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Occupational Outlook Handbook 1982-83 Edition 'll U.S. Department of Labor Raymond J. Donovan, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Janet L. Norwood, Commissioner April 1982 Bulletin 2200 Material in this publication is in the public domain and may, with appropriate credit, be reproduced without permission. SOUTHWEST MISSOURI STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY U S. DEPOSITORY COPY JUL 8 idoZ F o r sa le by th e S u p erin ten d en t of D ocu m en ts, U .S. G overnm ent P r in tin g Office W ash in gton , D.C. 20402 jj) % Foreword Raymond J. Donovan Secretary of Labor Few decisions that young people must make are more crucial to their future well-being than the se lection of an occupation. For the young job-seeker, questions abound as to what skills are required in each field, and how those skills may be attained or refined. Furthermore, while job-seekers may be aware of their own abilities, they face the perplexing choice of selecting a field which promises the greatest economic and personal satisfaction. In today’s rapidly changing job market, it is not only the young who need current, accurate, and comprehensive career information. The choices are no easier for persons seeking a career change, or for those entering the labor force at later stages in their lives. The availability of career information is vital to these people as well, and to our Nation as a whole. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is an invaluable primary source of vocational guidance information. In clear language, it describes what workers do in each job; the training and education they need; earnings; working conditions; and expected job prospects for selected occupations covering a wide spectrum of the economy. I am certain that the updated 1982-83 edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook will provide valuable assistance to everyone seeking satisfying and productive employment. Prefatory Note Janet L. Norwood Commissioner, Bureau of Labor Statistics Information on tomorrow’s career opportunities must be available for today’s youth and others if they are to prepare realistically for their future in the world of work. For four decades, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has conducted research on employment in occupations and industries for use in vocational guidance. A major product of this research is the Occupational Outlook Handbook. The Handbook represents the most current and comprehensive information available on work today and job prospects for tomorrow. Revised every two years, this 15th edition of the Handbook covers about 250 occupations. For each of these occupations, the Handbook provides information about job duties, working conditions, level and places of employment, education and training requirements, advancement possibilities, job outlook, earnings, and other occupations that require similar aptitudes, interests, or training. Handbook information is based on data from a variety of sources, including business firms, trade associations, labor unions, professional societies, research organizations, educational institutions, and government agencies. This edition of the Handbook also includes information about the effect of the business cycle, defense spending, energy development, and other economic variables on occupational employment. In addition, occupations are grouped according to the new Standard Occupational Classification Manual, 1980 edition. The Handbook also contains an index referenced to the most recent edition of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. IV Contributors The Handbook was prepared in the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Division of Occupational Outlook, under the supervision of Neal H. Rosenthal. General direction was provided by Ronald E. Kutscher, Assistant Commissioner for Economic Growth and Employment Projections. The general planning and coordination of the Handbook was done under the direction of Michael Pilot. Daniel E. Hecker, Anne Kahl, Chester Curtis Levine, and Patrick Wash supervised the research and preparation of individual Handbook sections. Members of the Office’s staff who contributed sections were Verada P. Bluford, Douglas J. Braddock, Charles A. Byrne III, Donald Clark, Carin P. Cohen, Lisa S. Dillich, Conley Hall Dillon, Jr., Lawrence C. Drake, Jr., Stephen W. Ginther, John P. Griffin, H. Philip Howard, Margaret C. Long, Ludmilla K. Murphy, Thomas Nardone, H. James Neary, James V. Petrone, Debra E. Rothstein, Shirley G. Rudney, and Jon Q. Sargent. Alan Eck provided technical assistance in the development of draft materials for the Handbook. Chester Curtis Levine coordinated the compilation and editing of tables and graphic arts material associated with the Handbook. The gathering and editing of photographs was done by Anne Kahl. Word processing was handled by Vidella H. Hubbard, Brenda A. Marshall, Michelle Antoinette McCree, and Beverly A. Williams. Note A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, and industrial organizations are able to provide career information that is valuable to counselors and jobseekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organizations are listed at the end of each occupational statement. Although these references were assembled carefully, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organizations listed. Also, because the Bureau does not preview all the information or publications that may be sent in response to a request, it cannot guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing of an organization, therefore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recommendation by the Bureau or the U.S. Department of Labor, either of the organization and its activities or of the information it may supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue. The occupational information contained in the Handbook presents a general, composite descrip tion of jobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours, the right of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. v Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor Statistics gratefully acknowledges the cooperation and assistance of the many government and private sources that either contributed photographs or made their facilities available to U.S. Department of Labor photographers. Manuel Gomez of Fotos de Vida was principal photographer for this edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Photographs may not be free of every possible safety or health hazard. Depiction of company or trade name in no way constitutes endorsement by the Department of Labor. A&P Contractors, Inc., H.E. Alexander, Al exandria Department of Social Services (Va.), Alexandria Hospital (Va.), Allen-Mitchell and Co., American Ballet Theatre, American Bankers Association, American Medical Rec ord Association, American Osteopathic Asso ciation, American Telephone and Telegraph Co., Back River Treatment Plant, B&F Ce ramic Tile, Inc., Baltimore Aircoil Co., Bay Printing Co., Bendix Corp., Benyas-Kaufman Photographers, Inc., Bethlehem Steel Corp., Blake Construction Co., Blakeslee-Lane, Inc., Board of Governors of the Federal Re serve System, Bernie Boston, Bowers-Snyder, BowlAmerica, Jack Buxbaum, Cherokee Wholesalers Inc., Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Co., Computer Science Corp., Congregation Olam Tikvah (Va.), Dean Wit ter Reynolds Inc., District of Columbia Police Department, E.I. Dupont De Nemours and Co., Inc., Everhart Jewelers, Inc., Fairfax Hospital (Va.), Fairlington United Methodist Church (Va.), Federal Bureau of Prisons, First American Bank of Virginia, Frederick Pattern Co., Garfinckel’s, GEICO, General Elevator Co., George Washington University, George Washington University Hospital, Gulf Oil Corp., Pat Hays Buick, Hoffman Corp., Hoff man Upholsterer, Holiday Travel Agency, Hunter Vending Machine Co., Hyatt Regency of Washington, The Honorable Daniel K. Inouye, Inter-Avia Magazine, Jerry’s Appli ance and Service Co., Johns Hopkins Univer sity Hospital, John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Kitt Peak National Observa tory, Koons Ford Inc., Dr. Steven Kulawy, La Casita Restaurant, Library Binders, Marine Midland Bank, Martin Marietta Corp., Mary land Dental Laboratory, Inc., Maryland Na tional Capital Park and Planning Commission, Mayflower Hotel, McDonough School (Md.), Joyce Mitchell, Esq., Montgomery County Public Schools (Md.), Morgan State Universi ty, Mortgage Bankers Association of America, National Education Association, National Museum of American History, National Oce anic and Atmospheric Administration, Nation wide Insurance Co., Navy, Marshall, and Gor don, North American Business Machines, North Carolina School of the Arts, Parade Magazine, PPG Industries, Inc., Public Li brary of Cincinnati and Hamilton Co. (Ohio), Richards Heating and Air-Conditioning Co., Ben Ross, Salter Machine Corp., Signs of the Times, Slattery Associates Inc., Southeast Auto Supply, St. Louis Catholic Church (Va.), Sun Oil Co., Martha Swope, Allen Tannenbaum, Temple Foundry, Texaco, Inc., Trans World Airlines, United Airlines, United Way of America, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Department of Labor, U.S. International Communication Agency, U.S. Navy, U.S. Postal Service, U.S. Soil Conser vation Service, Virginia Spring and Align ment, Inc., Washington Hospital Center, Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Au thority, Washington Star Newspaper, Westinghouse Electric Corp., Westvaco Corp., White House Real Estate Sales, A1 Whitley, Dr. Ce celia Williams, Wolf Trap Farm Park, Yale New Haven Magazine. Comments about the contents of this publication and suggestions for improving it are welcome. Please address them to Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212. V I Contents i Guide to the Handbook 1 HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THE HANDBOOK 5 WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION 13 TOM ORROW ’S JOBS 20 ASSUM PTIONS A N D METHODS USED IN PREPARING THE EM PLOYM ENT PROJECTIONS 22 Occupations 22 ADMINISTRATIVE AND M ANAGERIAL OCCUPATIONS 23 25 26 28 30 32 33 34 36 Accountants and auditors Bank officers and managers Buyers City managers College student personnel workers Construction inspectors (government) Credit managers Health services administrators Health and regulatory inspectors (government) Hotel managers and assistants Medical record administrators Occupational safety and health workers Personnel and labor relations specialists Purchasing agents School administrators Underwriters 38 40 41 43 46 47 49 51 51 53 54 ENGINEERS, SURVEYORS, A N D ARCHITECTS Architects Landscape architects Surveyors and surveying technicians 57 Engineers 58 Aerospace engineers 59 Agricultural engineers 60 Biomedical engineers 60 Ceramic engineers 61 62 62 63 63 64 64 65 Chemical engineers Civil engineers Electrical engineers Industrial engineers Mechanical engineers Metallurgical engineers Mining engineers Petroleum engineers 67 NATURAL SCIENTISTS AND MATHEMATICIANS 68 Mathematical scientists and systems analysts 68 Actuaries 70 Mathematicians 71 Statisticians 72 Systems analysts 75 75 76 77 80 82 83 84 86 Physical scientists Astronomers Chemists Geographers Geologists Geophysicists Meteorologists Oceanographers Physicists 88 Life scientists 88 Agricultural and biological scientists 90 Biochemists 91 Food technologists 92 Foresters 94 Range managers 95 Soil conservationists 97 SOCIAL SCIENTISTS, SOCIAL WORKERS, RELIGIOUS WORKERS, AND LAWYERS 97 Lawyers 101 Social scientists and urban planners 101 Anthropologists 104 Economists 106 Historians 109 Market research analysts 110 Political scientists 112 Psychologists 115 Sociologists 117 Urban and regional planners 119 119 121 Social and recreation workers Social workers Recreation workers 124 Religious workers 124 Protestant ministers 125 Rabbis 127 Roman Catholic priests 129 TEACHERS, LIBRARIANS, AN D COUNSELORS 129 College career planning and placement counselors College and university faculty Cooperative extension service workers Employment counselors Kindergarten and elementary school teachers Librarians Rehabilitation counselors School counselors Secondary school teachers 131 133 134 135 138 141 143 144 147 HEALTH DIAGNOSING A N D TREATING PRACTITIONERS 147 148 150 152 153 156 1D / Chiropractors Dentists Optometrists Osteopathic physicians Physicians Podiatrists Veterinarians 159 REGISTERED NURSES, PHARMACISTS, DIETITIANS, THERAPISTS, A N D PHYSICIAN ASSISTANTS 160 Dietitians 161 Occupational therapists 163 Pharmacists 165 Physical therapists 167 Physician assistants 169 Registered nurses 171 Respiratory therapy workers 172 Speech pathologists and audiologists 175 HEALTH TECHNOLOGISTS A N D TECHNICIANS 175 177 179 Dental hygienists Electrocardiograph technicians Electroencephalographic technologists and technicians Emergency medical technicians Licensed practical nurses Medical laboratory workers Medical record technicians and clerks 180 183 184 186 vii 188 Radiologic (X-ray) technicians 190 Surgical technicians 192 WRITERS, ARTISTS, AN D ENTERTAINERS 193 193 195 Communications occupations Public relations workers Radio and television announcers and newscasters 196 Reporters and correspondents 199 Writers and editors 201 Design occupations 201 Commercial and graphic artists and designers 203 Display workers 204 Floral designers 206 Industrial designers 207 Interior designers 209 Photographers 212 Performing artists 212 Actors and actresses 214 Dancers 215 Musicians 217 Singers 219 TECHNOLOGISTS A N D TECHNICIANS, EXCEPT HEALTH 219 221 222 223 227 229 230 232 Air traffic controllers Broadcast technicians Drafters Engineering and science technicians Legal assistants Library technicians and assistants Programmers Technical writers 235 MARKETING A N D SALES OCCUPATIONS 235 237 239 240 242 243 245 247 249 250 252 253 Advertising workers Automobile parts counter workers Automobile sales workers Cashiers Insurance agents and brokers Manufacturers sales workers Models Real estate agents and brokers Retail trade sales workers Securities sales workers Travel agents Wholesale trade sales workers 255 ADM INISTRATIVE SUPPORT OCCUPATIONS, INCLUDING CLERICAL 255 256 258 259 260 262 Airline reservation and ticket agents Bank clerks Bank tellers Bookkeepers and accounting clerks Claim representatives Collection workers viii 263 265 267 268 269 270 273 274 276 Computer operating personnel Hotel front office clerks Mail carriers Postal clerks Receptionists Secretaries and stenographers Teacher aides Telephone operators Typists 333 335 336 338 340 341 279 S E R V IC E O C C U PA TIO N S 345 345 280 280 282 283 284 286 287 Protective service occupations Correction officers FBI special agents Firefighters Guards Police officers State police officers 290 Food and beverage preparation and service occupations 290 Bartenders 291 Cooks and chefs 293 Food and counter workers 294 Meatcutters 295 Waiters and waitresses 296 Waiters’ assistants and kitchen helpers Central office equipment installers Computer service technicians Electric sign repairers Line installers and cable splicers Maintenance electricians Telephone and PBX installers and repairers 343 Television and radio service technicians Other mechanics and repairers Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics 346 Business machine repairers 348 Elevator constructors 350 Industrial machinery repairers 351 Millwrights 353 Piano and organ tuners and repairers 355 Pinsetter mechanics 356 Vending machine repairers 358 Watch repairers Health service occupations Dental assistants Medical assistants Occupational therapy assistants Optometric assistants Physical therapy assistants 305 305 Cleaning and building service occupations Hotel housekeepers and assistants 307 307 308 309 311 Personal service occupations Barbers Bellhops and bell captains Cosmetologists Flight attendants 313 A G R IC U L T U R A L AN D FO R ESTR Y O C C U PA TIO N S 313 318 Agriculture occupations Forestry technicians 320 M E C H A N IC S AN D R EPA IR ER S 321 Vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics and repairers 321 Aircraft mechanics 323 Automobile body repairers 324 Automobile mechanics 326 Farm equipment mechanics 328 Truck mechanics and bus mechanics 330 Electrical and electronic equipment repairers 330 Appliance repairers 331 Central office craft occupations CONSTRUCTION A N D EXTRACTIVE OCCUPATIONS 361 363 364 366 368 369 371 372 374 375 377 379 382 383 385 Construction occupations Bricklayers and stonemasons Carpenters Cement masons and terrazzo workers Drywall installers and finishers Electricians (construction) Floor covering installers Glaziers Insulation workers Ironworkers Painters and paperhangers Plasterers Plumbers and pipefitters Roofers Sheet metal workers Tilesetters 387 387 Extractive occupations Coal mining operatives 390 PRODUCTION OCCUPATIONS 390 298 298 299 301 302 303 360 Blue-collar worker supervisors Ten j OU 392 392 394 395 396 398 Precision production occupations All-round machinists Automobile repair service estimators Boilermaking occupations Bookbinders and bindery workers Compositors --5 9 9 Coremakers (Foundry) 401 Dental laboratory technicians 407 Dispensing opticians 404 Furniture upholsterers 405 Instrument makers (mechanical) 407 Jewelers 408 Lithographers *"409 Molders (Foundry) 410 Opthalmic laboratory technicians *412 Patternmakers (Foundry) 413 Photoengravers 414 Photographic process workers 416 417 Shoe repairers Tool-and-die makers 434 436 Automotive painters Welders and flamecutters 455 HELPERS, H ANDLERS, EQUIPMENT CLEANERS, A N D LABORERS 419 419 421 Plant and system operators Stationery engineers Waste water treatment plant operators 438 TRANSPORTATION AND MATERIAL MOVING OCCUPATIONS 455 Construction laborers Machine operators, tenders, and setup workers 423 Boiler tenders 424 Electrotypers and stereotypers 425— Forge shop occupations 427 Machine tool operators 429 Machine tool setup workers 430 Printing press operators and assistants 431 Production painters 439 439 440 442 443 Motor vehicle operators Intercity busdrivers Local transit busdrivers Local truckdrivers Long distance truckdrivers 457 MILITARY OCCUPATIONS 461 Indexes 461 445 Other transportation and material moving occupations Airplane pilots Merchant marine officers Merchant marine sailors Operating engineers (construction machinery operators) DICTIONARY OF OCCUPATIONAL TITLES (D .O .T .) INDEX 471 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS 482 Reprints 423 433 433 Fabricators, assemblers, and hand working occupations Assemblers 445 447 450 452 ix How to Get the Most from the Handbook What do people do in their jobs? How much education and training will I need to enter a certain occupation? Will it be difficult to find a job? How much can I expect to earn? Whether you are preparing to enter the world of work for the first time, reentering the labor force after an absence, or planning to change your occupa tion, these and other questions may arise as you try to select a career that is right for you. With thousands of jobs to choose from, finding an swers to these kinds of questions can be diffi cult. However, with sufficient research, you can make an informed and confident career choice. Where do I start? A good place to start your study of careers is the Occupational Outlook Handbook. The Handbook provides information on what jobs are like; education and training requirements; and advancement possibilities, earnings, and job outlook. While every possible job is not discussed, the Handbook provides detailed in formation on about 250 occupations. Like a dictionary, encyclopedia, or other reference book, the Handbook is not meant to be read from beginning to end. You can simply look through the table of contents or alphabeti cal index, find an occupation or area of work that you are interested in, and read that section. If you want to get a general view of the econo my and the world of work, read the chapter on Tomorrow’s Jobs. It explains some of the changes taking place in the job market today and what is expected to happen through the 1980’s. If you are just beginning to plan for a career, you may wonder what things you should con sider. Start by listing your interests, abilities, and goals. Does science or art interest you? Do you enjoy working with your hands and build ing things, or do you really prefer working with people? Is money, recognition, or being a lead er important to you? Once you have answered these and similar questions, you will be better able to choose an occupation or area of work that most closely matches your personal char acteristics. Of course, assessing your traits and aptitudes is very difficult. Ask others to help you. Your school counselor has special tests that can help you learn about yourself. Your family, friends, and neighbors can also provide useful assistance. Once you have decided what your interests are, use the Handbook to find occupations and areas of work that match your interests. The occupations in the Handbook are grouped in 20 clusters of related jobs. So, if you find that you enjoy fixing things, you might start by looking at occupations in the cluster on mechanics and repairers. Or, if you want to make helping other people your life’s work, you might look at occupations in 1 of the 3 health clusters. The 20 occupational clusters are: —Administrative and managerial occupations. —Engineers, surveyors, and architects. —Natural scientists and mathematicians. —Social scientists, social workers, religious work ers, and lawyers. —Teachers, librarians, and counselors. —Health diagnosing and treating practitioners. —Registered nurses, pharmacists, dietitians, thera pists, and physician assistants. — Health technologists and technicians. —Writers, artists, and entertainers. —Technologists and technicians, except,health. —Marketing and sales occupations. ^ —Administrative support occupations, including clerical. . —Service occupations. —Agricultural and forestry occupations. —Mechanics and repairers. —Construction and extractive occupations. —Production occupations. —Transportation and material moving occupations. —Helpers, handlers, equipment cleaners, and laborers. —Military occupations. About Those Numbers at the Head of Each Statement The numbers in parentheses that appear just below the title of most occupational state ments are D.O.T. code numbers. D.O.T. stands for the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (fourth edition), a U.S. Department of Labor publication. Each number helps clas sify jobs by the type of work done, required training, physical demands, and working conditions. D.O.T. numbers are used by Job Service offices to classify applicants and job openings, and for reporting and other operat ing purposes. They are included in the Hand book because career information centers and libraries frequently use them for filing occu pational information. An index listing Hand book occupations by D.O.T. number may be found just before the alphabetical index in the back of this book. What will I learn? Once you have chosen an occupation or cluster you’d like to learn more about, go to that section of the Handbook. Each occupa tional description follows a standard format. There are sections on the nature of the work; working conditions; employment; training, other qualifications, and advancement; job out look; earnings; related occupations; and sources of additional information. Nature of the work. An important part of your career decision will be whether the work done on the job appeals to you. In this section, you will discover what workers do on the job, what tools or equipment they use, and how they do their tasks. To get a better understanding of how the work in various occupations differs, you should read several different occupational descriptions and compare them. This will al low you to match your abilities, interests, and goals with the type of work done in a particular job or employment setting. Working conditions. When considering an occupation, you may want to know the condi tions under which you would have to work. Some working conditions may not be desirable while others may appeal to you. Most jobs offer a little of both. For example, when over time is required, employees must give up some of their free time and be flexible in their person al lives. This is offset, however, by the oppor tunity to earn extra income or time off. Evening or nightwork is part of the regular work schedule in many jobs. Bartenders, guards, and some factory workers may be re quired to work these shifts on a permanent basis. Workers in other occupations, such as nurses and police officers, may work nights on a rotating basis. Still other workers may be assigned to split shifts: Busdrivers, for exam ple, may work morning and evening rush hours with time off in the middle of the day. Howev er, some people prefer shiftwork because they can pursue leisure activities or take care of errands during daytime hours. Work settings vary greatly. People work in office buildings; on construction sites; in mines, factories, restaurants, and stores; and on ships and planes. Some people like a quiet, air-conditioned setting; others prefer the hum of machinery. By knowing the setting of jobs you find interesting, you can avoid working in an environment that you would find unpleasant. Many workers have to be outdoors some or all of the time. Mail carriers, construction workers, firefighters, and foresters are a few examples. Being exposed to all types of weath er may be preferred to indoor work, however, by those who enjoy the outdoors and consider it healthy. Some jobs are potentially dangerous. Cuts, burns, and falls can occur in restaurant kitch ens, factory assembly lines, and forge shops, for example. Consequently, many jobs, such as mining and construction work, require the use of specially designed equipment and protective clothing. Some jobs require standing, crouching in awkward positions, heavy lifting, or are other wise strenuous. Be sure you have sufficient 1 p h y sica l strength and stam ina for the work you are interested in. Employment. Information on the number of workers in an occupation is important because large occupations, even those growing slowly, provide more job openings than small ones as workers leave the occupation for a variety of reasons. This section also tells whether workers in an occupation are concentrated in certain indus tries or geographic areas. Some jobs, such as secretaries, are found throughout the country in almost every industry. Others, like actors and actresses, are concentrated in certain parts of the country. This type of information helps you know where to go to look for the kind of job you want. It also is useful to those who have strong preferences about where they live. In addition, information on part-time em ployment may be included. For students, homemakers, retired persons, and others who may want to work part time, knowing which occupations offer good opportunities for parttime work can be a valuable lead in finding a job. Training, other qualifications, and advance ment. This section should be read carefully because preparing for an occupation can mean a considerable investment of time and money. If you currently are in school, it’s a good idea to look closely at the high school and college courses considered useful preparation for the career you have in mind. Workers can prepare for jobs in a variety of ways, including college study leading to a de gree, certificate, or associate degree; programs offered by public and private postsecondary vocational schools; home study courses; gov ernment training programs; experience or training obtained in the Armed Forces; appren ticeship and other formal training offered by employers; and high school courses. For each occupation, the Handbook identifies the pre ferred training. In many cases, alternative ways of obtaining training are listed as well. Remember, the amount of training you have often determines the level at which you enter an occupation and the speed with which you advance. For many occupations, certification or li censure is required. Physicians and nurses, elementary and secondary school teachers, bar bers and cosmetologists, and electricians and plumbers are examples of workers who must be licensed. This section identifies occupations that require licensure and what the general requirements are. However, States vary in their licensure requirements for certain occupations. If you are considering an occupation that re quires licensure, be sure to check with the appropriate State agency about specific re quirements. Common requirements for a li cense include completion of a State-approved training or educational program and passing a written examination. In addition to education, training, and li censure requirements, this section discusses 2 Figure I Description Projected 1980- 90 change in employment requirements Much faster than the average for all occupations Faster than the average for all occupations ........ About as fast as the average for all occupations1 More slowly than the average for all occupations Little change is expected...................................... Expected to decline .............................................. 50.0 percent or more 28.0 percent to 49.0 percent 15.0 percent ot 27.0 percent 6.0 percent to 14.0 percent 5.0 percent to - 5 .0 percent — percent or more 6.0 ‘The average increase projected for all occupations over the 1980-90 period is between 17.1 percent and 25.3 percent. the personal qualities generally needed by workers in a particular job. For example, a job may require a person who can make responsi ble decisions, enjoys working with other peo ple, and can work in a highly competitive atmosphere. This information will allow you to match your personality—your likes and dislikes—with those required in a certain occupation. The world of work is constantly changing and today fewer people spend their lives in a single occupation. Roughly 1 worker in 9 changes his or her occupation each year. Some have several jobs over a lifetime, changing careers as they learn new skills or feel a need to try another line of work. If a pattern of move ment exists from an occupation to another, it is discussed in this part of each Handbook chap ter. It is helpful to know, for example, that certain jobs are stepping stones to others. Skills gained working at one job can make you more employable in another—perhaps a job that is more desirable in terms of earnings, working conditions, or self-expression. In addition, it is useful to know which jobs offer the best oppor tunities for transferring to other work of a similar nature. Persons trained in electrical or chemical engineering, for example, frequently can transfer to another engineering specialty where they can apply general engineering knowledge in different ways. Similarly, many computer programmers move into systems ana lyst jobs after several years of experience. In some cases, moving from one occupation to another takes more than the training or ex perience acquired on the job. For example, a hospital aide must have a year of specialized training before advancing to licensed practical nurse. Many Handbook statements describe the possibilities for advancement after addi tional training and note any in-service pro grams that allow employees to gain needed skills while continuing to work part time. Because local job markets vary significantly, it usually is wise to discuss patterns of job transfer and advancement with counselors, lo cal employers, and others who know about the particular job market where you want to work. Job outlook. While your interests, abilities, and career goals are extremely important, you also need to know something about the avail ability of jobs in the fields that interest you most. This section discusses prospective em ployment opportunities for each occupation. In most cases, the information about job pros pects begins with a sentence about the expected change in employment through the 1980’s (fig ure I). In general, if expansion in an occupation is expected to be as fast as or faster than the average for all occupations, job opportunities should be favorable. Occupations in which employment is likely to grow more slowly than the average, stay about the same, or decline generally offer less favorable job prospects. For most occupations, the specific factors that are expected to influence an occupation’s rate of growth are discussed. For some occupations, information is avail able on the supply of workers—that is, the number of people pursuing the required type of education or training and the number subse quently entering the occupation. When such information is available, the job outlook de scribes prospective employment opportunities in terms of the expected demand-supply rela tionship. The job outlook is termed excellent when the demand for workers is likely to great ly exceed the supply of workers; keenly com petitive when the supply of workers is likely to exceed the demand for them. The precise terms used in the Handbook are shown in figure II. Figure II Job opportunities Excellent Very good Good or favorable May face competition Keen competition Prospective demandsupply relationship Demand much greater than supply Demand greater than supply Rough balance between demand and supply Likelihood of more sup ply than demand Supply greater than demand Workers who transfer into one occupation from another sometimes are a significant part of the supply of workers; similarly, those who transfer out may have a substantial effect on demand because their leaving usually creates job openings. When information is available, the job outlook section describes transfer pat terns and their effect on the demand for and supply of workers in certain occupations. The employment outlook for engineers, for exam ple, recognizes that transfers into the field are likely to constitute a substantial portion of supply, if past trends continue. In many cases, a statement is made about the effect on employment of fluctuations in eco nomic activity. This information is valuable to people looking into long-range career possi bilities at a time when the economy is in a recession. You may understandably wonder: What will the economy be like when I enter the labor market? Will it be harder to find a job 5 or 10 years fom now than it is today? What are the chances that I might be laid off from my job? The Handbook gives information, wherever possible, on the sensitivity of employment in an occupation to changes in economic condi tions. Bear in mind that employment in many—but not all—occupations is affected by economic downturns, and that the outlook for these occupations generally improves as the economy picks up. Other occupations—pro grammers, systems analysts, and computer operators are prime examples—are less vul nerable to short-term changes in economic activity. Their growth or decline is influenced by other factors discussed in this section. The information in the job outlook section should be used carefully. The prospect of rela tively few openings, or of strong competitions, in a field that interests you should make you take a second look at your career choice. But this information alone should not prevent you from pursuing a particular career, if you feel confident in your ability and are determined to reach your goal. Remember, even occupations that are small provide some jobs. So do occupations in which employment is growing very slowly or even declining, for there is always a need to replace workers who transfer to another occupation or leave the labor force. If the occupation is large, the number of job openings arising from re placement needs can be substantial. Secre taries, retail trade salesworkers, and kinder garten and elementary school teachers are examples of occupations that provide a signifi cant number of job openings each year as work ers leave. On the average, openings resulting from replacement needs are expected to ac count for the vast majority of all job openings in the next 10 years. Also keep in mind that no one can predict future labor market conditions with perfect accuracy. In every occupation and industry, the number of jobseekers and job openings con stantly changes. A rise or fall in the demand for a product or service affects the number of workers needed to produce it. New inventions and technological innovations create some jobs and eliminate others. Changes in the size or age distribution of the population, work attitudes, training opportunities, and retirement pro grams determine the number of available work ers. As these forces interact in the labor mar ket, some occupations experience a shortage of workers, some a surplus, and some a balance between jobseekers and job openings. Methods used by economists to develop information on future occupational prospects differ, and judg ments that go into any assessment of the future also differ. For every occupation covered in the Handbook, an estimate of future employment needs is developed. These estimates are consis tent with a set of assumptions about the future of the economy and the country. For an expla nation of how these projections are developed, see the chapter entitled Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing the Employment Projections. Finally, job prospects in your community or State may not correspond to the description of the job outlook in the Handbook. For the par ticular job you are interested in, the outlook in your area may be better or worse. The Hand book does not discuss the outlook in local areas; such information has been developed, however, by many States and localities. The local office of your State employment service is the best place to ask about local area employ ment projections. Names and addresses of sources and suggestions for additional infor mation on the job market are given in the following chapter, Where to Go for More Information. Earnings. This section helps answer many of the questions that you may ask when choosing a career. Will the income be high enough to maintain the standard of living I want and to justify my training costs? How much will my earnings increase as I gain experience? Do some areas of the country or some industries offer better pay than others for the same type of work? Remember to look at both money in come and fringe benefits, which often are a substantial part of total earnings. About 9 out of 10 workers receive money income in the form of a wage ox salary. Often, wage and salary workers who work overtime, irregular hours, or on the night shift receive an additional percentage of their regular wage or salary. Some workers, such as waiters and waitress es, also receive tips based on the services they provide to customers. Automobile sales work ers and real estate agents are among workers who are paid a commission—a percent of the amount they sell. Factory workers are some times paid a piece rate—a set amount for each item they produce. The remaining 10 percent of all workers are in business for themselves and earn selfemployment income instead of, or in addi tion to, a wage or salary. Self-employed workers keep the income that exceeds the expenses they incur in carrying out their job. Physicians, barbers, photographers, and lawyers are examples of workers who are frequently self-employed. Some occupations may offer a chance to supplement their wage or salary income with self-employment income. For example, elec tricians and carpenters often do small repair or remodeling jobs during evenings or weekends, and college professors frequently are paid for articles they publish based on their independent research. Besides money income, most wage and sala ry workers receive a variety of fringe benefits as part of their earnings on the job. In addition to those required by Federal and State law, such as social security, workers ’compensation, and unemployment insurance, fringe benefits usually include paid vacations and holidays, and, often, sick leave. In addition, many work ers are covered by life, health, and accident insurance; retirement plans; and supplemental unemployment benefits. All of these benefits are provided—in part or in full—by their em ployers. Some employers also offer stock op tions and profit-sharing plans, saving plans, and bonuses. Workers in many occupations receive part of their earnings in the form of goods and serv ices, or payments in kind. Sales workers in department stores, for example, often receive discounts on merchandise. Some private household workers receive free meals and housing. Flight attendants and other airline employees often are entitled to reduce fares for themselves and their families on their own and other airlines. Workers in other jobs may re ceive uniforms, business expense accounts, or use of a company car. Which jobs pay the most? This is a diffi cult question to answer because good infor mation is available for only one type of earnings—wages and salaries—and for some occupations even this is unavailable. Never theless, the Handbook does include some comparisons of earnings among occupations. Generally, earnings are compared to the average earnings of workers in private in dustry who are not supervisors and not in farming. This group represented about 60 percent of all workers in 1980. Besides differing among occupations, pay levels may differ within each occupation. Be ginning workers almost always earn less than experienced workers (table 1). Earnings in an occupation usually vary by geographic area as Table 1. Career ladder of drafters Average annual earnings, 1980 Tracers (beginners).................... Experienced drafters.................. Senior drafters .......................... $10,200 11,700-17,200 21,700 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Table 2. Average weekly earnings of beginning computer programmers, 1980, selected cities City D etroit........................................ M iam i........................................ Los Angeles .............................. Chicago...................................... Houston...................................... Milwaukee ................................ Minneapolis-St. P a u l................ Dallas ........................................ Baltimore .................................. B oston........................................ Earnings $346.50 321.50 314.50 311.00 308.50 291.00 289.50 282.00 276.00 258.00 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. 3 well (table 2). The average weekly earnings of beginning computer programmers, for exam ple, vary considerably from city to city. Of the 10 cities listed, the highest earnings occurred in Detroit, Mich., and the lowest in Boston, Mass. Although it is generally true that earn ings are higher in the North Central and North east regions than in the West and South, there are exceptions. You also should keep in mind that the cities that offer the highest earnings often are those in which it is most expensive to live. Salaries also vary by the specialty or type of work performed. For example, surgeons earn more on the average than any other medi cal specialty (table 3). Because of all these variations in earnings, you should check with a counselor or with local / 4 employers if you are interested in specific in formation for occupations in your area. Related occupations. If you find that an occu pation you are reading about appeals to you, you also may wish to explore the jobs listed in this section. Usually, the related occupations are those that require similar aptitudes, inter ests, and education and training. Sources of additional information. The Handbook is only one source of career infor mation. Many associations, government agen cies, unions, and other organizations provide useful information on careers. In this section, names and addresses of various organizations are listed to help you further your research into careers that interest you. The next chapter of the Handbook Where to Go for More Informa tion—also suggests ways to learn more about jobs. Table 3. Estimated annual earnings of private physicians, 1980, by speciality Specialty Earnings1 Surgery .................................................... $94,100 Anesthesiology...................................... 84,800 Obstetrics/gynecology .......................... 80,000 Internal medicine .................................. 72,600 General practice.................................... 60,300 Pediatrics ............................................... 59,100 1After tax-deductible expenses but before income taxes. SOURCES: American Medical Association; Bureau of Labor Statistics. Where to Go for More Information Whether you have questions about a particu lar job or are trying to compare various fields, the Occupational Outlook Handbook is a good place to begin. The Handbook will answer many of your initial questions. But remember that it is only one of many sources of informa tion about jobs and careers. After reading a few Handbook statements, you may decide that you want more detailed information about a par ticular occupation. You may want to find out where you can go for training, or where you can find this kind of work in your community. If you are willing to make an effort, you will discover that a wealth of information is available. Sources of Career Information Government agencies, professional soci eties, trade associations, labor unions, cor porations, and educational institutions put out a great deal of free or low-cost career material. Write for information to the organiza tions listed in the Sources of Additional Infor mation section at the end of every Handbook statement. Other organizations that publish ca reer information are listed in directories in your library’s reference section. One of the largest directories is Encyclopedia of Associations (Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1980), a multivolume publication that lists thousands of trade associations, professional societies, labor unions, and fraternal and patriotic organiza tions. There are dozens of other directories, however. Ask the librarian for help in locating directories that list: —trade associations. —professional associations. —business firms. —community and junior colleges. —colleges and universities. —home study and correspondence programs. —business, trade, and technical schools. Lists of organizations that distribute career information also may be found in books and directories put out by several commercial publishers. A Counselor’s Guide to Occupational Infor mation, published in 1980 by the U.S. Depart ment of Labor, identifies pamphlets, bro chures, monographs, and other career guidance publications prepared by Federal agencies. An invaluable resource for students and jobseekers as well as for counselors,/! Counselor’s Guide can be purchased for $4.00 from the Super intendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Orders should include the GPO stock number, 029-001-02490-8. The National Audiovisual Center, a central source for all audiovisual material produced by the U.S. Government, provides lists of free materials in a number of subject areas, includ ing career education. Contact the National Audiovisual Center, General Services Admin istration, Reference Section /PR, Washington, D.C. 20409. Phone: (301) 763-1896. Carefully assess any career materials you obtain. Keep in mind the date and source, in particular. Material that is too old may contain obsolete or even misleading information. Be especially cautious about accepting informa tion on employment outlook, earnings, and training requirements if it is more than 5 years old. The source is important because it affects the content. Although some occupational ma terials are produced solely for the purpose of objective vocational guidance, others are pro duced for recruitment purposes. You should be wary of biased information, which may tend to leave out important items, overglamorize the occupation, overstate the earnings, or exagger ate the demand for workers. Libraries, career centers, and guidance offices are important sources of career infor mation. Thousands of books, brochures, mag azines, and audiovisual materials are available on such subjects as occupations, careers, selfassessment, and job hunting. Your school li brary or guidance office is likely to have some of this material; ask the staff for help. Collec tions of occupational material also can be found in public libraries, college libraries, learning resource centers, and career counsel ing centers. Begin your library search by looking in an encyclopedia under4‘vocations ” or ‘ ‘careers, ’’ and then look up specific fields. The card catalog will direct you to books on particular careers, such as architect or plumber. Be sure to check the periodical section, too. You’ll find trade and professional magazines and journals in specific areas such as automotive mechanics or interior design. Some magazines have clas sified advertising sections that list job open ings. Many libraries and career centers have pamphlet files for specific occupations. Col lections of occupational information may also include nonprint materials such as films, film strips, cassettes, tapes, and kits. Computerized occupational information systems enable users to obtain career information instantly. In addi tion to print and nonprint materials, most ca reer centers and guidance offices offer indi vidual counseling, group discussions, guest speakers, field trips, and career days. Counselors play an important role in provid ing career information. Vocational testing and counseling are available in a number of places, including: —guidance offices in high schools. —career planning and placement offices in colleges. —placement offices in vocational schools. —vocational rehabilitation agencies. —counseling services offered by community organi zations, commercial firms, and professional consultants. —Job Service offices affiliated with the U.S. Em ployment Service. The reputation of a particular counseling agency should be checked with professionals in the field. As a rule, counselors will not tell you what to do. Instead, they are likely to adminis ter interest inventories and aptitude tests; inter pret the results; talk over various possibilities; and help you explore your options. Counselors are familiar with the job market and also can discuss entry requirements and costs of the schools, colleges, or training programs that offer preparation for the kind of work in which you are interested. Most important of all, a counselor can help you consider occupational information in relation to your own abilities, aspirations, and goals. Don’t overlook the importance of personal contacts. Talking with people is one of the best ways of learning about an occupation. Most people are glad to talk about what they do and how well they like their jobs. Have specific questions lined up; you might question workers about their personal experiences and knowl edge of their field. By asking the right ques tions, you will find out what kind of training is really important, how workers got their first jobs as well as the one they’re in now, and what they like and dislike about the work. These interviews serve several purposes: you get out into the business world, you learn about an occupation, you become familiar with inter viewing, and you meet people worth contacting when you start looking for a job. State occupational information coordi nating committees can help you find informa tion about the job situation in your State or area. By contrast, the Handbook provides in formation for the Nation as a whole. The com mittee may provide the information directly, or refer you to other sources. In many States, it can also tell you where you can go to use the State’s career information system. To find out what career materials are available, write to the director of your State occupational information coordinating committee. Following are their addresses and telephone numbers: 5 Alabama Idaho Mississippi Director, Alabama Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, First Southern Towers, Suite 402, 100 Commerce St., Montgomery, Ala. 36130. Phone: (205) 832-5737. Coordinator, Idaho Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, Len B. Jordan Bldg., Room 301, 650 W. State St., Boise, Idaho 83720. Phone: (208) 334-3705. SOICC Director, Vocational Technical Education, P.O. Box 771, Jackson, Miss. 39205. Phone: (601) 354-6779. Alaska Illinois Coordinator, Alaska Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Pouch F — State Office Bldg., Juneau, Alaska 99811. Phone: (907) 465-2980. Executive Director, Illinois Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, 217 E. Monroe, Suite 203, Springfield, 111. 62706. Phone: (217) 7850789. Arizona Indiana Executive Director, Arizona State Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 1535 West Jef ferson, Room 345, Phoenix, Ariz. 85007. Phone: (602) 255-3680. Director, Indiana Occupational Information Coordi nating Committee, 17 W. Market St., 434 Illinois Bldg., Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. Phone: (317) 2323625. Arkansas Iowa Director, Arkansas State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, Ark. 72203. Phone: (501) 371-3551. Executive Director, Iowa State Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, 523 E. 12th St., Des Moines, Iowa 50319. Phone: (515) 281-8076. Missouri California Kansas Executive Director, California Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, 1027 10th Street, No. 302, Sacramento, Calif. 95814. Phone: (916) 323-6544. Director, Kansas Occupational Information Coordi nating Committee, 320 West 7th, Suite D, Topeka, Kans. 66603. Phone: (913) 296-5286. Colorado Kentucky Director, Office of Occupational Information, Colo rado Occupational Information Coordinating Com mittee, 213 Centennial Bldg., 1313 Sherman St., Denver, Colo. 80203. Phone: (303) 866-3335. Coordinator, Kentucky Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 275 E. Main St., D.H.R. Bldg., 2nd Roor East, Frankfort, Ky. 40621. Phone: (502) 564-4258. Connecticut Louisiana Executive Director, Connecticut State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, c/o Elm Hill School, 569 Maple Hill Avenue, Newington, Conn. 06111. Phone: (203) 666-1441. Director, Louisiana State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 44094, Baton Rouge, La. 70804. Phone: (504) 925-3593. Delaware Director, State Occupational Information Coordi nating Committee of Delaware, Drummond Office Plaza, Suite 3303, Building No. 3, Newark, Del. 19711. Phone: (302) 368-6908. District of Columbia Executive Director, D.C. Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 500 C St. NW., Suite 621, Washington, D.C. 20001. Phone: (202) 7243965. Florida Maine Executive Director, Maine State Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, State House Sta tion 71, Augusta, Maine 04333. Phone: (207) 289-2331. Maryland Executive Director, Maryland Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, Jackson Towers, Suite 304, 1123 N. Eutaw St., Baltimore, Md. 21201. Phone (301) 383-6350. Massachusetts Director, Missouri Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, 830d E. High St., Jefferson City, Mo. 65101. Phone: (314) 751-2624. Montana Program Manager, Montana State Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59624. Phone: (406) 449-2741. Nebraska Executive Director, Nebraska Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, W. 300 Nebraska Hall, Lincoln, Nebr. 68588. Phone: (402) 4722062. Nevada Director, Nevada Occupational Information Coordi nating Committee, Capitol Complex, Kinkead Bldg., Room 601, 505 E. King St., Carson City, Nev. 89710. Phone: (702) 885-4577. New Hampshire SOICC Director, New Hampshire Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, c/o Department of Employment and Training, 155 Manchester St., Concord, N.H. 03301. Phone (603) 271-3156. New Jersey Acting Staff Director, New Jersey Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, Department of Labor and Industry, Division of Planning and Re search, P.O. Box CN056, Trenton, N.J. 08625. Phone: (609) 292-2626. New Mexico Director, New Mexico State Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, NEA Building, 130 South Capitol, Suite 157, Santa Fe N.M. 87501. Phone: (505) 827-3411 or 3412. New York SOICC Director, New York Department of Labor, Labor Department Bldg. # 12, State Campus, Room 559A, Albany, N.Y. 12240. Phone: (518) 457-2930. North Carolina Director, Florida Occupational Information Coordi nating Committee, 325 John Knox Rd., Suite 1^500, Tallahassee, Ha. 32303. Phone: (904) 3866111. Executive Director, Massachusetts Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, Charles F. Hurley Bldg., Government Center, Boston, Mass. 02114. Phone: (617) 727-9740. Georgia Michigan North Dakota Executive Director, Georgia Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, 151 Ellis St. NE., Suite 504, Atlanta, Ga. 30303. Phone (404) 6563117. Executive Coordinator, Michigan Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 309 N. Wash ington, P.O. Box 30015, Lansing, Mich. 48909. Phone: (517) 373-0363. Director, North Dakota Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1424 W. Century Ave., P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, N. Dak. 58505. Phone: (701) 224-2733. Hawaii Minnesota Ohio Executive Director, Hawaii State Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 1164 Bishop St., Suite 502, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813. Phone: (808) 548-3496. SOICC Director, Department of Economic Securi ty, 690 American Center Bldg., 150 E. Kellogg Blvd., St. Paul, Minn. 55101. Phone: (612) 2962072. Director, Ohio Occupational Information Coordi nating Committee, State Department Bldg., 65 S. Front St., Room 904, Columbus, Ohio 43215. Phone: (614) 466-2095. 6 SOICC Director, North Carolina Department of Administration, 112 W. Lane St., 218 Howard Bldg., Raleigh, N.C. 27611. Phone: (919). 733-6700. Oklahoma Washington Executive Director, Oklahoma Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, School of Occupa tional and Adult Education, Oklahoma State Univer sity, 1515 W. 6th St., Stillwater, Okla. 74074. Phone: (405) 377-2000, ext. 311. SOICC Director, Washington Commission for Vo cational Education, Bldg. 17, Airdustrial Park, Mail Stop LS-10, Olympia, Wash. 98504. Phone: (206) 754-1552. West Virginia Oregon Coordinator, Oregon Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, 875 Union St., NE., Salem, Oreg. 97311. Phone: (503) 378-8146. Executive Director, West Virginia State Occupa tional Information Coordinating Committee, 1600 1/2 Washington St., E., Charleston, W. Va. 25311. Phone: (304) 348-0061. Pennsylvania Wisconsin Director, Pennsylvania Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Labor and Industry Bldg., 7th and Forster Sts., Room 1008, Harrisburg, Pa. 17120. Phone: (717) 787-3467. Director, Wisconsin Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, Educational Sciences Bldg., Room 952, 1025 W. Johnson, Madison, Wis. 53706. Phone: (608) 263-1048. Puerto Rico Wyoming Executive Director, Puerto Rico Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, Cond. El Centro II, Suite 224, Munoz Rivera Ave.„ Hato Rey, P. R. 00918. Phone: (809) 753-7110. Director, Wyoming Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, Hathaway Bldg. — Base ment, 2300 Capitol Ave., Cheyenne, Wyo. 82002. Phone: (307) 777-7177 or 7178. Rhode Island American Samoa Executive Director, Rhode Island Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 22 Hayes St., Room 315, Providence, R.I. 02908. Phone: (401) 272-0830. Executive Director, American Samoa SOICC, Gov ernor’s Office, American Samoa Government, Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799. South Carolina Acting Executive Director, Guam Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 2817, Agana, Guam 96910. Phone: (617) 4778941. Director, South Carolina Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1550 Gadsden St., Co lumbia, S.C. 29202. Phone: (803) 758-3165. South Dakota Executive Director, South Dakota Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 108 E. Mis souri, Pierre, S. Dak. 57501. Phone: (605) 7733935. Guam Northern Mariana Islands Executive Director, Northern Mariana Islands Oc cupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 149, Saipan, Northern Mariana Islands 96950. Phone: 7136. Trust Territory of the Pacific Tennessee Director, Tennessee Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, 512 Cordell Hull Bldg., Nashville, Tenn. 37219. Phone: (615) 741-6451. Texas Executive Director, Texas Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, Texas Employment Commission Bldg., 15th and Congress, Room 526T, Austin, Tex. 78778. Phone: (512) 397-4970. Utah Director, Utah Occupational Information Coordinat ing Committee, Elks Club Bldg., Suite 6003, 139 East South Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah 84111. Phone: (801) 533-2028. Vermont Director, Vermont Occupational Information Co ordinating Committee, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt. 05602. Phone: (802) 229-0311. Virginia SOICC Director, Virginia Vocational and Adult Education, Department of Education, P.O. Box6Q, Richmond, Va. 23216. Phone: (804) 225-2735. Director, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Office of Planning and Statistics, Saipan, Mariana Islands 96950. Virgin Islands Director, Virgin Islands Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Department of Educa tion, P.O. Box 630, Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00801. Phone: (809) 774-0100, ext. 211. Sources of Education and Training Information As a rule, professional or trade associations can provide lists of schools that offer training in a particular field—operations research, pub lishing, or arts management, for example. Whenever possible, the Sources of Additional Information section at the end of every Hand book statement directs you to organizations that can provide training information. For gen eral information, a library, career center, or guidance office may be the best place to look; all of them ordinarily have collections of cata logs, directories, and guides to educational and job training opportunities. The State career information system available in many States can also provide specific information on where to go for training in various fields. These sys tems are located in school guidance offices, Job Service offices, and other places. You can find out about the career information system in your State by writing or calling the State occu pational information coordinating committee. A number of standard handbooks give perti nent information on courses of study, admis sions requirements, expenses, and student fi nancial aid at the Nation’s 2-year and 4-year colleges and universities. Publishers include the College Board, Barrons, and Chronicle Guidance, among others. School and public libraries almost always have copies, as do large bookstores. Remember that these directories are updated and revised frequently; be sure to use the most recent edition. Libraries and guid ance offices often have collections of college catalogs as well. Information on private trade and technical schools is available from the National Asso ciation of Trade and Technical Schools (NATTS). Single copies of two of their publi cations, Handbook o f Trade and Technical Careers and Training and How to Choose a Career and a Career School, can be obtained from NATTS at 2021 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Phone: (202) 296-8892. The National Home Study Council supplies information about home study programs. They distribute Directory o f Accredited Home Study Schools (free) and There’s a School in Your Mail Box ($5.00, including postage). Re quests for these publications should be directed to National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Wahsington, D.C. 20009. Phone: (202) 234-5100. Labor unions and school guidance offices can provide information about apprentice ships. Local Job Service offices usually have at least one counselor familiar with apprentice ship programs in the area. In some cities, Ap prenticeship Information Centers (AIC’s) af filiated with the U.S. Employment Service furnish information, counseling, and aptitude testing, and direct people for more specific help to union hiring halls, Joint Apprenticeship Committees, and employer sponsors. The lo cal Job Service can tell you whether there’s an AIC in your community. The U.S. Depart ment of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training has prepared several pamphlets that provide background information on appren ticeship. These may be requested from: Office of Information, Inquiries Unit, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Depart ment of Labor, Room 10225, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. Phone: (202) 3766730. Sources of Financial Aid Information If possible, consult a high school guidance counselor or college financial aid officer for 7 advice on sources of financial aid. Don’t ne glect any possibility, for many organizations offer scholarships, fellowships, grants, loans, and work-study programs. Study the directo ries and guides to sources of student financial aid available in guidance offices and public libraries. Many career information systems also provide information on financial aid. Particularly useful is the American Legion’s Need a Lift?, a booklet containing career and scholarship information for both undergrad uate and graduate students. The 1982 edition costs $1.00 prepaid (includes postage) and can be obtained from: American Legion, Attn: Emblem Sales, P.O. Box 1055, Indianapolis, Ind. 46206. Meeting College Costs, a College Board publication that is updated annually, explains how to apply for student financial aid. High school students should ask their guidance coun selors for the current edition. Others can re quest a free copy, and a listing of other College Board publications on student financial aid, from: College Board Publication Orders, Box 2815, Prin ceton, N.J. 08541. The Federal Government provides several kinds of financial assistance to students: Grants, loans, work-study, and benefits. Infor mation about programs administered by the U.S. Department of Education is presented in a pamphlet entitled, Five Federal Finan cial Aid Programs, 1981-82; A Student Con sumer’s Guide. This pamphlet is revised every year; request the current edition by calling, toll-free, 800-638-6700 (residents of Mary land should call 800-492-6602), or by writing to: Bureau of Student Financial Assistance, P.O. Box 84, Washington, D.C. 20044. Federal financial aid for students in the health professions is administered by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Currently, major programs include Health Education Assistance Loans (HEAL), Health Profession Student Loans, Nursing Student Loans, and National Health Service Corps Scholarships. The financial aid office at the school in which you are enrolled, or plan to enroll, can provide information on eligibility requirements and application procedures. In formation about National Health Service Corps Scholarships also can be obtained by calling, toll-free, 1-800-638-0824. Residents of Alaska, Hawaii, and Maryland can call collect, 0-301-436-6453, between 8:30 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. Eastern time, Monday through Friday, except Federal holidays. Persons in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area can call 436-6450. Some student aid programs are designed to assist specific groups: Hispanics, blacks, Na tive Americans, or women, for example. Se lected List of Postsecondary Education Oppor tunities for Minorities and Women, published 8 annually by the U.S. Department of Educa tion, is a useful guide to organizations that offer loan, scholarship, and fellowship assis tance, with special emphasis on aid for minor ities and women. Opportunities for financial aid are listed by field of study, including archi tecture, arts and science, business, education, engineering and science, health, international affairs, journalism, law, political science and public administration, psychology, sociology, social work, speech pathology and audiology, and theology. Educational opportunities with the Armed Forces are also described. This publication can be found in many libraries and guidance offices, or may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price for the 1981 edition is $6.00 and the GPO stock number is 065-000-00118-7. ing on specific problems that women face in the labor market. Many women’s centers are locat ed on campuses of community and junior col leges and universities. Although some have a strong academic slant, many have outreach programs designed to provide services to all women in the community. Women’s centers are also operated by community organizations. Many of these centers have an emphasis on nontraditional jobs for women, and almost all provide information and referral services. Career and Counseling Information for Special Groups Resource materials for women abound. Re cent examples include Directory of Special Opportunities for Women, Job Options for Women in the 80’s and Suit Yourself... Shop ping for a Job. The Directory published in 1981 by Garrett Park Press (Garrett Park, Maryland), lists sources of career training, fi nancial aid, and other assistance for women entering or reentering the labor force. Look for it in a library, guidance office, or counseling center. Job Options, a 1980 publication of the Women’s Bureau of the U.S. Department of Labor, is available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Of fice, Washington, D.C. 20402. The price is $2.25, and the GPO stock number is 029-00200059-2. Suit Yourself was published in 1980 by Wider Opportunities for Women (WOW), a national nonprofit women’s employment orga nization. It can be purchased for $6.00 (in cludes postage) from WOW, 1619 M St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Phone: (202)7835155. The National Directory o f Women’s Employment Programs, also available from WOW, lists 140 women’s job action and advo cacy organizations in communities throughout the country. Price for the 1979 publication is $8.50, including postage. Certain groups of jobseekers face special difficulties in obtaining suitable and satisfying employment. All too often, veterans, youth, handicapped persons, minorities, and women experience difficulty in the labor market. The reasons for disadvantage in the job market vary, of course. People may have trouble set ting career goals and looking for work for reasons as different as a limited command of English, a prison record, or lack of selfconfidence. Some people are held back by their background—by growing up in a setting that provided only a few role models and little exposure to the wide range of opportunities in the world of work. A growing number of communities have ca reer counseling, training, and placement serv ices for people with special needs. Programs are sponsored by a variety of organizations, including churches and synagogues, nonprofit organizations, social service agencies, the Job Service, and vocational rehabilitation agen cies. Some of the most successful programs provide the extensive counseling that disadvan taged jobseekers require. They begin by help ing clients resolve the personal, family, or oth er fundamental problems that prevent them from finding a suitable job. Some agencies that serve special groups take a strong interest in their clients, and provide an array of services designed to help people find and keep jobs. Most States and many cities and counties have commissions or councils for women, many of which are actively engaged in im proving employment opportunities for wom en in their area. A number of commissions have prepared resource directories for wom en, and a few operate employment or coun seling programs. Directory o f Special Programs for Minority Group Members: Career Information Serv ices, Employment Skills Banks, Financial Aid Sources (Garrett Park, Md.: Garrett Park Press), now in its third edition, lists thousands of educational, career, and other services and Employment counseling programs of all programs that help minority group members in kinds are included in Directory of Counseling their educational and career advancement. Services, an annual publication that lists ac Look for the 1980 edition in libraries, guid credited or provisional members of the Interna ance offices, and counseling centers. Career tional Association of Counseling Services, information for minority group members also Inc. (I ACS), an affiliate of the American Per appears in specialized magazines including sonnel and Guidance Association. The 1981— The Black Collegian and Minority Engineer. 