
the word does not fit on a line, as well as adjust
the spacing of the type with pieces of metal so
that the line of type will be equal to the width of
the column. As each “stick” is filled, they slide
the completed lines into a shallow metal tray
called “galley.”
Linotype and monotype machine operators
are craft workers who operate semiautomatic
machines that set type much more rapidly than
can be done by hand methods.
Linotype machine operators read from copy
clipped to the machine and operate a keyboard
to select letters and other characters. As they
press the keys, metal molds of the letters are
assembled into lines of words. After complet­
ing a line, operators touch a lever and the ma­
chine automatically fills the molds with molten
lead, forming a line of type into a solid metal
strip called a “slug.” The slugs are assembled
into the type frames from which printing plates
are made.

Monotype keyboard operators also operate a
keyboard machine. However, instead of select­
ing metal molds, the monotype machine pro­
duces a perforated paper tape. The operators
feed the tape into a machine that reads the tape
and automatically selects metal molds for each
letter. The machine then forces molten metal
into each mold to form the type.
While machines make their tasks easier,
monotype and linotype machine operators must
hyphenate and adjust type spacing to fit the
width of columns. In small plants, operators
also may maintain and repair typesetting ma­
chines.
Some typesetting will continue to be done by
hand or with monotype and linotype machines.
However, the craft of composing and typeset­
ting has been revolutionized by technological
advances. Together, photography and com­
puters have changed the way written material
and graphics are converted into print. Com­
puter-generated typesetting is firmly estab­
lished at most large daily newspapers, and
some papers are using electronic pagination, or
page make-up, systems.
With phototypesetting equipment, a pho­
tographic process replaces the casting of type,
and the final product is a photographic positive
film or paper of the type rather than a metal
slug. In a common type of phototypesetting, a
phototypesetter types in the text without regard
to column width or hyphenation and produces a
perforated paper or magnetic tape. The oper­
ator then feeds the tape containing the text into a
computer that is programmed to do hyphena­
tion and create columns of text. The computer
creates a second tape—containing the text as it
will appear when printed—that phototypeset­
ters insert into a photocomposition machine.

Production Occupations/317
This machine displays the individual characters
on the tape and photographs them. The pho­
totypesetter then develops films of the material
to be printed.
The most advanced method of typesetting
uses electronic phototypesetting equipment.
With this equipment, an operator uses a key­
board to select the size and style of type the
column width, and to provide spacing instruc­
tions, as well as to store each character in a
computer. The computer then displays columns
of type on a screen that is similar to a TV picture
tube. Operators visually check the text and
make any required corrections. The informa­
tion is then transmitted to a phototypesetter
which produces a film of the material. These
machines can prepare entire pages of type com­
plete with any pictures to accompany the text.
After the copy is set, typesetters pass it to
other compositors who arrange the columns of
type, pictures, and illustrations according to the
layout for each page submitted by the editor. If
letterpress printing equipment is being used,
they assemble the metal type and photoengrav­
ings in a large metal frame that clamps all the
pieces together. If lithographic film equipment
is being used, they cut the film of type and
pictures and tape the pieces in place.
After arranging all the pages of a particular
job in proper sequence, compositors make page
proofs to review the entire job. Page proofs are
checked with the original copy for errors and
returned to the editor for final changes. After
final changes have been put into the type, the
plate is sent to the pressroom where production
printing plates are made.

Working Conditions
Hand compositors are on their feet most of the
time and do some heavy lifting. Typesetting
machine operators sit for long periods of time.
Monotype and linotype machines are very
noisy.
All compositors may be required to work
overtime to meet publication deadlines; some
regularly work evening or nightshifts. Com­
positors employed by newspapers may work
holidays and weekends.

However, this has changed with the introduc­
tion of new technology, which has had the
effect of lowering skill requirements. More and
more compositors are bypassing the traditional
apprentice approach and learning the craft on
the job. In addition, many firms are small and
thus cannot afford the time and money to de­
velop formal training programs.
In large companies, persons who want to
become all-round compositors generally are
trained through an apprenticeship program.
Most of these programs emphasize operation of
phototypesetting machines and in photocom­
position work. Generally, apprenticeship
covers a 4-year period of training, supple­
mented by classroom instruction or correspon­
dence courses. However, this period may be
shortened by as much as 2 to 2 1/2 years for
apprentices who have had previous experience
or schooling or who show the ability to learn the
trade more rapidly.
Applicants for training must be high school
graduates and in good physical condition. Indi­
viduals interested in working for firms that uti­
lize advanced printing technology need suffi­
cient knowledge of electronics and computers,
including computer programming to indicate
an aptitude for mastering computerized pho­
tocomposition equipment.
Persons with good typing skills can learn to
be phototypesetting machine operators in a rel­
atively short period of time. These workers
need not be trained as skilled compositors, but
they must be familiar with printing terms and
measures.
In recent years, many monotype and linotype
operators have been retrained as phototypeset­
ting operators.
Manual dexterity and the ability to pay atten­
tion to detail and to work independently are
important qualities for a compositor in layout
work.

Job Outlook

Employment of compositors and typesetters is
expected to decline through the mid-1990’s as
electronic composition systems continue to re­
duce labor requirements in composing rooms.
Thus far, implementation of technologies such
as typesetting computers, video display termi­
nals (VDT), and phototypesetting machines
Employment
have had their greatest impact on compositors
Compositors and typesetters held about and typesetters employed by newspapers. VDT
104,000 jobs in 1982. Nearly 40 percent of the equipment, for example, shifts much of the
jobs were in newspaper plants; 18 percent were responsibility for composition and typesetting
in commercial printing plants. The remainder from the composing room to the editorial room.
were in other kinds of printing and publishing Electronic page make-up systems (pagination)
firms; business services including mailing, re­ also eliminate some functions of compositors,
production, commercial art, and stenographic such as laying out pages. Some newspaper
services; and in a wide range of firms that do composing room workers have been retrained
their own printing.
for other jobs, while others have retired early or
Composing room workers are located in al­ have taken jobs in printing firms that do not yet
most every community throughout the country, use electronic composition.
but they are concentrated in large printing cen­
Cost is a major factor in the implementation
ters such as New York, Los Angeles, and Chi­ of advanced technologies. At present, news­
cago.
papers are among the most intensive users of
electronic composition, but applications of
'framing, Other Qualifications, and
typesetting computers are expected to grow,
Advancement
especially with the development of micro­
In the past, almost all compositors were trained processor technology which will reduce the
through some type of apprenticeship program. size and cost of equipment and make it more



accessible to small printing firms. When elec­
tronic composition becomes cost-effective for
small plants, the decline in employment of
compositors and typesetters is bound to acceler­
ate.
Attrition is an important way of dealing with
a reduction in labor requirements, and in firms
implementing new labor-saving technologies,
jobs vacated by experienced compositors and
typesetters generally are not filled. In other
printing plants, however, replacement needs
will generate job openings in the years ahead.
For the jobs that do become available, oppor­
tunities should be best for persons who have
completed post-high school programs in print­
ing technology, such as those offered by com­
munity colleges and vocational-technical in­
stitutes. Many employers prefer to hire appli­
cants who have completed these programs
because the comprehensive training they re­
ceive helps them learn composing room trades
and adapt to new processes and techniques
more rapidly.
Although most opportunities will be in the
printing industry, a growing number of jobs will
be in other industries, such as paper and textile
mills, which are doing their own typesetting
instead of contracting it to printing firms.

Earnings
The basic wage rate for compositors varies
across the country. In early 1983, basic wage
rates for compositors in unionized firms ranged
from $9.52 to $18.31 an hour, according to
limited data from union contracts.

Related Occupations
Other occupations in which workers operate
machines equipped with a typewriter-like key­
board include clerk-typists, computer terminal
system operators, keypunch operators, and
telegraphic-typewriter operators.

Sources of Additional Information
Details about apprenticeship and other training
opportunities may be obtained from local em­
ployers such as newspapers and printing shops,
the local office of the International Ty­
pographical Union, or the local office of the
State employment service.
For general information on composing room
occupations, write to:
Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes
Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213.
Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn
St., Arlington, Va. 22209.

Dental Laboratory
Technicians
(D.O.T. 712.281-010 and .381-014, -018, and -030)

Nature of the Work
Dental laboratory technicians are skilled craft
workers who make and repair a wide variety of

318/Occupational Outlook Handbook
dental appliances, such as dentures, inlays,
crowns, and braces. All work is done according
to written instructions submitted by the dentist.
Technicians work with plastics, ceramics, and
metals. They use models of dental stone or
plaster pourings made from impressions of a
patient’s teeth or mouth taken by the dentist.
Sometimes these models are made by the den­
tist or an assistant, but most often by the techni­
cian.
Most technicians specialize. For example, a
denture contour wire specialist (D.O.T.
712.381-014) makes and repairs contoured wire
frames and retainers for teeth used in dentures;
a dental ceramist (D.O.T. 712.281-010) applies
porcelain paste over a metal framework to form
dental crowns, bridges, and tooth facings; an
orthodontic technician (D.O.T. 712.381-030)
makes appliances for straightening teeth; and
some technicians fabricate and repair full and
partial dentures.
Trainees in beginning jobs usually mix and
pour plaster into casts and molds and perform
other simple tasks. As they gain experience,
they do more difficult laboratory work such as
arranging artificial teeth on dental appliances,
working with dental ceramics (porcelain), or
making castings of gold or chrome metal al­
loys. Technicians use small hand instruments
such as wax spatulas and wax carvers, as well as
special electric lathes and drills, high-heat fur­
naces, metal-melting torches, and other spe­
cialized laboratory equipment.

Working Conditions
Whether they are employed in independent
commercial laboratories, dental offices, or in
home laboratories, dental technicians work in
typical laboratory surroundings. Work areas
are generally clean, well lighted, and well ven­
tilated. Technicians usually have their own
workbenches which are equipped with Bunsen
burners, grinding and polishing machines, and
various handtools. The work is not strenuous,
and although there may be pressure to meet

Dental laboratory technicians do precise work.



to become fully qualified in the craft. Military
personnel who receive dental laboratory train­
ing in the Armed Forces usually qualify for
civilian jobs as dental laboratory technicians.
Certification, which is voluntary, is offered
by the National Board for Certification, a trust
established by the National Association of Den­
tal Laboratories. Certification is increasingly
Employment
important as evidence of a technician’s compe­
Dental laboratory technicians held about tence.
51,000 jobs in 1982. Most jobs were in commer­
Dental technicians, depending upon their
cial dental laboratories, which usually are
skill, experience, and education, may advance
small, privately owned businesses with fewer
than 10 employees. However, a few laboratories to supervisory or managerial positions. Most of
are much larger, and employ over 200 techni­ today’s commercial laboratory owners came up
cians. Dental laboratories are located mainly in “from the bench” to own their own business.
large cities and populous States. Many labora­ For some technicians, career advancement
tories receive work through the mail from den­ means moving into a related job within the
dental field; well-qualified technicians may be­
tists who work a considerable distance away.
About 9,000 dental laboratory technicians come instructors in dental lab training pro­
worked in dentists’ offices. Others worked for grams, or sales representatives for dental prod­
hospitals that provide dental services and for ucts companies.
the Federal Government, chiefly in Veterans
Among the personal traits important in this
Administration hospitals and clinics.
occupation are a high degree of finger dexterity,
Approximately 1 technician in 5 is self-em­ good vision, and the ability to recognize very
ployed, a higher proportion than in most other fine color shadings. These attributes must be
occupations. Some of these jobs are held by combined with the ability to follow instructions
technicians who “moonlight,” doing work in and an inclination for detailed and absolutely
home dental laboratories in addition to their accurate work. High school students interested
regular job.
in careers in this occupation are advised to take
courses in art, crafts, metal shop, metallurgy,
TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
and sciences.

schedules, dentists’ deadlines usually are flexi­
ble enough to allow for any problems or special
requirements that may be involved in complet­
ing a difficult job.
Salaried technicians usually work 40 hours a
week but self-employed technicians frequently
work longer hours.

Advancement

Most dental laboratory technicians learn their
craft on the job, usually in 3 to 4 years. High
school graduates are preferred, and courses in
art, metal shop, and science are helpful. Many
of those hired as trainees already have some
knowledge of dental laboratory work, usually
because they have taken courses or completed
formal training programs.
Training in dental laboratory technology is
available through community and junior col­
leges, vocational-technical institutes, and trade
schools; high school vocational education pro­
grams; apprenticeships; and the Armed Forces.
Formal training programs vary greatly both in
length and the level of skill they impart. Ac­
credited programs generally take 2 years to
complete and lead to an associate degree, al­
though some lead to a certificate or diploma.
In 1982, 58 programs in dental laboratory
technology were approved (accredited) by the
Commission on Dental Accreditation in conjuction with the American Dental Association
(ADA). These programs provide classroom in­
struction in dental law and ethics, chemistry,
ceramics, metallurgy, and related subjects. In
addition, each student is given supervised prac­
tical experience in the school or an associated
dental laboratory.
Students who have taken enough courses to
learn the basics of the craft generally are con­
sidered by employers to be good candidates for
training, regardless of whether they have com­
pleted the formal program. (Many students—
vocational education students and apprentices
in particular—drop out before completing the
entire sequence of courses.) However, even
graduates of 2-year training programs need
about 3 additional years of practical experience

Job Outlook
Job opportunities for dental laboratory techni­
cians through the mid-1990’s will reflect em­
ployment growth equal to the average for all
occupations plus the need to replace experi­
enced technicians who leave the occupation.
Rising incomes, population changes, and
dental prepayment plans will contribute to fu­
ture employment growth. The population will
include a larger proportion of elderly people, a
group with a high level of need for the crowns,
bridges, and dentures produced by dental labo­
ratory technicians. The growing popularity of
orthodontal work well beyond adolescent years
may further heighten demand for dental labora­
tory services. Emphasis on orthodontic and
cosmetic work may be spurred by dentists’ mar­
keting efforts, as competition among practi­
tioners intensifies, not only for clientele, but for
income-maximizing services.
Because dental laboratory technicians ex­
hibit relatively strong attachment to the field,
replacement needs are less important as a
source of jobs than is the case for most other
workers. However, some experienced workers
leave dental laboratory technology each year to
transfer to other occupations, and some retire.
D espite the trend tow ard corporate
ownership of medical and dental laboratories,
opportunities should be good for experienced
technicians who wish to establish laboratories
of their own. A technician whose work has
become known to several dentists in a com­
munity will have the best prospects of building
a successful business.

Production Occupations/319
Earnings
Dental laboratory technicians who worked full
time in commercial laboratories received sal­
aries of about $18,000-$20,000 in 1982, ac­
cording to the limited data available. Generally,
education and experience, along with a spe­
cialized skill, bring higher earnings. For exam­
ple, technicians who specialize in ceramics re­
ceive much higher salaries than those who
specialize in contour wire framing. Large den­
tal laboratories employ supervisors or man­
agers who usually earn more than technicians.
In general, earnings of self-employed techni­
cians exceed those of salaried workers.
In the Federal Government, graduates of
ADA-approved programs with no experience
were paid starting salaries of about $12,000 in
1982. Experienced dental laboratory techni­
cians employed in the Federal Government had
average earnings of about $20,400 in 1982.
Many technicians in commercial laborato­
ries receive paid holidays and vacations and
some also receive paid sick leave, bonuses, and
other fringe benefits. Technicians employed by
the Federal Government have the same benefits
as other Federal employees.

Related Occupations
Dental laboratory technicians make artificial
teeth, crowns and inlays, and orthodontic ap­
pliances following the specifications and in­
structions provided by the dentist. Other work­
ers who make medical devices include arch­
support technicians, orthotics technicians
(braces and surgical supports), prosthetics tech­
nicians (artificial limbs and appliances), opti­
cians, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about training and a list of
approved schools, contact:
American Dental Association, Council on Dental Ed­
ucation, Division of Educational Measurement, 211
E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.

Information on scholarships is available
from dental technology schools or from the
American Fund for Dental Health, 211 E. Chi­
cago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.
For information on career opportunities in
commercial laboratories and requirements for
certification, contact:
National Association of Dental Laboratories, 3801
Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22305.

Dispensing Opticians
and Ophthalmic
Laboratory
Technicians
(D.O.T. 299.474-010; 713.361-010 and -014, .681-010 and
.684-026 and -038; 716.280-008, -010, and -014, .360010, .382-010, -018, and -022, .462-010, .681-018, .682010, -014, and -018, and .685-018 and -022)

Nature of Work
Half the people in the United States use glasses
or contact lenses, and workers in a variety of



occupations are involved in providing vision
care. Among these are dispensing opticians and
ophthalmic laboratory technicians, who make
and fit eyeglasses and contact lenses.
The health practitioners who examine eyes
are ophthalmologists and optometrists; nor­
mally they serve as the initial contact in the
vision care field. After a checkup by one of
these eye doctors, who writes the prescription,
people who need corrective lenses generally
visit a dispensing optician (also called an
ophthalmic dispenser). Some optometrists and
ophthalmologists do their own dispensing and
laboratory work, or employ an optician and/or
technician to do it for them.
Dispensing opticians order the necessary
ophthalmic laboratory work, help the customer
select appropriate frames, and adjust the
finished eyeglasses. In many States they fit con­
tact lenses.
During the customer’s visit, the optician
measures the distance between the centers of
the pupils of the eyes to determine where lenses
should be placed in relation to them. In helping
customers select from the various styles and
colors of eyeglass frames, they consider the
customer’s hairstyle and facial features, oc­
cupation and habits, and the weight and thick­
ness of the corrective lenses.
The optician then prepares work orders that
give the ophthalmic laboratory the information
it needs to grind the lenses and insert them in a
frame. The work orders include lens prescrip­
tions and information on lens size, color, and
style. Some dispensing opticians do their own
lab work, preparing the lenses themselves.
After the glasses are made, the optician checks
the power and surface quality of the lenses with
special instruments, then adjusts the frame to
the contours of the customer’s face and head so
that it fits properly and comfortably. Adjust­
ments are made with handtools, such as optical
pliers, files, and screwdrivers.
In fitting contact lenses, dispensing opticians
follow ophthalmologists’ or optometrists’ pre­
scriptions, measure the corneas of customers’
eyes, and then prepare specifications for the
contact lens manufacturer. Contact lens fitting
requires considerably more skill, care, and pa­
tience than conventional eyeglass fitting. Dis­
pensing opticians tell customers how to insert,
remove, and care for contact lenses during the
initial adjustment period, which may last sever­
al weeks. At each visit the dispensing optician
looks at the patient’s eyes, corneas, lids, and
contact lenses with special instruments and mi­
croscopes. Ophthalmologists or optometrists
recheck the fit, as needed. Opticians may make
minor adjustments; lenses are returned to the
manufacturer for major changes.
The majority of dispensing opticians design
and fit eyeglasses and contact lenses, but some
specialize in the fitting of cosmetic shells to
cover blemished eyes. Still others specialize in
the fitting of prostheses (artificial eyes). In
some shops, they may do lens grinding and
finishing and sell other optical goods such as
binoculars, magnifying glasses, and non­
prescription eyeglasses (sunglasses, for in­
stance).

Ophthalmic laboratory technicians (also
called optical mechanics) make prescription
eyeglasses. Following the specifications
provided by a dispensing o p tician,
ophthalmologist, or optometrist, they cut,
grind, and finish prescription lenses and assem­
ble them with frames to produce finished glass­
es. Some technicians make contact lenses.
There are two types of ophthalmic laboratory
technicians: Surfacer (or lens grinder) and
bench technician (or finisher). In small labora­
tories, one person may do both jobs. Starting
with standard size lens blanks, which large
optical firms mass-produce, surfacers set up
and operate machines to grind and polish eye­
glass lenses according to prescription specifica­
tions. They use precision instruments, such as
focimeters and objective lens analyzers, to
measure the lenses and make sure that they fit
the prescription. In large laboratories, work is
divided into separate operations which are per­
formed mainly by workers who operate power
grinding and polishing machines.
Bench technicians mark and cut lenses and
smooth their edges to fit frames. They then
assemble the lenses and frame parts into
finished glasses. Bench technicians use special
tools, such as lens cutters and glass drills, as
well as small files, pliers, and other handtools.
They also use automatic edging machines to
shape lens edges and precision instruments to
detect imperfections. In large laboratories, the
duties of bench technicians are divided into
several operations which are performed mainly
by skilled workers.

Working Conditions
Dispensing opticians work indoors in pleasant,
quiet surroundings that are well lighted and
well ventilated. Because they sell and service
eye lenses, they deal with customers most of the
time. They spend part of their time on their feet.
Dispensing opticians generally work a 40-hour
week, although a 45- or 50-hour week is not
uncommon. Some, especially those employed
in retail shops in large shopping centers, work
in the evenings and on Saturdays.
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work
with machines that make a constant humming,
whining sound. Sometimes they need to wear
goggles to protect their eyes. Because most of
their time on the job is spent standing, these
w orkers are subject to fatig u e. M ost
ophthalmic laboratory technicians work a 5day, 40-hour week.

Employment
Dispensing opticians and ophthalmic laborato­
ry technicians held about 39,000 jobs in 1982.
Most were full time.
Most dispensing opticians work for optical
shops or for department stores, drug stores, and
other retail outlets. About one third work for
ophthalmologists or optometrists who sell
glasses directly to patients. A few work in hos­
pitals and eye clinics or teach in schools of
ophthalmic dispensing. Some own retail op­
tical shops.
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work in
ophthalmic laboratories, for the most part.

320/Occupationai Outlook Handbook

The work of ophthalmic laboratory technicians is very precise.
However, some work for opticians or for de­
partment stores, drugstores, and other retail
firms that have optical departments. A few
work for ophthalmologists or optometrists who
dispense glasses directly to patients.
Employment of dispensing opticians and
ophthalmic laboratory technicians is widely
dispersed, and tends to follow overall popula­
tion patterns.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most dispensing opti­
cians learn their skills on the job. However,
employers generally prefer applicants who are
familiar with the trade and an increasing
number of trainees have some formal training in
optical dispensing and fabricating. On-the-job
training in dispensing work may last several
years and usually includes instruction in optical
mathematics, optical physics, and the use of
precision measuring instruments and other njachinery and tools. Training programs vary from
employer to employer. In large companies, onthe-job training is structured much like an ap­
prenticeship program, while training in small
establishments is largely informal.
Employers considering applicants for entry
level jobs in optical dispensing look for high
D is p e n s in g o p tic ia n s .




school graduates who have had courses in sci­
ence and mathematics. Knowledge of physics,
algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing is
particularly valuable. Previous experience in a
related job is an asset. Because dispensing opti­
cians deal directly with the public, they should
be tactful and have pleasant personalities. Good
communications skills are highly valued.
Formal training in opticianry is offered by
community colleges, vocational-technical in­
stitutes, trade schools, and manufacturers in
programs that last from a few weeks to several
years. In 1982, 15 schools offered 2-year pro­
grams in optical fabricating and dispensing
leading to an associate degree. The Commis­
sion on Opticianry Accreditation—an organi­
zation created by the American Board of Opti­
cianry, the National Academy of Opticianry,
and the Opticians Association of America—
accredits 10 of these programs. A number of
schools offer shorter programs, usually 6
months to 1year in length, that lead to a certifi­
cate or diploma in opticianry. In addition, some
medical schools, contact lens manufacturers,
and professional societies offer short, non­
degree courses in contact-lens fitting. A small
number of opticians learn their trade in the
Armed Forces.

Some opticians acquire their skills through
2- to 4-year apprenticeship programs offered by
optical dispensing companies. Apprentices
with exceptional ability may complete their
training in a shorter period. Individual States
set the entrance requirements for these pro­
grams, with high school graduation ordinarily
required. Apprentices receive training in op­
tical mathematics and optical physics and in the
use of laboratory equipment. In addition to
technical training, apprentices may work di­
rectly with patients in fitting eyeglasses and
contact lenses. Trainees also are taught the
basics of office management and sales. In States
requiring dispensing opticians to be licensed,
information about apprenticeships is available
from the State agency responsible for occupa­
tional licensing. In the other States, informa­
tion is available from the Division of Appren­
ticeship Training of the State Department of
Labor.
Credentials for dispensing opticians are
gained through licensure—required by law in
20 States and Puerto Rico—and through volun­
tary certification or registration. States that re­
quire a license to dispense eyeglasses are: Ari­
zona, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Flor­
ida, Georgia, Hawaii, Kentucky, Massachuset­
ts, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North
Carolina, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Carolina,
Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and Wash­
ington. For specific information about licensing
procedures, consult the State board of occupa­
tional licensing.
Certification is offered by the American
Board of Opticianry and by the National Com­
mittee of Contact Lens Examiners. Continuing
education normally is required to maintain cer­
tification.
Many dispensing opticians go into business
for themselves. Others become managers of
retail optical stores or sales representatives for
wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or
lenses.
O p h th a lm ic la b o r a t o r y t e c h n ic ia n s . Oph­
thalmic laboratory technicians also learn their
skills on the job. Employers prefer applicants
for entry level jobs to be high school graduates
who have had courses in science and mathe­
matics. A knowledge of physics, algebra, ge­
ometry, and mechanical drawing is valuable.
Interest in and ability to do precision work are
essential.
At first, technician trainees perform simple
tasks such as processing lenses through a grind­
ing machine. As they gain experience, they
progress to operations such as lens cutting and
eyeglass assembly. When trainees have ac­
quired experience in many types of work,
which usually takes about 3 years, they are
considered all-round optical mechanics. Some
technicians specialize in one type of job, such
as surfacing or bench work. A specialist re­
quires less training than an all-round techni­
cian.
Besides on-the-job training, there are other
routes to enter this occupation. High school
graduates can prepare to become technicians
through 3- to 4-year formal apprenticeship pro­
grams operated by optical goods companies.
Apprentices with exceptional ability may com­
plete their training in a shorter period. Require­

Production occupations/321
ments for entry into these programs vary from
State to State, but high school graduation usu­
ally is needed. Apprentices have more oppor­
tunities for jobs and advancement than those
without such training. Persons interested in ap­
prenticeships should check with the Division of
Apprenticeship Training of their State’s Depart­
ment of Labor.
Apprentices are generally trained to be either
ophthalmic surfacers or finishers. Ophthalmic
surfacers receive training in lens grinding, and
ophthalmic finishers learn to assemble eye­
glasses into frames and to do frame repair.
Some technicians learn their trade in the
Armed Forces. Others complete programs in
optical technology at community colleges, vo­
cational-technical institutes, or trade schools.
Graduates receive certificates, diplomas, or as­
sociate degrees for programs varying in length
from 6 months to 2 years. Graduates generally
need some additional on-the-job training.
New Jersey is the only State that requires
ophthalmic laboratory technicians to be li­
censed.
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can be­
come supervisors and managers. Some techni­
cians become dispensing opticians, although
the trend is to train specifically for optician
jobs. Some technicians, especially those re­
ceiving their training in both shop and dispens­
ing work, may go into business for themselves.

Job Outlook
Employment in these occupations is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s in response
to the demand for corrective lenses.
Initially the projected increase in employ­
ment will constitute a rebound to pre-recession
levels, for employment of dispensing opticians
and ophthalmic laboratory technicians declined
during the 1981-82 recession. Both occupations
are vulnerable to changes in the business cycle,
with employment falling somewhat during
downturns and rising during periods of eco­
nomic recovery. As is generally the case,
however, most openings will arise from the
need to replace experienced workers who trans­
fer to other kinds of work or leave the labor
force.
Demand for corrective lenses is expected to
rise as a result of demographic trends: Not only
is the population growing, but the number of
middle-aged and elderly persons is projected to
rise substantially over the next decade. Mem­
bers of the baby boom generation will be enter­
ing middle age, a time when normal phys­
iological changes cause many persons to begin
using corrective lenses for the first time. Older
persons require more vision care, on the whole,
than others.
Increasing public awareness of the impor­
tance of good eyesight (stimulated, for in­
stance, by the vision screening programs in
schools) is also likely to spur demand. Indus­
trial safety precautions may require more safety
goggles and glasses. Fashion, too, is likely to
influence demand. The growing variety of
frame styles and colors—as well as the increas­
ing popularity of contact lenses—should en­
courage individuals to buy more than one pair



of corrective lenses. Finally, additional demand
may be created by new products such as bifocal
contact lenses and extended wear contact
lenses.
Employment of dispensing opticians is ex­
pected to grow more rapidly than that of
ophthalmic laboratory technicians, due to pro­
ductivity improvements that have reduced labor
requirements in optical laboratories. Grinding
and polishing machines have become in­
creasingly sophisticated, and, in larger labora­
tories, automated equipment has taken over
some tasks previously handled by technicians.
Employment opportunities should be excel­
lent for dispensing opticians who have an asso­
ciate degree in opticianry. Opportunities will be
best in metropolitan areas because owners oper­
ate many of the retail shops in small commu­
nities and do not need dispensing opticians. Job
opportunities for ophthalmic laboratory techni­
cians should be best for persons who have com­
pleted a formal training program.

Opticians Association of America, 1250 Connecticut
Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Earnings

Upholsterers recondition sofas, chairs, and
other upholstered furniture by replacing worn
and damaged fabrics, springs, and padding.
(Workers employed in the manufacture of up­
holstered furniture are not included in this state­
ment.) Whether restoring a treasured antique or
simply giving an ordinary living room couch a
facelift, upholsterers combine knowledge of
fabrics and other materials with artistic flair and
manual skill.
All custom upholstery involves two steps:
Removing the old cover, padding, and springs;
and rebuilding the piece. However, because of
differences in the way furniture is constructed,
each job is unique.
Upholsterers usually place the furniture on
padded wooden benches or some other type of
support so that they may work at a convenient
level. Using hammers and tack pullers, they
remove tacks or staples that hold the old fabric
to the wooden frame. After stripping the old
fabric, they remove the burlap and padding that
cover the arms, back, sides, and seat. Uphol­
sterers examine the springs and remove broken
or bent ones. The springs sit on a cloth mat
called webbing that is attached to the frame. If
webbing is worn, upholsterers remove all the
springs and all the webbing.
When rebuilding the furniture, upholsterers
may reglue loose sections of the frame and
refinish exposed wood. They tack webbing to
one side of the frame, stretch it tight, and tack it
to the opposite side. Other webbing is woven
across the first and attached to the frame to form
a new mat. After putting springs on the mat so
they compress evenly, upholsterers sew or sta­
ple each spring to the webbing or frame and tie
each spring to the ones next to it. Burlap then is
stretched over the springs, cut and smoothed,
and tacked to the frame. To form a smooth
rounded surface over the springs and other parts
of the frame, upholsterers cover each section of
the furniture—seat, back, arms—with filling
material. After sewing the filling to the burlap,
they cover it with a layer of felt and heavy cloth
and tack the cloth to the frame. Finally, uphol­
sterers put on the new fabric cover, which has
been cut to size for a section, such as an arm or

The starting hourly wage rate for dispensing
opticians in one of the higher paying areas of the
country ranged from $10.63 to $11.75 in 1983,
based on information from a small number of
union contracts. In the same area, ophthalmic
laboratory technicians earned a starting hourly
wage rate of $10.00 in 1983.
According to a 1982 survey published in Op­
tical Index, annual salaries of dispensing opti­
cians in their first year of practice ranged from
$15,000 to $16,500.
Dispensing opticians who own and operate
their own shops can expect to earn considerably
more, generally from $25,000 to $32,000 a
year.
Apprentices in both occupations start at a
wage of about 60 percent of the skilled worker’s
rate and receive periodic increases so that upon
completion of the apprenticeship program, they
are earning the beginning rate for experienced
workers.
Some dispensing opticians and ophthalmic
laboratory technicians are members of unions.
The principal union in this field is the Interna­
tional Union of Electronic, Electrical, Tech­
nical, Salaried and Machine Workers (AFL-

CIO).

Related Occupations
Other occupations in which workers use ma­
chines and tools for precise, delicate work in­
clude biomedical equipment technician, cal­
ibrator, dental laboratory technician, glass
blower, instrument repairer, locksmith, ortho­
dontic technician, prosthetics technician, and
watch repairer.

Sources of Additional Information
For general information about these occupa­
tions, contact:
International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Tech­
nical, Salaried and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
National Federation of Opticianry Schools, Opticia­
nry Program, J. Sargeant Reynolds Community Col­
lege, P.O. Box 12084, Richmond, Va. 23241.

Chairperson of Optical Council, IUE-AFL-CIO, 200
Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10003.

A list of schools is available from either of the
following organizations:
National Academy of Opticianry, 10111 George Pal­
mer Hwy., Suite 112, Bowie, Md. 20716.
National Federation of Opticianry Schools, Opticia­
nry Program, J. Sargeant Reynolds Community Col­
lege, P.O. Box 12084, Richmond, Va. 23241.

Furniture
Upholsterers
(D.O.T. 780.381-018, -022; and .684-122)

Nature of the Work

322/Occupational Outlook Handbook
completion of an upholstery course does not
assure a job, employers generally prefer to hire
people with some knowledge of the trade.
Upholsterers should have manual dexterity,
good coordination, and be able to do occasional
heavy lifting. An eye for detail and flair for
creative use of fabrics are helpful.
The major form of advancement for uphol­
sterers is opening their own shop. It is easy to
open a shop because only a small investment in
handtools and a sewing machine is needed.
However, the upholstery business is extremely
competitive, so operating a shop successfully is
difficult.

Job Outlook

Most furniture upholsterers work in small upholstery shops.
the back, and temporarily stitched together for
fitting. After checking that the cover fits tightly
and smoothly—or noting where adjustments
are necessary—they remove the cover and sew
it together and tack, staple, or glue it to the
frame. To complete the job, upholsterers sew,
tack, or glue on fringe, buttons, or other orna­
ments.
Upholsterers use a variety of common handtools, including hammers, staple guns, tack
and staple removers, pliers, and shears, and
special tools such as webbing stretchers and
upholstery needles. They also use sewing ma­
chines.
Sometimes upholsterers pick up and deliver
furniture or help customers select new furniture
coverings. Those who manage an upholstery
shop order supplies and equipment and keep
business records.

Working Conditions
Working conditions in upholstery shops vary—
many shops are spacious, adequately lighted,
well ventilated, and well heated; others are
small and dusty. Upholsterers stand while they
work and do a considerable amount of stooping
and bending and some heavy lifting.

Employment
Furniture upholsterers held about 37,000 jobs
in 1982. Most furniture upholsterers work in
upholstery shops, either their own or someone
else’s. These shops generally have fewer than
three workers. Some upholsterers are employed
by furniture stores. A few work for businesses,
such as hotels, that maintain their own fur­
niture.
Employment of upholsterers is concentrated
in metropolitan areas, where the large popula­
tion provides the greatest demand for uphol­
sterers’ services.




Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
The best way to enter this trade is to start as a
helper in an upholstery shop and learn on the
job. Helpers learn by upholstering furniture
under the direction of experienced workers.
Much time and practice are needed to learn
complex tasks such as measuring and cutting
the new fabric and sewing and attaching it to the
frame with a minimum of waste. Usually about
3 years of on-the-job training are required to
become a fully skilled upholsterer.
Inexperienced persons may get basic training
in upholstery from vocational or high school
courses. However, additional training and ex­
perience in a shop usually are required before
these workers can work as quickly and effi­
ciently as experienced upholsterers. Although

Employment of upholsterers is expected to
grow more slowly than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. Most job
openings will arise because of the need to re­
place experienced workers who transfer to
other occupations, retire, or die.
More upholstered furniture will be used as
population, personal income, and business ex­
penditures grow. However, the demand for up­
holsterers will not keep pace with this growth
because, increasingly, consumers replace worn
furniture rather than reupholster it. Demand
due to reupholstering of high quality and an­
tique furniture will account for most of the
limited employment growth.

Earnings
In 1982, hourly pay rates ranged from $9 to $12
for experienced furniture upholsterers and from
$7 to $10 for less experienced upholsterers,
according to limited data from union contracts.
Employers generally pay inexperienced train­
ees the minimum wage. Upholsterers usually
buy their own handtools.
Some upholsterers are members of the Up­
holsterers’ International Union of North Amer­
ica.

Production occupations/323
Related Occupations
O ther w orkers w h o co m b in e m anual sk ills and
a k n o w led g e o f m aterials su ch as fabrics and
w o o d to repair th in gs are au tom ob ile u p h ol­
sterers, fur cutters, furniture fin ish ers, rug re­
pairers, and sh o e repairers.

Sources of Additional Information
For d etails about w ork op p ortu n ities for u p h ol­
sterers in you r area, con tact lo ca l u p h olstery
sh o p s, the lo ca l o ffice o f the State em p loym en t
se r v ic e, or a lo ca l o f the U p holsterers’ Interna­
tional U n io n .

Hand Molders
(D.O.T. 518.361-010, -014, -018; and .484-010)

is poured into the cavity, it so lid ifies as it c o o ls ,
and form s the castin g.
T e c h n o l o g ic a l ly a d v a n c e d m o ld in g m a ­
ch in es that pack and ram the sand m ech an ically
are n ow u sed to m ake m ost m old s. W hen o n ly a
sm all num ber o f parts are to be cast, hand
m old ers construct the sand m old s. Pow er to o ls,
su ch as pneum atic ram m ers and sq u eeze p lates,
and h an d tools, su ch as trow els and hand ram ­
m ers, are u sed to com p act the sand. M old s for
sm all castin gs u su ally are m ade on the w ork­
bench; th ose for large and bu lky castin gs are
m ade on the foun dry floor. A n all-round hand
m o ld e r c a n m a k e m a n y d iffe r e n t t y p e s o f
m o ld s. A less sk illed m older m ay sp ec ia liz e in
o n ly a few sim p le ty p es.
O ther w orkers w h o have an im portant role in
the m etalcastin g p ro cess are patternm akers. For
a d e sc r ip tio n o f that jo b , se e the statem en t
elsew h ere in this section .

Nature erf the Work

Working Conditions

O ne o f the o ld est k n o w n m eth od s o f m aking
m etal products is ca stin g— the p ro cess o f pour­
ing m olten m etal into a m o ld . W h en the m etal
c o o ls and so lid ifie s, it takes the sh ape o f the
m old . M eta lca stin g is o n e o f the fastest, m ost
e co n o m ic a l, and m o st versatile w ays to pro­
d u ce m etal produ cts. M etalcastin g is d on e in
fou n d ries, w h ich can b e in d ep en d en t sh op s or
departm ents o f m anufacturing plan ts. M old ers
are the sk illed w orkers w h o prepare the m old s
used to ca st m etal.
There are several d ifferen t w ays o f m ak in g
the m o ld s that are u sed in c a stin g , but green
sand m o ld in g is the m o st c o m m o n b ecau se it is
so e co n o m ic a l. In g reen sand m o ld in g , m old ers
pack and ram a sp ec ia lly prepared m ixture o f
sand, clay, water, and other a d d itives around a
pattern o f the o b ject that is to be cast. T he
m o ld in g sand is co n ta in ed in a b o x ca lled a
flask. T h e flask usu a lly is m ade in tw o parts that
can b e separated to rem ove the pattern w ith ou t
dam agin g the m o ld cavity. W h en m o lten m etal

W orking in a foun dry can be hazardous. M o ld ­
ers m ust be careful to avoid b u m s from hot
m etal and to avoid cuts and bruises w h en hand­
lin g m etal parts, m o ld s, and pow er to o ls. T he
u se o f sa fety eq u ip m en t has h elped red uce inju­
ries.
W orking c o n d itio n s vary con sid era b ly . In
m any p lan ts, im proved ventilation sy stem s and
air-cond itioning have greatly reduced the heat,
fu m e s, and du st a sso cia te d w ith th is w ork;
how ever, in so m e older fou n d ries, th ese co n d i­
tion s m ay still exist.

Employment
H and m old ers h eld about 9 ,1 0 0 jo b s in 1982—
about 1 ,7 0 0 few er than in 1980. T h is d e c lin e in
em p loym en t reflects the drop in m anufacturing
activity accom p an yin g the 1981-82 r ecessio n .
M o st m olders w ork in sm all foundry sh op s.
A lth ou gh m old ers w ork throughout the co u n ­
try, m ost are em p lo y ed in the G reat L ak es,
Sou thern , and W est C oast States.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

Molders need good eye-hand coordination and
manual dexterity.



H and m old ers u su ally learn their sk ills on the
jo b . W orkers u su ally d o not need a h igh sc h o o l
d ip lo m a , although m any em p loyers prefer it.
U n der c lo s e su p ervision from sk illed m o ld ­
ers, new w orkers b egin w ith sim p le jo b s , such
as sh o v elin g sand, and then gradually take on
m ore d ifficu lt and resp on sib le w ork, su ch as
ram m ing m o ld s and w ithd raw in g patterns. A s
their training p rogresses, they learn to m ake
c o m p lete m o ld s. In add ition , new w orkers m ay
w ork in other foun dry departm ents to d ev elo p
all-roun d k n o w led g e o f foundry m eth od s and
p ractices. A lth ou gh the len gth o f training varies
by in d ivid u al and em ployer, m ost m old ers learn
their trade in less than a year.
P h y sica l standards for m o ld in g jo b s are fair­
ly d em an d in g. M old ers stand w h ile w ork in g,
m u st m o v e about a great deal and m ust be able
to u se m o ld in g to o ls su ch as sh o v els and ram ­
m ers. T hey n eed g o o d eye-h an d coord in ation
and a h igh d egree o f m anual dexterity to do
accurate work.
M old ers m ay advan ce to a sp ecia lized m o ld ­
ing jo b or even tu ally to a supervisory p osition .

Job Outlook
E m p loym en t o f hand m olders is ex p ected to
grow m ore slo w ly than the average for all o c ­
cu p ation s through the m id -1 9 9 0 ’s. M uch o f the
p rojected grow th w ill stem from a return o f
em p loym en t to p rerecession le v e ls. O ver the
lo n g run, dem and for m etal ca stin g s is exp ected
to in crease, but greater u se o f autom atic m a­
ch in e m o ld in g and other laborsaving inn ova­
tion s w ill a llo w large in creases in production
w ith o n ly a m oderate in crease in em p lo y m en t.
S o m e jo b o p en in g s w ill arise b ecau se o f the
need to rep lace e x p erien ced m old ers w h o trans­
fer to other occu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . T he
num ber o f o p e n in g s, how ever, m ay fluctuate
greatly from year to year b ecau se the dem and
for a num ber o f products that u se ca stin g s is
sen sitiv e to ch a n g es in the econ o m y . Farm m a­
chinery and m otor v e h ic le s, for ex a m p le, are
p r o d u cts that u s e c a s t in g s a s c o m p o n e n ts .
W hen dem an d for th ese products sla ck en s, as
often happens during r ec essio n s, dem and for
m etal ca stin gs a lso d e c lin e s. T h erefo re, hand
m old ers m ay ex p erien ce la y o ffs or shortened
w o r k w e e k s w h e n e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s are
poor.

Earnings
In January 1982, average straight-tim e hourly
earn in gs o f hand m old ers ranged from $ 7 .8 0 in
non ferrous fou n d ries to $ 9 .6 0 in steel fo u n d ­
r ie s, acco rd in g to a su rvey b y the N a tio n a l
Foundry A sso c ia tio n . In co m p a riso n , produc­
tion w orkers in all m anufacturing industries
averaged $ 8 .5 0 an hour. M old ers w h o w ere
paid on an in cen tiv e b asis gen era lly had higher
earn in gs.

Related Occupations
O ther w orkers w h o n eed a k n o w led g e o f m etal
characteristics, m o ld in g san d , and pouring pro­
c ed u res are m o ld in g -m a c h in e setters, m o ld m aker h elp ers, m old c lo ser s, and san d -slin ger
operators.