82 edition is available for $6 (including post The 1980-81 edition of Directory of Orga age) from IACS at Two Skyline Place, Suite nizations Interested in the Handicapped lists 400, 5203 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Vir more than 150 voluntary and public agencies in ginia 22041. Phone: (703) 820-4710. the rehabilitation field and briefly describes Women’s centers are an excellent resource for women seeking employment and counsel their purpose, programs, and publications. Copies of the Directory may be obtained from the People to People Committee for the Handi capped, 1111 20th St. NW., 6th floor, Wash ington, D.C. 20210. Phone: (202) 653-5024. State vocational rehabilitation agencies are an important source of career and counseling in formation for people with disabilities; they are listed in the Directory. Employment counseling and placement services for older workers have been estab lished in some communities. The area agency on aging can tell you whether there is a senior employment program in your community. Lo cal offices of the State employment service may be helpful, too. Information about the small but growing network of nonprofit senior employment agencies can be obtained from the National Association of Older Worker Em ployment Services, 600 Maryland Ave. SW., West Wing 100, Washington, D.C. 20024. Phone: (202) 479-1200. Case studies describ ing the operations of specific agencies are available from the National Clearinghouse on Careers for Older Americans, Academy for Educational Development, 680 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10019. Phone: (212) 3970073. Several agencies of the Federal Government publish pamphlets on career opportunities and job-hunting techniques that may interest coun selors working with special groups. Much of this material is free. Requests for career mate rials currently in stock may be directed to: Handicapped President’s Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, Room 600, Vanguard Building, 1111 20th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Phone: (202) 653-5157. President’s Committee on Mental Retardation, Washington, D.C. 20201. Rehabilitation Services Administration, U.S. De partment of Education, Room 3523, 330 C St. SW., Washington, D.C. 20202. Office of Personnel Management, Federal Job Infor mation Center, P.O. Box 52, Washington, D.C. 20044. Phone: (202) 737-9616. Older Workers Office of Information, Inquiries Unit, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room 10225, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. Phone: (202) 376-6730. Department of Veterans Benefits (232A), Veterans Administration Central Office, 810 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20420. Phone: (202) 389^3227. Federal laws, Executive Orders, and select ed Federal grant programs bar discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and handicap. Em ployers in the private and the public sectors, Federal contractors, and grantees are covered by these laws. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is responsi ble for administering many of the programs that prohibit discrimination in employment. Infor mation about how to file a charge of discrimi nation is available from local EEOC offices around the country (their addresses and tele phone numbers are listed in telephone directo ries under U.S. Government, EEOC) or from: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2401 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20506. Phone: (202) 634-6930. Information on Federal laws concerning fair labor standards—including the minimum wage law—and equal employment opportunity can be obtained from the Office of Information and Consumer Affairs, Employment Standards Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room C-4331, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Information on Finding a Job Do you need help in finding a job? For information on job openings, follow up as many leads as possible. Parents, neighbors, teachers, and counselors may know of jobs. Check the want ads. Investigate your local Job Service office and find out whether private or nonprofit employment agencies in your com munity can help you. The following section will give you some idea of where you can go to look for a job and what sort of help to expect. Informal job search methods. Informal methods of job search are the most popular, and also the most effective. Informal methods in clude direct application to employers with or without referral by friends or relatives. Job seekers locate a potential employer and file an application, often without certain knowledge that an opening exists. Office of Information, Inquiries Unit, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room 10225, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. Phone: (202) 376-6730. You can find targets for your informal search in several ways. The Yellow Pages and local chambers of commerce will give the names and addresses of appropriate firms in the communi ty where you wish to work. You can also get listings of most firms in a specific industry— banking, insurance, and newspaper publish ing, for example—by consulting one of the directories on the reference shelf of your public library. Friends, relatives, and people you meet during your job search are likely to give you ideas about places where you can apply for a job. Office of Personnel Management, Federal Job Infor mation Center, P.O. Box 52, Washington, D.C. 20044. Phone: (202) 737-9616. Want ads. The ‘‘Help Wanted” ads in a major newspaper contain hundreds of job listings. As Women Women’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, Room S-3005, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Phone: (202) 523-6668. Veterans a job search tool, they have two advantages: They are cheap and easy to acquire, and they often result in successful placement. There are disadvantages as well. Want ads give a distort ed view of the local labor market, for they tend to underrepresent small firms. They also tend to overrepresent certain occupations, such as clerical and sales jobs. How helpful they are will depend largely on the kind of job you seek. Bear in mind that want ads do not provide complete information; many give little or no description of the job, working conditions, and pay. Some omit the identity of the employer. In addition, firms often run multiple listings. Some ads offer jobs in other cities (which do not help the local worker); others advertise employment agencies rather then employment. If you use the want ads, keep the following suggestions in mind: —Don’t rely exclusively on the want ads; follow up other leads, too. —Answer ads promptly. The opening may be filled before the ad stops running. —Follow the ads diligently. Checking them every day as early as possible gives you the best advantage over other applicants, which may mean the difference between a job and a rejection. —Don’t expect too much from “ blind ads” that do not reveal the employer’s identity. Em ployers use blind ads to avoid being swamped with applicants, or to fill a particular vacancy quietly and confidentially. The chances of find ing a job through blind ads tend to be slim. —Be cautious about answering ‘‘no experi ence necessary” ads. Most employers are able to fill job openings that do not require experi ence without advertising in the newspaper. This type of ad may mean that the job is hard to fill because of low wages or poor working conditions, or because it is straight commission work. Public employment service. The public em ployment service, also called the Job Serv ice, is often overlooked in finding out about local job openings. Run by the State employ ment security agencies under the direction of the Labor Department’s U.S. Employment Service, the 2,500 local Job Service offices provide help without charge. Job Service staff help jobseekers find employment and help employers find qualified workers. As its motto says, the Job Service aims to “bring people to jobs and jobs to people.” To find the office nearest you, look in the State gov ernment telephone listings under “Job Serv ice” or “ Employment.” Job matching and referral. Upon entering a Job Service center, an applicant is interviewed to determine the type of work for which he or she indicates an interest and aptitude. The in terviewer determines if the applicant is “job ready ” or if counseling and testing services are 9 needed. Applicants who know what kind of work they are qualified for may spend some time examining the Job Bank, a computerized listing of public and private sector job openings that is updated every day. The Job Bank is selfservice; applicants examine a book or micro film viewer and select openings that interest them. Afterwards, a Job Service staff member may describe a particular job opening in some detail and arrange for an interview with the prospective employer. Counseling and testing. Job Service centers also help jobseekers who are uncertain about their qualifications and the kind of work they want. Most centers are staffed with a specialist who furnishes complete counseling and testing services. Counselors help jobseekers choose and prepare for an occupation based on their qualifications and interests. They aim to help individuals become aware of their job potential and then develop it. The testing program mea sures occupational aptitudes, clerical and liter ary skills, and occupational interests. Testing and counseling before job referral ensure a better match between applicant and job. Services for veterans and youth. By law, veter ans are entitled to priority in interviewing, counseling, testing, job development, and job placement. Special counselors called veterans reemployment representatives are trained to deal with the particular problems of veterans, who may find it difficult to readjust to civilian life. Although such veterans often face multi ple problems, joblessness alone is a major bar rier to resuming an ordinary life. Special help for disabled veterans begins with outreach units in each State, whose job it is to identify jobless disabled veterans and make them aware of the many kinds of assistance available. To reduce excessive youth unemployment, Job Service centers test, counsel and refer young people to training programs or jobs whenever possible. Occupations in Demand. A monthly publica tion of the U.S. Department of Labor entitled Occupations in Demand highlights occupa tions for which the Job Bank network reports large numbers of job openings. It also indicates which cities and areas have significant num bers of job openings. An extra edition for students and graduates, published twice a year, lists high-demand occupations for which em ployers usually request people with high school or postsecondary training. The extra edition also identifies hard-to-fill occupations listed with the Job Service. Copies of Occupations in Demand may be found in libraries and counsel ing centers. Or you can request single free copies from: Consumer Information Center, Dept. No. 533J, Pueblo, Colorado 81009. Annual subscriptions cost $18.00 and can be purchased from the Superintendent of Docu ments, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 10 Private employment agencies. In the appro priate section of the classified ads or the tele phone book you can find numerous advertise ments for private employment agencies. All are in business to make money, but some offer higher quality service and better chances of successful placement than others. The three main places in which private agen cies advertise are newspaper want ads, the Yellow Pages, and trade journals. Telephone listings give little more than the name, address, phone number, and specialty of the agency, while trade journals generally advertise open ings for a particular occupation, such as ac countant or computer programmer. Want ads, then, are the best source of general listings of agencies. These listings fall into two categories— those offering specific openings and those of fering general promise of employment. You should concentrate on the former and use the latter only as a last resort. With a specific opening mentioned in the ad, you have greater assurance of the agency’s desire to place quali fied individuals in suitable jobs. When responding to such an ad, you may learn more about the job over the phone. If you are interested, visit the agency, fill out an application, present a resume, and talk with an interviewer. The agency will then arrange an interview with the employer if you are quali fied, and perhaps suggest alternative openings if you are not. Most agencies operate on a commission ba sis, with the fee contingent upon a successful match. The employer pays agencies advertis ing “ no fees, no contracts” and the applicant pays nothing. Many agencies, however, do charge applicants. You should find out the exact cost before using the service. Community agencies. A growing number of nonprofit organizations throughout the Na tion provide counseling, career development, and job placement services. These agencies generally concentrate on services for a particu lar labor force group—women, youth, minor ities, ex-offenders, or older workers, for ex ample. Some of these agencies are listed in directories already mentioned in the section on Career and Counseling Information for Special Groups. It’s up to you to discover whether your com munity has such agencies and whether they can help you. The local Job Service center should be able to tell you whether such an agency has been established in your community. Your church, synagogue, or local library may have the information, too. College career planning and placement offices. For those who have access to them, career planning and placement offices at col leges and universities offer valuable services. College placement offices function as more than just employment agencies; they provide career counseling and also teach students to acquire jobseeking skills. They emphasize writing resumes and letters of application, pre paring for interviews, and other aspects of job search. College placement offices offer other services, too. At larger campuses they bring students and employers together by providing schedules and facilities for interviews with in dustry recruiters. Many offices also maintain lists of local part-time and temporary jobs, and some have files of summer openings. Labor Market Information All 50 States, and the District of Columbia, develop detailed information about the labor market. Typically, State agencies publish re ports that deal with future occupational supply, characteristics of the work force, changes in State and area economic activities, and the employment structure of important industries. For all States, and for nearly all Standard Met ropolitan Statistical Areas (SMS A’s) of 50,000 inhabitants or more, data are available that show current employment as well as estimated future needs. Each State issues a report cover ing current and future employment for hun dreds of industries and occupations. In addi tion, major statistical indicators of labor market activity are released by all of the States on a monthly, quarterly, and annual basis. For information on the various labor market stud ies, reports, and analyses available in a specific State, contact the chief of research and analysis in the State employment security agency. Ti tles, addresses, and telephone numbers are as follows: Alabama Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Indus trial Relations, Industrial Relations Bldg., 649 Mon roe St., Montgomery, Ala. 36130. Phone: (205) 832-5263. Alaska Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Se curity Division, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 37000, Juneau, Alaska 99802. Phone: (907) 4654505. Arizona Chief, Labor Market Information, Research and Analysis, Department of Economic Security, P.O. Box 6123, Phoenix, Ariz. 85005. Phone: (602) 2553616. Arkansas Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Se curity Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, Ark. 72203. Phone: (501) 371-1541. California Chief, Employment Data and Research Division, Employment Development Department, P.O. Box 1679, Sacramento, Calif. 95808. Phone: (916) 4454434. Colorado Kentucky New Jersey Chief, Research and Development, Division of Em ployment and Training, Department of Labor and Employment, 1278 Lincoln St., Denver, Colo. 80203. Phone: (303) 866-6316. Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Hu man Resources, 275 E. Main St., Frankfort, Ky. 40621. Phone: (502) 564-7976. Director, Division of Planning and Research, De partment of Labor and Industry, P.O. Box 2765, Trenton, N.J. 08625. Phone: (609) 292-2643. Louisiana New Mexico Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Em ployment Security, P.O. Box 44094, Baton Rouge, La. 70804. Phone: (504) 342-3141. Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Ser vices Division, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, N. Mex. 87103. Phone: (505) 842-3105. Maine New York Director, Manpower Research Division, Employ ment Security Commission, 20 Union St., Augusta, Maine 04330. Phone: (207) 289-2271. Director, Division of Research and Statistics, Department of Labor, State Campus, Bldg. 12, Albany, N.Y. 12240. Phone: (518) 457-6181. Maryland North Carolina Director, Research and Analysis, Department of Human Resources, 1100 N. Eutaw St., Baltimore, Md. 21201. Phone: (301) 383-5000. Director, Bureau of Employment Security Research Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, N.C. 27611. Phone: (919) 7332936. Connecticut Director, Research and Information, Employment Security Division, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Hartford, Conn. 06115. Phone: (203) 566-2120. Delaware Chief, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Department of Labor, Bldg. D., Chapman Rd., Route 273, Newark, Del. 19713. Phone: (302) 3686962. District of Columbia Chief, Labor Market Information, Research and Analysis, D.C. Department of Labor, 605 G St. NW., Room 1000, Washington, D.C. 20001. Phone: (202) 724-2413. Florida Chief, Research and Analysis, Florida Department of Labor and Employment Security, Caldwell Bldg., Tallahassee, Fla. 32301. Phone: (904) 488-6037. Massachusetts Director, Job Market Research, Division of Employ ment Security, Hurley Bldg., Government Center, Boston, Mass. 02114. Phone: (617) 727-6556. Michigan Director, Research and Statistics Division, Employ ment Security Commission, 7310 Woodward Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48202. Phone: (313) 876-5445. Georgia Director, Labor Information Systems, Employment Security Agency, Department of Labor, 254 Wash ington St. SW., Atlanta, Ga. 30334. Phone: (404) 656-3177. Minnesota Hawaii Chief, Research and Statistics Division, Employ ment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, Miss. 39205. Phone: (601) 961-7424. Idaho Chief, Research and Statistics, Division of Employ ment Security, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, P.O. Box 59, Jefferson City, Mo. 65101. Phone: (314) 751-3215. Ohio Director, Division of Research and Statistics, Bu reau of Employment Services, 145 S. Front St., Columbus, Ohio 43216. Phone: (614) 466-3240. Missouri Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Em ployment, P.O. Box 35, Boise, Idaho 83707. Phone: (208) 384-2755. Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Se curity Bureau, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, N.Dak. 58505. Phone: (701) 224-2868. Mississippi Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, P.O. Box 3680, Honolulu, Hawaii 96811. Phone: (808) 548-7639. North Dakota Director, Research and Statistical Services, Depart ment of Economic Security, 390 N. Robert St., St. Paul, Minn. 55101. Phone: (612) 296-6545. Illinois Manager, Research and Analysis Division, Bureau of Employment Security, Department of Labor, 910 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. Phone: (312) 793-2316. Montana Chief, Reports and Analysis, Employment Security Division, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59601. Phone: (406) 449-2430. Oklahoma Chief, Research and Planning Division, Employ ment Security Commission, 310 Will Rogers Me morial Office Bldg., Oklahoma City, Okla. 73105. Phone: (405) 521-3735. Oregon Assistant Administrator, Research and Statistics, Employment Division, 875 Union St. NE., Salem, Oreg. 97311. Phone: (503) 37S-3220. Pennsylvania Director, Research and Statistics, Bureau of Em ployment Security, Department of Labor and Indus try, 7th and Forster Sts., Harrisburg, Pa. 17121. Phone: (717) 787-3265. Puerto Rico Chief, Research and Statistics, Bureau of Employ ment Security, 505 Munoz Rivera Ave., Hato Rey, P.R. 00918. Phone: (809) 754-5385. Indiana Nebraska Chief of Research, Employment Security Division, 10 N. Senate Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. Phone: (317) 232-7702. Chief, Research and Statistics, Division of Employ ment, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, Lin coln, Nebr. 68509. Phone: (402) 475-8451. Iowa Nevada South Carolina Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Job Service, 1000 E. Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50319. Phone: (515) 281-8181. Chief, Employment Security Research, Employ ment Security Department, 500 E. Third St., Carson City, Nev. 89713. Phone: (702) 885-4550. Director, Manpower Research and Analysis, Em ployment Security Commission, P.O. Box 995, Co lumbia, S.C. 29202. Phone: (803) 758-8983. Kansas New Hampshire South Dakota Chief, Research and Analysis, Division of Em ployment, Department of Human Resources, 401 Topeka Ave., Topeka, Kans. 66603. Phone: (913) 296-5060. Director, Economic Analysis and Reports, Depart ment of Employment Security, 32 S. Main St., Con cord, N.H. 03301. Phone: (603) 224-3311, ext. 251. Chief, Research and Statistics, Office of Adminis trative Services, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 1730, Aberdeen, S. Dak. 57401. Phone: (605)6222314. Rhode Island Supervisor, Employment Security Research, De partment of Employment Security, 24 Mason St., Providence, R.I. 02903. Phone: (401) 277-3704. 11 Tennessee Vermont West Virginia Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Em ployment Security, Cordell Hull Office Bldg., Room 519, Nashville, Tenn. 37219. Phone: (615) 741-2284. Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Em ployment Security, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt. 05602. Phone: (802) 229-0311. Chief, Labor and Economic Research, Department of Employment Security, 112 California Ave., Charleston, W. Va. 25305. Phone: (304) 885-2660. Texas Virginia Wisconsin Chief, Economic Research and Analysis, Employ ment Commission, 1117 Trinity St., Austin, Tex. 78701. Phone: (512) 397-4540. Commissioner, Virginia Employment Commission, P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, Va. 23211. Phone: (804) 786-3001. Director, Research and Statistics, Department of Industry, Labor and Human Relations, P.O. Box 7944, Madison, Wis. 53707. Phone: (608) 2667034. Utah Washington Wyoming Director, Research and Analysis, Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City, Utah 84147. Phone: (801) 533-2014. Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Se curity Department, 212 Maple Park, Olympia, Wash. 98504. Phone: (206) 757-5224. Chief, Reports and Analysis, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, Wyo. 82601. Phone: (307) 237-3703. 12 Tomorrow’s Jobs Constant change is one of the most signifi cant aspects of the U.S. job market. Changes in the size, age structure, and geographic loca tion of the population, the introduction of new technology or business practices, and changes in the needs and tastes of the public continually alter the economy and affect employment op portunities in all occupations. Population growth has spurred the need for workers to provide more housing, medical care, educa tion, and other services and goods. The use of new technology has created, eliminated, or changed the nature of hundreds of thousands of jobs. The computer, for example, has given birth to an entire new group of occupations— programmers, systems analysts, computer and peripheral equipment operators—while at the same time it has decreased the need for inven tory clerks, bookkeepers, and other clerical works. Changes in the way businesses are or ganized and managed have had similar effects. For example, the use of centralized credit of fices has reduced the need for credit managers in retail stores. As an individual planning for a career, you should learn about changes that are expected to occur in the job market. Your interests and abilities determine the occupation that attracts you, but future economic and social conditions will determine possible job opportunities. For tunately, most changes that alter the demand for workers in various occupations generally occur gradually over several years. By analyz ing the changing nature of the economy and the factors causing these changes it is possible to project future industry and occupational em ployment. Although no one can forecast the future with certainty, these employment pro jections can help you learn about future oppor tunities in occupations that interest you. The Handbook presents information about the job outlook for many occupations. This chapter provides a background for those dis cussions. In it you will find information about expected changes in the population and the labor force, as well as employment projections for major industrial sectors and broad occupa tional groups. are available to work—which in turn can influ ence the amount of competition for jobs in an occupation. Three population factors that will affect future employment opportunities are population growth, shifts in the age structure of the population, and movement of the popula tion within the country. Population Growth. The population of the United States has increased throughout the century. However, the rate of growth (the size of the annual increases) was declining until the post-World War II ‘‘baby boom, ’’ which lasted until the late 1950’s. Since the 1960’s, the rate of growth has declined again (chart 1). In 1980, the population was 226.5 million. It is expected to increase by about 0.9 percent a year during the 1980’s, slightly faster than during the 1970’s. Continued growth will mean more people to provide with goods and ser vices, causing greater demand for workers in many industries. The effects of population growth on employment in various occupations will differ. These differences are accounted for in part by the age distribution of the future population. Age Structure. Because of the “ baby boom,” the proportion of people age 14 to 24 was high in the 1970’s. Through the 1980’s, as these young adults become older, the proportion of the population between the ages of 25 and 44 will swell. By 1990, nearly one-third of the population will be in this age group compared to 24 percent in 1970. As a result of the rela tively low number of births during the 1960’s and early 1970’s, the number of people be tween the ages of 14 and 24 will decline in the coming decade. The number of people 65 and over will grow, but more slowly than in recent years. These changes in the age structure of the population will directly affect the types of goods and services demanded. For example, as the number of young people declines, the need for some education services will fall. When greater numbers of people from the baby boom establish families, they will require more hous ing and goods such as appliances. Shifts in the age structure of the population also will affect the composition of the labor force. These effects are discussed in a later section. Regional Differences. National trends in population may not be the same as changes in a particular region or locality. A nation as large the United States is bound to vary from one place to another in rate of population growth. For example, between 1970 and 1980, the pop ulation of the Northeast and North Central regions increased by 0.2 percent and 4.0 per cent, respectively, compared with 20.0 percent for the South and 23.9 percent in the West (chart 2). These differences in population growth reflect the movement of people to find new jobs, to retire, or for some other reason. Geographic shifts in the population alter the demand for and supply of workers in local job markets. In areas with a growing population, for example, demand for services such as po lice and fire protection, water, and sanitation will increase. At the same time, in some occu- Chart 1 Since 1960, the population has grown more slowly Average annual percent increase Population Changes in population are among the basic factors that will affect employment opportuni ties in the future. The demand for workers in any occupation depends ultimately on the goods and services sought by the public. Changes in the size and characteristics of the population influence the amount and types of goods and services demanded. Changes in population also affect the size and characteris tics of the labor force—the people who work or 1940- 1945- 195045 50 55 195560 196065 196570 1970- 197575 80 198085 198590 Source: Bureau of the Census 13 pations more people looking for work in those areas could increase competition. Individuals investigating future employment opportunities in an occupation should remember that local conditions could differ greatly from national projections presented in the Handbook. Sources of information about local job market conditions can be found in the section, ‘ ‘Where to Go for More Information.” Labor Force The size and characteristics of the labor force determine the number and type of people competing for jobs. In addition, because work ers are a vital part of the production process, the size of the labor force affects the amount of goods and services that can be produced. Growth, alterations in the age structure, and rising educational levels are among the labor force changes that will affect employment op portunities through the 1980’s. always choose those applicants who have the most education. However, individuals look ing for a job should be aware that the higher educational attainment of the labor force as a whole could increase competition in many occupations. Persons contemplating dropping out of high school should recognize that a high school education has become standard. The educa tional attainment of the labor force has risen from 11.1 years of school in 1952 to 12.7 years in 1980. Many technical, craft, and office oc cupations now require postsecondary vocation al education or apprenticeship, because em ployers prefer to hire trained applicants rather than provide training. Thus, high school drop outs are likely to be at a serious disadvantage when seeking jobs that offer better pay or advancement. Traditionally, a college education has been viewed as a gateway to better pay, higher sta tus, and more challenging work. As college education has become more widespread, the proportion of workers in the labor force who have completed at least 4 years of college has risen from 8 percent in 1952 to 19 percent in 1980. Recent experience has shown, however, that the traditional view of a college degree as a guarantee of success has not been matched by reality. Between 1970 and 1980, employment of college graduates grew 84 percent. The pro portion employed in professional, technical, and managerial occupations, however, de clined because these occupations did not ex pand rapidly enough to absorb the growing supply of graduates. As a result, 1 out of 4 college graduates who entered the labor market between 1969 and 1978 took jobs not usually considered by graduates to be appropriate to their education and abilities. The proportion of graduates in clerical, lower level sales, and Growth. The civilian labor force consists of people with jobs and people looking for jobs. Through the late 1960’s and the 1970’s, the number of people in the labor force grew tre mendously because many people bom during the baby boom entered the job market, and women increasingly sought jobs. In 1980, the civilian labor force totaled about 105 million persons—63 percent of the non institutional population 16 years of age and over. The labor force will continue to grow during the 1980’s but at a slower rate than in recent years. By 1990, the size of the labor force is expected to range from 122 to 128 million persons—a projected increase of 17 to 22 per cent over the 1980 level. Contributing to this anticipated growth will be the expansion of the working age population and the continued rise in the proportion of women who work. The labor force will grow more slowly between 1985 and 1990 than in the early 1980’s. This slowdown will result from a drop in the number of young people of working age despite contin ued growth in the participation rate of women (charts 3 and 4). A larger labor force will mean more people looking for jobs. However, because of shifts in the age structure, the em ployment outlook for many individuals will improve. Age Structure. As a result of the baby boom, a large number of young people entered the labor force during the 1970’s, increasing com petition for many entry level jobs. As the num ber of people between 16 and 24 drops, there will be fewer first-time entrants into the labor force, and competition for entry level jobs should ease. The proportion of 25- to 54-yearolds in the labor force will swell as people bom during the baby boom get older. The whole economy should benefit from this change be cause workers in this age group generally have work experience and are, therefore, more pro ductive and less likely to be unemployed (chart 5). Education. Employers always wish to hire the best qualified persons available at the offered wage. This does not mean that they 14 Chart 3 Labor force growth will slow during the 1980’s Average annual percent increase Low Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics High Low High Chart 4 The number of women workers will continue to grow faster than the total labor force Percent increase from 1960 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Chart 5 Through the 1980’s, the number of workers in the prime working ages will grow dramatically Millions of persons 100 nance, insurance, and real estate would result in an increase in demand for white-collar work ers (chart 6). The Bureau of Labor Statistics has prepared three sets of projections of employment in in dustries and occupations. Referred to as the low-trend, high-trend I, and high-trend II alter natives or scenarios, the projections are based on different assumptions concerning growth of the labor force, unemployment, output, pro ductivity, and other factors. The low-trend pro jection assumes a decline in the rate of labor force growth, moderately high employment levels throughout the decade, continued high inflation, and modest increases in production and productivity. The two high-trend scenarios are more optimistic, assuming a slowdown of inflation, and lower unemployment rates than the low-trend scenario. The high-trend I sce nario assumes a faster growth of the labor force but slower growth of productivity than the high-trend II scenario. A more detailed discus sion of the assumptions and methods used to develop the three sets of projections can be found in a separate chapter of the Handbook. The following sections present employ ment estimates from the low-trend and the higher of the high-trend scenarios. Together these two estimates define the range of the projected industry and occupational employ ment growth. Industrial Profile 1970 1980 1990 1990 Low High 1970 1980 1990 1990 Low High 1970 1980 1990 1990 Low High Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics blue-collar occupations grew. Employment Analysis of the future demand for college graduates, and of future supply, indicates that more college graduates will be available than will be needed to fill jobs that require a college degree. Not all occupations requiring a college degree will be overcrowded, however. Systems analysts, programmers, and engineers are ex amples of occupations where college graduates are expected to be in very strong demand. The previous sections discussed trends in the population and the labor force—two factors that affect employment opportunities. Others factors include the policies of the Federal Gov ernment, the rate of inflation, and the availabil ity of energy. Changes in these and related factors affect the amount and type of goods and services that will be demanded in the future. If the demand for an industry’s output increases in the future, more workers generally will be hired to increase production, and employment in the industry will grow. Growth in an occupa tion is closely related to the growth rates of industries in which the occupation is found. For example, growth in the construction indus try would result in an increase in employment of blue-collar workers, as would growth in mining, manufacturing, or transportation—in dustries that also employ a high proportion of blue-collar workers. Likewise, growth in fi But despite widespread publicity about the overall poor job market for college graduates, graduates still have an advantage over other workers. They are more likely to be employed and to hold the highest paying professional and managerial jobs. Persons interested in occupa tions that require a college degree should not be discouraged from pursuing a career that they believe matches their interests and abilities, but they should be aware of job market conditions. To discuss employment trends and projec tions in industries, it is useful to divide the economy into nine industrial sectors under two broad groups—service-producing industries and goods-producing industries. Over twothirds of the Nation’s workers currently are employed in industries that provide services such as health care, trade, education, repair and maintenance, government, transportation, banking, and insurance. Industries that pro duce goods through farming, construction, mining, and manufacturing employ less than one-third of the country’s work force. Service-Producing-Industries. Employment in service-producing industries has increased at a faster rate than employment in goods-produc ing industries (chart 7). Among the factors that have contributed to this rapid growth are rising incomes and living standards that result in greater demand for education, health care, en tertainment, and business and financial ser vices. In addition, the growth of cities and suburbs brought a need for more local govern ment services. Further, because many services involve personal contact, fewer people have been replaced by machines in service-produc ing industries. Employment in service-producing indus tries is expected to increase from 65.7 million workers in 1980 to between 78.7 and 83.5 million in 1990, or by 20 to 27 percent. Growth will vary among industries within the group (chart 8). The following paragraphs summa rize recent trends and the projections of em15 ployment in the five industrial sectors that make up the service-producing industries. tance to finance the expansion of their plants and the purchase of new equipment. Transportation, communications, and pub lic utilities. This is the slowest growing sec tor of the service-producing industries. Be tween 1970 to 1980, employment in this sector increased only one-third as fast as in the service-producing industries as a whole, due largely to declining employment require ments in the railroad and water transportation industries. However, even in the communica tions industries where demand increased greatly, technological innovations limited employment growth. Services. This sector includes a variety of industries, such as hotels, barber shops, auto mobile repair shops, business services, hospi tals, and nonprofit organizations. Employment in this sector increased 37 percent between 1970 and 1980. High demand for health care, maintenance and repair, advertising, and com mercial cleaning services has been among the forces behind this growth. Between 1980 and 1990, employment in the transportation, communication, and public utilities sector is expected to rise from 5.5 million to between 6.5 and 7.1 million work ers, or by 12 to 22 percent. Communications industries will grow 14 to 27 percent, from 1.4 million to between 1.5 and 1.7 million work ers. More efficient communications equipment is likely to keep employment from growing as rapidly as output. Although employment in railroad and water transportation industries is expected to decline, other transportation industries such as air, local transit, and trucking will increase. Employ ment in transportation as a whole will rise by 12 to 18 percent, from 3.6 million to between 4.1 and 4.3 million workers. From 1980 to 1990, employment in service industries is expected to increase from 26.2 million to between 31.6 and 33.5 million work ers or by 20 to 28 percent, and will provide more new jobs than any other industry sector. Employment requirements in health care are expected to grow rapidly due to population growth—particularly the elderly—rising in comes and increased health insurance coverage that increase people’s ability to pay for medical care. Business services, including accounting, data processing, and maintenance, also are ex pected to grow rapidly. Government. Increase demand for services provided by government—administration, health and welfare and police and fire protec tion—caused employment in the government sector to rise about 36 percent between 1970 and 1980. Employment in State and local gov ernments expanded 47 percent compared to 13 percent for the Federal Government. As a result of public desire to limit gov ernment growth, employment is expected to rise only 14 to 16 percent, from 7.9 million to between 9 and 9.1 million workers. Most of this growth will be in State and local government. Goods-Producing Industries. Employment in goods-producing industries rose only 10 per- Chart 6 Industries differ substantially in the kinds of workers they employ Blue-collar workers 5.1% Service workers 1.0% Demand for electric power, gas utilities, and water and sanitary services will increase through the 1990’s as population and industry grow. Employment in industries that deliver these services is expected to increase from 834,000 to between 910,000 and 1.1 million workers, or by 9 to 30 percent. Trade. Both wholesale and retail trade em ployment have increased as the population has grown and as rising incomes have enabled peo ple to buy a great number and variety of goods. Retail trade grew slightly faster than wholesale trade during the 1970’s, 38 percent compared to 32 percent—reflecting the growth of shop ping centers as the suburbs expanded. Between 1980 and 1990, wholesale and retail trade em ployment is expected to grow from 20.6 mil lion to between 25.1 and 26.8 million workers, or by 22 to 31 percent. Employment will con tinue to increase faster in retail than in whole sale trade, 24 to 31 percent compared with 17 to 28 percent. Employment will rise despite the use of some laborsaving innovations such as self-service merchandising and computerized inventory systems. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Chart 7 Industries providing services employ more people than those providing goods Workers (millions)1 70 Finance, insurance, and real estate. This sector grew 42 percent between 1970 and 1980 as these industries expanded to meet the fi nancial and banking needs of a growing population. Between 1980 and 1990, employment in this section is expected to rise from 5.2 million to between 6.5 and 6.9 million workers, or by 26 to 34 percent. A growing population will keep demand high for credit and other financial ser vices. In addition, businesses will need assis 16 1965 1970 ’ Wage and salary workers, except for agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid fam ily workers Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 1980 while a moderate rise in employment is pro jected for the paper industry. Among durable goods, computer equipment manufacturing is expected to undergo a rapid employment in crease, while sawmills will employ about the same number of workers in 1990 as in 1980. Chart 8 Through the 1980’s, changes in employment will vary widely among industries Projected range of employment growth, 1980-90 (millions)1 -2 0 2 4 6 8 Customarily, occupations are divided into white-collar occupations—professional and technical, managerial, clerical, and sales jobs; blue-collar occupations—craft, operative, and laborer jobs; service occupations; and farm occupations. Agriculture Mining Construction Manufacturing Transportation, communications, and public utilities Trade Finance, insurance, and real estate Services Government 'W age and salary workers, except for agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics cent between 1970 and 1980. Growth varied greatly by industry, however. Between 1980 and 1990, employment in goods-producing in dustries is expected to increase from 29 million to between 32.5 and 35.5 million workers, or by 13 to 22 percent. Significant variation in growth rates is expected to continue among the four sectors that make up this group (chart 8). Agriculture. Employment in agriculture de clined 7 percent between 1970 and 1980, while farm output increased through the use of more and better machinery, fertilizers, feeds, pesti cides, and hybrid plants. Domestic demand for food will increase only slightly through the 1980’s. The world wide demand for food will rise because of population growth, and exports of food will increase through the next decade. Farm pro ductivity, however, will continue to improve— although more slowly than in the past—and employment is expected to decline even as production rises. Between 1980 and 1990, em ployment is projected to drop from 3.1 million to between 2.6 and 2.9 million workers, or by 7 to 16 percent. Mining, Having declined through most of the 1960’s, employment in the mining sector increased substantially during the 1970’s. Em ployment rose about 65 percent between 1970 and 1980, mostly because of the country’s renewed emphasis on developing energy sources. As the development of fuel resources, espe cially coal, continues through the next decade, employment in the mining sector is expected to grow from 1 million to between 1.2 and 1.3 million workers, or by 20 to 30 percent. In some nonenergy industries such as iron ore mining, employment will grow more slowly than in the sector as a whole. Improvements in mining techniques in these industries will per mit increased output with only a slight increase in employment. Occupational Profile Contract construction. Despite several eco nomic slumps, employment rose 25 percent between 1970 and 1980, because of strong demand for houses, apartments, office build ings, and highways. During the 1980’s, the demand for new housing is expected to remain high as the num ber of households continues to increase. Busi ness expansion and maintenance of existing buildings also will require more construction. Between 1980 and 1990, employment in the construction sector is expected to increase from 4.5 million to between 5.6 and 6 million work ers, or 24 to 34 percent. Manufacturing. Although a growing popu lation and rising incomes increased demand for almost all types of goods, improved production methods and stiff foreign competition limited employment growth in many manufacturing industries during the 1970’s. In fact, the growth in employment over the decade, 5 percent, was less than in any other sector except agriculture. Manufacturing employment is expected to rise to between 23.3 and 25.3 million workers by 1990, a 15- to 24-percent increase from the 1980 level of 20.4 million. Manufacturing is divided into two broad categories, durable goods manufacturing and nondurable goods manufacturing. Employ ment in durable goods manufacturing is ex pected to increase 19 to 30 percent as rising population and incomes increase demand for consumer durables, such as automobiles and appliances, and rising business investment in creases demand for capital goods, such as machinery. Employment in nondurable goods manufacturing will increase more slowly, by 8 to 15 percent, reflecting the tendency of con sumers to spend less of their budget on staples such as food and clothing as their incomes rise. Growth rates will vary among individual industries within each of these categories. In nondurable goods industries, for example, em ployment in bakeries is expected to decline, Growth rates among these groups have dif fered markedly since 1960. White-collar work ers now represent about half of the total labor force up from 43 percent in 1960 (chart 9). The number of service workers also has risen rapidly, while the blue-collar work force has grown only slowly and farm workers have de clined. The following section describes ex pected changes among the broad occupational groups between 1980 and 1990 (chart 10). Professional and technical workers. This category includes many highly trained work ers, such as scientists and engineers, medical practitioners, teachers, entertainers, pilots, and accountants. Between 1980 and 1990, em ployment is expected to grow from 16.4 mil lion to between 19.7 and 20.7 million workers, or by 20 to 26 percent. Greater efforts in energy development and industrial production will contribute to a growing demand for scientists, engineers, and technicians. The medical professions can be expected to grow as the health services industry expands. The demand for systems analysts and programmers to further develop and utilize computer resources is projected to grow rapidly. Some occupations in this group will offer less favorable job prospects. For example, em ployment of secondary and college and univer sity faculty is expected to decrease somewhat as a result of declining school enrollments. Other jobs, such as lawyer or architect, are expected to grow substantially but will be very competitive because they attract many applicants. Managers and administrators. This group includes workers such as bank officers and managers, buyers, credit managers, and selfemployed business operators, between 1980 and 1990, this group is expected to grow from 9.4 million to between 10.6 and 11.3 million, or by 13 to 21 percent. Changes in business size and organizational structure have resulted in differing trends for self-employed and salaried managers. The number of self-employed business managers will continue to decline as large corporations and chain operations increasingly dominate many areas of business. Some small busi nesses, such as quick-service groceries and fast-food restaurants, still will provide oppor tunities for self-employment, however. The demand for salaried managers will continue to 17 dising techniques such as computerized check out counters, more stores and longer operating hours will cause employment to increase. Chart 9 W hite-collar workers have been the largest occupational group for more than two decades Workers (millions) 601---------- White-collar Blue-collar 1960 Chart 10 Through the 1980’s, changes in employment will vary widely among occupational groups Projected range of employment growth, 1980-90 (millions) Professional and technical workers Managers and administrators Sales workers Clerical workers Craft workers Operatives, except transport Transport operatives Laborers Private household workers (Nogrowth) Other service workers Farm workers Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics grow as firms increasingly depend on trained management specialists, particularly in highly technical areas of operation. Clerical workers. This group constitutes the largest occupational group and includes bank tellers, bookkeepers and accounting clerks, cashiers, secretaries, and typists. Between 1980 and 1990, employment in these occupa tions is expected to grow from 18.9 million to between 22.4 and 23.9 million workers, or by 19 to 27 percent. Although new developments in computers, office machines, and dictating equipment will enable clerical workers to do more work in less time and will change the skills needed in some jobs, continued growth in employment is ex pected in most clerical occupations. Excep tions are keypunch operators, stenographers, and airline reservation and ticket agents— occupations that are expected to decline as 18 Employment in many craft occupations is tied to trends in a particular industry. Employ ment in nearly all construction trades, for ex ample, is expected to grow because of high demand for residential construction and busi ness investment in new plants. In contrast, the long-run employment de cline in the railroad industry will lessen the demand for some craft occupations concen trated in that industry, such as railroad and car shop repairers. Because of advances in printing technology, very little growth is anticipated in the printing crafts. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Craft workers. This group includes a wide variety of highly skilled workers, such as car penters, tool-and-die makers, instrument mak ers, all-round machinists, electricians, and automobile mechanics. Between 1980 and 1990, employment in this group is expected to increase from 12.4 million to between 14.6 to 15.8 million, or by 18 to 27 percent. improved technology reduces the need for workers. Conversely, the more extensive use of computers will greatly increase the employ ment of computer and peripheral equipment operators. Sales workers. These workers are employed primarily by retail stores, manufacturing and wholesale firms, insurance companies, and real estate agencies. Employment in this group is expected to grow from 6.8 million to be tween 8.1 and 8.8 million workers, or by 19 to 28 percent. Much of this growth will be due to expan sion in the retail trade industry which employs nearly one-half of these workers. The demand for both full- and part-time sales workers in retail trade is expected to increase as the growing population along with its geographic movement requires more shopping centers and stores. Despite the use of laborsaving merchan Operatives except transport. This group in cludes production workers such as assemblers, production painters, and welders. Between 1980 and 1990, employment is expected to rise from 10.7 million to between 12.2 and 13.2 million workers, or by 14 to 23 percent. Employment of operatives is tied closely to the production of goods, because the majority of these workers are employed in manufactur ing industries. The projected slow growth of some manufacturing industries, along with im proved production processes, will hold down the demand for many of these workers. Em ployment of textile operatives, for example, is expected to decline as more machinery is used in the textile industry. Transport operatives. This group includes workers who drive buses, trucks, taxis, and forklifts, as well as parking attendants and sailors. Employment in most of these occupa tions will increase because of greater use of most types of transportation equipment. Some occupations, such as bus driver and sailor, will grow only slowly. Between 1980 and 1990, employment of transport operatives is expected to rise from 3.5 million to between 4.2 and 4.4 million workers, or by 18 to 26 percent. Laborers. This group includes such workers as garbage collectors, construction laborers, and freight and stock handlers. Employment in this group is expected to grow slowly as ma chinery increasingly replaces manual labor. Power-driven equipment, such as forklift trucks, cranes, and hoists will handle more material in factories, loading docks, and ware houses. Other machines will do excavating, ditch digging, and similar work. Between 1980 and 1990, employment of laborers is expected to increase from 5.9 million to between 6.7 and 7.1 million workers or by 14 to 22 percent. Private household service workers. These workers include housekeepers, child care workers, and maids and servants. In contrast to the rapid employment growth expected for other service occupations, the number of pri vate household workers is projected to remain about the same as in 1980 when employment was 988,000. Although demand for maids and other private household workers should rise as more women work outside the home and per sonal incomes rise, fewer people are expected to seek these jobs because of the low wages, lack of advancement opportunities, and low social status associated with the work. Service workers. This group includes a wide range of worker—firefighters, janitors, cosme tologists, and bartenders are a few examples. These workers, most of whom are employed in service-producing industries, make up the fastest growing occupational group. Factors expected to increase the need for these workers are the rising demand for health services as the population becomes older and—as incomes rise—more frequent use of restaurants, beauty salons, and leisure services. Between 1980 and 1990, employment of service workers is ex pected to increase by about 24 to 32 percent, from 14.6 million between 18.1 and 19.2 mil lion workers. Farm workers. This group includes farmers and farm managers as well as farm laborers. Employment of these workers has declined for decades as farm productivity has increased as a result of fewer but larger farms, the use of more efficient machinery, and the development of new feeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. Between 1980 and 1990 the number of farmworkers is expected to decline from 2.7 million to be tween 2.4 and 2.2 million workers, or by be tween 10 and 18 percent. Job Openings Projected employment growth is one indica tor of future job prospects because it identifies the occupations in which demand for workers is increasing. Another is the total number of job openings that are expected to be generated from replacement needs as well as employment growth. Replacement needs result from the constant changes occurring in the work force as workers transfer to other jobs or stop working. Some workers transfer to other occupations either as a step up the career ladder or to change careers. Some workers temporarily stop work ing, perhaps to return to school or care for a family. And some workers leave the labor force permanently. These movements result in job openings for people outside the occupation. When these replacement needs are considered it becomes apparent that even occupations in which employment is expected to decline or to increase slowly can offer many job opportunities. which they could transfer. They also have in vested a great deal of time and money in pre paring for their careers. As a result the replace ment rate is much higher for laborers than for physicians. In the past, the Bureau’s estimates of re placement needs included only job openings due to deaths and retirements. These esti mates understated replacement needs because they excluded openings that are created as workers leave the labor force temporarily to return to school and for other personal rea sons. They also excluded the number of openings that are generated as workers change occupations. After several years of research, the Bureau has developed openings estimates that take account of these factors. These new estimates should provide a more accurate picture of job opportunities resulting from replacement needs. Detailed informa tion about the new estimates of replacement openings will be presented in the forthcom ing bulletin, Occupational Projections and Training Data, 1982 Edition. The number of replacement openings varies among occupations (chart 11). These vari ations reflect differences in the average age of workers in the occupation, the earnings and status associated with the job, and the level of required training. Construction laborers, for example, can quit and later easily find a similar or better job. On the other hand, physicians have few occupations of equal status and pay to Chart 11 Replacement needs result from occupational transfers and labor force separations Average annual replacement needs, 1980-90 (m illions)1 0 1 2 3 4 Professional and technical workers Managers and administrators Sales workers Clerical workers Craft workers Operatives, except transport Transport operatives Laborers Private household workers Other service workers Farm workers 1Based on low-trend projections Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Labor force separations 19 Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections Although the discussions of future em ployment contained in the Handbook are written in qualitative terms, they are based on quantitative estimates developed using the most recent data available on population, in dustry and occupational employment, pro ductivity, consumer expenditures, and other factors expected to affect employment. The Bureau’s staff specializing in developing eco nomic and employment projections provided much of these data, but many other agencies of the Federal Government were important contributors as well, including the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training of the Depart ment of Labor; the Bureau of the Census of the Department of Commerce; the National Center for Education Statistics and the Reha bilitation Services Administration of the De partment of Education; the Office of Person nel Management; the Interstate Commerce Commission; the Civil Aeronautics Board; the Federal Communications Commission; the Department of Transportation; and the National Science Foundation. In addition, experts in industry, unions, pro fessional societies, and trade associations fur nished data and supplied information through interviews. Many of these individuals also re viewed preliminary drafts of the statements. The information presented in each statement thus reflects the knowledge and judgment not only of the Bureau of Labor Statistics staff, but also of leaders in the field discussed. The Bu reau, of course, takes full responsibility for the published material. Information compiled from these sources was analyzed in conjunction with alternative projections of the economy to 1990 constructed as part of the Bureau’s projections program. Like other models used in projecting economic and employment development, the Bureau’s system encompasses the major facets of the economy and represents a comprehensive view of its projected structure. It is comprised of a series of closely related projections encom passing labor force; gross national product (GNP); industrial output and productivity; average weekly hours of work; and employ ment for detailed industry groups and occupa tions. A detailed description of the model sys tem appears in The BLS Economic Growth Model System Used for Projections to 1990, Bulletin 2112. For more detail on the projec tions used in developing this report, see the 20 August 1981 issue of the Monthly Labor Review. Assumptions. The Bureau has prepared three different scenarios of economic growth through the 1980’s. Each alternative is based on the following general assumptions. —Energy prices will not rise dramatically and alter the growth of GNP. —The institutional framework of the U.S. economy will not change radically. — Current social, technological, and scientific trends will continue. —No major event such as widespread or long-lasting energy shortages or war will significantly alter the industrial structure of the economy or alter the rate of economic growth. — Federal grants-in-aid to State and local govern ments will decline. — Federal expenditures will decline as a proportion of GNP. The differences among the scenarios reflect different sets of specific assumptions about fiscal and demographic factors, as well as pro ductivity, employment, and price levels through the decade. The low-trend projection is characterized by assumptions of continuing high inflation, low productivity growth, and moderate expansion in real production. The high-trend I version assumes marked improve ment in both inflation and productivity, greater labor force growth, and higher real production. Finally, the high-trend II version alternative assumes labor force growth consistent with the low trend, but greater productivity gains and less inflation than in the high-trend I version. Detailed information about the assumptions used in these projections is presented in BLS Projections to 1990, Bulletin 2121. Methods. Beginning with population projec tions by age and sex developed by the Bureau of the Census, a projection of the total labor force is derived using expected labor force participation rates for each population group. In developing participation rates, the Bureau takes into account a variety of factors that affect decisions to enter the labor force, such as school attendance, retirement practices, and family responsibilities. The labor force projection is then translated into the level of GNP that would be produced by the labor force at the assumed employment and unemployment levels. Real GNP then is calculated by subtracting unemployment from the labor force and multiplying the result by a projection of output per worker. The estimates of future output per worker are based on an analysis of trends in productivity (output per workhour) among industries and changes in average weekly hours of work. Next, the projection of GNP is divided among its major components: Consumer ex penditures, investment, government expendi tures— Federal, State, and local—and net ex ports. These estimates of GNP by major component are derived using an economic model and by making assumptions about fiscal policy, taxes, and other major economic varia bles. Each of these major GNP components is in turn broken down by producing industry. Consumer expenditures, for example, are di vided among industries producing goods and services such as housing, food, automobiles, medical care and education. Once estimates are developed for these products and services, they are translated into detailed projections of industry output, not only for the industries producing the final prod uct—such as an automobile—but also for the industries that provide electric power, transpor tation, component parts, and other inputs re quired in the production process. Input-output tables developed by the Department of Com merce and modified by the BLS are used to estimate output. By using estimates of future output per workhour based on studies of productivity and technological trends for each industry, industry employment projections are derived from the output estimates. In addition, many detailed industries are studied using regression analy sis. In these studies, equations are developed that relate employment by industry to combina tions of economic variables, such as population and income, that are considered determinants of long-run changes in employment. The in dustry employment projections developed through these studies are evaluated with data generated by the basic model to develop the final industry employment projections. They also are used to develop projections for indus tries that are not included in the basic model. Occupational employment projections. Pro jections of industry employment are translated into occupational employment projections us ing an industry-occupation matrix. The Bureau converted the National Industry-Occupational Employment Matrix from a Census base to an Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) survey base in 1981; this edition of the Handbook is the first to incorporate the OES data. The new matrix is divided into 378 industries and about 1,600 occupations, offering far greater detail than has been avail able on the current and projected employment structure of the economy. Staffing patterns that reflect data from the OES surveys are projected to the target year (currently 1990) and, when applied to projec tions of total employment by industry and summed across all industries, yield employ ment projections for all occupations in the matrix. Thus, the projected employment of an occupation is determined by changes in the proportion of workers in the occupation in each industry, and the growth rate of in dustries in which an occupation is concentrat ed. For example, employment in an occupa tion would be projected to grow: (1) if its proportion of the work force increases but industry employment remains constant, or (2) if its proportion of the work force remains constant but industry employment increases. In some cases, employment is projected on the basis of its relationship to certain inde pendent variables rather than on its represen tation in each industry. This approach is par ticularly useful when projecting employment for an occupation that is affected by its own complex set of factors. For example, employ ment of elementary school teachers is pro jected based on trends in pupil-teacher ratios applied to projected school attendance, and the projection of automobile mechanics is based on the expected stock of motor vehi cles. Projections that are developed inde pendently are compared with those in the matrix and revised, if necessary, to assure consistency. Replacement needs. In addition to a projec tion of employment, an estimate is made of the total number of job openings expected to occur in each occupation. Growth in the size of an occupation is only one source of job openings. Employment opportunities also occur when workers transfer to another occupation, leave the labor force temporarily, retire, or die. In previous editions of the Handbook, esti mates of replacement needs reflected only openings due to permanent labor force sepa rations. They did not take into account job openings created by the movement of work ers between occupations or by workers who temporarily stop working for school, family, or other reasons. These estimates seriously understated replacement needs for many oc cupations, thereby hindering an accurate as sessment of job market conditions in specific occupations. Using longitudinal data from the Current Population Survey (CPS), estimates of job openings from all sources have been derived that should provide a more comprehensive view of the demand for workers through the 1980’s. The development of job openings informa tion based on CPS data is described in Measur ing Labor Force Movements: A New Ap proach, BLS Report 581. Detailed job open ings information for some of the occupations covered in the Handbook will be presented in the forthcoming BLS bulletin, Occupational Projections and Training Data, 1982 Edition. 21 Administrative and Managerial Occupations Managers and administrators achieve orga nizational objectives by planning and direct ing the activities of others. In a very small enterprise, the owner may also be the man ager. However, as a business or other organi zation grows and becomes more complex, more people are needed to oversee the oper ations of the work force. Large corporations or government agencies may employ hun dreds of managers, organized into a hierarchy of administrative positions. Top level managers—executives—are pri marily concerned with policymaking, plan ning, and overall coordination. They direct the activities of the organization through de partmental or mid-level managers. Top level managers include school superintendents, po lice and fire chiefs, bank presidents, gover nors, mayors, hospital administrators, chief executive officers of corporations, depart ment store managers, and government agency directors. Below the top management in a large orga nization are the middle managers, who direct various departments. Middle managers may handle a particular area, such as personnel, accounting, sales, finance, or marketing. Or they may supervise the production process at a factory or industrial plant. Middle manag ers are the people who keep things running smoothly. They organize activities at the op erating level and provide direct supervision. Middle managers work with the assistance of support personnel who plan, organize, analyze, and monitor activities. Support per sonnel include accountants, loan officers, employment interviewers, purchasing agents and buyers, credit managers, membership di rectors, promotion agents, and inspectors of all kinds. Jobs such as these require technical expertise or a thorough understanding of a particular procedure or operation. Managers and administrators are employed in virtually every type of industrial plant, commercial enterprise, and government agen cy. Large numbers are employed in finance, insurance, real estate, construction, public administration, health, education, transporta tion, and public utilities. The accompanying table presents 1980 employment estimates for selected adminis trative and managerial occupations. Because of the wide range of establish ments employing managers, job duties vary greatly. For example, the manager of a fast food restaurant performs tasks that differ sub stantially from those of a school administra tor, community organization director, or con struction manager. 