Sources of Additional Information
For d e ta ils ab ou t train in g op p o rtu n ities for
m old ers, contact lo ca l fou n d ries and the lo ca l
office o f you r State em p lo y m en t serv ice.
C areer g u id a n c e m aterial— free w h en re­
q u e s t e d o n s t a t io n e r y w ith a s c h o o l l e t ­
terhead— is availab le from:

American Foundrymen’s Society/Cast Metals In­
stitute, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016.

Jewelers
(D.O.T. 700.281-010, -014, -022, and .381-030, -042, and
-046)

Nature of the Work
For thou san d s o f y ears, p eo p le have w orn and
adm ired jew elry m ade from p reciou s m etals
and sto n es, su ch as g o ld and d iam on d s. Jew ­
elers u se su ch m aterials to m ake and repair
rin gs, n e c k la ce s, b racelets, earrin gs, and other
jew elry.

324/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Jewelers who work in jewelry stores and re­
pair shops generally provide a variety of serv­
ices to their customers. Much of their time is
spent repairing jewelry. Typical repair jobs are
enlarging or reducing rings, resetting stones,
and replacing broken clasps and mountings.
Some jewelers also may make jewelry by hand,
repair watches, and do hand engraving. A small
number are qualified gemologists and appraise
the quality and value of diamonds and other
gemstones.
Those who own stores or shops hire and train
employees, order and sell merchandise, and
handle other managerial duties.
Jewelers who work in jewelry factories gen­
erally only do one specialized job in the man­
ufacturing process. For example, some make
molds to cast jewelry or dies to stamp it. Others
do finishing work, such as setting stones and
engraving. However, a small number of the
most highly skilled jewelers make entire jewel­
ry pieces. Following their own designs or those
created by designers, they shape the metal with
pliers or other handtools or cast it in molds.
They then solder individual parts to form the
finished piece. They may carve designs in met­
al, and mount diamonds or other stones.
Jewelers use pliers, files, saws, hammers,
torches, soldering irons, and a variety of other
small handtools. They use chemicals and pol­
ishing compounds, such as jeweler’s rouge, for
soldering or finishing. Because the work is very
detailed, jewelers often wear magnifying glass­
es.

Working Conditions
Jewelers usually work in comfortable surround­
ings, and the trade involves few physical haz­
ards. However, doing delicate work while
trying to satisfy demands for speed and quality
from customers and employers can cause some
stress.

Jewelry work requires intense concentration and
good eye-hand coordination.




In stores and repair shops, jewelers generally
work alone with little supervision. However, in
retail stores they may talk with customers about
repairs and even do some sales work.

Employment
Jewelers held about 30,000 jobs in 1982. About
two-fifths of all jewelers are self-employed, op­
erating jewelry stores or repair shops.
Most jewelers employed in precious jewelry
manufacturing work in or near New York City.
Although jewelry stores and repair shops are
located throughout the country, most jobs in
these establishments are in metropolitan areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Jewelers’ skills usually are learned through
training on the job or in technical schools.
Technical school programs are the major
source of training for people who want jobs in
jewelry stores or repair shops. In these pro­
grams, which last from 6 months to 3 years,
students learn the use and care of jewelers’ tools
and machines and basic jewelers’ skills, such as
casting, stone setting, polishing, and design.
Some of these courses are very technical and
cover topics like blueprint reading, math, and
shop theory. Store and shop owners prefer grad­
uates of these programs over people with no
experience in the trade. However, most employ­
ers feel that graduates need an additional 3
years or more of supervised on-the-job training
to refine their repair skills and to learn more
about the operation of the store or shop. In
addition, short-term courses such as sample
making, wax carving, and gemology are avail­
able at some technical schools to help workers
develop their skills.
In jewelry factories, manufacturers provide
on-the-job training in jewelry-making skills for
their production workers. Training can last for 3
to 4 years, depending on the difficulty of the
skill. Training focuses on a particular spe­
cialty—casting, stone setting, or engraving.
A high school education has become very
important for people entering the trade. A
growing number of technical schools require a
high school diploma or its equivalent for admis­
sion. Courses in art, mechanical drawing, and
chemistry are useful, depending on which as­
pect of the trade one chooses to follow.
The precise and delicate nature of jewelry
work requires finger and hand dexterity, good
eye-hand coordination, patience, and con­
centration. Artistic ability is a major asset, be­
cause jewelry must be stylish and attractive.
In manufacturing, jewelers sometimes ad­
vance to supervisory jobs; however, advance­
ment opportunities generally are limited. Jew­
elers who work in jewelry stores or repair shops
may become salaried managers of jewelry
stores; some open their own businesses.
A substantial financial investment is required
to operate a jewelry store, because an inventory
of expensive merchandise must be obtained.
The jewelry business also is highly competi­
tive. Jewelers who plan to open their own stores
should have experience in selling.

Job Outlook
Employment of jewelers is expected to increase
more slowly than the average for all ocupations
through the mid-1990’s. However, some new
jobs will arise from growth in demand for jew­
elers, and additional job openings will result
from the need to replace experienced jewelers
who transfer to other occupations, retire, or
leave the labor force for other reasons. Overall,
the job outlook will be best in jewelry stores.
Demand for jewelry repair will increase as
rising prices of gold and gems make old jewelry
more valuable. As more store owners offer
jewelry repair service to meet this increased
demand, job opportunities for jewelry repairers
are expected to increase. These jewelers should
enjoy steady work even during economic down­
turns because the demand for jewelry repair is
less sensitive to economic conditions than the
demand for new jewelry.
Job opportunities for jewelers in factories
depend on the sales of jewelry. When inflation
and recession force people to spend less on
luxuries such as jewelry, job opportunities in
jewelry factories may decline.
Busy store and shop owners often are reluc­
tant to hire untrained and inexperienced work­
ers. People entering the trade may have trouble
finding a job unless they can demonstrate their
ability. Such persons can improve their chances
for employment by attending a technical school
with a good reputation among local store or
shop owners.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of full-time jewelers
were about $280 in 1982. The middle 50 per­
cent earned between $230 and $360. The bot­
tom 10 percent earned less than $180 and the
top 10 percent earned more than $445. Earn­
ings of experienced, unionized jewelry workers
in manufacturing ranged from about $6.50 to
$9 an hour, according to the limited information
available. New workers in jewelry factories re­
ceived about $4 an hour to start. New workers
receive periodic raises up to the minimum uni­
on wage for their job.
In some precious jewelry factories, the work­
week is 35 hours. Most jewelers in stores and
repair shops work 40 to 48 hours a week. Dur­
ing peak sales seasons, such as Christmas, they
often work over 50 hours a week. However,
during slack periods, they may face layoff or a
shortened workweek.

Related Occupations
Jewelers are important craft workers in the
jewelry industry. Other skilled workers in this
industry include gem cutters, gemologists,
hand engravers, model makers, and watch re­
pairers.

Sources of Additional Information
For information on job opportunities in jewelry
stores, contact:
Jewelers of America, Time-Life Building, Suite 650,
1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y.

10020.

Production occupations/325

Job-and-Die Setters
(D.O.T. 518.380-010; 556.380-010; 600.360-010, .380014, -022; 603.280-034, .360-010, .380-010; 604.360010; 609.280-010, .380-014; 612.360-010; 615.280-010,
.380-010; 616.260-018, .360-022, .380-010; and
619.380-014)

By 1995, employment of job-and-die setters is expected to be only
slightly higher than the pre-recession level.
Employment (thousands)

Nature of Work
Machine tools used in shops that do machining
in large volume often are both very large and
very complex. Job-and-die setters, often called
machine tool setters, specialize in preparing
these tools to operate efficiently. Most setters
work on only one type of machine, such as a
drill press or lathe. However, some set up sever­
al different machines.
Before they begin preparing a machine for
use, setters consult blueprints, written specifi­
cations, or job layouts. From these, they can
determine how fast the material can be fed into
the machine, operating speeds, and the order in
which the machine will perform its operations.
They then select and install the proper cutting
tools and adjust guides, stops, and other con­
trols to insure that the machine will repeat its
cycle accurately.
After setting up the machine, they usually
make a trial run to be sure that it is running
smoothly and producing parts that conform to
specifications. When they are sure the machine
is functioning properly, they explain to the ma­
chine operator how to run the machine and how
to be sure that the output meets specifications.
They then turn the machine over to the oper­
ators to begin production.

Working Conditions
Generally, working conditions are good for
these workers. While conditions vary, most ma­
chine shops are clean, well lighted, and well

ventilated. Serious work accidents are not com­
mon, but machine tools and flying metal parti­
cles may cause finger, hand, and eye injuries.
To prevent accidents, setters must wear safety
glasses and other protective devices. In shops
where noise is a problem, setup workers must
wear earmuffs or earplugs to protect their hear­
ing.
Job-and die-setters encounter some dangers
that other machining workers do not. Die set­
ters, for example, may have to place their hands
inside a press when they are preparing the ma­
chine for use. A machine tool operator could
not do this as the guard rails would be in place.

Employment
Job-and-die setters held about 95,000 jobs in
1982, 11,000 fewer than in 1980. This decline
in employment reflects the slump in manufac­
turing activity during the 1981-82 recession.
The distribution of employment among specific
setter occupations is presented in the following
tabulation:
Percent

Total ...............................................

100.0

Metal machine tool setters........................
Metal punch press setters..........................
Plastic molding machine setters .............
Shear and/or slitter setters ........................
Other job-and-die setter occupations . . . .

57.9
21.3
8.2
6.6
5.9

Most job-and-die setters work for large man­
ufacturing firms that make automobiles, air­
craft, machinery, and fabricated metal prod­
ucts. Few, if any, are found in maintenance
shops or in small jobbing shops. Although joband-die setters are employed throughout the
country, jobs are most plentiful in large metro­
politan areas where most large factories are
located.

Job-and-die setters check to see that finished
pieces meet design specifications.



Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Job-and-die setters learn the trade on the job.
Frequently, setter jobs are filled in-house by

experienced machine tool operators. Working
under the supervision of experienced setters,
trainees learn to set up one or more kinds of
machine tools and select the sequence of opera­
tions so that metal parts will be made according
to specifications. Although the length of train­
ing varies with the number and complexity of
machine tools being used, training seldom
takes more than a few weeks.
Employers prefer to hire high school gradu­
ates. Courses in shop, shop math, blueprint
reading, and drafting are useful. Experience in
working with machine tools can improve
chances of getting a job. The ability to commu­
nicate clearly is important in explaining the
machining operations to machine tool oper­
ators.
Job-and-die setters may advance to super­
visory jobs. They also can transfer into trainee
jobs for skilled machining occupations such as
machinist, and toolmaker and diemaker.

Job Outlook
Employment of job-and-die setters is expected
to increase about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid-1990’s. Most of
this projected growth reflects a return of em­
ployment to prerecession levels. Although con­
sumer and industrial demand for machined
goods will grow, partly offsetting this will be
greater productivity of setters due to the in­
creasing use of numerically controlled ma­
chined tools. In these machine tools, operating
sequences, feed speeds, tool selection, and
other functions are controlled by a computer.
Most job opportunities will arise from the need
to replace experienced workers who transfer to
other occupations, retire, or leave the labor
force for other reasons.
Employment of job-and-die setters will fluc­
tuate from year to year because this occupation
is somewhat sensitive to changes in the econo­
my. A drop in demand for automobiles, air­
craft, machinery, or other products that have

326/Occupational Outlook Handbook
machined metal parts lessens the need for set­
ters and may result in layoffs or shortened
workweeks.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for job-and-die setters
were $360 in 1982. Most earned between $280
and $430 a week. The top 10 percent earned
over $495, and the bottom 10 percent earned
less than $225 a week.
In 1982, hourly earnings for setters in metro­
politan areas ranged from $8.50 to $12.10. In
comparison, the average rate for all production
workers in private industry, except farming,
was $7.67 an hour.
Many job-and-die setters are members of
unions, including the International Association
of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the In­
ternational Union, United Automobile, Aero­
space and Agricultural Implement Workers of
America; and the United Steelworkers of Amer­
ica.

Related Occupations
The occupations most closely related to joband-die setter are, of course, the other machin­
ing occupations. These include machinists, in­
strument makers, machine tool operators, and
toolmaker and diemakers.
Other occupations that require precision and
skill in working with metal include arc cutters,
blacksmiths, gunsmiths, locksmiths, metal pat­
ternmakers (metal), and welders.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about work opportunities in
this occupation contact the nearest office of the
State employment service.
For general information about this occupa­
tion, contact:

In photoengraving, a similar process, pho­
toengravers produce metal plates or gravure
cylinders for reproduction of copy. Although
lithography is replacing photoengraving for
many purposes, photoengraving is still used.
Technological advances in producing plates by
means of lasers will help to maintain the impor­
tance of this printing process.
Lithographers and photoengravers are re­
sponsible for a variety of printing activities
ranging from photographing copy and pictures
to making the final printing plates. In small
shops, the lithographer or the photoengraver
may be responsible for all of the steps in the
printing process. Most lithographers specialize
in one occupation, such as camera operator,
artist, stripper, or platemaker.
Camera operators start the process of mak­
ing a lithographic plate by photographing and
developing negatives of the material. They gen­
erally are classified as line camera operators,
halftone operators, or color separation pho­
tographers. Negatives may need retouching to
lighten or darken certain parts. Lithographic
artists make these corrections by sharpening or
reshaping images on the negatives. They do the
work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and spe­
cial tools. Lithographic artists must know the
characteristics of all types of paper and must
produce fine shades of color. Like camera oper­
ators, they are usually assigned to only one
phase of the work, and may have job titles such
as dot etchers, retouchers, or letterers.
Assemblers cut the film to required size and
arrange and paste the negatives onto layout
sheets, which are used by platemakers to make
press plates. Platemakers cover the surface of
flat pieces of metal with a coating of photosen­
sitive chemicals, or may use plates with the
coating already applied. They then put the
layout sheet on top of the plate and expose both

to bright lights. As the final step, platemakers
treat the plate with chemicals to bring out the
images of the material to be printed. In a grow­
ing number of printing plants, lithographic
platemakers use machines which automatically
process the plates. This new equipment places
more emphasis on technical skills than craft
skills. The platemaker operates and maintains
the machine and insures that plates meet quality
standards. When a large number of plates or
multiple images are needed, operators use a
step-and-repeat machine.

Working Conditions
Although lithographers and photoengravers
stand most of the time, the work is not phys­
ically demanding. Lithographic artists and as­
semblers may find working with fine detail tir­
ing and fatiguing to the eyes. Platemakers in
both processes working with toxic chemicals
may be exposed to skin irritations. Work areas
usually are well lighted and air-conditioned.
Lithographers and photoengravers generally
work a regular 7-or 8-hour day but sometimes
have to work overtime to meet publication
deadlines. Some lithographers and pho­
toengravers—particularly those who work for
newspapers—work night shifts, weekends, and
holidays.

Employment
Lithographers and photoengravers held 67,000
jobs in 1982. Most jobs are in commercial print­
ing plants, newspapers, and printing trade serv­
ice establishments. Many photoengravers have
their own shops.
Although these workers are located in all
parts of the country, most are employed in large
printing centers such as New York, Chicago,
and Los Angeles.

The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark
Dr., McLean, Va. 22102.
The National Tooling and Machining Association,
9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, Md. 20744,,
The National Screw Machine Products Association,
6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckville, Ohio 44141.
The International Association of Machinists and
Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

Lithographers and
Photoengravers
(D.O.T. 970.361-014; 971.261-010, .381-014 through -034
and -050, .382-014 and -018, .684-010, .685-010;
972.281-010, .282-010, .381-010, -014, -033, -026; and
.979.381-018)

Nature of the Work
Lithography, also called offset printing, is the
dominant method of printing. In this process,
lithographers photograph the material to be
printed and make a printing plate from the film
which, when inked, is pressed against a rubbercovered roller to transfer the ink onto the paper.




Photography is used in lithography and photoengraving.

Production occupations/327
Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Many lithographers, and some photoengravers,
learn the trade through on-the-job training.
They work as helpers and are taught by experi­
enced craft workers. Years of on-the-job train­
ing are required in order to become a skilled
worker.
Apprenticeship provides another way of be­
coming a skilled worker, although few appren­
ticeships in photoengraving have been offered
in recent years. Apprenticeship programs may
emphasize a specific craft, such as camera oper­
ator or lithographic artist, etcher, finisher, or
proofer but the apprentice is introduced to all
phases of the operation.
Usually, applicants for training must be high
school graduates, at least 18 years of age, and in
good physical condition. A knowledge of color
composition is an asset, as is evidence of an
aptitude for mastering the computer-assisted
equipment used in graphic preparatory pro­
cesses. Camera operators should have an under­
standing of chemistry, optics, and the entire
offset and photographic process. Precision, pa­
tience, good eyesight, and artistic skills are
important qualifications for lithographic artists
and assemblers.
Vocational-technical institutes, community
and junior colleges, and 4-year colleges offer 2year programs in printing technology which
provide a valuable background for persons in­
terested in learning lithographic crafts. High
school and vocational school training in print­
ing, photography, mathematics, chemistry,
physics, mechanical drawing, and art also is
helpful.

Job Outlook
Employment of lithographers is expected to rise
faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s in response to wide­
spread use of offset printing, while employment
of photoengravers is expected to decline. These
divergent trends reflect the fact that offset print­
ing methods—which require lithographers—
are replacing letterpress printing, which re­
quires photoengravers’ skills. Also contribut­
ing to the rapid employment growth projected
for lithographic workers is the trend toward
greatly increased use of color in print materials,
such as newspaper advertising inserts.
Most openings, however, will result from the
need to replace experienced workers who leave
the occupation.
Employment opportunities should be best for
people who have completed postsecondary pro­
grams in printing technology. Many employers
prefer to hire applicants who have completed
these programs because the comprehensive
training they receive helps them learn lithogra­
phy and adapt more rapidly to new processes
and techniques.

Earnings
The basic wage rate for a lithographer or pho­
toengraver depends on the job and location. In
early 1983, basic wage rates for photoengravers
ranged from $10.86 to $18.00 an hour. A
lithographer operating a color stripper earned
from $7.14 to $16.41 an hour, while a



lithographer operating a scanner earned from
$9.83 to $18.47. This information is based on
limited data from contracts.

Related Occupations
Lithographers and photoengravers use artistic
skills in their work. Artistic skills are also es­
sential for occupations such as sign painters,
jewelers, decorators, and engravers.

cuts. They use precision instruments, such as
micrometers, to make sure their work meets
specifications. Machined parts may have to
meet tolerances to thousandths or even tenthousandths of an inch. After completing the
machining operations, machinists finish and as­
semble the pieces.
Some machinists do maintenance work, re­
pairing or making new parts for machinery.
They also adjust and test these parts.

Sources of Additional Information
Details on apprenticeship and other training
opportunities in lithography and photoengrav­
ing are available from local employers such as
newspapers and printing shops, local offices of
the Graphic Communications International
Union, or the local office of the State employ­
ment service. For information on schools that
offer courses in printing technology, write to:
Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes
Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213.

For general information on lithographic oc­
cupations, write to:
Graphic Communications International Union, 1900
L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn
St., Arlington, Va. 22209.

Machinists and
Layout Markers
(D.O.T. 600.260-018, .280-022, -026, -030, -034, -038,
-042, .281-010, -018, .380-010, .381-010; 609.380-010;
and 714.281-018)

Nature of the Work
Machinists are skilled metalworkers who can
turn pieces of metal into intricate products,
such as gears or pistons, that meet precise spec­
ifications. They know how to set up and operate
most types of machine tools used to make metal
parts for aircraft, cars, machine tools, and other
equipment. They also know the working prop­
erties of metals such as steel, cast iron, alumi­
num, and brass used to make these parts. Using
this knowledge of metals plus their skill with
machine tools, machinists plan and carry out
the operations needed to make machined prod­
ucts. Layout markers, who have skills similar
to machinists, specialize in planning the ma­
chining, welding, and assembling operations.
Before they begin work on a product, ma­
chinists review blueprints or written specifica­
tions. They select tools and materials for the job
and plan the sequence of cutting and finishing
operations. After selecting materials and the
appropriate machine, they make the required
computations. For example, they must calcu­
late where to cut or bore into the workpiece,
how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and
how much metal to remove. They then mark the
metal stock to show where these cuts should be
made.
After this layout work is completed, ma­
chinists perform the necessary machining oper­
ation. They position the metal stock on the
machine tool, set the controls, and make the

Working Conditions
Most machine shops are clean, well-lighted,
and well-ventilated. Many modem shops are
air-conditioned. Working around high-speed
machine tools, however, presents certain dan­
gers, and workers must follow safety practices.
Since flying pieces of hot metal can cause bums
and cuts, machinists must wear safety glasses
with side shields and other protective devices.
Workers also may wear earmuffs or earplugs to
protect their hearing because machine shops
can be noisy.

Employment
Machinists and layout markers held 236,000
jobs in 1982, about 18,000 fewer than in 1980—
reflecting the drop in manufacturing activity
during the 1981-82 recession.
Most machinists work in industries that man­
ufacture automobiles, aircraft, metalworking
machinery, primary metals, and fabricated met­
al products. Other industries employing sub­
stantial numbers of these workers are the rail­
road, chemical, food processing, and textile
industries. The Federal Government also em­
ploys machinists in Navy yards and other in­
stallations.
Although machinists work in all parts of the
country, jobs are most plentiful in metropolitan
areas where most factories are located.

Skilled machinists often work with little
supervision.

328/Occupational Outlook Handbook
TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement

may open their own shops or advance into other
technical jobs such as tool programming.

A 4-year formal apprenticeship is the best way
to learn the machinist trade. Some machinists
do learn this trade informally on the job,
however. Typical machinist apprentice pro­
grams consist of approximately 8,000 hours of
shop training and about 570 hours of related
classroom instruction. In shop training, ap­
prentices learn chipping, filing, handtapping,
dowel fitting, riveting, and the operation of
various machine tools. In the classroom, they
study blueprint reading, mechanical drawing,
shop mathematics, and shop practices. Nonap­
prentice training involves similar but less struc­
tured on-the-job training without any class­
room instruction.
Persons interested in becoming machinists
should be mechanically inclined in order to use
the tools and machines required to build com­
plex parts. They also should be temperamen­
tally suited to do highly accurate work that
requires concentration as well as physical
effort. Prospective machinists should be able to
work independently.
A high school or vocational school educa­
tion, including mathematics, physics, drafting,
blueprint reading, or machine shop training, is
desirable. Experience with machine tools also
is helpful. In fact, many of the people who enter
the occupation have previously worked as ma­
chine tool operators or job-and-die setters.
Some companies require experienced ma­
chinists to take additional courses in mathe­
matics and electronics at company expense in
order to learn newer metalworking tech­
nologies, such as numerically controlled ma­
chine tools. In addition, equipment builders
generally provide training in the electrical,
hydraulic, and mechanical aspects of new ma­
chine tools.
Machinists may become supervisors. Others
take additional training and become tool-anddie or instrument makers. Skilled machinists

Job Outlook
Employment of machinists and layout markers
is expected to increase about as fast as the
average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Some of this projected growth re­
flects a return of employment to prerecession
levels. In addition, many openings will arise
from the need to replace experienced ma­
chinists who transfer to other fields of work,
retire, or die. Although the proportion of ma­
chinists who leave the occupation each year is
somewhat lower than that for all craft workers,
replacement needs will account for most job
openings.
As population and incomes rise, so will the
demand for goods that have machined parts,
such as automobiles, household appliances,
and industrial products. As industries continue
to use a greater volume of complex machinery
and equipment, proper maintenance will be­
come increasingly important and more skilled
maintenance machinists will be needed to pre­
vent costly breakdowns in highly mechanized
plants. Often the breakdown of just one ma­
chine can stop an entire production line for
hours. However, technological developments
that increase the productivity of machinists are
expected to keep employment from rising as
fast as the demand for machined parts. Chief
among these innovations are computer control­
led machine tools that significantly reduce the
time for machining operations.
Because training programs generally last
several years, temporary shortages of skilled
machinists may develop in areas where demand
for machined goods rises sharply. When this
occurs, employers often use overtime to meet
production goals. Large employers may offer
higher wages to attract workers.
Employment of machinists fluctuates with
economic conditions. When demand for ma­
chined goods falls, machinists involved in pro­
duction may be laid off or be forced to work

More new jobs are expected for machinists and layout markers than
for other machining occupations.




Projected change in employment, 1982-95
(thousands)
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

fewer hours. Employment of machinists in­
volved in plant maintenance is more stable be­
cause proper maintenance and repair of costly
equipment remain vital concerns even when
production levels fall.

Earnings
In 1982, median weekly earnings for machinists
were about $370. Most earned between $290
and $455. Ten percent of all machinists had
median weekly earnings of less than $255,
while the 10 percent with the highest earnings
made more than $550 a week.
The earnings of machinists compare favora­
bly with those of other skilled workers. Ma­
chinists employed in metropolitan areas had
estimated average hourly earnings of $11.55 in
1982. In comparison the average hourly rate for
all production workers in private industry, ex­
cept farming, was $7.67.
Average hourly rates in 10 areas selected to
show how rates differ in various parts of the
country, appear in the accompanying table. Be­
cause machinists’ work is not seasonal, earn­
ings are relatively stable year round. Ma­
chinists also have numerous opportunities for
overtime work when demand for machined
parts is high.

Table 1. Average hourly earnings of machinists
in selected areas, 1982
Area
San Francisco-Oakland ........................
Gary-Hammond-East C hicago.............
Corpus Christi .......................................
Portland, Oreg.-Wash.............................
Milwaukee ..............................................
Atlanta ....................................................
Trenton ....................................................
Northeast, Pa............................................
Norfolk-Virginia Beach ........................
Jackson, Miss...........................................
Providence-Worwick-Pawtucket .........
Greenville-Spartanburg ........................

Hourly rate
$13.86
13.69
13.29
12.98
12.89
12.34
9.33
9.04
8.92
8.81
8.37
7.92

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor S a i t c .
ttsis

Many machinists are members of unions,
including the International Association of Ma­
chinists and Aerospace Workers; the Interna­
tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace
and Agricultural Implement Workers of Amer­
ica; the International Union of Electrical, Radio
and Machine Workers; the International Broth­
erhood of Electrical Workers; and the United
Steelworkers of America.

Related Occupations
Occupations most closely related to machinists
are, of course, the other machining occupa­
tions. These include toolmakers and diemakers, machine tool operators, job-and-die
setters and instrument makers. Other occupa­
tions that require precision and skill in working
with metal include arc cutters, blacksmiths,
gunsmiths, locksmiths, metal patternmakers,
and welders.

Production occupations/329
Sources of Additional Information
For information about machinist appren­
ticeships or other work opportunities in this
trade, contact local machine shops, a local of
one of the unions mentioned above, or the near­
est office of the State employment service or
State apprenticeship agency.
For general information about this occupa­
tion, contact:
The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark
Dr., McLean, Va. 22102.
The National Tooling and Machining Association,
9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, Md. 20744.
The National Screw Machine Products Association,
6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckville, Ohio 44141.
The International Association of Machinists and
Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

Patternmakers
(D.O.T. 600.280-046, -050; 661.281-018, -022; 693.281014, -018, -022. and .382-010)

Nature of the Work
Automobiles, planes, ships, industrial machin­
ery, and other products have parts that are metal
castings. Metalcasting is a process by which
detailed metal products are formed when mol­
ten metal is poured into molds and allowed to
solidify in the mold cavity. The hollow mold
cavity is formed around a pattern—a model of
the part to be cast. The patternmaker’s skill
determines the quality of the pattern and, ul­
timately, of the metal casting.
Patterns are made from many different mate­
rials—metal, wood, plastic, and even wax. Pat­
ternmakers may specialize in making patterns
from one material or may work with a variety of
materials.
Regardless of the material used, pat­
ternmakers work from drawings that describe
the finished cast object. If the pattern is to be
made from metal or wood, patternmakers lay
out and cut pieces for the pattern from metal or
wood stock. They then finish and assemble the
pieces into the complete pattern. In some cases,
the patternmaker first makes a wood pattern and
then uses it to make a mold in which a metal
pattern is cast.
To cut and finish metal pieces, patternmakers
use metalworking machines such as lathes, drill
presses, milling machines, and grinders. For
wood patterns, they use wood lathes, sanders,
and other power woodworking tools. For both
wood and metal patterns, they use small handtools for finishing and assembling.
Other workers who have an important role in
the metal casting process are hand molders. For
a description of that job, see the statement
elsewhere in this section.

addition, vocational and technical school train­
ing in pattemmaking, metalworking, and ma­
chining provide useful preparation, and may be
credited toward completion of the appren­
ticeship. Manual dexterity and attention to de­
Employment
tail are especially important because of the pre­
Metal and wood patternmakers held about cise nature of the work. The ability to visualize
13,000 jobs in 1982—about 3,000 fewer jobs objects in three dimensions also is important
than in 1980. This decline reflects the drop in when reading work drawings.
Patternmakers earn higher pay as their skill
manufacturing employment during the 1981-82
recession. Most patternmakers work for firms increases, and some become supervisors.
that produce metal castings on a contract basis Job Outlook
or manufacturing firms that make industrial Employment of patternmakers is expected to
equipment, cars, and aircraft. Some work for grow more slowly than the average for all oc­
firms that make patterns on a contract basis.
cupations through the mid-1990’s. Most of the
projected growth reflects a return of employ­
Training, Other Qualifications, and
ment to prerecession levels.
Advancement
Over the long run, only a moderate rise in
Apprenticeship is the best way to learn the
demand for patternmakers is expected despite
trade. The high degree of skill and the wide
anticipated increases in demand for metal cast­
range of knowledge needed for patternmaking
ings. Improvements in metal casting tech­
make it difficult to learn the trade on the job.
nology, such as the greater use of metal and
However, skilled machinists are able to transfer
plastic patterns will allow production to in­
into metal pattemmaking if they acquire addi­
crease faster than employment. Because metal
tional on-the-job training or experience.
and plastic patterns last longer than wooden
Apprenticeship programs generally are
ones, fewer patterns have to be made. Most job
sponsored jointly by the employer and the Inter­
openings will arise because of the need to re­
national Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union.
place experienced patternmakers who transfer
The usual apprenticeship period for pat­
to other occupations, retire, or die.
temmaking is 4 or 5 years. At least 144 hours of
The number of job opportunities may fluctu­
classroom instruction generally accompany the
ate from year to year since the demand for metal
work experience provided each year. Appren­
castings is sensitive to changes in the economy.
tices begin by helping experienced pat­
When economic conditions are poor, the de­
ternmakers in routine duties. They make simple
mand for durable goods that use metal casting is
patterns under close supervision; as they pro­
reduced. Thus, patternmakers may experience
gress, the work becomes increasingly complex
layoffs or shortened workweeks when users of
and the supervision more general. Employers
metal castings face a reduction in the demand
almost always require apprentices to have a
for their products.
high school education.
High school courses in mechanical drawing, Earnings
blueprint reading, woodworking, metalwork­ Patternmakers generally have higher earnings
ing, and shop mathematics are helpful to per­ than other production workers in manufactur­
sons interested in becoming a patternmaker. In ing. In January 1982, average straight-time

exposed to the heat and noise of the foundry
floor. Although the work is not strenuous, pattemmaking requires considerable standing and
moving about.

Working Conditions
Patternmakers work indoors in well-lighted,
well-ventilated areas. The rooms in which they
work generally are separated from the areas
where the casting takes place, so they are not



Patternmakers must visualize the object in three dimensions when reading blueprints.

330/Occupational Outlook Handbook
hourly earnings of patternmakers ranged from
$10.20 in nonferrous foundries to $10.80 in
steel foundries, according to a survey by the
National Foundry Association. In comparison,
all production workers in manufacturing indus­
tries averaged $8.50 an hour.

Related Occupations
Other workers who follow blueprints and work
drawings to construct full-sized and scale mod­
els of products include sample-body builders,
model makers, form builders, mock-up
builders, wood model makers, cabinetmakers,
and metal fabricators.

Sources of Additional Information
For details about training opportunities for pat­
ternmakers, contact local foundries, the local
office of your State employment service, or the
nearest office of the State apprenticeship agen­
cy.
Career guidance material—free when re­
quested on stationery with a school let­
terhead—is available from:
American Foundrymen’s Society/Cast Metals In­
stitute, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016.

Photographic Process
Workers
(D.O.T. 962.665-010; 970.281-010; -018, .381-010, -030
-034; 972.281-010, -018, 976.267-010 through .361-010,
.381-014 through .564-010, .665-010 through .685-030,
.687-014 through -022; and 979.682-014)

Nature of the Work
If the developing of film and printing of pictures
were left to the average photographer, few pho­
tographs would be taken. Instead, professionals

Photo process workers develop film, make prints
and slides, and enlarge and retouch
photographs.



and amateurs alike generally rely on pho­
tographic process workers in photo finishing or
custom photo labs to develop film, make prints
and slides, and do related tasks such as enlarg­
ing and retouching photographs. (This state­
ment does not discuss employees of laborato­
ries that specialize in processing professional
motion picture film).
All-round darkroom technicians can do ev­
erything necessary to develop and print film.
They vary the developing process according to
the type of film—black-and-white negative,
color negative, or color positive. For example,
a developing process for black-and-white nega­
tive film covers five steps: Developer, stop bath,
fixing bath, washing, and drying. The first three
steps use chemical solutions and are performed
in darkness. In a hand operation, the technician
first immerses unwound film in the developer to
bring out the image on exposed film. After a
specified period, the technician transfers the
film to a stop bath to prevent overdevelopment.
Next, the film is placed in a fixing bath that
makes it insensitive to light to prevent further
exposure. Finally, the technician washes the
film with water to remove the fixing solution
and places the film in a drying cabinet. Al­
though processing is done by hand in some
small photographic studios, technicians in
many photographic labs operate machines that
automatically perform the steps described
above.
Processing of color film is more complex
than processing of black-and-white film. Thus,
some labs employ color-laboratory technicians
(D.O.T. 976.681-010)—highly skilled workers
who specialize in processing color film.
The darkroom technician makes a pho­
tograph by transferring the image from a nega­
tive to photographic paper. Printing frequently
is performed on a projection printer, which con­
sists of a fixture for holding negatives and pho­
tographic paper, an electric lamp, and a magni­
fying lens. The technician places the negative
between the lamp and lens, and the paper below
the lens. When the technician turns on the lamp,
light passes through the negative and lens and
records a magnified image of the negative on
the paper. During printing, the technician may
vary the contrast of the image or remove un­
wanted background by using paper patterns to
shade part of the photographic paper from the
projected image. After removing the exposed
photographic paper from the printer, the techni­
cian develops it in much the same way as the
negative. If the customer desires, the techni­
cian mounts the finished print in a frame or on a
paper or cardboard back.
In addition to working in the laboratory,
darkroom technicians may set up lights and
cameras or otherwise assist experienced pho­
tographers. Many technicians, particularly
those in portrait studios who aspire to become
professional photographers, divide their time
between taking and processing pictures. In
some labs, helpers assist technicians. Techni­
cians also may be assisted by workers who
specialize in a particular activity, such as de­
velopers (D.O.T. 976.681-010), print washers
(D.O.T. 976.684-022), projection printers

(D.O.T. 976.381-018), and photograph re­
touchers (D.O.T. 970.281-018).
In most large photo labs where film develop­
ing is largely automated, darkroom technicians
supervise workers whose assignments require
only a limited knowledge of developing and
printing. Included are photofinishing laborato­
ry workers (D.O.T. 976.687-018), who sort
film according to the type of processing needed
and number each roll for identification; colorprinter operators (D.O.T. 976.382-014), who
control the equipment used to produce color
prints from negatives;print controllers (D.O.T.
976.685- 010), who operate machines that ex­
pose rolls of photographic paper to negatives;
automatic print developers (D.O.T. 976.685026), who operate machines that develop rolls
of exposed photographic paper; cutters (D.O.T.
976.685- 010), who tend machines that cut pro­
cessed film or prints into single or multiple
units; automatic mounters (D.O.T. 976.685022), who tend the automatic mounting presses
that cut film into individual transparencies and
seal them in mounting frames; and photo check­
ers and assemblers (D.O.T. 976.687-014), who
inspect and package finished slides and prints
for customers.

Working Conditions
Photo lab jobs are not physically strenuous and
the work is done in clean, well-lighted, and airconditioned photofinishing laboratories.
However, many workers, especially in large
laboratories, do repetitious work at a rapid
pace. Some workers such as photo checkers and
assemblers, who perform detailed tasks, are
subject to eye fatigue.
Most photo lab employees work a 40-hour
week. In labs that specialize in processing film
for amateur photographers, employees may
work a considerable amount of overtime, at
premium pay, during peak seasons such as sum­
mer and after Christmas.

Employment
Photo process workers held about 67,000 jobs
in 1982. About half worked in large pho­
tofinishing labs that process film for amateur
and professional photographers. Many others
worked in photo labs operated by portrait and
commercial studios and with motion picture
producers, photo equipment manufacturers,
and other organizations. Darkroom technicians
also work in commercial labs that specialize in
processing the work of professional pho­
tographers.
Photo process workers are employed in all
parts of the country but are concentrated in the
more populous areas such as New York, Los
Angeles, Chicago, and other large cities.
About 3 out of 10 entrants to this occupation
work part time.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most photo process workers learn their skills
through informal on-the-job training. Begin­
ners start as helpers and gradually learn to de­
velop and print film by assisting experienced
technicians. It generally takes about 3 years to
become a fully qualified darkroom technician.

Production occupations/331
Some helpers specialize in a particular activity,
such as printing or developing. Generally, less
training time is required to become a specialist
than to become an all-round darkroom techni­
cian.
When hiring darkroom technician helpers,
employers prefer applicants who are high
school graduates. Courses in chemistry and
mathematics are helpful to people interested in
this field. Some high schools and trade schools
offer courses in photography that include train­
ing in film processing. The Armed Forces also
offer training in photographic processing. Ex­
perience gained through processing film as a
hobby is helpful.
Several community colleges offer 2-year
programs leading to an associate degree in pho­
tographic technology. Formal training also is
available from vocational schools and technical
institutes. Completion of postsecondary
courses in this field is helpful to people who are
interested in supervisory and managerial jobs
in photo labs.
Some darkroom technicians eventually be­
come professional photographers. (See the
statement on photographers elsewhere in the
Handbook). Others advance to supervisory
positions in laboratories.
On-the-job training for workers in spe­
cialized photo process occupations ranges from
a few weeks for film numberers and automatic
mounters, for example, to several months for
photo checkers and assemblers. For many jobs,
manual dexterity, good vision, including nor­
mal color perception, and good hand-eye coor­
dination are important qualifications.

Job Outlook
Employment of photo process workers is ex­
pected to increase more slowly than average
through the mid-1990’s. Increased demand will
create some jobs, but most openings will result
from replacement needs. Job prospects for pho­
to process workers are associated to some ex­
tent with fluctuations in the business cycle;
these workers are subject to layoff during eco­
nomic downturns, when the volume of film
processing declines.
The demand for film processing is expected
to rise as a result of the expanding interest in
amateur photography—spurred by rising popu­
lation and personal income as well as improve­
ments in still and movie cameras that make
them easier to load and operate. Business and
government also are expected to contribute to
the demand for film processing through ex­
panded use of photography in research and de­
velopment activities and increased use of pho­
tographs to illustrate printed materials. Em­
ployment of photographic process workers is
not expected to keep pace with the demand for
film processing, however, because of the grow­
ing popularity of self-processing instant cam­
eras and the automation of photo lab operations.

between about $187 and $309 a week. The
lowest tenth earned less than $166 a week, the
highest tenth, more than $452.

Related Occupations
The more highly skilled photo process work­
ers—all-round darkroom technicians and colorlaboratory technicians, for example—need a
specialized knowledge of the photodeveloping
process. Other laboratory workers who apply
specialized technical knowledge include chem­
ical laboratory technicians, crime lab analysts,
food testers, medical laboratory assistants,
metallurgical technicians, and quality control
technicians.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about employment oppor­
tunities in photographic laboratories and
schools that offer degrees in photographic tech­
nology, write to:
Photo Marketing Association International, 3000
Picture Place, Jackson, Mich. 49201.

Shoe Repair
Occupations
(D.O.T. 365.361-014, 753.684-026, and 788.381-010)

Nature of the Work
People like their shoes to look nice and feel
comfortable. Keeping them that way is the job
of the shoe repairer. Using their knowledge of
shoe construction and leatherworking, shoe re­
pairers give worn shoes a new lease on life.
Replacing soles and heels is the most com­
mon type of shoe repair. Repairers place the
shoe on a last, a block shaped like a foot. They
remove the old sole and heel with a knife and
pincers. To prepare the shoe for the new sole,

repairers rough the shoe’s bottom by holding it
against a sanding wheel. Repairers then cement
to the shoe a piece of leather or rubber that will
be the new sole. They hammer the new sole so it
adheres to the shoe, and cement or stitch it in
place. To form the new sole, repairers cut off
the excess material with a trimming machine
and smooth the edge against a sanding wheel.
To reheel the shoe, repairers select a precut
replacement heel or cut one to shape and ce­
ment and nail it in place. New soles and heels
are stained and buffed to match the color of the
shoe. Tennis and running shoes are repaired in
much the same manner—the old sole is cut off
and a new one cemented in place. Then the
leather or canvas uppers are reconditioned and
missing eyelets are replaced.
Shoe repairers also replace insoles, restitch
loose seams, and restyle old shoes by changing
heels or dyeing uppers. Highly skilled repairers
may design, make, or repair orthopedic shoes
according to doctors’ prescriptions. Repairers
also may mend handbags, luggage, tents, and
other items made of leather, rubber, or canvas.
They also replace zippers, dye handbags, and
stretch shoes to conform to the foot.
In large shops, repair work sometimes is
divided into a number of specialized tasks. For
example, some of the repairers only remove and
replace heels and soles; others only restitch tom
seams.
Shoe repairers use a variety of power-oper­
ated equipment, such as sole-stitchers, heelnailing machines, and sewing machines.
Among the handtools they use are hammers,
knives, awls, nippers, and skivers (a special
tool for splitting pieces of leather).
Self-employed shoe repairers have man­
agerial responsibilities in addition to their reg­
ular duties. They have to maintain good rela­
tions with their customers; decide whether to
sell items such as shoe polish and leather goods;
keep business records; and supervise other re­
pairers, helpers, and cashiers.

Earnings
Earnings of photo process workers vary greatly
depending on skill level, experience, and geo­
graphic location. The median earnings for full
time photo process workers in 1982 were about
$245 a week. The middle 50 percent earned



Job prospects are good for people with some training in shoe repair.

332/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Working Conditions
Because many shoe repairers own shops, work­
ing conditions often are determined by the re­
pairer. Some shops may be crowded and noisy
and have poor lighting or ventilation. Strong
odors from leather goods, dyes, and stains often
are present. The work is not strenuous and
hazards are few if safety precautions are fol­
lowed. However, stamina is needed because
repairers must stand much of the time.

Employment
Shoe repairers held about 16,000 jobs in 1982.
More than half of all jobs are in small, oneperson repair shops. Large shoe repair shops
and those operated by shoe stores, department
stores, and drycleaning establishments provide
most of the remaining jobs. Shoe manufactur­
ing firms employ a small number of repairers to
fix shoes damaged in production; these workers
generally are less skilled than those who work
in repair shops.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Shoe repairers generally learn their trade on the
job as helpers to experienced repairers, al­
though some learn in vocational programs.
Helpers begin by assisting experienced re­
pairers with simple tasks, such as removing
soles and heels and staining, brushing, and
shining shoes. As they gain experience, train­
ees learn to replace heels and soles, to estimate
the cost of repairs, and to deal with customers.
Helpers usually become fully skilled in 6
months to 2 years; the length of training varies
greatly with the individual and with the amount
of time the skilled repairer can devote to train­
ing.
Only about 24 vocational training programs
are available nationwide. Vocational training
lasts from 6 months to 2 years, and is offered at
high schools, trade schools, and community
colleges. (Applicants to shoe repair programs
at community colleges usually must have a high
school diploma.) In vocational classes, stu­
dents study shoe construction and practice dif­
ferent types of shoe repair. They also study the
fundamentals of business practices. Graduates
are encouraged to gain additional training by
working with experienced shoe repairers.
Shoe repairers must have manual dexterity
and mechanical aptitude to work with various
machines and handtools. They must have selfdiscipline because they often work alone with
little supervision. In addition to being skilled
craft workers, repairers who own shops must
have a pleasant manner in dealing with the
public and a working knowledge of business
practices, marketing, and accounting.
Many shoe repairers open their own shops.
Some who are employed in large shops become
supervisors.

Job Outlook
Employment of shoe repairers is expected to
grow more slowly than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. For many




years, employment declined because shoes
were relatively inexpensive and many people
bought new shoes instead of having old ones
fixed. The popularity of cushion-soled foot­
wear and other casual shoes which often are not
practical to repair also limited the demand for
these workers. The rising cost of shoes,
however, has increased the demand for repairs,
and employment is projected to grow some­
what.
Prospects for people with some knowledge
of the trade are expected to be good because of
the need to replace experienced shoe repairers
who transfer to other occupations, retire, or
leave the field for other reasons. Once trained, a
shoe repairer is likely to find work with rela­
tively little difficulty, although wages tend to be
low and the work can be dirty. People with no
experience or training may have difficulty find­
ing jobs, however, because many shop owners
are unwilling to hire inexperienced workers as
helpers. Others are willing to take on trainees;
terms vary from a small wage to a “tuition”
charge.

Earnings
Shoe repairers earned about $200 a week in
1982, according to the limited information
available. Many owners of shoe repair shops
earned more than $450 a week after expenses.
Shoe repairers often work more than 40
hours a week. The workweek is sometimes 10
hours a day, 6 days a week.

Related Occupations
Other occupations in which workers make or
repair items using leather and cloth are luggage
repairers, rug repairers, saddlemakers, and
custom shoemakers.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about the shoe repair business and
training opportunities may be obtained from:
Shoe Service Institute of America, 154 W. Hubbard
St., Chicago, 111. 60610.

Information about employment and training
opportunities is available from State employ­
ment service offices. Shoe shops and shoe serv­
ice wholesalers in the community are another
source of information about job openings.

Toolmakers and
Diemakers
(D.O.T. 601.280 except -054; .281-010, -014, and -026;
.380-010; .381-010, -014, -022, -026, -030, and -034;
.382-042; and 739.381-018 and -022)

Nature of the Work
Toolmakers and diemakers are highly skilled
workers who produce tools and special guiding
and holding devices that are used to mass-pro­
duce a variety of machined metal parts. Toolmakers produce jigs and fixtures (devices that

hold metal while it is bored, stamped, or dril­
led). They also make gauges and other measur­
ing devices used in manufacturing precision
metal parts. Diemakers construct metal forms
(dies) to shape metal in stamping and forging
operations. They also make metal molds for
diecasting and for molding plastics. Toolmakers and diemakers also repair worn or
damaged dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures, and
help design tools and dies.
Compared with most other machining work­
ers, toolmakers and diemakers have a broader
knowledge of machining operations, mathe­
matics, and blueprint reading. Like machinists,
toolmakers and diemakers use almost every
type of machine tool and precision measuring
instrument. Because they work with all the met­
als and alloys commonly used in manufactur­
ing, these workers must be familiar with the
machining properties, such as hardness and
heat tolerance, of wide variety of metals and
alloys.
Although the tasks required to make a tool or
a die vary with each job, toolmakers and di­
emakers usually follow established procedures.
Working from blueprints or instructions from
supervisors, they plan the sequence of opera­
tions necessary to manufacture the tool or die.
They measure and mark the pieces of metal that
will be cut to form parts of the final product.
They then do the cutting, boring, or drilling that
is required. They check the accuracy of what
they have done to insure that the final product
will meet specifications. They then assemble
the parts and perform finishing jobs such as
filing and smoothing surfaces.
In all assignments, toolmakers and di­
emakers must work quickly and economically.
Taking too much time or wasting materials can
reduce their employer’s profit.

Working Conditions
Toolmakers and diemakers usually work in
“toolrooms,” which are in an area of the plant
separated from the production floor. Toolrooms
usually are quieter than the production floor
because there are not as many machines in use
at one time. Although the work is not stren­
uous, toolmakers and diemakers are, on their
feet most of the day.
Working around high-speed machine tools
presents certain dangers, so toolmakers and
diemakers must follow strict safety procedures.
For example, safety glasses with side shields
and other protective clothing must be worn to
protect against bits of flying metal.

Employment
Toolmakers and diemakers held 154,000 jobs in
1982, about 17,000 fewer than in 1980. This
decline in employment reflects the drop in man­
ufacturing activity during the 1981-82 reces­
sion.
Most toolmakers and diemakers work in in­
dustries that manufacture metalworking ma­
chinery, tools and dies, automobiles, aircraft,
electrical machinery, and fabricated metal
products. Although they are employed

Production occupations/333
throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful
in large metropolitan areas where many large
factories are located.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
A formal apprenticeship program is the best
way to learn tool-and-die making. In selecting
apprentices, most employers prefer persons
with a high school or vocational school educa­
tion. Courses in shop math, physics, drafting,
blueprint reading, and metalworking may help
applicants land an apprentice position. Experi­
ence operating machine tools also can be help­
ful. Some employers test apprentice applicants
to determine their mechanical aptitude and their
mathematical ability.
Most of the 4 years of a tool-and-die appren­
ticeship are spent in practical shop training.
Apprentices learn to operate the drill press,
milling machine, lathe, grinder, and other ma­
chine tools. They also learn to use handtools in
fitting and assembling tools, gauges, and other
mechanical equipment, and study heat treating
and other metalworking processes. Classroom
training consists of shop mathematics, shop
theory, mechanical drawing, tool designing,
and blueprint reading. Several years of experi­
ence after apprenticeship are often necessary to
qualify for the most difficult tool-and-die work.
Some companies have separate apprenticeship
programs for toolmaking and diemaking.
Some machining workers become toolmakers and diemakers without completing for­
mal apprenticeships. After years of experience
as skilled machine tool operators or machinists,
plus additional classroom training, they de­
velop into skilled all-round workers who can
make tools and dies.
Skilled toolmakers and diemakers have nu­
merous paths for advancement. Some advance
to supervisory and administrative positions in
their firms. Some become tool designers and
others may open their own tool-and-die shops.

Job Outlook
Employment of toolmakers and diemakers is
expected to increase about as fast as the average
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s.
Some of this projected growth reflects a return
of employment to prerecession levels. As the
economy grows, the demand for automobiles,
aircraft, machinery, and other products that use
machined metal parts will increase. Rising de­
mand for these goods will increase the need for
tools and dies and the workers who make them.
Employment may not grow as rapidly as pro­
duction, however, due to changes in metal­
working technology. The use of computer con­
trolled machine tools and improvements in tool
design will lessen the time needed to machine
parts for tool and dies, thus increasing the out­
put of toolmakers and diemakers.
In addition to jobs created by increased de­
mand for toolmakers and diemakers, many
openings will occur as workers transfer to other
occupations or leave the labor force. The
number of openings will be smaller than in
other machining occupations because a smaller



Tool-and-die makers may frequently work overtime in order to meet production deadlines.
portion of toolmakers and diemakers than other
machining workers leave their occupation each
year. Toolmakers and diemakers have a strong
attachment to their occupation because of their
lengthy investment in training.
Because of the long training period for toolmakers and diemakers there may be periodic
shortages of these workers in areas with great
deal of manufacturing activity. Firms often use
overtime to meet deadlines when shortages oc­
cur.
Employment of toolmakers and diemakers is
less sensitive to fluctuations in the business
cycle than many other production occupations.
Employers usually are reluctant to lay off these
highly skilled workers even when production is
cut back because they fear the .workers will not

be available when economic conditions im­
prove.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for toolmakers and
diemakers who worked full time were $435 in
1982. Most earned between $365 and $545 a
week. Ten percent earned less than $250 a
week, while the 10 percent with the highest
weekly earnings made more than $645.
In 1982, toolmakers and diemakers em­
ployed in metropolitan areas had average earn­
ings of $12.13 an hour. In comparison, the aver­
age for all nonsupervisory workers in private
industry, except farming was $7.67. Table 1
presents average hourly rates in 13 areas se­
lected to show how wage rates for tool-and-die
makers differ in various parts of the country.

The unemployment rate for toolmakers and diemakers is lower
than the rate for all craft occupations.
Percent unemployed

1972

1973

1974

1975

SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

334/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Table 1. Average hourly earnings of tool-anddie m akers in selected areas, 1982

Area

Hourly rate

San Francisco-Oakland ........................
$15.04
Davenport-Rock Island-M oline...........
14.03
Sacramento..............................................
13.94
San Jose ..................................................
13.81
Dayton .....................................................
13.21
Columbus, O h io .....................................
13.06
Poughkeepsie .........................................
9.93
Northeast, Pa.....................................
9.66
Providence-Warwick-Pawtucket...........
9.66
Portland, Me...........................................................9.39
Greenville-Spartanburg ........................
9.27
Worcester ................................................
9.26
SOURCE: Bureau of Labor S a i t c .
ttsis




Many toolmakers and diemakers are mem­
bers of unions, including the International Uni­
on, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agri­
cultural Implement Workers of America; and
the United Steelworkers of America.

Related Occupations
The occupations most closely related to toolmaker and diemaker are, of course, the other
machining occupations. These include ma­
chinists, instrument makers, machine tool op­
erators, job-and-die setters, and tool program­
mers.
Other occupations that require precision and
skill in working with metal include arc cutters,
blacksmiths, gunsmiths locksmiths, metal pat­
ternmakers and welders.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about tool-and-die appren­
ticeships or other work opportunities in this
trade, contact local tool-and-die shops, or the
nearest office of the State employment service
or State apprenticeship agency.
For general information about this occupa­
tion, contact:
The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark
Dr., McLean, Va. 22102.
The National Tooling and Machining Association,
9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, Md. 20744.
The International Association of Machinists and
Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

Plant and Systems Operators
The workers described in this section of the
Handbook operate, maintain, and repair ma­
chinery in industrial plants and systems. They
monitor and control equipment that ranges in
complexity from the simple boiler in the base­
ment of an apartment building to the tech­
nologically advanced equipment in nuclear
power and chemical plants and petroleum refin­
eries.
Water and wastewater treatment plant oper­
ators run equipment that purifies and distributes
water for human and industrial use, as well as
disposes of liquid wastes, such as sewage,
chemicals, and radioactive materials. Gas plant
operators handle machinery that processes and
distributes gas to business and residential cus­
tomers. Power plant operators control machin­
ery in hydroelectric fossil fuel and nuclear
powerplants that provide electric energy for
factories, office buildings, schools, and homes.
Other plant and systems operators include
chemical plant operators and petroleum plant
operators.
Plants and systems vary in size, complexity,
and degree of automation; some are run by only
one operator at a time, others by many. Nev­
ertheless, operators have certain tasks in com­
mon. They start up equipment and shut it down;
monitor meters, gauges, or control panels; and
make adjustments. They monitor or operate
switches that control the flow of various mate­
rials and substances, take samples and run
tests, record instrument instrument readings
and switching operations, and do calculations.
Operators also perform periodic inspections
and maintenance.
As recent events have shown, accidents in
places such as nuclear power plants can have
very serious consequences indeed. Training re­
quirements for operators have risen in recent
years. In the past, many operators started out as
laborers or helpers and were trained informally
on the job. Now, however, as industrial equip­
ment has become more complex and as safety
in nuclear and other power plantsd is receiving
greater attention, more formal training—avail­
able from vocational-technical institutes, com­
munity and 2-year colleges, apprenticeship
programs, the Armed Forces, by employers,
and government agencies. Certain plant and
systems operators must hold a license or certifi­
cate. Detailed information on the training
needed for some plant and systems operator
occupations appears in the statements that fol­
low.

and electrical power for industry. They are also
responsible for the equipment that heats, airconditions, refrigerates, and ventilates facto­
ries and other buildings. The equipment they
tend and control includes boilers, diesel en­
gines, turbines, generators, pumps, con­
densers, and compressors. Much of it is similar
to the nonstationary equipment operated by lo­
comotive and marine engineers.
Stationary engineers start up and shut down
equipment in order to meet demands for power
and to insure the equipment is operating within
established limits. They monitor meters,
gauges, and other instruments attached to
equipment and make adjustments whenever
necessary. They also keep a log of all relevant
facts about the operation and maintenance of
the equipment. On a steam boiler, for example,
they observe, control, and keep records of
steam pressure, temperature, water level,
power output, and the amount of fuel con­
sumed. Stationary engineers control the flow of
fuel to the boiler and the steam pressure by
adjusting throttles, valves, or automatic con­
trols.

Stationary engineers must periodically re­
move from equipment the soot and corrosion
that can reduce operating efficiency. They test
boiler water and add necessary chemicals to
prevent corrosion and build up of deposits in the
boiler.
These workers detect, identify, and correct
any trouble that develops. They watch and lis­
ten to their machinery and routinely check safe­
ty devices. Often stationary engineers use hand
or power tools to make repairs, ranging from a
complete overhaul to replacing defective val­
ves, gaskets, or bearings.
In a large plant, the stationary engineer may
be in charge of the powerplant or engine room
and direct the work of assistant stationary engi­
neers, turbine operators, boiler tenders, and airconditioning and refrigeration operators and
mechanics. In a small plant, the stationary en­
gineer may be the only person operating and
maintaining equipment.

Working Conditions
Stationary engineers generally have steady
year-round employment. They usually work a
5-day, 40-hour week. In plants that operate

Stationary Engineers
(D.O.T. 950.362, 382-018, -022, -026, and 030)

Nature erf the Work
Stationary engineers operate, maintain, and re­
pair the machinery that provides mechanical




Stationary engineers must be alert to avoid burns, electric shock, and injury from machinery.
335

336/Occupational Outlook Handbook
around the clock, they may be assigned to any
one of three shifts—often on a rotating basis—
and to Sunday and holiday work.
Engine rooms, powerplants, or boiler rooms
usually are clean and well lighted. Even under
the most favorable conditions, however, some
stationary engineers are exposed to high tem­
peratures, dust, dirt, and high noise levels from
the equipment. General maintenance duties
may cause contact with oil and grease, and
fumes or smoke. Workers are on their feet a lot;
they also may have to crawl inside boilers and
work in crouching or kneeling positions to in­
spect, clean, or repair equipment.
Because stationary engineers work around
boilers and electrical and mechanical equip­
ment, they must be alert to avoid bums, electric
shock, and injury from moving machinery.

Employment
Stationary engineers held about 58,000 jobs in
1982. They work in a wide variety of places,
including factories, hospitals, schools, office
and apartment buildings, shopping malls,
hotels, and power stations. Usually, plants that
operate on three shifts employ four to eight
stationary engineers, but some have more. In
many plants, only one engineer works on each
shift.
Because stationary engineers work in so
many different kinds of industries, they are
employed in all parts of the country. Although
some are employed in small towns and in rural
areas, most work in the more heavily populated
areas where large industrial and commercial
businesses are usually located.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Many stationary engineers start as helpers or
oilers and acquire their skills through informal
on-the-job experience. They usually become
boiler tenders before advancing to stationary
engineers. A good background also can be ob­
tained in the Navy or Merchant Marine.
However, most training authorities recommend
formal apprenticeship programs because of the
increasing complexity of the machines and sys­
tems; programs are sponsored by the Interna­
tional Union of Operating Engineers and the
International Brotherhood of Firemen and
Oilers, the principal unions to which stationary
engineers belong.
In selecting apprentices, most local labormanagement apprenticeship committees prefer
high school or trade school graduates who have
received instruction in mathematics, mechan­
ical drawing, machine-shop practice, physics,
and chemistry. Mechanical aptitude, manual
dexterity, and good physical condition also are
important qualifications.
The apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years. In
addition to on-the-job training, apprentices re­
ceive classroom instruction in practical chemis­
try, elementary physics, blueprint reading, ap­
plied electricity, instrumentation, electronics,
and other technical subjects.
Becoming a stationary engineer without
going through a formal apprenticeship program
usually takes many years of experience as an
assistant to a licensed stationary engineer or as



a boiler tender. This practical experience can be
supplemented by technical or other school
training or home study.
Many States and cities have licensing re­
quirements for stationary engineers. Although
requirements differ from place to place, appli­
cants usually must be at least 18 years of age,
reside for a specified period in the State or
locality in which the examination is given, meet
the experience requirements for the class of
license requested, and pass a written examina­
tion.
Generally, there are several classes of sta­
tionary engineer licenses. Each class specifies
the steam pressure or horsepower of the equip­
ment the engineer can operate without supervi­
sion. The first class license permits the station­
ary engineer to operate equipment of all types
and capacities. An applicant for this license
may be required to have a high school education
and an approved apprenticeship or on-the-job
training. The lower class licenses limit the ca­
pacity of the equipment the engineer may oper­
ate without the supervision of a higher rated
engineer.
Because of regional differences in licensing
requirements, a stationary engineer who moves
from one State or city to another may have to
pass an examination for a new license.
However, the National Institute for Uniform
Licensing of Power Engineers has helped 21
States adopt a standardized licensing program
that eliminates this problem by establishing re­
ciprocity of licenses.
Stationary engineers advance to more re­
sponsible jobs by being placed in charge of
larger, more powerful, or more varied equip­
ment. Generally, engineers advance to these
jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Ad­
vancement, however, is not automatic. For ex­
ample, an engineer who has a first-class license
may work for some time as a boiler tender or an
assistant to another first-class engineer before a
vacancy occurs. Some stationary engineers
eventually advance to jobs as plant engineers
and as building and plant superintendents. A
few obtain jobs as examining engineers and
technical instructors.

Job Outlook
Little change in employment of stationary engi­
neers is expected through the mid-1990’s de­
spite expanding industrial needs for more
mechanical and electrical power. Employment
in the occupation remained fairly constant
through the 1970’s due to automation and the
shift to more powerful and centralized equip­
ment. These trends will continue to limit
growth in the future. Nevertheless, many job
openings will arise because of the need to re­
place experienced workers who transfer to
other occupations, retire or leave the labor force
for other reasons, or die.

Earnings
Stationary engineers had average hourly earn­
ings of $10.38 in 1981, according to a survey of
metropolitan areas. This was almost 40 percent
higher than the average for all nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except farming.
Average earnings for engineers in individual

cities ranged from $6.65 in the Jackson, Mis­
sissippi, metropolitan area to $12.33 in the De­
troit metropolitan area.
The principal unions to which these workers
belong are the International Union of Operating
Engineers and the International Brotherhood of
Firemen and Oilers.

Related Occupations
Other workers who monitor and operate sta­
tionary machinery include nuclear reactor oper­
ators, power station operators, wastewater
treatment plant operators, waterworks pump­
station operators, chemical operators, and re­
finery operators.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about training or work oppor­
tunities is available from local offices of State
employment services, locals of the Interna­
tional Union of Operating Engineers, and from
State and local licensing agencies.
Specific questions about the occupation may
be referred to:
International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125
17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 176
West Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60603.

For questions concerning licensing require­
ments, contact:
National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power
Engineers, 1436 Fritz Rd., Verona, Wis. 53593.

Water and
Wastewater Treatment
Plant Operators
(D.O.T. 551.485-010; 954.382-010, -014; and 955.362010, .382-010 and .585-010)

Nature of the Work
Clean water is essential for many things: Health
and recreation; the existence of fish and wild­
life; and the functioning of industries. Water
treatment plant operators treat water so that it is
pure and safe to drink. Wastewater treatment
plant operators, sometimes referred to as
sewage plant operators, remove harmful do­
mestic and industrial pollution from waste
water.
Water is pumped from rivers and streams to
water treatment plants. Waste materials are car­
ried by water through sewer pipes to wastewater
treatment plants. Operators in both types of
plants control processes and equipment to re­
move solid materials, chemicals, and organ­
isms from the water or render them harmless.
By operating and maintaining the pumps,
pipes, valves, and processing equipment of the
treatment facility, operators move the water or
wastewater through the various treatment pro­
cesses.
Operators read and interpret meters and
gauges to make sure plant equipment and pro­
cesses are working properly and adjust controls

Production occupations/337
as needed. They operate chemical-feeding de­
vices; take samples of the water or wastewater
and perform chemical and biological laboratory
analyses; and test and adjust the level of chlo­
rine in the wastewater. Operators also make
minor repairs to valves, pumps, and other
equipment. They use gauges, wrenches, pliers,
and other common handtools, as well as special
tools. Occasionally operators must work under
emergency conditions. A heavy rainstorm, for
example, may cause an abnormal amount of
wastewater to flow into sewerpipes which ex­
ceeds a plant’s treatment capacity. Emergencies
also can be caused by conditions inside a plant,
such as chlorine gas leaks or oxygen deficien­
cies.
The duties of operators vary depending on
the type and size of plant. In smaller plants, one
operator may control all machinery, perform
tests, keep records, handle complaints, and do
repairs and maintenance. The operators even
may handle both a water treatment and a wastewater treatment plantain larger plants, with
many employees, operators may be assigned to
one process or one station, and the staff may
include chemists, engineers, laboratory techni­
cians, mechanics, helpers, supervisors, and a
superintendent.
Water pollution standards have become in­
creasingly stringent since adoption of the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. To
implement the law, a national system of uni­
form controls on the discharge of pollutants was
set in motion. Under the 1972 law, as amended
by the Clean Water Act of 1977, it is illegal to
discharge any pollutant without a permit. In­
dustrial facilities that send their wastes to muni­
cipal treatment plants must meet certain mini­
mum standards and insure that these wastes
have been adequately pretreated so that they do
not damage municipal treatment facilities. Mu­
nicipal treatment plants must also meet dis­
charge standards. In order to meet these re­
quirements, operators will have to be able to
operate more sophisticated systems.

Water and wastewater treatment plant oper­
ators are employed throughout the country.
Geographically, employment is distributed
much like the Nation’s population, with most
jobs in larger towns and cities. Many operators
in small towns are employed part time or handle
additional duties.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Trainees usually start as attendants or operators-in-training and learn their skills on the job
under the direction of an experienced operator.
They learn by observing the processes and
equipment in operation and do routine tasks
such as recording meter readings; taking sam­
ples of wastewater and sludge; and doing simple
maintenance and repair work on pumps, elec­
tric motors, and valves. They also clean and
maintain plant equipment and property. Larger
treatment plants generally have more formal
“in-house” training programs.
Operators need mechanical aptitude and
should be competent in basic mathematics.
Employers generally prefer trainees who have a
high school diploma or its equivalent. In some
States this is a minimum educational require­
ment. Some positions, particularly in larger
cities and towns, are covered by civil service

regulations, and applicants may be required to
pass written examinations testing elementary
mathematics skills, mechanical aptitude, and
general intelligence. Operators must be agile,
since they have to climb ladders and move easi­
ly around heavy machinery.
Some 2-year programs leading to an associ­
ate degree in wastewater technology and 1-year
programs leading to a certificate are available;
these provide a good general knowledge of
water pollution control as well as basic prepara­
tion for becoming an operator. Because plants
are becoming more complex, completion of
such courses increases an applicant’s chances
for employment and promotion.
Most State water pollution control agencies
offer training courses to improve operators’
skills and knowledge. These courses cover
principles of treatment processes and process
control, laboratory procedures, odors and their
control, safety, chlorination, sedimentation, bi­
ological oxidation, sludge treatment and dis­
posal, and flow measurements. Some operators
take correspondence courses on subjects re­
lated to wastewater treatment, and some em­
ployers pay part of the tuition for related college
courses in science or engineering.
Operators may be promoted to plant super­
visor or superintendent. A high school diploma

\

Working Conditions
Wastewater treatment plant operators work both
indoors and outdoors and may be exposed to
noise from machinery and unpleasant odors,
although chlorine and other chemicals are used
to minimize these. Persons with allergies might
suffer due to dust and other substances in the
air. Because plants operate around the clock,
operators are required to work shifts and on
weekends and holidays. During emergencies,
overtime is common. Operators have to stoop,
reach, and climb and often get their clothes
dirty. Sometimes they are confronted with haz­
ardous conditions, such as slippery walkways,
dangerous gases, and malfunctioning equip­
ment.

Employment
Water and wastewater treatment plant operators
held about 72,000 jobs in 1982. The vast major­
ity worked for local governments; some worked
for private water supply companies and chemi­
cal manufacturing companies. About 2,000
were employed by the Federal Government,
mostly by the Armed Forces.



Water and sewage treatment plant operators clean water by removing harmful domestic and industrial
waste.

338/Occupational Outlook Handbook
and increasingly responsible experience as an
operator may be sufficient to qualify for super­
intendent of a small plant, since at many small
plants the superintendent also serves as an oper­
ator. However, educational requirements are
rising as larger, more complex treatment plants
are built to meet new water pollution control
standards. Superintendents of large plants gen­
erally need an engineering or science degree. A
few operators get jobs with State water pollu­
tion control agencies as technicians, who
monitor and provide technical assistance to
plants throughout the State. Vocational-tech­
nical school or community college training
generally is preferred for technician jobs. Ex­
perienced operators may transfer to related jobs
with industrial wastewater treatment plants,
companies selling wastewater treatment equip­
ment and chemicals, engineering consulting
firms, or vocational-technical schools.
In 44 States, supervisors and certain oper­
ators must pass an examination to certify that
they are capable of overseeing treatment plant
operations. Voluntary certification programs
are in effect in the remaining States. Typically,
there are different classes of certification for
different sizes of treatment plants.

the average for all occupations through 1995,
due to a slowdown in the rate of construction of
new treatment plants. In addition, moderniza­
tion and automation of existing plants may de­
crease the need for some types of operators.
Nevertheless, many job openings will occur as
experienced operators transfer to other occupa­
tions, retire, or die. Persons with formal train­
ing will have the competitive edge in being
hired or advancing to supervisory positions.
People who enter this field generally enjoy
steady employment because treatment of water
is essential even during economic downtowns.

Job Outlook

Other workers whose main activity consists of
operating a system of machinery to process or
produce materials include boiler operators,

Employment of wastewater treatment plant op­
erators is expected to grow more slowly than




Earnings
According to a survey conducted by the Water
Pollution Control Federation, annual salaries of
wastewater treatment plant operators averaged
$14,600 in 1982; for supervisors they averaged
$17,500. Salaries depend, among other things,
on the size of the plant, the complexity of the
operator’s job, and the operator’s level of cer­
tification.

Related Occupations

gas-compressor operators, powerplant oper­
ators, power reactor operators, stationary engi­
neers, turbine operators, and waterworks
pump-station operators.

Sources of Additional Information
Environmental Protection Careers Guidebook,
a 1980 publication of the U.S. Department of
Labor and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, describes a number of water and
wastewater treatment occupations and contains
a list of postsecondary environmental educa­
tion programs (including wastewater pro­
grams).
For further information on training, contact:
National Environmental Training Association, 158 S.
Napoleon St., P.O. Box 2266, Valparaiso, Ind.
46383.

For information on certification, contact:
Association of Boards of Certification, Municipal
Building, Ames, Iowa 50010.

Additional information is available from:
Water Pollution Control Federation, 2626 Pennsyl­
vania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037.

For information on jobs, contact State or
local water pollution control agencies or local
offices of the State employment service.

Machine Operators, Tenders, and Setup Workers
Workers in this occupational group set up, ad­
just, operate, and tend numerous kinds of ma­
chinery and equipment. These workers gener­
ally have job titles related to the type of machine
they handle such as rolling machine setup oper­
ator, printing press operator, sewing machine
operator, and motion picture projectionist.
Skilled machine setup operators adjust the
speed, feed, and other controls on machines
according to the specifications of a particular
product or job. They then test the machines to
make certain they are functioning properly and
producing parts that conform to job specifica­
tions. After this determination has been made,
semiskilled machine operators begin produc­
tion. It is their job to control and monitor ma­
chines and equipment and make necessary ad­
justments during production.
In small establishments, workers may per­
form a wider range of tasks than in large estab­
lishments, where workers’ duties may be more
specialized. Some skilled workers may set up,
operate, and tend equipment throughout the
production process.
Most machine operators, tenders, and setup
workers are employed in factories in the mass
production of goods. Working conditions in
factories have improved substantially in recent
years. The use of modem equipment and safety
procedures has reduced the rate of accidents.
Most factories are clean and well lighted and
some modern factories are air-conditioned.
However, many workers must perform their
jobs under rather unpleasant conditions. For
example, electroplaters and boiler tenders may
be exposed to fumes. Forge shops can be very
hot and noisy. And working around even the
most modem high-speed machines can still be
dangerous.
Some machine operators such as motion pic­
ture projectionists work in nonmanufacturing
industries where the injury rate is much lower
than in manufacturing industries. Because of
the repetitive nature of some tasks, machine
operators, tenders, and setup workers may find
their jobs tedious and boring.
Persons interested in these jobs should have
manual dexterity and be mechanically inclined
to use the tools and machinery required in their
work. Physical stamina is important because
many machine operators, tenders, and setup
workers, such as production painters, must
stand for long periods of time and do a consid­
erable amount of reaching and bending. Phys­
ical strength is essential for jobs such as print­
ing press operator and electroplater which
require some heavy lifting and carrying. Preci­
sion, accuracy, and the ability to visualize
three-dimensional objects from drawings also
are important characteristics for many of these
workers.




Many jobs as machine operators, tenders,
and setup workers do not require a high school
diploma. However, employers often prefer high
school or vocational school graduates who have
taken courses in mathematics, machine shop,
and blueprint reading.
Most workers learn these jobs through onthe-job training provided by their employers.
Skilled workers, such as machine tool setup
workers, often complete formal apprenticeship
programs. Some experienced workers may be
required to take courses to keep abreast of new
technologies.
This section of the Handbook includes state­
ments on selected machine operators, tenders,
and setup workers. In addition to more detailed
information on the nature of the work, employ­
ment, working conditions, and training re­
quirements, these statements discuss job out­
look and earnings.

and other controls, and select the proper cutting
instruments or tools for each operation. Using
micrometers, gauges, and other precision mea­
suring instruments, they compare the com­
pleted work with the tolerance limits given in
the specifications. They also may select cutting
fluids to keep the metal workpiece from getting
too hot, and lubricants to keep the machine
tools running smoothly.

Machine Tool
Operators _____ _

Employment

(List of D.O.T. codes available upon request. See footnote
4 on p. 373.)

Nature of the Work
Machine tool operators use machine tools to
shape metal to precise dimensions. They usu­
ally are identified by the kind of machine they
operate, such as lathe operator, milling machine
operator, drill press operator, and punch press
operator. Although some operators can work
with a variety of machine tools, most specialize
in one or two types.
Most operators only tend machines, per­
forming simple, repetitive operations that can
be learned relatively quickly. Typically, these
operators place rough metal stock in a machine
tool on which the speeds and operation se­
quence already have been set by job-and-die
setters. (See the statement on job-and-die set­
ters elsewhere in the Handbook.) Operators
may watch one or more machines and make
minor adjustments according to their instruc­
tions. However, they depend on skilled machin­
ing workers for major adjustments when their
machines are not working properly.
Some operators perform more varied and
complex machining operations. The work of
these more skilled machine tool operators is
similar to that of machinists, except that these
operators usually are able to run only one type
of machine and do little or no hand fitting or
assembly work. Skilled machine tool operators
plan and set up the correct sequence of machin­
ing operations according to blueprints, layouts,
or other instructions. They adjust speed, feed,

Working Conditions
Most machine shops are clean, well-lighted,
and well-ventilated. However, powerful, high­
speed machine tools can be dangerous if strict
safety rules are not observed. Machine tool
operators must wear safety glasses and other
devices to protect themselves from flying metal
particles. They cannot wear loose-fitting
clothes or jewelry that might get caught in the
machine, injuring the operator. When working
around noisy machinery, operators must wear
earmuffs or earplugs.

Machine tool operators held about 914,000jobs
in 1982, 109,000 fewer than in 1980. This de­
cline reflects the severe dropoff in manufactur­
ing activity during the 1981-82 recession. The
distribution of employment among specific op­
erator occupations is presented in the following
tabulation.
Percent
Total ...........................................
Combination machine tool operators .
Metal punch press operators ..............
Metal lathe machine operators ...........
Grinding/abrading machine operators .
Drill press/boring machine operators .
Numerical control machine tool oper­
ators ....................................... * ..........
Milling/planing machine operators . . .
Power brake, bending machine operators
Toolroom machine tool operators . . . .
Metal shear and/or slitter operators ..

100.0
18.4
16.0
14.9
12.9
12.6
7.2
6.6
4.5
3.8
2 .9

Most machine tool operators work in facto­
ries that produce fabricated metal products,
transportation equipment, and machinery in
large quantities. They are concentrated in large
metropolitan areas where manufacturing ac­
tivity is centered.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most machine tool operators learn their skills
on the job. Beginners usually start by observing
experienced operators at work. Later, they learn
to use measuring instruments and to make ele­
mentary computations needed in shopwork.
When trainees first operate a machine, they are

339

340/Occupational Outlook Handbook
their opportunities by completing courses in
mathematics and blueprint reading. In hiring
beginners, employers often look for persons
with mechanical aptitude and some experience
in working with machinery. Physical stamina is
important since much time is spent standing.
Applicants should be able to work indepen­
dently. They also should not mind working in a
relatively small workspace.
Machine tool operators may become joband-die setters or transfer to trainee jobs for
skilled machining occupations such as ma­
chinists and toolmakers and diemakers.

Job Outlook

The more highly skilled machine tool operators
plan and set up the correct sequence of machin­
ing operators.
supervised closely by more experienced work­
ers. After gaining some experience, beginners
often take over more of the duties associated
with the machines they operate. For example,
they may learn to adjust feed speeds and cutting
edges, instead of calling upon other workers to
perform these tasks. Some also may learn to
read blueprints and plan the sequence of ma­
chining work.
Individual ability and effort largely deter­
mine the time required to become a machine
tool operator. Most operators learn the basic
machine operations and functions in a few
months, but becoming a skilled operator often
requires 1 to 2 years. Some companies have
formal training programs for new employees.
Although no special education is required for
jobs, persons seeking such work can improve

Overall employment of machine tool operators
is expected to increase about as fast as the
average for all occupations through the
mid-1990’s. Much of this projected growth re­
flects a return of employment to prerecession
levels. In addition to openings arising from
growth in demand for these workers, many
thousands of openings are expected to occur
each year in this large occupation as operators
transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die.
More machine tool operators will be needed
as metalworking industries expand their output.
However, the use of faster and more versatile
automatic machine tools and numerically con­
trolled machine tools will result in greater out­
put per worker and will tend to limit growth in
employment especially in less skilled jobs.
Other factors that may slow growth in this oc­
cupation are improved processes in metalwork­
ing, such as electrical discharge and ultrasonic
machining, and the use of powdered metals that
reduce the need for final machining on some
products. Workers with thorough backgrounds
in machining operations, mathematics, blue­
print reading, and a good working knowledge
of the properties of metals will be better able to
adjust to the changing job requirements that
will result from technological advances.
The number of openings may fluctuate great­
ly from year to year due to changes in economic

Among machine tool operators, numerical control machine operators
are expected to experience the most rapid growth.
0

Numerical control
Combination
Toolroom
Power brake, bending
Shear, slitter
Drill press, boring
Punch press
Metal lathe
Milling, planing
Grinding, abrading
SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics




10

20

30

t
---------- i----------

40

1
---------- r

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of machine tool oper­
ators were $330 in 1982. Most earned between
$245 and $420 a week. Ten percent of all oper­
ators had median weekly earnings of less than
$190, while the 10 percent with the highest
earnings made more than $490 a week.
Machine tool operators are paid according to
hourly or incentive rates, or by a combination
of both methods. In 1982, hourly earnings of
machine tool operators in metropolitan areas
ranged from $8.50 to $12.10, depending on the
type of machine operated. In comparison, the
average hourly rate for all production workers
in private industry, except farming was $7.67.
Most machine tool operators belong to
unions, including the International Association
of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the In­
ternational Union, United Automobile, Aero­
space and Agricultural Implement Workers of
America; the International Union of Electrical,
Radio and Machine Workers; the International
Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the
United Steelworkers of America.

Related Occupations
The occupations most closely related to ma­
chine tool operators are, of course, the other
machining occupations. These include ma­
chinists, job-and-die setters, toolmakers and
diemakers, and instrument makers.
Other occupations that require precision and
skill in working with metal include arc cutters,
blacksmiths, gunsmiths, locksmiths, metal pat­
ternmakers and welders.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about work opportunities in
this occupation contact the nearest office of the
State employment service.
For general information about this occupa­
tion, contact:
The National Machine Tool Builders, 7901 Westpark
Dr., McLean, Va. 22102.
The National Tooling and Machining Association,
9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, Md. 20744.

Projected percent ch ange in employment, 1982

M achine operators:

conditions. When demand slackens for auto­
mobiles, aircraft, and other products that use
machined metal parts, production runs may be
stopped or restricted, and workers be laid off or
may face a shortened workweek.

50

The National Screw Machine Products Association,
6700 W. Snowville Rd., Breckville, Ohio 44141.
The International Association of Machinists and
Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.

Printing Press
Operators
(D.O.T. 651, 652, 715, 971, and 979. D.O.T. index which
begins on p. 364 lists the nine-digit codes included under
this occupation.)

Nature of the Work
Printing press operators prepare and operate the
printing presses in a pressroom. Before actually

Production occupations/341
starting the press, press operators set it up and
adjust it to insure that the printing impressions
are distinct and uniform. Press operators first
insert and lock type setups or plates into the
press bed and tighten the locking attachment
with a wrench. The operators then level the
pressplates by placing pieces of paper that are
exactly the right thickness underneath low areas
of the plates. Press operators also adjust control
margins and the flow of ink to the inking roller.
In some shops, they oil and clean the presses
and make minor repairs. Press operators who
work with large presses have assistants and
helpers.
Press operators’ jobs may differ from one
shop to another, mainly because of differences
in the kinds and sizes of presses in the shop.
Press operators in small commercial shops gen­
erally operate relatively simple manual presses.
On the other hand, a crew of several press
operators and press assistants runs giant presses
used by the large newspaper, magazine, and
book printers. These presses are fed paper in
big rolls called “webs” up to 50 inches or more
in width. They print the paper on both sides;
cut, assemble, and fold the pages; and count the
finished sections as they come off the press.
Many modem plants have installed printing
presses that use computers and sophisticated
instrumentation to control press operations.
With this equipment, the press operator
monitors a control panel that detects problems.
To adjust the press, the operator pushes the
proper button on the control panel. Press oper­
ators are generally designated according to the
type of press they operate: Letterpress, gravure,
or offset.

trained to operate more than one press, but
specialize in a particular area of printing such as
lithography, letterpress, or gravure. The ap­
prenticeship period in commercial shops is 4
years for press operators. In addition to on-thejob instruction, the apprenticeship includes re­
lated classroom or correspondence school
courses. Courses in printing provide a good
background. Because of technical develop­
ments in the printing industry, courses in chem­
istry, electronics, and physics are helpful.
Mechanical aptitude is important in making
press adjustments and repairs. An ability to
visualize color is essential for work on color
presses.
Technological changes have had a tremen­
dous effect on the skills needed by press oper­
ators. For example, printing plants which
change from sheet-fed offset presses to weboffset presses have to retrain their entire press
crew because the skill requirements for the two
types of presses are very different. Web-offset
presses, with their faster operating speeds, re­
quire faster decisions, monitoring of more vari­
ables, and greater physical effort.

Press operators may advance in pay and re­
sponsibility by taking a job working on a more
complex printing press. For example, a twocolor sheet-fed press operator may become a
four-color sheet-fed press operator. Others may
advance to press operator-in-charge and be re­
sponsible for the work of the entire press crew.

Job Outlook
Employment of press operators is expected to
grow more slowly than the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. Productivity
improvements centering around faster and
more efficient web-offset presses will permit
the rapidly growing demand for printed mate­
rials to be met with only a modest rise in the
number of press operators. The dominant trend
in major industry sectors such as newspapers is
for employment of production workers to grow
much more slowly than that of administrative,
managerial, sales, and other nonproduction
workers. Technological breakthroughs—the
application of microprocessors to printing and
binding equipment, for example—could fur­
ther reduce labor requirements in the years
ahead. Most opportunities for printing press

Working Conditions
Operating a press is physically demanding.
Press operators are on their feet most of the time
and have to lift heavy plates. Pressrooms are
noisy, and workers in certain areas frequently
wear ear protectors. Press operators are subject
to hazards when working near machinery.
Often, they work under pressure to meet dead­
lines. Many press operators work evening and
night shifts.

Employment
Press operators held about 174,000 jobs in
1982. About half were in commercial printing
shops and book and magazine publishing firms.
Many others were in newspaper plants. Some
press operators worked for banks, insurance
companies, paper manufacturers, and organi­
zations that do their own printing, such as
Federal, State, and local governments.
Printing and publishing is one of the most
geographically dispersed industries in the Unit­
ed States, and press operators can find jobs
throughout the country. However, jobs are con­
centrated in large printing centers such as New
York, Chicago, and Los Angeles.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most press operators learn their trade through
apprenticeship or on the job. The length and
content of training depend largely on the kind of
press used in the plant. Most press operators are



Adjusting the press is part of the printing press operator’s job.

342/Occupational Outlook Handbook
operators will reflect the need to replace experi­
enced workers who leave the occupation.
Printing press operators are expected to face
competition for jobs. The number of applicants
to training programs is likely to exceed the
number of openings.

Earnings
The basic wage rate for a press operator de­
pends on the type of press being run and the
area of the country in which the work is located.
In early 1983, according to limited data from
union contracts, the basic wage rate for let­
terpress operators in unionized firms ranged




from $10.40 to $15.49 an hour. Lithographic
press operators earned from $11.30 to $15.94 an
hour on a single-color 19x25-inch press. Oper­
ators working on larger, multicolor presses
earned more.

Related Occupations
Other workers who set up and operate produc­
tion machinery are papermaking machine oper­
ators, shoemaking machine operators, bindery
machine operators, and precision machine op­
erators.

Sources of Additional Information
Details about apprenticeships and other train­
ing opportunities may be obtained from local

employers such as newspapers and printing
shops, the local office of the unions mentioned
below, or the local office of the State employ­
ment service.
For general information about press oper­
ators, write to:
Graphic Communications International Union, 1900
L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes
Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213.
Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn
St., Arlington, Va. 22209.

Fabricators, Assemblers, and Handworking
Occupations
The workers discussed in this section of the
Handbook produce manufactured goods. Using
handtools and hand-held power tools, they per­
form tasks ranging from the repetitive to the
highly intricate.
Most entry level jobs require relatively little
formal education; few employers insist on a
high school diploma. What counts is the ability
to perform. Workers acquire their skills on the
job, usually in a matter of days or weeks. For­
mal training programs are available for the
more technically demanding occupations such
as welding, however.
It is in this type of work—highly repetitive
and requiring minimum skills—that commer­
cial robots are most productive, and an increas­
ing number of jobs will be lost to these mechan­
ical workers in the years ahead. The use of
robots for assembling, painting, and welding
will reduce employment in the automobile in­
dustry, for example.
Many of the fabricating, assembly, and hand­
working occupations are sensitive to fluctua­
tions in the business cycle. As factory orders
decline during economic downturns, workers
may experience shortened workweeks, layoffs,
and plant closings. Workers employed in motor
vehicle and other durable goods manufacturing
or in industries that produce construction and
building materials are especially affected by
changes in business conditions. On the other
hand, workers in industries such as electronic
equipment and computer manufacturing are
less likely to be affected. More information
about job opportunities and job security ap­
pears in the statements that follow.