22 As the nature of the work varies, so does the level of education required. Some manag ers and administrators, including school prin cipals and hospital administrators, need at least a master’s degree. Positions such as these require the specialized knowledge and skills obtained through years of formal edu cation. Other positions, including production supervisor, retail buyer, construction man ager, and maintenance superintendent, may not require a college degree. People in these jobs often have worked their way up in the organization. Their main qualification is a thorough knowledge of the operating proce dures of the workplace. Most managerial and administrative positions require a college education, however. In some occupations— such as accounting—continuing education is important for career advancement. On-the-job training enables workers with management potential to “ learn the ropes.” Particularly in wholesale and retail trade, many managers begin as management train ees, working under the direction of more experienced managers. Management trainees may be hired from outside the organization or promoted from other positions within it. On-the-job training programs provide train ees with the specific knowledge and exper ience they need to perform successfully. Despite the differences in formal education and training, successful managers are likely to have certain characteristics in common. Because they work with people, managers need to be able to get along with and moti vate and influence others. They should be able to inspire confidence and respect in those who work for them. When they make plans and set goals for their enterprise, managers work with ideas. They need organzational skills, good judg ment, and decisionmaking ability. Successful managers have mastered the art of getting all the facts, coming to a decision, and commu nicating it effectively. They need a strong sense of initiative to be able to work without close supervision. For some administrative positions analyt ical, evaluative, and promotional skills are essential. Accountants, financial analysts, and others provide the technical expertise upon which management decisions are based. Good judgment and the ability to relate to others are important for people in these occupations. Earnings for managers and administrators vary widely. They depend on the industry and on the size and nature of the particular establishment in which the manager is em ployed. Earnings also vary with the level of managerial or administrative responsibility. For example, management trainees may start working at salaries that are not much higher than those of the people they supervise. Earnings increase as managers gain expe rience, prove their ability to handle the job, and take on additional responsibility. On the whole, employment of managers and administrators is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The growing size and complexity of both private and government enterprise is expected to require increasingly sophisticated management techniques. There fore, the demand for trained management specialists will increase. Employment opportunities will be better in some industries than in others, however. Lit tle employment growth is foreseen in educa tional institutions during the 1980’s, and therefore most job openings for school ad- Table 1. Employment in selected administrative and managerial occupations, 1980 Occupation Employment Accountants, auditors, and related occupations.................................. 887,000 Accountant and auditor ........ 833,000 Tax examiner, collector, and revenue agent ...................... 54,000 Restaurant, cafe and bar - . manager......... -rv. . . . 5 5 7 , 0 0 0 Sales manager, retail trade .......... 273,000 Personnel and labor relations specialist...................................... 178,000 Purchasing agent and buyer ........ 172,000 Inspector (except construction), public administration.................. 112,000 Cost estimator ................................ 86,000 Underwriter...................................... 76,000 Employment interviewer................ 58,000 Construction inspector, public administration.............................. 48,000 Assessor ........................................... 32,000 Tax preparer.................................... 31,000 Postmaster and mail superintendent.............................. 28,000 Credit analyst.................................. 24,000 Special agent, insurance................ 24,000 Claim examiner, property/casualty insurance...................................... 22,000 Claim taker, unemployment.......... 15,000 Media bu y er.................................... 15,000 Welfare investigator........................ 12,000 Chief credit analyst........................ 8,000 Safety inspector.............................. 6,000 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Administrative and Managerial Occupations/23 ministrators will result from replacement needs. By contrast, projected expansion in the health industry will generate many new managerial and administrative support posi tions in hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, insurance companies, pharmaceutical and medical supply firms, and other health-relat ed organizations. Employment growth should also be strong in wholesale and retail trade and in manufacturing. Both the number and proportion of selfemployed managers and administrators are expected to decline during the 1980’s, as large enterprises and chain operations in creasingly dominate business activity. Accountants and Auditors______ (D .O .T. 160 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Managers must have up-to-date financial information to make important decisions. Ac countants and auditors prepare and analyze financial reports that furnish this kind of information. Many persons with accounting backgrounds work for the Federal Government as Internal Revenue Service agents or are involved in financial management, financial institution ex amining, and budget administration. Accountants staff the faculties of business and professional schools as accounting teach ers, researchers, or administrators. Some ac countants teach part time, work as consultants, or serve on committees of professional organi zations. For additional information, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty. Working Conditions Most accountants and auditors work in of fices and have structured work schedules. Accounting teachers, on the other hand, with more flexible schedules, divide their time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Self-employed accountants, who may set up offices at home, work as many hours as the business requires. Tax accountants work long hours under heavy pressure during the tax season. Ac countants employed by large firms may travel extensively to audit or work for clients or branches of the firm. Employment About 900,000 people worked as account ants and auditors in 1980, including more than 200,000 Certified Public Accountants (CPA), 20,000 licensed public accountants, and about 10,000 Certified Internal Auditors (CIA). Most accountants do management account ing. Many others are engaged in public ac counting as proprietors, partners, or employees of independent accounting firms. Other ac countants work for Federal, State, and local government agencies, and some teach in col leges and universities. Opportunities are plen tiful for part-time work, particularly in smaller firms. Accountants and auditors are found in all business, industrial, and government organi zations. Most, however, work in large urban areas where many public accounting firms and central offices of large businesses are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training is available at colleges and uni versities, accounting and business schools, and correspondence schools. Although many graduates of business and correspondence schools are successful in landing junior ac counting positions, most public accounting and business firms require applicants for ac countant and internal auditor positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree in account ing or a closely related field. Many employ - Three major fields are public, management, and government accounting. Public account ants have their own businesses or work for accounting firms. Management accountants, also called industrial or private accountants, handle the financial records of their company. Government accountants and auditors examine the records of government agencies and audit private businesses and individuals whose deal ings are subject to government regulations. Accountants often concentrate on one phase of accounting. For example, many public accountants specialize in auditing (examining a client’s financial records and reports and attesting that they are in comformity with standards of preparation and reporting). Oth ers specialize in tax matters, such as preparing income tax forms and advising clients of the tax advantages and disadvantages of certain business decisions. Still others specialize in management consulting and offer advice on a variety of matters. They might develop or revise an accounting system to serve the needs of clients more effectively or give advice about various types of computers or electronic data processing systems. Management accountants provide the fi nancial information executives need to make sound business decisions. They may work in areas such as taxation, budgeting, costs, or investments. Internal auditing, a specializa tion within management accounting, is rapid ly growing in importance. Internal auditors examine and evaluate their firm’s financial systems and management control procedures to ensure efficient operation. Accountants need mathematical and analytical skills. 24/Occupational Outlook Handbook ers prefer those with the master’s degree in accounting. A growing number of large em ployers prefer applicants who are familiar with computers and their applications in ac counting and internal auditing. For beginning accounting and auditing positions, the Feder al Government requires 4 years of college (including 24 semester hours in accounting or auditing) or an equivalent combination of education and experience. However, appli cants face competition for the limited number of openings in the Federal Government. For teaching positions, most colleges and univer sities generally require a doctoral degree or the Certified Public Accountant Certificate. Previous experience in accounting or au diting can help an applicant get a job. Many colleges offer students an opportunity to gain experience through summer or part-time in ternship programs conducted by public ac counting or business firms. Such training is invaluable in gaining permanent employment in the field. Professional recognition through certifica tion or licensure also is extremely valuable. Anyone working as a ‘‘certified public account ant” must hold a certificate and a license issued by a State board of accountancy. All States use the four-part Uniform CPA Examination, pre pared by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, to establish certification. The CPA examination is rigorous and candi dates are not required to pass all four parts at once. However, most States require candidates to pass at least two parts for partial credit. Many States require all sections of the test to be passed within a certain period of time. Al though the vast majority of States require CPA candidates to be college graduates, some States substitute a certain number of years of public accounting experience for the educational re quirement. Most States require applicants to have some public accounting experience for a CPA certificate. For example, bachelor’s de gree holders most often need 2 years of experi ence while master’s degree holders often need no more than 1 year. Based on recommenda tions made by the American Institute of Certi fied Public Accountants, a few States now require or are considering requiring CPA can didates to have training beyond a bachelor’s degree and, in some cases, a master’s degree. This trend is expected to continue in the com ing years. For a “public accountant” or “accounting practitioner” license or registration, some States require only a high school diploma while others require college training. Infor mation on requirements may be obtained di rectly from individual State boards of accountancy or from the National Society of Public Accountants (NSPA). The Accreditation Council for Accountan cy awards accreditation in accountancy to persons who have passed a comprehensive examination. Accreditation is maintained by completing mandatory continuing education. The Institute of Internal Auditors, Inc., con fers the Certified Internal Auditor (CIA) upon graduates from accredited colleges and universities who have completed 3 years’ ex perience in internal auditing and who have passed a four-part examination. The National Association of Accountants (NAA) confers the Certificate in Management Accounting (CMA) upon candidates who pass a series of uniform examinations and meet specific edu cational and professional standards. Persons planning a career in accounting should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able quickly to analyze, compare, and inter pret facts and figures, and to make sound judgments based on this knowledge. They must question how and why things are done and be able to clearly communicate the re sults of their work, orally and in writing, to clients and management. Accountants and auditors must be patient and able to concentrate for long periods of time. They must be good at working with systems and computers as well as with peo ple. Accuracy and the ability to handle re sponsibility with limited supervision are important. Perhaps most important, because millions of financial statement users rely on the ser vices of accountants and auditors, the public expects accountants and auditors to have high standards of integrity. A growing number of States require both CPA’s and licensed public accountants to complete a certain number of hours of con tinuing education before licenses can be re newed. The professional associations repre senting accountants sponsor numerous courses, seminars, group study programs, and other forms of continuing education. In creasingly, accountants and auditors are studying computer programming so they can adapt accounting procedures to data process ing. Although capable accountants and audi tors should advance rapidly, those having inadequate academic preparation may be as signed routine jobs and find promotion difficult. Junior public accountants usually start by assisting with auditing work for several cli ents. They may advance to intermediate posi tions with more responsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within another few years. Those who deal successfully with top industry executives often become supervi sors, managers, or partners, or transfer to executive positions in private firms. Some open their own public accounting offices. Beginning management accountants often start as ledger accountants, junior internal auditors, or as trainees for technical account ing positions. They may advance to chief plant accountant, chief cost accountant, budget di rector, or manager of internal auditing. Some become controllers, treasurers, financial vicepresidents, or corporation presidents. Many corporation executives have backgrounds in accounting and finance. In the Federal Government, beginners are hired as trainees and usually are promoted in a year or so. In college and university teach ing, those having minimum training and ex perience may receive the rank of instructor without tenure; advancement and permanent faculty status depend upon further education and teaching experience and are increasingly difficult to attain. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s due to increasing pressure on businesses and government agencies to im prove budgeting and accounting procedures. Because the occupation is large, many job openings should result from the need to re place workers who leave the occupation, re tire, or die. Demand for skilled accountants and audi tors will rise as managers rely increasingly on accounting information to make business decisions. For example, plant expansion, mergers, or foreign investments may depend upon the financial condition of the firm, tax implications of the proposed action, and oth er considerations. On a smaller scale, small businesses are expected to rely more and more on the expertise of public accountants in planning their operations. Legislation re garding pension reform, tax reform, financial disclosure, and other matters should create many jobs for accountants and auditors. In addition, increases in investment and lending also should spur demand for accountants and auditors. College graduates will be in greater de mand for accounting and auditing jobs than applicants who lack this training. CPA’s should have a wider range of job opportuni ties than other accountants. Opportunities for accountants without a college degree will oc cur mainly in small businesses and account ing firms. Many employers prefer graduates who have worked part time in a business or ac counting firm while in school. In fact, exper ience has become so important that some employers in business and industry seek per sons with 1 or 2 years ’ experience for begin ning positions. The increasing use of computers and elec tronic data processing systems in accounting and auditing should stimulate the demand for those trained in such procedures. Opportuni ties should be particularly good for internal auditors and tax accountants. Earnings According to a 1980 College Placement Council Salary Survey, bachelor’s degree candidates in accounting received offers aver aging around $16,800 a year; master’s degree candidates, $19,200. The starting salary of beginning account ants in private industry was about $15,100 a year in 1980, according to a national survey. Earnings of experienced accountants ranged between $18,400 and $31,900, depending on >/ their level of responsibility and the complex ity of the accounting system. Chief accoun tants who direct the accounting program of a company or one of its establishments earned between $28,300 and $50,100, depending upon the scope of their authority and size of professional staff. According to the same survey, beginning auditors averaged $14,900 a year in 1980, while experienced auditors’ earnings ranged between $18,000 and $26,800. In the Federal Government, the starting annual salary for junior accountants and audi tors was about $12,300 in early 1981. Candi dates who had a superior academic record could begin at $15,200. Applicants with a master’s degree or 2 years’ professional ex perience began at $18,600. Accountants and auditors in the Federal Government averaged about $27,700 a year in 1980. According to a 1980 survey of State gov ernments, average annual salaries of begin ning accountants or auditors ranged from about $12,800 to $17,400; principal auditors (work at first level of full supervision), $18,800 to $25,600; accounting supervisors (work at first level of full supervision), $17,300 to $23,700; and chief fiscal officers (those who administer accounting and fiscal management programs of large State agen cies), $24,000 to $32,400. Related Occupations Accountants and auditors design and con trol financial records and analyze financial data. Others for whom training in accounting is invaluable include appraisers, budget offic ers, loan officers, financial analysts, bank officers, actuaries, underwriters, FBI special agents, securities sales workers, and purchas ing agents. Bank Officers and Managers_________ (D .O .T. 186.117-026, -038, -050, -054, -070,-074, -078, .137-010, .167-014, -050, -054, -058, and .267-018) Nature of the Work Practically every bank has a president who directs operations; one or more vice presi dents who act as general managers or who are in charge of bank departments such as trust or credit; and a comptroller or cashier who, unlike cashiers in stores and other busi nesses, is an executive officer generally re sponsible for all bank property. Large banks also may have treasurers and other senior officers, as well as junior officers, to super vise the various sections within different de partments. Banks employed over 400,000 of ficers and managers in 1980. Bank officers make decisions within a framework of policy set by the board of directors and existing laws and regulations. They must have a broad knowledge of busi ness activities to relate to the operations of their department. For example, loan officers evaluate the credit and collateral of individ uals and businesses applying for a loan. Similarly, trust officers must understand each account before they invest funds to support families, send young people to college, or pay retirement pensions. Besides supervising financial services, officers advise individuals and businesses and participate in community projects. Because banks offer many services, a wide choice of careers is available to workers who specialize. Loan officers may handle installment, commercial, real estate, or agricultural loans. Administrative and Managerial Occupations/25 To evaluate loan applications properly, offic ers need to be familiar with economics, pro duction, distribution, merchandising, and commercial law. Also, they need to know business operations and should be able to analyze an industry’s financial statements. Bank officers in trust management require knowledge of financial planning and invest ment for investment research and for estate and trust administration. Operations officers plan, coordinate, and control the workflow, update systems, and strive for administrative efficiency. Careers in bank operations include electronic data processing manager and other positions in volving internal and customer services. A correspondent bank officer is responsi ble for relations with other banks; a branch manager, for all functions of a branch office; and an international officer, for advising cus tomers with financial dealings abroad. A working knowledge of a foreign country’s financial system, trade relations, and eco nomic conditions is beneficial to those inter ested in international banking. Other career fields for bank officers are auditing, economics, personnel administra tion, public relations, and operations research. Working Conditions Since a great deal of bank business de pends on customers’ impressions, officers and managers are provided attractive, com fortable offices and are encouraged to wear conservative, somewhat formal, business clothes. Bank officers and managers typically work 40 hours a week; however, attending civic functions, keeping abreast of communi ty developments, establishing and maintain ing business contacts, and similar activities are aspects of their jobs that occasionally require overtime work. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in accounting and about aptitude tests administered in high schools, colleges, and public accounting firms may be obtained from: American Institute of Certified Public Account ants, 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. Information on specialized fields of ac counting and auditing is available from: National Association of Accountants, 919 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. National Society of Public Accountants and Ac creditation Council for Accountancy, 1010 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Institute of Internal Auditors, 249 Maitland Ave., Altamonte Springs, Fla. 32701. For information on educational institutions offering a specialization in accounting, con tact: American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Busi ness, 11500 Olive Blvd., Suite 142, St. Louis, Mo. 63141. Bank officers often specialize in one area of bank operations. 26/Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bank officer and management positions are filled by management trainees, and by pro moting outstanding bank clerks or tellers. College graduation usually is required for management trainees. A business administra tion major in finance or a liberal arts curricu lum, including accounting, economics, commercial law, political science, and statis tics, serves as excellent preparation for offic er trainee positions. A Master of Business Administration (MBA) in addition to a social science bachelor’s degree, which some em ployers prefer, may provide an even stronger educational foundation. However, banks do hire people with diverse backgrounds such as chemical engineering, nuclear physics, and forestry to meet the needs of complex, hightechnology industries with which they deal. Valuable experience may be gained through summer employment programs. A management or officer trainee may spend a year or two learning the various banking areas before choosing a permanent position. This practice is common but not universal. A bank may hire an applicant with specific skills for a position that is clearly defined at the outset. Persons interested in becoming bank offic ers should like to work independently and to analyze detailed information. The ability to communicate, both orally and in writing, is important. They also need tact and good judgment to counsel customers and supervise employees. Advancement to an officer or management position may come slowly in small banks where the number of positions is limited. In large banks that have special training pro grams, promotions may occur more quickly. For a senior officer position, however, an employee usually needs many years of experience. Although experience, ability, and leader ship are emphasized for promotion, advance ment may be accelerated by special study. Banks often provide opportunities for work ers to broaden their knowledge and skills. Many banks encourage employees to take courses at local colleges and universities. In addition, banking associations sponsor a number of programs, sometimes in coopera tion with colleges and universities. The American Bankers Association (ABA) offers the most extensive national program for bank officers. Each of its dozen schools, located all over the country, deals with a different phase of banking. Those enrolled prepare extensively at home, then attend annual ses sions of 1 or 2 weeks for a period of 1 to 3 years in areas such as commercial lending, installment credit, and international banking. ABA also sponsors annual seminars and con ferences and provides textbooks and other educational materials. Many banks pay all or part of the costs for those who successfully complete courses. The American Institute of Banking, an arm of the ABA, has long filled the same educational need among bank sup port personnel. (See the statements on bank clerks and bank tellers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Because banking is an essential part of business, well-trained, experienced officers and managers may transfer to closely related positions in other areas of finance or to posi tions within other industries, such as manu facturing, that need individuals with banking experience. Job Outlook Through the 1980’s, employment of bank officers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations. Rising costs due to expanded banking services and the increas ing dependence on computers will require more officers to provide sound management and effective quality control. Greater interna tional trade and investment will stimulate in ternational and domestic banking activities, thus increasing the need for bank officers and managers. Adding to this increase in demand due to growth will be the need to replace experienced officers who die, retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Because of the increasing number of quali fied applicants, competition for bank man agerial positions is expected to stiffen. Once employed, managers and officers are likely to work year-round, even during periods of slow economic activity, because cyclical swings in the economy seem to have little immediate effect on banking activities. National Association of Bank Women, Inc., Na tional Office, 500 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. National Bankers Association, 499 S. Capitol St. SW., Suite 520 , Washington, D.C. 20003. For information about career opportunities as a bank examiner, contact: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Director of Personnel, 550 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20429. Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation, Office of the General Counsel, 1700 G St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20552. Information on careers with the Federal Reserve System is available from: Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve System, Personnel Department, Washington, D.C. 20551, or from the personnel department of the Federal Reserve bank serving each geographic area. State bankers’ associations can furnish spe cific information about job opportunities in their State. And writing directly to a particu lar bank to inquire about job openings can produce favorable results. For the names and addresses of banks in a specific location as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories, which are published twice each year: The American Bank Directory (Norcross, McFadden Business Publications). Bankers Directory-The Banker’s Blue Book (Chi cago, Rand McNally International). Polk’s World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). Earnings Officer trainees at the bachelor’s level gen erally earned between $1,100 and $1,300 a month in 1980. Those with master’s degrees generally started at between $1,300 and $1,900 a month. A Master of Business Ad ministration, however, appears to be worth more in salary terms: Graduates with an MBA were offered starting salaries of $1,400 to $2,400 a month in 1980. Salaries of senior bank officers may be several times as much as starting salaries. The actual salary level depends upon the particular position and the size and location of the bank. For officers, as well as for other bank employees, earnings are likely to be lower in small towns than in big cities. Related Occupations Bank officers and managers combine for mal schooling with experience in one or more areas of banking, such as lending, to provide services for customers. Other occu pations which require similar training and ability include business representatives, in dustrial relations directors, safety council di rectors, city managers, export managers, and purchasing agents. Sources of Additional Information General information about banking occu pations, training opportunities, and the bank ing industry itself is available from: American Bankers Association, Bank Personnel Division, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. Buyers_____ (D .O .T . 162.157-018 and -022) Nature of the Work The Americans have been invited to a private showing of the latest fashions in Par is. Representing a major New York depart ment store, they sit with a select group in an elegantly furnished room. They watch grace ful models float down the runway displaying the latest creations by the world’s most fa mous designers. After some consultation, they purchase thousands, perhaps millions of dollars worth of goods. All in a day’s work. The job of retail buyer often brings to mind the glamour of high fashion; indeed, many fashion buyers do lead exciting, fastpaced lives. Not every buyer, however, trav els abroad or deals in fashion. All mer chandise sold in a retail store—garden furni ture, automobile tires, toys, aluminum pots, and canned soups—appears there on the deci sion of a buyer. Buyers seek goods that satis fy their stores’ customers and sell at a profit. The kind and variety of goods they purchase depend on the store. A buyer for a small clothing store, for example, may purchase its complete stock of merchandise, from sports wear to formal wear. Buyers in larger retail businesses often handle one or a few related lines of goods, such as men’s wear, ladies’ sportswear, or children’s clothes. Some, Administrative and Managerial Occupations/27 known as foreign buyers, purchase merchan dise outside the United States. In order to purchase the best merchandise for their stores, buyers must be familiar with the manufacturers and distributors who have the merchandise they need. They also must keep informed about changes in existing products and the development of new ones. To do this, buyers attend fashion and trade shows and visit manufacturers’ showrooms. They usually or der goods during these buying trips, and also when wholesale and manufacturers’ sales workers call on them to display their merchan dise. Buyers must be able to assess the resale value of goods after a brief inspection and make a purchase decision quickly. They try to select merchandise that will sell quickly at well above the original cost. Since most buy ers work within a fixed budget, they must plan their purchases to keep needed items always in stock but also allow for special purchases when a ‘‘good buy ’’ presents itself. Because buyers purchase merchandise for resale (unlike purchasing agents who buy goods for direct use by the firm—see the statement on purchasing agents elsewhere in the Handbook), they must know what moti vates customers to buy. Before ordering mer chandise, buyers study market research reports and past sales records to determine what products are currently in demand. They also work closely with assistant buyers and sales clerks whose daily contact with custom ers furnishes information about consumer likes and dislikes. In addition, buyers read fashion and trade magazines to keep abreast of style and manufacturing trends, follow competitors ’ ads in newspapers and other me dia, and watch general economic conditions to anticipate consumer buying patterns. Buyers are usually supervised by merchan dise managers (D.O.T. 185.167-034) who plan and coordinate buying and selling activi ties for large and medium-sized stores. These individuals are not involved in actual buying activities. They determine the amount of merchandise to be stocked, what the markups and markdowns should be, and plan sales promotions. Buyers and merchandise managers usually have busy schedules and deal with many people in a day. They work with manufactur ers’ representatives, store executives, assis tant buyers, sales workers, and customers. Buyers assist with sales promotions and cre ate enthusiasm among sales personnel, pro vide information, such as dress sizes and product descriptions to the advertising depart ment for sales promotions, and meet with floor sales workers about new merchandise. Some buyers direct assistants who handle routine aspects of purchasing such as verify ing shipments; others supervise department managers. New technology has altered the buyer’s role in retail chainstores. In the past, firms employed a buyer for each department, for example, the hardware department, for a Buyers usually have very busy schedules. group of stores in a local area. Now cash registers connected to a computer, known as point-of-sale terminals, allow retail chains to maintain centralized, up-to-the-minute inven tory records. With these records, a single buyer can purchase hardware for the entire chain. Working Conditions Retailing is a highly competitive business, and buyers operate under pressure. Anticipat ing customers’ preferences and ensuring that goods are in stock when they are needed is far from easy, and mistakes can be costly. The buyer’s job calls for resourcefulness and good judgment, as well as the self-confidence to make decisions and take risks. However, many successful buyers feel that the stimula tion and excitement of the job more than make up for any emotional strain. Buyers frequently work more than a 40hour week because of special sales, confer ences, and travel. The amount of traveling varies with the type of merchandise and the location of suppliers, but most spend 4 or 5 days a month on the road. Employment In 1980, approximately 150,000 buyers worked for retail firms. Although buyers work in all parts of the country, most are in major metropolitan areas where retail stores are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because familiarity with merchandise and with the retailing business is important for buyers, prior retailing experience is helpful in 28/Occupational Outlook Handbook getting a job. High school distributive educa tion programs have launched careers in retail ing that led eventually to a buyer’s position. (More information about distributive educa tion appears in the statement on retail trade sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) An increasing number of employers prefer applicants who have a college degree. Many colleges and universities offer associate de gree or bachelor’s degree programs in mar keting and purchasing. Postsecondary training also is offered in vocational schools or technical institutes that prepare students for careers in fashion merchandising. While courses in merchandising or market ing may help in getting started in retailing, they are not essential. Most employers accept college graduates in any field of study and train them on the job. Many stores have 6- to 8-month programs for buyer trainees. They combine classroom instruction in merchan dising and purchasing with short rotations to various jobs in the store. This training intro duces the new worker to store operations and policies, and to the fundamentals of merchan dising and management. Most trainees begin as assistant buyers, selling merchandise, supervising sales work ers, checking invoices on material received, and keeping account of stock on hand. They gradually assume buying responsibilities. They usually work as assistant buyers for at least a year before becoming buyers. Expe rienced buyers may advance to merchandise manager and some advance to executive jobs such as general merchandise manager for a store or chain. Buyers should be good at planning and decisionmaking and have an interest in mer chandising. They need leadership ability and communications skills to supervise sales workers and assistant buyers and to deal ef fectively with manufacturers’ representatives and store executives. Because of the fast pace and pressure of their work, buyers need physical stamina and emotional stability. Job Outlook Employment of buyers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s as the retail trade industry, where buyers work, expands in re sponse to a growing population and higher personal incomes. Besides jobs that will be created by increased demand for buyers, many job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Competition for buying jobs is expected to be keen, for merchandising attracts many col lege graduates. Prospects are likely to be best for qualified applicants who enjoy the com petitive, fast-paced nature of retailing. Earnings Income of buyers depends upon the amount and type of product purchased, the employer’s sales volume and, to some extent, the buyers’ seniority. Buyers for discount de partment stores and other mass merchandisers and those who buy centrally for large chain department stores are among the most highly paid. Most buyers earned between $19,000 and $28,000 a year in 1980. Buyers often earn cash bonuses based on their performance. In addition, many stores have incentive plans, such as profit sharing and stock options. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who need a knowledge of marketing and the ability to assess consumer demand are sales managers, comparison shoppers, manufacturers’ sales representatives, insurance sales agents, wholesale trade sales representatives, and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career in re tailing is available from: National Retail Merchants Association, 100 West 31st St., New York, N.Y. 10001. Information on schools that teach retailing is available from: U.S. Department of Education, Division of Vocational/Technical Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. City Managers (D .O .T. 188.117-114) Nature of the Work Population growth and industrial expan sion place increasing pressure on housing, transportation, recreation, and other facilities of cities. Problems associated with the growth of modem communities, such as air and water pollution and rising crime rates, also demand attention. To cope effectively with these problems, many communities hire a specialist in management techniques—the city manager. A city manager usually is appointed by the community’s elected officials and is responsi ble directly to them. Although duties vary by city size, city managers generally administer and coordinate the day-to-day operations of the city. They are responsible for functions such as tax collection and disbursement, law enforcement, and public works. They also hire department heads and their staffs and prepare the annual budget to be approved by elected officials. In addition, they study cur rent problems, such as housing, traffic con gestion, or crime, and report their findings to the elected council. City managers must plan for future growth and development of cities and surrounding areas. To provide for an expansion of public services, they frequently appear at civic meetings to advocate certain programs or to inform citizens of current government operations. City managers work closely with planning departments to coordinate new and existing programs. In smaller cities that have no per manent planning staff, coordination may be done entirely by the manager. To aid the city manager, many cities em ploy management assistants: Assistant city managers, department head assistants (D.O.T. 189.167-030), administrative assist ants (D.O.T. 169.167-010), and manage ment analysts (D.O.T. 161.167-010). Under the manager’s direction, management assist ants administer programs, prepare reports, receive visitors, answer correspondence, and generally help to keep the city government functioning smoothly. Assistant city manag ers organize and coordinate city programs, supervise city employees, and act for the city manager on occasion. They also may assume responsibility for some projects, such as the development of a preliminary annual budget. Department head assistants generally are re sponsible for one activity, such as personnel, finance, or law enforcement, but they also may assist in other areas. Administrative as sistants, also called executive assistants or assistants to the city manager, usually do administrative and staff work in all depart ments under the city manager. For instance, they may compile operating statistics or re view and analyze work procedures. Manage ment analysts study and recommend possible changes in organization or administrative procedures. Working Conditions City managers generally work in welllighted and well-ventilated offices. They of ten work overtime at night and on weekends meeting with individuals and citizens’ groups, attending civic functions, reading and writing reports, or finishing paperwork. When a problem arises or a crisis occurs, they may be called to work at any hour. Employment About 3,300 city managers were employed in 1980, according to the International City Management Association. In addition, sever al times as many persons worked as adminis trative assistants, department head assistants, and assistant city managers. Most city man agers work for cities and counties that have a council-manager form of government. Under this type of government, an elected council appoints a manager who is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the government as well as for the hiring and firing of assist ants, department heads, and other staff. Many other city managers work for munici palities that have the mayor-council form of government, in which the mayor appoints the city manager as the chief administrative offi cer. A few city managers work for county governments, metropolitan or regional plan ning organizations, and councils of govern ments. All types of local governments employ management assistants, but larger ju risdictions generally employ them in greater numbers. Although about four-fifths of all city man agers work for cities having fewer than Administrative and Managerial Occupations/29 25,000 inhabitants, many larger cities also employ a city manager. Over one-half of the cities having between 10,000 and 500,000 inhabitants have city managers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree, preferably in public or business administration, is essential for those seeking a career in city management. Al though some applicants with only a bache lor’s degree may find employment, strong competition for positions, even among mas ter’s degree recipients, makes the graduate degree a requirement for most entry level jobs. In some cases, employers may hire a person with a graduate or professional degree in a field related to public administration, such as political science, planning, or law. In 1980, over 200 colleges and universities offered graduate degrees in public affairs or administration. Degree requirements in some schools include completion of an internship program in a city manager’s office. During this internship period, which may last from 6 months to a year, the degree candidate ob serves local government operations and does research under the direct supervision of the city manager. Nearly all city managers begin as manage ment assistants. Most new graduates work as management analysts or administrative assist ants to city managers for several years to gain experience in solving urban problems, coordinating public services, and applying management techniques. Others work in a government department such as finance, pub lic works, or public planning. They may acquire supervisory skills and additional ex perience by working as assistant city manager or department head assistant. At least 5 years of experience are generally required to com pete for the job of city manager. City manag ers often are first employed in small cities, but during their careers they may work in several cities of increasing size. Persons who plan a career in city manage ment should like to work with detail and to be a part of a team. They must have sound judgment, self-confidence, and the ability to perform well under stress. To handle emer gencies, city managers must quickly isolate problems, identify their causes, and provide a number of possible solutions. City managers should be tactful and able to communicate and work well with people. City managers also must be dedicated to public service since they often put in long, hard hours in times of crisis. Job Outlook Employment of city managers and local government management assistants is expect ed to expand about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as local gov ernment management becomes increasingly complex. Examples of more sophisticated management techniques include computerized tax and utility billing, electronic traffic con trol, and application of systems analysis to City managers generally begin their careers as management analysts or assistants. urban problems. The demand for city manag ers also will increase as more cities convert to the council-manager form of government, currently the fastest growing form of city government. Furthermore, city managers and management assistants will be employed by other types of local government to help elect ed officials with day-to-day operations of government. Increased emphasis on regional solutions to urban problems also should result in additional job opportunities for city man agers and management assistants in councils of government. Population growth in the South and West may create particularly strong demand for additional city managers and assistants in those regions. Growth of small communities that have council-manager forms of govern ment also may result in additional job oppor tunities throughout the Nation. Persons who seek beginning management assistant jobs are expected to face keen com petition through the 1980’s, however, as the number of qualified applicants greatly ex ceeds the number of job openings. Competi tion also should be keen among the growing number of administrative assistants, depart ment head assistants, and assistant city man agers for the relatively few city manager positions. Earnings Salaries of city managers and management assistants vary according to experience, job responsibility, and city size. In 1980, the average annual salary for all managers was more than $33,000. Average annual salaries of city managers ranged from about $28,000 in small cities of 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants to about $49,000 in medium-sized cities of 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, according to the International City Management Associ ation. City managers employed in large cities of 500,000 to 1 million inhabitants earned more than $70,000 a year. City managers in cities not having council-manager govern ments received slightly less. Salaries of management assistants ranged from about $18,000 in small cities to more than $25,000 in large ones. Salaries of assist ant city managers generally were higher than those of other management assistants. Related Occupations A variety of related careers are open to persons interested in managerial work. In the private sector, managerial and executive ca reers in business and industry cover a wide range. In the public sector, related manageri al occupations include: Program analysts, government program managers, management analysts, budget officers, school or hospital administrators, and airport managers. Sources of Additional Information For information about city management 30/Occupational Outlook Handbook positions, contact the personnel offices of local governments in your area. Information on education for public man agement careers is available in Programs in Public Affairs and Administration, a directo ry that contains data on the academic content of programs, the student body, the format of instruction, and other information. The direc tory may be purchased for $10 from: National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, 1225 Connencticut Ave. NW., Suite 306, Washington, D.C. 20036. College Student Personnel Workers (D.O.T. 045.107-010, -018, -026, -038 ; 090.107-010, .117-018, -022, -030, .167-014, -022, -030; 129.107-018; 166.167-014; 169.267-018, -026) Nature of the Work Many factors influence a student’s choice of an institution of higher education. Avail ability of a specific educational program, quality of the school, cost, size, and location all may play important roles. For many stu dents, another important factor is the institu tion’s ability to provide for their housing, social, cultural, and recreational needs. De veloping and administering these services are the tasks of college student personnel workers. The dean of students and the director of student affairs are probably the best known. But there are many aspects to student person nel administration, and those in the field re present a number of specialties. Student personnel workers are responsible for student housing, religious life, counseling, health, athletics, financial aid, on-campus and sum mer employment, career counseling and placement, learning assistance, skills devel opment, and cultural activities. On many campuses, they provide special services for veterans, and for women, minority, handi capped, and foreign students. Their duties also include the student union, bookstore, and campus security. Job titles vary from institution to institution, from program to program within a single school, and with the level of responsibility within a student personnel program. The more common titles are dean, director, officer, as sociate dean, assistant director, and adviser. The dean of students (D.O.T. 090.117018) heads the entire student personnel pro gram; associate or assistant deans may be in charge of specific programs, such as student life or housing. At some schools, another title is used, such as vice-president for stu dent affairs or vice-chancellor for student affairs. Planning is an important part of the dean’s job; planning includes evaluating the changing needs of students and helping de velop institutional policies. For example, to meet the needs of older, part-time students— many of them women who support fam ilies—colleges and universities have been changing their policies on student housing, financial aid, and counseling. And an in crease in the number of handicapped students on college campuses has stimulated still other changes in student services. The director of student affairs (D.O.T. 090.167-022) manages the student union and assists student groups in planning and arrang ing social, cultural, and recreational activi ties. Student activities staff assist in the orientation of new students; advise fraterni ties, sororities, and other social groups; and promote student participation in cultural and Financial aid counselor advises student about applying for a loan. recreational pursuits. They usually publish a student handbook and a calendar of student activities. Their responsibility for the student union includes the building’s physical facili ties as well as the services it provides. The director of residence life oversees all aspects of student housing, including such operational matters as room selection and assignments; damage control and residence hall inventory; and liaison with other depart ments on recordkeeping, billing, and building maintenance. Developing and coordinating cultural, educational, recreational, and social activities for residents is another major area of responsibility; in large colleges and uni versities, this is handled by an assistant di rector. Residence counselors (D .O .T . 045.107- 038) live in the dormitories and, in general, help the students to live together in harmony. They may counsel students who have personal problems. Student housing staff may also manage the fiscal, food serv ice, and housekeeping operations of student residences. The director o f religious activities (D.O.T. 129.107-018) coordinates the activi ties of the various denominational groups on campus and advises them on ways to pro mote spirtual growth and interfaith under standing. Counseling on marital, health, fi nancial, or religious problems is an important part of the job. The director o f counseling (D .O .T . 045.107- 018) supervises counselors (D.O.T. 045.107- 010), counseling psychologists (D.O.T. 045.107-026), graduate students, interns, and other staff who help students with personal, educational, and vocational problems. Students may come to the counsel ing center on their own or be referred by a faculty member, a residence hall counselor, or a friend. Counseling needs may arise from lack of self-confidence or motivation on the part of the student, failure in academic work, desire to leave college or transfer to another college, inability to get along with others, loneliness, drug abuse, or marriage prob lems. On many campuses, counselors try to reach more students by establishing group sensitivity sessions and telephone “ hotlines.” Counselors often administer tests that indi cate aptitudes and interests to students having trouble understanding themselves. Counsel ing center staff may also teach or assist with admissions, orientation, and training of resi dence hall staff. For further information on this field, see the statement on psychologists elsewhere in the Handbook. Foreign student advisers (D .O .T . 090.107- 010) administer and coordinate many of the services that help to insure a successful academic and social experience for students from other countries. They assist with admissions, orientation, financial aid, housing, English as a foreign language, aca demic and personal counseling, student-com munity relationships, job placement, and alumni relations. In addition, they may work as advisers for international associations and nationality groups and for U.S. students in Administrative and Managerial Occupations/31 terested in study, educational travel, work, or service projects abroad. Veterans coordinators (D.O.T. 169.267026) provide information and services to vet erans and potential military enlistees. They advise students on their eligibility for veter ans benefits or other forms of assistance, interpret laws and regulations to students, and supervise the processing of applications for benefits. Student health service directors are respon sible for planning and administering the col lege or university student health program. They arrange for facilities and equipment, recruit and hire staff, prepare budgets and authorize expenditures, and plan programs and services that respond to student needs. For example, the student health service might organize health awareness seminars, provide health counseling, or set up a rape crisis center. Athletic directors (D.O.T. 090.117-022) administer intercollegiate athletic activities. They hire and discharge coaches, schedule sports events, and direct publicity efforts. They also prepare the budget and authorize expenditures by the athletic department. Financial aid officers (D.O.T. 090.117030) help students obtain financial support for their education. They direct a staff of financial aid counselors (D.O.T. 169.267018) who advise students about their eligibil ity for various forms of financial aid: Scholarships,' grants, loans, work/study, teaching or research assistantships, and cam pus jobs. In some colleges and universities, the financial aid office maintains jobs listings for the benefit of students who want or need to work. Often, they enlist the support of alumni in identifying job possibilities. The director o f placement (D .O .T . 166.167- 014), sometimes called the college placement officer, assists students in career exploration and advises them on job search strategies. The placement office may arrange for prospective employers to visit the campus to discuss personnel needs and interview stu dents. The work is described in more detail in the statement on college career planning and placement counselors, elsewhere in the Handbook. Admissions and records are closely related to student personnel administration, although admissions officers and registrars normally report to the dean of academic affairs, not to the dean of students. The director o f admissions (D .O .T . 090.167- 014) directs the work of admissions officers, who interview and evaluate prospec tive students and process their applications. They may travel widely to recruit high school students and adult learners. “ Talent search” programs that identify and recruit bright and talented students are the responsi bility of the admissions office, which works closely with faculty, administrators, financial aid personnel, and public relations staffs to determine policies for recruiting and admit ting students. The registrar (D.O.T. 090.167-030) di rects and coordinates college and university registration activities. The registrar’s office prepares class schedules, coordinates sched ules with room assignments, prepares tran scripts of students’ academic records, and provides enrollment and other statistical data to government and educational agencies. Working Conditions Students are not always available during the day, so student personnel workers often work evenings and weekends. And since the workflow at a college may be irregular, they sometimes face hectic periods where they work more than 40 hours a week. Registrars, for example, are especially busy during the weeks immediately preceding and including registration, while admissions counselors may work long hours in early spring, as the deadline for determining next year’s student body approaches. Employment in these occupations usually is on a 12-month basis. In most schools, college student personnel workers are entitled to pensions, life and health insurance, sabba ticals, and other fringe benefits. Employment An estimated 55,000 persons were em ployed in college student personnel adminis tration in 1980. Every college and university has a staff responsible for student life, even though they are not always organized as a unified program. Large colleges and univer sities generally have specialized staffs for each personnel function. In many small col leges, a few persons may carry out the entire student personnel program. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity in duties, the edu cation and backgrounds of college student personnel workers vary considerably. In fill ing entry-level jobs, schools often prefer per sons who have a bachelor’s degree in a social science, such as economics or history, and a master’s degree in student personnel adminis tration. In 1980, nearly 400 colleges and universities offered graduate programs in this area. Some student personnel occupations re quire specialized training. A master’s degree in counseling or in clinical or counseling psychology usually is required for work as a college counselor; counseling psychologists need a doctoral degree. Directors of religious life usually are members of the clergy. Fa miliarity with information systems is an asset for work in admissions, records, or financial aid. Previous experience in college administra tion is desirable. Indeed, the best training may be on-the-job. Many graduate students obtain experience by working part time in residence halls or in financial aid or admis sions offices, sometimes as part of a work/ study program. Participation in student gov ernment as an undergraduate also provides useful exposure. Student personnel administration requires leadership and organizational skills, commit ment to the purpose of the institution, and a desire to serve. College student personnel workers must be especially good at working with people. Individuals in this field need the patience to cope with conflicting viewpoints and the emotional stability to deal with the unexpected and the unusual. The ability to function under pressure is essential. Entry level positions include student ac tivities advisers, student union staff, admis sions counselors, financial aid counselors, residence hall counselors, and counseling center staff. A master’s degree is preferred and a doctoral degree may be necessary for advancement to top positions. Some of the more responsible positions in the field are filled by individuals who have developed organizational and interpersonal skills in other fields, including philanthropy, business, and social services. The ministry provides a congenial background, too. Job Outlook The employment outlook for college stu dent personnel workers is likely to be com petitive through the 1980’s. Most openings will result from the need to replace personnel who transfer to other positions, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Tightening budgets and declining enrollments in 4-year colleges and universities are expected to af fect employment in those institutions. Some staff reductions are likely. Although enroll ments in 2-year and community colleges have been rising, these are commuter institutions, for the most part, and they put somewhat less emphasis on student life. The various student personnel functions will not be affected equally by staff cuts, however. Positions least likely to be elimi nated are those in admissions and financial aid, while positions in counseling and other student services will be susceptible to. cut backs. Some positions are likely to be lost as people leave; the job may be eliminated alto gether or the duties assumed by faculty or other administrative staff. In counseling cen ters, greater reliance may be placed on in terns and graduate assistants. Earnings According to the College and University Personnel Association, median annual sala ries for selected college student personnel positions were as follows in 1980-81: $28,050 for athletic directors, $24,700 for counseling directors, $24,611 for admissions directors, $23,151 for registrars, $21,924 for student health services directors, $21,600 for student union directors, $20,733 for financial aid directors, $20,671 for placement direc tors, and $19,117 for housing directors. Sala ries vary greatly, however, depending on geographic location, budget, source of sup port, and the size of the school. Related Occupations College student personnel workers admin ister programs which directly affect the wel- 32/Occupational Outlook Handbook fare of students. Their jobs, which are very much people-oriented, have counterparts in private industry, government, and elementary and secondary schools. Some of these occu pations include: personnel managers, educa tion and training managers, credit counselors, public relations representatives, government contact representatives, principals, or school counselors. Construction Inspectors (Government)_____ (D .O .T. 168.167-030, -034, -038, -046, and -050) Nature of the Work Federal, State, and local government con struction inspectors examine the construction, alteration, or repair of highways, streets, sewer and water systems, dams, bridges, buildings, and other structures to insure com pliance with building codes and ordinances, zoning regulations, and contract specifica tions. Construction inspectors generally spe cialize in one particular type of construction work. Broadly categorized, these are build ing, electrical, mechanical, and public works. Inspectors usually work alone on small jobs, but several may be assigned to a large, complex project. Building inspectors inspect the structural quality of buildings. Some may specialize, for example, in structural steel or reinforced concrete buildings. Before construction, in spectors determine whether the plans for the building or other structure comply with local zoning regulations and are suited to the engi neering and environmental demands of the building site. They visit the worksite before the foundation is poured to inspect the posi tioning and depth of the footings. They in spect the foundation after it has been completed. The size and type of structure and the rate of completion determine the number of other visits they must make. Upon completion of the project, they conduct a final comprehensive inspection. Electrical inspectors inspect the installa tion of electrical systems and equipment to insure that they work properly and are in compliance with electrical codes and stan dards. They visit worksites to inspect new and existing wiring, lighting, sound and se curity systems, and generating equipment. They also may inspect the installation of the electrical wiring for heating and air-condi tioning systems, kitchen appliances, and oth er components. Mechanical inspectors examine plumbing systems including septic tanks; plumbing fix tures and traps; and water, sewer, and vent lines. They also inspect the installation of the mechanical components of kitchen appli ances, heating and air-conditioning equip ment, gasoline and butane tanks, gas piping, and gas-fired appliances. Some specialize in inspecting boilers, mechanical components, or plumbing. Public works inspectors insure that Feder al, State, and local government construction of water and sewer systems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to de tailed contract specifications. They inspect excavation and fill operations, the placement of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, and asphalt paving. They also re cord the amount of work performed and ma terials used so that contract payment calculations can be made. Public works in spectors may specialize in inspection of high ways, reinforced concrete, or ditches. While inspections are primarily visual, in spectors often use tape measures, metering devices, concrete strength measurers, and other test equipment during inspections. They often keep a daily log of their work, take photographs, file written reports, and, if necessary, act on their findings. For exam ple, construction inspectors notify the con struction contractor, superintendent, or supervisor when they discover a detail of a project that is not in compliance with the appropriate codes, ordinances, or contract specifications. If the deficiency is not cor rected within a reasonable period of time, they have authority to issue a “ stop-work” order. Many inspectors also investigate reported incidents of “bootlegging,” construction or alteration that is being carried on without proper permits. Violators of permit laws are directed to obtain permits and submit to inspection. Working Conditions Construction inspectors must be familiar with building codes and ordinances. Construction inspectors work indoors and out. They spend about half their time in an office reviewing blueprints, answering letters or telephone calls, writing reports, and scheduling inspections. The rest of their time is spent traveling to construction sites— usually in a government car—and making inspections. Inspection sites may be dirty and cluttered with tools, materials, or debris. Inspectors may have to climb ladders or several flights of stairs, or may have to crawl beneath build ings to make inspections. However, the work is not considered hazardous. Inspectors normally work regular hours. However, in case of an accident at the con struction site, such as a partially collapsed concrete structure, inspectors must respond immediately and may be expected to work irregular hours until a report has been completed. Inspection work tends to be steady and year-round, unlike the seasonal and intermit tent nature of employment in many of the occupations associated with the construction industry. When new construction slows, ren Administrative and Managerial Occupations/33 ovation generally increases, helping construc tion inspectors to continue working full time. Employment About 48,000 persons worked as govern ment construction inspectors in 1980. About two-thirds worked for municipal or county building departments. Public works construc tion inspectors were employed primarily at the Federal and State levels. The employment of local government con struction inspectors is concentrated in cities and in suburban areas undergoing rapid growth. These governments employ large in spection staffs, including most of the inspec tors who specialize in structural steel, reinforced concrete, and boiler inspection. About one-half of the construction inspec tors employed by the Federal Government in 1980 worked for the Department of Defense, primarily for the U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers. Other Federal employers include the Tennessee Valley Authority and the De partments of Agriculture, Interior, and Transportation. of their assignments is gradually increased until they are able to handle complex assign ments. An engineering degree is frequently needed in order to advance to supervisory inspector. Since they advise representatives of the construction industry and the general public on matters of code interpretation, construc tion practices, and technical developments, construction inspectors must keep abreast of new building code developments. The Feder al Government and most State and large city governments conduct formal training pro grams for their construction inspectors to broaden their knowledge of construction ma terials, practices, and inspection techniques and to acquaint them with new materials and practices. Inspectors who work for small agencies that do not conduct training pro grams frequently can broaden their knowl edge of construction and upgrade their skills by attending State-conducted training pro grams or by taking college or correspondence courses. Job Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become a construction inspector, sever al years of experience as a construction con tractor, supervisor, or craft worker are generally required. Federal, State, and most local governments also require an applicant to have a high school diploma. High school preparation should include courses in draft ing, algebra, geometry, and English. Workers who want to become inspectors should have a thorough knowledge of con struction materials and practices in either a general area like structural or heavy construc tion, or in a specialized area such as electri cal or plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or structural steel; a significant number of construction inspectors have recent expe rience as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or pipefitters. Many employers prefer inspectors to be graduates of an apprenticeship program, to have studied at least 2 years toward an engi neering or architectural degree, or to have a degree from a community or junior college, with courses in construction technology, blueprint reading, technical mathematics, English, and building inspection. Construction inspectors must be in good physical condition in order to walk and climb about construction sites. They also must have a motor vehicle operator’s license. In addi tion, Federal, State, and many local govern ments usually require that construction inspectors pass a civil service examination. Construction inspectors receive most of their training on the job. During the first couple of weeks, working with an expe rienced inspector, they learn about inspection techniques; codes, ordinances, and regula tions; contract specifications; and recordkeep ing and reporting duties. They begin by inspecting less complex types of construction such as residential buildings. The difficulty Employment of government construction inspectors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Because of the increasing complexity of construction technology and the trend to ward the establishment of professional stand ards for inspectors by State governments, job opportunities should be best for those who have some college education or who are cur rently employed as carpenters, electricians, or plumbers. In addition to growth needs, job openings for construction inspectors will occur each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. The number of new positions for construc tion inspectors will be largely affected by the level of new housing and commercial build ing activity. Because construction activity is sensitive to ups and downs in the economy, the number of job openings may fluctuate from year to year. However, once employed, inspectors seldom experience layoffs which typically affect most occupations associated with construction. The demand for construction inspectors also should increase as they are given more responsibility for insuring safe construction of prefabricated buildings mass-produced in factories and assembled on the construction site. Earnings In 1980, most construction inspectors working for the Federal Government earned between $16,300 and $20,200 a year. The most experienced inspectors earned higher salaries. The average Federal salary was about $19,500. According to limited information, salaries for inspectors working for State or local gov ernments ranged from $12,000 to $22,000 a year, with top supervisors earning somewhat more than $22,000 a year. Salaries in the North and West are slightly higher than sala ries in the South. Related Occupations Construction inspectors combine a knowl edge of law with their abilities to coordinate data, diagnose problems, and communicate with people to provide accurate inspections of construction sites. Other occupations in volving a combination of similar skills are drafters, estimators, industrial engineering technicians, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information Persons seeking additional information on a career as a State or local government con struction inspector should contact their State or local employment service or: International Conference of Building Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Rd., Whittier, Calif. 