Assembler
Occupations

_____

(List'of D.O.T. codes available on request. See footnote 4
on p. 373.)

Nature of the Work
When Henry Ford began producing auto­
mobiles on an assembly line, modem mass
production was bom. Workers who had been
building each automobile independently now
found themselves specializing in just one part
of the job. Production became a team effort,
with each worker performing a single task on
every car rolling by on the line. Over the years,
mass production spread to other industries; to­
day, almost every manufactured item is pro­
duced in this way.




Workers who put together the parts of man­
ufactured articles are called assemblers. Some­
times hundreds of assemblers work on a single
finished product.
Assemblers usually work on items that move
past their work stations automatically on con­
veyors. In the automobile industry, for exam­
ple, one assembler may put nuts on bolts by
hand or with a handtool, and the next worker
down the line may tighten the nuts with a power
wrench. These workers must complete their job
within the time it takes the item to pass their
work station.
Other assemblers, known as bench as­
semblers, do more delicate work. Some bench
assemblers make subassemblies. Subassem­
blies are the intermediate steps in the produc­
tion process; for example, steering columns for
automobiles or motors for vacuum cleaners.
Other bench assemblers make entire products.
Bench assemblers in rifle manufacturing
plants, for example, build complete rifles from
a collection of parts and subassemblies. They
then test the finished product to be sure it func­
tions correctly. Benchwork generally requires
the ability to do precise and detailed work.
Electronics bench assemblers use tweezers,
tiny cutters, and magnifying lenses to put to­
gether the small components used in radios and
calculators.
Another group of assemblers, called floor
assemblers, put together large machinery or
heavy equipment on shop floors. School buses,
cranes, and tractors are put together in this way.
Parts are often brought to the floor station by
huge overhead cranes or conveyors, and are
installed and fastened together, usually with
bolts, screws, or rivets. Assemblers often use a
power tool, such as a grinder or power drill, to
get a proper fit.
Some experienced assemblers work with lit­
tle or no supervision on the more complex parts
of subassemblies and are responsible for the
final assembly of complicated jobs. They may
assemble a television set or put together and test
a calculator. Some work with the engineers and
technicians, assembling products that these
people have just designed. To test new ideas and
build models, these workers must know how to
read blueprints and engineering specifications
and how to use a variety of tools and precision
measuring instruments.

Working Conditions
The working conditions of assemblers differ,
depending on the particular job performed.
Bench assemblers work while seated at tables.
Many of them work in rooms that are clean,
well lighted, and free from dust. Floor as­
semblers of industrial machinery may come in

contact with oil and grease, and their working
areas may be quite noisy due to machinery or
tools being used nearby. They may have to lift
and fit heavy objects. Workers on assembly
lines are under pressure to keep up with the
speed of the lines. Since most assemblers only
perform a few steps in the assembly process,
assembly jobs tend to be monotonous.
Work schedules of assemblers may vary at
plants with more than one shift. Workers can
accept or reject a certain job on a given shift,
usually in order of seniority.

Employment
Virtually all of the 1,313,000 assembler jobs in
1982 were in plants that manufacture durable
goods. One out of three jobs involved assembly
of electronic and electrical machinery, equip­
ment, and supplies including electrical switch­
es, welding equipment, electric motors, light­
ing equipment, household appliances, and
radios and television sets. Nearly one job in five
involved assembly of nonelectrical machinery
(diesel engines, steam turbine generators, farm
tractors, mining and construction machinery,
computers, and window air-conditioners).
The following tabulation lists the industries
that provided most wage and salary jobs for
assemblers in 1982:
Percent
Total ...........................................
Electrical and electronic machinery and
equipment...........................................
Machinery, except electrical ...............
Transportation equipment ...................
Professional and scientific instruments
Fabricated metal products ....................
Lumber and wood products.................
Furniture and fixtures............................
Miscellaneous manufacturing industries
O ther........................................................

100.0

33.9
18.9
13.3
9.1
8.2
3.6
3.6
3.3
6.1

Assemblers are concentrated in the heavily
industrialized States of California, New York,
Michigan, Illinois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania.

lYaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Employers seek workers who can do routine
work at a fast pace. A high school diploma is
helpful but usually is not required.
For some types of assembly jobs, applicants
may have to meet special requirements. Some
employers look for applicants with mechanical
aptitude and prefer those who have taken voca­
tional school courses such as machine shop.
Good eyesight, with or without glasses, may be
required for assemblers who work with small

343

344/Occupational Outlook Handbook

Most assemblers work in plants that manufacture
durable goods.
parts. In plants that make electrical and elec­
tronic products, which may contain many dif­
ferent colored wires, applicants often are tested
for color blindness.
Inexperienced people can be trained to do
most kinds of assembly work in a few days or
weeks. New workers may have their job duties
explained to them by the supervisor and then be
placed under the direction of experienced em­
ployees. When new workers have developed
sufficient speed and skill, they are placed on
their own and are responsible for the work they
do.
As assemblers become more experienced,
they may progress to assembly jobs that require
more skill and be given more responsibility.
Experienced assemblers who have learned
many assembly operations and thus understand
the construction of a product may become prod­
uct repairers. These workers fix assembled arti­
cles that inspectors have identified as defective.
Assemblers also may advance to inspector, or
be promoted to supervisor. In some firms, as­
semblers can become trainees for one of the
skilled trades.

Job Outlook
Although employment of assemblers is ex­
pected to grow about as fast as the average for
all occupations through the mid-1990’s, some
of that growth will represent a recovery from
the heavy layoffs that accompanied the 1981-82
recession. Opportunities are not expected to be
equally favorable throughout the economy, nor
are they expected to be uniform throughout the
period, for the job outlook for assemblers varies
with the fortunes of the industries that employ
them.
Although the popular perception is that robot
technology is replacing assemblers in droves,
most assembly work is beyond the capabilities
of today’s robots. The extent to which robots
will displace assemblers—but create jobs for



technicians and repairers to build, program,
and maintain the new robots—is a topic of con­
troversy. Certainly, not all assemblers can be
replaced efficiently by automated manufactur­
ing processes. Robots are expensive and a large
volume of work is required to justify their pur­
chase. They may not be economical in small
operations with perhaps only one shift per day.
Also, where the assembly parts involved are
small or irregular in size, robot technology is
only now making inroads. The effect of auto­
mation on assembler employment through the
mid-1990’s is expected to differ among indus­
tries depending on how rapidly and extensively
the technology can be adopted. Assemblers’
employment opportunities probably will vary
geographically. Areas of industrial growth such
as the Sunbelt States are expected to provide the
best prospects.
Since assembler jobs generally require lim­
ited formal education or training, there is sub­
stantial movement into and out of the occupa­
tion. A very large proportion of assemblers
leave the occupation each year. In fact, most job
openings arise from the need to replace as­
semblers who retire or leave the occupation for
other reasons.

Earnings
The median earnings for assemblers working
full time were about $246 a week in 1982. The
middle 50 percent earned between $190 and
$400 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned less
than $160 a week and the highest 10 percent,
more than $440.
Wage rates for assemblers working under
union contracts ranged from about $5.50 to $9
an hour in 1983, according to limited informa­
tion. Most assemblers covered by these con­
tracts made between $7 and $8 an hour. Some
assemblers are paid incentive or piecework
rates, and, therefore, can earn more by working
faster.
Many assemblers are members of labor
unions. These unions include the International
Association of Machinists and Aerospace
Workers; the International Union of Electrical,
Radio and Machine Workers; the United Auto­
mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement
Workers of America; the International Broth­
erhood of Electrical Workers; and the United
Steelworkers.

Related Occupations
Other occupations which involve handling and
assembling things are welders, packers and
wrappers, ophthalmic laboratory technicians,
and operators of drill presses, laminating ma­
chines, grinders, and riveting machines.

Source of Additional Information
Information about employment opportunities
for assemblers is available from local offices of
the State employment service.

Automotive Painters
(D.O.T. 845.381-010 and -014)

Nature of the Work
Automotive painters make old and damaged
motor vehicles “look like new.” These skilled

workers repaint older automobiles, trucks, and
buses that have lost the luster of their original
paint and make fender and body repairs almost
invisible.
When painting only the repaired portions of a
vehicle, painters often have to mix paint to
match the original color, which can be very
difficult if the color has faded. To prepare a
vehicle for painting, painters or their helpers
use power Sanders and sandpaper to remove the
original paint or rust, and fill small nicks and
scratches with body putty. They also remove or
mask parts they do not want painted, such as
chrome trim, headlights, windows, and mir­
rors.
Painters use a spray gun to apply several
primer coats. They apply lacquer or enamel
primers to vehicles with metal bodies and flexi­
ble primers to newer vehicles with plastic body
parts. They select the spray gun nozzle best
suited to the kind of paint being used and, if
necessary, they adjust the air-pressure regulator
to obtain the correct pressure. If the incorrect
nozzle is used or if it is not adjusted properly,
paint may run or go on too thinly. To speed
drying, they may place the freshly painted vehi­
cle under heat lamps or in a special infrared
oven. After each coat of primer dries, they sand
the surface to remove any irregularities and to
help the next coat adhere better. Final sanding
of the primers may be done by hand with a fine
grade of sandpaper. A sealer is then applied and
allowed to dry, followed by the final topcoat.
When lacquer is used, painters or their helpers
usually polish the finished surface after the final
coat has dried; enamel dries to a high gloss and
usually is not polished.

Working Conditions
Automotive painters work indoors and may be
exposed to dangerous fumes from paint and
paint-mixing ingredients. However, in most
shops painting is done in special ventilated
booths that protect the painters from these haz­
ards. Painters also wear masks or respirators for
additional protection. Painters must bend and
stoop to reach all parts of the vehicle.

Employment
Automotive painters held about 36,000 jobs in
1982. Almost three-fourths worked in shops
that specialize in automotive repairs. Most oth­
ers worked in the repair shops of automobile
and truck dealers. Some painters worked for
organizations that maintain and repair their own
fleets of motor vehicles, such as trucking com­
panies and buslines.
Painters are employed throughout the coun­
try, but are concentrated in metropolitan areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most automotive painters start as helpers and
gain their skills informally by working with
experienced painters. Beginning helpers usu­
ally remove trim, clean and sand surfaces to be
painted, mask surfaces that they do not want
painted, and polish finished work. As helpers
gain experience, they progress to more compli­
cated tasks, such as mixing paint to achieve a

Production Occupations/345
good match and using spray guns to apply pri­
mer coats or final coats to small areas. Becom­
ing skilled in all aspects of automotive painting
usually requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job train­
ing.
Instructional programs in automotive paint­
ing are offered at a small, but growing number
of community and junior colleges and voca­
tional and technical schools. Completion of
such a program is an asset to persons seeking to
enter this occupation. The quality of formal
automotive painting programs varies greatly,
however. Better programs provide a thorough
background in the latest automotive painting
technology, such as the use of acrylic paints,
and include substantial practical experience es­
sential to becoming proficient as an automotive
painter.
A few automotive painters learn through ap­
prenticeship. Apprenticeship programs, which
generally last 3 years, consist of on-the-job
training supplemented by formal instruction in
areas such as shop safety practices, proper use
of equipment, and blending colors. However,
like other automotive service occupations, em­
ployers’ interest in apprenticeship is declining
due to the increasing number of effective voca­
tional training programs.
Painters should have good health, keen eye­
sight, and a good color sense. Courses in automobile-body repair offered by high schools and
vocational schools are helpful. Completion of
high school generally is not required but usu­
ally is an advantage.
Voluntary certification by the National In­
stitute for Automotive Service Excellence is
recognized as the standard of achievement for
automotive painters. For certification, painters
must pass a written examination and have at
least 2 years of experience in the field. High
school, trade or vocational school, or com­
munity or junior college training in automotive
painting and refinishing may substitute for up to
1 year of experience. Certified painters must
retake the examination at least every 5 years.
An experienced automotive painter with su­
pervisory ability may advance to shop super­
visor. Many experienced painters open their
own shops.

Job Outlook
Employment of automotive painters is expected
to grow faster than the average for all occupa­
tions through the mid-1990’s, as the number of
cars, trucks, and buses damaged in traffic acci­
dents increases with the motor vehicle popula­
tion. Painters also will be needed to repaint
older vehicles which have rust or faded paint.
Despite projected faster-than-average
growth in employment, most job openings are
expected to arise each year as experienced
painters transfer to other occupations, retire, or
stop working for other reasons. Job oppor­
tunities will be best in heavily populated areas.
Experienced automotive painters can expect
relatively steady work because the automotive
painting business is not significantly affected
by changes in economic conditions. Regardless
of the state of the economy, automobiles



Automotive painters wear masks or respirators for protection from dangerous fumes.
damaged in accidents require repair and re­
finishing. However, there may be fewer open­
ings for persons seeking to enter this occupa­
tion during recessions.

Helpers of America (Ind.). Most union painters
work for the larger automobile dealers, truck­
ing companies, and buslines.

Earnings

Restoring damaged motor vehicles often in­
volves repair of their bodies and mechanical
components as well as painting. Automotive
painters often work closely with the following
related automotive service occupations: Auto­
motive repair service estimators, automotive
body repairers and customizers, automotive
mechanics, and diesel mechanics.

Experienced painters employed by automobile
dealers in 24 large metropolitan areas had aver­
s e hourly earnings of $12.81 in 1982. Their
average hourly earnings varied by region as
follows:
West ........................................................
North Central.........................................
South ......................................................
Notheast ..................................................

$13.71
13.26
12.57
9.57

Beginning apprentices usually start at about
half the hourly rate of fully qualified painters.
As they progress, their wages gradually ap­
proach those of experienced automotive paint­
ers. Helpers start at lower wage rates.
Many painters employed by automobile
dealers and independent repair shops receive a
commission based on the labor cost charged to
the customer. Under this method, earnings de­
pend largely on the amount of work a painter
does and how fast it is completed. Employers
frequently guarantee commissioned painters a
minimum weekly salary. Helpers and appren­
tices usually receive an hourly rate until they
become sufficiently skilled to work on a com­
mission basis. Trucking companies, buslines,
and other organizations that repair their own
vehicles usually pay by the hour. Most painters
work 40 hours a week.
Many automobile painters belong to unions,
including the International Association of Ma­
chinists and Aerospace Workers; the Interna­
tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace
and Agricultural Implement Workers of Amer­
ica; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International As­
sociation; and the International Brotherhood of
Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and

Related Occupations

Sources of Additional Information
For more details about work opportunities,
contact local automotive-body repair shops and
automotive dealers; locals of the unions pre­
viously mentioned; or the local office of the
State employment service. The State employ­
ment service also may be a source of informa­
tion about apprenticeship and other training
programs.
For general information about the work of
automotive painters, write to:
Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North
Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611.
Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Industrial
Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126.

Information on how to become a certified
automotive painter is available from:
National Institute for Automotive Service Excel­
lence, 1825 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.

Welders and
Flamecutters
(D.O.T. 81 exc. 819.281-018 and .687-010)

Nature of the Work
Welding is the most common way of perma­
nently joining metal parts. Typically, heat is

346/Occupational Outlook Handbook
applied to the metal pieces to be joined; the
parts are melted and fused to form a permanent
bond. Because of its strength, welding is used
to construct and repair parts of ships, auto­
mobiles, spacecraft, and thousands of other
products. Welding is also used to join beams
and steel reinforcing rods in buildings, bridges,
and highways.
There are three common ways to create the
heat that is applied to the parts being joined. In
electric arc welding, the most frequently used
process, heat is created as electric current flows
through an arc between the tip of the welding
electrode and the metal. In resistance welding,
heat is created in the weld metal as current flows
through the metal. In gas welding, the flame
from the combustion of burning gases melts the
metal. In arc and gas welding, filler materials,
called welding electrodes or welding rods, are
melted and added to the weld puddle to fill the
joint, giving it greater strength. The welder
controls the amount of heat and the size of the
melted area and adds the proper amount of filler
material to form a strong joint.

Since welding processes differ and are used
for many purposes, the equipment and skill
levels of welders vary. Some jobs require highly
skilled manual welders who know how to safely
use gas and electric arc welding equipment in
all positions and are able to plan their work
from drawings or specifications. Skilled
welders know the characteristics and proper­
ties, such as melting points, of steel, alumi­
num, and other commonly used metals. Exam­
ples of skilled welders are maintenance
welders; pressure vessel welders, such as those
working on submarines or nuclear reactors;
pipe welders; and welders who construct ships
and bridges.
In ship construction, welders join the steel
plates, beams, and pipes. Some joints to be
welded are on the floor (deck), some are on the
walls, and some are overhead. Each must be
carefully welded to insure that the ship will not
break apart in rough seas.
Ship welders generally use manual arc weld­
ing equipment, although semiautomatic equip­
ment is becoming more widely used. After

Job prospects for welders are better in some industries than in others.




welders read instructions regarding which ma­
terials and welding method to use, they obtain
supplies from the storage area. To form a joint
by arc welding, they use an electrode in a holder
attached to an electrical cable coming from a
welding power supply. Another cable is at­
tached to the metal being welded. Thus, elec­
tricity will flow through the welding electrode,
through the arc to the metal being welded, and
back to the power supply. The power supply can
be adjusted to provide the correct amount of
current. When the power is turned o», welders
“strike an arc” by briefly touching the electrode
to the metal to start the electricity flowing and
then pulling the rod back to form a small arc gap
through which the current must flow. If the
distance between the electrode and the metal is
correct, a stable electric arc will bridge the
space; the heat from the arc melts the electrode
and the metal. Welders move the arc along the
length of the joint. As the electrode melts and
becomes shorter, they move the holder closer to
the metal to keep the right distance from the
arc. They replace very short electrodes with
new ones.
Maintenance welders repair tools, machines,
and equipment. Often they bring portable gas
torches, hoses, and tanks to the job because
electricity may not be available.
When working on a broken pipe, for exam­
ple, maintenance welders examine the pipe and
prepare the break for repair. They then select a
welding filler rod appropriate for the job. Next,
they light the torch and adjust regulators on the
cylinders of fuel gas, such as acetylene, and
oxygen to obtain the right gas mixtures and
flame. Then they heat the edges of the break
with the torch. As the metal begins to soften,
welders melt the end of the filler rod in the hot
liquid metal as they carefully move the torch
and rod along the break. Welders must keep the
torch the correct distance from the metal, apply
heat correctly, and repair the break with filler
material.
Not all welders need the skills required of
shipbuilding dr maintenance welders. In facto­
ries where many identical parts need to be
welded, automatic arc, electron beam, or resis­
tance welding machines are used. Workers who
operate such machines to weld automobile
mufflers and washing machines, for example,
need little knowledge of welding. These work­
ers, frequently called welding machine oper­
ators to distinguish them from more skilled,
manual welders, place the parts to be joined in
fixtures on the machine and push a button. The
machine then clamps the part in place and posi­
tions it, as necessary, to complete the welding
cycle. In applications having a high volume of
repetitive welds, however, manufacturers in­
creasingly are replacing welding machine oper­
ators with robot welders.
The work of arc and flame cutters is closely
related to that of welders. Using heat from burn­
ing gases or an electric arc, cutters cut and trim
rather than join metal. Some electrically and
mechanically operated machines follow
guidelines automatically.

Production Occupations/347
Working Conditions
Welders frequently are exposed to potential
hazards. They use protective clothing, safety
shoes, goggles, helmets with protective lenses,
and other devices to prevent bums and eye
injuries. Although lighting and ventilation usu­
ally are adequate, some metals give off toxic
gases and fumes as they melt. Workers often are
in contact with rust, grease, and dirt on metal
surfaces. Machine operators, however, are
largely free from hazards associated with man­
ual welding. A face shield or goggles generally
are adequate protection. Skilled welders, work­
ing in booths, are often isolated for long peri­
ods.

Employment
Welders and flamecutters held about 490,000
jobs in 1982. Three out of five jobs involve the
manufacture of durable goods; for example,
boilers, bulldozers, trucks, ships, and consum­
er appliances such as refrigerators. Most of the
rest are in metal products repair or in con­
struction of bridges, large buildings, and
pipelines.
Welders are concentrated in manufacturing
centers such as the Great Lakes States—Penn­
sylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, and Illin­
ois. The rest are distributed much the same as
the population, with large numbers in New
York, Texas, Wisconsin, and California.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Although it takes several years of on-the-job
training to become a skilled welder, less skilled
work can be learned in a few months or less.
Some welding operators learn to operate a ma­
chine in a few hours and can handle all aspects
of the job within a week.
High schools, vocational-technical in­
stitutes, and community colleges throughout
the country teach entry level welding skills.
Private vocational schools also teach welding,
in courses that take from 6 months to 1 year to
complete. The Armed Forces operate welding
schools as well. Many welders learn their craft
through informal, on-the-job instruction while
they work as welders’ helpers. A few com­
panies operate welding schools, although these
programs usually teach advanced techniques to
qualify welders for work on critical applica­
tions such as nuclear reactors or high pressure
boilers.
All these programs train manual welders.
Welders who operate automatic welding ma­
chines can usually be trained on the job in a
matter of hours or days. Management in many
manufacturing plants select capable assemblers
or other workers to fill openings for welding
machine operators.
Persons considering work as welders or cut­
ters need manual dexterity, good eyesight, and
good eye-hand coordination. They should have
the ability to concentrate on detailed work for
long periods and be physically able, in order to
bend, stoop, and work in awkward positions.
Most employers prefer applicants who have




high school or vocational school training in
welding. Courses in shop mathematics, me­
chanical drawing, blueprint reading, physics,
and chemistry also are helpful.
New technological developments, especially
in the nuclear energy and aerospace fields,
sometimes create new welding applications.
Because of the hazards of nuclear power plants
and of air and space travel, reliability standards
in both industries are very high. Before work­
ing on buildings, bridges, pipelines, and other
jobs where the strength of the weld is highly
critical, welders may have to pass an examina­
tion given by an employer or government agen­
cy to become “certified welders.” On the nega­
tive side of the ledger, technology is eliminating
some welding operations as robots become
more economical.
Promotion opportunities for most welding
machine operators are limited, although some
eventually learn skilled welding jobs. Skilled
welders, by contrast, may be promoted to weld­
ing inspectors, technicians, or supervisors. Ex­
perienced workers who have obtained college
training are in great demand as welding engi­
neers to develop new applications for welding.
A small number of experienced welders open
their own repair shops.

Job Outlook
Employment of welders is expected to increase
as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Some of this growth
will reflect a rebound of employment to the
levels before the 1981-82 recession. Increases
in population and income are expected to stimu­
late demand for buildings, heavy machinery,
and thousands of other products that welders
help make. The rate of expansion in the indus­
tries that produce those goods will determine
the actual increase in the number of welders.
Most openings, however, will arise because of
the need to replace experienced welders who
transfer to other occupations or retire.
Welders and flamecutters are vulnerable to
periodic layoffs for factory retooling, and to
economic downturns. During the 1981-82 re­
cession, at least half of all those who left the
occupation became unemployed. Many of
these workers are skilled and form a pool of
potential reentrants who will resume working
as jobs become available. Thus, although many
openings for welders are expected through the
mid-1990’s, those seeking a first job may en­
counter considerable competition from experi­
enced welders who are unemployed. Further­
more, employers tend to fill vacancies for ma­
chine welders from the ranks of company
employees such as assemblers or helpers.
Those who have recently completed vocational
training programs in welding will fill some
openings, although graduates of these pro­
grams don’t always become welders. Welding
skills are applicable in many occupations.
Job opportunities through the mid-1990’s are
not expected to be equally favorable for all
kinds of welders. The robot welding systems
that are being introduced on manufacturing

lines are eliminating the jobs of welding ma­
chine operators, although their full effect will
depend on how rapidly and extensively the new
technology is adopted. For many machine
welding occupations, automation is likely to
slow employment growth in the coming years.
Highly skilled welders are not expected to be
affected by automation for the foreseeable fu­
ture, however, and could experience sharply
increased demand if nuclear power regains
favor or if synthetic fuels become economical.
Job openings are expected to vary geograph­
ically, too; the best prospects will be in the
Sunbelt and Western States.

Earnings
Median earnings for welders working full time
were about $334 a week in 1982. The middle 50
percent earned between $250 and $425 a week.
The lowest-paid tenth earned less than $200 a
week; the highest more than $575.
The limited wage data available indicate that
welding machine operators earned from $10 to
$11 an hour in 1982. Welders in the construction
industry earned $12 to $13 an hour, depending
on location.
Welders belong to many different unions.
Among these are the International Association
of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the In­
ternational Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron
Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Help­
ers; the International Union, United Auto­
mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement
Workers of America; the United Association of
Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing
and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States
and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio
and Machine Workers of America.

Related Occupations
Welders are highly skilled workers who must be
very familiar with the properties of metal and
who use hand-held equipment or machines to
do factory or construction work. Other people
with similar duties are blacksmiths, forge shop
workers, all-round machinists, machine tool
operators, tool-and-die makers, millwrights,
sheet-metal workers, and boilermakers.

Sources of Additional Information
A list of postsecondary programs in welding
and cutting, arranged by city and State, may be
found in Postsecondary Schools with Occupa­
tional Programs, 1982, a publication of the
U.S. Department of Education’s National Cen­
ter for Education Statistics. This publication
may be available in counseling centers and
large public libraries.
For information on training opportunities
and jobs for welders in your community, con­
tact local employers or the local office of the
State employment service.
The American Welding Society has prepared
a pamphlet, Focus on Your Future, which de­
scribes training and work opportunities. Send
35 cents per copy to:
The American Welding Society, 550 NW., LeJeune
Rd., Miami, Fla. 33126.

348/Occupational Outlook Handbook
OTHER PRODUCTION OCCUPATIONS
Title

Definition

Automobile seat
cover, and top
installers

Fit and install automobile seat covers and convertible or vinyl tops.

•5,900

Faster than average

Bakers

Mix and bake ingredients according to recipes to produce breads,
pastries, and other baked goods. Goods are produced in large
quantities for sale through establishments such as grocery stores.
Generally high volume production equipment is used.

65,000

More slowly than
average

Cabinetmakers

Cut, shape, and assemble wooden articles, such as store fixtures,
office equipment, cabinets, and highgrade furniture. Set up and
operate a variety of machines, such as power saws, jointers,
mortisers, tenoners, molders, and shapers to cut and shape parts
from wood stock.

78,000

About as fast as
average

Dressmakers,
except factory

Make, alter, and repair garments, such as coats, corsets, dresses, or
skirts according to pattern or customer specifications, using sewing
machines or by hand sewing.

61,000

More slowly than
average

Electroplaters

Set up, operate or tend plating equipment to coat metal or plastic
objects electrolytically with metal to provide protective or decorative
surfaces or to build up worn surfaces. Work may involve pickling or
other cleaning of the object in preparation for electrolysis.

32,000

More slowly than
average

Etchers and
engravers

Engrave and etc he metal, wood, rubber, glass, or other materials by
hand or machine for printing, identification, or decorative purposes.
May tend equipment that electrolytically etches markings.

12,000

About as fast as
average

Forging press
operators

Set up and operate or tend closed-die power presses to produce metal
forgings, following work order specifications and using measuring
instruments and hand tools.

7,000

About as fast as
average

Furnace operators
and cupola tenders

Operate or control gas, oil, coal, electric arc, electric induction,
oxygen, open-hearth, cupola or other furnace to melt or refine ore,
metal, additives, or scrap prior to casting.

13,000

More slowly than
average

Furniture finishers

Finish or refinish damaged, worn, or used furniture or new highgrade furniture to specified color or finish, utilizing knowledge of
wood properties, finishes, and furniture styling.

19,000

About as fast as
average

Heat treaters,
annealers, and
temperers

Control heat-treating furnaces and quenching equipment to alter
physical and chemical properties of metals by methods of controlled
heating and cooling, such as hardening, tempering, annealing, case
hardening, and normalizing.

23,000

Little change is
expected

Inspectors

Inspect parts, products or materials before, during, or after
processing. Perform such operations as examining parts, products or
materials for flaws and defects; checking their dimensions and
appearance to determine whether they meet the required standards
and specifications.

410,000

About as fast as
average

Laundry,
drycleaning, and
pressing machine
operatives

Operate machines that launder or dryclean clothing, rugs, and linens.
May specialize cleaning items such as furs or leather garments.

159,000

# More slowly than
average

Loom fixers

Set up, adjust, and repair looms to weave cloth of specified quality
and design, using knowledge of loom function and weaving,
diagrams, and manuals.

13,000

Expected to decline

Meat cutters and
butchers

Split carcasses; cut, trim, and bone meat. May also clean and bone
fish and poultry.

57,000

More slowly than
average

Mixing operatives

Operate machines to blend ingredients for products such as paint,
clay, candy, or sausage. May follow formulas to determine amounts
of different ingredients needed.

41,000

More slowly than
average

Motion picture
projectionists

Set up and operate motion picture projection and sound-reproducing
equipment to produce coordinated effects on screen.

17,000

Expected to decline




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Production Occupations/349
OTHER PRODUCTION OCCUPATIONS
Definition

Packing and
inspecting
operatives

Package products by hand or machine. May inspect, clean, and sort
articles before they are packaged.

844,000

More slowly than
average

Painters,
manufactured
articles

Use equipment such as spraying machines to coat products with paint
or other finishes. May check finished items for defects and adjust
machines.

150,000

About as fast as
average

Pourers, metal

Pour molten metal from ladles into molds to produce metal castings
or ingots. Skim slag off molten metal, uiing straining devices. May
repair ladle. May move ladle from furnace or cupola to work station.

12,000

Faster than average

Power station
operators

Control central switchboards in electric generating plants to distribute
power output among generators according to generator capacities and
changing power demands, and regulate flow and distribution of
power from generators to outgoing powerlines.

16,000

More slowly than
average

Riveters, light

Set up, operate, or tend riveting machines that rivet together parts
fabricated from materials such as sheet metal, plastic, cloth, or
leather using light-duty riveting machines, portable riveting guns, or
rivet sets and hammers.

10,000

About as fast as
average

Sandblasters and
shotblasters

Tend equipment that cleans dirt, scale or other materials from metal
or other hard-composition objects with blast of abrasive, such as
steel shot, sand, or steel grit.

10,000

About as fast as
average

Sawyers

Operate machines used to saw wood, metal, and other materials to
size. May measure and mark materials to be cut.

75,000

About as fast as
average

Sewers and
stitchers

Operate machines used to sew together materials such as garments,
quilts, upholstery.

804,000

More slowly than
average

Shipfitters

Lay out and fabricate metal structural parts, such as plates,
bulkheads, and frames, and brace them in position within hull or
ship for riveting or welding. May prepare molds and templates for
fabrication of nonstandard parts.

18,000

About as fast as
average

Tailors

Design and make garments such as suits and coats, applying
principles of garment construction and styling. May specialize in
altering clothing to fit individual customers or repairing defective
garments.

63,000

Faster than average

Testers

Perform tests on parts, products or materials before, during, or after
processing to determine whether the operation and characteristics
meet required standards and specifications.

116,000

Faster than average

Textile operatives

Includes workers involved in operating and tending textile
manufacturing equipment such as machines used for winding,
twisting, knitting, and weaving.

294,000

More slowly than
average

Upholsters

Rad, cover, trim and sew materials in the manufacture of furniture or
vehicles seats using hand tools and knowledge of upholstery methods
and fabrics. Install material on inside of arms, back, and seat, and
over outside back and arms of frame.

16,000

About as fast as
average

Wood machinists

Set up and operate variety of woodworking machines to surface, cut,
and shape lumber, and to fabricate parts for wood products, such as
door and window frames, furniture, and sashes, according to
specifications.

21,000

Faster than average




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Title

Transportation and Material Moving
Occupations
People in transportation and material moving
occupations operate trucks, buses, taxicabs,
trains, ships, aircraft, and industrial equipment
that moves people and materials. Although they
are employed in all industries, workers in these
occupations are concentrated in the transporta­
tion industry.
Most employers prefer to hire high school
graduates for these jobs, but persons who have
not completed high school are often hired if
they meet all other qualifications. For some
occupations, vocational or technical training or
some college education is an advantage. The
ability to understand and follow complex oper­
ating rules, procedures, and instructions is an
important requirement for most of these jobs.
Busdrivers, for example, must adhere to de­
tailed schedules, routes, and operating pro­
cedures, and airplane pilots must painstakingly
follow complex checkout instructions before
takeoff to insure that their craft is in proper
operating condition. During operation, they
follow procedures to insure the safety of lives
and property.
Although work in these occupations gener­
ally is not strenuous, much is tedious or
stressful. Coordination and manual dexterity
are vital. Some mechanical aptitude is needed
to recognize when a vehicle, bulldozer, or in­
dustrial truck is not operating properly. For
many workers in these occupations, such as
taxicab drivers, the efficiency with which they
perform their work directly affects their earn­
ings.
Good vision, usually with or without glass­
es, and ability to judge distances are basic re­
quirements for transportation and material
moving occupations. Good color perception is
also required for many of these jobs. Regular
physical examinations are required for most
jobs to insure that individuals have not de­
veloped chronic medical conditions that could
adversely affect their performance. Good
health is vital in order to handle stress for pro­
longed periods of time, whether driving a taxi­
cab through city traffic all day, or operating a
crane at a high-rise construction site where a
misjudgment of distance could dislodge fellow
workers from their precarious perches.
Many transportation and material moving
occupations are closely regulated. Most motor
vehicle operators need a chauffeur’s license and
frequently must adhere to extensive regula­
tions. Special operating certificates are also
needed to be employed as an airplane pilot or a
merchant marine officer.
More detailed information on selected trans­
portation and material moving occupations ap­
pears in the statements that follow.

950




Airplane Pilots
(D.O.T. 196 except .167-014 and .263-038)

Nature of the Work
Pilots are skilled, highly trained professionals
who fly planes to carry out a wide variety of
tasks. Most pilots transport passengers and car­
go, while others perform tasks such as crop
dusting, testing aircraft, and taking pho­
tographs.
Except on small aircraft, two pilots usually
are needed to fly the plane. Generally, the most
experienced pilot (called captain by the air­
lines) is in command and supervises the other
crew members on board. The copilot assists in
communicating with air traffic controllers,
monitoring the instruments, and flying the
plane. Most large airliners have a third pilot in
the cockpit who serves as flight engineer. The
flight engineer assists the other pilots by
monitoring and operating many of the instru­
ments and systems, making minor inflight re­
pairs, and watching for other aircraft.
Before departure, pilots plan their flights
carefully. They confer with dispatchers and
weather forecasters to find out about weather
conditions en route and at their destination.
Based on this information, they choose a route,
altitude, and speed that should provide the fast­
est, safest, and smoothest flight. When flying
under instrument flight rules, the pilot in com­
mand must file an instrument flight plan with air
traffic control so that the flight can be coordi­
nated with other air traffic.
Before taking off, pilots thoroughly check
their planes to make sure that the engines, con­
trols, instruments, and other systems are func­
tioning properly. They also make sure that bag­
gage or cargo has been loaded correctly.
Takeoff and landing are the most difficult
parts of the flight and require close coordination
between the pilot and copilot. For example, as
the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pilot con­
centrates on the runway while the copilot scans
the instrument panel. To calculate the speed
they must attain to become airborne, pilots con­
sider the altitude of the airport, outside tem­
perature, weight of the plane, and the speed and
direction of the wind. The moment the plane
reaches this speed, the copilot informs the pilot,
who then pulls back on the controls to raise the
nose of the plane.
Unless the weather is bad, the actual flight is
relatively easy. Pilots steer the plane along their
planned route and are monitored by the air
traffic control stations they pass along the way.

They continuously scan the instrument panel to
check their fuel supply and the condition of
their engines. Pilots may request a change in
altitude or route if circumstances dictate. For
example, if the weather briefing led the pilots to
expect a smoother ride than is being experi­
enced, they may ask air traffic control if pilots
flying at other altitudes have reported better
conditions. If so, they may request a change.
This procedure also may be used to find a
stronger tailwind or a weaker headwind to save
fuel and increase speed.
If visibility is poor, pilots must rely com­
pletely on their instruments. Using the readings
on the altimeter, they know how high above
ground they are and can fly safely over moun­
tains and other obstacles. Special navigation
radios give pilots precise information which,
with the help of special maps, tells them their
exact position. Other very sophisticated equip­
ment provides directions to a point just above
the end of a runway and enables pilots to land
completely “blind.”
Once on the ground, pilots must complete
records on their flight for their company and the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
Airline pilots have the services of large sup­
port staffs and consequently perform few non­
flying duties. Pilots employed by businesses
that use their own aircraft, however, usually are
the businesses’ only experts on flying and con­
sequently have many other duties. They may
load the plane and handle all passenger luggage
to insure a balanced load, and supervise refuel­
ing. Other nonflying responsibilities include
keeping records, scheduling flights, arranging
for major maintenance, and performing minor
maintenance and repair work on their planes.
Some pilots are instructors. They teach their
students the principles of flight in groundschool classes and demonstrate how to operate
aircraft in “dual-controlled” planes.
A few specially trained pilots employed by
the airlines are “examiners” or “check pilots.”
They periodically fly with each airline pilot and
copilot to make sure that they are proficient.

Working Conditions
By law, airline pilots cannot fly more than 85
hours a month or more than 1,000 hours a year.
Most airline pilots actually fly less than 70
hours a month and, although they have addi­
tional nonflying duty hours, usually only work
16 days a month. However, the majority of
flights involve layovers away from home.
When pilots are away from home, the airlines
provide hotel accommodations and an al­
lowance for expenses. Airlines operate flights

Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/351
at all hours of the day and night, so work sched­
ules often are irregular. Pilots who have little
seniority may be assigned night or early morn­
ing flights.
Pilots employed outside the airlines often
have irregular schedules; they may fly 30 hours
one month and 90 hours the next. Since these
pilots frequently have many nonflying respon­
sibilities, they have much less free time than
airline pilots. Except for business pilots, most
pilots employed outside the airlines do not re­
main away from home overnight. They may
work odd hours, however. Instructors, for ex­
ample, often give lessons at night or on week­
ends.
Airline pilots, especially those on interna­
tional routes, often suffer jet lag—disorienta­
tion and fatigue caused by many hours of flying
through different time zones. The work of test
pilots, who check the flight performance of new
and experimental planes, may be dangerous.
Pilots who are crop dusters may be exposed to
toxic chemicals and often do not have the bene­
fit of a regular landing strip.
Although flying does not involve much phys­
ical effort, the mental stress of being responsi­
ble for a safe flight, no matter what the weather,
can be tiring. Particularly during takeoff and
landing, pilots must be alert and quick to react
if something goes wrong.

Employment
Civilian pilots held about 80,000 jobs in 1982.
Nearly one-half worked for the airlines. Many
others worked as flight instructors at local air­
ports or for large businesses that use their own
airplanes to fly company cargo and executives.
Some pilots flew small planes for air taxi com­
panies, usually to or from lightly traveled air­
ports not serviced by the airlines. Others work­
ed for a variety of businesses performing tasks
such as crop dusting, inspecting pipelines, or
conducting sightseeing trips. Federal, State,
and local governments also employed pilots.
Several thousand pilots were self-employed.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All pilots who are paid to transport passengers
or cargo must have a commercial pilot’s license
issued by FAA. To qualify for this license,
applicants must be at least 18 years old and have
at least 250 hours or more of flight experience.
They also must pass a strict physical examina­
tion to make sure that they are in good health
and have 20/20 vision with or without glasses,
good hearing, and no physical handicaps that
could impair their performance. Applicants
must pass a written test that includes questions
on the principles of safe flight, navigation tech­
niques, and FAA regulations. They also must
demonstrate their flying ability to FAA exam­
iners.
In addition to a commercial license, pilots
who have to fly in bad weather must be licensed
by the FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots may
qualify for this license by having 40 hours of
experience flying by instruments, passing a
written examination on procedures and FAA
regulations covering instrument flying, and de­
monstrating their ability to fly by instruments.



Before takeoff, pilots ensure that all equipment and controls are functioning properly.
Airline pilots must fulfill additional require­
ments. They must pass FAA written and flight
examinations to earn a flight engineer’s license.
Captains must have an airline transport pilot’s
license. Applicants for this license must be at
least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500
hours of flying experience including night and
instrument flying.
All licenses are valid as long as a pilot can
pass the required physical examinations and the
periodic tests of flying skills demanded by gov­
ernment and company regulations.
Flying can be learned in military or civilian
flying schools. Either kind of training satisfies
the flight experience requirements for licens­
ing. The FAA has certified about 1,325 civilian
flying schools, including some colleges and
universities that offer degree credit for pilot
training. Military pilots gain substantial experi­
ence on jet aircraft, which airlines and many
businesses prefer. Having lost many pilots to
the airlines in recent years, the Armed Forces
are offering financial incentives to curb the high
rate of attrition. If more pilots choose to stay in
military flying, the airlines may be forced to
hire a higher percent of general aviation pilots
who are inexperienced in flying jet aircraft.
Pilots hired by airlines must be high school
graduates; however, most airlines require 2
years of college and prefer to hire college grad­
uates. In fact, most entrants to this occupation
have a college degree. Because pilots must be
able to make quick decisions and accurate judg­
ments under pressure, airline companies reject
applicants who do not pass required psycholog­
ical tests.
New airline pilots usually start as flight engi­
neers. Although airlines favor applicants who
already have a flight engineer’s license, they
may train those who have only the commercial
license. All new pilots receive several weeks of

intensive training in simulators and classrooms
before being assigned to a flight.
Companies other than airlines generally do
not require as much flying experience.
However, a commercial pilot’s license is re­
quired, and companies prefer applicants who
have experience in the type of plane they will be
flying. New employees generally start as cop­
ilots. Test pilots often are required to have an
engineering degree.
Advancement for all pilots generally is lim­
ited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as
flight instructors, building up their flying hours
while they earn money teaching. As they be­
come more experienced, these pilots occasion­
ally fly charter planes and perhaps get jobs with
small air transportation firms, such as air taxi
companies. Some advance to business flying
jobs. A small number get flight engineer jobs
with the airlines.
In the airlines, advancement usually depends
on seniority provisions of union contracts.
After 5 to 10 years, flight engineers advance
according to seniority to copilot and, after 10 to
20 years, to captain. Seniority also determines
which pilots get the more desirable routes. In a
nonairline job, a copilot may advance to pilot
and, in large companies, to chief pilot in charge
of aircraft scheduling, maintenance, and flight
procedures.

Job Outlook
Competition for job openings should be keen
because the number of qualified pilots seeking
jobs is expected to exceed the number of open­
ings. Because wages are lower outside the air­
lines, there is not as much competition for these
jobs. Still, flying is a popular activity, so there
usually are more applicants than openings even
for these positions.
College graduates who have experience fly­
ing jet aircraft and who have a commercial

352/Occupational Outlook Handbook
pilot’s license and a flight engineer’s license can
expect first consideration for jobs with the ma­
jor airlines. Businesses generally have fewer
formal education and experience requirements
than airlines. However, these companies prefer
applicants with experience in the type of plane
they will be flying on the job.
Employment of pilots is expected to increase
about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. The expected growth
in airline passenger and cargo traffic will create
a need for more airliners, more pilots, and more
flight instructors. Businesses are expected to
operate more planes and employ more pilots to
fly passengers and cargo to the increased
number of locations that the scheduled airlines
do not service.
Airplane pilots understandably have a strong
attachment to their occupation since it requires
a substantial investment in specialized training
and offers very high earnings. A relatively
small proportion of pilots leave the occupation
each year. Nevertheless, most job openings are
expected to result from the need to replace pi­
lots who retire or stop working for other rea­
sons.
Employment of pilots is sensitive to cyclical
swings in the economy. During slow periods,
when a decline in the demand for air travel
forces airlines to curtail the number of flights,
airlines may furlough some pilots. Commercial
and corporate flying, flight instruction, and
testing of new aircraft also decline during reces­
sions, adversely affecting pilots employed in
those areas.

Earnings
Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest
in the Nation. In 1982, the average salary for
airline pilots was about $75,000 a year. Starting
salaries for flight engineers averaged about
$16,000 a year, while some senior captains on
the largest aircraft earned as much as $120,000.
Earnings depend on factors such as the type,
size, and maximum speed of the plane, and the
number of hours and miles flown. Extra pay is
given for night and international flights.
Generally, pilots working outside the airlines
earn lower salaries. According to a survey con­
ducted by the National Business Aircraft Asso­
ciation, median salaries for chief pilots ranged
from about $36,000 to $48,000 a year in 1982;
for captains/pilots, $39,000 to $54,000 a year;
and for copilots, $23,000 to $29,000 a year.
Usually, pilots who fly jet aircraft earn higher
salaries than non-jet pilots.
Airline pilots generally are eligible for life
and health insurance plans financed by the air­
lines. They also receive retirement benefits
and, if they fail the FAA physical examination,
disability payments. Some airlines provide al­
lowances to pilots for purchasing and cleaning
their uniforms. As an additional benefit, pilots
and their immediate families usually are en­
titled to reduced fare transportation on their
own and other airlines.
Most airline pilots are members of the Air­
line Pilots Association, International. Those
employed by one major airline are members of



the Allied Pilots Association. Many flight engi­
neers are members of the Flight Engineers’ In­
ternational Association.

Related Occupations
Helicopter pilots need skills and perform duties
similar to those of airplane pilots. Although
they are not in the cockpit, air traffic controllers
and dispatchers also play an important role in
making sure flights are safe and on schedule,
and participate in many of the decisions pilots
must make.

Sources of Additional Information
Information about job opportunities in a par­
ticular airline, and the qualifications required,
may be obtained by writing to the personnel
manager of the airline. Addresses of airline
companies are available from:
Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New
York Ave. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006.

For information about the duties as well as
the physical and educational requirements for
airline pilots and flight engineers, request Pi­
lots and Flight Engineers, publication
GA-300-122 (include a self-addressed mailing
label), from:
U.S. Government Printing Office, Library and Stat­
utory Distribution Service, 5208 Eisenhower Ave.,
Alexandria, Va. 22304.

For information on airline pilots, contact:
Airline Pilots Association, 1625 Massachusetts Ave.
NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036.

For a copy of List of Certificated Pilot
Schools, write to:
U.S. Department of Transportation, Publications
Section, M-443.1, Washington, D.C. 20590.

For information about job opportunities in
companies other than airlines, consult the clas­
sified section of aviation trade magazines and
apply to companies that operate aircraft at local
airports.

Busdrivers
(D.O.T. 913.363-010 and .463-010)

Nature of the Work
Busdrivers provide transportation for millions
of Americans every day. Intercity busdrivers
operate buses that enable the public to travel
between communities and metropolitan areas.
Local transit busdrivers provide public trans­
portation within a metropolitan area. School
busdrivers transport pupils to and from schools.
They follow definite time schedules and routes
over highways and city and suburban streets to
provide passengers with an alternative to the
automobile and other forms of transportation.
The workday for busdrivers begins when
they report to their assigned terminal or garage.
At the garage, intercity and local transit busdrivers are given tickets, transfers, and refund
and trip report forms. Drivers may check their
vehicle’s tires, brakes, windshield wipers,
lights, oil, fuel, and water, and make certain

that their buses are carrying safety equipment,
such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and
emergency reflectors. They then drive to the
start of their runs.
On most runs, drivers pick up and discharge
passengers at bus stops or stations. As pas­
sengers board the bus, intercity and local transit
busdrivers collect the correct cash fare, token,
or ticket or make sure that a valid pass is pre­
sented. They also collect or issue transfers.
Drivers often answer questions about sched­
ules, routes, and transfer points and sometimes
announce stops and other information con­
cerning trips.
Busdrivers’ days are run by the clock, as they
must pay special attention to their complicated
schedules. Although drivers may run late when
traffic is heavier than average, they do not let
light traffic put them ahead of schedule so that
they miss passengers.
Busdrivers must always be alert to prevent
accidents, especially when driving in traffic or
under adverse road and weather conditions.
School busdrivers must exercise particular cau­
tion when children are boarding or leaving the
bus. Busdrivers must operate the bus at safe
speeds while trying to keep schedules. Since
sudden stops or swerves jar standing pas­
sengers, drivers try to anticipate traffic de­
velopments, not react to them.
Drivers’ routes vary. Local transit busdrivers
may make several trips each day over the same
city and suburban streets, stopping as fre­
quently as every few blocks to pick up and
discharge passengers. School busdrivers also
drive the same routes each day, stopping fre­
quently to pick up pupils in the morning and
reversing direction in the afternoon to return
them to their homes. Intercity busdrivers may
make only a single one-way trip to a distant city
or a round trip each day, stopping at stations at
many small towns only a few miles apart or at
large cities hundreds of miles apart. Drivers
who operate chartered buses pick up a group of
people, take them to the group’s destination,
and generally remain with them until they re­
turn. These trips frequently require drivers to
remain away from home one night or more.
School busdrivers occasionally transport stu­
dents and teachers on field trips during the day,
or athletes and students to games in the eve­
ning.
At the end of each day, busdrivers turn in trip
reports with a record of tickets and fares re­
ceived, trips made, and significant delays in
schedule. As required by the U.S. Department
of Transportation, intercity drivers keep a cur­
rent record on each trip of the distances traveled
and the periods of time they spend driving,
performing other duties, and off duty. Busdrivers also turn in a report on the mechanical
condition of their bus. In case of an accident,
drivers must prepare a report describing exactly
what happened and obtain the names, ad­
dresses, and phone numbers of persons on the
bus.

Working Conditions
Driving a bus through heavy traffic while deal­
ing with passengers is not physically strenuous,
but it may cause nervous strain and fatigue. The

Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/353

Employment
Busdrivers held about 473,000 jobs in 1982.
Two out of three busdrivers work for school
systems or companies that provide school bus
services under contract, as shown in the accom­
panying chart. Most of the remainder work for
local transit companies; intercity and charter
buslines also employ many busdrivers.

____ ________

busdriver is given a great deal of independence
on the job and is solely responsible for the
safety of the pissengers and the bus. Many
drivers like working without direct suoervision
and take pride in assuming these respon­
sibilities. Some also enjoy the opportunity to
meet the public.
Since intercity and transit buses operate at all
hours every day of the year, drivers may work
nights andnweekends. New drivers work only
when called and must be ready to report for
work at any hour on very short notice. Driving
schedules of intercity busdsivers may range
from 6 to 10 hours a day and from 31/2 to 6 days
a week. However, U.S. Department of Trans­
portation regulations specify that intercity driv­
ers shall not drive more than 10 hours without
having at least 8 consecutive hours off and shall
not drive after being on duty for 15 hours with­
out at least 8 hours off duty.
School busdrivers work only when school is
in session, having off weekends, holidays, and
summers. The majority work 20 hours a week
or less, driving one or two morning and after­
noon routes and having the middle of the day
free. Drivers taking field or athletic trips may
work additional hours. Drivers who also have
midday kindergarten routes may work as many
as 30 hours a week.
Regular local transit busdrivers usually have
a 5-day workweek; Saturdays and Sundays are
counted as regular workdays. Some drivers
work evenings and after midnight. To accom­
modate the demands of commuter travel, many
local trans/t busdrivers work “split shifts.” For
example, a driver may work from 6 a.m. to 10
a.m., and then return to work from 3 p.m. to 7
p.m. Drivers may receive extra pay for working
split shifts.

Many transit busdrivers work during the morning and evening rush hours and are off during the middle
of the day.
special school bus license. In addition, inter­
city busdrivers must meet qualifications estab­
lished by the U.S. Department of Transporta­
tion or a State agency, if the driver works only
within one State.
Applicants for local transit and intercity busdriver positions should be at least 21 years old.
School busdrivers must be at least 18 years old
in most States, although a few States allow
students as young as 16 to drive school buses.
Busdrivers must be able to read, write, and
speak English well enough to communicate
with passengers and to tomplete reports. They
should be in good health and have a good driv­
ing ricord. Busdrivers also must have at least

Most busdrivers operate school buses.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Three out of four persons entering busdriving
take part-time jobs. Most have no more than a
high school education. School busdriving
provides few opportunities for full-time em­
ployment. In addition, many local transit and
intercity busdrivers start on a part-time basis
and are only able to increase their number of
work hours as they acquire seniority. Nearly
half of all persons entering busdriving are stu­
dents or homemakers and others reentering the
labor force. Students and homemakers seeking
to supplement family income are attracted to
the large number of part-time busdriving jobs
that allow them adequate time for other ac­
tivities while employed.
Busdrivers’ qualifications are established by
State and Federal regulations. Most States re­
quire that drivers have a chauffeur’s license,
which is a commercial driver’s permit, or a



20/40 vision with or without glasses, good
hearing, and normal use of their arms and legs.
Many employerr prefer applicants who have a
high school education or its equivalent. Most
employers require applicants to pass a physical
exomination and a written test of ability to fol­
low complex bus schedules. In addition, inter­
city busdrivers must complete comprehensive
written examinations which test their knowl­
edge of Department of Transportation and State
motor vehicle regulations, as well as a driving
test in the type of busnthey will operate.
Many intercity bus companies have consider­
ably highsr requirements. Most prefer appli­
cants who are at least 24 years of age; some

Distribution of employment, 1982

Intercity
busdrivers
School
busdrivers

Local
transit busdrivers
Other
busdrivers

SOURCE: Bu re au of Lab o r S t a tis tic s

354/Occupational Outlook Handbook
prefer applicants who have bus or truck driving
experience.
Since local transit and intercity busdrivers
represent their companies in dealing with pas­
sengers, busdrivers must be courteous and tac­
tful. All busdrivers need an even temperament
and emotional stability because driving buses
in heavy, fast-moving traffic and dealing with
passengers can be a strain.
Most intercity bus companies and local tran­
sit systems give driver trainees 2 to 8 weeks of
classroom and “behind-the-wheel” instruction.
In the classroom, trainees learn U.S. Depart­
ment of Transportation and company work
rules, safety regulations, State and municipal
driving regulations, and safe driving practices.
They also learn to read schedules, determine
fares, keep records, and deal tactfully and
court/ously with passengers.
Many persons who enter school busdriving
have never driven any vehicle larger than an
automobile. Depending on their driving experi­
ence, school busdrivers receive up to I week of
driving instruction. They also receive class­
room training on State and local laws, regula­
tions, and policies governing the operation of
school buses; safe driving practices; driverpupil relations; first aid; and fire emergency
procedures. Before they are allowed to trans­
port students, school busdrivers must pass driv­
ing and written tests and—in some States—a
background investigation to determine if the
trainee has a criminal record or a history of
mental problems.
Many busdriver trainees learn and practice
driving skills on set courses. They make turns
and zig-zag maneuvers, back up, and drive in
narrow lanes. As they gain experience, they
drive on lightly traveled roads, eventually ad­
vancing to heavily congested highways and city
streets. They also make trial runs, without pas­
sengers, to improve their driving skills and
learn the routes. Because a busdriver is seated
higher than other drivers, defensive driving—
seeing and avoiding possible traffic dangers
ahead of time— has much potential and is
stressed. Local transit trainees often must
memorize and drive each of the runs operating
out of their assigned garage. After completing
final driving and written examinations, new
drivers begin a “break in” period. During this
peeiod, they make regularly scheduled trips
with passengers, often accompanied by an ex­
perienced driver who gives helpful tips, an­
swers questions, and determines whether the
new driver is performing satisfacrorily.
Most experienced intercity and local transit
drivers have regularly scheduled runs. New
drivers, however, usually are placed on an
“extra” list to substitute for regular drivers who
are ill or on vacation. Charter runs also are
driven by extra list drivers. Eittra list transit
busdrivers also are assigned extra and special
runs—for example, those during morning and
evening rush hours and to the stadium the day of
a sports event. And in cities that use transit
buses to transport children to school, extra list
drivers operate these buses. New drivers re­
main on the extra list until they have enough
seniority to get a regular run. This may take
several years.



Busdrivers select assignments in order of
length of service, or seniority. Therefore, as
drivers acquire seniority, they can choose runs
they prefer, such as those that lead to a greater
number of work hours, lighter traffic, weekends
off, or in the case of intercity busdrivers, higher
earnings or fewer workdays per week.
Opportunities for promotions generally are
limited. However, experienced drivers may ad­
vance to jobs as supervisors or dispatchers.
These workers assign buses to drivers, check
whether drivers are on schedule, reroute buses
to avoid a blocked street or other problems, and
dispatch extra vehicles and service crews to
scenes of accidents and breakdowns. A few
drivers advance to management positions. Pro­
motion in publicly owned bus systems is often
by competitive civil service examination.

Job Outlook
Job openings for busdrivers are expected to be
plentiful through the mid-1990’s. Most open­
ings will arise as experienced busdrivers trans­
fer to other occupations or leave the labor force.
Most new jobs will be found in areas with a
growing population, such as many commu­
nities in the Sunbelt States.
Employment of busdrivers, overall, is ex­
pected to increase more slowly than the average
for all occupations through the mid- 1990’s.
Employment of local transit busdrivers is ex­
pected to increase slowly as expansion of public
transportation systems in growing communities
is offset somewhat by the use of larger buses,
shifting of riders to new subway and light rail
systems, and falling ridership in areas with
declining urban populations. However, in an
effort to control costs in the face of peak rush
hour demand, transit systems are increasingly
likely to replace full-time drivers on split shifts
with part-time drivers who only work during
either the morning or afternoon rush hours.
Little change is expected in the employment
of intercity busdrivers. Intercity passenger trav­
el will grow as population and income increase,
but bus travel is not expected to grow. Buses are
a relatively inexpensive mode of intercity trav­
el, but higher incomes and cheaper air fares will
enable more people to travel by plane, which
provides faster—although more expensive—
service over long distances.
Employment of school busdrivers is ex­
pected to grow about as fast as average as popu­
lation continues to shift from the cities to the
suburbs, where few students can walk to
school.
Persons seeking intercity and local transit
busdriving jobs can expect to face competition,
since the relatively high wages, even for parttime work, attract many applicants.
Full-time local transit busdrivers are rarely
laid off during recessions because scheduled
service still must be provided. However, parttime drivers may be laid off if bus ridership
decreases, because fewer extra buses may be
needed during rush hours. Seasonal layoffs are
common. Many intercity busdrivers with little
seniority, for example, are furloughed during
the winter when regular schedule and charter
business falls off, and school busdrivers do not
work during the summer or school holidays.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings of busdrivers who
worked full time were about $330 in 1982. The
middle 50 percent earned between about $220
and $435 a week. The lowest 10 percent earned
less than $165 a week, while the highest tenth
earned more than $545 a week.
According to data compiled by the American
Public Transit Association, local transit busdrivers in 25 cities with more than 1 million
population had a median starting wage rate of
$8.27 an hour in 1982, and a median top rate of
$10.66 an hour; in cities with less than 100,000
population, drivers had a median starting rate of
$6.32 an hour and a median top rate of $7.54 an
hour. In most cities, drivers could reach the top
rate in 2 or 3 years.
Based on data from the American Bus Asso­
ciation, intercity busdrivers had estimated aver­
age annual earnings of about $24,200 in 1982.
Earnings of intercity busdrivers depend pri­
marily on the number of miles they drive. Be­
ginning drivers worked about 6 months out of
the year and earned between $12,000 and
$18,000, while many senior drivers who work­
ed year-round earned more than $30,000.
According to an Educational Research Serv­
ice, Inc. survey, school busdrivers employed by
public school systems averaged $6.56 an hour
in 1982. The middle 50 percent had starting
hourly rates between $4.99 and $6.60 and top
hourly rates between $6.25 and $8.00.
Most intercity and many local transit busdrivers are members of the Amalgamated Tran­
sit Union. Local transit busdrivers in New York
and several other large cities belong to the
Transport Workers Union of America. Some
drivers belong to the United Transportation
Union and the International Brotherhood of
Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and
Helpers of America.

Related Occupations
Other workers who drive vehicles on highways
and city streets are taxidrivers, truckdrivers,
and chauffeurs.

Sources of Additional Information
For further information on employment oppor­
tunities, contact local transit systems, intercity
buslines, school systems, or the local offices of
the State employment service.
General information on local transit busdriv­
ing is available from:
American Public Transit Association, 1225 Connecti­
cut Ave. NW., Suite 200, Washington, D.C. 20036.

General information on intercity busdriving
is available from:
American Bus Association, 1025 Connecticut Ave.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Construction
Machinery Operators
(Operating Engineers)
(D.O.T. 570, 850, 851, 853, 859, 869, and 921. The
D.O.T. index, w hich begins on page 364, lists the nine
digit codes included under this occupation.)

Nature of the Work
Heavy equipment -is used in many different
industries. Skilled equipment operators held

Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/355
jobs thoughout the economy in 1982. These
workers are employed by mining and quarrying
firms, logging camps, railroads, and heavy in­
dustrial concerns. This statement covers only
those equipment operators employed in the
construction industry.
Lifting and positioning a quarter-ton pane of
glass by crane into an 8-foot by 10-foot window
opening 10 stories above the ground require
considerable skill. At the crane’s controls is a
construction machinery operator, also known as
an operating engineer. These operators also
work the controls of bulldozers, trench ex­
cavators, paving machines, and many other
types of specialized machinery used at con­
struction sites. Some workers know how to
operate many kinds of machines; other work­
ers, only a few. Because the skills and training
requi*ed vary, construction machinery oper­
ators usually are classified by the type of ma­
chines they operate. The following paragraphs
discuss the duties of operators of three com­
monly used types of equipment: Tower cranes,
bulldozers, and air compressors.
Tower cranes are used to lift and move build­
ing materials around a construction site. The
crane operator climbs a ladder inside the crane’s
mast—a tall steel tower—to the control booth
that is located beneath the crane’s boom—a
long steel arm perpendicular to the mast. The
operator must accurately judge distances and
heights and push or pull a number of buttons,
levers, and pedals in proper sequence to pick up
and deliver materials. These controls rotate the
boom around the mast, and raise and lower a
cable with a hook that lifts materials and equip­
ment at the worksite. At times, the operator
may not see either the pickup or the delivery
point and must follow the hand or flag signals
and radio commands of another worker.
Bulldozers gouge out, level, and distribute
earth, and remove trees, rocks, and debris from
land before building starts. Bulldozer operators
generally handle fewer controls than crane op­
erators, and since the “dozer” operator works at
ground level, estimating distances is less of a
problem.
The operator raises or lowers the “blade”
attached to the front of the “dozer” by pushing a
button or by pushing or pulling a lever. To clear
land, a bulldozer operator lowers the blade to
the ground, shifts to forward gear, and presses a
pedal for power, causing the blade to scrape and
level the ground. The operator will back up and
repeat the process until the land is cleared and
graded.
Air-compressor operators tend machines that
feed compressed air through a heavy-duty hose
to run special “air” tools, such as jackhammers.
Before starting an air compressor, the operator
checks for tight hose connections and may
manually pump air through the compressor to
check for leaks. The operator also makes sure
the compressor has fuel and water. The operator
then starts the air compressor and allows it to
build sufficient pressure to operate efficiently.
While the compressor is running, the operator
periodically checks fuel, water, and pressure
levels. At the end of the workday, the operator
turns the compressor off and “bleeds off’ pres­
sure in the tank and hose by opening a release



valve. This allows an easy start the next time the
compressor is to be used.
Construction machinery operator helpers,
sometimes called “oilers,” make sure the ma­
chines have fuel and oil and are properly lubri­
cated. Helpers also make minor repairs and
adjustments. Experienced operators who are
working alone also perform these tasks. Major
repairs, however, usually are made by heavyequipment mechanics.

Working Conditions
Construction machinery operators work out­
doors, in both hot and cold weather. However,
they usually do not work in rain or snow. Oper­
ating some machines, particularly bulldozers
and some types of scrapers, is physically tiring
because the constant movement of the machine
shakes or jolts the operator. Also, most ma­
chines are noisy. In addition, operators can be
injured in accidents involving the equipment.
Tower crane operators, for example, may fall as
they climb to or from the crane’s control booth.

Employment
Approximately 202,000 construction machin­
ery operators held jobs in the construction in­
dustry in 1982, about 59,000 fewer than in
1980. This decline reflects the severe dropoff in
construction activity during the 1981-82 reces­
sion. Most were heavy equipment operators as
shown in the following tabulation:
Percent

Total ...........................................
86.7
Heavy equipment operators.
Crane, derrick, and hoist operators . .
Other construction machinery operators

100.0

10.6
2.7

Many worked for general building con­
tractors in highway, dam, airport, and other
large-scale construction projects. Others work­
ed for utility companies, manufacturers, and

other business firms that do their own con­
struction work, as well as State and local high­
way and public works departments. About onetenth were self-employed, a smaller proportion
than in most building trades.
Construction machinery operators work in
every section of the country, both in large cities
and in small towns. Some work in remote loca­
tions on construction projects, such as high­
ways and dams.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Most individuals leam the trade by beginning
as truckdrivers or helpers. They may do simple
tasks such as cleaning, greasing, and starting
machines. Then, under an experienced oper­
ator, they learn’to repair and operate light equip­
ment. Later, they may leam to operate larger
equipment such as bulldozers and cranes. Most
training authorities recommend completion of a
3-year formal apprenticeship as the best way to
become a construction machinery operator.
Since apprentices leam to operate a variety of
machines, they have better job opportunities.
The apprenticeship program consists of at
least 3 years of on-the-job training and 144
hours a year of related classroom instruction.
The programs are administered by union-man­
agement committees of the International Union
of Operating Engineers and the Associated
General Contractors of America.
Apprentices are classified into one of three
groups: Universal equipment operators, grade
and paving operators, and plant equipment op­
erators. On the job, trainees are taught to oper­
ate, maintain, and repair various types of con­
struction equipment and machinery. In the
classroom, apprentices receive instruction in
engine operation and repair, cable splicing,
hydraulics, welding, and safety and first aid.
Employers prefer to hire high school gradu­
ates who are at least 18 years old. Courses in
driver education and automobile mechanics,

Construction machinery operators often rely on hand signals to place materials at the jobsite.

356/Occupational Outlook Handbook
and experience in operating tractors and other
farm machinery are helpful.
A number of private vocational schools offer
instruction in the operation of certain types of
construction equipment. Completion of such a
program may help a person get a job as a trainee
or apprentice. However, persons considering
such training should check the reputation of the
school among construction employers in the
area.
Construction machinery operators need to be
alert and have a good sense of balance as well as
good eye-hand-foot coordination and physical
strength. Advancement is limited. Some oper­
ators may become supervisors. Some start thenown business, but this generally requires large
capital outlays and considerable managerial
skill.

Job Outlook
Job opportunities for construction machinery
operators should be plentiful over the long run.
Employment in this occupation is expected to
grow faster than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1990’s. Part of the projected
growth reflects the rebound in employment to
pre-recession levels. Population and business
growth will lead to the construction of more
factories, houses, office buildings, and other
structures. More operating engineers also will
be needed in maintenance work on roads,
bridges, and highways, which is expected to
accelerate due to the recently enacted 5-centper-gallon tax on gasoline earmarked for this
purpose.
Besides the job openings created by in­
creased demand for operating engineers, many
openings will arise as experienced workers
transfer to other occupations, retire, or die.
Jobs should be easiest to find during spring and
summer since construction activity generally
increases as the weather becomes warmer. Be­
cause construction activity is very sensitive to
ups and downs in the economy, the number of
job openings may fluctuate widely from year to
year. When construction activity declines,
however, operating engineers who are laid off
may be able to find jobs in other industries.

Earnings
Median earnings for construction machinery
operators vary considerably, depending upon
the type of equipment, but were about $385 a
week in 1982. One-half had earnings that
ranged between $260 and $500 a week. The top
10 percent earned well over $600 a week. Per­
sons operating light equipment such as pumps
and air compressors generally earn less than
those operating bulldozers and other types of
heavy equipment. Pay scales generally are
higher in metropolitan areas. Wage rates for
apprentices start at about 70 percent of the full
rate paid to experienced workers and increase
periodically.
Many construction machinery operators are
members of the International Union of Operat­
ing Engineers.

Related Occupations
Agriculture, mining, manufacturing, public
utilities, and transportation are other industries



that use specialized machinery to move earth
and materials. Other occupations in which
workers operate such" equipment include:
Bridge-or-gantry-crane operators, coke load­
ers, continuous mining machine operators,
conveyor operators, locomotive-crane oper­
ators, longwall mining machine tenders, oil
well perforator operators, roof bolters, ste­
vedores, and yarding engineers.

Operators may have to keep records of mate­
rials moved and do some manual loading and
unloading. They also may be responsible for
keeping their trucks in good working condition
by cleaning and oiling them, checking the water
in the batteries, making simple adjustments,
and reporting any mechanical problems.

Sources of Additional Information

Industrial truck operators are subject to hazards
such as collisions and falling objects. Safety
laws to minimize these hazards have led to
safer, quieter, and better handling trucks. For
example, most rider-type industrial trucks now
have overhead guards, and many trucks used
outdoors have all-weather cabs. Also, more
firms are using battery-powered trucks which
are relatively noiseless and pollution-fre#.

For further information about apprenticeships
or work opportunities in this occupation, con­
tact a local of the International Union of Operat­
ing Engineers; a local apprenticeship commit­
tee; or the nearest office of the State appren­
ticeship agency. In addition, the local office of
the State employment service may provide in­
formation about apprenticeship and other pro­
grams that provide training opportunities.
For general information about the work of
operating engineers, contact:
Associated Builders and Contractors, 729 15th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.
Associated General Contractors of America, Inc.,
1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006.
International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125
17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Industrial Truck
Operators
(D.O.T. 519.663-014 and .683-014; 911.663-014; 921.583010 and .683-042, -050, and -070; 929.583-010 and .683010 and -014)

Nature of the Work
In the past, when a company needed products
or raw materials moved from one place to an­
other, workers were required to move the items
manually. In most cases, this method was phys­
ically demanding and inefficient. Today, the
task has been greatly facilitated by the increas­
ing use of power trucks.
A typical industrial truck has a hydraulic
lifting mechanism and forks to carry a load on a
wooden skid or pallet, or other attachments for
greater versatility. For example, a truck may
have a clamp lift to move cartons, bales, or
paper rolls, multi-forks to handle concrete
blocks, or a tow bar to pull warehouse trailers.
Because the trucks are steered by the rear
wheels and start and stop very quickly, oper­
ators must use care and skill in driving. Al­
though industrial trucks are relatively easy to
operate, operators usually must follow special
procedures at a plant, warehouse, or con­
struction site. For example, forks must be kept
down if the truck is driven without a load. If the
load is too high or too wide to see around, the
operator must drive the truck in reverse. When
loading or removing materials that are stacked
on the floor or on a platform, drivers must judge
distance accurately and operate the truck
smoothly so that no damage occurs to the stock.
Operators also must know the lifting capacity of
the truck and the kinds of jobs it can do.

Working Conditions

Employment
Industrial truck operators held about 385,000
jobs in 1982, about 30,000 fewer than in 1980.
About two-thirds of them worked in manufac­
turing industries. Large numbers were em­
ployed in plants that made automobiles, ma­
chinery, fabricated metal products, paper,
building materials, and iron and steel. Many
industrial truck operators also were employed
in warehouses, depots, and freight and marine
terminals.
Industrial truck operators are employed in all
parts of the country, but most work in large
industrial and transportation centers.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Few employers have educational or training
prerequisites for industrial truck operator jobs.
Most persons who enter this occupation have no
more than a high school education. About 2 out
of 3 entrants transfer from another occupation.
Industrial truck operators train on the job.
Most workers can learn to operate an industrial
truck in a few days. It takes several weeks,
however, to learn the layout of the plant, the
operation of a truck in the plant, and the hand­
ling of materials in the most efficient way.
Many companies have training programs that
include formal instruction, demonstrations,
and practice with the industrial truck. Trainees
learn how the truck and its lift operate, proper
methods of transporting materials, simple
maintenance procedures, and safe driving
rules. These 1- to 5-day programs stress prac­
tice with industrial trucks, which trainees may
be required to operate on an obstacle course.
Because trucks are becoming more versatile
and expensive, firms are expected to emphasize
training programs which will increase the skills
of operators to avoid damage to trucks and
materials and minimize the risk of injury from
accidents.
Employers seek applicants who have average
manual dexterity, strength, and stamina be­
cause operators must get on and off the truck
frequently and occasionally load and unload
material. Good eyesight, especially good depth
perception, is required to pick up, move, and
deposit loads with the industrial truck. Large
companies generally require applicants to pass

Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/357
make sure the brakes, windshield wipers, and
lights are working and see that a fire ex­
tinguisher, flares, and other safety equipment
are aboard. Drivers adjust mirrors so that both
sides of the truck are visible from the driver’s
seat, and make sure the cargo has been loaded
properly so it will not shift during the trip.
Drivers report any equipment that does not
work, or is missing, or cargo that is not loaded
properly to the dispatcher.
Once underway, drivers must be alert to pre­
vent accidents and to drive their trucks effi­
ciently. Because drivers of large tractor-trailers
sit higher than cars, pickups, and vans, they can
see far down the road. They seek traffic lanes
that allow them to move at a steady speed, and,
when going downhill, they may increase speed
slightly to gain momentum for a hill ahead.
Long-distance runs vary widely. On short
“turnarounds,” truckdrivers deliver a load to a
nearby city, pick up another loaded trailer, and
drive it back to their home base the same day.
Other runs take an entire day, and drivers re­
main away from home overnight. On longer
runs, drivers may haul loads from city to city
for a week before returning home. Some com­
panies use two drivers on very long runs. One
Industrial truck operators must judge distance accurately and operate the truck smoothly so that stock drives while the other sleeps in a berth behind
is not damaged.
the cab. “Sleeper” runs may last for days, or
even weeks.
a physical examination. Some mechanical abil­ 10 percent earned more than $470 a week. Fork­
Long-distance drivers who have regular runs
ity is helpful because operators often perform lift operators averaged $9.09 an hour in 1982, transport freight to the same city on a regular
while other industrial truck operators earned
minor maintenance on industrial trucks.
basis. Because shippers request varying
Opportunities for advancement are limited. slightly more. Earnings of operators varied amounts of service to different cities every day,
slightly by region and industry.
A few operators may become supervisors.
many drivers have unscheduled runs. Dis­
patchers tell these drivers when to report for
Related Occupations
Job Outlook
Other occupations using power-operated equip­ work and where to haul the freight.
Employment of industrial truck operators is ex­ ment to lift and move materials include con­
After long-distance truckdrivers reach their
pected to increase more slowly than the average veyor console operators, crane operators, destination, they complete reports about the
for all occupations through the mid-1990’s. derrick operators, hoist engineers, jammer op­ trip and the condition of the truck, as required
Some of this growth will reflect a rebounding of erators, and operating engineers.
by the U.S. Department of Transportation.
employment, which declined during the
They must give a detailed report of any acci­
1981-82 recession. Industrial truck operator Sources of Additional Information
dent.
jobs, two-thirds of which are in manufacturing Information on work opportunities for indus­
Long-distance truckdrivers spend most of
firms, are quickly affected by swings in the trial truck operators may be available from the their working time behind the wheel. Drivers
level of economic activity. Although some job local office of the State employment service.
hauling some specialty cargo, though, often
openings will result from employment growth,
load or unload their trucks, since they may be
most will arise because of the need to replace
the only one at the destination familiar with this
industrial truck operators who transfer to other
procedure. Auto transport drivers, for exam­
occupations, retire, or die. Replacement needs
ple, drive and position the cars on the racks and
for this occupation are greater than for most
remove them at the final destination. When
occupations since industrial truck operators are ( D O T . 292.353-010, .363-010, .463-010, .483-010, and
picking up or delivering furniture, drivers of
more likely to transfer to other types of jobs.
.667-010; 299.477-010; 900.683-010 through 905.683-010;
long-distance moving vans hire local workers
The growing volume of goods produced and 906.683; 909.663-010; 919.663-018, -022, -026; and
to help them load or unload.
shipped will stimulate demand for additional 953.583-010)
When local truckdrivers receive assignments
industrial truck operators. However, increased
from the dispatcher to make deliveries, pick­
use of automated material handling systems in Nature of the Work
ups, or both, they also get delivery forms. Be­
large factories and warehouses will slow the Nearly all goods are transported by trucks dur­ fore the drivers arrive for work, material han­
rate of employment growth. These com­ ing some of their journey from producers to dlers generally have loaded the trucks and
puterized systems enable industrial truck oper­ consumers. Goods may also be shipped be­ arranged the items in order of delivery to mini­
ators to move greater quantities of goods more tween terminals or warehouses in different cit­ mize handling of the merchandise.
efficiently. In some plants, industrial trucks ies by trains, ships, or planes. But trucks usu­
At the customer’s place of business, local
may even be replaced by a series of conveyor ally make the initial pickup from factories, truckdrivers generally load or unload the mer­
belts and computer-controlled lift mechanisms. consolidate cargo at terminals for intercity chandise. If there are heavy loads or many
shipment, and deliver goods from terminals to deliveries to make during the day, drivers may
have helpers. Customers must sign receipts for
stores and homes.
Earnings
Before leaving the terminal or warehouse, goods and drivers may receive money for mate­
Industrial truck operators had median earnings
of $300 a week in 1982. The middle 50 percent truckdrivers check their trucks for fuel and oil. rial delivered. At the end of the day, they turn in
earned between $230 and $390 a week; the top They also inspect the trucks they will drive to receipts, money, and records of deliveries made



Truckdrivers

358/Occupational Outlook Handbook
and report mechanical problems with their
trucks.
The work of local truckdrivers varies, de­
pending on the product they transport. Produce
truckers usually pick up a loaded truck in the
early morning and spend the rest of the day
delivering produce to many different grocery
stores. Lumber truckdrivers, on the other hand,
make several trips from the lumber yard to one
or more construction sites. Gasoline tank truckdrivers attach the hoses and operate the pumps
on their trucks to transfer the gasoline to gas
stations’ storage tanks.
Some local truckdrivers have sales and cus­
tomer relations responsibilities. These driv­
ers—called driver-sales workers or route driv­
ers—are primarily responsible for delivering
their firm’s products, but they also represent the
company. Their reaction to customer com­
plaints and requests for special service can
make the difference between a larger order and
losing a customer. Route drivers also may use
their selling ability to increase sales and to gain
additional customers.
The duties of driver-sales workers vary ac­
cording to the industry in which they are em­
ployed, the policies of their particular com­
pany, and how strongly their sales respon­
sibilities are emphasized. Most have wholesale
routes—that is, they deliver to businesses and
stores rather than homes. A few deliver various
foods to homes, or pick up and deliver drycleaning, but retail routes are now rare.
Wholesale bakery driver-sales workers, for
example, deliver and arrange bread, cakes,
rolls, and other baked goods on display racks of
grocery stores. Paying close attention to the
items that are selling well or sitting on the
shelves, they estimate the amount and variety of

baked goods that will be sold. They may recom­
mend changes in a store’s order or may encour­
age the manager to stock new bakery products.
From time to time, they try to get the business
of new stores along their route.
Driver-sales workers employed by laundries
that rent linens, towels, work clothes, and other
items visit businesses regularly to replace soil­
ed laundry.
Vending machine driver-sales workers, who
service machines in factories, schools, and
other buildings, check items remaining in the
machines, replace stock, and remove money
deposited in the cash boxes. They also examine
each vending machine to see that merchandise
and change are dispensed properly, make minor
repairs, and clean machines.
Afte completing their route, driver-sales
workers order items for the next day which they
think customers are likely to buy, based pri­
marily on what products have been selling well,
the weather, time of year, and any discussion
they may have had with customers.

Working Conditions
Truckdriving has become less physically de­
manding because most trucks now have more
comfortable seats, better ventilation, and im­
proved cab designs. However, making many
deliveries during a day and driving in heavy
traffic can be nerve racking. Local truckdrivers,
unlike long-distance drivers, usually can return
home in the evening.
Local truckdrivers frequently work 48 hours
or more a week. Many who handle food for
chain grocery stores, produce markets, or bak­
eries drive at night or early in the morning.
Although most drivers have a regular route,
some have different routes each day. Many lo­
cal truckdrivers—particularly driver-sales

Since truckdrivers work with little supervision, employers seek individuals who are responsible and
self-motivated.



workers—load and unload their own trucks,
requiring considerable lifting, carrying, and
walking.
The U.S. Department of Transportation gov­
erns work hours and other matters of trucking
companies engaged in interstate commerce.
For example, a driver cannot be on >duty for
more than 60 hours in any 7-day period and
cannot drive more than 10 hours without being
off duty at least 8 hours. Many drivers, par­
ticularly on long runs, work close to the max­
imum hours permitted. Drivers on long runs
may face boredom and fatigue. Although many
drivers work during the day, night travel is
common and frequently preferred because
roads are less crowded and trips take less time.

Employment
Truckdrivers held about 2.4 million jobs in
1982. Jobs are concentrated in and around large
cities. Some drivers are employed in almost all
communities, however.
Trucking companies employed about onefourth of all truckdrivers. One-third worked for
companies engaged in wholesale or retail trade,
such as auto parts stores, oil companies, lumber
yards, or distributors of food and grocery prod­
ucts. The rest were scattered throughout the
economy, including government agencies.
Less than one-tenth of all truckdrivers are selfemployed; of these, a significant number are
owner-operators, who either operate indepen­
dently, serving a variety of businesses, or lease
their services and their trucks to a trucking
company.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Qualifications for truckdrivers vary consider­
ably, depending upon the type of truck and the
nature of the employer’s business. In most
States, applicants must have a chauffeur’s li­
cense, which is a commercial driving permit.
Information on how to get this license can be
obtained from State motor vehicle depart­
ments. Applicants may have to pass a general
physical examination, a written examination on
driving regulations, and a driving test. They
should have good hearing and at least 20/40
vision with or without glasses, be able to lift
heavy objects, and be in good health.
The U.S. Department of Transportation es­
tablishes minimum qualifications for truckdrivers who are engaged in interstate com­
merce. A driver must be at least 21 years old and
pass a physical examination, which the employ­
er usually pays for. Good hearing, 20/40 vision
with or without glasses, normal use of arms and
legs (unless a waiver is obtained), and normal
blood pressure are the main physical require­
ments. In addition, drivers must take a written
examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Reg­
ulations of the U.S. Department of Transporta­
tion.
Many trucking operations have higher stan­
dards than those described. Many firms require
that new drivers be at least 25 years old. Others
specify height and weight limitations. Some
companies employ only applicants who have
driven trucks for several years.

Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/359
Driver-training courses are a desirable meth­
od of preparing for truckdriving jobs. Most
training authorities and employers recommend
high school driver-training courses. In addi­
tion, a high school course in automotive me­
chanics helps drivers make minor roadside re­
pairs.
A small number of private and public tech­
nical-vocational schools offer truckdriving
courses. Students learn to inspect the trucks and
freight, to drive large vehicles in crowded areas
and in highway traffic, and to comply with
Federal, State, and local regulations. Comple­
tion of a course, however, does not assure a job.
Graduates of these schools who do get truck­
driving jobs often start as local drivers. Persons
interested in attending one of these schools
should check with local trucking companies to
make sure the school’s training is acceptable to
them.
Employers prefer applicants with a good
driving record and some previous experience
driving a truck. Very few people enter truck­
driving directly from school. Consideration is
given to driving experience in the Armed
Forces. A person also may drive part of the day
as a truckdriver’s helper. When driving vacan­
cies occur, senior helpers usually are promoted.
A more common method of entering truck­
driving is to start out as a dockworker, loading
and unloading freight. Dockworkers get a gen­
eral idea of the trucking operation, and they
may have an opportunity to move trucks around
the yard. When a need for a truckdriver de­
velops, a capable dockworker may be pro­
moted. New drivers often start on panel or other
small “straight” trucks. As they gain experience
and show good driving skills, they may advance
to larger and heavier trucks, and finally to trac­
tor-trailers. Local drivers with tractor-trailer ex­
perience are good candidates for long-distance
jobs. Graduates of truckdriving schools who
cannot get driving jobs sometimes become
dockworkers. Their school experience gives
them an advantage over other dockworkers
when driving vacancies occur.
Since drivers often deal directly with the
company’s customers *they must get along well
with people. For jobs as driver-sales workers,
an ability to speak well and a neat appearance
are particularly important, as are self-con­
fidence, initiative, and tact. For all truckdriver
jobs, employers also look for responsible, selfmotivated individuals, since drivers work with
little supervision.
Training given to new drivers usually is infor­
mal and may consist only of a few hours of
instruction from an experienced driver, some­
times on the new employee’s own time. New
drivers also may ride with and observe experi­
enced drivers before being assigned their own
runs. Additional training may be given if they




are to drive a special type of truck. Some com­
panies give 1 to 2 days of classroom instruction
which covers general duties, the operation and
loading of a truck, company policies, and the
preparation of delivery forms and company rec­
ords. Driver-sales workers also receive training
on the various types of products they carry so
they will be more effective sales workers and
better able to handle customer requests.
Although most new truckdrivers are assigned
immediately to regular driving jobs, some start
as extra drivers, who substitute for regular driv­
ers who are ill or on vacation. They receive a
regular assignment when an opening occurs.
Some long-distance truckers purchase a
truck and go into business for themselves. Al­
though many of these owner-operators are suc­
cessful, a large number fail to cover expenses
and eventually lose their trucks. Owner-oper­
ators should have good business sense as well as
truckdriving experience. Courses in account­
ing, business, and business arithmetic are help­
ful.
Local truckdrivers may advance to dis­
patcher, to manager, or to traffic work—for
exam ple, planning delivery schedules.
However, relatively few of these jobs are avail­
able. For the most part, a local truckdriver may
advance to driving heavy or special types of
trucks or transfer to long-distance truckdriving.
Working for companies that also employ long­
distance drivers is the best way to advance to
these positions. Most drivers can only advance
to driving runs that provide increased earnings
or preferred schedules and working conditions.

Job Outlook
Employment of truckdrivers is expected to in­
crease about as fast as the average for all oc­
cupations through the mid-1990’s. Because the
amount of freight carried by trucks is expected
to increase, the demand for drivers should in­
crease, but more slowly than the growth in
freight because larger trucks and improved
roads should increase the amount of freight
each driver can haul. The number of truckdrivers with sales responsibilities is expected to
decline as companies shift sales, ordering, and
customer service to sales and office staffs, and
replace driver-sales workers with delivery driv­
ers.
This occupation has among the largest
number of job openings each year. Although
thousands of openings will be created by
growth in demand for drivers, the majority will
occur as experienced drivers transfer to other
fields of work, retire, or leave the labor force for
other reasons. Since driver earnings are high
and no formal training is required, applicants
can expect to face strong competition for avail­
able jobs.

Job opportunities may vary from year to year
because the amount of freight moved by trucks
fluctuates with the economy. Many new truckdrivers are hired when the economy and the
volume of freight are expanding, but few when
these decline. During economic slowdowns,
some truckdrivers are laid off and others have
decreased earnings because of reduced hours.
Those in industries such as wholesale food dis­
tribution, which is usually not affected much by
recessions, are less likely to be laid off.

Earnings
As a rule, local truckdrivers are paid by the
hour and receive extra pay for working over­
time,- usually after 40 hours. The earnings of
long-distance drivers vary, depending on
mileage driven, number of hours worked, and
type of truck. Most driver-sales workers receive
a commission based on their sales, in addition
to an hourly wage. However, straight-time pay
rates are fairly uniform because truckdriving is
highly unionized, and union contracts gener­
ally cover all drivers within a multistate region.
In 1982, truckdrivers had average straighttime hourly earnings of $9.84. Depending on
the size truck, average earnings were as fol­
lows:
Tractor-trailer
.....................................
Medium truck.........................................
Heavy straighttruck ..............................
Light truck or van ................................