90601. Persons interested in a career as a con struction inspector with the Federal Govern ment can get information from: U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. Credit Managers (D.O.T. 168.167-054) Nature of the Work Over the years, buying on credit has be come a customary way of doing business. Consumers use credit to pay for houses, cars, appliances, and travel, as well as day-to-day retail purchases. Most business purchases, such as raw materials used in manufacturing and merchandise to be sold in retail stores, also are on credit. For most forms of credit, a credit manager has final authority to accept or reject a credit application. In extending credit to a business (commercial credit), the credit manager or an assistant analyzes detailed financial reports submitted by the applicant, interviews a rep resentative of the company about its manage ment, and reviews credit agency reports to determine the firm’s record in repaying debts. The manager also checks at banks where the company has deposits or previously was granted credit. In extending credit to individ uals (consumer credit), detailed financial re ports usually are not available. The credit manager must rely more on personal inter views and credit bureau and bank reports to provide information about applicants. Particularly in large organizations, execu tive level credit managers work with other top managers to formulate a credit policy. They establish financial standards to be met by applicants, and thereby determine the amount of risk that their company will accept when offering its products or services for sale on credit. Managers must cooperate with the sales department in developing a credit policy liberal enough to allow the company’s sales to increase and yet strict enough to deny 34/Occupational Outlook Handbook ability to speak and write effectively also are characteristics of the successful credit man ager. The work performed by credit managers allows them to become familiar with almost every phase of their company’s business. Highly qualified and experienced managers can advance to top level executive positions. Job Outlook Credit managers rely on personal interviews and information from banks and credit bureaus to evaluate credit applications. credit to customers whose ability to repay their debts is questionable. Many credit man agers establish office procedures and super vise workers who gather information, analyze facts, and perform general office duties in a credit department; they include application clerks, collection workers, bookkeepers, computer operators, and secretaries. In small companies that handle a limited number of accounts, credit managers may do much of the work themselves. They may interview applicants, analyze information gained in the interview, and make the final approval. They frequently contact customers who are unable or refuse to pay their debts. If these attempts at collection fail, credit managers may refer the account to a collec tion agency or assign an attorney to take legal action. Working Conditions Credit managers normally work the stan dard 35- to 40-hour workweek, but some may work longer hours. In wholesale and retail trade, for example, a seasonal increase in credit sales can produce a greater work volume. Credit managers usually spend most of their time in the office. However, they may travel occasionally. Some credit managers, for example, attend conferences sponsored by industry and professional organizations in which they develop and discuss new tech niques for credit department management. Employment An estimated 55,000 persons worked as credit managers in 1980. About half were employed in wholesale and retail trade; most others worked for manufacturing firms and financial institutions. Although credit is granted throughout the United States, most credit managers work in urban areas where many financial and busi ness establishments are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree is becoming increasingly important for entry level jobs in credit manage ment. Employers usually seek persons who have a degree in business administration, but they may also hire graduates holding liberal arts degrees. Courses in accounting, economics, finance, computer programming, statistics, and psychology all are valuable in preparing for a career in credit management. Some employers promote high school graduates experienced in collection work or processing credit informa tion to credit manager positions. Newly hired workers normally begin as management trainees and work under the guidance of experienced personnel in the credit department. Here they learn the com pany’s credit procedures and policies. They may analyze previous credit transactions to learn how to recognize which applicants prove to be good customers. Trainees also learn to deal with credit bureaus, banks, and other businesses which may have information on the past credit dealings of their customers. Some formal training programs are avail able through associations that service the credit and finance field. This training in cludes home study, college and university programs, and other instruction to improve beginners’ skills and keep experienced credit managers aware of developments in the field. Credit managers should be able to analyze detailed information and draw valid conclu sions based on this analysis. Because it is necessary to maintain good customer rela tionships, a pleasant personality and the Employment of credit managers is expect ed to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Neverthe less, many jobs will become available each year due to the need to replace persons who leave the occupation. Anticipated increases in business and con sumer purchases are expected to result in a greater use of credit in the future. However, several factors are expected to continue to limit growth in employment of credit manag ers. The use of computers for storing, re trieving, and processing information has enabled credit managers to evaluate applica tions for credit more efficiently. The use of telecommunications networks has enabled re tail outlets to centralize credit operations. Businesses also will continue to reduce or eliminate their credit departments and rely on their customers using bank credit cards. These bank credit operations also maintain more efficient centralized operations. Earnings In 1980, credit manager trainees who had a college degree earned annual salaries that ranged from about $12,000 to $14,000, de pending on the type of employer and the geographic location of the job. Salaries of experienced credit managers averaged about $22,000 to $25,000 annually. Those in charge of large operations earned somewhat more. Related Occupations Other managerial occupations in banks, in vestment companies, and credit agencies in clude loan officers, credit card operations managers, credit union managers, risk and insurance managers, and controllers. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career in consumer credit may be obtained from: National Retail Merchants Association, 100 West 31st St., New York, N.Y. 10001. For information about training programs available in commercial credit, write: National Association of Credit Management, 475 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10016. Health Services Administrators_____ (D .O .T. 070.101-046; 075.117-014, -018, -022; 169.167010; 187.117-010, -018, -050, .167-034, -090; and 188.117-082) Nature of the Work Medical and health care is provided by Administrative and Managerial Occupations/35 organizations that vary from large teaching hospitals to storefront clinics. It is the job of the health services administrator to provide effective management for these facilities un der the general supervision of a board of directors or other governing body. Administrators direct the various functions and activities that make a health organization run smoothly. They have overall responsibil ity for management decisions of many kinds: Budget preparation; establishing rates for health services; directing the hiring and train ing of personnel; and directing and coordinat ing the activities of the medical, nursing, physical plant, and other operating depart ments. They must also plan and negotiate for expansion of facilities and services to keep pace with requirements of the community. They may handle these matters alone if the organization is small, or, more commonly, direct a staff of assistant administrators. Even where assistant administrators direct daily op erations of various departments, the chief executive keeps informed through formal and informal meetings with assistants, medical staff, and others. Many health administrators also help carry out fundraising drives and promote public participation in health programs. This phase of the administrator’s job often includes speaking before civic groups, arranging pub licity, and coordinating the activities of the organization with those of government or community agencies. Working Conditions Health administrators often work long hours. Facilities such as nursing homes and hospitals operate around the clock, and ad ministrators may be called at all hours to settle emergency problems. Also, some may travel to meetings or, for those who oversee several facilities, to make inspections. Employment About 220,000 persons worked in some phase of health administration in 1980. Most administrators work in patient care facilities, including hospitals, nursing homes, rehabilita tion centers, home health agencies, and health maintenance organizations. Hospitals employ about half of all administrators; some of these work for the Federal Government in Veterans Administration, Public Health Service, and Armed Forces hospitals and clinics. Some health administrators work for State and local health departments. Others work for voluntary health agencies that support medical research into the causes and treat ment of particular diseases or impairments. These agencies also conduct professional and public education and community service pro grams. Still other health administrators are employed by consulting firms that provide management services for a fee. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A sound knowledge of management princi Conferring with patients' relatives is part of the nursing home administrator’s job. ples and practices is essential preparation for a career in health administration. Academic programs in health administration, leading to a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree, are offered by colleges, universities, and schools of public health. The various degree pro grams provide different levels of career prep aration. The master’s degree—in hospital administration, health administration, or pub lic health—is regarded as the standard cre dential for many positions in this field. Academic programs in health administra tion do not provide the only way of entering this career area, however. A degree in such fields as business, personnel administration, or public administration provides an appropri ate background for some positions. And for others, institutional management capability is the key qualification. Educational require ments vary with the size of the organization and the amount of responsibility involved. Generally, larger organizations require more specialized academic preparation than smaller ones do. In 1980, about 100 colleges and universi ties offered bachelor degree programs in health services administration. About 70 schools had programs leading to the master’s degree in hospital or health services adminis tration; 21 of these programs were in schools of public health. Some schools offer joint degree programs, leading to a master’s in public health and a master’s in business ad ministration, for example. To enter graduate programs, applicants must have a bachelor’s degree, with courses in natural sciences, psychology, sociology, statistics, accounting, and economics. Com petition for entry to these programs is keen, and applicants need above-average grades to gain admission. The programs generally last about 2 years and may include sortie super vised administrative experience in hospitals, clinics, or health agencies. Programs may include courses such as hospital organization and management, accounting and budget control, personnel administration, public health administration, and the economics of health care. New graduates with master’s degrees in health or hospital administration may be hired by hospitals as associate or assistant administrators, department heads, or project directors, while those with master’s degrees in public health often find work as program analysts or program representatives in public health departments. Very few master’s degree recipients take entry level administrative po sitions in nursing or personal care homes, although many nursing home administrators pursue graduate education while employed. New master’s degree recipients from related disciplines such as public administration or business are sometimes hired for administra tive jobs in the health field. Master of busi ness administration (MBA) graduates, for example, are sometimes hired by public health departments as program analysts. New recipients of bachelor’s degrees in health administration usually begin their ca reers as administrative assistants or depart ment heads in hospitals, or as assistant administrators in small hospitals or in nursing homes. The Ph.D. degree usually is required for positions in teaching or research, and is an asset for those seeking administrative jobs in larger, more prestigious health organizations. Although some public health departments still require chief administrators to be physi cians, the trend is away from this. Directors of nursing are usually chosen from among supervisory registered nurses with adminis trative abilities. 36/Occupational Outlook Handbook Administrators in Armed Forces hospitals health administration has increased rapidly in usually are career military personnel who recent years; in addition, administrative spe generally hold graduate degrees in health ser cialists with graduate degrees in other fields are entering the profession. Consequently, vices administration. As a rule, licensure is not required in most competition for jobs has intensified, particu areas of health services administration, with larly in hospital administration. This situation the exception of nursing home or long-term is expected to continue, and it may become care administration. All States and the Dis difficult for persons with less than a graduate trict of Columbia require these administrators education to obtain administrative jobs in to pass a qualifying licensing examination, hospitals. In nursing homes and other long and most students prepare for it by complet term care facilities, where a graduate degree ing a special course of study. These prepara in health administration is not ordinarily a tory courses, usually consisting of 100 to 200 requirement, job opportunities will be good hours of study in long-term care administra for individuals with a business or manage tion, are available through some colleges, ment background. Employment of health services administra universities, and home study programs. The licensing examination covers principles of tors is expected to grow faster than the aver administration; management of a long-term age for all occupations through the 1980’s as care facility; the role of government in long the health industry expands and health ser term care; environmental health and safety; vices management becomes more complex. and medical, psychological, and social as Not all areas of health care will experience pects of patient care. Nearly half the States identical rates of growth, however. Popula require applicants to complete an internship tion migration has caused the closing of some known as an Administrator-in-Training pro hospitals where population is declining and gram before taking the licensure examina the opening of hospitals in areas of popula tion. This internship generally lasts 1 year tion growth—notably in the South and West. and is supervised by a licensed administrator. Overall, however, hospital administration Since requirements vary from State to State, may not contribute heavily to employment persons considering a career in long-term opportunities for health administrators in the care administration should investigate licens coming years. Although hospitals have been ing requirements where they wish to work. growing in size and increasing the scope and Health services administrators are often re sophistication of their services, the number of sponsible for millions of dollars of facilities hospitals is decreasing. Demand for adminis and equipment and hundreds of employees. trators will be stimulated, however, by the They need a command of business and com formation of group medical practices and munication skills that allows them to make health maintenance organizations. Adminis timely policy decisions and to motivate sub trators also will be needed in nursing and ordinates to implement those decisions. Ad convalescent homes, to handle the increasing ministrators, especially head administrators, amount of administrative work expected as of all types of health organizations need to be these facilities expand. Job openings also will result from the need to replace personnel who self-starters. In order to create an atmosphere favorable transfer to another field, retire, or die. to good patient care, administrators must like people, enjoy working with them, and be Earnings able to deal effectively with them. Admin Salaries of hospital administrators depend istrators also should be good at public on factors such as the level of job responsi speaking. bility; the size, type, and location of the Health administrators advance in the pro hospital; and the size of its administrative fession by moving into more responsible and staff and budget. higher paying positions. They may do this Chief administrators in State hospitals with within their own institution, or by shifting to 350 to 800 beds earned an average of $35,000 another health care facility or organization. a year in 1980. Some, in larger hospitals, Frequently, the administrator’s first job in a earned over $50,000. Recent recipients of large institution is a position that is some master’s degrees in health administration start what narrow in scope—department head in ing work in Veterans Administration hospitals charge of purchasing, for example. Advance earned $18,585 a year in 1980. The average ment occurs with promotion to successively salary paid administrators of Federal hospitals more responsible jobs such as assistant or was $34,100. associate administrator and finally chief ad Commissioned officers in the Armed ministrator. Less commonly, hospital admin Forces who work as hospital administrators istrators begin their careers in small hospitals hold ranks ranging from second lieutenant to in positions with broad responsiblities, such colonel or from ensign to captain. Command as assistant administrator. Regardless of the ing officers of large Armed Forces hospitals path of advancement chosen, the ultimate are generally physicians, who may hold high occupational goal in hospitals and nursing er ranks. Hospital administrators in the U.S. homes is the position of chief executive or Public Health Service are commissioned offi chief administrative officer. cers holding ranks equivalent to those of lieu tenant (junior grade) through captain in the Navy. Job Outlook Administrators of nursing and personal The number of graduate programs in care homes usually earn lower salaries than those paid hospital administrators in facilities having similar numbers of beds. Most admin istrators employed by voluntary health agen cies earned between $25,000 and $40,000 a year in 1980, and some earned well over $50,000 annually. Related Occupations Health services administrators plan pro grams, set policies, and make decisions for a health service agency or institution. Other administrators with similar responsibilities in clude social welfare administrators, emergen cy medical services coordinators, community organization directors, college or university department heads, medical-record administra tors, and recreation superintendents. Sources of Additional Information Information about health administration and the academic programs in this field of fered by universities, colleges, and communi ty colleges is available from: American College of Hospital Administration, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. Association of University Programs in Health Ad ministration, One Dupont Circle, NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. National Health Council, Health Careers Program, 70 West 40th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. American College of Nursing Home Administra tors, 4650 East-West Hwy., Washington, D.C. 20014. Health and Regulatory Inspectors (Government)______ (D .O .T . 073.264-010; 079.117-018; 160.167- 046; 168.167-022, -026, -042, -062, and -074; .264-010; .267-018, -022, and -042 through -078, except -070; .287; .387-010; 169.284-010; and 379.364-010) Nature of the Work Protecting the public from health and safe ty hazards, prohibiting unfair trade and em ployment practices, controlling immigration, and raising revenue are responsibilities of government. Health and regulatory inspectors enforce the laws and regulations that govern these responsibilities. For discussion of an other type of inspector, see the statement on construction inspectors (Government) else where in the Handbook. The duties, titles, and responsibilities of Federal, State, and local health and regula tory inspectors vary widely. Some types of inspectors work only for the Federal Govern ment while others also are employed by State and local governments. Health Inspectors. Health inspectors work with engineers, chemists, microbiologists, and health workers to insure compliance with public health and safety regulations govern Administrative and Managerial Occupations/37 ing food, drugs, cosmetics, and other con sumer products. They also administer regula tions that govern the quarantine of persons and products entering the United States from foreign countries. The major types of health inspectors are: Consumer safety, food, agri cultural quarantine, and environmental health inspectors. In addition, some inspectors work in a field closely related to food inspection— agricultural commodity grading. Most consumer safety inspectors specialize in food, feeds and pesticides, weights and measures, or drugs and cosmetics inspection. Some are proficient in several areas. Work ing individually or in teams under a senior or supervisory inspector, they periodically check firms that produce, handle, store, and market food, drugs, and cosmetics. They look for inaccurate product labeling, and for decomposition or chemical or bacteriological contamination that could result in a product becoming harmful to health. They assemble evidence of violations, using portable scales, cameras, ultraviolet lights, container sam pling devices, thermometers, chemical test ing kits, and other equipment. They send product samples collected as part of their examinations to laboratories for analysis. After completing their inspection, inspec tors discuss their observations with plant managers or officials and point out areas where corrective measures are needed. They write reports of their findings, and, when necessary, compile evidence that may be used in court if legal action must be taken to enforce the law. Federal and State laws empower food in spectors to inspect meat, poultry, and their byproducts to insure that they are wholesome and safe for public consumption. Working as part of a constant onsite team under a veter inarian, they inspect meat and poultry slaugh tering, processing, and packaging operations. They also check for correct product labeling and proper sanitation. Agricultural quarantine inspectors protect American agricultural products from the in troduction and spread of foreign plant pests and animal diseases. To safeguard crops, for ests, gardens, and livestock, they inspect ships, aircraft, railroad cars, and motor vehi cles entering the United States for restricted or prohibited plant or animal materials. Environmental health inspectors, or sani tarians, who work primarily for State and local governments, insure that food, water, and air meet government standards. They check the cleanliness and safety of food and beverages produced in dairies and processing plants, or served in restaurants, hospitals, and other institutions. They often examine the handling, processing, and serving of food for compliance with sanitation rules and reg ulations. They oversee the treatment and dis posal of sewage, refuse, and garbage. They examine places where pollution is a danger, test for pollutants, and collect air or water samples for analysis. They determine the na ture and cause of the pollution; then initiate action to stop it. In large local and State health or agricul ture departments, environmental health in spectors may specialize in milk and dairy products, food sanitation, waste control, airpollution, institutional sanitation, or occupa tional health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range of environmental health activities. Agricultural commodity graders apply quality standards to insure that retailers and consumers receive wholesome and reliable products. They generally specialize in an area such as eggs and egg products, pro cessed or fresh fruits and vegetables, grain, or dairy products. They inspect product sam ples to determine quality and grade, and is sue official grading certificates. Graders also may inspect the plant and equipment to in sure that sanitation standards are maintained. Regulatory Inspectors. Regulatory inspec tors insure compliance with laws and regula tions that protect the public welfare. Important types of regulatory inspectors are: Immigration; customs; air safety; occupation al safety and health; mine; wage-hour com pliance; and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors. Immigration inspectors interview and ex amine people seeking to enter the United States. They inspect passports to determine whether people are legally eligible to enter and to verify their citizenship, status, and identity. Immigration inspectors also prepare reports, maintain records, and process appli cations and petitions for immigration or tem porary residence in the United States. Customs inspectors enforce laws govern ing imports and exports. Stationed at air ports, seaports, and border crossing points, they count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sam ple commercial cargoes entering and leaving the United States to determine the amount of tax that must be paid. They also inspect baggage and articles worn by passengers and crew members to insure that all merchandise is declared and proper taxes are paid. Air safety inspectors insure that Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations which govern the quality and safety of air craft equipment and personnel are main tained. Air safety inspectors may inspect aircraft manufacturing, maintenance and re pair, or operations procedures. They usually specialize in either commercial or general aviation aircraft. They also certify aircraft pilots, pilot examiners, flight instructors, schools, and instructional materials. Occupational safety and health inspectors visit places of employment to detect unsafe or unhealthy working conditions. They in spect machinery and equipment and observe employees at work to check that safety equipment and proper safety precautions are in use in accordance with Federal, State, or local government safety standards and regulations. Occupational safety and health inspectors usually visit a plant, factory, or other work place in response to a complaint or an acci dent. In reports of their findings, they de scribe hazards, and cite safety standards or regulations that have been violated. They also discuss their findings with the employer or plant manager and urge that violations be promptly corrected. Workers in the private sector who have related responsibilities are discussed in the statement on occupational safety and health workers elsewhere in the Handbook. Mine inspectors work to insure the health and safety of miners. They visit mines and related facilities to obtain information on health and safety conditions and to enforce safety laws and regulatons. Mine inspectors discuss their findings with the management of the mine, write reports of their findings and decisions, and issue notices that describe violations and hazards that must be corrected. They also investigate and report on mine accidents and direct rescue and fire fighting operations when fires or explosions occur. Wage-hour compliance inspectors inspect employers’ time, payroll, and personnel re cords to insure compliance with Federal laws on minimum wages, overtime, pay, employ ment of minors, and equal employment op portunity. They often interview employees to verify the employer’s records and to check for complaints. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors inspect distilleries, wineries, and breweries; cigar and cigarette manufacturing plants; wholesale liquor dealers and importers; fire arms and explosives manufacturers, dealers, and users; and other regulated facilities. They insure compliance with revenue laws and oth er regulations on operating procedures, unfair competition, and trade practices, and deter mine that appropriate taxes are paid. Consumer safety inspectors make periodic checks. 38/Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Most health and regulatory inspectors live an active life; they meet many people and work in a variety of environments. Their jobs often involve considerable fieldwork, and some inspectors travel frequently. They are furnished with an automobile or reimbursed for travel expenses. At times, inspectors have unfavorable working conditions. For example, food, and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors fre quently come in contact with strong, unpleas ant odors. Mine inspectors often work in mines where they are exposed to the same hazards as miners. Many inspectors work long and often irregular hours. Employment About 112,000 persons worked as health and regulatory inspectors in 1980. Employ ment was nearly evenly divided among the three levels of government—Federal, State, and local. The largest single employer of consumer safety inspectors is the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but the majority work for State governments. Most food in spectors and agricultural commodity graders in processing plants are employed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultur al quarantine inspectors work for the U.S. Public Health Service or the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture. Most environmental health inspectors work for State and local governments. Most Federal regulatory inspectors work in regional and district offices throughout the United States. Air safety inspectors work for the Federal Aviation Administration; wagehour compliance officers, for the Department of Labor; and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors, for the Treasury Department. Oc cupational safety and health inspectors and mine inspectors also work for the Department of Labor, as well as many State govern ments. Like agricultural quarantine inspec tors, immigration and customs inspectors work at U.S. airports, seaports, and border crossing points, and at foreign airports and seaports. Immigration inspectors are em ployed by the Department of Justice. Cus toms inspectors work for the Treasury Department. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the wide range of inspector jobs, qualifications for employment vary greatly. The Federal Government requires a passing score on the Professional and Ad ministrative Career Examination (PACE) for several inspector occupations, including im migration; customs; wage-hour compliance; alcohol, tobacco, and firearms; occupational safety and health; and consumer safety in spectors. To take this examination, an appli cant must have a bachelor’s degree, 3 years of responsible work experience, or a combi nation of the two. In most cases, agencies prefer applicants whose course work or ex perience is related to the job. Food inspectors must have related expe rience and pass an examination based on specialized knowledge. Air safety inspectors must have consider able experience in aviation maintenance, and an FAA Air Frame and Power Plant certifi cate. In addition, pilot certificates and con siderable flight experience are required. Many air safety inspectors have had flight training and mechanical training in the Armed Forces. No written examination is required. Applicants for mine safety inspector posi tions generally must have experience in mine safety, management, or supervision, or pos sess a skill such as electrical engineering (for mine electrical inspectors). In some cases, a general aptitude test may be required. Some Civil Service registers, including those for agricultural quarantine inspectors and agricultural commodity graders, rate ap plicants solely on their experience and educa tion and require no written examination. Qualifications usually are similar for in spectors at the State and local level. Environ mental health inspectors, called sanitarians in many States, usually must have a bachelor’s degree in environmental health or the phys ical or biological sciences. In 35 States, they are licensed by examining boards. All inspectors are trained in applicable laws and inspection procedures through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training. In general, people who want to be come health and regulatory inspectors should be able to accept responsibility and like de tailed work. They should be neat and person able and able to express themselves well orally and in writing. Federal Government inspectors are pro moted on a Civil Service “career ladder.’’ Workers whose performance is satisfactory advance automatically, usually at 1-year in tervals, to a specified maximum level. Above this level (usually supervisory positions), ad vancement is competitive, based on agency needs and individual merit. Job Outlook Employment of health and regulatory in spectors as a group is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. Employment growth is expected to be constrained by slow growth in government regulatory programs and in government spending. Most job open ings will be to replace those who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Because health and regulatory inspectors are government workers, their employment is seldom affected by general economic fluctu ations. Most inspectors work in programs which enjoy wide public support. As a re sult, they are less likely to lose their jobs than many other workers when government programs are cut. Earnings In the Federal Government, aviation safety officers and mining inspectors usually started at $18,585 a year in early 1981. Other health and regulatory inspectors and graders started at $12,266 a year in early 1981. Experienced food inspectors and agricul tural commodity graders averaged about $18,500 a year in 1980. Experienced immi gration and customs inspectors averaged more than $20,000 a year; agricultural quar antine and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors about $23,000 a year; and wagehour compliance inspectors more than $26,000 a year in 1980. Experienced con sumer safety inspectors, mine inspectors, and occupational safety and health inspectors em ployed by the Federal Government averaged more than $28,000 in 1980. Experienced avi ation safety officers averaged over $36,000 a year. Nonsupervisory environmental health in spectors working for selected U.S. cities and counties received average starting salaries of about $14,000 in 1980; those working for State governments started at about $1,500 less. Experienced environmental health in spectors working for State governments earned between $14,800 and $20,000 but top supervisors and administrators had salaries between $21,200 and $29,000 in 1980. Related Occupations Health and regulatory inspectors are re sponsible for seeing that government laws and regulations are obeyed. Revenue agents, construction inspectors, State and local police officers, and fish and game wardens also enforce laws. Sources of Additional Information Information on Federal Government jobs is available from local offices of the State employment service, area offices of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, and Feder al Job Information Centers in large cities throughout the country. For information on a career as a specific type of inspector, the Federal department or agency that employs them may also be contacted directly. Information about State and local govern ment jobs is available from State civil service commissions, usually located in each State capital, or from local government offices. Hotel Managers and Assistants_________ (D .O .T . 163.117-018; 187.117-038, .167-078, -110, -122, -126; 238.137-010) Nature of the Work Hotel managers are responsible for operat ing their establishments profitably, and satis fying hotel guests. They determine room rates and credit policy, direct the operation of the food service operation, and manage the housekeeping, accounting, security, and maintenance departments of the hotel. Han- Administrative and Managerial Occupations/39 dling problems and coping with the unexpect ed are important parts of the job. A small hotel or motel requires only a limited staff, and the manager may have to fulfill various front office duties, such as taking reservations and assigning rooms. When management is combined with owner ship, these activities may expand to include all aspects of the business. General managers of large hotels usually have several assistants or department heads who manage various parts of the operation. Because the hotel restaurant and cocktail lounge are important to the success of the entire establishment, they almost always are operated by managers with experience in the restaurant field. Other areas that usually are handled separately are advertising, rental of banquet and meeting facilities, marketing and sales, personnel, and accounting. Large hotel and motel chains often central ize some activities, such as purchasing and advertising, so that individual hotels in the chain may not need managers for these de partments. Managers who work for chains may be assigned to organize a newly built or purchased hotel or to reorganize an exist ing hotel or motel that is not operating successfully. About 84,000 hotel and motel managers worked in 1980. Working Conditions Since hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work is common. Hotel employees frequently must work on shifts. Managers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, but they may be called for work at any time. Hotel managers sometimes experience the pressures of coordinating a wide range of functions. Dealing with irate or non-Englishspeaking patrons can also be stressful. The job can be particularly hectic around check out time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experience generally is the most important consideration in selecting managers. Howev er, employers increasingly are emphasizing college education. A bachelor’s degree in hotel and restaurant administration provides particularly strong preparation for a career in hotel management. In 1980, over 80 colleges and universities offered 4-year programs in this field. Because more aspiring hotel man agers seek formal training, applicants to these programs may face increasing competition in the coming years, however. Many junior col leges, technical institutes, and the Education al Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association also have courses in hotel work that provide a good background. Included in many college programs in hotel management are courses in hotel administra tion, accounting, economics, data processing, housekeeping, food service management and catering, and hotel maintenance engineering. Management trainees learn the business by working in the various departments of a hotel. Part-time or summer work in hotels and res taurants is encouraged because the experience gained and the contacts with employers may benefit students when they seek a job after graduation. Managers should have initiative, self-disci pline, and the ability to organize and direct the work of others. They must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. Sometimes large hotels sponsor special ized, on-the-job management training pro grams which enable trainees to rotate among various departments and receive a thorough knowledge of the hotel’s operation. Other hotels may help finance the necessary train ing in hotel management for outstanding employees. Most hotels promote employees who have proven their ability, usually front office clerks, to assistant manager and eventually to general manager. Newly built hotels, particu larly those without well-established on-the-job training programs, often prefer experienced personnel for managerial positions. Hotel and motel chains may offer better opportunities for advancement than independently owned estab lishments, because employees can transfer to another hotel or motel in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Job Outlook Employment of hotel managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s as additional ho tels and motels are built and chain and franchise operations spread. However, most openings will occur as experienced managers die, retire, or leave the occupation. Seasonal employment opportunities will be available in resort establishments that are open only part of the year. Applicants who have college degrees in hotel administration will have an advan tage in seeking entry positions and later advancement. Earnings Salaries of hotel managers and assistants are particularly dependent upon the size and sales volume of the hotel, and vary greatly because of differences in duties and responsi bilities. Hotel manager trainees who are graduates of specialized college programs generally start at around $13,500 a year and usually are given periodic increases for the first year or two. Experienced managers may earn several times as much as beginners. For example, salaries of hotel general managers ranged from about $20,000 to $80,000 a year in 1981, according to a'survey conducted by the American Hotel and Motel Association. Hotel food and beverage managers earned from about $16,000 to $40,000. Managers may earn bonuses ranging from 10 to 20 percent of their basic salary in some hotels. In addition to salary, hotels sometimes fur nish managers and their families with lodging in the hotel, meals, parking facilities, laun dry, and other services. Most employees receive 5 to 10 paid holi days a year, paid vacation, sick leave, life insurance, medical benefits, and pension plans. Some hotels offer bonuses, profit shar ing plans, educational assistance, and other benefits to their employees. Related Occupations Hotel managers and assistants are not the only workers concerned with organizing and directing a business where pleasing people is very important. Other workers with similar responsibilities include apartment building managers, food service managers, depart ment store managers, office managers, and sales managers. 40/Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Information on careers and scholarships in the lodging industry may be obtained from: The American Hotel and Motel Association, 888 7th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. For a directory of colleges and other schools offering programs and courses in hospitality education, write to: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, Human Development Building, Room 118, University Park, Pa. 16802. Medical Record Administrators (D .O .T . 079.167-014) Nature of the Work All health care institutions record medical information on each patient, including case histories of illnesses or injuries, reports on physical examinations, X-rays and laboratory tests, doctors’ orders and notes, and nurses’ notes. These records are necessary for correct and prompt diagnosis and treatment of ill nesses and injuries. They also are used for research, insurance claims, legal actions, evaluation of treatment and medications pre scribed, and in the training of medical per sonnel. Medical information also is used to evaluate patient care in hospitals and to plan health care in the community. Medical record administrators direct the activities of the medical record department and develop systems for documenting, stor ing, and retrieving medical information. They supervise the medical record staff, which processes and analyzes records and reports on patients’ illnesses and treatment. They train the medical record staff for spe cialized jobs, compile medical statistics for State or national health agencies, and assist the medical staff in evaluations of patient care or research studies. Medical record ad ministrators serving as department heads are a part of the hospital management staff and participate fully in management activities. As the administrators responsible for the medical information system, they may be required to testify in court about records and record procedures. The size and type of institution affect the duties and responsibility assigned to medical record administrators. Large hospitals have chief medical record administrators who su pervise other medical record administrators, technicians, and clerks. Smaller hospitals may employ only two or three persons in the medical record department; nursing homes often have one person in charge of medical records. Small health care facilities may em ploy a part-time medical record administrator to advise technical and clerical personnel. Most medical record administrators work in hospitals. Working Conditions Medical record adminstrators generally work a standard 40-hour week in clean, welllighted surroundings. Because the record de partment seldom is involved in emergencies, the pace of work usually is regular and not crisis-oriented. However, accuracy and atten tion to detail can be very tiring. Employment An estimated 15,000 medical record ad ministrators were employed in 1980. Most worked in hospitals. The remainder worked in nursing homes, clinics, group practices, public health departments, and university medical centers. Health insurance companies employ medical record administrators to help determine liability for payment of clients’ medical fees. Some medical record adminis trators work for firms which manufacture equipment for recording and processing medical data and which develop and print health insurance and medical forms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for a career in this field is available through college and university pro grams that lead to a bachelor’s degree in medical record administration. Medical schools offer many of these programs. Since concentration in medical record administra tion begins in the third or fourth year of study, transfer from a community or junior college is possible. One-year certificate pro grams are open to those who already have a bachelor’s degree and required courses in the liberal arts and biological sciences. In 1980, 55 programs in medical record administration were approved by the Com mittee on Allied Health Education and Ac creditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Association in collaboration with the American Medical Record Association (AMRA). High school courses that provide a good background include health, business ad ministration, mathematics, computer science, and biology. Training for medical record administrators includes both classroom instruction and prac tical experience. Anatomy, physiology, fun damentals of medical science, medical terminology, and medical record science are among the required scientific courses. In ad dition, management courses such as hospital organization and administration, health law, statistics, data processing, and computer sci ence are part of the curriculum. Experience in the medical record departments of hospi tals provides students with a practical back ground in applying standardized medical record practices, compiling statistical reports, analyzing data, and organizing medical rec ord systems. Graduates of approved schools in medical record administration are eligible for the na tional registration examination given by AMRA. Passing this examination gives pro Administrative and Managerial Occupations/41 fessional recognition as a Registered Record Administrator (RRA). According to the AMRA, there were about 6,500 employed RRA’s in 1980. Medical record administrators must be ac curate and interested in detail, and must be able to speak and write clearly. Because medi cal records are confidential, medical record administrators must be discreet in processing and releasing information. Supervisors must be able to organize, analyze, and direct work procedures and to work effectively with other hospital personnel. Medical record administrators with some experience in smaller health facilities may advance to positions as department heads in large hospitals or to higher level positions in hospital administration. Some coordinate the medical record departments of several small hospitals. Others move on to medical record positions in health agencies. Many teach in the expanding programs for medical record personnel in 2- and 4-year colleges and universities. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for graduates of approved medical record administrator pro grams are expected to be good through the 1980’s. Employment is expected to grow fas ter than the average for all occupations due to a growing and aging population; more infor mation required by third-party payers, such as insurance companies and government agen cies; and standardization of health records in outpatient clinics, community health centers, nursing homes, and home care programs. The widespread use of computers to store and retrieve medical information should stimulate demand for administrators qualified to develop automated record systems. In addition to jobs created by heightened demand for these workers, openings will oc cur as medical record administrators transfer to other kinds of work, retire, or die. Part-time employment opportunities should continue in teaching, research, and consult ing work for health care facilities. Related Occupations Medical record administrators work almost exclusively in hospitals and, as members of the health care team, assume responsibility for a large volume of medical records. They train and supervise workers who verify, tran scribe, code, and maintain files on patients’ medical history. Other occupations which provide similar services in related fields in clude emergency medical service coordina tors, hospital-insurance representatives, library directors, and public health educators. Sources of Additional Information Information about approved schools and employment opportunites is available from: American Medical Record Association, John Han cock Center, Suite 1850, 875 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Occupational Safety and Health Workers (D .O .T. 010.061-026; 012.061-014, .167-022, -026, -034, and -058, and .261-010; 079.021-010 and .161-010; 168.167-078, .264-014, and .267-074; 373.167-018 .367010; and 821.367-014; and 909.127-010) Nature of the Work Occupational safety and health workers Earnings The salaries of medical record administra tors are influenced by the location, size, and type of the employing institution, as well as by the duties and responsibilities of the posi tion. The average starting salary for medical record administrators in hospitals was about $18,000 a year in 1981, according to a na tional survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced record administrators in hospitals averaged about $23,600 a year, with some earning well over $30,000. Newly graduated medical record adminis trators employed by the Federal Government generally started at about $12,300 a year in early 1981; those having good academic rec ords were eligible to begin at about $15,200. In 1980, experienced medical record admin istrators averaged about $19,500 a year in the Federal Government. Safety engineer taking measurements. strive to control occupational accidents and diseases, property losses from accidents and fires, and injuries from unsafe products. This group of workers includes safety engineers, fire protection engineers, industrial hygien ists, and loss control and occupational health consultants. Workers employed in safety and health occupations peculiar to government are discussed in the statement on health and regulatory inspectors elsewhere in the Hand book. The largest group of safety workers is safety engineers (D.O.T. 012.061-014). Al though all are concerned with preventing ac cidents, their specific tasks depend on where they work. For example, safety engineers in large manufacturing plants may develop a comprehensive safety program covering sev eral thousand employees. They analyze each job in the plant to identify potential hazards that can be avoided with preventive mea sures. When accidents occur, safety engi neers investigate to determine the cause. If poor design, improper maintenance, or me chanical failure is involved, they use their technical skills to correct the situation and prevent its recurrence. When human error causes an accident, safety engineers may drill workers in proper safety procedures. Safety engineers who work for trucking companies (D .O.T. 909.127-010) study schedules, routes, loads, and speeds to deter mine their influence on trucking accidents. 42/Occupational Outlook Handbook They also inspect trucks and trailers and sug gest ways of safer operation. In the mining industry, safety engineers (D.O.T. 010.061026) may inspect underground or open-pit areas to insure compliance with State and Federal laws, design protective equipment and safety devices for mine workers and ma chinery, or lead rescue activities during emergencies. Many safety engineers are concerned with the safety of their company’s products. They work with design engineers to develop mod els that meet safety standards, and they mon itor the manufacturing process to insure the safety of the finished product. Fire protection engineers (D .O .T . 012.167-026) safeguard life and property against fire, explosion, and related hazards. Those in research investigate problems such as fires in high-rise buildings or the manufac ture, handling, and storage of flammable ma terials. Fire protection engineers in the field use these research findings to identify and correct hazards. For example, findings con cerning flashpoints (the temperatures at which different materials will ignite) are valuable to the engineer designing storage facilities in a chemical plant. Like safety engineers, fire protection engi neers may have different job duties depend ing on the place where they work. Those with fire equipment manufacturing compa nies may design new fire protection devices, while those in design and consulting firms work with architects and other engineers to insure that fire safety is built into new struc tures. Fire protection engineers working for insurance rating bureaus (organizations that calculate costs of insurance coverage in par ticular areas) inspect commercial and indus trial properties to evaluate the adequacy of fire protection. Many fire protection engi neers specialize in one or more types of fire protection, such as sprinkler or fire detection systems. While safety and fire protection engineers primarily strive to minimize the dangers of accidents from careless operation of machin ery and other physical hazards, industrial hygienists (D.O.T. 079.161-010) seek to minimize environmental health hazards in the workplace. These health professionals are concerned with how noise, dust, vapors, chemicals, and other hazards common to the industrial setting affect workers’ health. Many take air samples, monitor noise levels, or measure radioactivity levels at job sites. Other industrial hygienists work in private laboratories maintained by large insurance companies or industrial or consulting firms. Laboratory hygienists analyze air samples, do research on the reliability of health equip ment such as respirators, or investigate the effects of exposure to chemicals or radiation. Some hygienists specialize in problems of air and water pollution. They work with govern ment officials, environmental groups, labor organizations, and plant management to de velop systems to screen harmful substances before they enter and pollute air and water ways. Loss control and occupational health con sultants (D.O.T. 168.167-078) in propertyliability insurance companies perform many services for clients. These range from cor recting a single hazard in a small business to devising a program to eliminate or reduce all hazards in a large firm. When dealing with a new account, the consultant thoroughly in spects the plant and then confers with man agement to formulate a program that meets the company’s needs. The consultant may, for example, help set up plant health pro grams and medical services, assist plant per sonnel to insure that a new facility meets all safety requirements, or train plant safety peo ple. Safety and health consultants also help their company’s underwriters determine whether a risk- is acceptable and the amount of premium to charge. Working Conditions Although occupational safety and health workers are based in offices, much of their time is spent at work sites inspecting or studying safety hazards, talking to workers, or taking air or dust samples. Safety and health workers may travel a great deal unless they work exclusively at a single plant. The amount of travel depends upon job specialty and geographic location. For example, the plant safety engineer may travel only to an occasional seminar or conference, while the insurance consultant may spend about half the time away from the home office, inspect ing worksites. Employment An estimated 80,000 occupational safety and health workers were employed in 1980. About half were safety engineers, and most of the rest were fire protection engineers, industrial hygienists, or workers who divided their time between two or more areas. A few were engineering or industrial hygiene technicians Occupational safety and health workers were employed throughout the economy, but were concentrated in manufacturing, insur ance, and engineering and architectural serv ices industries. Occupational safety and health workers are generally employed in population and indus trial centers. Insurance consultants generally have offices in a major city and travel to and from various sites. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The basic entry requirement for occupa tional safety and health jobs is a bachelor’s degree in engineering or one of the physical or biological sciences. Employers usually prefer a bachelor’s or master’s degree specifi cally related to occupational safety and health, such as safety engineering or manage ment, industrial hygiene, fire protection engi neering, public health, or health physics, or a degree in chemical or mechanical engineer ing. Some employers hire graduates of 2-year college curriculums as technicians, particu larly if they have work related experience. To stay abreast of changing technologies, new ideas, and emerging trends, many insur ance companies offer training seminars and correspondence courses for their staffs. The Occupational Safety and Flealth Administra tion (OSHA) conducts courses for safety and health workers on topics such as occupational injury investigation and radiological health hazards. The recognized marks of achieve ment in the field are the designations Certi fied Safety Professional; Certified Industrial Hygienist; and Member, Society of Fire Pro tection Engineers. The Board of Certified Safety Professionals and the American Board of Industrial Hygiene certify candidates who complete the required experience and pass an examination. A few States require that occu pational safety and health professionals be licensed. In addition to possessing technical compe tence, safety and health workers must com municate well and motivate others. They should be able to adapt to different situa tions, and be equally at ease with a represen tative of a local union, a supervisor in the welding shop, or a corporate executive. Be cause physical activity is basic to the job, good physical condition is necessary. In the insurance industry, safety and health workers can be promoted to department man ager in a small branch office, then to a larger branch office, and finally to an executive position in the home office. In industrial firms, they can advance to safety and health manager for one or several plants. Techni cians with appropriate experience and educa tion can advance to professional safety and health positions. Job Outlook Reflecting a growing economy, a larger labor force, and continued concern for work er and consumer safety, employment of safe ty and health workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. Many openings also will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Many firms are expected to establish a safety and health program, and others will upgrade and expand existing programs in re sponse to government requirements, union interest, and rising insurance costs. The num ber of safety and health workers in casualty insurance companies also will increase as more small employers request the services of their insurer’s engineering or loss control de partment. Prospects should be best for gradu ates of occupational safety or health related curriculums. Earnings Experienced occupational safety and health workers averaged about $28,000 a year in 1980. Depending on their qualification, safe ty and health workers with bachelor’s degrees generally started at salaries between $20,000 Administrative and Managerial Occupations/43 and $22,000 a year in late 1980. Those with a graduate degree usually received higher starting salaries, and technicians somewhat lower ones. Many safety and health workers with supervisory responsibilities earned more than $30,000 a year. Related Occupations Occupational safety and health workers in sure that industrial production is carried out in a manner that is safe for workers. Related occupations also concerned with the technol ogy of production include mechanical, chemical, product safety, industrial, and pol lution-control engineers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about safety ca reers, and colleges and universities offering degree programs in the occupational safety and health field, write to: American Society of Safety Engineers, 850 Busse Hwy., Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Information concerning a career in indus trial hygiene is available from: American Industrial Hygiene Association, 475 Wolf Ledges Pkwy., Akron, Ohio 44311. Career information concerning fire protec tion engineering may be obtained from: Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 60 Batterymarch St., Boston, Mass. 02110. Career information on insurance loss con trol consulting is available from the home offices of many property-liability insurance companies. For information on requirements for var ious careers in the occupational safety and health field, as well as lists of college and universities that award degrees in the various occupational safety and health disciplines, contact: Division of Training and Manpower Development, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Robert A. Taft Laboratories, 4676 Co lumbia Pkwy., Cincinnati, Ohio 45226. quent contact. Dealing with people is an es sential part of the job. Personnel specialists and labor relations specialists concentrate on different aspects of employer-employee relations. Personnel spe cialists interview, select, and recommend ap plicants to fill job openings. They keep informed of rules and regulations pertaining to affirmative action and equal employment opportunity and oversee the implementation of policies governing hiring and advance ment. They handle wage and salary adminis tration, training and career development, and employee benefits. “ Labor relations” mean union-management relations, and people who specialize in this field work in unionized establishments, for the most part. They help company officials prepare for collective bar gaining sessions, participate in contract nego tiations, and handle labor relations matters that come up every day. In a small organization, personnel work consists mostly of interviewing and hiring, and one person can handle it all. By contrast, the professional staff of a large personnel department may include recruiters, interview ers, job analysts, benefits specialists, training specialists, and labor relations specialists. Personnel clerks and assistants handle routine tasks such as issuing forms, maintaining files, compiling statistics, and answering inquiries. Personnel work often begins with the re cruiter, who maintains contacts within the community and may travel extensively—usu ally to college campuses—in the search for promising job applicants. Recruiters talk to applicants, and refer and recommend those who appear qualified to fill vacancies. They may administer pre-employment tests and check references. These workers need to be thoroughly familiar with the organization and its personnel policies, for they must be pre pared to discuss wages, working conditions, and promotional opportunities with prospec tive and newly hired employees. They also need to keep informed about equal employ ment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative ac tion guidelines. EEO representatives or affirmative action coordinators handle this complex and sensi tive area in large organizations. They main tain contact with women and minority employees, and investigate and resolve EEO grievances. They also examine corporate practices for possible violations, and compile and submit EEO statistical reports. Job analysts (D .O .T . 166.267-018), sometimes called compensation analysts, do very exacting work. They collect and exam ine detailed information about job duties in order to prepare job descriptions. These de scriptions or “ position classifications” explain the duties, training, and skills each job re quires. Whenever a large organization intro duces a new job or reviews existing ones, it calls upon the expert knowledge of the job analyst. Accurate information about job du ties also is required when an organization considers changes in its pay system. Establishing and maintaining a firm’s pay system is the principal job of the compensa tion manager (D.O.T. 166.167-022). With the assistance of staff specialists, compensa tion managers devise ways to ensure that pay rates within the firm are fair and equitable. They may conduct surveys from time to time to see how their pay rates compare with others. Being certain that the firm’s pay sys tem complies with laws and regulations is another part of the job, one that requires knowledge of compensation structures and labor law. Human resource development is emerging Personnel and Labor Relations Specialists (D.O.T. 079.127-010; 166.067-010, .117, .167-014, -018, -022, -026, -030, -034, .227-010, .267-018, -030; and 169.207-010) Nature of the Work Attracting the best employees available and matching them to the jobs they can do best is important for the success of any orga nization. But many enterprises have become too large to permit close contact between management and employees. Instead, person nel and labor relations specialists provide this link—assisting management to make effec tive use of employees’ skills, and helping employees to find satisfaction in their jobs and working conditions. Although some jobs in this field require only limited contact with people outside the office, most involve fre Personnel specialist interviews applicant for job opening. 44/Occupational Outlook Handbook as a major specialization within personnel administration. Training specialists (D.O.T. 079.127-010; 166.167-026, .227-010) are re sponsible for a broad range of employee edu cation and training activities. They work with adults in a variety of business and industrial settings, as well as in local, State, and Feder al government agenices. Trainers conduct orientation sessions for new employees and arrange on-the-job training for them. They develop in-house programs as needs are iden tified; they may, for example, instruct expe rienced workers in the impact of new proce dures or the operation of new equipment, or they may teach management skills to new supervisors. In addition to designing, devel oping, and conducting programs, these spe cialists assess employee training needs; maintain records of company training activi ties; and monitor and evaluate the effective ness of various kinds of training. Helping employees prepare for future responsibilities is an increasingly important part of the job. Sometimes, this means setting up an individ ualized training plan, which provides a time table for strengthening existing job-related skills and acquiring new ones. Career devel opment may involve employer-financed study outside the company as well as job rotation to different parts of the firm. The training function within a company and the role and responsibilities of training specialists vary greatly, depending on the size of the firm and organizational goals and objectives. Employee-welfare managers (D .O .T . 166.117-014, 166.167-018) handle the em ployer’s benefits program, notably its insur ance and pension plans. Expertise in designing and administering benefits pro grams is increasingly important in the person nel field, in part because of the enactment of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA). ERISA reporting require ments are an important responsibility for per sonnel departments in large firms. The scope of employee benefits has grown considerably, and many firms offer their em ployees such benefits as dental insurance, accidental death and disability insurance, auto insurance, home owners’ insurance, stock options, profit sharing and thrift/savings plans in addition to conventional health insurance and pension coverage. Benefits an alysts and benefits administrators handle these programs. They also are responsible for developing and coordinating services as di verse as van-pooling, child care, lunchrooms and company cafeterias, newsletters, annual physical exams, recreation and physical fit ness, and counseling. Personal and financial counseling for employees approaching retire ment age is becoming a more important part of the job. Occupational safety and health programs are handled in various ways. In small com panies especially, accident prevention and in dustrial safety are the responsibility of the personnel department-or of the labor rela tions specialist, if the union has a safety representative. Increasingly, however, there is a separate safety department under the direction of a safety and health professional, generally a safety engineer or industrial hy gienist. (The work of occupational safety and health workers is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Labor relations specialists (D .O .T . 