$10.80
9.52
9.44
6.87

Most long-distance truckdrivers operate trac­
tor-trailers. Drivers employed by trucking com­
panies had the highest earnings, averaging
nearly $12 an hour in 1982. Truckdrivers in the
North Central States had the highest earnings
while those in the South had the lowest.
Many truckdrivers are members of the Inter­
national Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf­
feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America
(Ind.). Some truckdrivers employed by com­
panies outside the trucking industry are mem­
bers of unions that represent the plant workers
of the companies for which they work.

Related Occupations
Other driving occupations include ambulance
driver, busdriver, chauffeur, hostler, and taxi
driver.

Sources of Additional Information
Information on truckdriver training schools and
on career opportunities in the trucking industry
may be obtained from:
American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

For details on truckdriver employment op­
portunities, contact local trucking companies
or the local office of the State employment serv­
ice.

360/Occupational Outlook Handbook
OTHER TRANSPORTATION AND MATERIAL MOVING OCCUPATIONS
Definition

Ambulance drivers
and attendants

Drive ambulances or assist ambulance drivers in transporting sick,
injured or convalescent persons. Assist in lifting patients and
rendering first aid. May be required to have Red Cross first-aid
training certificate.

28,000

About as fast as
average

Brakers, train

Work involves any of the following activities: Inspects equipment,
such as couplings, airhoses, journal boxes, and handbrakes, to insure
that they function properly; throws switches, couples, or attaches
cable to cars being hauled by locomotive or hoisted by cable or
chain to load and unload cars or make and break up trains. May
assist passengers in boarding and leaving train.

60,000

Expected to decline

Chauffeurs

Drive automobiles, limousines, and mortuary vehicles. May have
additional duties regarding cleaning and maintenance of vehicles.

48,000

Faster than average

Conductors, train

Supervise and coordinate activities of train crews performing
activities such as keeping crews on timetable schedules, following
train orders, assisting passengers to board trains and collecting
tickets or passes from passengers.

27,000

Expected to decline

Flight engineers

Make preflight, inflight, and post flight inspections, adjustments, and
minor repairs to insure safe and efficient operation of aircraft.
Inspect aircraft prior to takeoff for defects, such as fuel or oil leaks
and malfunctions in electrical, hydraulic, or pressurization systems
according to preflight checklist. Must be licensed by the Federal
Aviation Administration. May be required to be licensed as a
commercial airplane pilot.

5,600

Expected to decline

Locomotive
engineers

Drive electric, diesel-electric, steam, or gas-turbine-electric
locomotives; interpreting train orders, block or semaphore signals,
and railroad rules and regulations to transport passengers or freight.

16,000

Little change is
expected

Oil pumpers

Operate steam, gas, gasoline, electric, or diesel pumps and auxiliary
equipment to restore and control flow of oil from wells.

18,000

Little change is
expected

Taxi drivers

Operate taxicabs to transport passengers for fee. May drive limousine
or custom-built sedan to pick up and discharge airport passengers
arriving or leaving on scheduled flights and be designated Chauffeur,
Airport limousine.

64,000

Expected to decline




Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Title

Helpers, Handlers, Equipment
Cleaners, and Laborers
Helpers, handlers, equipment cleaners, and la­
borers assist skilled workers and perform the
routine tasks required to complete a project.
Millions of persons work in these jobs in nearly
every industry and geographic area of the Na­
tion.
Helpers assist machine operators and tenders
who work with metal, wood, plastic, textiles,
and other materials. Some helpers aid workers
who fabricate, assemble, and hand finish man­
ufactured goods. Others help workers who in­
spect, test, examine, and sample raw materials
and finished products. Mechanic and repairer
helpers aid in adjusting, maintaining, and re­
pairing tools, equipment, and machines. In the
construction trades, helpers and laborers work
with bricklayers, carpenters, electricians,
painters, surveyors, and others to build and
maintain buildings, roads, bridges, and other
projects. Still other helpers assist in drilling oil
wells, blasting, and cutting materials to be
mined.
Most handlers, equipment cleaners, and la­
borers manually lift and carry materials in pro­
duction activities. Garbage collectors gather
refuse for disposal. Stevedores load and unload
ships’ cargoes. Stock handlers sort and place
tools, equipment, and other materials. Baggers
package groceries. Machine feeders deposit or
remove materials from machines or equipment.
Fuel pump attendants and lubricators fill gas
tanks, check engine oil and air pressure in tires,
clean windshields, and do other routine serv­
ices on cars and trucks in garages and gasoline
service stations. Parking lot attendants park
cars at lots and garages. Many industries need
cleaners to help maintain the appearance and
function of vehicles and equipment. Other
workers pack materials for shipment and stor­
age.
Because their jobs require little skill, help­
ers, handlers, equipment cleaners, and laborers
have minimal education requirements. They
usually learn their duties on the job or in short
training sessions given by the employer.
These workers must be in good physical
health because most jobs require frequent bend­
ing and heavy lifting. Jobs may require outdoor
work, sometimes in uncomfortable weather
conditions. Occupational hazards include cuts,
bums, and sore or strained muscles.
Jobs as helpers, handlers, equipment clean­
ers, and laborers are expected to be plentiful
due to the very high turnover rate in these oc­
cupations. However, some of these workers
may be laid off during recessions. This is par­
ticularly common among construction laborers
and others working in industries that are sen­
sitive to cyclical swings in the economy. Also,




some workers may lose their jobs as routine
tasks are mechanized.
Many helpers, handlers, equipment clean­
ers, and laborers earn relatively low wages.
Supervisors and workers who belong to unions,
however, can expect to earn higher wages.
Many workers, such as construction laborers,
do not earn any wages when weather or eco­
nomic conditions prevent them from working.
Detailed information on the nature of the
work, employment, training requirements, job
outlook, earnings, and working conditions for
construction laborers and helpers—the largest
of the helper, handler, equipment cleaner, and
laborer occupations—is presented in the fol­
lowing statement.

Construction
Laborers and Helpers
(D.O.T. 637, 840, 850, 853, 860, 861, 862, 864. 869,
899, and 930. The D.O.T. index, which begins on page
364 lists the nine digit codes included under this
occupation.)

Nature of the Work
Construction laborers and helpers worked in
many industries in 1982. They were employed
by manufacturing firms, railroads, public util­
ities, coal mines, oil and gas extraction firms,

and local governments. This statement covers
only those construction laborers and helpers
working in construction related jobs.
Construction laborers and helpers provide
much of the routine physical labor on all types
of construction and demolition projects. They
erect and dismantle scaffolding, set braces to
support the sides of excavations, and clean up
rubble and debris. Laborers also help unload
and deliver materials, machinery, and equip­
ment to carpenters, masons, and other con­
struction workers. Because they perform a wide
variety of jobs, laborers are employed during all
phases of a construction project.
Some construction laborers have job titles
that indicate the work they do. Bricklayers’
tenders and plasterers’ tenders, both commonly
known as hod carriers, help bricklayers and
plasterers by mixing and supplying materials,
setting up and moving portable scaffolding,
and providing many other services. Hod car­
riers must be familiar with the work of brick­
layers and plasterers and know the materials
and tools they use. Construction laborers also
pour and place concrete preliminary to the
finishing work done by cement masons.
Another group of laborers, pipelayers, lay
sewer and other large, nonmetal pipe and seal
connections with concrete and other materials.
Recent years have seen much mechanization
of laborers’ tasks. Thus, laborers now may op­
erate motorized lifts and ditchdiggers of the

A big part of the laborer’s job is keeping craft workers supplied with materials.
361

362/Occupational Outlook Handbook
“walk-behind” variety, various kinds of small
mechanical hoists, and laser beam equipment
to align and grade ditches and tunnels.
Although some construction laborers’ jobs
require only a few basic skills, many jobs re­
quire training and experience, as well as a broad
knowledge of construction methods, materials,
and operations. Rock blasting, rock drilling,
and tunnel construction are examples of work in
which “know-how” is important. Laborers who
work with explosives must know the effects of
different explosive charges under varying rock
conditions to prevent injury and property
damage. Laborers do almost all the work in the
boring and mining of a tunnel, including opera­
tions that workers in other trades would handle
for a job above ground.

Working Conditions
Construction work is physically strenuous,
since it requires frequent bending, stooping,
climbing, and heavy lifting. Much of the work
is performed outdoors. Construction laborers,
like almost all other workers in construction
occupations, are subject to falls from scaffolds;
cuts, bums, and abrasions from various tools
and equipment; and sore or strained muscles
from heavy lifting.

TVaining, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
Little formal training is needed for a job as a
construction laborer. Generally, applicants
must be at least 18 years old, in good physical
condition, and be willing to work hard.
Many new employees transfer from lower
paying occupations such as farm laborer or jan­
itor. Many other persons take jobs as con­
struction laborers because no previous experi­
ence is required or the work schedule does not
interfere with school, another job, or other ac­
tivities.
Beginners’ jobs are usually of the simplest
type, such as unloading trucks and digging di­
tches. As workers gain experience, job assign­
ments become more complex. In order to pre­
pare laborers for more difficult tasks, con­
tractors and unions have established 4- to 8week entry level training programs in many
States to teach basic construction concepts,
safety practices, and machinery operation. In
addition, some programs offer training to help
experienced laborers keep abreast of tech­
nological advances.

Job Outlook

Employment of construction laborers is ex­
pected to grow about as fast as the average for
Employment
all occupations through the mid-1990’s. Some
Construction laborers and helpers held about
growth will occur as employment rebounds
576,000 jobs in 1982, about 367,000 fewer than
in 1980. This large decline reflects the severe from the recession, but employment is not ex­
dropoff in construction activity during the pected to reach prerecession levels. Job open­
1981-82 recession. Most worked as con­ ings, however, should be plentiful because the
struction trades helpers as shown in the follow­ occupation is large and turnover is high. Many
people take laborer jobs in order to earn money
ing tabulation:
for a specific purpose—for example, a college
education—and quit after a short time. Others
Percent
decide they don’t like the work and leave the
occupation. Still others stay only long enough
Total ............................................
100.0
to acquire the minimum skills that enable them
to move into craft jobs such as carpenter, brick­
Helpers, trades (construction industry)
55.9
Highway maintenance workers ...........
28.7
layer, or cement mason.
Pipelayers................................................
7.4
Growth in population and economic activity
Asphalt rakers .......................................
2.6
will spur construction in the years ahead and
Fence erectors .......................................
2.4
laborers will be needed to move materials,
Air hammer operators ..........................
1.8
place concrete, and help craft workers on con­
All other construction laborers ...........
1.3
struction projects, particularly large projects
such as bridges, dams, high-rise buildings, and
Construction contractors, State and city public powerplants. Demand will not keep pace with
works and highway departments, and public the level of construction, however, because
utility companies were their major employers. technological advances reduce the need for




human labor. For example, construction la­
borers traditionally have moved materials to
keep bricklayers and other craft workers sup­
plied. But a fork-lift vehicle now enables a
single hod carrier to supply many bricklayers
for a full day.
Employment of construction laborers is
highly sensitive to cyclical swings in the econo­
my, particularly to the level of construction
activity. Consequently, layoffs are common
among these workers when the level falls.

Earnings
Median weekly earnings for construction la­
borers working full time were about $255 in
1982. One-half earned between $190 and 345
weekly; the highest 10 percent earned more than
$465 a week.
Union wage rates for construction helpers
and laborers in large metropolitan areas aver­
aged $11.50 an hour in mid-1982, compared
with $7.67 an hour for all production and nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except
farming. Wage rates vary considerably by area
of the country.
Annual earnings for construction laborers
generally are lower than hourly rates would
indicate because poor weather and fluctuations
in construction activity may adversely affect
the number of hours they can work a year.
Many construction laborers are members of
the Laborers’ International Union of North
America.

Related Occupations
In assisting skilled craft workers, construction
laborers combine strength, willingness to
learn, and the ability to follow directions. Other
occupations which require similar attributes are
blacksmith helpers, dock hands, material hand­
lers, quarry workers, and sand blasters.

Sources of Additional Information
For information about work opportunities, con­
tact local building or construction contractors,
local construction associations, a local of the
Laborers’ International Union of North Amer­
ica, or the local office of the State employment
service.
For general information about the work of
construction laborers, contact:
Laborers’ International Union of North America, 905
16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006.
Laborers’-Associated General Contractors’ Educa­
tion and Training Fund, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW.,
Suite 909, Washington, D.C. 20036.

Helpers, Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, and Laborers/363
OTHER HANDLERS, EQUIPMENT CLEANERS, HELPERS, AND LABORERS
Employment
1982

Projected growth
1982-95

Title

Definition

Cleaners, vehicle

Clean interiors and exteriors of transportation vehicles, such as
automobiles, buses, and planes. Wash vehicles, sweep and clean
interiors of the vehicles; may polish automobile bodies.

100,000

Faster than average

Garbage collectors

Collect refuse on designated routes within municipalities and dump
refuse from containers onto trucks.

110,000

More slowly than
average

Parking attendants

Park automobiles for customers in parking lots or storage garages.

37,000

Little change is
expected

Rotary drill
operator helpers
Sailors and
deckhands

Assist rotary drillers in operating machinery to drill oil or gas wells,
using hand tools and power tongs and wrenches.

33,000

Expected to decline

Stand deck department watch and perform a variety of tasks to
preserve painted surface of ship and to maintain lines, running gear,
and cargo-handling gear in safe operating condition. May handle
lines to moor vessels, wash decks, or load and unload materials.

32,000

More slowly than
average

Stock handlers

Control the flow of supplies in and out of stock rooms. Unpack,
store, and issue goods, and keep track of items in storage.

962,000

About as fast as
average

Surveyor helpers

Assist surveyors by performing a variety of duties, such as
measuring distances between survey points using chain or tape;
holding leveling or stadia rod at designated points to assist in
determining elevations; laying out construction stakes; positioning
and adjusting light, mirror, or electronic signal equipment used in
surveying by triangulation.

40,000

Much faster than
average




Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.)
Index
Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Fourth Edition numbers referenced in the oc­
cupational statements are listed in column 1. Numbers in column 2 represent the classification
structure of the 1980 Standard Occupational Classification Manual (S.O.C.)—upon which the
Handbook's clustering arrangement is based.
so c

SO C

D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

D .O .T . T itle

001.061-010
-014
.167-010
.261
002.061
.151
.167
.261
003.061
.151
.161
.167 through
.187
.167-062

161
1637

Architect ...........................................
Architect, marine ............................
School-plant consultant...................
Drafter ...............................................
Aerospace engineer..........................
Sales engineer, aeronautical products
Aerospace engineer..........................
Drafter, aeronautical ........................
Electrical engineer............................
Sales engineer, electrical products .
Engineering and science technicians
Electrical engineer............................

.261-010
.281
005.061 through
.167-018
.281
006.061
.151
007.061 through
.151
.161-018
-022
-034
.167-014
-018
-022
.261 through
.281
008.061
.151
.167
010.061-010

372
1622
421
1622
372
1633
421
3711
1633
1636
3711
372
1628

58
181
180
51

372
1623
421
1635

Drafter ...............................................
Ceramic engineers............................
Sales engineer, ceramic products ..
Mechanical engineer ........................

180
51
51
52

372

Engineering assistant, mechanical
equipment .....................................
Mechanical research engineer.........
Test engineer, mechanical equipment
Plant engineer ..................................
Tool programmer, numerical control
Tool-drawing checker .....................
Drafter ...............................................

180
52
52
52
186
180
180

1635
1635
1635
3974
1635
372
1626
421
1626
1624
1624
1625
1624

-026
-030

1624
1624

.151

421

.161-010
-014
.167-010
-014

1625
1625
1625
1625

.281-010
-014
-018
011.061-010

372
372
372
1623




Chemical engineer............................
Chemical equipment sales engineer
Technical director, chemical plant .
Design engineer, mining-and-oilfield
equipment .....................................
Mining engineer ..............................
Petroleum engineer ..........................
Research engineer, mining-and-oilwell equipment and services . . . .
Safety engineer, mines ...................
Test engineer, mining-and-oilfield
equipment .....................................
Sales engineer, mining-and-oil-well
equipment and services...............
Chief engineer, research .................
Chief petroleum engineer ...............
Chief engineer..................................
District supervisor, mud analysis well
lo g g in g ...........................................
Drafter, directional survey...............
Drafter, geological............................
Drafter, geophysical ........................
Foundry metallurgist ........................

51
51
51
55
S'}
JJ
JJ

55
52
55
55
55
55
55
55
180
180
180
53

D .O .T . N u m b e r

Code

D .O .T . T itle

-014
-018
-022
-026
.161-010

1623
1623
1623
1623
1623

012.061
.067-010
.167-010
through
-062
.167-066

1634
1634
1634

Metallographer...................................
Metallurgist, extractive ....................
Metallurgist, physical ......................
Welding engineer..............................
Su pervisor, m e tallu rgical-an d quality-control-testing .................
Industrial engineer............................
Metrologist.........................................
Industrial engineer............................

-070

44
44
44
180
50
50
50
180
51
51
181
51

Systems engineer, electronic data processing ...........................................
Instrumentation technician .............
Drafter ...............................................
Civil engineer ..................................

-014
-018
-022

364

P age

1634
1634
1637
421
1637
372
1627

.187
014.061
.151
.167
. .281-010
015.061 through
.151
017
018.167-010
-014
-018
-026
-034
-038
-042
-046
-050
.261-010
-014
-018
-022
-026
.262-010
.281
019.281-010
020.062-010
.067-010
-014
-022
.162-014
.167-010
-018
-022
-026
.187-010
-014
022.061-010
-014
.137-010
.161-010
023.061-010
-014

1712

372
3733
3739
1643
1649
3733
1649
1649
1649
1649
3734
3734
3734
3734
3739
1644
3734
3711
1636
1639
1739
1733
3971
1732
3971
3972
1733
3971
3974
1845
1845
1845
3831
1843
1843

Systems analyst, electronic data processing ............................................
Time-study engineer ........................
Industrial engineer............................
Mechanical engineer ........................
Sales engineer, marine equipment .
Marine engineer.................................
Drafter, marine ................................
Nuclear engineer ..............................
Drafter ................................................
Chief of party ...................................
Geodetic computer ..........................
Land surveyor ...................................
Photogrammetric engineer .............
Surveyor assistant, instruments . . . .
Surveyor, geo d etic............................
Surveyor, geophysical prospecting .
Surveyor, marine ..............................
Surveyor, m in e ...................................
Drafter, cartographic ........................
Drafter, topographical ......................
Editor, map .......................................
Mosaicist ............................................
Photogrammetrist..............................
Field-map editor ..............................
Stereo-plotter operator......................
Calibration laboratory technician . .
Computer-applications engineer . ..
Engineering analyst..........................
Mathematician ...................................
Statistician, mathematical ...............
Programmer, business ......................
Actuary ..............................................
Programmer chief, business ...........
Programmer, engineering and scient if ic ..................................................
Statistician, app lied..........................
Programmer, information system . .
Programmer, process control .........
Chemist ..............................................
Chemist, food ...................................
Laboratory supervisor ......................
Chemical-laboratory c h ie f ...............
Electro-optical engineer .................
Physicist..............................................

P age

53
53
53
53
53
52
52
52

58
52
52
52
52
52
180
54
180
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
180
180
45
45
45
45
180
181
58
58
59
59
178
57
178
178
61
178
178
63
63
63
63
67
67

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T) lndex/365
SO C
D .O .T . N u m b e r

.067-010
024.061-010
-014
-018
-022
-026
-030
-034
-038
-042
-046
-050
-054
.161-010
.167-010
025.062-010
040.061-010
-014
-018
-030
-034
-038
-042
-046
-050
-054
-058
-062
041.061-010
-014
-018
-022
-026
-030
-034
-038
-042
-046
-050
-058
-062
-066
-078
-082
-086
-090
-094
045.061 through
.067
.107-010
-014
-022
-026
-030
-034
-038
-042
050.067-010
054
070 through 071
072
073.061 through
.264
.161-010
.261-010
.264-010
074.161-010
075. except .117
-022
076.101-010
.107-010
.121-010
-014
077 except

C ode

SO C
D .O .T . T itle

Page

1843
1847
1649
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1846
1853
1853
1853
1852
1852
1853
1853
185
1852
1852
1853
1852
1855
1853
1853
1854
1854
1854
1854
1854
1854
1853
1854
1854
1854
1854
1854
1853
1854
1854
1854
1915

Physicist, theoretical ........................
Crystallographer ..............................
Geodesist ...........................................
Geologist ...........................................
Geologist, petroleum........................
Geophysical prospector...................
Geophysicist .....................................
Hydrologist .......................................
Mineralogist.......................................
Paleontologist.....................................
Petrologist .........................................
Seism ologist.......................................
Stratigrapher .....................................
Engineer, s o i l .....................................
Geophysical-laboratory chief .........
M eteorologist.....................................
Agronomist .......................................
Animal scientist................................
Dairy scientist ...................................
Forest ecologist ................................
Forester .............................................
Horticulturist .....................................
Poultry scien tist................................
Range manager ................................
Sivicultilrist .......................................
Soil conservationist ..........................
Soil scientist .....................................
Wood technologist............................
Anatomist...........................................
Animal breeder ................................
Apiculturist .......................................
Aquatic biologist ..............................
Biochem ist.........................................
B iologist.............................................
B iophysicist.......................................
Botanist .............................................
Cytologist...........................................
Entomologist .....................................
G eneticist...........................................
Microbiologist ..................................
M ycologist.........................................
Nematologist .....................................
Physiologist .......................................
Plant breeder .....................................
Plant pathologist .......................
Zoologist .................................
Staff toxicologist .......................
Psychologist ..............................

67
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
66
69
69
69
72
72
69
69
72
72
72
69
72
70
69
69
70
63
70
67
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
69
70
70
70
81

24
24
1915
1915
1915

108
108

1915
2400
2400
1912
1916
261
262
27

Counselor...........................................
Counselor, nurse’s association . . . .
Psychologist, clinical ......................
Psychologist, counseling.................
Psychologist, industrial-organizational .............................................
Psychologist, school ........................
Residence counselor ........................
Vocational-rehabilitation counselor .
Economist ................................
S ociologist ................................
Physician .................................
Dentist ....................................
Veterinarian ..............................

120

27
27
27
301
29
131
3034
3034
3032
3033
302

Veterinary livestock inspector.........
Veterinary virus-serum inspector . .
Veterinary meat inspector ...............
Pharmacist .........................................
Registered nurse ..............................
Director, nursing services ...............
Audiologist .......................................
Speech pathologist............................
Occupational therapist......................
Physical therapist..............................
Dietitian .............................................

30
30
30
126
132
32
135
135
124
128
123




81

D .O .T . N u m b e r

Code

.121-010
078.121-010

362

.161-010
.161-018
.162-010
.221-010
.261-010
-014
.281-010
.361-010
-014
-018
-030
-034
.362-018
-022

362
365
365
362
362
362
362
363
362
365
362
365
369
369
365
362
369
1843
1843
289
281
283
369
143

.361-010
.364-018
.367-010
.374-014
.371-010
-014
-022
090.107-010
.227-010

3031
304
5233
364
5232
366
369
24
22

Radiologic technologist...................
Ultrasound technologist...................
Medical laboratory technician.........
Health physicist................................
Medical physicist..............................
Chiropractor.......................................
Optometrist .......................................
Podiatrist ...........................................
Sanitarian...........................................
Inservice coordinator, auxiliary person n el.............................................
Respiratory therapist ........................
Physician assistant............................
Medical assistant ..............................
Medical record technician...............
Dental assistant ................................
Nurse, licensed practical.................
Surgical technician ..........................
Foreign-student advisor...................
Faculty member, college or university

091.107-010
.221-010
.227-010
092.227-010
-014
094.224-010
.227-010
-014
-018
-022
099.117-018
-022
-030
.224-010

1282
233
233
232
231
235,24
235,24
235,24
235,24
235,24
1282
121
1283
235

P age

139
139
147
147
139
139
139
139
140
139
147
139
147
142
143
147
147
139
67
67
111
114
119
30

Dean of students II ....................
Teacher, industrial arts ...................
Teacher, secondary sch ool...............
Teacher, elementary sc h o o l.............
Teacher, kindergarten .....................
Teacher, deaf ............................
Educational therapist........................
Teacher, blind ...........................
Teacher, handicapped students . . . .
Teacher, mentally retarded .............
Principal.............................................
Superintendent, school ...................
Director, education ..........................
Instructor, physical education .........

.3 2 7 - 0 1 0

81
108
108
80
84
116

Medical technologist, teaching superv is o r ...............................................
Medical technologist, c h ie f.............
Chief technologist, nuclear medicine
Radiologic technologist, chief . . . .
Immunohematologist........................
Chemistry technologist ...................
Microbiology technologist .............
Cytotechnologist ..............................
Dental hygienist................................
Medical technologist........................
Nuclear medical technologist .........
Tissue technologist ..........................
Radiation-therapy technologist . . . .
Electrocardiograph technician.........
Electroencephalographic technologist

-026
.364-010
.381-014
079.021-010
-014
.101-010
-018
-022
.117-018
.127-010

81
81

D .O .T . T itle

100.117 through
.267
.367-010
-014
-018
-0 2 2

-026

399
251
251
251
399
251
251

112

.387-010
109.067-010
110
119.267-022
-026
120.007-010

251
1719
2110
396
396
2042

131 except
.267-010
-018
-022
.067-010
.267-010

321,
329,
3312,
398
3313
3313

36
134
130
237
144
236
145
150
108

103
40
101
101
100
100
100, 101
100, 101
100, 101
100, 101
100, 101
40
40
40
1 0 0 , 101,
103
214
Teacher aide I ...................................
105
Librarian ...........................................

Bibliographer.....................................
105
Classifier .................................
105
185
Library technical assistant .............
105
Music librarian .........................
Music librarian, international broad105
c a s t ..................................................
Catalog librarian .......................
105
58
Information scientist ........................
74
L aw yer...............................................
Legal investigator ............................
183
183
Paralegal assistant ............................
Clergy member ................................ 9 4 , 9 5 ,
97
Writers and editors ..........................
159

Columnist/commentator .................
Newscaster.........................................

155
155

366/Occupational Outlook Handbook
SOC
D .O .T . N u m ber

-018
132 except .017,
.037-014
-018
-022
139.087-010
141.031- 010
.051-010
.061
.067-010
.081-010
-014
.137-010
142.031- 010
.051-010
.051-014
.061-010
.061-014
-018
-022
-026
-030
-034
.061-042
-046
-050
-054
.081-010
-014
-018
.137-010
.281-010
143.062-014
-026
-030
-034
.362-010
.382-010
-014
.457-010
149.031- 010
150.047-010
151.027-010
.047-010
152.041-010
.047-014
-018
-022
159.044-010
.047-010
-014
-018
-022
.124-010
.147-010
-014
160 through
.167-042

.167-046
.267-014
162.117- 010
-022
-026
.157-010
-018
-022
-034
-038
.167-010
-014
-030
163.117- 018
165.017-010

C ode

SO C

D .O .T . Title

Page

3313
3312

Reporter..............................................
Writers and editors ...........................

155, 156
159

329
322
325
322,
325
322
325
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
326
326
326
326
326
326
326
326
329
324
327
327
323
323
323
323
328
328
328
328
328
2033
333
333
1412,
1419,
1473,
149
1473
1412
1443
1499
1499
1443
1442
1442
1449
1449
1443
1443
1449
125
332

Crossword puzzle m aker..................
Art director ........................................
Color expert........................................
Commercial artist .............................

159
161
163
161

Creative director ...............................
Cartoonist, motion pictures..............
Commercial designer.........................
Production manager, advertising . . .
Art director ........................................
Display designer ...............................
Interior designer ...............................
Bank-note designer ...........................
Cloth designer ....................................
Clothes designer ...............................
Furniture designer .............................
Industrial designer.............................
Memorial designer.............................
Ornamental-metalwork designer . . .
Set decorator ......................................
Set designer........................................
Set designer........................................
Stained glass artist ...........................
Floral designer....................................
Fur designer........................................
Package design er...............................
Production manager, advertising .. .
C opyist................................................
Photographer, aerial...........................
Photographer, scien tific....................
Photographer, still .............................
Photojoumalist...................................
Biological photographer ..................
Camera operator ...............................
Photographer, finish...........................
Photographer ......................................
Supervisor, scenic arts.......................
Actor ...................................................
Choreographer...................................
Dancer ................................................
Musician, instrumental ....................
Conductor, orchestra ........................
Director, music .................................
Sin ger..................................................
Ventriloquist........................................
Performer............................................
Comedian............................................
Impersonator ......................................
Mime ...................................................
Camp counselor.................................
A nnouncer..........................................
Disk jockey ........................................
Accountant..........................................

161
161
161
163
161, 163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
163
165
165
165
165
165
165
165
165
161
168
169
169
171
171
171
172
168
168
168
168
168
90
155
155
23

Chief bank exam iner.........................
Director, utility accounts..................
Christmas-tree contractor ................
Field contractor .................................
Field contractor technician ..............
Broker-and-market operator, grain .
Buyer .......................................
Buyer, assistant .................................
Procurement engineer ......................
Purchasing agent ...............................
Buyer, g r a in ........................................
Buyer, tobacco....................................
Purchase-price analyst......................
Manager, promotion .........................
Lobbyist..............................................

30
23
27
38
38
38
27
27
38
38
38
38
38
35
153




D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

.067-010
.167-010
166.067-010
.117-010
-014
-018
.167-014
-018
-022
-026
-030
-034
.227-010
-018
-022
-030
168.167-010
-022
-026
-030
-034
-038
-042
-046
-050
-062

332
Public-relations representative . . . .
332
Sales-service promoter .....................
143
Occupational analyst .........................
123
Director, industrial relations ............
143
Manager, employee welfare ............
123
Manager, personnel ...........................
143
Director of placement .......................
123
Manager, benefits ..............................
143
Manager, compensation..........
123
Manager, education and training ..
123
Manager, employment............
143
Manager, labor relations ...................
239
Training representative .....................
143
Job an alyst...............................
143
Prisoner-classification interviewer ..
137
Retirement officer ..............................
5132 Customs patrol o fficer............
1473 Immigration inspector............
1473 Inspector, b o iler.......................
1472 Inspector, building...................
1472 Inspector, electrical ...........................
1472 Inspector, elevators ............................
1473 Inspector, health care facilities . . . .
1472 Inspector, heating and refrigeration
1472 Inspector, plumbing................
1473Occupational-safety-and-health in
spector ................................................
1473 Reviewing officer, driver’s license .
1473 Radiation-protection specialist . . . .
1473 Inspector, air-carrier .........................
1472 Building inspectors ...........................
1473 Customs import specialist.....
1473 Customs inspector..................
1473 Food and drug inspector........
1473 Inspector, furniture and bedding . . .
1473 Inspector, government property . . .
1473 Inspector, industrial w a ste.....
1473 Inspector, motor vehicles ................
1473 Investigator ........................................
1473 License inspector.....................
1473 Mine inspector.........................
1473 Mortician investigator............
1473 Agricultural-chemicals inspector . .
1473 Inspector, water-pollution control . .
1473 Pesticide-control inspector ..............
1472 Plan checker ......................................
1473 Registration specialist, agricultural
chem icals.......................................
1473 Sanitation inspector................
1473 Inspector ...........................
1473 Code inspector ...................................
1473 Opener-verifier-packer, customs . . .
1131 Fire assistant ......................................
1414 Underwriter ........................................
143
Conciliator................................
24
Supervisor, special services ............
1473 Passport-application examiner.........
1473 Admeasurer ........................................
1419 Factorer ...............................................
122
Manager, financial institution ..........
1419 Negotiator, letter of cred it.....
121
President, financial institution . . . .
1353 Real-estate agent ................................
122
Treasurer, financial institution........
1419 Trust officer ........................................
122
Vice president, financial institution
4519 Supervisor, safety d e p o sit......
1419 Foreign-exchange trader ...................
1419 Operations officer ..............................
122
Reserve officer.........................
1419 Securities trader I I ...................
1415 Loan officer .........................................
121
Administrator, hospital .....................
121
Director, institution ............................
1351 Manager, hotel or motel ...................
1352 Recreation supervisor .......................

-074
.261-010
.264-010
.267-010
-018
-022
-042
-046
-050
-054
-058
-062
-066
-074
-078
-082
-090
-098
-102
-106
-110
.287
.367-018
.387-010
169-167-022
-058
.207-010
.267-026
-030
.284-010
186.117- 026
-038
-050
-054
-058
-070
-074
-078
.137-010
.167-014
-050
-054
-058
.267-018
187.117- 010
-018
-038
.137-010

D .O .T .

T itle

P age

153
153
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
30
30
30
29
29
29
30
29
29
30
30
30
30
29
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
29
30
30
30
30
30
72
42
36
108
30
30
26
26
26
26
193
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
32
32
35
90

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T) lndex/367
so c
D .O .T . N u m b e r

SO C

C ode

D .O .T . T itle

-014
.167-022
-034
-038
-046
-062
-078
-090
-106
-110
-122
-126
-190
188.117-082
.167-110
189.117-038

2032
1359
1359
127
1351
1473
1351
1359
1351
1351
1351
1351
1353
1134
192
1412

32
32
32
32
35
35
35
32
35
35
35
35
241
32
86

193.162 except
-022
.167-010
.262-018
-038
194.262-010
.282-010
.362-010
-018
195.107-010
through
-046
.137-010
.164-010
.167-010
-014

392

Supervisor, volunteer services . . . .
Coordinator, volunteer services . . . .
Director, nurses’ registry . . . ...........
Director, volunteer services ...........
Executive housekeeper ...................
Manager, branch operation evaluation
Manager, convention........................
Manager, dental laboratory .............
Manager, food service......................
Manager, front o ffic e ........................
Manager, hotel recreational facilities
Manager, liquor establishment . . . .
Superintendent, building.................
Director, medical facilities section .
Planner, program services...............
User representative, international accounting .........................................
Air traffic controller ........................

P age

392
393
393
393
393
3719
393
2032

Chief controller ................................
Field engineer ...................................
Transmitter operator ........................
Audio operator...................................
Video operator...................................
Recording engineer ..........................
Telecine operator ..............................
Social workers...................................

175
177
177
177
177
177
177
88

23
175

-018
-030
-034
.227-010
-014
.267-014

1352
2032
2032
2032
2033
2032

.367-018
-030
196 except
.167-014 and
.263-038
199.167-014
201 except
.362-026
202 except
.132-010
203.362-010
-018
-022
.382-010
-018
-026
.582-010
-014
-022
-026
-030
-034
-038
-042

2032
2033
825

Casework supervisor ........................
Group worker ..................................
Community organization worker ..
Community-relations-and-services
advisor, public housing ...............
Camp director ...................................
Parole officer .....................................
Probation officer ..............................
Program aide, group work .............
Recreation lead er..............................
Human relations or drug and alcohol
counselor .......................................
Community worker ..........................
Recreation aide ................................
Pilots ..................................................

192
4622

Urban planner ..................................
Secretary ...........................................

86
211

4623

Stenographer .....................................

211

4624
4793
4624
4624
4793
4793
4793
4799
4793
4793
4793
4793
4793
4793

Clerk-typist .......................................
217
Terminal-system operator ...............
217
Word-processing-machine operator .
217
Bordereau clerk ................................
217
Magnetic-tape-composer operator ..
205
Varitype operator.............................. 217, 316
Braille operator ................................
217
Braille typist .....................................
217
Data typist .........................................
205
Data coder operator..........................
205
Keypunch operator-..........................
205
Magnetic-tape-typewriter operator .
217
Perforator ty p ist................................
217
Photocomposing-perforator-machine
operator .........................................
316
Photocomposition-keyboard operator
316
Terminal operator ............................
217
Transcribing-machine operator . . . .
217
Typesetter-perforator operator.........
316
Typist ..................................................
217
Verifier operator................................
205
Electronic-typesetting-machine opera to r ..................................................
316
New-accounts te lle r ..........................
202
Registrar.............................................
208

2032
2032
2032
2032

-046
-054
-058
-062
-066
-070
-074

4793
4793
4623
4793
4624
4793
4793

205.362-026
.367-038

4642
4645




88
88
88

D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

206.387-030
4696
208.685-030
4613
209.367-042
4753
.687-014
4742
210.362-010
4712
.367-010
4712
-014
4712
.382-010
4712
-014
4712
-018
4712
-030
4712
-034
4712
-038
4712
-042
4712
-046
4712
-050
4712
-054
4712
-058
4712
-062
4712
211.132-010
4529
.362-010
4364
-014
4364
-018
4791
-022
4791
-026
4791
.367 through
4364
.482
213.132-010
4512
-014
4512
.362-010
4613
.382-010
4613
.685-010

88
90
88
88
90
90
88
88
90
350

4613

214.362-026
214.382-010
-014
-018
-022
-030
.387-010
-018
.467-010
.482-018
216.362-010
-014
-018
.382-010
-014
-018
-022
-026
-030
-034
-038
-054
-058
-070
-074
.387-010
.482-010
-026
.587-010
-014
219.362-062
-030
.462-010
.467-010
.487-010
.587-010
221.167-010

4715
■4715
4715
4715
4718
4799
4715
4716
4716
4716
4712
4712
4791
4712
4712
4712
4794
4712
4712
4716
4712
4716
4712
4712
4699
4712
4712
4712
4712
4712
4699
4753
4791
4795
4799
4712
4752

.387-022
.484-010
222.367-010
-066

4752
4752
4756
4754

D .O .T . T itle

P age

Tape librarian.....................................
Sorting-machine operator ...............
Reconsignment c le r k ........................
Mail handler .....................................
Distribution-accounting clerk .........
Account-information-clerk .............
Foreign-exchange-position clerk . ..
Audit c le rk .........................................
Bookkeeper I .....................................
Bookkeeper II ...................................
Classification-control clerk .............
Commodity-loan clerk ......................
Credit-card clerk ..............................
Fixed-capital c le rk ............................
General-ledger bookkeeper.............
Mortgage-loan-computation clerk . .
Night auditor .....................................
Reconcilement clerk ........................
Securities clerk ................................
Teller, head .......................................
Cashier I ...........................................
Foreign banknote teller-trader.........
Teller ..................................................
Teller, collection and exchange . . . .
Teller, n o t e .........................................
C ashier...............................................

205
205
213
206
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
202
188
202
202
202
202
188

Supervisor, computer operators . . .
Supervisor, machine recorders unit
Computer operator............................
Computer-peripheral-equipment operator .............................................
Auxiliary-equipment operator, data
processing .....................................
Invoice-control clerk ........................
Account analyst................................
Billing typist .....................................
C.O.D. clerk .....................................
Interline clerk ...................................
Settlement c le rk ................................
Billing-control clerk ........................
Services clerk ...................................
Foreign clerk .....................................
Medical-voucher clerk ......................
Bond c le r k .........................................
Collection c le r k ................................
Exchange clerk ................................
Accounting clerk, data processing .
Advice clerk .......................................
Balance c le r k .....................................
Budget clerk .....................................
Cleaning-house c le rk ........................
Collateral-and-safekeeping clerk . . .
Cost clerk ...........................................
Interest clerk .....................................
Receipt-and-report clerk .................
Retumed-item c le r k ..........................
Stock-transfer c le r k ..........................
Trust-savings-account c le r k .............
Check-processing clerk ...................
Accounting c le r k ..............................
Dividend-deposit-voucher clerk . ..
Booking clerk ...................................
Posting clerk .....................................
Trust-securities clerk ........................
Shipping-order clerk ........................
Coupon c le r k .....................................
Grading c le rk .....................................
Tax clerk ...........................................
Parimutuel-ticket checker ...............
Production scheduler, paperboard
products .........................................
Estimator, jewelry ............................
Yardage estimator ............................
Cargo checker ...................................
Truckload checker ............................

205
205
205
205
205
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
202
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
213
202
214
203
203
316
203
203
213
213

368/Occupational Outlook Handbook
SO C
D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

.387-010
-014
-018
-050 -*
.567-010
-014
.587-034
-038
-058
.687-018
-030
-034
230.363-010
.367-010
235.222-010

4756
4753
4753
4753
4753
4753
4753
4759
4753
4756
4756
4759
4743
4743
239

SO C
D .O .T . T itle

Page

Aircraft-shipping checker ...............
213
Car checker .......................................
213
Fuel-oil clerk .....................................
213
Shipping and receiving clerk .........
213
Grain elevator c le r k ..........................
213
Ship runner .......................................
213
Route-delivery clerk ........................
213
Router ...............................................
213
Vault worker .....................................
213
Receiving ch eck er............................
213
Shipping checker..............................
213
Stubber...............................................
213
Rural-mail carrier ............................
206
Mail carrier .......................................
206
Private-branch-exchange service ad­
visor ................................................
215
Central-office operator......................
215
Switchboard operator, police district
215
Communication-center operator . . .
215
Directory-assistance operator .........
215
Telephone operator ..........................
215
Telephone-answering-service oper­
ator ..................................................
215
Information clerk, automobile club
209
208
Appointment c le rk ............................
Receptionist .......................................
208
Manager, reservations ...........*.........
35
Travel counselor, automobile club .
209
Gate agent .........................................
209
Reservation c le r k ..............................
209
Reservation agent ............................
209
Ticket a g e n t.......................................
209
Mail-distribution-scheme examiner
206
Service observer ..............................
215
Post-office c le r k ................................
206
Incoming-freight clerk ......................
213
Booking clerk ...................................
213
Ticketing c le rk ..................................
209
Foreclosure clerk, motion-picture
lo a n s................... ............................
203
Teacher aide I I ..................................
'214
Information clerk-cashier ...............
188
Superintendent, sa le s........................
193
Sales agent, insurance.....................
190
Leasing agent, residence.................
193
Sales agent, real estate ...................
193
196
Sales agent, securities.....................
Travel agent .......................................
198
Retail trade sales worker, manufac­
turers’ sales worker, wholesale
trade sales worker ........................ 192, 194,
199

.462-010
.562-014
.662-014
-018
-022
-026

4732
4732
4732
4732
4732
4739

237.267-010
.367-010
-038
238.137-010
.167-014
.367-010
-014
-018
-026
239.367-018
-026
243.367-014
248.362-010
.367-014
.382-010
.367-038

4649
4645
4645
4514
4644
4644
4644
4644
4644
4742
4739
4742
4753
4753
4644
4712

-074
249.467-010
250.157-010
.257-010
.357-014
-018
251.157-010
252.157-010
260 through 279

4795
4364
4123
4122
4123
4123
4124
4369
(1)

290
292.353-010
.363-010
.463-010
.483-010
.667-010
299.477-010
.474-010
.677-014
311.477-018
-022
-026
-030
.674-018
312.474, .477, and
.677
313.281-010
.361-014 through
-034
.381-014
-022
-030
-034

(2)
8218
8218
8218
8218
8218
449
449
4362
5213
5213
5213
5213
5213

Retail trade sale worker .................
Driver, sales route ............................
Newspaper-delivery driver .............
Lunch-truck driver............................
Coin collector ...................................
Driver helper, sales route ...............
Deliverer, merchandise ...................
Optician, dispensing II ...................
Sales attendant, building materials .
Waiter/waitress, b a r ..........................
Waiter/waitress, dining car .............
Waiter/waitress, formal ...................
Waiter/waitress, informal ...............
Waiter/waitress, buffet ...................

194
357
357
357
357
357
357
319
194
234
234
234
234
234

5212
5214

Bartender ...........................................
Chef de froid ....................................

231
232

5214
5214
5214
5214
5214

C o o k ............................................................

232
232
232
232
232




Baker, p iz z a .......................................
Cook, barbecue ................................
Cook, school cafeteria ...................
Ice cream c h e f ..................................

D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

D .O .T . T itle

.671-010
5215 Cook, short order II .........................
315.361- 010
5214 C o o k ......................................................
-018
5214 Cook, psychiatric hospital ............
-022
5214 Cook, station ......................................
.371-010
5214 Cook, mess .........................................
.381
5214 C o o k ......................................................
316
5217 Meatcutter ...........................................
320.137- 014
1351
Manager, lodging facilities ............
330.371- 010
5252 Barber .................................................
-014
5252 Barber apprentice ..............................
331 and 332
5253 Cosmetologist ....................................
339.371- 014
5253 Scalp-treatment operator...................
350.677-030
5213 Waiter/waitress....................... ...........
352.167-010
5269 Director, social ..................................
.367-010
5257 Airplane-flight attendant ...................
.677-018
5213 Waiter/waitress, c lu b .........................
354.374-010
366
Nurse, practical ..................................
.377-010
5236 Birth attendant....................................
355.674-014
5236 Nurse aide ...........................................
-018
5236 Orderly.................................................
365.361- 014
6854 Shoe repairer .......................................
372.267 through
5132, Guard ....................................................
.367-010
5144
-014
5133 Jailer......................................................
.563
5144 Armored car guard and driver . . . .
.567-010
5144 Armored car guard ............................
-014
5133 Guard, immigration............................
.667-010
5144 Airline security representative . . . .
-018
5133 Correction officer ..............................
-030
5144 Gate tender .........................................
-034
5144 Guard, security ..................................
-038
5144 Merchant patroller..............................
.677
5133 Patrol conductor..................................
373 except
1131, Firefighter ...........................................
.267-014 and
5111,
.367-010
5122.3
375.133- 010 through 5112
Police officer ................................
.137-018
5132
. 137-026 through 5112
Police officers and detectives .........
.167-022
5132
. 167-030 through 5112 Police officers and detectives ..........
-046
5132
.263-010 through 5112 Police officers and detectives ..........
.363
5132
.367 through
5112, Police officer ......................................
.587
5132
375.367
5133 Police officer II ..................................
.384-010
5132 Police officer, identificationand rec­
ords
.587-010
5134 Parking enforcement officer .............
376.667-010
5144 Bouncer ...............................................
-018
5144 Patroller ...............................................
377.117-010
5134 Sheriff, deputy, chief .......................
.137 through
5132, Sheriffs and b a iliffs............................
.264
5134
.267-010
5134 Deputy United States Marshall . . . .
.667-018
5134 Deputy sheriff, civil division ..........
379.263-014
5132 Public safety officer ..........................
.364-010
782
Automobile tester ..............................
381.137- 010
5241 Supervisor, janitorial serv ices..........
.687-014
5244 Cleaner, commercial or institutional
-018
5244 Cleaner, industrial ..............................
-022
5244 Cleaner, laboratory equipment . . . .
382.664-010
5244 Janitor....................................................
451.137- 010
571
Forestry nursery supervisor...............
452.134- 010
5111 Smoke jumper supervisor.................
.364-014
5123 Smoke jumper .....................................
.687-014
5123 Forest-fire fighter................................
518.361- 010
6861 Molder ..................................................
-014
6861 Molder apprentice ..............................
-018
6861 Molder, sweep ....................................
.380-010
7342 Setter, molding-and-coremaking ma­
chines ..............................................
.484-010
7754 Plaster molder II ................................
519.663-014
8318 Hot-car operator ................................
.683-014
8318 Larry operator .....................................

Page

232
232
232
232
232
232
315
35
243
243
245
245
234
90
246
234
239
239
239
239
331
227
224
227
227
224
227
224
224
224
224
224
225

229
229
229
229
229
224
229
229
227
227
229
229
229
229
229
30
241
241
241
241
241
72
225
225
225
323
323
323
325
323
356
356

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T) lndex/369
soc
D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

551.485-010
556.380-010
570.682-014
600.260- 018
.280-022
-026
-030
-034
-038
-042
-046
-050
.281-010
-018
.360-010
.380-010
-014
-018
-022
.381-010
601.280
except -054
-054
.281-010
-014
-026
.380-010
.381-010
-014
-022
-026
-030
-034
-042
.482-010
.682-010
603 except
.280-034,
.360-010 and
.380-010
.280-034
.360-010
.380-010
604 except
.360-010
.360-010
605
606
607.686-010
609.280- 010
.380-010
-014
.662-010
.682-010
-022

7676
7342
696
7329
6813
6813
6813
6813
6813
6813
6817
6817
613
6881
6813
7329
7329
7329
7329
6821
6811

.685-018
-022
-026
612.360-010
615.280- 010
.380-010
.482-010
-018
-022
-030
-034
.662-010
.682-010
.685-014
-018
-026
-034
616.260- 018
.360-022

7529
7529
7529
7319
7314
7314
7314
7314
7314
7514
7314
7314
7314
7678
7512
7514
7314
7339
7329

SO C
D .O .T . T itle

Water-treatment-plant operator . . . .
Mold setter..........................................
Plant operator ....................................
Model maker, firearms .....................
Machinist .............................................
Machinist apprentice .........................
Machinist apprentice, automotive . .
Machinist, automotive.......... .............
Machinist, experimental ...................
Maintenance machinist .....................
Patternmaker apprentice, metal . . . .
Patternmaker, metal ............................
Fluid-power m echanic.......................
Lay-out worker ..................................
Machine try-out se tter.......................
Fixture maker ....................................
Job setter .............................................
Machine set-up operator ...................
Machine se tter ....................................
Propeller lay-out worker ...................
Tool-and-die maker ............................

Page

336
325
354
327
327
327
327
327
327
327
329
329
327
327
325
327
325
339
325
327
332

7329
6811
6811
6811
6829
6811
6811
6811
6811
6811
6811
6811
7322
7522
75, 76

Tool-machine set-up operator ..........
Die maker, bench, stam ping............
Die-try-out worker, stamping ..........
Tool maker, b e n c h ..............................
Carbide operator ................................
Die finisher .........................................
Die maker ...........................................
Die maker apprentice .......................
Plastic tool maker ..............................
Plastic fixture builder .......................
Saw m aker...........................................
Diemaker, electronic ..........................
Profile-grinder technician .................
Tool dresser .........................................
Machine tool operator.......................

339
332
332
332
332
332
332
332
332
332
332
332
339
339
339

7322
7322
7322
75, 76

Job setter .............................................
Buffing-line set-up worker ...............
Grinder machine setter .....................
Machine tool operator.......................

325
325
325
339

7312
75, 76
75, 76
7513
7339
7329
7312
7326
7529
7529

Setter, automatic-spinning lathe . . .
Machine tool operator.......................
Machine tool operator.......................
Magnesium-mill operator .................
Trim-machine adjuster.......................
Electronic-discharge-set-up operator
Threader-machine setter ...................
Numerical-control-machine operator
Automatic-wheel-line operator . . . .
Machine operator, centrifugal-control
switches .........................................
Production-machine tender ..............
Transfer-machine operator.................
Trim-machine operator .....................
Die setter .............................................
Slitter service and setter ...................
Shear setter ........................................
Angle shear operator.........................
Ironworker-machine operator ..........
Punch-press operator.........................
Rotary-shear operator .......................
Shear operator ....................................
Slitting-machine operator .................
Flying-shear operator .......................
Clearance cutter..................................
Cup-trimming-machine operator . . .
Nibbler operator ................................
Shear operator ....................................
Spring coil machine setter ..............
Machine setter ....................................

325
339
339
339
325
327
325
339
339




339
339
339
339
325
325
325
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
325
325

D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

D O T. T itle

.380.010
.685-062
-066
617.260-010
.280-010
.360-010
.382-010
.482-010
-022
-026
.685-010
-014
619.380-014
-018
.382-014
.482-010
.485-014
.682-010
-026
.685-026
-070

7339
7539
7539
7317
7326
7317
7317
7317
7339
7529
7529
7517
7314
7339
7512
7512
7529
7512
7529
7517
7654

-082
-086
620.261-010
-012
-030

7512
7512
6111
6111
6111

Four-slide-machine setter ...............
Scroll-machine operator .................
Slat tw ister.........................................
Press operator, heavy duty
Shot-peening operator, tape control
Brake operator...................................
Tube bender, brass-wind instruments
Bending-machine operator .............
Spring former, machine...................
Straightening-press operator ...........
Bending-machine operator .............
Comer former ...................................
Punch press setter ............................
Spring repairer, h an d ........................
Fittings finisher ................................
Lathe winder .....................................
Twisting machine operator .............
Bell spinner .......................................
Hoop bender, ta n k ............................
Brake operator...................................
Metallic-yam-slitting machine opera to r ..................................................
Spinning-lathe operator, antomatic .
Winding-lathe operator ...................
Automobile mechanic ......................
Automobile-mechanic apprentice ..
Automobile-service-station mechanic

-034

6111

.281-010
-014

6111
6881

P age

325
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
325
256
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
3S9
339
256
256
256

-018

613

-026
-030
-034
-038
-046
-054
-062
-066
-070
.381.010
-022
.682-010
.684-018
-022
-026
-034
621.281 except
-030
.381 except
-018
622.381-026
624.281-010
-014
.361-014

6116
6462
6118
6118
6118

.381
625.261-010
.281-010
-014
.361-010
626.261-010
.281-010
.381-010
-014
-018
-022
627.261-010
-014

6118
6881
6112
6112
6112
613
613
613
613
613
613
613
613

-018
-022

6111
6881
6111
6111
6111
6114
6111
6111
6111
6111
6111
7312
6111
6111
6114
6111
6116

613
613

Automotive-cooling-system technic ia n ..................................................
Air-conditioning mechanic .............
Automotive technician, exhaust emiss io n s ................................................
Automotive-maintenance equipment
servicer ...........................................
Brake repairer ...................................
Bus inspector.....................................
Carburetor machanic ........................
Front-end mechanic..........................
Maintenance mechanic ...................
Motorcycle repairer..........................
Transmission mechanic ...................
Tune-up mechanic ............................
Vehicle-fuel-systems converter . . . .
Automobile-radiator mechanic . . . .
Repairer, heavy ................................
Brake drum-lathe operator .............
Brake adjuster ...................................
Clutch rebuilder................................
Motorcycle subassembly repairer . .
Used-car renovator ..........................
Aircraft mechanic ............................

Aircraft mechanic ............................
Floor-covering layer ........................
Farm equipment mechanic .............
Farm equipment mechanic apprentice
Sprinkler-irrigation-equipment mechanic..............................................
Farm equipment mechanic .............
Diesel-engine tester..........................
Diesel mechanic ..............................
Diesel-mechanic apprentice ...........
Diesel-engine erector........................
Forge-shop machine repairer...........
Machine repairer, maintenance . . . .
Ease-finishing machine adjuster . . .
Gas-welding equipment mechanic .
Hydraulic-press servicer .................
Repairer, welding equipment .........
Composing-room machinist ...........
Machinist apprentice, composing
ro o m ...............................................
Machinist apprentice, Linotype . . .
Machinist, Linotype ........................

256
256
30
277
256
256
256
256
256
256
256
256
256
256
256
339
256
256
256
255
253

253
295
260
260
260
260
258
258
258
258
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277

370/Occupational Outlook Handbook
SO C
D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

.281-010
628.261-010
.281-010
.381-010
.382-010
-014
.484-010
.684-018
-026
-030
-034
-038
629.261-014
-018
.280-010
.281-010
-014
-018

613
613
613
613
613
7322
613
613
613
613
613
613
613
613
613
613
613
613

-026
-030
-034
.361-010
.381-010
.682-010
630.261-010

613
613
613
613
613
7322
613

-014
-018
.281-018
-026
-030
-038
.381-010
-018
-.384-010
.664-014
.684-026
633

637.261-010
-014

613
613
613
613
613
613
613
613
613
613
613
6154,
6171,
6174
6156
616

-018
-026
-030
.381-010
-014
638.261-010

6179
616
616
616
616
6178

-014
-018

6178
6178

.281-018
-022
639.281-014
640.685-010
641.682-014
649.685-090
650.582
.682-010
.685-010
651.362-010
-014
-018
-022
-026
-030
-034
.380-010
.382-010
-014
-026

6178
6178
6179
7678
7474
7659
7442,
7642
7642
7642
7443
7443
7443
7443
7443
7443
7443
7443
7443
7444
7444




SO C

D DT. T itle
Press maintainer ..............................
Overhauler .........................................
Machine fixer.....................................
Card clothier .....................................
Flat clothier .......................................
Shear-grinder operator......................
Reed repairer.....................................
Needle straightener ..........................
Shuttle fix e r .......................................
Spindle plumber ..............................
Utility worker, roller shop .............
Wire repairer .....................................
Miller, head, wet process ...............
Powder-line repairer ........................
Maintenance mechanic ...................
Bakery-machine mechanic .............
Cellophane-casting machine repairer
Automotive-maintenance equipment
servicer ...........................................
Forming-machine adjuster...............
Maintenance mechanic ...................
Pump mechanic ................................
Machine-clothing repairer...............
Foiling-machine adjuster.................
Roll grinder .......................................
Maintenance mechanic, compressedgas plan .........................................
Oven-equipment repairer.................
Repairer I ...........................................
Pump servicer ...................................
Repairer .............................................
Rubberizing mechanic......................
Treatment-plant mechanic ...............
Conveyor-maintenance mechanic . .
Lead operator.....................................
Fixture-repair fabricator .................
Screen-and-cyclone repairer ...........
Repairer II .........................................
Business machine repairer .............

P age

277
277
277
277
339
339
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
339
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
277
282

Air-conditioning installer-servicer,
window u n it...................................
262
Environmental-control-system in274
staller-servicer ..............................
Gas-appliance servicer ................... 262, 274
Refrigeration mechanic ...................
274
274
Solar energy system installer .........
274
Evaporative-cooler installer.............
Refrigeration unit repairer...............
274
Automated equipment engineer-technician .............................................
279
279
Machine erector................................
Manufacturer’s service representative
279
Millwright .........................................
279
Millwright apprentice ......................
279
276
Coin-machine-service repairer . . . .
314
Book trimmer ...................................
314
Gluing-machine operator, automatic
314
Perforating-machine operator .........
316
Compositor .......................................
Equipment monitor, phototypesetting
Typesetting-machine tender.............
Cylinder-press operator...................
Cyliner-press operator apprentice . .
Platen-press operator........................
Platen-press operator apprentice . . .
Rotogravure-press operator .............
Web-press operator ..........................
Web-press operator apprentice . . . .
Printer ...............................................
Engraving-press operator.................
Lithograph-press operator...............
Printer, plastic ..................................

316
316
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340

D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

D .O .T . T itle

-030
-034
-038
.482-010
-014
.582-010
-014
.682-010
-014
-018
-022
.685-010
-014
-018
652.462-010
.562-010
.662-010
-014
.682-010
.685-014
-022

7443
7443
7443
7443
7443
7643
7643
7443
4722
7643
7444
7643
7643
7643
7643
7643
7444
7444
7444
7643
7644

-038
-062
-102
653.382-010
.682-014
.685-018
-026

7643
7643
7643
7649
7649
7661
7649

654.382-010
.582-010
661.281-018
-022
673.685-042
690.685-194
-202
693.260-014
.281-014
-018
-022
.382-010
700.281-010
-014
-022
.381-030
-042
-046
.682-014
.684-026
706.381-010
-030
-046
709.684-070
712.281-010
.381-014
-018
-030
713.361-010
-014
.681-010
.684-026
-038
714.281-018
715.684-062
-190
.685-014
-018
-022
-046
-050
-070
.687-110
716.280-008
-010
-014

7449
7449
6831
6831
7677
7522
7512
6116
6817
6817
6817
7678
6822
6822
6822
6822
6822
6822
7512
7518
6174
6174
6111
613
6865
6865
6865
6865
6864
6864
6864
7759
7522
6813
7518
7757
7512
7512
7518
7522
7529
7516
7758
6864
6864
6864

Steel-die printer.................................
Tab-card-press operator....................
Transfer operator ..............................
Offset-press operator........................
Offset-press operator apprentice .. .
Proof-press operator ........................
Lithographic-proofer apprentice . . .
Flexographic-press operator ...........
Offset-duplicating-machine operator
Striper ................................................
Tip printer .........................................
Bag printer.........................................
Design printer, balloon ....................
Offset-press operator........................
Rubber-printing-machine operator .
Print-line operator ............................
Printing-machine operator, tape rules
Wallpaper printer...............................
Box, printer.......................................
Binding printer .................................
Cutting-and-printing-machine opera to r ..................................................
Ink printer .........................................
Printer ................................................
Wad-printing-machine operator . . . .
Folding-machine operator ...............
Covering-machine operator.............
Case-making-machine operator . . . .
Rounding-and-backing-machine operator ..............................................
Casting-machine operator ...............
Type-casting machine operator . . . .
Patternmaker apprentice, wood . . . .
Patternmaker, wood ..........................
Convex-grinder operator .................
Grinder-machine operator, automatic
Grooving-lathe tender ......................
Experimental-aircraft mechanic . . .
Patternmaker .....................................
Patternmaker, metal, b e n c h .............
Patternmaker, sam p le........................
Last-pattern grader ..........................
Jew eler................................................
Jeweler apprentice ............................
Silversmith.........................................
Locket m aker.....................................
Ring maker .......................................
Sample maker ...................................
Lathe h a n d .........................................
Driller..................................................
Aliner, typewriter ............................
Repairer, typewriter..........................
Wheelwright .....................................
Salvager ..............................................
Dental ceramist .................................
Contourwire specialist, denture . . .
Dental-laboratory technician...........
Orthodontic technician ....................
Optician apprentice, dispensing . . .
Optician, dispensing I ......................
Lens mounter.....................................
Eyeglass-frame truer ........................
Polisher, eyeglass frames ...............
Machinist, motion picture...............
Collet driller .....................................
Transferrer .........................................
Cutter, V-groove ..............................
Deburrer, m achine............................
Driller and broacher ........................
Polisher, balance screwhead ...........
Press operator, pierce and share .. .
Tubing-machine tender ...................
Reamer, center h o le ..........................
Optician ..............................................
Optician apprentice ..........................
Optician ..............................................

P age

340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
340
314
314
314
314
316
316
329
329
339
339
339
253
329
329
329
329
323
323
323
323
323
323
339
339
282
282
256
277
317
317
317
317
319
319
319
319
319
327
339
340
339
339
339
339
339
339
339
319
319
319

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/371
SO C

SO C
P age

D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

D .O .T . T itle

.360-010
.382-010
-018
-022
.462-010
.681-018
.682-010
-014
-018
.685-018
-022
720.281-010
-014
-018
721.281-010

7322
6864
7477
7477
6864
6864
7478
7678
6864
7677
7677
6155
6155
6155
6152

Sizer, machine ..................................
Lathe operator, contact lens ...........
Precision-lens grinder ......................
Precision-lens grinder apprentice ..
Precision-lens centerer and edger . .
Lens polisher, hand ..........................
Eyeglass-lens cutter..........................
Precision-lens generator .................
Precision-lens polisher ...................
Grinder...............................................
Lens-fabricating-machine tender . . .
Radio repairer ...................................
Tape-recorder repairer......................
Televison-and-radio repairer ...........
Automotive-generator-and-starter re-

722.281-010
723.381-010
-014
.584-010
729.281-022
730.281-014
-026
-038
-050
-054
.361-010
-014
.381-010
-026
-034
-038
-042
-058
.681-010
.684-022
-026
-094
731.684-022
739.381-018
-022
749.684-046
753.684.026
780.381-018
-022
.684-122
788.381-010
789.484-010
794.687-026
795.684-010
801.361-014
-018
.684-026
804.281-010
-014
805.261 through
.381
806.281-038

6151
6156
6156
6156
6156
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6172
6156
6811
6811
7756
6179
6853
6853
6179
6854
7753
774
7759
6473
6473
6473
6824
6824
6814

Instrument repairer ..........................
Electrical-appliance repairer ...........
Vacuum cleaner repairer .................
Appliance repairer............................
Electric-tool repairer ......................
Accordian repairer............................
Fretted-instrument repairer .............
Piano technician ..............................
Violin repairer ..................................
Wind-instrument repairer ...............
Piano tuner.........................................
Pipe organ tuner and technician . . .
Accordian tun er................................
Harp regulator ..................................
Metal-reed tuner ..............................
Organ-pipe voicer ............................
Percussion-instrument repairer . . . .
Tuner, percussion..............................
Piano regulator-inspector.................
Bow rechairer ...................................
Chip tuner .........................................
Tone regulator ...................................
Toy-electric-train repairer ...............
Diemaker (paper goods) .................
Die-maker apprentice .....................
Stove refinisher ................................
Repairer, boot and sh o e ...................
Furniture upholsterer........................
Furniture upholsterer apprentice . . .
Upholstery repairer . . > ..................
Cobbler .............................................
Diagrammer and seam er.................
Forwarder...........................................
Caser ..................................................
Structural-steel worker ...................
Structural-steel worker apprentice .
Reinforcing-metal worker ...............
Sheet-metal worker ..........................
Sheet-metal worker apprentice . . . .
Boilermaker.......................................

6116

.684-118
807.261-010
.281-010
.381-010
-014
-022
.664-010
.684-010
809.381-014
81 through
819.281-014
.281-022 through
.686-010

772
6116
6115
6115
6116
6115
6711
6115
6824
(2)

Mechanic, aircraft rigging and controls ................................................
253
Repairer, general ..............................
256
Aircraft body repairer .....................
253
Truck-body builder ..........................
255
255
Automobile-body repairer...............
Bonded structures repairer .............
253
Service mechanic..............................
255
Muffler installer................................ 255, 256
Automobile-bumper straightener . .
255
Lay-out worker ................................
307
Welders .............................................
345

.687-014
820.261-010

7533, Welders .............................................
7714,
862,
8725
862
Welder helper ...................................
6153
Electrician apprentice, powerhouse




319
319
319
319
319
319
319
319
319
319
319
270
270
270
256
263
262
262
262
262
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
280
262
332
332
301
331
322
322
322
331
295
314
314
299
299
299
307
307
313

345

345 '
293

Code

D .O .T . T itle

-014
-018
.381-010

6153
6153
6152

821.261-010

6433

Electrician, powerhouse .................
Electrician, substation......................
Battery maintained large emergency
storage ...........................................
Community-television line technician

-014
-018
.281-010
.361-010
.018
-022
-026
-830
-038
.381-014
-018

6433
6153
6151
6433
6433
6433
6433
6433
6433
6881
6153

.687-010
822.261-010
-022
.281-010
-014
-018
-022
-030
-034

6433
6151
6158
6151
6151
6158
6151
6151
6151

.361-010
-014
-026
-030
.381-010
-018
-022
.684-010
823.361-010
824.261-010
-014
.281-010
-014
.681-010
825.281-010
-014
-018
-022
-026
.381-014

6151
6151
6151
6881
6151
6151
6151
722
6155
6432
6432
6432
782
6432
6159
6152
6159
6159
6159
6151

-018
-022

6159
6867

-026
-030
-034
-038
827.261-010
-014

6881
6432
6432
6159
6156
6156

.361-014
.464-010
.661-010
828.251

616
6156
6156
6153

.261-010
-014
.281-010
-014
.381-010
829.281-014
.361-010
-014
.667-010
.684-022
-026

6155
6153
6153
6153
6159
6153
6157
6157
8635
8643
8643

D .O .T . N u m b e r

Line maintainer ................................
Relay technician ..............................
Television - cable installer .............
Cable installer-repairer ...................
Line erector .......................................
Line installer sheet railw ay.............
Line repairer .....................................
Line erector apprentice ...................
Tower erector.....................................
Voltage te ster .....................................
Wind-generating electric power installer .............................................
Street-post installer ..........................
Electrician, office ............................
Station installer-and-repairer...........
Automatic - equipment technician .
Central-office repairer......................
Maintenance mechanic, telephone .
Private-branch-exchange repairer ..
Technician, plant and maintenance .
Technician, submarine cable equipm e n t...............................................
Cable tester .......................................
Central-office installer......................
Transmission tester ..........................
Trouble locator, test desk ...............
Equipment installer ..........................
Private-branch-exchange installer . .
Telegraph-plant maintainer .............
Frame w ir er .......................................
Television installer............................
Electrician .........................................
Electrician apprentice ......................
Airport electrician ............................
Electric distribution check er...........
Electrician .........................................
Electrical repairer ............................
Electrician .........................................
Electrician, airplane ........................
Electrician, automotive ...................
Electrician, locomotive ...................
Top-lift and automatic window repairer .............................................
Controller repairer and tester .........
Electrical and radio mock-up mechanic ....................................................
Electrical inspector ..........................
Electrician, marine ..........................
Electrian apprentice, marine .........
Third-rail installer ............................
Electrical-appliance servicer...........
Electrical-appliance service apprentice ..................................................
Refrigeration mechanic ...................
Air conditioning installer ...............
Household-appliance installer.........
Electronic-sales-and-service technic ia n ..................................................
Electronic-organ technician.............
Field engineer ...................................
Electronics mechanic........................
Electronics mechanic apprentice . . .
Equipment installer ..........................
Electrical repairer ............................
Cable splicer .....................................
Cable-splicer apprentice .................
Cable-splicer helper..........................
Electrician helper..............................
Electrician helper..............................

Page

293
293
293
268
268
293
268
268
268
268
268
268
268
293
293
268
263
271
263
263
271
271
268
263
268
263
263
263
263
271
263
263
270
293
293
293
293
293
293
293
253
256
293
256
293
293
293
293
293
293
262
262
274
262
262
181
270
265
265
265
293
293
268
268
268
361
361

372/Occupational Outlook Handbook
SO C

SO C

D O T . N um ber

C ode

D O T. T itle

840.381-010
-014
-018
.681-010
.687-010
841.381-010
842.361-018
-022
-026
.381-010
-014
.644-010
.681-010
844.364-010
-014
.461-010
.684-010
845.381-010
-014
.681-010
850.387-010
.662-010

6442
6442
6442
6442
6442
6443
6444
6444
6444
6424
6444
6424
6424
6463
6463
6463
6463
7669
7669
6442
1472
6474

301
301
301
301
361
301
302
302
302
292
302
292
292
291
291
291
291
344
344
301
29

-014
.663-010
-014
-018
-022
.683-010
-014
-018
-022
-026
-030
-038
-042
-046
851.663-010
853.663-010
-014
-022
.683-010
-014
-018

7678
8316
8317
8245
8317
8317
8317
8316
8317
8316
8316
8317
8316
8317
8316
6466
6466
6466
6466
8317
6466

.685-010
859.362-010
.682-010
-014
-018
.683 except
-018
860.281 through
.381-054
.381-066 through
.664-010
-014
-018
.681-010 through
.684-014
861.361-014
.381-010
-014
-018
-022
-026

6466
6474
6474
6474
6476
8312,
6466
6422

Painter ...............................................
Painter apprentice, shipyard ...........
Painter, shipyard ..............................
Painter, stage setting ........................
Painter helper, shipyard...................
Paperhanger .......................................
Plasterer.............................................
Plasterer apprentice ..........................
Plasterer, molding ............................
Dry-wall applicator ..........................
Stucco m ason.....................................
Taper ..................................................
Dry-wall applicator ..........................
Cement m ason ..................................
Cement mason apprentice...............
Concrete-stone finisher ...................
Concrete rubber................................
Painter apprentice, automotive . . . .
Painter, transportation equipment . .
Railroad car letterer..........................
Inspector of dredging ......................
Horizontal-earth-boring-machine operator .............................................
Rock-drill operator ..........................
Dredge operator................................
Elevating-grader operator ...............
Lock tender .......................................
Motor-grader operator ......................
Bulldozer operator I ........................
Ditcher operator................................
Dragline operator..............................
Form-grader operator........................
Mucking-machine operator .............
Power-shovel operator ......................
Scraper operator ..............................
Tower-excavator operator.................
Utility-tractor operator ...................
Septic-tank installer..........................
Asphalt-paving-machine operator . .
Concrete-paving-machine operator .
Stone spreader operator...................
Curb-machine operator ...................
Heater-planer operator.....................
Joint-cleaning-and-grooving machine
operator .........................................
Asphalt-heater tender .....................
Well-drill operator............................
Earth-boring-machine operator . . . .
Foundation-drill operator.................
Pile-driver operator ..........................
Operating engineer ..........................
Carpenter ...........................................

289

6422

Carpenter ...........................................

289

8642
8642
8642

Joiner helper .....................................
Shipwright helper ............................
Carpenter ...........................................

361
361
289

-030
-034
-038
-042
-046
-050
-054
-058
.684-010

6413
6412
6412
6412
6412
6412
6413
6462
6413
6413
6463
6463
6414
6414
6412




Monument setter ..............................
Acid-tank lin er..................................
Bricklayer .........................................
Bricklayer .........................................
Bricklayer apprentice ......................
Bricklayer, firebrick and refractory
tile ..................................................
Marble setter .....................................
Soft-tile setter ..................................
Stonemason .......................................
Stonemason apprentice ...................
Terrazzo worker................................
Terrazzo-worker apprentice.............
Tile setter...........................................
Tile setter apprentice........................
Cupola patcher..................................

Page

354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
361
354
354
354
354
354

287
287
287
287
287
287
287
295
287
287
291
291
308
308
287

D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

D .O .T . T itle

-014
-018
.687-010

6412
6414
8641

Patcher ................................................
Tile setter............................................
Bricklayer helper, firebrick and refractory tile ...................................
Pipe fitter ...........................................
Coppersmith.......................................
Coppersmith apprentice....................
Oil burner servicer and installer . . .
Furnace installer ..............................
Gas-main fitter...................................
Pipe fitter, diesel engine I ...............
Aircraft mechanic, plumbing and
hydraulics.......................................
Industrial-gas fitter ..........................
Pipe fitter ...........................................
Pipe fitter diesel engine I I ...............
Pipe fitter apprentice ........................
Plumber ..............................................
Plumber apprentice ..........................
Plumber ..............................................
Pipe cutter .........................................
Pipe-fitter helper ..............................
Pipe-fitter helper ..............................
Water softener servicer and installer
Oil-bumer-servicer-and installer helper ....................................................
Insulation worker apprentice...........
Insulation worker (construction) . . .
Insulation worker..............................

862.261-010
.281-010
-014
-018
.361-010
-014
-018
.381-010

645
645
645
645
645
645
645
645

-014
-018
-022
-026
-030
-034
.681-010
.682-010
.684-018
-022
-034
.687-022

645
645
645
645
645
645
645
645
8645
8645
645
8769

863.364-010
-014
.381 through
.664
.684-010
.685-010
864.381-010
.481-010
-014
.687-010
865.361-010
.381-010
-014
.484-010
.684-018
-022
866.381-010
-014
.684-010
869.281-010
.361-018
.381-010
-034
.664-014
.683-010
-014
-018
.684-022
-050
.685-010
.687-026
-030

6465
6465
6465
6465
6465
6462
6462
6462
8648
6464
6464
6464
772
772
772
6468
6468
6468
616
6422
6422
6422
6479
6466
8314
6466
6479
6424
7675
871
8769

891.137-010
899.684-014
900.683-010
902.683-010
903.683-010
-014
-018
904.383-010
.683-010
905.483-010
.663-010
-014
-018
.683-010
909.663-010
.683
911.663-014

71
6479
8213
8213
8213
8213
8213
8212
8212
8213
8213
8213
8212
8213
8212
8214
8313

Composition-weatherboard applier .
Insulation power unit ten d er...........
Carpet la y e r .......................................
Floor layer .........................................
Floor-layer apprentice ......................
Carpet-layer helper ..........................
Mirror installer .................................
Glazier ................................................
Glazier apprentice ............................
Safety-glass installer ........................
Glazier, metal funiture ...................
Refrigerator glazier ..........................
Roofer ................................................
Roofer apprentice ............................
Roofer applicator..............................
Furnace installer and repairer, hot air
Sign erector and repairer.................
House repairer...................................
Timber framer ...................................
Construction worker I ......................
Form-tamper operator ......................
Rigger ................................................
Tamping-machine operator .............
Fence erector .....................................
Drywall applicator............................
Kettle tender .....................................
Construction worker II ...................
Fumace-installer-and-repairer helper,
hot a ir ..............................................
Maintenance supervisor....................
Highway maintenance worker.........
Concrete-mixing-truck driver .........
Dump-truck driver............................
Explosives-truck d riv er....................
Powder-truck driver..........................
Tank-truck driver...............................
Tractor-trailer-truck d river...............
Log-truck driver ..............................
Milk driver.........................................
Garbage collector driver .................
Truck driver, heavy ..........................
Van driver .........................................
Water-truck driver II ........................
Hostler ................................................
Truckdriver, light ..............................
Stevedore ............................................

P age

287
308
361
304
304
304
274
274
304
304
253
304
304
304
304
304
304
304
304
361
361
304
361
298
298
298
289
361
295
295
295
361
297
297
297
297
297
297
305
304
304
274
289
289
289
361
361
361
361
361
292
361
361
361
241
361
357
357
357
357
357
357
357
357
357
357
357
357
357
357
356

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T) lndex/373
so c

SO C

D .O .T . N u m b e r

C ode

D .O .T . T itle

913.363-010
.463-010
919.663-018
-022
-026
.687-010
921.583-010
.683-042
-050
-070
.663-014
-026
-030
-034
-054
-058
-062
929.381-010
.583-010
.683-010
-014
950.362-010
-014
.382-018
-022
-026
-030
953.583-010
954.382-010
-014
955.362-010
.382-010
.585-010
961.367-010
.667-010
962.381-018
.665-010
970.281-010
-018
.361-014
.381-010
-030
-034
971.381-014 through
-034

8215
8215
8213
8214
8213
4753
8318
8318
8318
8318
8315
8314
8314
8319
8315
8315
8315
7753
8318
8318
8318
8319
6931
6931
6932
6931
6931
8213
691
691
691
691
691
4450
445
6862
7679
6863
6868
6863
6868
6842
6868
6842

Bus driver, day-haul or farm charter
Bus driver .........................................
Driver-utility worker .......................
Escort-vehicle driver ........................
Tow-truck operator ..........................
Checker .............................................
Transfer-car operator, drier .............
Front-end loader operator ...............
Industrial-truck operator .................
Straddle-truck operator ...................
Cherry picker operator ...................
Hoist operator ..................................
Hoisting engineer ............................
Irradiated-fuel handler......................
Tower crane operator........................
Tractor-crane operator .....................
Truck-crane operator ........................
Carpet cutter .....................................
Yard w orker.......................................
Logging-tractor operator .................
Tractor operator ................................
Engineer, exhauster ..........................
Refrigerating engineer.....................
Gas-engine operator ........................
Rotary-rig engine operator .............
Stationary engineer ..........................
Stationary-engineer apprentice . . . .
Drip pumper .....................................
Pump-station operator, waterworks .
Water-treatment-plant operator . . . .
Wastewater-treatment-plant operator
Clarifying-plant operator.................
Wastewater-treatment-plant attendant
Model, photographers’ ...................
Model, artists’ ...................................
Miniature-set constructor ...............
Dubbing-machine operator .............
Airbrush artist ...................................
Photograph retoucher .....................
Repeat c h ie f.......................................
Colorist, photograph ........................
Retoucher, photoengraving .............
Spotter, photographic........................
Photoengraver ..................................

Page

352
352
357
357
357
213
356
356
356
356
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
295
356
356
356
335
335
335
335
335
335
357
336
336
336
336
336
168
168
161
330
330
330
326
330
330
330
326

'4153, 4232-7, 4239, 4242-6, 4249, 4342-8, 4351-4, 4356, 4359, 4362,
4366-7, 4369, 4450.
271, 7332-3, 7339, 7532-3, 7714, 7717, 7720.
3
4753, 6863, 725, 7671, 7678, 7720, 7753, 7757, 7759, 782.
“For machine tool operators and assemblers, D.O.T. codes are not listed in the
occupational statement because of the large number involved. For a list of these
codes, contact: Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, Washington, D.C. 20212




D .O .T . N u m b e r

Code

D .O .T . T itle

-038
-040
-050
971.261-010
.381-038
-040
.382-014
-018

6842
6842
6842
6823
6842
6842
7444
7644

Photoengraving proofer...................
Photoengraving proofer apprentice .
Stripper .............................................
Etcher, h an d .......................................
Photoengraving proofer...................
Photoengraving-proofer apprentice .
Photographer, photoengraving........
Repeat photocomposing machine operator .............................................
Blocker................................................
Roller-print tender ............................
Process artist .....................................
Process artist, apprentice ...............
Scanner operator ..............................
Lithographic platemaker .................
Lithographic platemaker apprentice
Transferer...........................................
Compositor .......................................
Compositor apprentice ...................
Photographic process worker .........

.684-010
.685-010
972.281-010
-018
.282-010
.381-010
-014
-026
973.381-010
-014
976.267 through
.361-010
.381-014
through
.564-010

.665-010
.685-030; and
.687-014
through
.687-022
977.381-010
-014
.684-010
-018
-022
979.381-018
-022
.382-010
.682-014

7756
7644
6842
6842
7444
6842
6842
6842
6843
6841
7820,
7479,
6868
6849
Photographic process worker .........
6868,
6868,
7671,
7753,
4752
through
Photographic process worker .........
(3)

6844
6844
6179
7667
7752
6841,
6868
6841,
6868
7644
7644

P age

326
326
326
326
340
340
326
326
326
326
326
330
326
326
326
326
316
316
330

330

330

Bookbinder .......................................
Bookbinder, apprentice ...................
Book repairer.....................................
Presser ...............................................
Stitcher, h a n d .....................................
Paste-up copy-camera operator . . . .

314
314
314
314
314
316

Paste-up copy-camera operator apprentice .........................................
Clamper .............................................
Blueprinting-machine operator . . . .