166.167-034) advise management on all as pects of union-management relations. When a collective bargaining agreement is up for negotiation, they provide background infor mation for management’s negotiating posi tion, a job that requires familiarity with sources of economic and wage data as well as extensive knowledge of labor law and collective bargaining trends. Actual negotia tion of the agreement is conducted at the top level, with the director of labor relations or another top-ranking official serving as the employer’s representative, but members of the company’s labor relations staff play an important role throughout the negotiations. Much of the work of the labor relations staff concerns interpretation and administra tion of the contract, the grievance procedures in particular. Labor relations specialists might work with the union on seniority rights under the layoff procedure set forth in the contract, for example, or meet with the union steward about a grievance. Doing the job well means staying abreast of current devel opments in labor law, including arbitration decisions, and maintaining continuing liaison with union officials. Personnel specialists in government agen cies generally do the same kind of work as those in large business firms. There are some differences, however. Public personnel spe cialists deal with employees whose jobs are subject to civil service regulations. Because civil service jobs are strictly classified as to entry requirements, duties, and pay, much of the emphasis in public personnel work is on job analysis. Training and career develop ment are growing in importance in the public sector, however, so much so that an entire ‘‘industry ’’ of educational and training consul tants helps provide staff training for public agencies. Labor relations in the public per sonnel field have changed as union strength among government workers has grown. This has created a need for more and better trained workers to handle negotiations, grievances, and arbitration cases on behalf of Federal, State, and local government agencies. Working Conditions Since personnel offices generally are locat ed where outside visitors and prospective em ployees gain an initial impression of the organization, they tend to be modem and pleasant places to work. Personnel specialists usually work a standard 35-to 40- hour work week. Labor relations specialists, however, may work longer hours-particularly when contract agreements are being prepared and negotiated. Although most personnel specialists spend their time in the office, some of them travel extensively. Recruiters regularly attend pro fessional meetings and visit college campuses to interview prospective employees. Employment In 1980, about 178,000 people worked as personnel and labor relations specialists. Two out of three worked in private industry, where they were employed by businesses of every description. Personnel and labor rela tions specialists work for firms that engage in manufacturing; construction; trade; transpor tation and communications; finance, insur ance, and real estate; and services. Some work for labor unions. Others are employed by, or run, management consulting firms that specialize in such areas as compensation, pension planning, and staff development. Approximately 55,000 personnel and labor relations specialists worked for Federal, State, and local governments in 1980. They handled recruitment, interviewing, job classi fication, training, and related matters for the Nation’s 15 million public employees: police officers, fire-fighters, sanitation workers, teachers, hospital workers, and many others. Labor unions employed about 12,000 of these workers in 1980. An elected union official generally handles labor relations mat ters at the company level. At national and international union headquarters, however, the research and education staff usually in cludes specialists with professional training in industrial and labor relations, economics, or law. Some personnel and labor relations spe cialists teach college or university courses in personnel administration, industrial relations, and related subjects. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree is required for most be ginning positions in this field. Prospective personnel or labor relations specialists have a wide choice of undergraduate majors, for a number of disciplines provide a suitable background. Some employers look for indi viduals who have majored in personnel ad ministration or industrial and labor relations, while others prefer college graduates with a general business background. Still other em ployers feel that a well-rounded liberal arts education is best; many personnel specialists have degrees in psychology, sociology, coun seling, or education. A master’s in business administration (M.B.A.) also provides suit able preparation for a job in the field. Indi viduals looking for a job with a government agency may find that a degree in personnel administration, political science, or public administration is an asset. At least 200 colleges and universities have programs leading to a degree in the field of personnel and labor relations. Other colleges and universities offer programs in personnel administration or personnel management. About 70 colleges and universities offer de gree or certificate programs in training and development. Depending on the school, preparation for a career in human resources ^ development may be obtained in departments of business administration, education, in structional technology, organizational devel opment, human services, communication, or public administration. Because an interdisciplinary background is appropriate for work in this area, a combina tion of courses in the social sciences, behav ioral sciences, business, and economics is useful. Prospective personnel specialists might take courses in principles of manage ment, organization dynamics, and human re lations. Other relevant courses include business administration, public administra tion, psychology, sociology, political sci ence, economics, and statistics. Courses in labor law, collective bargaining, labor eco nomics, labor history, and industrial psychol ogy provide a valuable background for the prospective labor relations specialist. Graduate study in industrial or labor rela tions may be required for work in labor rela tions. A law degree seldom is required for entry level jobs, but most of the people re sponsible for contract negotiations are law yers, and a combination of industrial relations courses and a law degree is highly desirable. Although a growing number of people enter the labor relations field directly, some begin in personnel work, gain exper ience in that area, and subsequently move into a labor relations job. Getting a college education, though highly important, is not the only way to enter person nel work. Some clerks advance to professional positions through experience. However, even then, part-time college courses are useful. Newly hired workers usually enter formal or on-the-job training programs where they learn how to classify jobs, interview appli cants, or administer employee benefits. Next, they are assigned to specific areas in the personnel department, to gain experience. Later, they may advance within their own company or transfer to another employer. Advancement eventually may take the form of responsibility for managing a major ele ment of the personnel program—compensa tion, training, or EEO/affirmative action, for example. Workers in the middle ranks of a large organization, including the personnel depart ment, often advance by moving into a top job in a smaller organization. Employees with exceptional ability may be promoted to ex ecutive positions, such as director of person nel or director of labor relations. Personnel and labor relations specialists should speak and write effectively and be able to work with people of all levels of education and experience. They also must be able to see both the employee’s and the em ployer’s points of view. In addition, should be able to work as part of a team. They need supervisory abilities and must be able to accept responsibility. Integrity, fairmindedness, and a persuasive, congenial per sonality are all important qualities. i ' J o b O u tlo o k A The number of personnel and labor relations specialists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980's. Most of this growth will occur in the private sector as employers, aware of the potential benefits, try to provide effective employee relations programs for an expanding work force. Within public personnel administration, opportunities probably will be best in State and local governments. At the Federal level, most job openings will result from replacement needs. In addition to new jobs created by heightened demand for these workers, many openings will occur every year as personnel and labor relations specialists change occupations, retire, or die. Legislation setting standards for employment practices in the areas of occupational safety and health, equal employment opportunity, and pensions has greatly increased record keeping and reporting requirements as well as legal requirements, thus stimulating demand for personnel and labor relations workers. Continued growth is foreseen as employers review and evaluate programs in these areas Every year, billions of dollars are spent on employee training in the public and private sectors. and the amount is expected to increase in the decade ahead. Greater emphasis on productivity is expected to stimulate greater investment in job-specific, employer-sponsored training that aims to improve performance by sharpening employees’ skills and heightening their motivation. Continued ex. . . _, , . pans,on m the area of human resource development will contribute to the projected increase in the number of personnel and labor relations specialists during the 1980’s. Although the number of jobs in this field is projected to increase over the next decade, job competition is increasing, too. Particularly keen competition is anticipated for jobs in labor relations. A small field, labor relations traditionally has been difficult to break into, and opportunities are best for applicants with a master’s degree or a strong undergraduate major in industrial relations, economics, or business. A law degree is an asset. Administrative and Managerial Occupations/45 Inanding work assignments, and job analysts with more L * 6? ? “ perience had s t a rles the range m 1980, with an average of $25,000 EEO representatlves- b' nefits anal5'sts- and tralmn« , Pec'al; s ,sf wl,h “'L „ J ear! “ penenCue 3,80 had ” 5 S25-000'* 27-000a™rage. Average annual salaries of personnel directors in private industry ranged from $27,719 to $49.730 in 1980, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey. Top personnel and labor relations executives in large corporations earned considerably more, A salaries for m d specialists l d b State goveraments ranged from $12700 tQ $17200 a in 1980) accord_ ing tQ a survey conducted by ^ U S office 0f Personnel Management. Personnel specialists who had supervisory responsibilities averaged from $18,900 to $25,900 and State directors of personnel earned average salaries ranging from $36,500 to $42,000. /n Federal Government, new graduates a bachelor s degree generally started at about $12,300 a year in late 1980. Those with a master s degree started at about 5.1*-600' Avera«« Federal salarif , ia sevef d dlfferent f eas of and, ' a^°r rela‘ tlons work were 38 follows ,n l980: Mediator.............................................. $39,763 Labor relations specialist ..................... 29,371 Labor-management relations examiner . 28,810 Personnel management specialist.......... 27,374 Employee development specialist ........ 26,884 Position classifier ............................. 26,190 Salary and wage administrator ............ 26,060 Employee re|atjons specialist................ 25,290 Personnel staffing specialist.................. 24,315 Occupations All of the personnel and labor relations occupations are closely related. Other workers who help people find satisfactory jobs or help to make the work environment safe and pleasant include health and regulatory inspectors, occupational safety and health workers, lawyers, employment counselors, rehabilitation counselors, college career planning and placement counselors, industrial engineers, psychologists, and sociologists. All of these occupations are described elsewhere in the Handbook. E a r n in g s Typical entry level jobs in the personnel field include job analyst, EEO representa tive, benefits analyst, and training specialist. S o u rc e s o f A d d itio n a l I n f o r m a tio n These positions generally require a bachelor’s For general information on careers in perdegree but no experience. Salaries vary wide- sonnel and industrial relations, write to: ly, and depend on the size and location of the „ . , .................... r,, ., . c .. , firm as well as the nature of its business. In 1980, according to a survey conducted by the American Management Associations (AMA), starting salaries for job analystssometimes called position analysts, wage anor compensation analysts-ranged from i] 9 0 Q with an average of $16,100. EEO representatives had average starting salaries of $J7j JX10t benefits analysts, $18.000: and training specialists, $19,000. Salaries rise with experience and more tie- American Society for Personnel Administration, o aa^,-, 30 D Park Dr., Berea, Ohio 44017. or informat* about the field of employon ee training an<^ human resource development, contact American Society for Training and Development, 600 Maryland Ave. SW., Suite 305, Washington, D-C. 20024. A brochure describing a career in labormanagement relations as a field examiner is available from: 46/Occupational Outlook Handbook Director of Personnel, National Labor Relations Board, 1717 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20570. Purchasing Agents (D .O .T. 162.117-022 and -026; 162.157-010, -034 and -038; 162.167-010, -014 and -030) Nature of the Work If an organization does not have the right materials, supplies, or equipment when they are needed, its entire production process or work flow could be interrupted or halted. Purchasing agents see to it that this does not happen. Purchasing agents, also called indus trial buyers, obtain goods and services of the quality required at the lowest possible cost, and see that adequate materials and supplies always are available. Agents in industry and the government, depending on the nature of the operation, may buy machinery, raw mate rials, parts and components, furniture, busi ness machines, vehicles, office supplies, and services. Information on retail buyers, who purchase merchandise for resale in its origi nal form, rather than for internal use, is presented in the chapter on buyers elsewhere in the Handbook. Purchasing agents buy supplies when the stock on hand reaches a predetermined re order point, when a department in the organi zation requisitions items it needs, or when market conditions are especially favorable. Because agents often can purchase from many sources, their main job is selecting the supplier who offers the best value. Purchasing agents use a variety of means to choose suppliers. They compare listings in catalogs, directories, and trade journals. They meet with salespersons to discuss items to be purchased and examine samples, and attend demonstrations of equipment. Fre quently, agents invite suppliers to bid on large orders, and then select the lowest bid der among those who meet requirements for quality and delivery date. Sometimes purchasing agents negotiate for custom-made products. To meet specifi cations, agents must thoroughly understand the products and their uses. In some cases, such as computer equipment, this means agents must have considerable technical knowledge. After placing an order, the pur chasing agent checks periodically to insure prompt delivery. Purchasing agents develop a good business relationship with suppliers in order to get cost savings, favorable payment terms, and quick delivery on emergency orders or help in obtaining scarce materials. Agents also work closely with other employees in their own organization. For example, they may discuss design of custom-made products with company engineers, defects in purchased goods with quality control technicians, or shipment problems with workers in the ship ping department. Purchasing agents ’ functions may differ ac cording to the type and size of the organiza tion. In a large firm , agents usually specialize in a commodity or group of com modities—for example, steel, lumber, cot ton, or petroleum products. In smaller organizations, agents generally buy a wider range of goods, such as all raw materials or all office supplies, furniture, and business machines. Purchasing managers usually su pervise a group of purchasing agents han dling a number of related commodities. Working Conditions Purchasing agents generally work a stan dard 35- to 40-hour week. Some overtime may be necessary if, for example, the supply of critical materials runs short. Although they spend most of their time in the office, some travel to suppliers, seminars, or trade shows. Employment About 172,000 persons worked as pur chasing agents in 1980. Over half worked in manufacturing industries. Large numbers also were employed by government agencies, construction companies, hospitals, and schools. About half of all purchasing agents work in organizations that have fewer than five employees in the purchasing department. Many large business firms and government agencies, however, have much larger pur chasing departments; some employ as many as 100 specialized purchasing agents. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Purchasing agent discusses a new product with the supplier. Although there are no universal education al requirements for entry level jobs, most large organizations require a college degree, and prefer applicants with a master’s degree in business administration or management. Companies that manufacture machinery or chemicals may prefer applicants with back grounds in engineering or science, while oth er companies hire business administration majors as trainees. Courses in purchasing, accqunting, economics, and statistics are helpful. Familiarity with computers also is desirable. A few colleges offer a college degree in purchasing. Some small companies require a bachelor’s degree; many others, however, hire graduates of associate degree programs in purchasing for entry level jobs. They also may promote clerical workers or technicians to purchasing jobs. Regardless of the size of an organiza tion, however, a college degree is becoming increasingly important for advancement to management positions. Whatever their educational background, beginning purchasing agents spend consider able time learning about company operations and purchasing procedures. They work with experienced buyers to learn about commod Administrative and Managerial Occupations/47 ities, prices, suppliers, and negotiating tech niques. They may be assigned to production planning to learn about the purchasing sys tem, inventory records, and storage facilities. Junior agents purchase standard and cata log items. As they gain knowledge and ex perience, they may be prom oted to purchasing agent, then senior purchasing agent. Senior agents purchase highly com plex, usually custom-made items. Purchasing agents must be able to analyze the technical data in suppliers’ proposals to make buying decisions and spend large amounts of money responsibly. The job re quires the ability to work independently and a good memory for details. In addition, a purchasing agent must be able to get along well with people, to balance the needs of personnel in his or her organization with bud getary constraints, and to negotiate with sup pliers. He or she may have to work with lawyers, contract administrators, and engi neers and scientists when involved in com plex procurements. A qualified purchasing agent can become an assistant purchasing manager in charge of a group of purchasing agents and then ad vance to purchasing manager, director or vice president of purchasing, or director or vice president of materials management. Continuing education is essential for ad vancement. Most agents participate in semi nars offered by professional societies and take college courses in purchasing. In private industry, the recognized mark of experience and professional competence is the designa tion Certified Purchasing Manager (CPM). It is conferred by the National Association of Purchasing Management, Inc., upon candi dates who pass four examinations and meet educational and experience requirements. In government, the indications of professional competence are the designations Professional Public Buyer (PPB) and Certified Public Purchasing Officer (CPPO), conferred by the National Institute of Governmental Pur chasing, Inc. The PPB is earned by passing a written two-part examination and meeting educational and experience requirements. A candidate must meet more stringent basic re quirements, pass a three-part written exam, and an oral assessment interview to earn the CPPO. schools also recognize the importance of pro fessional purchasers in reducing costs. Persons who have a master’s degree in business administration, a bachelor’s degree in engineering, science, or business adminis tration, and whose college program included some courses in purchasing should have the best opportunities. Graduates of 2-year pro grams in purchasing should continue to find good opportunities, especially in small firms. Earnings College graduates hired as junior purchas ing agents earned about $16,200 a year in 1981, according to a surveys conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Experienced agents purchasing standard items averaged about $20,300 a year; senior purchasing agents specializing in complex or technical goods averaged about $25,200. Assistant purchasing managers received average sala ries of about $30,600 a year. Many corporate directors of purchasing or materials manage ment earned well over $50,000 a year. Sala ries generally are higher in large firms where responsibilities often are greater. In the Federal Government, beginning pur chasing agents who had college degrees earned $12,266 or $15,193 in early 1981, depending on scholastic achievement and ex perience. Salary levels vary widely among State governments; average earnings range from $13,500 to $18,250 for purchasers of standard items, from $18,500 to $25,000 for senior buyers purchasing complex items, and from $27,700 to $36,200 for State purchas ing directors. Related Occupations Other workers who negotiate and contract to purchase equipment, supplies, or other mer chandise include retail buyers, procurement services managers, livestock commission agents, traffic managers, and wholesalers. Sources of Additional Information Further information about a career in pur chasing is available from: National Association of Purchasing Management, Inc., 11 Park Place, New York, N.Y. 10007. National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc., 1735 Jefferson Davis Hwy., Suite 101, Ar lington, Va. 22202. Job Outlook Employment of purchasing agents is ex pected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Many job openings will occur as employed purchasing agents transfer to other work, re tire, or die. Demand for purchasing agents is expected to rise as the volume of goods and services produced increases and as their importance in reducing costs is increasingly recognized. Large industrial organizations will expand purchasing departments to handle the grow ing complexity of manufacturing processes. Many opportunities also should arise as ser vice organizations such as hospitals and School Administrators (D .O .T. 091.107-010; 099.117-018, -022) Nature of the Work “ Go to the principal’s office!” Do any five words strike more terror into the heart of a student? Principals—who are doubtless warm, outgoing souls when they are not dis ciplining students—are the most familiar and the most numerous school administrators. Other administrators are school district super intendents, assistant superintendents, and as sistant principals. The jobs vary greatly, and most of what follows primarily concerns those in the public school system. But no matter the system, administrators provide the leadership and managerial ability that keep individual schools and entire school systems running smoothly. The task of school administrators has grown more complex in recent years. Not only are schools and school systems larger than ever before—the result of a continuing trend toward consolidation—but they touch the lives of people who have become increas ingly vocal, even angry, in pursuing their goals. It takes political as well as administra tive skill to handle the issues that confront school leaders today: Desegregation, declin ing enrollment and school closings, contract negotiations with teachers, spiraling costs, and taxpayer resistance to higher taxes, to name a few. But, as educators, administra tors have the satisfaction of knowing that their work smooths the way to knowledge for thfeir schools’ students. The job of a school administrator begins with planning and setting goals. To achieve these goals, administrators must organize, coordinate, direct, and evaluate the activities of school personnel, ensuring that they meet deadlines and stick to their budgets. Admin istrators, acting on behalf of the school board, negotiate contracts and settle labor disputes. They must also maintain good rela tions with the public. Superintendents, the chief administrators of a school district, oversee and coordinate the activities of all the schools in the district. The board of education selects the superin tendent, whose duties range from routine ad ministrative tasks to long-range planning. Naturally, the nature of the job depends in part on the size of the district. Managing the schools in Raynham, Massachusetts, is not quite the same as running all the public schools in Chicago. Nevertheless, the kind of work performed by the superintendent is es sentially the same in every district. On any given day, a superintendent may supervise the preparation of a budget; partici pate in collective bargaining sessions with employees; meet with parents, teachers, or local citizen’s groups; plan for changes in physical facilities or staff size due to changes in enrollment; write reports to the school board; or issue directives pertaining to the operation of the school system. Most superintendents have one or more deputies or assistants. An assistant superin tendent’s duties depend on the size and organization of the school system. In some districts, assistant superintendents oversee all the operations in a particular geographic area; in others, they have authority over specific activities—personnel, budget, or instruction and pupil services, for example. Principals are the highest authority in a school. They are responsible for running the 48/Occupational Outlook Handbook Elementary school principals try to become acquainted with every child. school according to the standards set forth by the superintendent and board of education. The actual extent of a principal’s authority varies a great deal from district to district. Improving the quality of instruction is the principal’s most important responsibility. Most principals visit classrooms, review in structional objectives, and examine learning materials. But principals also spend a great deal of time doing paperwork: Filling out forms, preparing administrative reports, keeping track of attendance, seeing that sup plies are properly requisitioned and allocated, and so on. Despite the paperwork, principals spend much of the day with people. They confer with teachers and other staff—advis ing, explaining, or answering procedural questions; they talk with parents and mem bers of the community; and they meet with students—particularly those who cause disci plinary problems. In larger schools, assistant principals often handle the discipline.. Assistant principals may also provide individual or group coun seling about personal, social, educational, or vocational matters. And they often coordi nate school social and recreational programs. Working Conditions School administrators work mainly in of fices, but they spend some time away from their desks at meetings with parent and teach er associations, the school board, and civic groups. Principals and assistant principals also sit in on classes, attend school assem blies and sports events, and check the school’s physical facilties. School superintendents and principals usu ally work a standard 40-hour week. Howev er, at night and on weekends, they often go to meetings or attend to problems that require immediate attention. Unlike teachers, admin istrators work at pretty much the same tasks year round and can usually be found at their desks even during school vacations. Employment An estimated 150,000 elementary and sec ondary school administrators were employed in 1980, most of them in public school sys tems. Of these, about 23,000 were superin tendents and assistants, and about 127,000 were principals and assistants. Every school system typically has at least one superintendent, who in turn generally has one or more assistants. Similarly, every school usually has a principal, and larger schools may have one or more assistant prin cipals. Assistant principals are generally em ployed in secondary schools, which tend to be larger than elementary schools. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require the certification of school administra tors. Certification requirements may include good health and character, U.S. citizenship or State residency, graduate training in edu cational administration, and experience. Some States require school administrators to pass an examination in order to become certi fied. Information on specific requirements may be obtained from the Department of Education in each State. Experience in education is virtually a must for the individual seeking a job as a school administrator. School superintendents usually are experienced administrators. Many are former principals who worked their way up through the administrative hierarchy. Princi pals and assistant principals are required by most most school systems to have several years of experience as classroom teachers. Teachers with varying backgrounds some times move directly into principalships. However, experience organizing and super vising school programs and activities is also an important qualification for principals and assistant principals, who may move into the position from another administrative job— such as curriculum specialist; financial advi sor; or director of audiovisual aids, arts, or special education. Graduate study in educational administra tion, preferably at the doctoral level, is usually required for a school district superintendent. In some larger districts, candidates for posi tions in the district’s central administrative office may be expected to have a law degree or business degree in addition to a graduate degree in education. A master’s degree in educational administration is the usual prereq uisite for a position as a school principal or assistant principal. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education accredits graduate pro grams in educational administration on over 250 campuses. Programs provide specific preparation for elementary school principals, secondary school principals, or school district superintendents. Valuable courses within educational administration include school management, school law, school finance and budgeting, curriculum development and eval uation, systematic planning, supervision of instruction, research design and data analy sis, personnel administration, community re lations, politics in education, and leadership. A semester of internship and field experience is recommended. In addition to experience and education, school administrators need certain personal characteristics in order to do their jobs well. Leadership skills and managerial ability are needed to direct the activities of the many people employed in a school or school sys tem. Administrators need a personal philos ophy of education which includes an understanding of the educational process and its goals, as well as familiarity with educa tional technology, curriculum development, and strategies for meeting educational needs. Because the various aspects of their jobs may be rather loosely defined, school administra tors must also have a strong internal sense of direction and motivation. Moreover, they are frequently under fire from many different groups, making self-confidence and the abili ty to withstand criticism essential. Finally, since their work involves dealing with a wide range of people, communications skills and the ability to get along with different groups are crucial. Because administrative competence is such an important trait for a school administrator, an applicant’s past work record and reputa tion are extremely important when hiring de cisions are made. Job Outlook Little change in employment of school administrators is expected through the 1980’s. Nearly all job openings will result Administrative and Managerial Occupations/49 from the need to replace administrators who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Due to consolidation, both the number of school districts and the total number of schools have declined for over 40 years. The trend is expected to continue. However, the implications of consolidation for employment of school administrators are mixed: While some administrative positions are lost, others-particularly for assistants-are created as a result of the increased size and complexity of the consolidated units. However, public edu cation is under strong pressure from taxpay ers to limit spending increases, and budget constraints could limit the expansion of ad ministrative staffs in some consolidated units. Enrollments declined in elementary and secondary schools during the 1970’s. They are expected to begin rising again in the mid1980’s, although the increase in the number of students will occur only in the elementary schools. The number of secondary school students will continue to decline until after 1990. Therefore, the need for elementary school principals may well be greater than the need for secondary school principals and assistants. In spite of some new openings for princi pals that may occur at the elementary school level, competition for school administrative jobs is expected to remain keen throughout the decade. Large numbers of teachers and other school personnel obtained graduate de grees in education or educational administra tion during the 1970’s. Many of thesewhether prompted by “ bum out,” dissatisfac tion with the classroom environment, or sim ply attracted by the wider range of duties, greater responsibilities, and higher salaries of a position in the administrative hierarchy-can be expected to compete for positions in the field of educational administration. Earnings Salaries of school administrators vary ac cording to position, level of responsibility, and the size and geographic location of the school or school district. In general, salaries are highest in the Far West and Mid-Atlantic States and lowest in the Southeast. Accord ing to the Educational Research Service, Inc., average salaries for selected school ad ministrators in 1980-81 were as follows: Superintendent ........................................ $43,001 Deputy or associate superintendent . . . . 41,117 Assistant superintendent ........................ 36,633 Senior high school principal ................ 32,231 Senior high school assistant principal . 27,285 Junior high/middle school principal . . . 30,401 Junior high/middle school assistant principal........................ 26,045 Elementary school principal......... 27,923 Elementary school assistant principal .. 23,118 Related Occupations School administrators need organizational and leadership skills in order to manage peo ple, programs, and financial resources suc cessfully. The same combination of profes sional competence and managerial effective ness is needed for top administrative positions in the areas of health, welfare, reli gion, and recreation. Related occupations in clude hospital administrators, academic deans, directors of agencies on aging, library directors, college or university department heads, recreation and parks directors, and museum curators. / Underwriters_______ (D .O .T . 169.167-058) Nature of the Work Insurance companies assume billions of dollars in risks each year by transferring the risk of loss from their policyholders to themselves. Underwriters appraise and select the risks their company will insure. (The term underwriter sometimes is used in refer ring to insurance agents; see the statement on insurance agents and brokers elsewhere in the Handbook for a discussion of that occupation.) Underwriters decide whether their com panies will accept risks after analyzing infor mation in insurance applications, reports from loss control consultants, medical re ports, and actuarial studies (reports that de scribe the probability of insured loss). Their companies may lose business to competitors if they appraise risks too conservatively or may have to pay more claims if their under writing actions are too liberal. When deciding that an applicant is an ac ceptable risk, an underwriter may outline the terms of the contract, including the amount of the premium. Underwriters frequently cor respond with policyholders, agents, and man agers about policy cancellations or other requests for information. In addition, they sometimes accompany salespeople on ap pointments with prospective customers. Most underwriters specialize in one of three major categories of insurance: Life, property and liability, or health. They further specialize in group or individual policies. The property and liability underwriter spe cializes by type of risk insured, such as fire, automobile, marine, or workers’ compensa tion. In cases where casualty companies in sure in a single “package” policy, covering various types of risks however, the under writer must be familiar with different lines of insurance. Some underwriters, called com mercial account underwriters, handle busi ness insurance exclusively. They often evaluate a firm’s entire operation in apprais ing its insurance application. An increasing proportion of insurance sales is being made through group contracts. A standard group policy insures all persons in a specified group through a single contract at uniform premium rates, generally for life or health insurance protection. The group underwriter analyzes the overall composition of the group to be sure that total risk is not excessive. Another type of group policy pro vides members of a group—a labor union, for example—with individual policies reflect ing their individual needs. These generally are casualty policies such as those covering automobiles. The casualty underwriter ana lyzes the application of each group member and makes individual appraisals. Some group underwriters meet with union or employer representatives to discuss the types of poli cies available to their group. Working Conditions Underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity. Their offices generally are comfortable and pleasant. Al though some overtime may be required, the normal workweek is 35-40 hours. Underwrit ers occasionally may attend meetings away from home for several days. Employment About 76,000 persons worked as insurance underwriters in 1980. Over three-fourths were property and liability underwriters in regional or home offices; most life insurance underwriters were in home offices in a few large cities, such as New York, San Francis co, Chicago, Dallas, Philadelphia, and Hartford. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For beginning underwriting jobs, most large insurance companies seek college graduates who have a degree in liberal arts or business administration, but a major in al most any field provides a good general back ground. Some small companies hire persons without a college degree for underwriter trainee positions. In addition, some high school graduates who begin as underwriting clerks may be trained as underwriters after they demonstrate an aptitude for the work. Underwriter trainees begin by evaluating routine applications under the close supervi sion of an experienced risk appraiser. They study claim files to become familiar with factors associated with certain types of losses. As they develop the necessary judg ment, they are assigned policy applications that are more complex and have a greater face value. Continuing education is necessary for the underwriter to advance. Insurance companies generally pay tuition for successfully com pleted underwriting courses; some also offer salary increases. Independent study programs are available through the American Institute of Property and Liability Underwriters, the American College of Life Underwriters, the Academy of Life Underwriters, the Health Insurance Association of America, and the Life Office Management Association. Ex perienced underwriters can qualify as a “fel low” of the Academy of Life Underwriters by passing a series of examinations and com- 50/Occupational Outlook Handbook pleting a paper on a topic in the underwriting field. Examinations are given by the Institute of Home Office Underwriters and the Home Office Life Underwriters Association. Des ignation as a “ fellow” is recognized as a mark of achievement in the underwriting field. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for persons who like working with detail and enjoy evaluating information. In addition, underwriters must be able to make prompt decisions and communicate effectively. They must also be imaginative and aggressive, es pecially when they have to get information from outside sources. Experienced underwriters who complete courses of study may advance to chief under writer or underwriting manager. Some un derwriting managers are promoted to senior managerial jobs. Job Outlook Employment of underwriters is expected to rise about as fast as the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s as insurance sales continue to expand. Each year many jobs will become available as the need for under writers grows and as those who die, retire, or transfer to other work are replaced. Several factors underlie the expected growth in the volume of insurance and the resulting need for underwriters. Over the next decade, many more workers will enter the 25-54 age group. People in this age group have the greatest need for life and health insurance and protection for homes, automobiles, and other valuables. A growing demand for insurance coverage for working women is also expected. Growing security consciousness should also contribute to de mand for more insurance protection. New or expanding businesses will need protection for new plants and equipment, insurance for workers’ compensation, product liability, and mandatory insurance against long-term grad ual environmental damage caused by hazard ous waste. Competition among insurance companies and changes in regulations affect ing investment profits also are expected to increase the need for underwriters. Since insurance is usually regarded as a necessity regardless of economic conditions, underwriters are unlikely to be laid off during a recession. Earnings Life insurance underwriters with some ex perience averaged about $17,000 a year in 1980, according to a Life Office Manage ment Association (LOMA) survey. Senior life underwriters averaged $25,000, while senior group underwriters earned average sal aries of about $28,000. In most cases, under writers in larger companies earned higher salaries. A survey of property and liability insur ance companies showed that underwriters earned median salaries of $16,000 to $17,000 in 1980. Earnings varied by specialty, how ever: personal lines underwriters earned me dian salaries of $15,800, while those specializing in surety bonds earned $19,400. Senior underwriters earned substantially higher incomes—personal lines underwriters received median salaries of $20,500 while those specializing in commercial lines earned $20,300 a year. Underwriting supervisors in property and liability companies received me dian salaries between $22,000 and $24,000 a year in 1980. Most insurance companies have liberal va cation policies and other employee benefits. Almost all insurance companies provide em ployer-financed group life and retirement plans. Related Occupations Underwriters make decisions on the basis of financial data. Other workers with the same type of responsibility include auditors, loan officers, credit managers, and real estate appraisers. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as an insurance underwriter is available from the home offices of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies. Information about career opportunities as an underwriter also may be obtained from: American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. Alliance of American Insurers, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. Underwriter reviewing application for insurance policy. The National Association of Independent Insurers, Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects Nature of the Work Job Outlook Engineers, surveyors, and architects do planning and design. Engineers design ma chines, processes, systems, and structures. Architects design buildings and other struc tures, landscape architects design outdoor areas, and surveyors and surveying techni cians measure and lay out land boundaries. Architects, engineers, and surveyors often work together on building projects. Archi tects concentrate on the visual appearance of buildings as well as the needs of owners and occupants. Engineers design the structural parts of the building, including its mechani cal and electrical systems. Surveyors lay out the building’s boundaries. Engineers apply scientific and mathemat ical theories and principles to solve practical technical problems. Most work in one of the more than 25 specialties recognized by pro fessional societies. Electrical, mechanical, civil, chemical, and aerospace engineering are the largest. Although many engineers de sign and develop technical products and sys tems, others work in testing, production, operations, and maintenance. Architects also apply scientific and math ematical theories and principles to design and construct buildings which are esthetically ap pealing and safe, and which meet the needs of their client. Landscape architects apply the principles of botany and design in the planning of func tional and esthetically pleasing outdoor areas. Like architects, they also work closely with their clients. Surveyors and surveying technicians use mathematical and scientific principles to measure and lay out land areas and establish boundaries. They also research deeds, write legal descriptions of land, and collect infor mation for maps and charts. All occupations in this group are expected to grow as fast as or faster than the average for all occupations through 1990. In architec ture, however, growth will not be rapid enough to provide jobs for all of those seek ing to enter the occupation. Architects (D .O .T . 001.061-010) Nature of the Work Designing a building involves far more than planning an attractive exterior made of stone, steel and glass, or other materials. Buildings must be safe as well as attractive and suit the needs of the people who use them. Architects take all these things into consideration and design buildings that are esthetically appealing, safe, and functional. Architects provide a wide variety of profes sional services to individuals and organiza tions planning a building project. Architects are involved in all phases of development, from the initial discussion of general ideas with the client through construction. Their duties require a variety of skills—design, en gineering, managerial, and supervisory. The architect and client first discuss the purposes, requirements, and cost of a project. The architect then prepares carefully scaled drawings that show the mechanical as well as the structural components of the building. If the schematic drawings are accepted, the architect develops a final design showing the floor plans and the structural details of the project. For example, in designing a school, the architect determines the width of corri dors and stairways so that students may move easily from one class to another; the type and arrangement of storage space; and the loca tion and size of classrooms, laboratories, lunchroom or cafeteria, gymnasium, and ad ministrative offices. Next the architect prepares working draw ings showing the exact dimensions of every part of the structure and the location of plumbing, heating units, electrical outlets, and air-conditioning. Architects also specify the building materi als and, in some cases, the interior furnish ings. In all cases, the architect’s design and specifications must conform to local and State building codes, zoning laws, fire regu lations, and other ordinances, including those that require easy access by handicapped persons. Throughout the planning stage the archi tect may make changes to satisfy the client. A client may decide that the design is too expensive and ask the architect to make modifications, or the client may propose ad ditions to the original plan. Redesigning to suit the client requires flexibility, and some- Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Surveyors and surveying technicians usual ly qualify for their work with a combination of postsecondary school courses and on-thejob training. Some obtain a junior college degree in surveying. The generally accepted standard for engineers is a bachelor’s degree in engineering, although those with degrees in natural science or mathematics may some times qualify as engineers. A bachelor’s de gree in architecture is necessary to become an architect. To offer architectural services to the public, architecture graduates must have several years’ work experience and pass a licensing examination. The minimum educa tional requirement for a landscape architect is a bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture. An architect has to understand clients’ needs. 51 52/Occupational Outlook Handbook times considerable patience, on the part of the architect. After all drawings are completed, the ar chitect assists the client in selecting a con tractor and negotiating the construction con tract. As construction proceeds, the architect visits the building site from time to time to ensure that the contractor is following the design and using the specified materials. The architect also checks to be sure that the qual ity of work meets the specified standards. The job is not complete until construction is finished, all required tests are made, con struction costs are paid, and guarantees are received from the contractor. Architects design a wide variety of struc tures, such as houses, churches, hospitals, office buildings, and airports. They also de sign multibuilding complexes for urban re newal projects, college campuses, industrial parks, and new towns. Besides designing structures, architects also may help in select ing building sites, preparing cost and landuse studies, and conducting long-range planning for land development. When working on large projects or for large architectural firms, architects often spe cialize in one phase of the work, such as designing or administering construction con tracts. This often requires working with engi neers, urban planners, landscape architects, and others. Working Conditions Most architects spend a great deal of their time at the drawing board in well-equipped offices. It is at the drawing board that archi tects do most of their more creative and imaginative work. The majority of their time, however, is spent interviewing clients; dis cussing the design, construction procedures, or building materials of a project with other architects, engineers, and contractors; and making inspections at construction sites. Employment About 79,500 architects were employed in 1980. This included architecture school graduates who were not yet registered (li censed), although they worked in the field under the supervision of licensed architects. Most architects work for architectural firms—most of which employ fewer than 10 workers—or for builders, real estate firms, or other businesses that have large construction programs. Some work for government agen cies responsible for housing, planning, or community development, mainly for the De partments of Defense, Interior, and Housing and Urban Development, as well as the Gen eral Services Administration. A large proportion of architects are located in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Bos ton, and Washington where many large archi tectural firms are located. Increasing numbers of architects are finding employment in areas of the South and Southwest that are attracting new business and residential construction such as Houston, Dallas-Ft. Worth, Phoenix and a number of Florida cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require individuals to be licensed before they may call themselves architects or contract for providing architectural services. To qualify for the licensing exam, a person generally must have at least a Bachelor of Architecture degree followed by 3 years of acceptable practical experience in an architect’s office. As a substitute for formal education, most States accept additional experience (usually 13 years) and successful completion of a qualifying test for admission to the licensing examination. Many architecture school graduates work in the field even though they are not licensed. However, a registered archi tect is required to take legal responsibility for all work. In 1980, the National Architectural Ac crediting Board had accredited 92 programs of the 101 schools offering professional de grees in architecture. Most of these schools offer either a 5-year curriculum leading to a Bachelor of Architecture degree or a 6-year curriculum leading to a Master of Architec ture degree. Students also may transfer to professional degree programs after complet ing a 2-year junior or community college program in architecture. Many architecture schools also offer graduate education for those who already have their first profession al degree. Although such graduate education is not essential for practicing architects, it often is desirable for those in research and teaching. A typical college architecture pro gram includes courses in architectural theory, design, graphics, engineering, and urban planning, as well as in English, mathematics, physics, economics, and the humanities. Persons planning a career in architecture should be able to work independently, have a capacity for solving technical problems, and be artistically inclined. They also must be prepared to work in the competitive environ ment of business where leadership and ability to work with others are important. Working for architects or building contractors during summer vacations is useful for gaining practi cal knowledge. New graduates usually begin as drafters in architectural firms, where they prepare archi tectural drawings and make models of struc tures under the direction of a registered architect. They also may work as designers, construction contract administrators, or speci fication writers who prepare documents that specify the building materials, their method of installation, the quality of finishes, re quired tests, and many other related details. Employees who become associates in their firms may receive, in addition to a salary, a share of the profits. Often, however, the architect’s goal is to own his or her own business. Job Outlook Architects are expected to face competition for jobs through the 1980’s. Although em ployment of architects is expected to rise faster than the average for all workers during this period, the number of degrees granted in architecture is expected to continue growing as well. If so, supply in this small field could exceed the number of job openings arising from growth in demand for architects and from transfers to other occupations, retire ments, and deaths. Demand for architects is highly dependent upon the level of new construction, and the anticipated rapid growth of nonresidential construction is expected to be a major source of job opportunities through the 1980’s. Any significant upswing or downturn in building could temporarily alter demand, however. In deed, the cyclical nature of construction ac tivity leads some architects to move in and out of the field from time to time. Their design skills and familiarity with building materials and techniques enable them to move into related areas such as graphic de sign, advertising, visual arts, product design, construction contracting and supervision, and real estate. Although most job openings will be in architectural firms, some will occur in con struction firms, colleges and universities, and government agencies. Construction firms em ploy architects to oversee various aspects of project design and actual construction. In col leges and universities, the anticipated high level of enrollments in architecture and envi ronmental design programs may create a de mand for additional faculty. Public concern about the quality of the environment may heighten the demand for community and en vironmental planning projects. This may cre ate opportunities in consulting firms and planning agencies. (See the statement on ur ban planners elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings The average salary for experienced archi tects in 1980 was well over $25,000 a year, according to the limited information avail able. Newly hired architects receive salary increases as they work toward passing the licensing examination. For example, gradu ates with a master’s degree started at about $13,000 to $15,000 a year in 1980. Archi tects with 3 years’ experience who had passed the exam earned from $18,000 to $ 20, 000. Architects with well-established private practices generally earn much more than even highly paid salaried employees of architectur al firms. Some architects with many years of experience and good reputations earn well over $40,000 a year. However, architects starting their own practices may have diffi culty getting established and may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income. Annual income may fluctuate due to changing business conditions. In 1980, the average salary for architects working in the Federal Government was about $32,000. Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/53 Related Occupations Architects are concerned with the design and construction of buildings and related structures. Others who engage in related work are building contractors, civil engi neers, urban planners, interior designers, in dustrial designers, landscape architects, drafters, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers in archi tecture, including a catalog of publications, can be obtained from: The American Institute of Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW„ Washington. D.C. 20006. Specific questions on education careers should be addressed to: include written reports, sketches, models, photographs, land-use studies, and cost esti mates. If the plans are approved, landscape architects prepare working drawings showing all existing and proposed features. They out line in detail the methods of construction and draw up a list of necessary materials. They then may invite landscape contractors to bid for the work. After the contractor has been picked, they supervise the construction to insure proper completion of the job. Some landscape architects specialize in parks and playgrounds; other specialize in hotels and resorts, shopping centers, or pub lic housing. Still others work primarily in regional planning and resource management, feasibility, environmental impact and cost studies, or site construction. Working Conditions Landscape architects spend much of their time in offices preparing drawings, models, and cost estimates, and discussing them with clients. But the time in the office is balanced by the time they spend outdoors, studying and planning sites, and supervising landscape projects. Employment An estimated 15,000 persons worked as landscape architects in 1980. Most had their own businesses or worked for architectural, landscape architectural, or engineering firms. Others were employed by government agen cies concerned with forest management, wa ter storage, public housing, city planning, The Association of Collegiate Schools of Architec ture, Inc., 1735 New York Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20006. Information about the licensing examina tions can be obtained from: The National Council of Architectural Registration Boards, 1735 New York Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, D.C. 20006. Landscape Architects (D .O .T . 001.061-018) Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys attractively designed resi dential areas, public parks, college cam puses, shopping centers, and industrial parks. Landscape architects design these areas so that they are not only functional but beauti ful. They plan the location of buildings, roads, walks, and the arrangement of vegeta tion and other features of open spaces. They also redesign streets to limit automobile traf fic and improve pedestrian access and safety. They sometimes supervise the construction of these projects. Natural resource and energy conservation are other important objectives that require a knowledge of natural processes as well as artistic principles. In planning a site, landscape architects first consider the nature and purpose of the project and the funds available. They analyze the natural elements of the site, such as climate, soils, slope of the land, natural drainage ways, and vegetation. They assess the useful ness of existing buildings, roads, walkways, and utility lines to the project. They observe the sunny parts of the site at different times of the day, views on and from the site, and other landscape features. They establish the best possible physical relationship between the people and the buildings, trees, shrubs, water, roads, drainage, and lights. Then, working as part of a design team or as con sultants to the project architect or engineer, they draw up detailed plans of the site that Landscape architect prepares a drawing showing location of buildings, roads, walkways, shrubs, and trees. 54/Occupational Outlook Handbook urban renewal, highways, parks, and recrea tion. The Federal Government employed over 650 landscape architects, mainly in the Departments of Agriculture, Defense, Trans portation, Interior, and the Veterans Admin istration. Some landscape architects worked for landscape contractors, and a few taught in colleges and universities. Most landscape architects worked in large metropolitan areas, primarily on the East and West Coasts. However, employment oppor tunities have recently been growing in the Southwest and Southeast. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in landscape architec ture, which takes 4 or 5 years, is usually the minimum educational requirement for enter ing the profession. The American Society of Landscape Architects accredited 44 college and university programs in landscape archi tecture in 1981. About 60 other schools also offer programs or courses in landscape architecture. A person interested in landscape architec ture should take high school courses in me chanical or geometrical drawing, art, botany, and mathematics through trigonometry. Writ ten and spoken English is important, since landscape architects must be able to commu nicate their ideas to clients and make presen tations before large groups. College courses in this field include tech nical subjects such as surveying, landscape design and construction, graphics, structural design, and city and regional planning. Other courses include horticulture and botany as well as science, mathematics, English, and the social sciences. Most college programs also include field trips to study examples of landscape architecture. More than 35 States require a license, based on the results of a uniform national licensing examination, for independent prac tice of landscape architecture. Admission to the licensing examination usually requires a degree from an accredited school of land scape architecture plus 1 to 4 years of exper ience. Lengthy apprenticeship training (6-8 years) under experienced and licensed land scape architects sometimes may be substitut ed for college training. Persons planning careers in landscape archi tecture should appreciate nature and be cre ative and have artistic talent. Landscape architects employ lines, colors, textures, spaces, and light to create an attractive landuse plan. Self-employed landscape architects must understand business practices. A sum mer job with a landscape architect or land scape contractor provides practical experience and may help to obtain employment after graduation. New graduates usually begin by tracing drawings and doing other simple drafting work. After gaining experience, they help prepare specifications and construction de tails and handle other aspects of project de sign. After 2 or 3 years, they can usually carry a design through all stages of develop ment. Highly qualified landscape architects may become associates in private firms; land scape architects who progress this far, how ever, often open their own offices. Job Outlook Employment of landscape architects is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition, new entrants will be needed as replacements for landscape architects who retire or die. The level of new construction plays a ma jor role in determining employment of land scape architects. Anticipated growth in construction is expected to spur demand over the long run. However, the cyclical nature of construction may cause employment to fluc tuate from year to year. During economic downturns, some landscape architects may be laid off or may have to move into related areas of work in design or horticulture. Another significant factor contributing to the increased demand for landscape architects is the growth in city and regional environ mental planning. Metropolitan areas need landscape architects to plan efficient and safe land use for growing populations. Legisla tion to promote environmental protection has spurred demand for landscape architects to help plan and design transportation systems, outdoor recreation areas, and land reclama tion projects, as well as to ensure safe indus trial growth. Laws dealing with historic preservation and coastal zone management are also sources of demand in this field. However, anticipated reduction of Federal Government support for these projects could dampen the demand. Earnings Beginning landscape architects generally earned from about $13,500 to $18,000 a year in 1980. Experienced landscape architects earned between $18,000 and $30,000 a year, although some highly skilled persons earned salaries of over $40,000 a year. Earnings of self-employed landscape architects ranged from $15,000 a year to about $40,000 a year, depending on the individual’s educational background, experience, and geographic location. The Federal Government paid new gradu ates with a bachelor’s degree annual salaries of about $15,900 or $19,700 in 1981 depend ing on their qualifications. Those with an advanced degree had a starting salary of about $22,900. Experienced landscape archi tects in the Federal Government generally earned between $24,700 and $35,000 a year in 1981. Salaried employees both in government and in landscape architectural firms usually work regular hours, although employees of private firms may also work overtime during seasonal rush periods to meet a deadline. Self-employed persons often work long hours. Related Occupations A sensitivity to beauty is essential in com bining the elements of design and nature to develop a composite landscape project. Oth ers whose work requires similar design skills include architects, ornamental horticulturists, environmental planners, urban planners, and land-use planners. Sources of Additional Information Additional information, including a list of colleges and universities offering accredited programs in landscape architecture, is avail able from: American Society of Landscape Architects, 1733 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. For information on a career as a landscape architect in the Forest Service, write to: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Division of Personnel Management, P.O. B6x 2417 Room 906 R .P.-E , Washington, D.C. 20013. Surveyors and Surveying Technicians________ (D .O .T . 018.167-010, -014, -018, -026 and -034 through -050; .261-018, -022, and -026; and .262-010) Nature of the Work Surveyors, with the assistance of surveying technicians, establish official land bound aries, research deeds, write descriptions of land to satisfy legal requirements, assist in setting land valuations, measure construction and mineral sites, and collect information for maps and charts. Surveys are usually conducted by a survey party to measure distances, directions, and angles between points and elevations of points, lines, and contours on the earth’s sur face. Land surveyors (D.O.T. 018.167-018), who may head one or more survey parties, are directly responsible for a party’s activities and the accuracy of its work. They plan the fieldwork, select survey reference points, and determine the precise location of natural and constructed features of the survey project area. They record the results of the survey, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare sketches, maps, and reports. A typical survey party is made up of the party chief (D.O.T. 018.167-010) and one to six assistants and helpers. The party chief leads the day-to-day work activities of the party. Instrum ent assistants ( D . O . T . 018.167-034) adjust and operate surveying instruments such as the theodolite (used to measure horizontal and vertical angles) and electronic equipment used to measure dis tances. These workers also compile notes, sketches, and records of the data obtained from using these instruments. Surveyors and surveying technicians may specialize in a particular type of survey. Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/55 Many do land surveys to locate boundaries of a particular tract of land. They then prepare maps and legal descriptions for deeds, leases, and other documents. Those doing topo graphic surveys determine elevations, depres sions, and contours of an area, and indicate distinguishing surface features such as farms, buildings, forests, roads, and rivers. Geodet ic surveyors (D.O.T. 018.167-038) use spe cial high-accuracy techniques, such as satellite observations, to measure large areas of the earth’s surface. Geophysical prospect ing surveyors (D.O.T. 018.167-042) mark sites for subsurface exploration, usually pe troleum related. Marine surveyors (D.O.T. 018.167-046) survey harbors, rivers, and oth er bodies of water to determine shorelines, topography of the bottom, depth, and other features. Photogrammetrists (D.O.T. 018.261-026) measure and interpret photographic images to determine the various physical character istics of natural or constructed features of an area. By applying analytical processes and mathematical techniques to photographs from aerial, space, ground, and underwater locations, photogrammetrists are able to make detailed maps of areas that are inac cessible or difficult to survey by other meth ods. Control surveys on the ground are made to insure the accuracy of maps derived from photogrammetric techniques. Mosaicists (D.O.T. 018.261-022) and map editors (D.O.T. 018.261-018 and .262-010) help develop and verify maps and pictures from aerial photographs. Closely related occupations that use sur veying techniques in their work include geod esists (see statement on geophysicists elsewhere in the Handbook) and cartogra phers (see statement on geographers else where in the Handbook). Working Conditions Surveyors and surveying technicians usual ly work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week. Sometimes they work longer hours during the summer months when weather conditions are most suitable for surveying. The work of a survey party is active and sometimes strenuous. Party members often stand for long periods and walk long dis tances or climb hills with heavy packs of instruments and equipment. They also are exposed to all types of weather. Occasionally they must commute long distances or find temporary housing near the survey site. Surveyors spend considerable time on of fice duties, such as planning surveys, prepar ing reports and computations, and drawing maps. Employment About 61,000 persons worked as surveyors or surveying technicians in 1980. Federal, State, and local government agencies employ about one-fourth of these workers. Among the Federal Government agencies are the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Army Corps of Engineers, Surveying technician makes measurements prior to construction. the Forest Service, the National Ocean Sur vey, and the Defense Mapping Agency. Most surveyors and surveying technicians in State and local government agencies work for highway departments and urban planning and redevelopment agencies. About 40 percent of all surveyors and sur veying technicians work for construction companies and for engineering and architec tural consulting firms. A sizable number ei ther work for or own firms that conduct surveys for a fee. Surveyors and surveying technicians also work for crude petroleum and natural gas companies and for public utilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most persons prepare for surveying work by combining postsecondary school courses in surveying with extensive on-the-job train ing. Some prepare by obtaining a college degree. Junior and community colleges, tech nical institutes, and vocational schools offer 1-, 2-, and 3-year programs in surveying. A few 4-year colleges offer bachelor’s degrees specifically in surveying, while many others offer several courses in the field. High school students interested in pursuing a career in surveying should take courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, and mechanical drawing. High school graduates with no formal training in surveying usually start as surveyor helpers. After several years of on-the-job ex perience and some formal training in survey ing, workers may advance to instrument assistant, then to party chief, and finally to licensed surveyor. Beginners with postsecondary school train ing in surveying can generally start as instru ment assistants. After gaining experience, they may advance to party chief, or become a licensed surveyor. In many instances, promo tions to higher level positions are based on written examinations as well as experience. Those interested in a career as a photogrammetrist usually need a bachelor’s degree in engineering or a physical science. Most photogrammetry technicians have had some specialized postsecondary school training. All 50 States require licensing of land sur veyors. Licensing requirements are generally quite strict, because once licensed, surveyors can be held legally responsible for their work. Requirements for licensure vary among the States. Generally, the quickest route to licensure is a combination of 4 years of college, 2 to 4 years of experience, and a passing grade on the State licensing exam. In most States, persons also may qualify to take the licensing exam after 5 to 12 years of surveying experience. As a prerequisite to licensure, some States now require a bache lor’s degree in surveying or in a closely relat ed field such as civil engineering or forestry with courses in surveying. A few States al low such graduates to take the licensing ex amination without experience in the field. Surveyors and surveying technicians should have the ability to visualize and un derstand objects, distances, sizes, and other abstract forms. Also, because mistakes can be very costly, surveyors must make math ematical calculations quickly and accurately while paying close attention to the smallest detail. Leadership qualities are important for surveyors who supervise others. 