316
340
330

Index to Occupations

Academic librarians....................................................................... 105
Account executives, see:
Securities sales w orkers......................................................... 196
Accountants and auditors.................................................................23
Accounting clerks...........................................................................203
Acquisitions librarians................................................................... 105
Activity specialists, see: Recreation workers.................................90
Actors and actresses....................................................................... 168
Actuaries.......................................................................................... 57
Administrative and managerial occupations ...................................23
Administrative dietitians................................................................. 123
Administrative secretaries...............................................................211
Administrative support occupations, including clerical................. 202
Administrators, health services.........................................................32
Administrators, medical record, see: Health record
technicians................................................................................... 144
Administrators, school.....................................................................40
Admissions counselors................................................................... 108
Adult services librarians................................................................. 105
Aerospace engineers.............................................
50
Affirmative action coordinators, see:
Personnel and labor relations specialists.................................36
Agents and brokers, insurance....................................................... 190
Agents and brokers, real estate..................................................... 193
Agricultural scientists.......................................................................69
Agricultural and forestry occupations...........................................250
Agricultural commodity graders, see:
Health and regulatory inspectors.............................................31
Agricultural quarantine inspectors, see: Health and reg­
ulatory inspectors.........................................................................31
Agronomists, see:
Agricultural scientists...............................................................69
Air-compressor operators, see: Construction machinery
operators (Operating engineers).................................................354
Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanics................. 274
Air safety inspectors, see: Health and regulatory inspec­
tors ................................................................................................ 30
Air traffic controllers..................................................................... 175
Aircraft mechanics.........................................................................253
Airline reservation and ticket agents.............................................209
Airplane pilots.........................................................
350
Airport traffic controllers............................................................... 175
Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors, see: Health
and regulatory inspectors.............................................................30
All-round darkroom technicians, see:
Photographic process w orkers...............................................330
Analytical chemists...........................................................................63
Anatomists, see: Biological scientists.............................................70
Animal breeders, see: Agricultural scientists.................................69
Animal scientists, see: Agricultural scientists.................................69
Animators, see: Commercial and graphic artists and
designers...........................................................
161
Announcers ................................................................................... 155
Anthropologists, see: Social scientists and urban plan­
ners .............................................................................................. 78
Apiculturists, see: Agricultural scientists.......................................69
Appliance installers and repairers.................................................262
Applications programmers, see: Computer program­
mers .............................................................................................178
Digitized for 374
FRASER


Page
Arc welders, see: Welders and flamecutters................................345
Archeologists, see: Social scientists and urban planners..................78
Architects ........................................................................................44
Archivists, see: Social scientists and urban planners..............
78
Art directors, see:
Commerical and graphic artists and designers......................161
Artists, commercial, see:
Commercial and graphic artists and designers......................161
Assembler occupations................................................................... 343
Assistant principals, see: School administrators............................. 40
Assistant professors, see: College and university faculty..................103
Assistant superintendents, see: School administrators................... 40
Associate professors, see: College and university fac­
ulty ............................................................................................... 103
Astronomers, see: Physicists........................................................... 67
Astrophysicists, see: Physicists....................................................... 67
Attorneys, see: Lawyers................................................................... 74
Audio control engineers, see: Broadcast technicians....................177
Audiologists, see: Speech pathologists and audiologists..................135
Audiovisual librarians......................................................................105
Automatic equipment technicians, see: Communica­
tions equipment mechanics......................................................... 263
Automatic mounters, see: Photograhic process workers................. 330
Automatic print developers, see: Photographic process
w orkers....................................................................................... 330
Automatic transmission specialists, see:
Automotive mechanics........................................................... 256
Automotive body repairers.....................................
255
see also: Automotive painters............................................... 344
Automotive electricians, see: Automotive m echanics................. 256
Automotive-glass mechanics, see: Automotive me­
chanics .........................................................................................256
Automotive mechanics................................................................... 256
Automotive painters....................................................................... 344
See also: Automotive body repairers..................................... 255
Automotive-radiator mechanics, see:
Automotive mechanics........................................................... 256
Auxiliary equipment operators, see: Computer operat­
ing personnel............................................................................... 205
Aviation safety inspectors, see: Health and regulatory
inspectors....................................................................................... 30

B

Bank officers and managers................................?
................26
Bank tellers..................................................................................... 202
Barbers ..................,....................................................................... 243
Bartenders....................................................................................... 231
Beauticians, see: Cosmetologists................................................... 245
Beauty operators, see: Cosmetologists......................................... 245
Bench technicians, see.Dispensing opticians and
ophthalmic laboratory technicians............................................. 319
Benefits specialists, see: Personnel and labor relations
specialists ..................................................................................... 36
Bibliographers, see: Librarians................................................. 105
Biochemists, see: Chemists............................................................. 63
Biographers, see: Social scientists and urban planners................... 78
Biological scientists......................................................................... 70
Biologists, see: Biological scientists............................................... 70
Blue-collar worker supervisors....................................................... 311

Index to Occupations and lndustries/375
Page
Body repairers, automotive ...........................................................255
Boilermakers...................................................................................313
Boilermaker mechanics...................................................................313
Book designers............................................................................... 163
Bookbinders ...................................................................................314
Bookkeepers and accounting clerks...............................................203
Bookmobile librarians..................................................................... 105
Bordereau clerks, see: Typists.......................................................217
Botanists, see: Biological scientists.................................................70
Box office cashiers......................................................................... 188
Braille operators, see: Typists.......................................................217
Brake mechanics, see: Automotive mechanics.............................256
Bricklayers and stonemasons.........................................................287
Bricklayers’ tenders, see: Construction laborers and
helpers........................................................................................ 361
Broadcast technicians...........................................................
177
Brokers, insurance, see: Insurance agents and brokers................. 190
Brokers, real estate, see: Real estate agents and brokers................. 193
Building custodians.........................................................................241
Building inspectors, see: Construction inspectors (Pub­
lic administration).........................................................................29
Bulldozer operators, See:
Construction machinery operators (operating engi­
neers) ...................................................................................354
Bus mechanics, see: Diesel mechanics.........................................258
Busdrivers.......................................................................................352
Business machine repairers ...........................................................282
Butchers and meatcutters...............................................................315
Buyers, retail and wholesale trade...................................................27

C
Cable splicers, see: Line installers and cable splicers................. 268
Camera operators, printing, see: Lithographers and
photoengravers ...........................................................................326
Captain, see:
Airplane pilots.........................................................................350
Card-tape converter operators, see: Computer operating
personnel.....................................................................................205
Career planning counselors, college, see:
Counselors............................................................................... 108
Carpenters.......................................................................................289
Carpet installers, see: Floor covering installers...........................295
Cartographers, see: Social scientists and urban planners...................78
Caseworkers, see: Social workers...................................................88
Cashiers.........................................................................
188
Cashier checkers, see: Cashiers..................................................... 188
Casualty insurance agents, see: Insurance agents and
brokers......................................................................................... 190
Catalogers, see: Librarians............................................................. 105
Catholic priests, seg: Roman Catholic priests.................................95
Cement masons and terrazzo workers...........................................291
Central office equipment installers, see: Communica­
tions equipment mechanics.........................................................263
Central office operators, see: Telephone operators....................... 215
Central office repairers, see: Communications equip­
ment mechanics...........................................................................263
Certified public accountants, see: Accountants and au­
ditors .............................................................................................23
Chaplains, see: Religious workers...................................................94
Check-out clerks, see: Cashiers..................................................... 188
Checkers, see:
Drafters................................................................................... 180
Cashiers.........................................................................
188
Chefs, see: Cooks and ch efs.........................................................232
Chemical engineers...........................................................................51
Chemical mixers, see: Photographic process workers................. 330
Chem ists...........................................................................................63



Page
Chief engineers, see:
Broadcast technicians.............................................................177
Child health associates, see: Physician assistants......................... 130
Child welfare workers, see: Social workers...................................88
Children’s librarians.......................................................................105
Chiropractors...................................................................................I ll
City planners, see: Urban and regional planners...........................78
Civil engineers................................................................................ 51
Classifiers, see: Librarians............................................................. 105
Cleaners, see: Building custodians...............................................241
Cleaning and building service occupations...................................241
Clerk-typists, see: typists...............................................................217
Clerks, see:
Bookkeepers and accounting clerks.......................................203
Climatologic geographers, see: Social scientists and
urban planners.........................................................................
78
Climatologists, see: Meteorologists.................................................66
Clinical dietitians, see: Dietitians .. ..............................................123
Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians......................... 139
Clinical psychologists, see: Psychologists.....................................81
Coin machine servicers and repairers...........................................276
College and university facylty..............................................
103
College career planning and placement counselors, see:
Counselors...................................................................................108
College placement officers, see: Counselors................................. 108
College student personnel workers, see: Counselors................... 108
Color-laboratory technicians, see: Photographic pro­
cess w orkers.............................................................................. 330
Color-printer operators, see: Photographic process
w orkers...................................................................................... 330
Commercial account underwriters, see:Underwriters.....................42
Commercial and graphic artists and designers............................. 161
Commercial photographers............................................................. 165
Commercial tellers, see: Bank tellers...........................................202
Communication-center operators, see: Telephone oper­
ators ........................................................................................ 215
Communications equipment mechanics.........................................263
Communications occupations.........................................................153
Community dietitians.....................................................................123
Community health nurses, see: Registered nurses....................... 132
Community outreach librarians..................................................... 105
Community planners, see: Urban and regional
planners........................................................................................ 86
Compensation analysts, see: Personnel and labor rela­
tions specialists............................................................................ 36
Compensation managers, see: Personnel and labor rela­
tions specialists.............................................................................36
Compositors and typesetters...........................................................316
Computer operating personnel.......................................................205
Computer operators.........................................................................205
Computer programmers............................
178
Computer service technicians.........................................................265
Computer systems analysts...............................................................58
Conservationists, soil, see: Foresters and con­
servationists .................................................................................. 72
Console operators, see:
Computer operating personnel...............................................205
Construction and extractive occupations.......................................285
Construction inspectors (Public administration).............................29
Construction laborers and helpers.................................................361
Construction machinery operators (operating engi­
neers) .......................................................................................... 354
Construction occupations...............................................................286
Consumer safety inspectors, see: Health and regulatory
inspectors...................................................................................... 30
Contour wire specialists, denture, see:
Dental laboratory technicians...............
317
Cooks and ch efs................................................................. . 232
Copilots, see: Airplane pilots...........................................
350

376/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Page
Copywriters, see: Writers and editors........................................... 159
Correction officers .........................................................................224
Correction sergeants, see: Correction officers ............................. 224
Correspondent bank officers, see: Bank officers and
managers.......................................................................................26
Correspondents, see: Reporters and correspondents..................... 156
Cosmetologists ...............................................................................245
Counselors....................................................................................... 108
Court clerks, see: Secretaries and stenographers.........................211
Court reporters, see: Secretaries and stenographers.....................211
Crane operators, see: Construction machinery operators
(operating engineers).................................................................354
Cryptographic-machine operators, see: Typists.............................217
Cultural anthropologists, see: Social scientists and ur­
ban planners.................................................................................78
Curators, see: Social scientists and urban planners.......................78
Customer engineers, see:
Office machine repairers.........................................................282
Computer service technicians.................................................265
Customers’ brokers, see: Securities sales workers....................... 196
Customs inspectors, see: Health and regulatory inspec­
tors ................................................................................................ 30
Cutters, see: Photographic process workers.................................330
Cytotechnologists, see: Clinical laboratory tech­
nologists and technicians........................................................... 139

D
Dairy scientists, see: Agricultural scientitists.................................69
Dancers...........................................................................................169
Darkroom technicians, see: Photographic process
w orkers.......................................................................................330
Data typists, see: Computer operating personnel.........................205
Dental assistants.............................................................................236
Dental ceramists, see:Dental laboratory technicians....................317
Dental hygienists............................................................................. 140
Dental laboratory technicians........................................................ 317
Dentists...........................................................................................112
Denture contour wire specialists, see: Dental laboratory
technicians...................................................................................317
Deputy sheriffs, see: Police and detectives, public serv­
ice ......................................................................................
Design occupations......................................................................... 161
Designers.........................................................................................163
Detailers, see: Drafters................................................................... 180
Detectives, see: Police and detectives, public service................. 229
Developers, see: Photographic process workers...........................330
Developmental psychologists, see: Psychologists........................... 81
Diemakers, see: Toolmakers and diemakers.................................332
Diesel mechanics .......................................................................... 258
Dietetic educators, see: Dietitians................................................. 123
Dietitians.........................................................................................123
Dining room attendants and dishwashers, see:
Waiters and waitresses...........................................................234
Directory assistance operators, see: Telephone oper­
ators ............................................................................................ 215
Dispensing opticians and opthalmic laboratory techni­
cians .............................................................................................319
See also: Optometrists........................................................... 114
Distribution clerks, see: Mail carriers and postal clerks................. 206
Doctors, medical...................................................................
Doctors, osteopathic....................................................................... 116
Drafters...........................................................................................180
Drivers, see:
Busdrivers..................................................................
Truckdrivers.............................................................................357
Druggists, see: Pharmacists . ..................................................... 126
Dry wall applicators and tapers.......................................................292



Page
Dry wall installers and finish ers, s e e : Dry wall ap­
plicators and tapers...................................................................................292

E
Ecologists, see: Biological scientists............................................... 70
Economic geographers, see: Social scientists and urban
planners......................................................................................... 78
Economic geologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists................... 64
Economists ....................................................................................... 80
Editorial assistants, see: Writers and editors..................................159
Editors, see: Writers and editors....................................................159
EEG technicians, see: Electroencephalographic tech­
nologists and technicians ............................................................ 143
EEG technologists, see: Electroencephalographic tech­
nologists and technicians...........................................................143
EKG technicians, see: Electrocardiograph technicians..........
142
Electrical and electronics equipment repairers............................. 262
Electrical and electronics technicians............................................181
Electrical engineers........................................................................... 51
Electrical inspectors, see: Construction inspectors
(Public administration)................................................................. 29
Electricians..................................................................................... 293
Electrocardiograph technicians........................................................142
Electroencephalographic technologists and technicians..................143
Electronic engineers, see: Electrical engineers............................... 51
Electronic organ technicians, see: Musical instrument
repairers....................................................................................... 282
Electronic technicians, see: Electrical and electronics
technicians................................................................................... 181
Elementary school teachers, see: Kindergarten and ele­
mentary school teachers..............................................................100
Embryologists, see:
Biological scientists..........................
70
Emergency room physician assistants, see: Physician
assistants..................................................................................... 130
Employee-welfare managers, see: Personnel and labor
relations specialists....................................................................... 36
Employment counselors, see: Counselors..................................... 108
Employment interviewers, see: Personnel and labor re­
229
lations specialists ......................................................................... 36
Endodonists, see: Dentists..............................................................112
Engineering geologists, see: G eologists and
geophysicists................................................................................. 64
Engineers........................................................................................... 48
See also:
Aerospace engineers ....................................................... 50
Chemical engineers ......................................................... 51
Civil engineers................................................................. 51
Electrical engineers ......................................................... 51
Industrial engineers ......................................................... 52
Mechanical engineers ..................................................... 52
Metallurgical engineers ................................................... 53
Mining engineers ............................................................. 53
Nuclear engineers ........................................................... 54
Petroleum engineers......................................................... 55
Engineers, stationary, see: Stationary engineers........................... 335
Engineers, surveyors and architects................................................. 44
Enroute controllers, air traffic, see: Air traffic control­
116 lers ............................................................................................... 175
Entomologists, see: Biological scientists ....................................... 70
Environmental health inspectors, see: Health and reg­
ulatory inspectors......................................................................... 31
Ethnologists, see: Social scientists and urban planners................... 78
352
Exploration geophysicists, see: G eologists and
geophysicists................................................................................. 64
Extractive occupations................................................................... 310

Index to Occupations and lndustries/377
Page

Page

F

H

Fabricators, assemblers, and handworking occupations................. 343
Family service workers, see: Social w orkers................................. 88
Farm equipment mechanics...........................................................260
Fashion artists, see: Commercial and graphic artists and
designers..................................................................................... 161
Fashion designers........................................................................... 163
Field engineers, see:
Office machine repairers.........................................................282
Computer service technicians.................................................265
Financial aid counselors, see: Counselors..................................... 108
Financial service officers, see: Bank officers and man­
agers .............................................................................................26
Finishers, see: Dispensing opticians and ophthalmic
laboratory technicians.................................................................319
Firefighters ................................................................
225
Right attendants.............................................................................246
Flight engineers, see: Airplane p ilo ts...........................................350
Roor covering installers.................................................................295
Roor covering mechanics...............................................................295
Roral designers............................................................................... 163
Food and beverage preparation and service occupations................. 231
Food inspectors, see: Health and regulatory inspectors................... 31
Foreign student advisers, see: Counselors..................................... 108
Foremen and forewomen, see: Blue-collar worker su­
pervisors .....................................................................................311
Foresters and conservationists.........................................................72
Frame wirers, see: Communications equipment me­
chanics .........................................................................................263
Freelance reporters, see: Reporters and correspondents................. 156
Front-end mechanics, see: Automotive mechanics....................... 256
Front-office cashiers....................................................................... 188
Furnace installers, see: Air-conditioning, heating, and
refrigeration mechanics...............................................................274
Furniture upholsterers.....................................................................322

Hairstylists, see:
Barbers .................................................................................. 243
Cosmetologists.......................................................................245
Hand m olders................................................................................ 323
Health and regulatory inspectors.....................................................30
Health diagnosing and treating practitioners................................. I ll
Health inspectors, see: Health and regulatory inspectors................... 30
Health record administrators, see: Health record techni­
cians .............................................................................................144
Health record clerks, see: Health record technicians................... 144
Health record technicians...............................................................144
Health service occupations.............................................................236
Health services administrators.........................................................32
Health technologists and technicians............................................. 138
Heating mechanics see: Air-conditioning, heating, and
refrigeration mechanics.........................
274
Helpers, handlers, equipment cleaners, and laborers................... 361
High school teachers, see: Secondary schoolteachers...................101
High speed printer operators, see:
Computer operating personnel.......................
205
Highway patrol officers, see: Police detectives, public
service........................................................................................ 229
Histologic technicians; see: Clinical laboratory tech­
nologists and technicians........................................................... 139
Historians, see: Social scientists and urban planners............ ..
78
Hod carriers, see:
Bricklayers and stonemasons.................................................287
Construction laborers and helpers..................................... ,.361
Horticulturists, see: Agricultural scientists.....................................69
Hospital nurses, see: Registered n u rses....................................... 132
Hotel managers and assistants.........................................................35
Hydrologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists ...........................64
Hygienists, dental...........................................................................140

G
Gas burner mechanics, see: Air-conditioning, heating,
and refrigeration mechanics.......................................................274
Gas fitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters..................................... 304
Gas welders, see: Welders and flamecutters................................. 345
Gemologists, see: Jewelers............................................................. 323
Genealogists, see: Social scientists and urban planners................... 78
General bookkeepers, see: Bookkeepers and account­
ing clerks.....................................................................................203
General stenographers, see: Secretaries and ste­
nographers ...................................................................................211
Geochemists, see: Geologists and geophysicists ...........................64
Geochronologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists.....................64
Geodesists, see: Geologists and geophysicists...............................64
Geodetic surveyors...........................................................................45
Geographers, see: Social scientists and urban planners................... 78
Geologists and geophysicists...........................................................64
Geomagneticians, see: Geologists and geophysicists.....................64
Geomorphologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists................... 64
Geophysical prospecting surveyors.................................................45
Geophysicists, see: Geologists and geophysicists...........................64
Glaziers...........................................................................................297
Graphic designers, see: Commercial and graphic artists
and designers............................................................................... 161
Grocery clerks, see: Cashiers ....................................................... 188
Guards.............................................................................................227
Guidance counselors....................................................................... 108



I
Illustrators, see: Commercial and graphic artists and
designers.....................................................................................161
Immigration inspectors, see: Health and regulatory in­
spectors .........................................................................................30
Industrial buyers, see: Purchasing agents....................................... 38
Industrial designers ....................................................................... 163
Industrial engineers...........................................................................52
Industrial machinery repairers.......................................................277
Industrial nurses, see: Registered nurses....................................... 132
Industrial photographers................................................................. 165
Industrial truck operators...............................................................356
Information scientists, see: Librarians........................................... 105
Inhalation therapists, see: Respiratory therapists......................... 134
Inspectors, construction, public administration............................... 29
Inspectors, health and regulatory.....................................................30
Instructors, see: College and university faculty........................... 103
Instrument repairers, see: Communications equipment
mechanics.................................................................................. 263
Insulation workers...........................................................................298
-Insurance agents and brokers......................................................... 190
Intercity busdrivers.........................................................................352
Interior designers ........................................................................... 163
International officers, see: Bank officers and managers............
26
‘ Ironworkers................................................................£................. 299

378/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Page

J
Janitors, see: Building custodians.................................................241
Jewelers...........................................................................................323
Job analysts, see: Personnel and labor relations spe­
cialists .........................
36
Job and die setters...........................................................................325
Journalists, see: Reporters andcorrespondents............................. 156

K
Keypunch operators, see: Computer operating person­
nel ............................................................................................. 205
Kindergarten and elementary school teachers..............................100

L
Laboratory technicians, dental......................................................317
Laboratory workers, medical, see: Clincal laboratory
technologists and technicians....................................................139
Labor relations specialists, see: Personnel and labor
relations specialists.......................................................................36
Laborers, construction, see: Construction laborers and
helpers..................................................................... ................. 361
Land surveyors .*..............................................................................45
Lawyers.............................................................................................74
Layout artists, see: Commercial and graphic artists and
designers........ .............................................................................161
Layout markers, see: Machinists and layout m arkers................. 327
Legal assistants............................................................................... 183
Legal secretaries.............................................................................211
Lens grinders, see: Dispensing opticians and opthalmic
laboratory technicians.................................................................319
Letter sorting machine clerks, see: Mail carriers and
postal clerks ...............................................................................206
Librarians ....................................................................................... 105
Library technicians......................................................................... 185
Licensed practical nurses............................................................. 145
Life insurance agents, see: Insurance agents and
brokers......................................................................................... 190
Life scientists ...................................................................................69
Life underwriters, see: Underwriters...............................................42
Lighting technicians, see: Broadcast technicians......................... 177
Line installers and cable splicers...................................................268
Linguistic anthropologists, see: Social scientists and
urban planners...............................................................................78
Linotype machine operators, printing, see: Com­
positors and typesetters .............................................................316
Lithographers, see: Lithographersand photoengravers...................326
Loan officers, see: Bank officers and managers.............................26
Local transit busdrivers.................................................................352
Local truckdrivers .........................................................................357
Long-distance operators, telephone, see: Telephone op­
erators .........................................................................................215
Long-distance truckdrivers.............................................................357

M
Machine operators, tenders, and setupworkers............................ 339
Machine tool operators...................................................................339
Machinery repairers, industrial.....................................................277
Machinists and layout markers.......................................................327
Magnetic-tape-typewriter operators, see:Typists.......................... 217
Mail carriers and postal clerks.......................................................206




Page
Mailhandlers,
see: Mail carriers and postal clerks........................................... 206
Maintenance administrators, see: Communications
equipment mechanics.......................................... t.................... 263
Maintenance mechanics, see: Industrial machinery re­
pairers ......................................................................................... 277
Maintenance technicians, see: Broadcast technicians....................177
Maintenance welders, -see: Welders and flamecutters................... 345
Manicurists, see: Cosmetologists................................................... 245
Manufacturers’ sales workers..........................................................192
Map editors, see: Surveyors............................................................. 45
Marble setters, see: Bricklayers and stonemasons....................... 287
Marine geologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists................... 64
Marine surveyors............................................................................... 45
Marketing and sales occupations....................................................188
Market research analysts, see: Social scientists and ur­
ban planners................................................................................. 78
Material moving occupations, see: Transportation and
material moving occupations..................................................... 350
Mathematical scientists and systems analysts................................. 57
Mathematicians.............................
59
Meatcutters, see: Butchers and meatcutters................................. 315
Meat and poultry inspectors, see: Health and regulatory
inspectors....................................................................................... 31
Mechanical engineers.....................
52
Mechanical inspectors, see: Construction inspectors
(Public administration)................................................................. 29
Mechanics, see:
Air-Conditioning mechanics................................................... 274
Aircraft mechanics................................................................. 253
Automotive mechanics........................................................... 256
Boilermaker mechanics........................................................... 313
Communications equipment mechanics................................. 263
Diesel mechanics ................................................................... 258
Farm equipment mechanics................................................... 260
Gas burner mechanics............................................................. 274
Oil burner mechanics.......................................................... 274
Mechanics and repairers..................................................................252
Media specialists, see: Librarians..................................................105
Medical assistants........................................................................... 237
Medical geographers, see: Social scientists and urban
planners......................................................................................... 78
Medical and scientific illustrators, see: Commercial and
graphic artists and designers......................................................161
Medical laboratory technicians, see: Clinical laboratory
technologists and technicians......................................................139
Medical laboratory technologists, see: Clinical labora­
tory technologists and technicians..............................................139
Medical office assistants, see: Medical assistants......................... 237
Medical record administrators, see: Health record tech­
nicians ..........................................................................................144
Medical record technicians and clerks, see: Health rec­
ord technicians............................................................................144
Medical secretaries......................................................................... 211
Medical social workers ........................................................ V . . . 88
f
Membership secretaries................................................................. 211
Mental health counselors................................................................108
Merchandise managers, see: Buyers, retail and whole­
sale trade....................................................................s................27
Metallurgical engineers..................................................................... 53
Meteorologists................................................................................... 66
Microbiologists, see:
Biological scientists................................................................. 70
M illwrights..................................................................................... 279
Mine inspectors see: Health and regulatory inspectors................... 31
Mineralogists, see: Geologists and geophysicists........................... 64
Mining engineers ............................................................................. 53
Ministers, Protestant......................................................................... 94

Index to Occupations and lndustries/379
Page
Mobile equipment and vehicle mechanics and repairers................. 253
Molders, see: Hand molders .........................................................323
Monotype keyboard operators, printing, see: Com­
positors and typesetters .............................................................316
Mosaicists, see: Surveyors....................................... ..................... 45
Motion picture photographers, see: Photographers....................... 165
Motor vehicle body repairers, see: Automotive mechan­
ics ........................................*...................................................256
Motor vehicle repairers, see: Automotive mechanics....... ........... 256
Musical instrument repairers.........................................................280
Musicians .......................................................................................171

N
Natural scientists and mathematicians.............................................56
Newscasters, see: Radio and television announcers and
newscasters.................................................................................155
Newspaper reporters, see: Reporters and correspon­
dents ...........................................................................................156
Newswriters, see: Writers and editors........................................... 159
Nuclear engineers............................................................................ 54
Nuclear medicine technologists, see: Radiologic tech<
*
nologists .....................................................................................147
Nurse educators, see: Registered nurses....................................... 132
Nurse practitioners, see: Registered nurses................................... 132
Nursing aides, orderlies and attendants.........................................239
Nurses, see:
Licensed practical nurses....................................................... 145
Registered nurses................................................................... 132
Nutritionists, see: Dietitians........................................................... 123

O
Occupational health nurses, see: Registered nurses....................132
Occupational safety and health inspectors, see:
Health and regulatory inspectors.............................................30
Occupational therapists................................................................... 124
Office electricians, see: Communications
equipment mechanics.........................
263
Office machine repairers.................................................................282
Office nurses, see: Registered n u rse s........................................... 132
Oil burner mechanics, see: Air-conditioning, heating,
and refrigeration mechanics.......................................................274
Oilers, see:
Construction machinery operators (Operating en­
gineers) ...............................................................................354
Operating engineers, see: Construction machinery op­
erators (Operating engineers).....................................................354
Operating room technicians, see: Surgical technicians................. 150
Operations officers, see: Bank officers and managers...................26
Operators, telephone.......................................................................215
Ophthalmic dispensers, see: Dispensing opticians and
opthalmic laboratory technicians...............................................319
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.................................................319
Optical mechanics, see: Dispensing opticians and
opthalmic laboratory technicians...............................................319
Opticians, dispensing.....................................................................319
Optometrists ...................................................................................114
Oral pathologists, see: Dentists..................................................... 112
Oral surgeons, see: Dentists........................................................... 112
Orthodontic technicians, see: Dental laboratory techni­
cians ............................................................................................ 317
Orthodontists, see: Dentists........................................................... 112
Orthopedic physician assistants, see: Physician assis­
tants .............................................................................................130
Osteopathic physicians, see: Physicians....................................... 116
Other mechanics and repairers.........................
274



Package designers...........................................................................163
Painters, automotive...........................................................
.344
Painters and paperhangers.....................................................
301
Paleontologists, see: Geologists...................................................... 64
Paperhangers.................................................................................. 301
Paralegals, see: Legal assistants..................................................... 183
Parole officers, see: Social workers.................................................88
Party chiefs, see: Surveyors............................................................ 45
Passenger agents, see: Reservation agents and transpor­
tation ticket clerks.........................................
209
Pathologists, speech.......................................................................135
Patrol officers, see:
Police and detectives, public service.....................................229
Patternmakers ................................................................................ 329
PBX attendants, see: Telephone operators...................................215
PBX installers, see: Telephone and PBX installers and
repairers...................................................................................... 271
PBX operators, see: Telephone operators.....................................215
PBX repairers, see: Telephone and PBX installers and
repairers...................................................................................... 271
Pedodontists, see: Dentists.............................................................112
Perforator typists, see: Typists...................................................... 217
Performing artists...........................................................................168
Periodontists, see: Dentists ...........................................................112
Peripheral equipment operators, see: Computer operat­
ing personnel...........................................................
205
Personal service occupations..........................•,*••••................. 243
Personality psychologist see: Psychologists ...... ........................... 81
Personnel and labor relations specialists.........................................36
Petroleum engineers........................................................................ 55
Petroleum g eo lo g ists, see: G eologists and
geophysicists................................................................................ 64
Pharmacists.................................................................................... 126
Pharmacologists, see: Biological scientists.....................................70
Photocheckers and assemblers, see: Photographic pro­
cess w orkers.............................................................................. 330
Photoengravers, see Lithographers and photoengravers.................326
Photofinishing laboratory workers, see: Photographic
process workers.......................................................................... 330
Photogrammetrists, see: Surveyors................................................ 45
Photograph retouchers, see: Photographic process
w orkers.....................................................
330
Photographers.................................................................................165
Photographic process workers.......................................................330
Photojoumalists, see: Photographers............................................. 165
Phototypesetters, printing, see: Compositors and type­
setters .......................................................................................... 316
Physical anthropologists, see: Social scientists and ur­
ban planners................................................................................ 78
Physical chemists, see: Chemists ...................................................63
Physical geographers, see: Social scientists and urban
planners........................................................................................ 78
Physical meteorologists, see: Meteorologists.................................66
Physical scientists............................................................................ 63
Physical therapists...........................................................................128
Physician assistants.........................................................................130
Physicians.......................................................................................116
Physicists.......................................................................................... 67
Physiologists, see: Biological scientists.........................................70
Piano technicians, see: Musical instrument repairers...................280
Piano tuners, see: Musical instrument repairers...........................280
Pilots and copilots, see: Airplane pilots.................
350
Pipefitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters .....................................304
Pipelayers, see: Construction laborers and helpers.......................361
Pipe-organ tuners and repairers, see: Musical instru­
ment repairers............................................................... « -.
?*
280

380/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Page
Placement directors and counselors, college, see:
Counselors............................................................................. 108
Plainclothes officers, see: Police and detectives, public
service........................................................................................ 229
Planetologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists...........................64
Planning counselors,....................................................................... 108
Plant and systems operators...........................................................335
Plasterers........................................................................................ 302
Plasterers’ tenders, see: Construction laborers and help­
ers .............................................................................................. 361
Plumbers and pipefitters ................................................................ 304
Podiatrists .......................................................................................119
Police district switchboard operators, see:
Telephone operators...............................................................215
Police and detectives, public service.............................................229
Political geographers, see: Social scientists and urban
planners........................................................................................ 78
Political scientists, see: Social scientists and urban plan­
ners .............................................................................................. 78
Portrait photographers..................................................................... 165
Postal clerk s.................................................................................. 206
Postal inspectors, see: Health and regulatory inspectors...................30
Poultry scientists, see: Agricultural Scientists ...............................69
Practical nurses, licensed............................................................... 145
Precision production occupations...................................................313
Press operators, printing.................................................................340
Priests, Roman Catholic...................................................................95
Principals, see: School administrators............................................ 40
Print controllers, see: Photographic process workers................... 330
Print developers, automatic, see: Photographic process
w orkers...................................................................................... 330
Print shop stenographers, see: Secretaries and ste­
nographers .................................................................................. 211
Print washers, see: Photographic process workers.......................330
Printers, see: Photographic process workers.................................330
Printing press operators.........................................
340
Private-branch-exchange service advisors, see:
Telephone operators...............................................................215
Private duty nurses, see .Registered nurses................................... 132
Probation officers, see: Social workers...........................................88
Professors, see: College and university faculty........................... 103
Production occupations...................................................................311
Program directors, see: Writers and editors................................. 159
Programmers...................................................................................178
Programmers, tool, see: Tool programmers................................. 186
Projection printers, see: Photographic process workers................. 330
Prosthodontists, see: Dentists......................................................... 112
Protective service occupations.......................................................224
Protestant ministers.......................................................................... 94
Psychiatric social workers, see Social workers...............................88
Psychologists.................................................................................... 81
Public health dentists..................................................................... 112
Public librarians .............................................................................105
Public relations specialists............................................................. 153
Public works inspectors, see: Construction inspectors
(Public administration).................................................................29x
Purchasing agents............................................................................ 38

R

Rabbis.............................................................................................. 95
Radiation therapy technologists, see: Radiologic tech­
nologists .....................................................................................147
Radio and television announcers and newscasters....................... 155
Radio and television service technicians.......................................270
Radiographers, see: Radiologic technologists............................... 147
Radiologic technologists................................................................. 147



Page
Railroad inspectors, see: Health and regulatory inspec­
tors ................................................................................................30
Range conservationists, see: Foresters and con­
servationists ................................................................................... 72
Range ecologists, see: Foresters and conservationists................. .72
Range managers, see: Foresters and conservationists..................... 72
Real estate agents and brokers....................................................... 193
Realtors, see: Real estate agents ancl brokers..................
193
Receptionists ....................................................................................208
Recording engineers, see:
Broadcast technicians............................................................. 177
Recreation workers ..........................................................................90
Recruiters, see: Personnel and labor relations specialists................... 36
Reference librarians........................................................................105
Refrigeration mechanics, see: Air-conditioning, heat­
ing, and refrigeration mechanics..................................
274
Regional geographers, see: G eographers and
geophysicists.....................
64
Regional planners, see: Urban and regional planners ................... 86
Registered nurses........................................................................... 132
Registered nurses, pharmacists, dietitians, therapists,
and physician assistants..............................................................122
Registered representatives, see: Securities sales work­
ers ............................................................................................... 196
Regulatory inspectors, see: Health and regulatory in­
spectors ......................................................................................... 30
Rehabilitation counselors................................................................108
Reinforcing metal workers, see: Ironworkers............................... 299
Religious workers............................................................................. 94
Repairers, see:
Appliance repairers................................................................. 262
Automotive body repairers..................................................... 255
Industrial machinery repairers............................................... 277
Musical instrument repairers................................................. 280
Office machine repairers......................................................... 282
Shoe repairer occupations....................................................... 331
Reporters and correspondents ........................................................156
Research analysts, market, see: Social scientists and
urban planners...............................................................................78
Research dietitians, see: Dietitians................................................123
Reservation agents, see: Reservation agents and trans­
portation ticket clerks..................................................................209
Residence counselors......................................................................108
Residential carriers, see: Mail carriers and postal clerks................. 206
Resilient floor layers, see: Floor covering installers.....................295
Respiratory therapists......................................................................134
Retail buyers, see: Buyers, wholesale and retail trade................... 27
Retail trade sales workers................................................................194
Retouchers, see: Photographic process workers........................... 330
Roman Catholic priests..................................................................... 95
Roofers ...........................................................................................305
Rural carriers, see: Mail carriers and postal clerk s..................... 206

S
Salary and wage administrators, see: Personnel and
labor relations specialists............................................................. 36
Sales occupations, see: Marketing and sales occupa­
tions ............................................................................................. 188
Sales workers, see:
Cashiers................................................................................... 188
Insurance agents and brokers..................................................190
Manufacturers’ sales workers..................................................192
Real estate agents and brokers................................................193
Retail trade sales workers........................................................194
Securities sales workers..........................................................196
Wholesale trade sales workers................................................199
Sanitarians, see: Health and regulatory inspectors......................... 30

Index to Occupations and lndustries/381
Page
School administrators.......................................................................40
School counselors......................................................................... 108
School librarians............................................................................. 105
School nurses, see: Registerednurses.............................................132
School social workers.......................................................................88
School superintendents, see:Schooladministrators.........................40
School teachers, see:
College and university faculty............................................... 103
Kindergarten and elementary teachers................................... 100
Secondary school teachers..................................................... 101
Scientific photographers, see: Photographers .. ........................... 165
Scientists, physical...........................................................................63
Secondary school teachers............................................................. 101
Secretaries and stenographers.........................................................211
Securities sales workers................................................................. 196
Security officers, see: G uards.......................................................227
Seismologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists...........................64
Service observers, see: Telephone operators.................................215
Service occupations .......................................................................223
Service technicians, computer.......................................................265
Set designers................................................................................... 163
Sewage plant operators, see: Water and sewage treat­
ment plant operators...................................................................336
Sheet-metal workers.......................................................................307
Sheriffs deputies, see: Police and detectives, public
service........................................................................................ 229
Shipping and receiving clerk s.......................................................213
Shoe repair occupations.................................................................331
Shorthand reporters, see: Secretaries and stenographers................. 211
Singers.............................................................................................172
Slide mounters, see: Photographic process workers.....................330
Social and recreation w orkers.........................................................88
Social scientists and urban planners...............................................78
Social scientists, social workers, religious workers, and
lawyers.......................................................................................... 74
Social secretaries, see: Secretaries and stenographers.................211
Social workers...................................................................................88
Sociologists.......................................................................................84
Soil conservations, see: Foresters and conservationists...................72
Solid earth geophysicists, see: Geologists and geophyicists.........................................................................................64
Special collections librarians......................................................... 105
Special librarians............................................................................. 105
Speech pathologists and audiologists............................................. 135
Sprinkler fitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters.............................304
State police officers, see: Police and detectives, public
service.........................................................................................229
Station installers, see: Telephone and PBX installers
and repairers...............................................................................271
Stationary engineers.......................................................................335
Statisticians.......................................................................................61
Steamfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters...................................304
Stenographers, see: Secretaries and stenographers.......................211
Stenotype operators, see: Secretaries and stenographers................. 211
Stewardesses, see: Flight attendants.............................................246
Stewards, see: Flight attendants.....................................................246
Still photographers, see: Photographers....................................... 165
Stonemasons, see: Bricklayers and stonemasons.........................287
Stratigraphers, see: Geologists and geophysicsts...........................64
Structural steelworkers, see: Ironworkers.....................................299
Stucco masons, see: Plasterers .....................................................302
Student development specialists, see: Counselors....................... 108
Submarine cable equipment technicians, see:
Communications equipment mechanics.................................263
Supervisors, see: Blue-collar worker supervisors.........................311
Surfacers, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, see: Dis­
pensing opticians and ophthalmic laboratory techni­
cians .............................................................................................319



Page
Surgical technicians.......................................................................150
Surveyors..........................................................................................45
Systems analysts .. .......................................................................... 58
Systems programmers, see: Programmers.....................................178

T
Tape librarians, see: Computer operating personnel.....................205
Teacher aides.................................................................................. 214
Teachers, see:
College and university faculty........................................... 103
Dancers.........................................
169
Kindergarten and elementary school teachers....................... 100
Musicians ............................................................................... 171
Secondary school teachers.....................................................101
Singers.....................................................................................172
Teachers, librarians, and counselors...............................................99
Technical illustrators, see: Commercial and graphic art­
ists and designers.....................................
161
Technical librarians........................................................................105
Technical secretaries..................................................................... 211
Technical stenographers............................................................... 211
Technical writers, see:Writers and editors................................... 159
Technicians, broadcasting...............................................................177
Technicians, dental laboratory.......................................................317
Technicians, electrical and electronics.....................................
181
Technicians, medical record, see: Health record techni­
cians ............................................................................................ 144
Technologists and technicians, except h ealth ............................... 175
Telegraph plant maintainers, see:
Communications equipment mechanics.................................263
Telephone and PBX installers and repairers.................................271
Telephone answering-service operators, see:
Telephone operators........................................................... 215
Telephone installers, see: Telephone and PBX installers
and repairers.............................................................................. 271
Telephone operators...........................................................
215
Telephone repairers, see: Telephone and PBX installers
and repairers........................................................................... 271
Teletype installers, see: Communications equipment
mechanics.................................................................................. 263
Television service technicians .......................................................270
202
Tellers, b ank.....................
Terminal operators, see: Typists.....................................................217
Terminal-system operators, see: Typists.......................................217
Terrazzo workers, see: Cement masons and terrazzo
w orkers...................................................................................... 291
Textile designers.........................................................
163
Therapeutic dietitians..................................................................... 123
Therapists, educational, see:
Kindergarten and elementary school teachers....................... 100
Secondary school teachers..................................................... 101
Therapists, occupational................................................................. 124
Therapists, physical....................................................................... 128
Therapists, respiratory................................................................... 134
Ticket agents, airline, see: Reservation agents and
transportation ticket clerks.........................................................209
Ticket sellers, see: Cashiers.................................
188
Tilesetters ...................................................................................... 308
Toolmakers and diemakers.............................................................332
Tool programmers, numerical control........................................... 186
Toxicologists, see .Biological scientists...........................................70
Tracers, see: Drafters..................................................................... 180
Traffic controllers, airp o rt.............................................................175
Training specialists, see: Personnel and labor relations
specialists .........'.......................................................................... 36
Transcribing machine operators, see: Typists...............................217
Transmission engineers, see: Broadcast technicians..................... 177

382/Occupational Outlook Handbook
Page
Transmission testers, see: Communications equipment
mechanics...................................................................................263
Tranmitter operators, see: Broadcast technicians......................... 177
Transportation and material moving occupations.........................350
Travel agents................................................................................... 198
Treatment plant operators, wastewater, see: Water and
sewage treatment plant operators...............................................336
Troopers, see: Police and detectives, public service.....................229
Trouble locators, see: Communications equipment me­
chanics ........................................................................................ 263
Truck mechanics, see: Diesel mechanics .....................................258
Truckdrivers.................................................................................... 357
Trust officers, see: Bank officers and managers.............................26
Tune-up mechanics, see: Automotive mechanics.........................256
Typists............................................................................................ 217

U
Ultrasound technologists, see: Radiologic technologists................. 147
Underwriters.................................................................................... 42
University faculty, see: College and university faculty................. 103
Upholsterers, see: Furniture upholsterers.....................................322
Urban geographers, see: Social scientists and urban
planners.....................................................................
Urban and regional planners...........................................................86
Urologic physician assistants, see: Physician assistants................. 130

Page
Video-control engineers, see: Broadcast technicians....................177
Vocational rehabilitation counselors,..............................................108
Vocational counselors......................................................................108
Vocational nurses, licensed, see: License practical
nurses........................................................................................... 145
Volcanologists, see: Geologists and geophysicists......................... 64

W
Wage-hour compliance inspectors, see: Health, and
regulatory inspectors..................................................................... 30
Waiters and waitresses................................................................... 234
Water and Sewage treatment plant operators................................. 336
Welders and flamecutters............................................................... 345
Welders, maintenance..................................................................... 345
Welding machine operators, see: Welders and flamecut­
ters ............................................................................................... 345
Wholesale trade sales workers........................................................199
Window clerks, see: Mail carriers and postal clerks................... 206
Wood patternmakers, see:
Patternmakers ......................................................................... 329
Word processing supervisors, see: Typists................................... 217
Writers and editors..........................................................................159
Writers, artists, and entertainers....................................................152
78
Writers, technical, see: Writers and editors ..................................159

X
V
Varitype operators, see: Typists.....................................................217
Vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics and repairers................. 253
Vending machine mechanics, see: Coin machine serv­
icers and repairers.......................................................................276
Veterinarians........................................................
120




X-ray technologists, see: Radiologic technologists....................147

Y
Young adult librarians, see: Librarians................ ....................... 105
Zoologists, see: Biological scientists..............................................70

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Order
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4
4 or 15
4
13

if you want information
about . . .

17
17 or 20

A
2 or 4
10
4
3
5
20
17
15
20
15
10
19
15
15
19

Accountants and auditors
Actors and actresses
Actuaries
Aerospace engineers
Agricultural scientists
Air traffic controllers
Air-conditioning, refrigeration,
and heating mechanics
Aircraft mechanics
Airplane pilots
Appliance installers and
repairers
Architects
Assembler occupations
Automotive body repairers
Automotive mechanics
Automotive painters

14
13
14 or 16
6

17
3 or 10
14
20
19
2 or 11

c
17
11
17
3
5
7
3
9
6
10
15
19
4 or 12

Carpenters
Cashiers
Cement masons and terazzo
workers
Chemical engineers
Chemists
Chiropractors
Civil engineers
Clinical laboratory
technologists
College and university faculty
Commercial and graphic art­
ists and designers
Communications equipment
mechanics
Compositors and typesetters
Computer operating personnel




Hotel managers and assistants

I
3
15 or 19
20
17
11
17

Industrial engineers
Industrial machinery repairers
Industrial truck operators
Insulation workers
Insurance agents and brokers
Ironworkers

J
16
10
7 or 14
7
9
7
10
15
8
9

B
Bank officers and managers
Bank tellers
Barbers
Bartenders
Biological scientists
Blue-collar worker supervisors
Boilermakers
Bookbinders
Bookkeepers and accounting
clerks
Bricklayers and stonemasons
Broadcast technicians
Building custodians
Busdrivers
Butchers and meatcutters
Buyers, retail and wholesale
trade

2

D

3
17

2
12
14 or 16
14
5
19
19
19
12

Computer programmers
Computer service technicians
Computer systems analysts
Construction inspectors, pub­
lic administration
Construction laborers and
helpers
Construction machinery oper­
ators (Operating engineers)
Cooks and chefs
Correction officers
Cosmetologists
Counselors

Dancers
Dental assistants
Dental hygienists
Dental laboratory technicians
Dentists
Designers
Diesel mechanics
Dietitians
Dispensing opticians and
ophthalmic laboratory tech­
nicians
Drafters
Drywall applicators and tapers

E
2 or 4
9
9
3
3
17

Economists
EEG technologists and techni­
cians
EKG technicians
Electrical and electronics tech­
nicians
Electrical engineers
Electricians

F
15
13
14 or 20
17
5
16

Farm equipment mechanics
Firefighters
Flight attendants
Floor covering installers
Foresters and conservationists
Furniture upholsterers

G
5
17
13

or 19 Jewelers
18 Job and die setters

K
6

L
2
2 or 12
6
6 or 12
8
15
19

18
18
12
11
4
3
7 or 14
3
5
15 or 19
3
16
10

Geologists and geophysicists
Glaziers
Guards

9 or 12
2

Machine tool operators
Machinists and layout markers
Mail carriers and postal clerks
Manufacturer’s sales workers
Mathematicians
Mechanical engineers
Medical assistants
Metallurgical engineers
Meteorologists
Millwrights
Mining engineers
Musical instrument repairers
Musicians

N

H
Hand molders
Health and regulatory inspec­
tors
Health record technicians
Health services administrators

Lawyers
Legal assistants
Librarians
Library technicians
Licensed practical nurses
Line installers and cable
splicers
Lithographers and pho­
toengravers

M

3
8 or 14

18
13

Kindergarten and elementary
school teachers

Nuclear engineers
Nursing aides, orderlies, and
attendants

o
8
15

Occupational therapists
Office machine repairers

7

Optometrists

P
17
18
2
3
8
10
19
8
7
7
5
17
17
7
13
19
6
6
2 or 10
2

Painters and paperhangers
Patternmakers
Personnel and labor relations
specialists
Petroleum engineers
Pharmacists
Photographers
Photographic process workers
Physical therapists
Physician assistants
Physicians
Physicists
Plasterers
Plumbers and pipefitters
Podiatrists
Police and detectives, public
service
Printing press operators
Protestant ministers
Psychologists
Public relations specialists
Purchasing agents

R
6
10
9

Rabbis
Radio and television announ­
cers and newscasters
Radiologic technologists

* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:




1984-417-488

11
12
6
8
10
12
9
11
6
17

Real estate agents and brokers
Receptionists
Recreation workers
Registered nurses
Reporters and correspondents
Reservation agents and trans­
portation ticket clerks
Respiratory therapists
Retail trade sales workers
Roman Catholic priests
Roofers

15
12
16
17
18
18
11
20
12

s
6
6
12
11
17
12
16
10
6
6
8
19
4
9
3

School administrators
Secondary school teachers
Secretaries and stenographers
Securities sales workers
Sheet-metal workers
Shipping and receiving clerks
Shoe repair occupations
Singers
Social workers
Sociologists
Speech pathologists and au­
diologists
Stationary engineers
Statisticans
Surgical technicians
Surveyors

T
6 or 12

Teacher aides

Telephone and PBX installers
and repairers
Telephone operators
Television and radio service
technicians
Tilesetters
Tool programmers, numerical
control
Toolmakers and diemakers
Travel agents
Truckdrivers
Typists

u
2
2

Underwriters
Urban and regional planners

V
15
7

Vending machine mechanics
Veterinarians

w
14
19
18
11
10

Waiters and waitresses
Water and sewage treatment
plant operators
Welders and flamecutters
Wholesale trade sales workers
Writers and editors