56/Occupational Outlook Handbook Members of a survey party must be in good physical condition to work outdoors and carry equipment over difficult terrain. They also need good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to communicate over great distances by hand or voice signals. Job Outlook Employment of surveyors and surveying technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to openings arising from growth in the demand for these workers, many will result from the need to replace those who die, retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. In the long run, the anticipated growth in construction should create additional jobs for surveyors and surveying technicians who lay out streets, shopping centers, housing devel opments, factories, office buildings, and rec reation areas. Construction and improvement of the Nation’s roads and highways also should create new surveying positions. How ever, employment may fluctuate from year to year because construction activity is highly sensitive to changes in economic conditions. Although salaries in private industry vary by geographic area, limited information indi cates that salaries are generally comparable to those in Federal service. Earnings Related Occupations In early 1981, high school graduates with little or no training or experience earned $9,000 annually as surveyor helpers with the Federal Government. Those with 1 year of related postsecondary training earned $9,800. Those with an associate degree that included courses in surveying generally started as in strument assistants with an annual salary of $11,000. The average annual Federal salary for surveying technicians in 1980 was $12,600. In early 1981, persons starting as land surveyors with the Federal Government earned $12,300 or $15,200 a year, depending on their qualifications. The average annual Federal salary for land surveyors in 1980 was $22,700. Other occupations concerned with accurate measurement and delineation of land areas, coastlines, and natural and constructed features include cartographers, cartographic drafters, geodesists, and topographical drafters. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, li censure requirements, and schools that offer training in surveying is available from: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 210 Little Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046. General information on careers in photogrammetry is available from: American Society of Photogrammetry, 105 North Virginia Ave., Falls Church, Va. 22046. c Engineers The work of engineers enables us to drive safer automobiles, travel in space, and pro long life. Future accomplishments could help increase available energy supplies, develop more pollution-free powerplants, and aid medical science in its fight against disease. In 1980, about 1.2 million persons were employed as engineers. Engineering is the second largest profession, exceeded only by teaching. Most engineers specialize; more than 25 specialties are recognized by profes sional societies. Within the major branches are over 85 subdivisions. Structural, environ mental, hydraulic, and highway engineering, for example, are subdivisions of civil engi neering. Engineers also may specialize in the problems of one industry, such as motor ve hicles, or in one field of technology, such as propulsion or guidance systems. This sec tion, which contains an overall discussion of engineering, is followed by separate state ments on 12 branches of the profession— aerospace, agricultural, biomedical, ceramic, chemical, civil, electrical, industrial, me chanical, metallurgical, mining, and petrole um engineering. Nature of the Work Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathematics to practical tech nical problems. Often their work is the link between a scientific discovery and its appli cation. Engineers design machinery, prod ucts, systems, and processes for efficient and economical performance. They develop elec tric power, water supply, and waste disposal systems. They design industrial machinery and equipment for manufacturing goods, and heating, air-conditioning, and ventilation equipment for more comfortable living. En gineers also develop scientific equipment to probe outer space and the ocean depths, de sign defense and weapons systems for the Armed Forces, and design, plan, and super vise the construction of buildings, highways, and rapid transit systems. They also design and develop consumer products such as auto mobiles, television sets, refrigerators, and electronic games, and systems for control and automation of manufacturing, business, and management processes. Engineers must consider many factors in developing a new product. For example, in developing devices to reduce automobile ex haust emissions, engineers must determine the general way the device will work, design and test all components, and fit them togeth er in an integrated plan. They must then evaluate the overall effectiveness, cost, reli ability, and safety of the new device. This process applies to products as different as lawnmowers, electronic computers, industrial machinery, and toys. In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, operations, or maintenance. They supervise production processes in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, and test newly manufactured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to com plete projects. Some work in engineering ad ministration and management, or in sales jobs where an engineering background en ables them to discuss the technical aspects of a product and assist in planning its installa tion or use. (See statement on manufacturers’ sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some engineers work as consultants. Others with advanced degrees teach in colleges and universities. Engineers in each branch apply their knowledge to many fields. Electrical engi neers, for example, work in the medical, computer, missile guidance, or power distri bution fields. Because complex problems cut across traditional fields, engineers in one field often work closely with specialists in scientific, other engineering, and business occupations. Engineers often use calculators and comput ers to solve mathematical equations which describe how a machine, structure, or system operates. Engineers also spend a great deal of time writing reports and consulting with other engineers. Complex projects may require many engineers, each working with a small part of the job under the supervision of an engineering project manager. Other projects may be the responsibility of one engineer. Working Conditions Some engineers are at a desk almost all of the time but others work in research laborato ries or in industrial plants. Engineers in spe cialities such as civil engineering may work outdoors part of the time. A few engineers travel extensively to plants or construction sites. Some work overtime to meet deadlines, often without additional compensation. Employment About half of all engineers work in manu facturing industries—most in electrical and electronic equipment, aircraft and parts, ma chinery, chemicals, scientific instruments, primary metals, fabricated metal products, and motor vehicle industries. In 1980, about 400,000 were employed in nonmanufacturing industries, primarily in construction, public utilities, engineering and architectural ser vices, and business and management consult ing services. Federal, State, and local governments em ployed almost 160,000 engineers. Over half of these worked for the Federal Government, mainly in the Departments of Defense, Inte rior, Energy, Agriculture, and Transporta tion, and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most engineers in State and local government agencies worked in highway and public works departments. Colleges and universities employed over 40,000 engineers in research and teaching and a small number worked for nonprofit research organizations. Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities, and in rural areas. Some branches of engineering are concentrat ed in particular industries and geographic areas, as discussed in the statements later in this chapter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering is gen erally acceptable for beginning engineering jobs. College graduates with a degree in a natural science or mathematics also may qualify for some jobs. Experienced techni cians with some engineering education are occasionally able to advance to some types of engineering jobs. Many colleges have 2- or 4-year programs leading to degrees in engineering technology which prepare students for practical design and production work rather than for jobs that require more theoretical scientific and math ematical knowledge. Graduates of such 4year engineering technology programs may get jobs similar to those obtained by engi neering bachelor’s degree graduates. Howev er, some employers regard them as having skills between those of a technician and an engineer. Graduate training is essential for most teaching jobs but is not needed for the major ity of other entry level engineering jobs. Many engineers obtain a master’s degree however, because an advanced degree often is desirable for promotion or for learning new technology. Some specialties, such as nucle ar, environmental, or biomedical engineer ing, are taught mainly at the graduate level. About 250 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in engineering, and over 80 colleges offer a bachelor’s degree in engi neering technology. Although most institu tions offer programs in the larger branches of engineering, only a few offer some of the smaller specialties. Therefore, students should investigate curriculums before select ing a college. Admissions requirements for undergraduate engineering schools usually in clude courses in advanced high school math ematics and the physical sciences. In a typical 4-year curriculum, the first 2 years are spent studying basic sciences— mathematics, physics, chemistry, and intro ductory engineering—and the humanities, so 57 58/Occupational Outlook Handbook cial sciences, and English. In the last 2 years, most courses are in engineering. Some programs offer a general engineering curricu lum; students then choose a specialty in grad uate school or acquire it on the job. Some engineering curriculums require more than 4 years to complete. A number of colleges and universities offer 5-year master’s degree programs. In addition, several engi neering schools have arrangements whereby a student spends 3 years in a liberal arts col lege studying preengineering subjects and 2 years in the engineering school and receives a bachelor’s degree from each. Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans combine classroom study and practical work experience. In addition to gaining useful ex perience, students can thereby finance part of their education. To keep up with rapid ad vances in technology, engineers often contin ue their education throughout their careers by attending evening classes in colleges and uni versities or in employer-sponsored programs. All 50 States and the District of Columbia require licensing for engineers whose work may affect life, health, or property, or who offer their services to the public. In 1980, over 400,000 engineers were registered. Reg istration generally requires a degree from an accredited engineering program, 4 years of relevant work experience, and passing a State examination. Some States will not register those with degrees in engineering technol ogy. Beginning engineering graduates usually do routine work under the close supervision of experienced engineers and may also re ceive formal classroom or seminar-type train ing. As they gain experience, they then are assigned responsibility for more difficult tasks. Some move to managerial or adminis trative positions within engineering; others leave engineering for non-technical manage rial, administrative, and sales jobs. Some engineers obtain graduate degrees in business administration to improve advancement op portunities; others obtain law degrees and become patent attorneys. Many high level executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers. Engineers should be able to work as part of a team and should have creativity, an analytical mind, and a capacity for detail. In addition, engineers should be able to express themselves well—both orally and in writing. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for those with degrees in engineering are expected to be good through the 1980’s. Recent graduates will be in especially great demand. In addi tion, there may be some opportunities for college graduates from related fields in cer tain engineering jobs. Employment of engineers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s. In addition to job openings created by growth in the demand for engineers, many openings will result from the need to replace engineers who transfer to management, sales, and other professional jobs, retire, or die. Much of the projected growth in require ments for engineers will stem from the ex pected higher levels of investment in industri al plants and equipment to meet the demand for more goods and services and to increase productivity. Growth also is expected in de fense-related industries as a result of antici pated sharp increases in defense budgets. More engineers will be required in energyrelated activities to develop sources of energy as well as to design energy-saving systems for automobiles, factories, and homes and other buildings, and to solve environmental problems. If investment and defense spend ing levels are significantly different from those assumed, however, the outlook for en gineers will be altered. In industries such as electronics and aero space, large cutbacks in defense or research and development expenditures may result in layoffs for engineers. Engineers may also be laid off if the demand for their specialty declines. Layoffs could be a particular prob lem for older engineers, who sometimes face difficulties in finding other engineering jobs. A career in one of the more stable industries or engineering specialties and continuing education may minimize these difficulties. Despite these problems, over the long run the number of people seeking jobs as engineers is expected to about equal the number of job openings. (The outlook for various branches is dis cussed in the separate statements that follow this introductory section.) Earnings According to the College Placement Council, engineering graduates with a bache lor’s degree and no experience averaged $22,900 a year in private industry in 1981; those with a master’s degree and no exper ience, $25,500 a year; and those with a Ph.D., $32,800. Starting offers for those with the bachelor’s degree vary by branch as shown in the accompanying table. Table 1. Average starting salaries for engineers by branch, 1980. Branch Salary Petroleum ................................................$23,844 Chemical engineering .......................... 21,612 Mining engineering.............................. 20,808 Metallurgical engineering .................... 20,712 Mechanical engineering........................ 20,436 Electrical engineering .......................... 20,280 Industrial engineering .......................... 19,860 Aeronautical engineering...................... 19,776 Civil engineering.................................. 18,648 SOURCE: College Placement Council. In the Federal Government in 1981, engi neers with a bachelor’s degree and no expe rience could start at $15,947 or $19,747 a year, depending on their college records. Those with a master’s degree could start at $22,925, and those having a Ph.D., degree could begin at $24,763. Higher salaries were offered for certain specialties and in a few geographic areas. The average salary for ex perienced engineers in the Federal Govern ment was about $32,516 in 1980. For a 9-month academic college year in 1980, faculty members with 5 years’ expe rience beyond the bachelor’s degree received about $18,650; those with 18 to 20 years’ experience beyond the bachelor’s degree re ceived about $25,100. Some faculty mem bers receive additional income from con sulting, writing, or teaching summer school. (See statement on college and university teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) According to an Engineering Manpower Commission survey, engineers with 20 years of experience averaged $34,000 in 1980. Some in management eafned much more. Related Occupations Much of the work of physical scientists, life scientists, mathematicians, engineering and science technicians, and architects is re lated to engineering. Sources of Additional Information General information on engineering ca reers—including engineering school require ments, courses of study, and salaries—is available from: Engineering Manpower Commission of American Association of Engineering Societies, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. National Society of Professional Engineers, 2029 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Society of Women Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Societies representing the individual branch es of engineering are listed in this chapter. Each can provide information about careers in the par ticular branch. Aerospace Engineers (D .O .T . 002.061, .151, .167, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Aerospace engineers design, develop, test, and help produce commercial and military aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. They play an important role in advancing technology in commercial aviation, defense systems, and space exploration. Aerospace engineers often specialize in areas like structural design, navigational guidance and control, instrumentation and communication, or production methods. They also may specialize in one type of aerospace product, such as passenger planes, helicopters, satellites, or rockets. Employment About 68,000 aerospace engineers were employed in 1980, mainly in the aircraft and parts industry. Some worked for Federal Government agencies, primarily the Depart Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/59 ment of Defense and the National Aeronau tics and Space Administration. A few worked for commercial airlines, consulting firms, and colleges and universities. Employment of aerospace engineers is concentrated in States with large aerospace manufacturers, especially California and Washington. management agencies, and distributors of farm equipment and supplies. Some worked as consultants to farmers and farm-related industries; others were specialists with agri cultural organizations, or managers of agri cultural processing plants. About 440 agricultural engineers were em ployed in the Federal Government in 1980, mostly in the Department of Agriculture; some were on the faculty of colleges and universities; and a few worked in State and local governments. Job Outlook Employment of aerospace engineers is expefcted to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as Federal outlays on new military aircraft, missies, and other aerospace systems increase. Aerospace engineers also will be needed to design and help produce new commercial aircraft. Much of the present fleet of airliners will have to be replaced during the 1980’s with new aircraft which are quieter and more fuel-efficient. Increased demand for helicopters and busi ness aircraft also will create opportunities for aerospace engineers. Besides job openings created by growth in demand, many aero space engineers will be needed each year to replace those who transfer to other occupa tions, retire, or die. Since a large proportion of aerospace en gineering jobs are defense related, cutbacks in defense spending—like those which took place in 1969 and 1970—can result in layoffs of aerospace engineers. Sources of Additional Information American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronau tics, Inc., 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10019. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion of training requirements and earnings.) Aerospace engineers with spacecraft components. Agricultural Engineers_____ (D .O .T . 013.061, .151, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Agricultural engineers design agricultural machinery and equipment and develop meth ods that will improve the production, pro cessing, and distribution of food and other agricultural products. They also design sys tems to improve the conservation and man agement of energy, soil, and water resources. Agricultural engineers work in research and development, production, sales, or manage ment. Employment Most of the estimated 15,000 agricultural engineers employed in 1980 worked for man ufacturers of farm equipment, electric utility companies, Federal and State soil and water Agricultural engineers design agricultural machinery and equipment. 60/Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of agricultural engineers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Increas ing demand for agricultural products, mod ernization of farm operations, increasing emphasis on conservation of resources, and the use of agricultural products and wastes as industrial raw materials and energy sources should provide additional opportunities for agricultural engineers. Besides job openings created by growth in demand, many agricul tural engineers will be needed to replace those who transfer to other occupations, re tire, or die. Sources of Additional Information American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 2950 Niles Rd., St. Joseph, Mich. 49085. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings. See also statement on agricultural occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) ministration, or in State agencies. An in creasing number work in private industry or in hospitals developing new devices, tech niques, and systems for improving health care. (D .O .T . 006.061, .151, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Job Outlook Employment of biomedical engineers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The actu al number of openings—including replace ment needs—in this small profession is not likely to be very large. Because relatively few undergraduate degrees have been granted in biomedical engineering, employment pros pects of those with B.S. degrees in this field are still uncertain. Those who have advanced degrees will be in demand to teach and to fill jobs resulting from increased expenditures for medical research. Sources of Additional Information Alliance for Engineering in Medicine and Biology, Suite 311, 4405 East-West Highway, Bethesda, Md. 20014. Biomedical Engineering Society, P.O. Box 2399, Culver City, Calif. 90230. Biomedical Engineers Ceramic Engineers (See introductory part of this chapter for information on training requirements and earnings.) To most people, the word ceramics means pottery, but ceramics actually include all nonmetallic, inorganic materials which re quire the use of high temperature in their processing. Ceramic engineers develop new ceramic materials and methods for making ceramic materials into useful products as di verse as glassware, heat-resistant materials for furnaces, electronic components, and nu clear reactors. They also design the equip ment to manufacture these products. Ceramic engineers often specialize in one type of ceramic product—for example, prod ucts of refractories (fire- and heat-resistant materials such as firebrick); whitewares (por celain and china dinnerware or high-voltage electrical insulators); structural materials (such as bricks and tile); electronic ceramics (the materials used in the integrated circuits that have made small calculators and comput ers possible); protective and refractory coat ings for metals; glass; abrasives; cement; or fuel elements for atomic energy. Employment An estimated 15,000 ceramic engineers were employed in 1980, mostly in the stone, (D .O .T. 019.061-010 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Biomedical engineers use engineering prin ciples to solve medical and health-related problems. Many do research, along with life scientists, chemists, and members of the medical profession, on man and animals. Some design and develop medical instru ments and devices, including artificial hearts and kidneys, lasers for surgery, and pace makers that regulate the heartbeat. Other biomedical engineers adapt computers to medical science and design and build systems to modernize laboratory, hospital, and clini cal procedures. Most engineers in this field have an undergraduate degree in one of the major engineering disciplines (mechanical, electrical, industrial, or chemical) and an ad vanced degree in some area of biomedical engineering. However, a growing number of colleges are offering undergraduate degrees in biomedical engineering, and others offer biomedical engineering as an area of special ization within a more traditional engineering specialty. Employment There were an estimated 4,000 biomedical engineers in 1980. Many teach and do re search in colleges and universities. Some work for the Federal Government, primarily in the National Aeronautics and Space Ad Biomedical engineers use engineering principles to solve medical problems. Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/61 working in 1980 were in manufacturing in dustries, primarily in the chemicals, petrole um refining, and related industries. Some worked in government agencies or taught and did research in colleges and universities. A small number worked for independent re search institutes and engineering consulting firms, or as independent consultants. Job Outlook Employment of chemical engineers is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. A major factor underlying this growth is expan sion in the energy and chemical industries. The growing complexity and automation of chemical processes will require additional chemical engineers to design, build, and maintain the necessary plants and equipment. Chemical engineers also will be needed to solve problems dealing with environmental protection, development of synthetic fuels, and the design and development of nuclear reactors. In addition, development of new chemicals used in the manufacture of con sumer goods, such as plastics and synthetic fibers, probably will create additional open ings. Besides job openings created by growth in demand, many chemical engineers will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Ceramic engineers conduct research on a wide range of nonmetallic, inorganic materials. clay, and glass industry. Others work in in dustries that produce or use ceramic pro ducts, such as the iron and steel, electrical equipment, aerospace, and chemicals indus tries. Some are in colleges and universities, independent research organizations, and the Federal Government. information on training requirements and earnings.) Job Outlook American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Nature of the Work Employment of ceramic engineers is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Programs re lated to nuclear energy, electronics, defense, and medical science will provide job opportu nities for ceramic engineers. Additional ce ramic engineers will be required to improve and adapt traditional ceramic products, such as whitewares and abrasives, to new uses. The development of filters and catalytic sur faces to reduce pollution, and of ceramic materials for energy conversion and conser vation, should create additional openings. Besides job openings created by growth in demand, many ceramic enginers will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Sources of Additional Information Chemical engineers are involved in many phases of the production of chemicals and chemical products. They design equipment and plants, and determine and test methods of manufacturing the products. Chemical en gineers also work in areas other than chemi cal manufacturing such as the design of synthetic fuel plants or the development of processes designed to prevent pollution. Be cause the duties of chemical engineers cut across many fields, these professionals must have a knowledge of chemistry, physics, and mechanical and electrical engineering. This branch of engineering is so diversi fied and complex that chemical engineers frequently specialize in a particular operation such as oxidation or polymerization. Others specialize in a particular area such as pollu tion control or the production of a specific product like plastics or rubber. Sources of Additional Information National Institute of Ceramic Engineers, 65 Ce ramic Dr., Columbus, Ohio 43210. (See introductory part of this section for Chemical Engineers (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) (D .O .T. 008.061, .151, .167, and 090.227-010) Employment Most of the 55,000 chemical engineers Chemical engineer conducting laboratory re search on water quality. 62/Occupational Outlook Handbook Civil Engineers (D .O .T. 005.061, .167, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Civil engineers, who work in the oldest branch of the engineering profession, design and supervise the construction of roads, air ports, tunnels, bridges, water supply and sewage systems, and buildings. Major spe cialties within civil engineering are structur al, hydraulic, environmental (sanitary), transportation, highway, and soil mechanics. Many civil engineers are in supervisory or administrative positions ranging from super visor of a construction site to city engineer to top-level executive. Others teach in colleges and universities or work as consultants. Employment About 165,000 civil engineers were em ployed in 1980. Most work for Federal, State, and local government agencies or in the construction industry. Many work for consulting engineering and architectural firms or as independent consulting engi neers. Others work for public utilities, rail roads, educational in stitu tio n s, and manufacturing industries. Civil engineers work in all parts of the country, usually in or near major industrial and commercial centers. They often work at construction sites, sometimes in remote areas or in foreign countries. In some jobs, they often move from place to place to work on different projects. Job Outlook Employment of civil engineers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. 'A growing population and an expanding economy will Electrical engineering is the largest engineering specialty. result in a need for more civil engineers to design and construct manufacturing plants, electric power generating plants, and trans portation systems. Construction of defense installations and synthetic fuels projects also will generate demand for civil engineers. Be sides job openings created by growth in de mand, many civil engineers will be needed each year to replace those who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Since many civil engineers are employed in construction and related industries, em ployment opportunities may decrease during economic slowdowns when many new con struction projects often are curtailed. Sources of Additional Information American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Electrical Engineers (D .O .T . 003.061, .151, .167, .187, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Civil engineers often visit construction sites. Electrical engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment. Electrical equip ment includes power generating and trans mission equipment used by electric utilities, electric motors, machinery controls, and Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/63 lighting and wiring in buildings, auto mobiles, and aircraft. Electronic equipment includes radar, computers, communications equipment, and consumer goods such as TV sets and stereo components. Electrical engi neers who work with electronic equipment often are called electronic engineers. Electrical engineers generally specialize in a major area—such as power distributing equipment, integrated circuits, computers, electrical equipment manufacturing, or com munications—or in a subdivision of these areas—microwave communication or aviation electronic systems, for example. Electrical engineers design new products, write perfor mance requirements, and develop mainte nance schedules. They also test equipment, solve operating problems, and estimate the time and cost of engineering projects. Be sides manufacturing and research, develop ment, and design, many are employed in administration and management, technical sales, or teaching. Employment Electrical engineering is the largest branch of engineering. Over 325,000 electrical engi neers were employed in 1980, mainly by manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment, aircraft and parts, business ma chines, and professional and scientific equip ment. Many worked for public utilities, government agencies, and colleges and uni versities. Others work for construction and engineering consulting firms. Some are inde pendent consultants. Job Outlook Employment of electrical engineers is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Although increased demand for computers, communi cations equipment, and military electronics is expected to be the major contributor to this growth, demand for electrical and electronic consumer goods, along with increased re search and development in new types of power generation, should create additional jobs. Besides job openings created by growth in demand, many electrical engineers will be needed each year to replace those transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Industrial Engineers (D .O .T . 012.061, .067, .167 except -066, .187, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Industrial engineers determine the most ef fective ways for an organization to use the basic factors of production—people, ma chines, and materials. They are more con cerned with people and methods of business organization than are engineers in other spe cialties, who generally are concerned more with products or processes, such as metals, power, or mechanics. To solve organizational, production, and related problems most efficiently, industrial engineers design data processing systems and apply mathematical concepts (operations re search techniques). They also develop man agement control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design production planning and control systems to coordinate activities and control product quality, and design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers also conduct plant location sur veys, where they look for the best combina tion of sources of raw materials, transporta tion, and taxes, and develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation programs. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related. Employment About 115,000 industrial engineers were employed in 1980; more than two-thirds worked in manufacturing industries. Because their skills can be used in almost any type of company, they are more widely distrib uted among industries than are those in other branches of engineering. For example, they work for insurance companies, banks, construction and mining firms, public utili ties, hospitals, retail organizations, and gov ernment agencies. Some teach in colleges and universities. A few are independent consultants. Job Outlook Employment of industrial engineers is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Industrial growth, more complex business operations and the greater use of automation will con tribute to employment growth. Reducing costs and increasing productivity through sci entific management and safety engineering should create additional opportunities. Be sides job openings created by growth in de mand, many industrial engineers will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire or transfer to other occupations. Sources of Additional Information American Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, Ga. 30092. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Mechanical Engineers__________ (D O T. 007.061 except -026 and -030, .151, .161-022 and -034, .167-014; 014.061, .151, .167; and 090.227010) Nature of the Work Mechanical engineers are concerned with the use, production, and transmission of Since many electrical engineering jobs are defense related, cutbacks in defense spend ing—like those which took place in 1969 and 1970—could result in layoffs of electrical engineers in defense related industries. Sources of Additional Information Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers/ United States Activities Board, 1111 19th St. NW., Suite 608, Washington, D.C. 20036. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Industrial engineers help solve production problems. 64/Occupational Outlook Handbook ments—heat resistant, strong but lightweight, or highly malleable. They also develop meth ods to process and convert metals into useful products. Most of these engineers work in one of the three main branches of metallurgy— extractive or chemical, physical, and mechani cal. Extractive metallurgists are concerned with extracting metals from ores, and refining and alloying them to obtain useful metal. Phys ical metallurgists deal with the nature, struc ture, and physical properties of metals and their alloys, and with methods of converting refined metals into final products. Mechanical metal lurgists develop methods such as casting, forg ing, rolling, and drawing to work and shape metals. Scientists working in this field are known as metallurgists or materials scientists, but the distinction between scientists and engi neers in this field is small. Employment The metalworking industries—primarily the iron and steel and nonferrous metals indus tries—employed over one-half of the estimated 15,000 metallurgical engineers in 1980. Metal lurgical engineers also work in industries that manufacture machinery, electrical equipment, and aircraft and parts, and in the mining indus try. Some work for government agencies and colleges and universities. Job Outlook Many mechanical engineers work in maintenance and production operations. power. They design and develop power-pro ducing machines such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet and rocket engines. They also design and develop power-using machines such as refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment, elevators, machine tools, printing presses, and steel rolling mills. The work of mechanical engineers varies by industry and function. Many specialties have developed within the field; they include motor vehicles; marine equipment; energy conversion systems; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning; instrumentation; and special machines for industries such as petroleum, rubber and plastics, and construction. Large numbers of mechanical engineers do research, test, and design work while others work in maintenance, technical sales, and production operations. Many are administra tors or managers. Some teach in colleges and universitites or work as consultants. Job Outlook Employment Metallurgical Engineers_______ About 213,000 mechanical engineers were employed in 1980. Almost three-fourths were employed in manufacturing—most in the pri mary and fabricated metals, machinery, transportation equipment, and electrical equipment industries. Others worked for gov ernment agencies, educational institutions, and consulting engineering firms. Employment of mechanical engineers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, the result of growing demand for machinery and machine tools and the increasing complexity of industrial machinery and processes. Me chanical engineers will be needed to develop new energy systems and to help solve envi ronmental pollution problems. Besides job openings created by growth in demand, many mechanical engineers will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Sources of Additional Information The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Employment of metallurgical engineers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. More will be needed by the metalworking industries to develop new metals and alloys as well as to adapt current ones to new applications. For example, jet engines require metals that can withstand extreme heat. As the supply of high-grade ores diminishes, more metallurgi cal engineers will be required to develop new ways of recycling solid waste materials and processing low-grade ores now regarded as unprofitable to mine. Metallurgical engineers also will be needed to solve problems associ ated with the efficient use of nuclear energy. Besides job openings created by growth in demand, many metallurgical engineers will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Sources of Additional Information The Metallurgical Society of AIME, 420 Com monwealth Dr., Warrendale, Pa. 15086. American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio 44073. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Mining Engineers___ (D .O .T. 011.061, .161.010, and 090.227-010) (D .O .T . 010.061 090.227-010) except -010 and-018, .151, and Nature of the Work Nature of the Work Metallurgical engineers develop new types of metal tailored to meet specific require Mining engineers find, extract, and pre pare minerals for manufacturing industries to Engineers, Surveyors, and Architects/65 use. They design open pit and underground mines, supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations, and devise methods for transporting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the safe and economical oper ation of mines, including ventilation, water supply, power, communications, and equip ment maintenance. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metallurgical engi neers to locate and appraise new ore depos its. Others develop new mining equipment or direct mineral processing operations to sepa rate minerals from the dirt, rock, mid other materials they are mixed with. Mining engi neers frequently specialize in the mining of one mineral such as coal or copper. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mining engineers have been working to solve problems related to mined-land reclamation and water and air pollution. Employment About 6,000 mining engineers were em ployed in 1980. Most work in the mining industry. Some work for firms that produce equipment for the mining industry, while others work in colleges and universities, in government agencies, or as independent consultants. Mining engineers are usually employed at the location of mineral deposits, often near small communities. However, those in re search, teaching, management, consulting, or sales often are located in metropolitan areas. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Petroleum Engineers (D .O .T . 010.061-018, .161-010 and -014, .167-010 and -014, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Petroleum engineers are mainly involved in exploring and drilling for oil and gas. They work to achieve the maximum profit able recovery of oil and gas from a petroleum reservoir by determining and developing the most efficient production methods. Since only a small proportion of the oil and gas in a reservoir will flow out under natural forces, petroleum engineers develop and use various artificial recovery methods, such as flooding the oil field with water to force the oil to the surface. The best methods in use today recover only about half the oil. Petroleum engineers’ research and develop ment in the future will be directed at finding ways to increase the proportion of oil recov ered in each reservoir. Petroleum engineers also supervise drilling operations, conduct research on drilling methods, and develop new methods of re covering offshore oil and gas. As oil and gas become harder to find, petroleum engineers must develop methods of recovery from areas that were previously considered inaccessible such as the Arctic or the ocean depths. Employment About 18,000 petroleum engineers were employed in 1980, mostly in the petroleum industry and closely allied fields. Their em ployers include not only the major oil com panies, but also the hundreds of smaller, independent oil exploration, production, and service companies. They also work for com panies that produce drilling equipment and supplies. Some petroleum engineers work for banks and other financial institutions which need their knowledge of the economic value of oil and gas properties. A small number work for engineering consulting firms or as independent consulting engineers, and for Federal and State governments. The petroleum engineer’s work is concen trated in places where oil and gas are found. Almost three-fourths of all petroleum engi neers are employed in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and California. There also are many American petroleum engineers working overseas in oil-producing countries. Job Outlook Employment of petroleum engineers is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all Job Outlook Employment of mining engineers is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Efforts to attain energy self-sufficiency should spur the demand for coal and, therefore, for mining engineers. The increase in demand for coal will depend, to a great extent, on the avail ability and price of other energy sources such as petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear ener gy. More technologically advanced mining systems and further enforcement of mine health and safety regulations also will in crease the need for mining engineers. In addition, exploration for all other minerals is also increasing. Easily mined deposits are being depleted, creating a need for engi neers to devise more efficient methods for mining low-grade ores. Employment oppor tunities also will arise as new alloys and new uses for metals increase the demand for less widely used ores. Recovery of metals from the sea and the development of oil-shale de posits could present major challenges to the mining engineer. Besides job openings cre ated by growth in demand, many mining engineers will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Sources of Additional Information The Society of Mining Engineers of AIME, Caller Number D, Littleton, Colo. 80127. Metallurgical engineer testing a new metal alloy. 66/Occupational Outlook Handbook Petroleum engineer reviewing well data. expensive recovery methods will be used. New sources of oil, such as oil shale and new offshore oil sources, will be developed. Also, oil and gas drilling techniques may be applied in developing geothermal energy and in recovering certain minerals. All of these factors will contribute to increasing demand for petroleum engineers. Besides job open ings created by growth in demand, many petroleum engineers will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Sources of Additional Information Mining engineers design mines and supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels. occupations through the 1980’s, as economic expansion requires increasing supplies of pe troleum and natural gas, even with energy conservation measures. With efforts to attain energy self-sufficiency and with high petro leum prices, increasingly sophisticated and Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, 6200 North Central Expressway, Dallas, Tex. 75206. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Natural Scientists and Mathematicians Nature of the Work Natural scientists and mathematical scien tists seek knowledge of the physical world through observation, study, and experimenta tion. The knowledge gained through their scientific and mathematical research activities has been used to develop new products, in crease productivity, provide greater defense capabilities, protect the environment, and im prove health care. Three subgroups make up this broad occupational field: Mathematical scientists and systems analysts, physical sci entists, and life scientists. Mathematical scientists and systems ana lysts not only study mathematics but use it as a tool to solve practical business or scientific problems. Most mathematicians do research or teach in colleges and universities. Actu aries, statisticians, and systems analysts ap ply mathematical techniques to practical problems in business, health care, defense, and other areas. Physical scientists include those who do research on the nature of matter and energy both on earth and in the rest of the universe (astronomers, physicists, and chemists) and those who study how physical processes af fect the earth (geologists, geophysicists, and geographers), its oceans (oceanographers), and its atmosphere (meteorologists). Life scientists study living organisms and their life processes. The broad area of life science includes agricultural and biological scientists. Food technologists, also consid ered life scientists, apply the principles of life science to processing, preserving, pro ducing, and distributing food. Foresters, range managers, and soil conservationists ap ply their knowledge of life science to con serving forests, rangelands, and soil. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For some natural science and mathematics jobs, a bachelor’s degree is adequate for en try. However, in fields such as mathematics, astronomy, physics, biochemistry, or biol ogy, an advanced degree is usually required for entry into professional level jobs. Undergraduate training for natural scien tists and mathematicians includes courses in their major field and in related scientific fields. In graduate school, students take more ad vanced courses in their major area of study and in related sciences as well. Requirements for the master’s or doctor’s degree usually include a thesis, which is a report on the student’s original research. Job Outlook In the past, growth in employment of natu ral scientists and mathematicians has been related to an expanding economy and to in creased research and development (R&D) ex penditures. Both government and industry are expected to increase their R&D expenditures through the 1980’s in order to expand our basic knowledge of natural science, develop new technologies and products, and to pro tect the natural environment. However, if the rate of economic growth and actual R&D levels and patterns differ from those as sumed, the outlook in many occupations de scribed in this section would be altered. 67 Mathematical Scientists and Systems Analysts Mathematics is both a science and a tool used in many kinds of work. As a tool, mathematics is essential for understanding and expressing ideas in natural and social science, engineering, and business. (Occupations in these fields are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) The application of mathematical techniques in these fields has increased greatly because of the widespread use of computers, which help solve complex mathematical prob lems rapidly and inexpensively. Although mathematics is used extensively in many occupations, people in the occupa tions covered in this section use mathematics to a higher degree than others, and often devise new mathematical techniques to solve problems. Most mathematicians teach math ematics or do research on both theoretical and applied mathematical problems. Mathematics is applied in many areas. Statisticians use mathematical techniques to design and interpret surveys and experiments and test theories dealing with people or things. Actuaries use statistical techniques to assess the likelihood of risks that insurance companies agree to cover and to calculate the costs associated with insuring such risks. Systems analysts use mathematical, statisti cal, and accounting techniques to analyze and design data processing methods for business and scientific research projects. Most jobs related to mathematics require at least a bachelor’s degree in mathematics, sta tistics, or a related field. A graduate degree is helpful but not necessary for employment as a statistician, actuary, or systems analyst. The majority of mathematicians have a Ph.D. Actuaries (D.O.T. 020.167-010) Nature of the Work Why do young persons pay more for auto mobile insurance than older persons? How much should an insurance policy cost? How much should an organization contribute each year to its pension fund? Answers to these and similar questions are provided by actu aries who design insurance and pension plans and follow their experience to make sure that they are maintained on a sound financial ba sis. Actuaries assemble and analyze statistics to calculate probabilities of death, sickness, injury, disability, unemployment, retirement, and property loss from accident, theft, fire, and other hazards. They use this information to determine the expected insured loss. For example, they may calculate how many per Digitized for 68 FRASER sons who are 21 years old today can be expected to die before age 65—the probabil ity that an insured person might die during this period is a risk to the company. They then calculate a price for assuming this risk that will be profitable to the company yet be competitive with other insurance companies. Finally, they must make sure that the price charged for the insurance will enable the company to pay all claims and expenses as they occur. In a similar manner, the actuary calculates premium rates and determines poli cy contract provisions for each type of insur ance offered. Most actuaries specialize in either life and health insurance or property and liability (casualty) insurance; a growing number specialize in pension plans. To perform their duties effectively, actu aries must keep informed about general eco nomic and social trends, and legislative, health, and other developments that may af fect insurance practices. Because of their broad knowledge of insurance, company ac tuaries may work in investment, group un derwriting, or pension planning departments. Actuaries in executive positions help deter mine company policy. In that role, they may be called upon to explain complex technical matters to company executives, government officials, policyholders, and the public. They may testify before public agencies on pro posed legislation affecting the insurance busi ness, for example, or explain intended changes in premium rates or contract provi sions. Actuaries who work for the Federal Gov ernment usually deal with a particular insur ance or pension program, such as social security or life insurance for veterans and members of the Armed Forces. Actuaries in State government regulate insurance compa nies, supervise the operations of State retire ment or pension systems, and work on unem ployment insurance or workers ’ compensation problems. Consulting actuaries set up pen sion and welfare plans for private companies, unions, and government agencies. They cal culate future benefits and determine the amount of employer contribution. Actuaries who are enrolled under the provisions of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) evaluate these pension plans and report on their financial soundness. Working Conditions Actuaries have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity; their offices gener ally are comfortable and pleasant. Actuaries generally work between 35 and 40 hours a week, except during busy periods when overtime may be required. Actuaries may travel to branch offices of their company or to clients. Employment Approximately 8,000 persons worked as actuaries in 1980. Many worked in insurance company headquarters in New York, Hart ford, Chicago, Philadelphia, or Boston. More than half of all actuaries worked for private insurance companies. Most of these worked for life insurance companies; the rest worked for property and liability (casualty) companies. The number of actuaries em ployed by an insurance company depends on its volume of business and the types of insur ance policies it offers. Large companies may employ over 100 actuaries; others, generally smaller companies, may rely instead on con sulting firms, accounting firms, or rating bu reaus (associations that supply actuarial data to member companies). Employment of actuaries has been growing in consulting firms, rating bureaus, and ac counting firms. Other actuaries work for pri vate organizations administering independent pension and welfare plans or for Federal and State government agencies. A few teach in colleges and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A good educational background for a be ginning job in a large life or casualty com pany is a bachelor’s degree with a major in mathematics or statistics; a degree in actuar ial science is even better. Some companies hire applicants with a major in engineering, economics, or business administration, pro vided they have a working knowledge of mathematics, including calculus, probability, and statistics (20-25 hours). Courses in ac counting, computer science, economics, and insurance also are useful. Although only 32 colleges and universities offer a degree in actuarial science, several hundred schools of fer a degree in mathematics or statistics. A strong background in mathematics is essential for persons interested in a career as an actuary. It is an advantage to pass, while still in school, one or more of the examina tions offered by professional actuarial soci eties. Three societies sponsor programs leading to full professional status in their specialty. The Society of Actuaries gives ten actuarial examinations for the life and health insurance and pension field, the Casualty Ac tuarial Society gives ten examinations for the property and liability field, and the American Society of Pension Actuaries gives nine examinations covering the pension field. Because the first parts of the examination series of each society cover similar materials, students need not commit themselves to a specialty until they have taken four exam inations. The first three test competence in subjects such as linear algebra, numerical Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/69 methods, operations research, probability, calculus, and statistics; the fourth covers con cepts of actuarial science such as theories of compound interest, mortality tables, and risk. These first few examinations help students evaluate their potential as actuaries, and those who pass usually have better opportu nities for employment and higher starting salaries. Actuaries are encouraged to complete the entire series of examinations as soon as possible; completion generally takes from 5 to 10 years. Examinations are given twice each year. Extensive home study is required to pass the advanced examinations; many actuaries study 20-25 hours a week. Actu aries who complete five examinations in ei ther the life insurance series or the pension series or seven examinations in the casualty series are awarded “ associate” membership in their society. Those who pass an entire series receive full membership and the title “ fellow. ” Consulting pension actuaries who service private pension plans and certify their sol vency must be enrolled by the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries, a U.S. government agency. Applicants for enroll ment must meet certain experience and edu cation requirements as stipulated by the Joint Board. Beginning actuaries often rotate among jobs to learn various actuarial operations and different phases of insurance work. At first, they prepare tabulations for actuarial tables or perform other simple tasks. As they gain experience, they may supervise clerks, prepare correspondence and reports, and do research. Advancement to more responsible work as assistant, associate, and chief actuary de pends largely on job performance and the number of actuarial examinations passed. Many actuaries, because of their broad knowledge of insurance and related fields, are selected for administrative positions in underwriting, accounting, or data processing departments. Many advance to top executive positions. Job Outlook Employment of actuaries is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. In addition to job openings resulting from growth in demand for actuaries, additional openings will arise each year as individuals retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Job opportunities will be best for new college graduates who have passed at least two actuarial examina tions while still in school and have a strong mathematical and statistical background. Employment in this occupation is influ enced by the volume of insurance sales, which is expected to grow over the next decade. Shifts in the age distribution of the population will result in a large increase in the number of people with established careers Actuary analyzes statistical data. and family responsibilities. This is the group that traditionally has accounted for the bulk of private insurance sales. In addition, changing insurance practices will create a need for more actuarial services. For example, as insurance companies branch out into more than one kind of insurance coverage, more actuaries will be needed to establish rates. Growth in new forms of pro tection, such as dental, prepaid legal, and kidnap insurance also will stimulate demand. As people live longer, they draw health and pension benefits for a longer period, and actuaries will need to recalculate the prob abilities of such factors as death, sickness, and length of retirement. As more States pass competitive rating laws, many companies that previously relied on rating bureaus for actuarial data can be expected to create actu arial departments. The liability of companies for damage re sulting from their products has received much attention as a result of recent court decisions. In the years ahead, actuaries will be more involved in the development of product li ability insurance, as well as medical malprac tice, workers’ compensation coverage, and pollution liability insurance. Insurance coverage is considered a necessi ty by most individuals and businesses, re gardless of economic conditions. Therefore, actuaries are unlikely to be laid off during a recession. ners who had completed the first exam re ceived between $14,000 and $17,000, and those who had passed the second exam aver aged between $15,000 and $18,000, depend ing on geographic location. Life insurance companies give merit in creases to actuaries as they gain experience and pass examinations. Actuaries who be came associates in 1980, earned average sala ries between $21,000 and $24,500 a year; actuaries who became fellows during that year received average salaries between $30,000 and $35,000. Fellows with addition al years of experience earned substantially more—top actuarial executives received aver age salaries of about $52,000 a year. Al though data are not available for those in casualty companies or consulting firms, it is believed that their salaries are comparable to those of life insurance actuaries. Related Occupations Actuaries assemble and analyze statistics in their day-to-day work. Other workers whose jobs involve similar skills include mathematicians, statisticians, economists, fi nancial analysts, and engineering analysts. Sources of Additional Information For facts about actuarial opportunities and qualifications, contact: American Society of Pension Actuaries, 1700 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Earnings In 1980, new college graduates entering the life insurance field without having passed any actuarial exams averaged about $13,000, according to a survey by the Life Office Management Association (LOMA). Begin Casualty Actuarial Society, One Penn Plaza, 250 West 34 St., New York, N.Y. 10119. Society of Actuaries, 208 South LaSalle St., Chi cago, 111. 60604. American Academy of Actuaries, 1835 K St. NW., Suite 515, Washington, D.C. 20006. 70/Occupational Outlook Handbook Mathematicians is many times greater than the number actual ly designated as mathematicians. (D .O .T. 020.067-014, -022 and 090.227-010) Working Conditions Nature of the Work Mathematicians work almost exclusively in offices and classrooms. Most work regular hours and travel infrequently. Mathematicians work in one of the oldest and most basic sciences. Mathematicians to day are engaged in a wide variety of activities, ranging from the creation of new theories to the translation of scientific and managerial prob lems into mathematical terms. Mathematical work falls into two broad classes: theoretical (pure) mathematics; and applied mathematics. However, these classes are not sharply defined and often overlap. Theoretical mathematicians advance math ematical science by developing new princi ples and new relationships between existing principles of mathematics. Although they seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily considering its practical use, this pure and abstract knowledge has been instru mental in producing many scientific and en gineering achievements. For example, in 1854 Bernard Riemann invented a seemingly impractical non-Euclidian geometry that was to become part of Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. Years later, this theory contributed to the creation of atomic power. Applied mathematicians use mathematics to develop theories, techniques, and ap proaches to solve practical problems in busi ness, government, engineering, and the natural and social sciences. Their work ranges from analysis of the mathematical as pects of launching communications satellites to studies of the effects of new drugs on disease. Much work in applied mathematics, how ever, is carried on by persons other than mathematicians. In fact, the number of work ers who depend upon mathematical expertise Three out of four mathematicians work in col leges and universities. Employment About 40,000 persons worked as math ematicians in 1980. Almost three-fourths worked in colleges and universities. Most were teachers; some worked mainly in re search and development with few or no teaching duties. Most other mathematicians worked in pri vate industry and government. In private in dustry, major employers were the communi cations, chemical, aircraft, and computer and data processing industries. The Depart ment of Defense and the National Aeronau tics and Space Administration employed most of the mathematicians working in the Federal Government. Mathematicians work in all States, but are concentrated in those with high-technology industries and large college and university enrollments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An advanced degree is the basic require ment for beginning teaching jobs, as well as for most research positions. In most four-year colleges and universities, the Ph.D. degree is necessary for full faculty status. A master’s degree is adequate preparation for teaching jobs in most two-year colleges and technical institutes. Although the bachelor’s degree may be adequate preparation for some jobs in private industry and government, employers usually require an advanced degree. Those bachelor’s degree holders who find jobs as mathemati cians usually assist senior mathematicians by performing computations and solving less ad vanced problems in applied mathematics. However, advancement often depends on achieving an advanced degree. Other bache lor’s degree holders work as research or teaching assistants in colleges and universi ties while studying for an advanced degree. The majority of bachelor’s degree holders work in related fields such as computer science. The bachelor’s degree in mathematics is offered by most colleges and universities. Mathematics courses usually required for a degree are analytical geometry, calculus, dif ferential equations, probability theory and statistics, mathematical analysis, and modem algebra. Many colleges and universities urge or even require students majoring in math ematics to take several courses in a field that uses or is closely related to mathematics, such as computer science, operations re search, a physical science, or economics. A prospective college mathematics student should take as many mathematics courses as possible while in high school. More than 400 colleges and universities offer the master’s degree in mathematics; about 150 also offer the Ph.D. In graduate school, students conduct research and take advanced courses, usually in a specific field of mathematics such as algebra, mathemat ical analysis, or geometry. For work in applied mathematics, training in the field in which the mathematics will be used is very important. Fields in which ap plied mathematics is used extensively include physics, engineering, and operations re search; of increasing importance are business and industrial management, economics, sta tistics, chemistry and life sciences, and the behavioral sciences. M athematicians should have a good knowledge of computer programming since most complex mathematical computation is done by computer. Mathematicians need good reasoning abil ity, persistence, and the ability to apply basic principles to new types of problems. They must be able to communicate well since they often need to discuss the problem to be solved with nonmathematicians. Job Outlook Employment of mathematicians is expect ed to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s be cause the majority of mathematicians work in colleges and universities, where little em ployment growth is expected. Those with Ph.D. degrees in mathematics should have favorable employment opportunities. How ever, most job openings for Ph.D .’s will either be in industry or in college faculty positions at the undergraduate level. There will be competition for jobs involving theo retical research or for research oriented uni versity faculty positions. Holders of Ph.D. degrees in applied math ematics should have better employment pros pects than those whose interest and training are confined to the theoretical aspects of mathematics. Although some opportunities may be available to theoretical mathemati cians in nonacademic areas, most nonaca demic employers will seek applied math ematicians who can solve practical problems. Private industry and government agencies will need applied mathematicians for work in operations research, numerical analysis, com puter systems programming, applied math ematical physics, market research, and commercial surveys, and as consultants in industrial laboratories. Those with only a bachelor’s or master’s degree in mathematics may have difficulty finding a job as a mathematician because most jobs in teaching or research require a Ph.D., although there will be some openings in applied areas and in two-year college teaching. However, a mathematics degree makes one well qualified to enter related occupations such as statistician, actuary, computer programmer, systems analyst, economist, engineer, and physical or life sci- Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/71 entist. Employment opportunities in these fields will probably be best for those who combine a major in mathematics with a mi nor in one of these subjects. Graduates with State teaching certificates may also find openings as high school math ematics teachers. (See statement on secon dary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook. ) Earnings Starting salaries for mathematicians with a bachelor’s degree averaged about $17,700 a year. Those with a master’s degree started at about $20,200 annually. Salaries for new graduates having the Ph. D ., most of whom had some experience, averaged over $26,400. In the Federal Government in 1980, math ematicians having the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at either $12,266 or $15,193 a year, depending on their college records. Those with the master’s degree could start at $18,585 or $22,486; and per sons having the Ph.D. degree could begin at either $22,486 or $26,951. The average sala ry for all mathematicians in the Federal Gov ernment was about $30,100 in 1980. Salaries paid to college and university mathematics teachers are comparable to those for other faculty members. (See statement on college and university teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Related Occupations The work of actuaries, statisticians, comput er programmers, systems analysts, and oper ations research analysts is closely related to mathematics. In addition, workers in many fields such as natural and social science, engi neering, and finance use m athem atics extensively. Sources of Additional Information Several brochures are available that give facts about the field of mathematics, includ ing career opportunities, professional train ing, and colleges and universities with degree programs. Seeking Employment in the Mathematical Sciences is available for 50 cents from: American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box 6248, Providence, R.I. 02940. Professional Opportunities in Mathematics is available for $1.50 from: Mathematical Association of America, 1529 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For specific information on careers in ap plied mathematics, contact: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 1405 Architects Building, 117 S. 17th St., Phila delphia, Pa. 19103. Statisticians devise surveys and experiments and interpret the results. tants. Statisticians devise, carry out, and in terpret the numerical results of surveys and experiments. In doing so, they apply their knowledge of statistical methods to a particu lar subject area, such as economics, human behavior, natural science, or engineering. They may use statistical techniques to predict population growth or economic conditions, develop quality control tests for manufac tured products, or help business managers and government officials make decisions and evaluate the results of new programs. Often statisticians are able to obtain accu rate information about a group of people or things by surveying a small portion, called a sample, rather than the whole group. For example, television rating services ask only a few thousand families, rather than all view ers, what programs they watch to determine the size of the total audience. Statisticians decide where and how to get the data, deter mine the type and size of the sample group, and develop the survey questionnaire or re porting form. They also prepare instructions for workers who will tabulate the returns. Since statistics are used in so many areas, it sometimes is difficult to distinguish statisti cians from specialists in other fields who use statistics. For example, a statistician working with data on economic conditions may have the title of economist. Working Conditions Statisticians (D.O.T. 020.067-026, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Statistics are numbers that help describe the characteristics of the world and its inhabi Statisticians usually work regular hours in offices. Some statisticians may travel occa sionally to supervise or set up a survey, or to gather statistical data. Some spend all day doing fairly repetitive tasks, while others may be involved in a variety of tasks such as designing surveys or interpreting data. Employment Approximately 26,500 persons worked as statisticians in 1980. Over half were in pri vate industry, primarily in manufacturing, fi nance, and insurance companies. About onethird worked for Federal, State, or local government. Federally employed statisticians are concentrated in the Departments of Com merce, Health and Human Services, Agricul ture, and Defense. Others worked in colleges and universities and nonprofit organizations. Although statisticians work in all parts of the country, most are in metropolitan areas, and about one-fourth work in three areas— New York City; Washington, D.C.; and Los Angeles-Long Beach, Calif. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in statis tics or mathematics is the minimum educa tional requirement for many beginning jobs in statistics. For other entry level statistical jobs, however, a bachelor’s degree with a major in an applied field such as economics or natural science and a minor in statistics is preferable. A graduate degree in mathematics or statistics is essential for college and uni versity teaching. Over 200 colleges and universities offered statistics as a concentration for a bachelor’s degree in 1980. Many schools also offer ei ther a degree in mathematics or a sufficient number of courses in statistics to qualify graduates for beginning positions. Required subjects for statistics majors include math ematics through differential and integral cal culus, statistical methods, and probability theory. Courses in computer uses and tech niques, if not required, are highly recom mended. For quality-control positions, training in engineering or physical or biologi 72/Occupational Outlook Handbook cal science is desirable. For many market research, business analysis, and forecasting jobs, courses in economics and business ad ministration are helpful. Many colleges and universities also of fered graduate degrees in statistics in 1980, and many other schools offered one or two graduate level statistics courses. Acceptance into graduate programs does not require an undergraduate degree in statistics although a good mathematics background is essential. Beginning statisticians who have only the bachelor’s degree often spend much of their time performing routine work under the su pervision of an experienced statistician. Through experience, they may advance to positions of greater technical and supervisory responsibility. However, opportunities for promotion are best for those with advanced degrees. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for persons who combine training in statistics with knowledge of a field of application are expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. Besides the average growth expected in this field, addi tional statisticians will be needed to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Private industry will require increasing numbers of statisticians for quality control in manufacturing. Statisticians with knowledge of engineering and the physicial sciences will find jobs working with scientists and engi neers in research and development. Business firms will rely more heavily than in the past on statisticians to forecast sales, analyze business conditions, modernize accounting procedures, and help solve management problems. Many fields such as law and history have recognized the usefulness of statistics, and statistical techniques are being used increas ingly to determine such things as the effects of pollution and toxic substances. As the use of statistics expands into new areas, more statisticians will be needed. Federal, State, and local government agen cies will need statisticians for existing and new programs in fields such as transporta tion, social security, health, and education. The broader use of statistical methods is also likely to result in a need for more teachers of statistics in colleges and universities Earnings In the Federal Government in 1980, statis ticians who had the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at either $12,266 or $15,193 a year, depending on their college grades. Beginning statisticians with the mas te r’s degree could start at $18,585 or $22,486. Those with the Ph.D. could begin at $22,486 or $26,951. The average annual salary for statisticians in the Federal Govern ment was about $29,300 in 1980. Salaries in private industry were compara ble to those in the Federal Government, ac cording to the limited data available. Statisticians employed by colleges and uni versities generally receive salaries compara ble to those paid other faculty members. (See the statement on college and university teach ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to their regular salaries, many statisticians in educational institutions earn extra income from outside research projects, consulting, and writing. Related Occupations Workers in the following occupations use statistics to such an extent their job is often similar to that of a statistician: Marketing research workers, urban and regional plan ners, engineers, environmental scientists, life scientists, physical scientists, and social sci entists. Others who work with numbers are actuaries, mathematicians, financial ana lysts, computer programmers, and systems analysts. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in statistics, contact: American Statistical Association, 806 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from area offices of the State em ployment service and the U.S. Office of Per sonnel Management or from Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. For information on a career as a math ematical statistician, contact: Dr. Martin Fox, Institute of Mathematical Statis tics, Department of Statistics and Probability, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mich. 48824. Systems Analysts (D.O.T. 003.167-062; 012.167-066; 020.062-010 and 067.010; and 109.067-010) Nature of the Work Many essential business functions and sci entific research projects depend on systems analysts to plan efficient methods of process ing data and handling the results. Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the data processing problem with managers or special ists to determine the exact nature of the prob lem and to break it down into its component parts. If a new inventory system is desired, for example, systems analysts must deter mine what new data must be collected, the equipment needed for computation, and the steps to be followed in processing the information. Analysts use various techniques, such as cost accounting, sampling, and mathematical model building to analyze a problem and devise a new system. Once a system has been developed, they prepare charts and dia grams that describe its operation in terms that managers or customers can understand. They also may prepare a cost-benefit analysis to help the client decide whether the proposed system is satisfactory. If the system is accepted, systems analysts translate the logical requirements of the sys tem into the capabilities of the computer ma chinery or “ hardware.” They also prepare specifications for programmers to follow and work with them to “debug,” or eliminate errors from the system. (The work of com puter programmers is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) The problems that systems analysts solve range from monitoring nuclear fission in a powerplant to forecasting sales for an appli ance manufacturing firm. Because the work is so varied and complex, analysts usually specialize in either business or scientific and engineering applications. Some analysts improve systems already in use by developing better procedures or adapt ing the system to handle additional types of data. Others do research, called advanced systems design, to devise new methods of systems analysis. Working Conditions Systems analysts usually work about 40 hours a week—the same as other professional and office workers. Unlike many computer operators, systems analysts are not assigned to evening or night shifts. Occasionally, however, evening or weekend work may be necessary to complete emergency projects. Employment About 205,000 persons worked as systems analysts in 1980. Employment of these work ers is concentrated in two geographic re gions—about one-third of the total are employed in the Midwest and one-fourth work in the northeastern portion of the Unit ed States. Most systems analysts worked in urban areas for manufacturing firms, govern ment agencies, wholesale businesses, and data processing service organizations. In ad dition, large numbers worked for banks and insurance companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There is no universally acceptable way of preparing for a job as a systems analyst be cause employers’ preferences depend on the work being done. However, college gradu ates generally are sought for these jobs, and, for some of the more complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred. Employ ers usually want analysts with a background in accounting, business management, or eco nomics for work in a business environment while a background in the physical sciences, mathematics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organiza tions. A growing number of employers seek applicants who have a degree in computer science, information science, information Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/73 systems, or data processing. Regardless of college major, employers look for people who are familiar with programming lan guages. Courses in computer concepts, sys tems analysis, and data base management systems offer good preparation for a job in this field. Prior work experience is important. Nearly half of all persons entering This occupation have transferred from other occupations, es pecially from computer programmer. In many industries, systems analysts begin as programmers and are promoted to analyst positions after gaining experience. Systems analysts must be able to think logically and should like working with ideas. They often deal with a number of tasks si multaneously. The ability to concentrate and pay close attention to detail also is important. Although systems analysts often work inde pendently, they also work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with technical personnel, such as programmers, as well as with clients who have no computer background. In order to advance, systems analysts must continue their technical education. Techno logical advances come so rapidly in the com puter field that continuous study is necessary to keep skills up to date. Training usually takes the form of 1- and 2-week courses offered by employers and “ software” ven dors. Additional training may come from professional development seminars offered by professional computing societies. An indication of experience and profes sional competence is the Certificate in Data Processing (CDP). This designation is con ferred by the Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals upon candidates who have completed 5 years’ experience and passed a five-part examination. In large data processing departments, per sons who begin as junior systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems analysts after several years of experience. Systems analysts who show leadership abili ty also can advance to jobs as managers of systems analysis or data processing departments. Job Outlook Employment of systems analysts is expect ed to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as comput er usage expands, particularly in computer service firms, accounting firms, and organi zations engaged in research and develop ment. Many systems analysts also will be needed by computer manufacturers to design software packages. In addition to jobs that will be created by increased computer usage, some openings will occur as systems analysts advance to managerial positions, become consultants, or enter other occupations. Be cause many of these workers are relatively young, few positions will result from retire ment or death. The demand for systems analysts is ex pected to rise as computer capabilities are The shortage of trained computer personnel has resulted in an upward pay spiral that is expected to continue. increased and as new applications are found for computer technology. Sophisticated ac counting systems, telecommunications net works, and scientific research are just a few areas where use of computer systems has resulted in new approaches to problem solv ing. Over the next decade, systems analysts also will be developing ways to use the com puter’s resources to solve problems in areas that have not yet been recognized. Advances in technology that have drasti cally reduced the size and cost of computer hardware will have differing effects on em ployment of systems analysts. Employment in data processing firms may not grow quite as rapidly as in recent years as more small businesses install their own computers rather than rely on a data processing service. This will be offset, however, by a rising demand for analysts to design systems for small com puters that are specifically adapted to meet problem-solving needs of small firms. Graduates of computer-related curriculums should enjoy the best prospects for employ ment. College graduates who have had courses in computer programming, systems analysis, and other data processing areas should also find many opportunities. Persons without a college degree and college gradu ates unfamiliar with data processing will face competition from the large number of experienced workers seeking jobs as systems analysts. Earnings Earnings for beginning systems analysts in private industry averaged about $330 a week in 1980, according to surveys conducted in 74/Occupational Outlook Handbook urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and private firms engaged in research on computer occupations. Experienced workers earned from $390 to $460, and lead systems analysts earned about $490 weekly. Overall, systems analysts earn well over twice as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government, the entrance sal ary for recent college graduates with a bache lor’s degree was about $200 a week in early 1981. Systems analysts working in the North and West earned somewhat more than those in the South, and generally their earnings were greater in data processing service firms or in heavy manufacturing than in insurance com panies or educational institutions. Related Occupations Other workers in mathematics, business, and science who use logic and reasoning ability to solve problems are programmers, financial analysts, urban planners, engineers, mathematicians, operations research analysts, and actuaries. Sources of Additional Information Further information about the occupation of systems analyst is available from: American Federation of Information Processing Societies, 1815 North Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Association for Systems Management, 24587 Bagley Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44138. Information about the Certificate in Data Processing is available from: The Institute for Certification of Computer Profes sionals, 35 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 2828, Chicago, 111. 60601. Physical Scientists Physical scientists investigate the structure and composition of the earth and the uni verse. Many physical scientists perform re search designed to increase basic scientific knowledge. Others employ the results of re search to solve practical problems in develop ing new products, locating new sources of oil, or predicting the weather. Many physical scientists work in colleges and universities; others, especially chemists, geologists, and geophysicists, work in private industry. This section covers eight physical science occupations—astronomers, chemists, geog raphers, geologists, geophysicists, meteorolo gists, oceanographers, and physicists. Most astronomers, oceanographers, and physicists have Ph.D .’s. The jobs of many other phys ical scientists also require a Ph.D., especially those who are employed in colleges and uni versities, but some jobs in these other fields can be entered with a bachelor’s degree. A knowledge of the physical sciences (es pecially chemistry and physics) is also re quired by engineers and life scientists; these occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Astronomers (D.O.T. 021.067-010 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Contrary to the popular image, astrono mers almost never actually look through a telescope, because photographic and elec tronic light-detecting equipment is more ef fective than the human eye. Also, much astronomical information is collected by ra dio telescopes and other electronic means which detect invisible radio waves, X-rays, and cosmic waves. Most astronomers spend only a few weeks each year making observations. They spend the rest of their time analyzing the large quantities of data collected by their own and others’ observations and writing scientific pa pers on the results of their research. Some astronomers concentrate on theoretical prob lems and seldom visit observatories. They formulate theories or mathematical models to explain observations made earlier by other astronomers. Almost all astronomers do research or teach; those in colleges and universities often do both. In schools that do not have separate departments of astronomy or only small en rollments in the subject, they often teach courses in mathematics or physics as well as astronomy. Some astronomers administer re search programs, develop and design astro nomical instruments, and do consulting work. Working Conditions Most astronomers spend much of their time working in offices or classrooms, al though astronomers who make observations may need to travel to the observing facility and frequently work at night. Astronomers are often under considerable pressure to pro duce research results which are of publish able quality. In some universities, relatively new astronomers who do not produce signifi cant research results are not granted tenure, which is in effect a permanent position. Those not granted tenure face the possibility of losing their jobs. Employment Astronomy is the smallest physical sci ence; about 3,000 persons worked as astrono mers in 1980. Over half of all astronomers work in colleges and universities. Most of the rest work in observatories operated by universities, nonprofit organizations, and the Federal Government. The Federal Government employed about 550 astronomers and space scientists in 1980. Most worked for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Others worked for the Department of Defense, mainly at the U.S. Naval Observatory and the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. A few astronomers worked for aerospace firms or in museums and planetariums. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual requirement for a job in astron omy is a Ph.D. degree. Persons with less education may qualify for some jobs assisting astronomers. Astronomers seek answers to questions about the fundamental nature of the uni verse, such as its origin and history and the evolution of our solar system. Astrono mers—sometimes called astrophysicists—use the principles of physics and mathematics to study and determine the behavior of matter and energy in distant galaxies. One applica tion of the information they gain is to prove or disprove theories of the nature of matter and energy such as Einstein’s theory of rela tivity. To make observations of the universe, as tronomers use large telescopes, radiotele scopes, and other instruments (some in orbiting satellites) that can detect electromag netic radiation from distant sources. By using spectroscopes to analyze light from stars, as tronomers can determine their chemical com position. They use computers to analyze data and solve complex mathematical equations that are developed to represent various theo ries. Computers also are useful for process ing astronomical data to calculate orbits of asteroids or comets, guide spacecraft, and work out tables for navigational handbooks. Astronomer prepares to make an observation by adjusting a spectrograph. 75 76/Occupational Outlook Handbook About 50 universities offer the Ph.D. de gree in astronomy. These programs include advanced courses in astronomy, physics, and mathematics. Some schools require that grad uate students spend several months working at an observatory. In most institutions, the program leading to the doctorate is flexible and allows students to take courses in their own area of interest. The usual qualification for entrance to a graduate program in astron omy is a bachelor’s degree in astronomy, physics, or mathematics with a physics minor. Persons planning careers in astronomy should have great interest and ability in sci ence and mathematics, as well as imagination and an inquisitive mind. Perseverance and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work independently also are important. New graduates with a doctorate may work for several years on a postdoctoral fellow ship, which provides employment while they gain further research experience and look for a permanent position. Other new Ph.D.’s, however, enter teaching or research jobs im mediately after attaining their degree. Job Outlook Persons seeking positions as astronomers will face keen competition for the few avail able openings expected through the 1980’s. Employment of astronomers is expected to grow slowly, if at all, because funds for basic research in astronomy, which come mainly from the Federal Government, are not expected to increase enough to create many new positions. Furthermore, enrollments in astronomy and physics are not expected to grow, so there will be little need for addition al teaching faculty. Most openings will occur as replacements for those who die or retire. Since astronomy is such a small profession, there will be few openings arising from the need for replacements. There will be keen competition for these openings because the number of degrees granted in astronomy probably will continue to exceed available openings. Many of the new positions in colleges and universities may be temporary rather than permanent because the use of temporary fac ulty members usually is less costly and al lows institutions to adjust faculty size more easily. Temporary jobs usually last for 2 years and are seldom renewed. Earnings The average annual salary for astonomers was $26,000 in 1979, according to an American Astronomical Society survey. The average annual salary for astronomers and space scientists in the Federal Government was over $38,000 in 1980. Astronomers teaching in colleges and universities received salaries equivalent to those of other faculty members. (See statement on college and uni versity teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Related Occupations The work of astronomers is closely related to that of physicists, and astronomy often is thought of as a branch of physics. Other related occupations are physical scientists and mathematicians. Sources of Additional Information For a pamphlet containing information on careers in astronomy and on schools offering training in the field, send 25 cents to: Education Office, American Astronomical Soci ety, University of Delaware, Newark, Del. 19711. Chemists___________ (D .O .T. 022.061-010 and -014, .137-010, .161-010, .281-014; 041.061-026; and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Nearly half of all chemists work in research and development. The clothes we wear, the foods we eat, the houses in which we live—in fact, most things that help make our lives better, from medical care to a cleaner environment—result, in part, from the work done by chemists. Chemists search for and put to practical use new knowledge about substances. Their research has resulted in the development of a tremendous variety of synthetic materials, such as nylon and polyester fabrics, ingredi ents that have improved other substances, and processes which help save energy and reduce pollution, such as improved oil refin ing methods. Over half of all chemists work in research and development. In basic research, chemists investigate the properties, composition, and structure of matter and the laws that govern the combination of elements and reactions of substances. In applied research and develop ment, they create new products or improve existing ones, often using knowledge gained from basic research. For example, synthetic rubber and plastics have resulted from re search on small molecules uniting to form larger ones (polymerization). The process of developing a product be gins with descriptions of the characteristics it should have. If similar products exist, chem ists test samples to determine their ingredi ents. If no such product exists, chemists experiment with various substances to devel op a product with the required specifications. Nearly one-sixth of all chemists work in production and inspection. In production, chemists prepare instructions (batch sheets) for plant workers that specify the kind and amount of ingredients to use and the exact mixing time for each stage in the process. At each step, samples are tested for quality con trol to meet industry and government stand ards. Chemists keep records and prepare reports showing results of tests. Others work as marketing or sales repre sentatives where they sell and provide techni cal information on chemical products. A number of chemists teach in colleges and universities. Some chemists are consultants to private industry and to government agencies. Chemists often specialize in a subfield of chemistry. Analytical chemists determine the structure, composition, and nature of sub stances, and develop new analytical tech niques. An outstanding example of the capabilities of this specialty was the analysis of moon rocks by an international team of analytical chemists. Organic chemists study the chemistry of carbon compounds. When combined with other elements, carbon forms a vast number of substances. Many modem commercial products, including plastics and other synthetics, have resulted from the work of organic chemists. Inorganic chemists study compounds other than carbon. They may, for example, develop materials to use in solid-state electronic components. Phys ical chemists study the physical characteris tics of atoms and molecules and investigate how chemical reactions work. This research may result in new and better energy sources. Biochemists, considered chemists or life sci entists, are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book . Some chemists specialize in the chemistry of foods. (See statement on food technologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Chemists usually work regular hours in offices, laboratories, or classrooms. Some are exposed to health or safety hazards when handling certain chemicals, but there is little risk if proper procedures are followed. Employment About 113,000 persons worked as chemists in 1980. About one-half of all chemists work for manufacturing firms—about one-half of these are in the chemical manufacturing indus try; the rest are scattered throughout other man ufacturing industries. Colleges and universities employed about 19,000 chemists in 1980. Chemists also work Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/77 for State and local governments, primarily in health and agriculture, and for Federal agen cies, chiefly the Departments of Defense, Health and Human Resources, Agriculture, and Interior. Smaller numbers work for non profit research organizations. Chemists are employed in all parts of the country, but they are concentrated in large industrial areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in chem istry or a related discipline is sufficient for many beginning jobs as a chemist. However, graduate training is required for most re search jobs, and most college teaching jobs require a Ph.D. degree. Beginning chemists should have a broad background in chemis try, with good laboratory skills. Many colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in chemistry. About 550 are approved by the American Chemical Society. In addition to required courses in analytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry, undergraduates usually study mathematics, liberal arts, and physics. Several hundred colleges and universities award advanced degrees in chemistry. In graduate school, students generally specialize in a subfield of chemistry. Requirements for the master’s and doctor’s degree usually in clude a thesis based on independent research. Students planning careers as chemists should enjoy studying science and mathemat ics, and should like working with their hands building scientific apparatus and performing experiments. Perseverance and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work indepen dently are essential. Other assets include an inquisitive mind and imagination. Graduates with the bachelor’s degree gen erally begin their careers in government or industry by analyzing or testing products, working in technical sales or service, or as sisting senior chemists in research and devel opment laboratories. Some employers have training and orientation programs which pro vide special knowledge needed for the em ployer’s type of work. Candidates for an advanced degree often teach or do research in colleges and universities while working to ward their degrees. Beginning chemists with the master’s de gree can usually go into applied research in government or private industry. They also may qualify for teaching positions in 2-year colleges and some 4-year colleges. The Ph.D. generally is required for basic research, for teaching in colleges and univer sities, and for advancement to many adminis trative positions. from increased demand for chemists, many openings will result each year as chemists transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. This outlook for chemists is based on the assumption that research and development expenditures of government and industry will increase through the 1980’s at a faster rate than during the 1970’s. If actual expenditures differ significantly from those assumed, the outlook for chemists would be altered. The majority of job openings are expected to be in private industry, primarily in the development of new products. In addition, industrial companies and government agen cies will need more chemists to help solve problems related to energy shortages, pollu tion control, and health care. Little growth in college and university em ployment is expected. (See statement on col lege and university teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some graduates of baccalaureate programs will find openings in high school teaching after completing professional education courses and other requirements for a State teaching certificate. They usually are then regarded as teachers rather than chemists. Others may qualify as chemical or other types of engineers, especially if they have taken some courses in engineering. (See statements on secondary school teachers and engineers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings According to the College Placement Council, chemists with the bachelor’s degree were offered starting salaries averaging $19,600 a year in 1981; those with the mas ter’s degree, $23,600; and those with the Ph.D., $29,800. According to the American Chemical So ciety, salaries of experienced chemists having a bachelor’s degree averaged $27,500 a year in 1981; for those with a master’s degree, $30,000; and for those with a Ph.D., $35,000. In colleges and universities, the average salary of those with the master’s de gree was $21,400 and of those with the Ph.D., $26,200. Many chemists in educa tional institutions supplement their salaries with income from consulting, lecturing, and writing. Depending on a person’s college record, the annual starting salary in the Federal Gov ernment in early 1981 for an inexperienced chemist with a bachelor’s degree was either $12,266 or $15,193. Those who had 2 years of graduate study could begin at $18,585 a year. Chemists having the Ph.D. degree could start at $22,486 or $26,951. The aver age salary for all chemists in the Federal Government in 1980 was $29,700 a year. Job Outlook Related Occupations Employment opportunities in chemistry are expected to be good for graduates at all de gree levels through the 1980’s. The employ ment of chemists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations during this period. In addition to jobs arising The occupations of chemical engineers, occupational safety and health workers, agri cultural and biological scientists, food tech nologists, and chemical technicians are closely related to chemistry. Many manufac turers’ sales representatives and wholesale trade sales workers in chemical marketing have backgrounds in chemistry, as do many technical writers. Other physical science and environmental science occupations are also related to chemistry. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportuni ties and earnings for chemists is available from: American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employ ment services and the U.S. Office of Person nel Management, and from Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. Geographers______ (D .O .T . 029.067 and .167-010; and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Geographers do research on a wide range of social, economic, and environmental is sues. They study the distribution and location of various characteristics of the earth’s sur face. Such studies help to explain changing patterns of human settlement—where people live, why they are located there, and how they earn a living. Geographers are involved in a variety of activities. Most are primarily researchers or analysts. They prepare reports and recom mendations and may work for consulting firms, research organizations, business and industrial firms, or government agencies. Some geographers use their specialized knowledge and research skills in planning or administrative jobs in such fields as econom ic development or environmental resource management. Others are college or university teachers and, like other faculty members, do research and consulting in addition to teach ing. (For more information, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Depending on their training and field of interest—or on a client’s needs—a geogra pher might examine the distribution of landforms; study variations in climate, soils, or vegetation; or analyze such resources as wa ter and minerals. Geographers are also con cerned with human resources, and frequently their research overlaps that of social science disciplines. Thus, a geographer might study political organizations, transportation sys tems, marketing systems, patterns of industri al development, housing, or public health. Research techniques depend on the topic under study. However, field study, including interviews and the use of surveying and me teorological instruments, is a standard tech nique. In addition, geographers analyze maps, aerial photographs, and data transmit ted by satellites. Most geographers construct 78/Occupational Outlook Handbook maps, graphs, and diagrams in the course of their research. Geographers typically make use of advanced statistical techniques and mathematical models—and, frequently, a computer—when they analyze or map the data they have obtained. Geographers specialize, as a rule. Eco nomic geographers deal with the geographic distribution of an area’s economic activities— manufacturing, mining, forestry, agriculture, trade, and communications. Their research might be used, for example, to determine the costs and benefits of putting resources to use in a particular way. Many economic geog raphers work for private firms, evaluating and selecting the best locations for industrial sites. Political geographers study the relation ship of geography to politics. They define and describe the political boundaries of cities, counties, and administrative subdivi sions, as well as offshore areas. Urban geographers study cities and met ropolitan regions. They provide background information and make recommendations in such areas as community development, housing, transportation, and industrial development. Physical geographers focus on the phys ical characteristics of the earth. They study the earth’s water systems, vegetation pat terns, wildlife distribution, and climates. They also study the effect of physical charac teristics on navigation and other activities. Typically, they specialize in a particular branch of physical geography such as geo morphology—the study of landforms—or hy drology—the study of water. Geographers specializing in climatology use atmospheric data to describe overall climatic conditions Digitized forCartographers use data from satellite sensors to make maps. FRASER and to do research into the causes of climatic change. They may determine the significance of climatic conditions for defense, conserva tion, agriculture, health, transportation, mar keting, and other activities. Regional geographers study the physical, climatic, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of a particular region or area, which may range in size from a river basin to a State, a country, or even a continent. In addition to an understanding of the geog raphy of a region, some knowledge of its history, customs, and languages may be necessary. Cartographers compile and interpret data and design and construct maps and charts. They also conduct research in surveying and mapping techniques and procedures. Cartog raphers increasingly use computers in their work. Medical geographers study the effect of the environment on health and take into ac count such factors as climate, vegetation, mineral traces in water, and atmospheric pol lution. They work with public health offi cials, biostatisticians, and others to determine how our health is influenced by our physical surroundings—including access to health-care facilities. Geographers may specialize even further in the subfields of agricultural geography, biogeography, conservation, cultural geogra phy, geographical methods and techniques, historical geography, location analysis, satel lite data interpretation, population geogra phy, rural geography, social geography, and transportation. Working Conditions Geographers working for government agen cies and private firms often work regular 40hour weeks. They often work alone behind a desk or a drafting table, reading and writing reports on their research or constructing maps and charts. Many experience the pressures of deadlines and tight schedules and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by telephone calls, letters, special requests for information, meetings, or confer ences. Geographers employed by colleges and universities, on the other hand, have much more flexible work schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, and adminis trative responsibilities. Increasingly, geographers are an integral part of a research team in the field. Physical stamina is important for these geographers because field work requires traveling to re mote areas, and working long hours under severe weather conditions. Adaptability is also needed to adjust to different cultural environments. Employment An estimated 15,000 persons worked as geographers in 1980. About two-fifths of all geographers work for private industry as re searchers and planners; often, they specialize in location analysis. Geographers work for Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/79 textbook and map publishers, travel agencies, manufacturing firms, real estate development corporations, insurance companies, commu nications and transportation firms, and chainstores. Some work for scientific foundations and research organizations or run their own research or consulting business. Colleges and universities employ over one-third of all geographers. The Federal Government employs several thousand cartographers and several hundred geographers, primarily in the Departments of Defense and Interior. Geographers employed by State and local governments work mostly in the fields of urban and regional planning, economic development, and community development. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational requirement for beginning positions in geography in govern ment, industry, or secondary schools usually is a bachelor’s degree with a major in the field. However, a master’s degree increasing ly is required for many entry level positions. Training in a specialty such as cartography, photogrammetry, satellite data interpretation, statistical analysis including computer sci ence, or environmental analysis is helpful. A master’s degree is the minimum require ment for junior college positions and is im portant for advancement in business and government. A Ph.D. is required for most permanent teaching positions. The doctoral degree and a record of significant published research are required for a professorship and are necessary to gain tenure. The doctoral degree also is necessary for many senior lev el planning, research, and administrative po sitions in government, industry, research organizations, and consulting firms. In the Federal Government, geographers generally must have a college degree with a minimum of 24 semester hours in geography or related fields. Cartographers need a col lege degree including at least 18 hours in one or a combination of the following: Cartog raphy, photogrammetry, geodesy, or plane surveying. However, because competition for Federal jobs is keen, additional education or experience may be required. About 340 colleges and universities of fered programs in geography in 1980. Some departments of geography are combined with other disciplines such as urban planning or geology. To further illustrate the interdisci plinary nature of the field, courses in satellite data intepretation and photogrammetry often are offered not only in departments of geog raphy but in geology, forestry, or engineering departments as well. Undergraduate study provides a general introduction to the field of geography and often includes field study. Research methods and writing skills also are taught. Typical courses offered are physical geography, cultural geography, climatology and meteorology, economic geography, medical geography, political geography, ur ban geography, and quantitative methods in geography. Courses in cartography, historical geography, ecology, natural resource plan ning, social geography, geography of trans portation, geographic aspects of pollution, and geography of various regions also are offered. Geography majors should take ap propriate electives in other departments. For example, courses in economics, architecture, urban planning, and urban and rural sociolo gy are important for planners; courses in drawing, design, computer science, and mathematics are important for cartographers; and courses in physics, botany, and geology are important for physical geographers. In 1980, about 150 institutions offered master’s degree programs; 58 offered Ph.D. programs. Applicants for advanced degrees are required to have a bachelor’s degree in one of the social or physical sciences with a substantial background in geography. The program of graduate study includes field and laboratory work as well as course work in geography and a thesis. Graduate schools also require course work in advanced math ematics, statistics, and computer science be cause of the increasing importance of quantitative research methods. A language may be required, especially for those students who plan to specialize in foreign regional geography. In recognition of the increasing importance of applied research, academic programs are putting more emphasis on pre paring individuals to apply their knowledge to the solution of practical problems. Students should select graduate schools that offer appropriate areas of specialization and good research opportunities in nearby libraries, archives, laboratories, and field sta tions. Internships or part-time employment for graduate students often may be available in government agencies or research, scientif ic, or industrial firms. Persons who want to become geographers should enjoy reading, studying, and doing research because they must keep abreast of developments in the field. Creativity and in tellectual curiosity are important, because geographers work with abstract ideas and the ories in addition to doing practical studies. Patience and persistence help, because geog raphers spend long hours on independent study and problem solving. They also must be objective and systematic in their work. The ability to communicate ideas effectively, both orally and in writing, is important in this field, as it is in any research-oriented job. The ability to work well with others is often important. Cartographers, who handle drafting tools, need good vision, manual dex terity, and the ability to do detailed work requiring a high degree of precision. Job Outlook Employment of geographers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most open ings are likely to result from deaths, retire ments, and other separations from the labor force. Demand for geographers will be greatest in urban and environmental management and planning, including such areas as location analysis, land and water resources planning, and health planning. Those with strong back grounds in urban, economic, and physical geography and in quantitative research and computer-related techniques should be in par ticular demand. Significant demand also is expected for graduates with knowledge of satellite data interpretation, photogrammetry, and cartography. Private industry is expected to hire more geographers for market research and location analysis. The Federal Govern ment may need additional personnel to work in programs such as health planning, regional development, environmental quality, and in telligence. Employment of geographers in State and local government is expected to expand, particularly in health planning; con servation; environmental quality; highway planning; and city, community, and regional planning and development. Since college and university enrollments are expected to decline during the 1980’s, little or no employment growth is expected in academic jobs. The employment outlook for geographers with the Ph.D. is expected to be favorable through the 1980’s for research and adminis trative positions in government, industry, re search organizations, and environmental and other consulting firms. Ph.D.’s face competi tion for academic positions, although those graduating from high-ranking universities may have an advantage. Persons qualified to teach quantitative research techniques, com puter mapping, or natural resources manage ment will have the best opportunities. Those with the master’s degree will have very few opportunities for academic positions, al though some may continue to find jobs in junior and community colleges. Some gradu ates are likely to accept temporary assign ments with little or no hope of acquiring tenure. An increasing proportion of geographers are expected to enter nonacademic positions. Graduates with a master’s degree who have training in applied areas should have good opportunities for planning and marketing po sitions in government and industry; others may face competition. Graduates with a bachelor’s degree are ex pected to face strong competition for jobs as geographers. Those with quantitative skills and training in cartography, satellite data in terpretation, or planning should have the best prospects. Many of these degree holders may find employment in government and industry as management or sales trainees, research assistants, or administrative assistants. Oth ers may land jobs as research or teaching assistants in educational institutions while studying for advanced degrees. Some bache lor’s degree holders teach at the high school level, although in some States the master’s degree is becoming essential for high school teaching. 80/Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings According to an Association of American Geographers survey, starting salaries for Ph.D.’s with no teaching experience aver aged around $17,000 for the academic year 1980-81, while the average salary of geog raphers employed in colleges and universities was about $26,000. Salaries of geographers in planning positions in business and industry are comparable to those in the Federal Gov ernment. Geographers in educational institutions usually have an opportunity to earn income from other sources, such as consulting work, special research, and publication of books and articles. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level position. In general, geog raphers in the Federal Government with the bachelor’s degree and no experience started at about $12,300 or $15,200 a year in early 1981, depending on their college achieve ment. Those with a master’s degree started at $18,600 a year, and those with the Ph.D. started at $22,500. Geographers in the Feder al Government averaged around $26,900 a year in 1980; cartographers averaged around $25,300. Related Occupations Formal training in geography provides the background for a wide range of jobs requiring expertise in environmental resources, regional planning, and social science research. Exam ples of such jobs are aerial photo interpreter, climatologist, community development spe cialist, ecologist, intelligence analyst, map analyst, land economist, marketing analyst, regional planner, research analyst, site re searcher, and transportation planner. Jobs such as these generally require knowledge not only of geography, but of other disciplines as well. Particularly useful are combinations of geography with economics, political science, sociology, anthropology, geology, or urban and regional planning. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers and job openings for geographers, and on schools offering various programs in geography, con tact: Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. For additional information on careers in cartography, surveying, and geodesy, con tact: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 210 Little Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046. For more information on careers and a list of schools that offer courses in photogrammetry and satellite data interpretation, con tact: American Society of Photogrammetry, 105 North Digitized forVirginia Ave., Falls Church, Va. 22046. FRASER Geologists_________ (D .O .T. 024.061-010, -018, -022, -034, -038, -042, -046, -054; and .161-010) Nature of the Work Geologists study the structure, composi tion, and history of the earth’s crust. By examining surface rocks and drilling to re cover rock cores, they determine the types and distribution of rocks beneath the earth’s surface. They also identify rocks and miner als, conduct geological surveys, draw maps, take measurements, and record data. Geo logical research helps to determine the struc ture and history of the earth and may assist in predicting future geological events, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. An im portant application of geologists’ work is lo cating oil and other minerals. Geologists use many tools and instruments such as hammers, chisels, levels, transits (mounted telescopes used to measure angles), gravity meters, cameras, compasses, and seismographs (instruments that record the in tensity and duration of earthquakes and earth tremors). They may evaluate information from photographs taken from aircraft and sat ellites and use computers to record and ana lyze data. Geologists also examine chemical and physical properties of specimens in laborato ries under controlled temperature and pres sure. They may study fossil remains of animal and plant life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through rocks. Labora tory equipment used by geologists includes complex instruments, such as the X-ray dif fractometer, which determines the structure of minerals, and the petrographic micro scope, used for close study of rock forma tions. Besides locating resources and working in laboratories, geologists also advise construc tion companies and governmental agencies on the suitability of certain locations for con structing buildings, dams, or highways. Some geologists administer and manage re search and exploration programs. Others teach and work on research projects in col leges and universities. Geologists usually specialize in one or a combination of three general areas—earth materials, earth processes, and earth history. Economic geologists locate earth materials such as minerals and solid fuels. Petroleum geologists attempt to locate oil and natural gas deposits below the earth’s surface. Some petroleum geologists work on specific drill ing projects, while others develop petroleumrelated geologic information for entire regions. Marine geologists do research on the contours and deposits of the ocean bot tom, study heat flow on the ocean floor, and investigate ocean basins for petroleum and mineral potential. Engineering geologists de termine suitable sites for the construction of roads, airfields, tunnels, dams, and other structures. They decide, for example, wheth er underground rocks will bear the weight of a building or whether a proposed structure may be in an earthquake-prone area. Miner alogists analyze and classify minerals and precious stones according to composition and structure. Geochemists study the chemical composition and changes in minerals and rocks to understand the distribution and mi gration of elements in the earth’s crust. Geologists concerned with earth processes study landforms and their rock masses, sedi mentary deposits (matter deposited by water or wind), and eruptive forces, such as volca noes. Volcanologists study active and inac tive volcanoes, lava flows, and other eruptive activity to try to predict their occurrence and minimize potential damage. Geomorpholo gists examine landforms and those forces, such as erosion and glaciation, which cause them to change. Other geologists are primarily concerned with earth history. Paleontologists study plant and animal fossils found in geological formations to trace the evolution and devel opment of past life. Geochronologists deter mine the age of rocks and landforms by the radioactive decay of their elements. Stratigraphers study the distribution and arrange ment of sedim entary rock layers by examining their fossil and mineral content. Many geologists specialize in new fields that require knowledge of another science as well. Astrogeologists study geological condi tions on other planets. Geological oceanogra phers study the sedimentary and other rock on the ocean floor and continental shelf. (See statement on oceanographers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Because most geologists divide their time between fieldwork and office or laboratory work, conditions of work vary. While in the field, geologists often travel to remote sites by helicopter or jeep and cover large areas by foot, often working in teams. Geologists in mining sometimes work underground. Explo ration geologists often work overseas. When not working outdoors, geologists are in com fortable, well-lighted, well-ventilated offices and laboratories. Employment An estimated 34,000 people worked as geologists in 1980. Most geologists work in private industry, primarily for petroleum companies. Geologists also work for mining and quarrying companies. Some are em ployed by construction firms. Others are in dependent consultants to industry and government. The Federal Government employed over 2,400 geologists in 1980. About two-thirds worked for the Department of the Interior in the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of Reclamation. Oth er Federal agencies that employ geologists include the Departments of Defense, Agri culture, and Energy. State agencies also em Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/81 ploy geologists, some working on surveys in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey. Geologists also work for colleges and universi ties, nonprofit research institutions, and muse ums. Some are employed by American firms overseas for varying periods of time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in geology or a related field is adequate for entry into some geology jobs. An advanced degree is helpful for promo tion in most types of work and is essential for college teaching and many research positions. Nearly 450 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in geology. Undergrad uate students take geology courses, including physical, structural, and historical geology, mineralogy, petrology, and invertebrate pale ontology; and courses in mathematics, engi neering, and related sciences, such as physics and chemistry. More than 220 universities award ad vanced degrees in geology. Graduate stu dents take advanced courses in geology and specialize in one branch of the science. Geologists often work as part of a team. They should be curious, analytical, and able to communicate effectively. Those involved in fieldwork must have physical stamina. Geologists usually begin their careers in field exploration or as research assistants in laboratories. With experience, they can be promoted to project leader, program man ager, or other management and research posi tions. Job Outlook Employment opportunities in geology are expected to be good for those with degrees in geology. The employment of geologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addi tion to new jobs created by increased demand for geologists, many openings will arise each year as geologists leave the occupation, re tire, or die. Increased prices for petroleum and the ne cessity to locate new sources of energy as older sources become exhausted will continue to stimulate domestic exploration activities and require many additional geologists. Ad ditional geologists also will be needed to discover new resources and their potential uses, including the feasibility of using geo thermal energy (steam from the earth’s interi or) to generate electricity. Geologists are needed to devise techniques for exploring deeper within the earth’s crust and to develop more efficient methods of mining resources. They also are needed to develop adequate water supplies and waste disposal methods, and to do site evaluation for construction activities. Federal agencies may hire more geologists over the next decade. Through the 1980’s, jobs will depend heavily on the amount of Federal support provided for energy research and exploration for natural resources. Earnings Related Occupations According to surveys done by the College Placement Council in 1980, graduates with bachelor’s degrees in physical and earth sci ences received average starting offers of $20,600 a year. Graduates with master’s de grees in geology and related geological sci ences received average starting offers of $24,600 per year. Many geologists work in the petroleum and natural gas industry. This industry also employs many other workers who are in volved in the scientific and technical aspects of petroleum and natural gas exploration and extraction, including drafters, engineering technicians, geophysicists, laboratory assis tants (petroleum production), petroleum engi neers, and surveyors. In the Federal Government in early 1981, geologists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $12,300 or $15,200 a year, depend ing on their college records. Those having a master’s degree could start at $15,200 or $18,600 a year; those having the Ph.D. de gree, at $22,500 or $27,000. In 1980, the average salary for geologists employed in the Federal Government was about $30,000 a year. Sources of Additional Information General information on training and career opportunities for geologists is available from: American Geological Institute, 5202 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Va. 22041. For information on Federal Government careers, contact: U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20415. 82/Occupational Outlook Handbook Geophysicists_______ (D.O.T. 024.061-014, -026, -030, -050; and .167-010) Nature of the Work Geophysicists study the composition and physical aspects of the earth and its electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. Geophysi cists use highly complex instruments such as the magnetometer, which measures variations in the earth’s magnetic field, and the gravi meter, which measures minute variations in gravitational attraction. They often use satel lites to conduct tests from outer space and computers to collect and analyze data. Geophysicists usually specialize in 1 of 3 general phases of the science—solid earth, fluid earth, and upper atmosphere. Some may also study other planets. Solid earth geophysicists search for oil and mineral deposits, map the earth’s surface, and study earthquakes. Exploration geophysicists use seismic prospecting techniques to locate oil and mineral deposits. They send sound waves into the earth and record the echoes bouncing off the rock layers below to deter mine if conditions are favorable for the accu mulation of oil. Seismologists study and interpret seismic data to locate earthquakes and earthquake faults. They explore for oil and minerals, study the effects of underground nuclear ex plosions, and provide information for con structing bridges, dams, and buildings. For example, in selecting a site for a dam, seis mologists determine where bedrock (solid rock beneath the soil) is closest to the sur face. They use explosives or other methods to create sound waves that reflect off bed rock; the time it takes for the shock wave to return to the surface indicates the depth of bedrock. Seismologists also seek to under stand the causes of earthquakes so that one day they might be predicted. Geodesists study the size, shape, and gravitational field of the earth and other plan ets. Their principal task is to make the pre cise measurements necessary for accurate mapping of the earth’s surface. With the aid of satellites, geodesists determine the posi tions, elevations, and distances between points on the earth, and measure the intensity and direction of gravitational attraction. Hydrologists study the distribution, circu lation, and physical properties of under ground and surface waters, including rivers, glaciers, snow, and permafrost. They may study the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into soil, and its return to the ocean and atmosphere. Some are con cerned with water supplies, irrigation, flood control, and soil erosion. (See the statement on oceanographers, sometimes classified as geophysical scientists, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Geophysicists also study the atmosphere, investigate the earth’s magnetic and electric fields, and compare its outer atmosphere with those of other planets. Geomagneticians study the earth’s magnetic field. Paleomagneticians learn about past magnetic fields from rocks or lava flows. Planetologists study the composition and atmosphere of the moon, planets, and other bodies in the solar system. They gather data from geophysical instru ments placed on interplanetary space probes or from equipment used by astronauts during the Apollo missions. Meteorologists some times are classified as geophysical scientists. (See the statement on meteorologists else where in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Because many geophysicists divide their time between fieldwork and laboratory or office work, conditions of work vary. While doing fieldwork, they may travel for ex tended periods of time, sometimes overseas, and may conduct research in remote areas or aboard ships or aircraft. When not in the field, geophysicists work in modem, wellequipped, well-lighted laboratories and offices. Employment An estimated 12,000 people worked as geophysicists in 1980. Most geophysicists work in private industry, chiefly for petrole um and natural gas companies. Others are in mining companies, exploration and consult ing firms, and research institutes. A few are independent consultants and some do geo physical prospecting on a fee or contract basis. About 2,800 geophysicists, geodesists, and hydrologists worked for Federal Gov ernment agencies in 1980, mainly the U.S. Geological Survey, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the Department of Defense. Other geo physicists work for colleges and universities, State governments, and nonprofit research institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many geophysicists work for petroleum and natural gas companies. A bachelor’s degree in geophysics or a geophysical specialty is sufficient for most beginning jobs in geophysics. A bachelor’s degree in a related field of science or engi neering also is adequate preparation, if the person has courses in geophysics, physics, geology, mathematics, chemistry, and engineering. Geophysicists doing research or supervis ing exploration activities should have grad uate training in geophysics or a related science. Those planning to teach in colleges or do basic research should acquire a Ph.D. degree. About 75 colleges and universities award the bachelor’s degree in geophysics. Other programs offering training for beginning geo Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/83 physicists include geophysical technology, geophysical engineering, engineering geolo gy, petroleum geology, and geodesy. About 70 universities grant the master’s degree in geophysics; about 50 schools offer the Ph.D. degree. Candidates with a bache lor’s degree which includes courses in geolo gy, mathematics, physics, engineering, or a combination of these subjects can be ad mitted to these programs. Geophysicists often work as part of a team. They should be curious, analytical, and able to communicate effectively. Those involved in fieldwork must have physical stamina. Most new geophysicists begin their careers doing field mapping or exploration. Some assist senior geophysicists in research labora tories. With experience, geophysicists can advance to jobs such as project leader or program manager, or other management and research jobs. Related Occupations Job Outlook Meteorologists Employment opportunities are expected to be good for graduates with a degree in geo physics or a related field. Employment of geophysicists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as petroleum and mining companies seek to employ more sophisticated techniques to find less accessible fuel and mineral de posits. Also, growth is expected as research activities expand on ways to productively harness cosmic and solar radiation as well as use geothermal power (steam from the earth’s interior) to generate electricity. Federal agencies may hire more geophysi cists over the next decade. Through the 1980’s, jobs will depend heavily on govern ment support for energy research in both established and alternative sources. The Fed eral Government also may fund research to locate more natural resources and to prevent environmental damage through better land use. Besides job openings created by growth in demand for geophysicists, many will be needed to replace those who leave the occu pation, retire, or die. Geophysicists use basic scientific princi ples to investigate the nature and composition of the earth. Other scientists engaged in simi lar activities are chemists, geologists, meteo rologists, and oceanographers. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportuni ties and training for geophysicists is available from: American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Society of Exploration Geophysicists, P.O. Box 3098, Tulsa, Okla. 74101. For information on Federal Government careers, contact: U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. (D .O .T . 025.062-010) Nature of the Work Meteorology is the study of the atmo sphere, which is the air that surrounds the earth. Meteorologists try to understand the atmosphere’s physical characteristics, mo tions, and processes, and determine the way the atmosphere affects the rest of our envi ronment. The best known application of this knowledge is in understanding and forecast ing the weather. Meteorological research also is applied in many other areas, such as air pollution control, fire prevention, agriculture, air and sea transportation, and studying trends in the earth’s climate. Meteorologists who specialize in forecast ing the weather, known professionally as operational meteorologists, are the largest group of specialists. They study current weather information, such as air pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind velocity, in order to make short-range and long-range predictions. Their data come from weather satellites and observers in many parts of the world. Although some forecasters still pre pare and analyze weather maps, most data now are plotted and analyzed by computers. Some meteorologists are engaged in basic and applied research. For example, physical meteorologists study the chemical and elec trical properties of the atmosphere. They do research on the effect of the atmosphere on transmission of light, sound, and radio waves, as well as study factors affecting formation of clouds, rain, snow, and other weather phenomena. Other meteorologists, known as climatologists, study trends in cli mate and analyze past records on wind, rainfall, sunshine, and temperature to deter mine the general pattern of weather that makes up an area’s climate. These studies are used to plan heating and cooling sys tems, design buildings, and aid in effective land utilization. Some meteorologists teach or do re search—frequently combining both activi ties—in colleges and universities. In colleges without separate departments of meteorology, they may teach related courses, such as geog raphy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, or geology, as well as meteorology. Working Conditions Jobs in weather stations, which operate around the clock 7 days a week, often in volve night work and rotating shifts. Most stations are at airports or in or near cities; some are in isolated and remote areas. Me- Earnings According to surveys done by the College Placement Council in 1980, graduates with bachelor’s degrees in physical and earth sci ences received average starting offers of about $20,600 a year. Graduates with mas ter’s degrees in geology and related geologi cal sciences received average starting offers of about $24,600 a year. In the Federal Government in early 1981, geophysicists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $12,300 or $15,200 a year, depending on their college records. Geo physicists having a master’s degree could start at $15,200 or $18,600 a year; those having a Ph.D. degree, at $22,500 or $27,000. In 1980, the average salary for geo physicists employed by the Federal Govern ment was about $31,300 a year. Meteorologist uses automated equipment to observe weather. 84/Occupational Outlook Handbook teorologists in smaller weather stations gener ally work alone; in larger ones, they work as part of a team. Employment An estimated 4,000 persons worked as me teorologists in 1980. In addition to civilian meteorologists, thousands of members of the Armed Forces did forecasting and other me teorological work. The largest employer of civilian meteor ologists was the National Oceanic and Atmo spheric Administration (NO A A), where about 1,800 worked at stations in all parts of the United States and in a small number of foreign areas. The Department of Defense employed about 200 civilian meteorologists. A few worked for State and local govern ments and for nonprofit organizations. Commercial airlines employed meteorolo gists to forecast weather along flight routes and to brief pilots on atmospheric conditions. Others worked for private weather consulting firms, companies that design and manufac ture meteorological instruments, and firms in aerospace, engineering, utilities, radio and television, and other industries. Colleges and universities employed over 1,300 meteorologists in research and teach ing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in me teorology is the usual minimum requirement for beginning jobs in weather forecasting. However, a bachelor’s degree in a related science or engineering, along with some courses in meteorology, is acceptable for some jobs. For example, the Federal Gov ernment’s minimum requirement for begin ning jobs is a bachelor’s degree with at least 20 semester hours of study in meteorology and courses in physics and mathematics, in cluding calculus. However, employers prefer to hire those with an advanced degree, and an advanced degree is increasingly necessary for promotion. For research and college teaching and for many top level positions in other meteoro logical activities, an advanced degree, prefer ably in meteorology, is essential. However, people with graduate degrees in other sci ences also may qualify if they have advanced courses in meteorology, physics, mathemat ics, and chemistry. In 1980, about 35 colleges and universities offered a bachelor’s degree in meteorology or atmospheric science; about 40 schools of fered advanced degrees. Many other institu tions offered some courses in meteorology. Before selecting a degree program in meteo rology, students should investigate the par ticular emphasis of the program since many meteorology programs are combined with the study of a related scientific or engineering field. The Armed Forces give and support mete orological training, both undergraduate edu cation for enlisted personnel and advanced study for officers. Beginning meteorologists often start in jobs involving routine data collection, com putation, or analysis. Experienced meteorolo gists may advance in academic rank or to various supervisory or administrative jobs. A few very well qualified meteorologists with a background in science, engineering, and business administration may establish their own weather consulting services. For facts about job opportunities with the NOAA National Weather Service, contact: National Weather Service, Manpower Utilization Staff, Gramax Bldg., 8060 13th St., Silver Spring, Md. 20910. Oceanographers (D .O .T . 024.061-018, -030, and 041.061-022) Job Outlook Employment of meteorologists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The number of applicants applying for jobs in this very small occupation is likely to exceed the num ber of job openings generated by increased demand for meteorologists and from the need to replace those who change occupations, retire, or die. Persons with an advanced de gree in meteorology should have the best job prospects. Colleges and universities and the Federal Government, the major employers of meteor ologists, are not expected to increase employ ment of meteorologists significantly during the 1980’s. Employment of meteorologists in private industry may grow as companies rec ognize the value of having their own weather forecasting and meteorological services. Since most meteorologists work for the Federal Government and colleges and univer sities, changes in funding for Federal mete orological programs or for meteorological research in academic institutions would influ ence the job outlook. Earnings In early 1981, meteorologists in the Feder al Government with a bachelor’s degree and no experience received starting salaries of $12,300 or $15,200 a year, depending on their college grades. Those with a master’s degree could start at $15,200 or $18,600; with the Ph.D. degree, at $22,500 or $27,000. The average salary for meteorolo gists employed by the Federal Government was $31,300 in 1980. Meteorologists working in colleges and universities generally receive the same sala ries as other faculty members. (See statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Related Occupations Workers in other occupations concerned with the environment include forest ecolo gists, foresters, geologists, geophysicists, oceanographers, range managers, and soil conservationists. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities and schools that offer programs in meteorology is available from: American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 02108. Nature of the Work Oceans cover more than two-thirds of the earth’s surface and are a valuable source of food, fossil fuels, and minerals. They also influence the weather, serve as a “highway” for transportation, and offer many kinds of recreation. Oceanographers use the principles and techniques of natural science, mathemat ics, and engineering to study oceans—their movements, physical properties, and plant and animal life. Their research not only ex tends basic scientific knowledge, but also helps develop practical methods for forecast ing weather, developing fisheries, mining ocean resources, and improving national de fense. Most oceanographers test their ideas about the ocean by making observations and con ducting experiments at sea. They may study and collect data on ocean tides, currents, and other phenomena. They may study undersea mountain ranges and valleys, oceanic interac tions with the atmosphere, and layers of sedi ment on and beneath the ocean floor. Many oceanographers work primarily in laboratories on land where, for example, they measure, dissect, and photograph fish. They also study sea specimens and plankton (float ing microscopic plants and animals). Much of their work entails identifying, cataloging, and analyzing different kinds of sea life and minerals. At other laboratories, oceanogra phers plot maps or use computers to test theories about the ocean. For example, they may study and test the theory of continental drift, which states that the continents were once joined together, have drifted to new positions, and continue to drift, causing the sea floor to spread in places. To present the results of their studies, oceanographers pre pare charts, tabulations, and reports, and write papers for scientific journals. Oceanographers use surface ships, aircraft, satellites, and various types of underwater craft to explore and study the ocean. They use specialized instruments to measure and record the findings of their explorations and studies; special cameras equipped with strong lights to photograph marine life and the ocean floor; and sounding devices to mea sure, map, and locate ocean materials. Re search facilities equipped with large water tanks enable some oceanographers to simu late and study oceanic phenomena such as waves and tides. Most oceanographers specialize in one branch of the science. Biological oceanogra- Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/85 phers study plant and animal life in the ocean. The biological oceanographer’s re search has practical applications in improving and controlling commercial and sport fishing and in determining the effects of pollution on marine life. Physical oceanographers study the physical properties of the ocean such as waves, tides, and currents. Their research on the relationships between the sea and the atmosphere may lead to more accurate pre diction of the weather. Geological oceanog raphers study the ocean’s underwater mountain ranges, rocks, and sediments; some use the knowledge obtained to find valuable minerals, oil, and gas beneath the ocean floor. Chemical oceanographers investigate the chemical composition of ocean water and sediments as well as chemical reactions in the sea. Oceanographic engineers design and build instruments for oceanographic research and operations. They also lay cables and supervise underwater construction. Many other scientists also work on prob lems related to oceans, but are counted in other scientific fields, such as biology, chem istry, or geology. Scientists who specialize in the study of fresh water aquatic life are called limnologists. Working Conditions When conducting research in land-based laboratories, oceanographers work in clean and comfortable surroundings. Research on ocean expeditions requires oceanographers to be away from home for weeks or months at a time. Working and living areas on small re search ships are sometimes cramped. Some oceanographers use scuba gear, submersible craft, and other equipment to work under water. Employment An estimated 2,800 persons worked as oceanographers in 1980. Over one-half worked in colleges and universities, and about one-fourth for the Federal Govern ment. Federal agencies employing substantial numbers of oceanographers include the Navy and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Some oceanogra phers work in private industry; a few work for fishery laboratories of State and local governments. Although some oceanographers are em ployed in almost every State, most work in States that border on the ocean. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum requirement for beginning jobs in oceanography is a bachelor’s degree with a major in oceanography, biology, earth or physical sciences, mathematics, or engi neering. However, most jobs, particularly in research and teaching, require graduate train ing in oceanography or a related science. For many high level positions, a doctoral degree in oceanography or a related science is pre ferred, and sometimes required. About 65 colleges and universities offered undergraduate degrees in oceanography or Oceanographer works on test equipment. marine sciences in 1980. However, under graduate training in a basic science and a strong interest in oceanography may be ade quate preparation for some beginning jobs and is a good background for graduate train ing in oceanography. College courses needed to prepare for grad uate study in oceanography include mathemat ics, physics, chemistry, geophysics, geology, meteorology, and biology. In general, college students who are not majoring in oceanogra phy should specialize in the particular science that is closest to their area of oceanographic interest. For example, students interested in chemical oceanography should obtain a degree in chemistry. In 1980, about 55 colleges offered ad vanced degrees in oceanography and marine sciences. In addition to advanced courses in oceanography and basic sciences, graduate programs are increasingly emphasizing train ing in specialized oceanographic research methods. Graduate students in oceanography usually do research part time aboard ship to become familiar with the sea and with techniques used to obtain oceanographic information. Universities having oceanographic research facilities offer summer courses for both grad uate and undergraduate students. Beginning oceanographers with the bache lor’s degree usually start as research or labo ratory assistants, or in jobs involving routine data collection, computation, or analysis. Depending on their background and needs, most beginning oceanographers receive onthe-job training. Experienced oceanographers often direct surveys and research programs or advance to administrative or supervisory jobs in research laboratories. Job Outlook The number of persons seeking entry to this small field is likely to exceed the number of job openings created by increased demand for oceanographers and the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations, re tire, or die. In general, those with a Ph.D. degree should have the best opportunities. Persons holding a Ph.D. degree in oceanog raphy may have an advantage over those holding a Ph.D. degree in a related field because of their knowledge of specialized, increasingly sophisticated oceanographic re search methods. Those with less education may find limited opportunities as research assistants or technicians. Employment of oceanographers is expect ed to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s due to the increasing need for ocean research to recover offshore oil and other resources and to con trol pollution. Since the Federal Government finances much oceanographic research, Fed eral funding in this field could greatly influ ence the job outlook. Earnings In early 1981, oceanographers in the Fed eral Government with a bachelor’s degree received starting salaries of $12,300 or $15,200 a year, depending on their college grades. Those with a master’s degree could start at $18,600 or $22,500; and those with a Ph.D. degree at $22,500 or $27,000. The average salary for experienced oceanogra phers in the Federal Government in 1980 was about $29,800 a year. Oceanographers in educational institutions generally receive the same salaries as other faculty members. (See statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Hand book.) In addition to regular salaries, many 86/Occupational Outlook Handbook earn extra income from consulting, lecturing, and writing. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers apply mathematical and scientific laws and princi ples to specific problems and situations in clude astronomers, chemists, geographers, geologists, geophysicists, life scientists, mathematicians, meteorologists, and physi cists. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in oceanog raphy, contact: Dr. C. Schelske, Secretary, American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, I.S.T. Bldg., Great Lakes Research Division, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 48109. Federal Government career information is available from any local office of the Federal Job Information Center or from: U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. The booklet, Training and Careers in Ma rine Science, is available for $1 from: International Oceanographic Foundation, 3979 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Fla. 33149. Some information on oceanographic spe cialties is available from professional soci eties listed elsewhere in the Handbook. (See statements on geologists, geophysicists, life scientists, meteorologists, and chemists.) Physicists__________ narrow, intense beam) are utilized in surgery; microwave devices are used for ovens; and measurement techniques and instruments can detect and measure the kind and number of cells in blood or the amount of mercury or lead in foods. Some engineering-oriented physicists do applied research and help develop new prod ucts. For instance, their knowledge of solidstate physics led to the development of tran sistors and then to the integrated circuits used in calculators and computers. Many physicists teach and do research in colleges and universities. A small number work in inspection, testing, quality control, and other production-related jobs in industry. Some do consulting work. Most physicists specialize in one or more branches of the science—elementary-particle physics; nuclear physics; atomic, electron, or molecular physics; physics of condensed mat ter; optics; acoustics; plasma physics; and the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a subdi vision of one of these branches. For exam ple, solid-state physics subdivisions include ceramics, crystallography, and semiconduc tors. However, since all physics involves the same fundamental principles, several special ties may overlap. Growing numbers of physicists are special izing in fields such as astrophysics, biophys ics, chemical physics, and geophysics that combine physics and a related science. Fur thermore, the practical applications of physi cists’ work increasingly have merged with engineering. (D.O.T. 023.061-014, .067-010; 041.061-034; 079.021010, -014; and 090.227-010) Working Conditions Nature of the Work Physicists generally work regular hours in laboratories, classrooms, and offices. Most physicists do not encounter unusual hazards in their work. The flight of astronauts through space, the probing of ocean depths, and even the safety of the family car depend on research by physicists. Through systematic observation and experimentation, physicists describe in mathematical terms the structure of the uni verse and the interaction of matter and ener gy. Physicists develop theories that describe the fundamental forces and laws of nature. Determining the basic laws governing phe nomena such as gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear interactions leads to discoveries and innovations. For instance, the develop ment of irradiation therapy equipment which destroys harmful growths in humans without damaging other tissues resulted from what physicists know about nuclear radiation. Physicists have contributed to scientific pro gress in recent years in areas such as nuclear energy, electronics, communications, aero space, and medical instrumentation. Most physicists work in research and de velopment. Some do basic research to in crease scientific knowledge. For example, they investigate the structure of the atom or the nature of gravity. The equipment that physicists design for their research can often be applied to other areas. For example, lasers (devices that amplify light and emit it in a Employment Over 37,000 people worked as physicists in 1980. Private industry employed about one-half of all physicists, primarily in com panies manufacturing electrical equipment, aircraft and missiles, and scientific instru ments. Many others worked in hospitals, commercial laboratories, and independent re search organizations. Almost one-half of all physicists taught or did research in colleges and universities; some did both. Almost 5,000 physicists were employed by the Federal Government in 1980, mostly in the Departments of Defense and Commerce. Although physicists are employed in all parts of the country, their employment is greatest in areas that have heavy industrial concentrations and large college and universi ty enrollments. Nearly one-fourth of all physicists work in four metropolitan areas— Washington, D.C.; Boston, Mass.; New York, N.Y.; and Los Angeles-Long Beach, Calif., and more than one-third are concen trated in three States—California, New York, and Massachusetts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate training in physics or a closely related field is almost essential for most entry level jobs in physics and for advancement. The doctorate usually is required for full faculty status at colleges and universities and for industrial or government jobs administer ing research and development programs. Those having master’s degrees may qualify for some research jobs in private industry and in the Federal Government. In colleges and universities, some teach and assist in research while studying for their Ph.D. Most physicists are engaged in research and development. Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/87 Those having bachelor’s degrees may qualify for a few applied research and devel opment jobs in private industry and in the Federal Government. Some are employed as research assistants in colleges and universi ties while studying for advanced degrees. Many with undergraduate physics degrees work in engineering and other scientific fields. (See statements on engineers, geo physicists, programmers, and systems ana lysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Over 750 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in physics. The undergrad uate program provides a broad background in the science and serves as a base for later specialization either in graduate school or on the job. Some typical physics courses are mechanics, electromagnetism, electronics, optics, thermodynamics, and atomic and mo lecular physics. Students also take courses in chemistry and many courses in mathematics. About 270 colleges and universities offer advanced degrees in physics. In graduate school, the student, with faculty guidance, usually works in a specific subfield of phys ics. Graduate students, especially candidates for Ph.D. degrees, spend a large portion of their time conducting research. Students planning a career in physics should have an inquisitive mind, mathemat ical ability, and imagination. They should be able to work on their own, since physicists, particularly in basic research, often receive only limited supervision. Physicists often begin their careers doing routine laboratory tasks. After some experi ence, they are assigned more complex tasks and may advance to work as project leaders or research directors. Some work in top man agement jobs. Physicists who develop new products or processes sometimes form their own companies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas. Job Outlook Employment opportunities in physics are expected to be good through the 1980’s for persons with graduate degrees in physics. Although employment of physicists is pro jected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the period, the num ber of graduate degrees awarded annually in physics has been declining since 1970, and may remain at about the current level through 1990. Most job openings will arise as physi cists transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Many physicists work in research and de velopment (R&D). The anticipated increase in R&D expenditures through the 1980’s should result in increased requirements for physicists. If actual R&D expenditure levels and patterns differ significantly from those assumed, however, the outlook would be al tered. Some physicists with advanced degrees will be needed to teach in colleges and uni versities, but opportunities will be better in private industry. Since little employment growth is expected in colleges and universi ties, most openings in this area will result from the need to replace physicists who leave the occupation. Persons with only a bachelor’s degree in physics are expected to face competition for physicist jobs through the 1980’s. However, many with bachelor’s degrees in physics find jobs as engineers, computer scientists, or technicians. Others with teaching certificates become high school physics teachers. How ever, they are usually regarded as teachers rather than as physicists. (See statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings According to an American Institute of Physics Survey of 1980 degree recipients, starting salaries for physicists in private in dustry averaged about $21,500 for those with a master’s degree and $27,300 for those with a Ph.D. Depending on their college records, physi cists with a bachelor’s degree could start in the Federal Government in early 1981 at either $12,266 or $15,193 a year. Beginning physicists having a master’s degree could start at $15,193 or $18,585, and those having the Ph.D. degree could begin at $22,486 or $26,951. Average earnings for all physicists in the Federal Government in 1980 were $34,700 a year. Starting salaries on college and university faculties for physicists with the Ph.D. aver aged $16,800 in 1980, according to the American Institute of Physics. (See statement on college and university teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many faculty physicists supplement their regular incomes by working as consultants and taking on special research projects. Related Occupations Physics is closely related to astronomy and other scientific occupations such as chemists, geologists, and geophysicists. Engineers and engineering and science technicians also use a knowledge of the principles of physics in their work. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportuni ties in physics is available from: American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Life Scientists Life scientists study living organisms and their life processes such as growth, reproduc tion, and behavior. They apply knowledge gained from research to specific goals such as the development of drugs, special varieties of plants, and ways of maintaining a cleaner environment. They are concerned with the origin, preservation, and development of life, from the largest animal to the smallest living cell. Biological scientists study the basic life processes of plants and animals, and agricul tural scientists apply their knowledge of biol ogy to agricultural problems. Biochemists study the chemistry of life. Food technolo gists use the principles of biology and chem istry to develop better methods of processing, packaging, and preserving food. Foresters, range managers, and soil conservationists use their knowledge of life science to manage and conserve the natural resources of soil, forests, and rangelands. Detailed information about training requirements and job outlook in these occupations appears in the six state ments that follow. Agricultural and Biological Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061, except -026, -034, -046, and -054 through -062; 041.061 except -034; 041.261-010; and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Agricultural and biological scientists study all aspects of living organisms and the rela tionship of animals and plants to their envi ronment. Although many specialize in some area such as ornithology (the study of birds) or microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms), all have in common the study of life. About one-third of all agricultural and bio logical scientists are primarily involved in research and development. Many conduct ba sic research to increase knowledge of living organisms. Others in applied research use this knowledge in activities such as develop ing new medicines, increasing crop yields, and improving the environment. Those work ing in laboratories must be familiar with re search techniques and the use of laboratory equipment and computers. Not all research, however, is performed in laboratories. For example, a botanist may do research in the volcanic valleys of Alaska to see what plants grow there. About one-quarter of all agricultural and biological scientists work in management or administration, for example planning and ad ministering programs for testing foods and drugs and directing activities at zoos or bo 88 tanical gardens. About one-fifth teach in col leges or universities. Some work as consul tants to business firms or to government while others test and inspect foods, drugs, and other products or write for technical publications. (See statement on technical writers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some work in technical sales and service jobs for companies manufac turing chemicals or other technical products. (See statements on manufacturers’ sales repre sentatives and wholesale trade sales workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many agricultural and biological scientists come under the broad category of biologist (D.O.T. 041.061-030). Most are further classified by the type of organism they study or by the specific activity they perform. Biological Scientists. Anatomists (D.O.T. 041.061-010) study and examine the struc ture of organisms, from cell structure to the formation of tissues and organs. Many spe cialize in human anatomy. Research methods may entail dissections or the use of electron microscopes. Botanists (D.O.T. 041.061-038) deal pri marily with plants and their environment. Some study all aspects of plant life, while others specialize in areas such as identifica tion and classification of plants, the structure of plants and plant cells, and the causes and cures of plant diseases. Embryologists study the development of an animal from a fertilized egg through the hatching process or birth, and the causes of healthy and abnormal development. Microbiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-058) in vestigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, vi ruses, and molds. Medical microbiologists study the relationship between bacteria and disease or the effect of antibiotics on bacte ria. Other microbiologists specialize in soil bacteriology (effect of microorganisms on soil fertility), virology (viruses), or immunol ogy (mechanisms that fight infections). Pharmacologists (D.O.T. 041.061-074) and toxicologists conduct tests on animals such as rats, guinea pigs, and monkeys to determine the effects of drugs, gases, poi sons, dusts, and other substances on the functioning of tissues and organs. Pharma cologists may develop new or improved drugs and medicines. Physiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-078) study life functions of plants and animals under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiolo gists may specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, respiration, or move ment, or in the physiology of a certain body area or system. Zoologists (D.O.T. 041.061-090) study various aspects of animals—their origin, be havior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live animals in controlled or natural surroundings while others dissect dead animals to study the structure of their parts. Zoologists are usually identified by the animal group studied-—ornithologists (birds), entomologists (insects), mammalogists (mammals), herpetologists (reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish). Laboratory animals are used to study the effects of test compounds. Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/89 Agricultural Scientists. Agricultural scien tists apply scientific principles to problems related to food, fiber, and horticulture. Agronomists (D.O.T. 040.061-010) are con cerned with the mass development of plants. They improve the quality and yield of crops, such as com, wheat, and cotton, by develop ing new growth methods or by controlling diseases, pests, and weeds. They also ana lyze soils to determine ways to increase acre age yields and decrease soil erosion. Animal scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-014) do research on the breeding, feeding, and diseases of domestic farm animals. Horticulturists (D .O .T. 040.061-038) work with orchard and garden plants such as fruit and nut trees, vegetables, and flowers. They seek to improve plant culture methods for the beautification of communities, homes, parks, and other areas as well as for increas ing crop quality and yields. Veterinarians (D.O.T. 073-061) study dis eases and abnormal functioning in animals. (See statement on veterinarians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some agricultural and biological scientists apply their knowledge across a number of areas and may be classified by the functions performed. Ecologists, for example, study the relationship between organisms and their environments and the effects of influences such as pollutants, rainfall, temperature, and altitude on organisms. For example, ecolo gists examine plankton (microscopic water plants and animals) to determine the effects of pollution and measure the radioactive con tent of fish. Biochemists and biological oceanogra phers , who may also be classified as biologi cal scientists, are included in separate statements elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Agricultural and biological scientists gen erally work regular hours in offices, laborato ries, or classrooms and usually are not exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Some biological scientists such as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists may take field trips which involve strenuous physical activity and primitive living conditions. Employment An estimated 125,000 persons worked as agricultural and biological scientists in 1980. About 35,000 were agricultural scientists, and 90,000 were biological scientists. Colleges and universities employ over half of all agricultural and biological scientists, in both teaching and research. Many researchers in agronomy, horticulture, animal husbandry, entomology, and related areas work at State agricultural colleges and agricultural experi ment stations. About 12,500 agricultural and biological scientists worked for the Federal Government in 1980. Almost half worked for the Depart ment of Agriculture, with large numbers also in the Department of the Interior and in the National Institutes of Health. State and local governments combined employed about 22, 000. Approximately 17,000 worked in private industry, mostly in the pharmaceutical, in dustrial chemical, and agricultural services industries in 1980. About 3,700 worked for nonprofit research organizations and founda tions; a few were self-employed. Employment of agricultural and biological scientists is concentrated in communities with large universities and in certain metropolitan areas—for example, nearly 6 percent work in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Ph.D. degree generally is required for college teaching, for independent research, and for advancement to administrative re search positions and other management jobs in agricultural and biological science. A mas ter’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research. The bachelor’s degree is adequate preparation for some beginning jobs, but promotions often are limited for those who hold no higher degree. New graduates with a bachelor’s degree can start their careers in testing and inspecting jobs, or become technical sales and service represen tatives. They also may become advanced technicians, particularly in medical research or, with courses in education, high school biology teachers. (See statement on secon dary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most colleges and universities offer agri cultural and biological science curriculums. However, different schools may emphasize only certain areas. For example, liberal arts colleges may emphasize the biological sci ences, while many State universities offer programs in agricultural science as well. Students seeking careers in agricultural and biological science should obtain a broad un dergraduate background in biology with c o u rse s in c h e m istry , p h y sic s, and mathematics. Many colleges and universities confer ad vanced degrees in agricultural and biological science. Requirements for advanced degrees usually include fieldwork and laboratory re search as well as classroom studies and prep aration of a thesis. Prospective agricultural and biological sci entists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and must be able to communicate their findings clearly and con cisely, both orally and in writing. Agricultur al and biological scientists conducting field research in remote areas must have physical stamina. Agricultural and biological scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in re search or teaching jobs. With experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for agricultural and biological scientists are expected to be good for those with advanced degrees through the 1980’s, but those with lesser degrees may experience competition for jobs. However, an agricultural or biological science degree also is useful for entry to related occupations such as agricultural and biological technician, medical laboratory technologist, and health care occu pations. Employment in agricultural and bio logical science is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations over this period. In addition to jobs arising from growth in demand for agricultural and biological sci entists, job openings will occur as some trans fer to other occupations, retire, or die. Employment in agricultural and biological science is expected to increase as a result of efforts to preserve the environment and con tinue medical research. Employment oppor tunities in industry and government should grow as environmental research and develop ment increase. Concern over toxic substances will create many new openings for toxicol ogists and other biological scientists who are skilled in testing for cancer-causing sub stances. Agricultural and biological scientists rarely lose their jobs during recessions, since most are employed in teaching, on long-term re search projects, or in agriculture, activities which are not usually affected much by eco nomic fluctuations. Earnings According to the College Placement Council, beginning salary offers in private industry in 1981 averaged $15,400 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in agricultural science and $15,200 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in biological science. In the Federal Government in early 1981, agricultural and biological scientists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $12,266 or $15,193 a year, depending on their college records. Those having the master’s degree could start at $15,193 or $18,585, depending on their academic records or work exper ience, and those having the Ph.D. degree could begin at $22,486 or $26,951 a year. Agricultural and biological scientists in the Federal Government averaged $28,100 a year. Salaries paid to college and university agri cultural and biological science teachers are comparable to those paid to other faculty members. (See statement on college and uni versity teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Related Occupations Many occupations are related in some way to agricultural and biological science since they deal with living organisms. These in clude the conservation occupations of forest ers, forestry technicians, range manangers, and soil conservationists, as well as biochem ists, soil scientists, oceanographers, and life science technicians. The wide array of health occupations are all related to agricultural and biological science, as are occupations dealing with raising plants and animals such as farm 90/Occupational Outlook Handbook ers and farm workers, florists, and nursery workers. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in agricul tural and biological science is available from: American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1401 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, Va. 22209. American Physiological Society, Education Offi cer, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. Dr. Carol C. Baskin, Secretary, Botanical Society of America, School of Biological Sciences, Uni versity of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. 40506. For information on careers in horticultural science, send a stamped self-addressed enve lope to: American Society for Horticultural Science, 701 North Saint Asaph St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local offices of State employ ment services and the U.S. Office of Person nel Management or from Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. teaching in colleges and universities. A few work in industrial production and testing ac tivities. Working Conditions Biochemists usually work regular hours in laboratories, offices, and classrooms. Some biochemists travel occasionally to attend meetings and conferences. Biochemists’ labo ratory work usually is not dangerous or un healthy, if proper procedures are observed. Employment An estimated 16,000 biochemists were employed in 1980. About one-half worked for colleges and universities and about onefourth for private industry. Some worked for nonprofit research institutes and foundations; others, for Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies. Most government biochemists do health and agricultural research for Federal agencies. A few self-employed biochemists are consultants to industry and government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational requirement for many beginning jobs as a biochemist, espe cially in research or teaching, is an advanced degree. A Ph.D. degree is a virtual necessity for persons who hope to contribute significant ly to biochemical research and for advance ment to many management and administrative jobs. A bachelor’s degree with a major in biochemistry or chemistry, or with a major in biology and a minor in chemistry, may qualify some persons for entry jobs as research assist ants or technicians. Biochemists (D.O.T. 041.061-026 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Biochemists study the chemical composi tion and behavior of living things. Since life is based on complex chemical combinations and reactions, the work of biochemists is vital for an understanding of reproduction, growth, and heredity. Biochemists also may study the effects of food, hormones, or drugs on various organisms. The methods and techniques of biochemis try are applied in areas such as medicine and agriculture. For instance, biochemists may investigate causes and cures for diseases, or conduct research on transferring characteris tics of one kind of plant to another. More than 3 out of 4 biochemists work in basic and applied research activities. The dis tinction between basic and applied research is often one of degree, and biochemists may do both types. Most, however, are in basic re search. The few doing strictly applied re search use the results of basic research to solve practical problems. For example, they use knowledge of how an organism forms a hormone to synthesize and produce hormones on a mass scale. Laboratory research involves weighing, filtering, distilling, drying, and culturing (growing microorganisms). Some experi ments also require the designing and con structing of laboratory apparatus or the use of radioactive tracers. Biochemists use a variety of instruments, including electron micro scopes and centrifuges, and they may devise new instruments and techniques as needed. They usually report the results of their re search in scientific journals or before scienti fic groups. Some biochemists combine research with Biochemists spend much of their time in the laboratory. Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/91 About 100 schools award the bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, and nearly all col leges and universities offer a major in biol ogy or chemistry. Persons planning careers as biochemists should take undergraduate courses in chemistry, biology, biochemistry, mathematics, and physics. About 150 colleges and universities offer graduate degrees in biochemistry. Graduate students generally are required to have a bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, biology, or chemistry. Many graduate programs em phasize one specialty in biochemistry because of the facilities or the research being done at that school—so students should select their schools carefully. Graduate training requires actual research in addition to advanced sci ence courses. For the doctoral degree, the student does intensive research and a thesis in one field of biochemistry. Persons planning careers as biochemists should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Biochemists should have ana lytical ability and curiosity, as well as the patience and perseverance needed to com plete the hundreds of experiments necessary to solve a single problem. They should also express themselves clearly when writing and speaking to communicate the findings of their research effectively. Graduates with advanced degrees may be gin their careers as teachers or researchers in colleges or universities. In private industry, most begin in research jobs and with exper ience may advance to positions in which they plan and supervise research. New graduates with a bachelor’s degree usually start work as research assistants or technicians. These jobs in private industry often involve testing and analysis. In the drug industry, for example, research assist ants analyze the ingredients of a product to verify and maintain its purity or quality. Job Outlook Job opportunities for biochemists with ad vanced degrees should be favorable through the 1980’s. The employment of biochemists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations during this peri od. In addition to jobs arising from increased demand for biochemists, some job openings will result each year as biochemists retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The recent advances in recombinant DNA (gene splicing) and other areas of biochemi cal research may have much commercial po tential. Therefore there are likely to be many openings in private industry for those with the knowledge to conduct research in areas of biochemisty with commercial applications. Additional growth in this field should result from the effort to find cures for cancer, heart disease, and other diseases, and from public concern with environmental protection. Col leges and universities may need additional teachers if biochemistry enrollments continue to increase. Earnings According to a 1980 survey by the Ameri can Chemical Society, median salaries for experienced biochemists were about $20,500 for those with a bachelor’s degree; $22,500 for those with a master’s degree; and $30,000 for those with a Ph.D. Salaries of biochemists employed in col leges and universities are comparable to those for other faculty members. (See statement on college and university teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Related Occupations Biochemistry is closely related to biology and chemistry. Medical laboratory workers often use biochemical procedures in their work, and physicians, pharmacists, and other health practitioners need to know a great deal about biochemistry. Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers in bio chemistry, contact: American Society of Biological Chemists, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. Food Technologists (D.O.T. 041.081-010 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work In the past, consumers processed most food in the home, but today industry proc esses almost all foods.. A key worker in the development and processing of the large vari ety of foods available-today is the food tech nologist . Food technologists study the chemical, physical, and biological nature of food to learn how to safely process, preserve, pack age, distribute, and store it and to insure an adequate, nutritious, wholesome, and eco nomical supply f. Almost one-third of all food technologists work in research and develop ment. Others work in quality assurance labo ratories or in production or processing areas of food plants. Some teach or do basic re search in colleges and universities, and others work in sales or management positions. Food technologists in basic research study the structure and composition of food and the changes it undergoes in storage and process ing. For example, they may develop new sources of proteins, study the effects of pro cessing on micro-organisms, or search for factors that affect the flavor, texture, or ap pearance of foods. Food technologists who work in applied research and development create new foods and develop new processing methods. They also work to improve existing foods by making them more nutritious and enhancing their flavor, color, and texture. Food technologists seek ways to retain the characteristics and nutritive value of foods during processing and storage. They also conduct chemical and microbiological tests to see that products meet industry and govern ment standards, and determine their nutritive content for federally required labelingq For example, they test processed foods for sugar, starch, protein, fat, vitamin, and mineral content. In quality control laboratories, food tech nologists check raw ingredients for freshness, maturity, and suitability for processing. Peri odically, they inspect processing line oper ations to insure conformance with government and industry standards. They make sure that, after processing, various enzymes are inactive and bacterial levels are low enough so that the food will not spoil or present a safety hazard. 92/Occupational Outlook Handbook Other food technologists develop and im prove packaging and storage methods. Food technologists in processing plants prepare production specifications, schedule processing operations, maintain proper tem perature and humidity in storage areas, and supervise sanitation operations, including the proper disposal of wastes. To increase effi ciency, they advise management on the pur chase of equipment and recommend new suppliers. Some food technologists apply their knowledge in areas such as market research, advertising, and technical sales. Others teach in colleges and universities. Working Conditions Most food technologists work regular hours in offices, laboratories, or classrooms. Those in production or quality control posi tions work in or near food processing areas, sometimes under noisy, hot, or cold condi tions. Employment An estimated 15,000 persons worked as food technologists in 1980. Food technolo gists are employed in every State, but the products they work with vary by locality. For example, many technologists in Maine and Idaho work with potatoes; in the Midwest, with cereal and meat products; and in Florida and California, with citrus fruits and vegeta bles. Most food technologists work in the food processing industry. Some work for Federal agencies such as the Food and Drug Admin istration and the Departments of Agriculture and Defense; others work for State regulatory agencies. A few work for private consulting firms and international organizations such as the United Nations. Some teach or do re search in colleges and universities. (See statement on college and university teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in food technology is the usual minimum requirement for beginning jobs in food technology. Some food technologists have degrees in a variety of other areas such as chemistry, biology, engineering, agriculture, or business. Almost one-half have advanced degrees, which are necessary for college teaching and many management and research positions. About 55 colleges and universities offered programs leading to the bachelor’s degree in food technology in 1980. Undergraduate stu dents majoring in food technology usually take courses in physics, biochemistry, math ematics, microbiology, the social sciences and humanities, and business administration, as well as food technology courses such as food preservation, processing, sanitation, and marketing. Most colleges and universities with under graduate food technology programs also offer advanced degrees. Graduate students usually specialize in a particular area of food tech nology. Requirements for the master’s or doctor’s degree usually include extensive re search and a thesis, which is a report of original research findings. Food technologists who specialize in administrative, managerial, or regulatory areas sometimes take advanced degrees in business administration or law rather than food technology. People planning careers as food technolo gists should have analytical minds, be able to express their ideas clearly, and like details and technical work. Food technologists with a bachelor’s de gree might start work as quality assurance chemists or as assistant production managers. After gaining experience, they can advance to more responsible management jobs. A food technologist might also begin as a junior food chemist in a research and development laboratory of a food company, and be pro moted to section head or other research man agement positions. People who have master’s degrees may begin as food chemists in a research and development laboratory. Those who have the Ph.D. degree usually begin their careers do ing basic research or teaching. 11 to 15 years of experience earned about $36,500. The median salary for all food technologists was about $29,500 in 1980. The average salary for experienced food technologists in the Federal Government was about $30,500 a year in 1980. Job Outlook Nature of the Work Employment of food technologists is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, pri marily because of anticipated slow growth in the food processing industry, where most are employed. Most openings will result from the need to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other fields, rather than from growth in demand for these workers. Employment of food technologists is ex pected to grow somewhat as the food indus try responds to the challenge of providing wholesome and economical foods that can meet changing consumer preferences and food standards. In addition, both private households and food service institutions that supply customers such as airlines and res taurants will demand a greater quality of con venience foods. In recent years, expenditures for research and development in the food industry have increased moderately and probably will con tinue to rise, creating more jobs for technolo gists. Through research, new foods are being produced from modifications of wheat, com, rice, and soybeans. For example, food scien tists are working to improve “ meat” products made from vegetable proteins. There will be an increased need for food scientists in qual ity control and production because of the complexity of products and processes and the application of higher processing standards. Forests are one of our most important nat ural resources. We use their products— trees—for building materials, paper, fuel, and a variety of other uses. The forests help clean the air we breathe, protect our water supplies and wildlife, and provide us with recreational opportunities. Foresters manage, develop, and protect them for use now and in the future. Foresters plan and supervise the growing, protection, and harvesting of trees. They make maps of forest areas, estimate the amount of standing timber and future growth, and manage timber sales. All of these things involve working with other people. Manag ing timber sales, for example, involves deal ing with landowners and supervising the work of loggers. Foresters also protect the trees from fire, harmful insects, and disease. Some foresters perform other duties rang ing from wildlife protection and watershed management to the development and supervi sion of camps, parks, and grazing lands. Other foresters do research, provide informa tion to forest owners and to the general pub lic (called extension work), and teach at colleges and universities. Foresters often specialize in one area of work, such as timber management, outdoor recreation, or forest economics. Earnings According to a survey of the Institute of Food Technologists, food technologists with a bachelor’s or master’s degree and 11 to 15 years of experience earned about $32,000 in 1980, and those with the Ph.D. degree and Related Occupations The work of food technologists is closely related to that of chemists and, to a lesser extent, to biologists. Other occupations in which the work is related to food technology are agricultural and environmental scientists, engineers, and engineering and science technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in food technol ogy, contact: Institute of Food Technologists, Suite 2120, 221 North LaSalle St., Chicago, 111. 60601. Foresters_____ (D.O.T. 040.061-034, -050, and -062) Working Conditions Working conditions for foresters vary con siderably, according to the type of work they perform. The image of foresters as solitary horseback riders, singlehandedly protecting large areas of land far from civilization no longer holds true. Modem foresters spend a great deal of time working with people. They Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/93 must deal constantly with landowners, log gers, forestry aides, and a wide variety of other people. The work can still be physically demand ing, though. Beginning foresters often spend considerable time outdoors in all kinds of weather, sometimes in remote areas. To get to these areas, they use airplanes, helicop ters, and four-wheel drive vehicles. Foresters also may have to work long hours on emer gency duty, as in firefighting or search and rescue missions. to more responsible positions. In the Federal Government, an experienced forester may su pervise an entire forest area, and may ad vance to regional forest supervisor or to a top administrative position. In private industry, foresters start by learning the practical and administrative aspects of the business. Many foresters work their way up to top managerial positions within their companies. Many experienced foresters advance to of fice jobs where they plan and organize the activities of the staff. Employment Job Outlook Almost 30,000 persons worked as foresters in 1980. Nearly one-half worked for the Fed eral Government, primarily in the Forest Ser vice of the Department of Agriculture. About one-fourth worked for State governments. The remainder worked in private industry, mainly for pulp and paper, lumber, logging and milling companies, and for local govern ments, colleges and universities, and consult ing firms. A few were self-employed either as consultants or forest owners. Although foresters are employed in every State, employment is concentrated in the Western and Southeastern States where many national forests and parks are located and where most of the lumber and pulpwood pro ducing forests are located. In recent years the number of persons earning degrees in forestry has exceeded the number of openings in the field, creating competition for jobs. If the number of de grees granted each year remains at present levels, competition is expected to persist throughout the period. Opportunities will be better for persons with an advanced degree. Employment of foresters is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Employment will probably continue to grow faster in pri vate industry than in the Federal Government where budget limitations may restrain growth. The country will need more foresters in private industry to ensure an increasing output of forest products. Private owners of timberland also are likely to employ more foresters as they recognize the need for—and Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in forestry is the mini mum educational requirement for profession al careers in forestry. However, due to keen job competition and the increasingly complex nature of the forester’s work, many employ ers prefer graduates who hold advanced de grees. Certain jobs such as teaching and research require advanced degrees. To qualify for college forestry programs, high school students should take courses in chemistry, physics, mathematics, and the biological sciences. Courses in English lit erature and public speaking also are helpful. Education in forestry leading to a bachelor’s or higher degree was offered in 1980 by 49 colleges and universities, of which 43 were accredited by the Society of American Forest ers. Curriculums stress the liberal arts and communications skills as well as technical forestry subjects. Courses in forest economics and business administration supplement the student’s scientific and technical knowledge. Many colleges require students to spend one summer in a field camp operated by the college. All schools encourage summer jobs that give experience in forest or conservation work. In addition to meeting the intellectual de mands of forestry, foresters must enjoy work ing outdoors, be physically hardy, and be willing to move, often to remote places. For esters should also work well with people and express themselves clearly. Recent forestry graduates usually work un der the supervision of experienced foresters. After gaining experience, they may advance the higher profitability of—improved forestry and logging practices. Besides job openings created by growth in demand, many foresters will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings Beginning foresters in 1980 averaged about $13,900 a year, while experienced for esters averaged about $24,000. In private industry, starting foresters aver aged $15,200 a year in 1980, and the overall average salary was $25,200. Graduates entering the Federal Govern ment as foresters in early 1981 with just a bachelor’s degree started at $12,266 a year. However, because of keen competition, most foresters hired by the Federal Government either held a master’s degree or had some experience, and generally started at $15,193 a year. Ph.D.’s generally started at $18,585 or $22,486 a year. The median annual salary in early 1981 for federally employed foresters was $26,500. In local government, foresters generally began at about $12,700 a year in 1980, while their median annual salary was $19,400. Starting salaries in State governments were about $12,600 in 1980, and State median salaries were $20,400 per year. College pro fessors generally started at about $19,600 annually in 1980, while their median salary 94/Occupational Outlook Handbook was over $26,000 per year. Many faculty foresters supplement their regular salaries with income from lecturing, consulting, and writing. Related Occupations Foresters are not the only workers con cerned with managing, developing, and pro tecting natural resources. Other workers with similar responsibilities include agronomists, farmers, farm managers, ranchers, range managers, fish hatchery managers, soil con servationists, and wildlife managers. Sources of Additional Information General information about the forestry pro fession and lists of schools offering education in forestry are available from: Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20814. American Forestry Association, 1319 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For details on forestry careers in the Forest Service, contact: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 2417, Washington, D.C. 20013. Range Managers (D.O.T. 040.061-046) Nature of Work Rangelands cover more than 1 billion acres of the United States, mostly in the Western States and Alaska. They contain many natu ral resources: Grass and shrubs for animal grazing, wildlife habitats, water from vast watersheds, recreation facilities, and valuable mineral and energy resources. Rangelands also serve as areas for scientific study of the environment. Range managers, sometimes called range scientists, range ecologists, or range conser vationists , manage, improve, and protect range resources to maximize their use with out damaging the environment. For example, range managers help ranchers attain optimum livestock production by determining the num ber and kind of animals to graze, the grazing system to use, and the best season for graz ing. At the same time, however, they con serve the soil and vegetation for other uses such as wildlife habitat, outdoor recreation, and timber. Range managers restore and improve rangelands through controlled burning, reseeding, and biological, chemical, or mechanical con trol of undesirable plants. For example, some rangelands that have been invaded by sage brush or other shrubs may be plowed and reseeded with more desirable plants. Range managers also determine the need for and help carry out range conservation and development plans that provide for water facilities, erosion control, and soil treatments. Not all of a range manager’s time is spent outdoors. Range managers consult with other conservation specialists, prepare written re ports, and do administrative work in an office. Because of the multiple use of rangelands, range managers often work in closely related fields such as wildlife and watershed man agement, forest management, and recreation. Working Conditions Range managers usually begin their ca reers on the range. They work outdoors in all kinds of weather and may spend considerable time away from home. Range managers trav el by car or small plane, or, in rough coun try, by four-wheel drive vehicle, by horse, or on foot. Many range managers work for the Federal Government. There is much more to the job than simply riding the range, however. Range managers must constantly deal with people, including the general public, ranchers, government of ficials, and other conservation specialists. In many cases, they work as part of a team. Many range managers advance to adminis trative jobs where they write reports and plan and supervise the work of others. Employment An estimated 4,000 persons worked as range managers in 1980. Most worked for the Federal Government, principally for the Forest Service and the Soil Conservation Ser vice of the Department of Agriculture, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Bureau of Land Management of the Department of the Interior. Range managers in State govern ments are employed in game and fish depart ments, State land agencies, and extension services. An increasing number of range managers work for private industry. Coal and oil com panies employ range managers to help restore or reclaim mined areas. Banks and real estate firms employ them to help increase the rev enue from their landholdings. Other range managers work for private consulting firms and large ranches. Some range managers who have advanced degrees teach and do research at colleges and universities. Other range managers work overseas with United States and United Na tions agencies and with foreign governments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in range management or range science is the usual minimum educa tional requirement for range managers. The Federal Government requires at least 42 hours in plant, animal or soil sciences and natural resources management courses, including at least 18 hours in range management. Graduate degrees in range management generally are required for teaching and research positions, and may be helpful for advancement in other jobs. In 1980, about 18 colleges and universities offered degree programs in range manage ment or range science. A number of other schools offered some courses in range man agement. A degree in range management requires a basic knowledge of biology, chemistry, phys ics, mathematics, and communication skills. Specialized courses combine plant, animal, and soil sciences with principles of ecology and resource management. Desirable elec tives include economics, forestry, hydrology, agronomy, wildlife, computer science, and recreation. Federal agencies, primarily the Forest Ser vice, the Soil Conservation Service, and the Bureau of Land Management, hire college students for summer jobs in range manage ment. This experience may better qualify these students for jobs when they graduate. Natural Scientists and Mathematicians/95 Besides having a love for the outdoors, range managers must be able to write and speak effectively and work well with others. They should be able to work either alone or under direct supervision. Good physical health and stamina also are important. For information about career opportunities in the Federal Government, contact: Job Outlook U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conserva tion Service, P.O. Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013. Employment of range managers is expect ed to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most open ings in this small occupation will result from the need to replace range managers who re tire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. The growing demand for red meat, wild life habitats, recreation, and water, as well as increasing environmental concern should stimulate the need for more range managers. Since the amount of land cannot be expand ed, range managers will need to increase productivity while they maintain the environ mental quality of the range ecosystem. Also, range managers will be in greater demand to manage large ranches, which are increasing in number. As oil and coal exploration accelerates, private industry will require many more range specialists to reclaim or restore mined lands to a productive state. The use of rangelands for other purposes such as wildlife habitat and recreation could create additional need for range managers. Federal employment for these activities de pends heavily upon legislation concerning the management of range resources. Federal bud getary limitations are expected to limit em ployment growth in this area, at least in the short run. Earnings In the Federal Government, range manag ers with a bachelor’s degree started at either $12,266 or $15,193 a year in early 1981, depending on their college grades. Those having 1 or 2 years of graduate work began at $15,193 or $18,585. Range managers with the Federal Government averaged about $20,700 a year in 1980. Salaries for range managers who work for State governments and private companies are about the same as those paid by the Federal Government, according to limited data. Bureau of Land Management, Denver Service Center, Federal Center Building 50, Denver, Colo. 80225. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 2417, Washington, D.C. 20013. Soil Conservationists (D .O .T. 040.061-054) Nature of the Work Soil conservationists provide technical as sistance to farmers, ranchers, and others con cerned with the conservation of soil, water, and related natural resources. They help farmers and other land managers develop programs that make the most productive use of land without damaging it. Soil conserva tionists do most of their work in the field. If a farmer is experiencing an erosion problem, the conservationist will visit the farm, find the source of the problem, and help develop a program to combat the erosion. For exam ple, if the erosion is caused by water runoff on sloping fields, the conservationist may recommend terracing the land, constructing waterways, conservation tillage systems, or changing the land to permanent vegetation. If erosion results from wind, the conservationist may recommend growing hedges to provide windbreaks or may suggest leaving the wheat or com stalks on the field after harvesting to provide ground cover. In many areas of the country—particularly in the West— -rainfall is insufficient to permit Related Occupations Range managers are not the only workers who plan and manage the use of natural resources. Other workers with similar duties include animal breeders, farmers, farm man agers, foresters, ranchers, fish hatchery man agers, wildlife managers, and soil con servationists. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a range man ager as well as a list of schools offering training is available from: Society for Range Management, 2760 W. 5th Ave., Denver, Colo. 80204. Soil conservationists mapping soil types. the growing of crops. Much of the land, however, is suitable for grazing livestock. Soil conservationists inventory pastureland and rangeland, and recommend to farmers and ranchers areas where ponds can be con structed to provide water for livestock. They also recommend solutions to problems of overgrazing, such as seeding grassland or placing salt licks in undergrazed areas to keep the livestock away from areas that have been overgrazed. In this manner, they can distribute herds so that the concentration of animals in any one area does not exceed the replaceable food supply. Soil conservationists pay close attention to weather patterns to be aware of possible con servation problems before they arise. During the winter months, they make periodic snow mobile or ski patrols into the Rockies and other mountainous areas of the West to mea sure snowfall. This enables them to predict the spring and summer water runoff. In years when the snowfall is light, they alert irriga tion districts, farmers, and other water users to possible water shortages and develop ap propriate water conservation measures. Soil conservationists also work as technical advisors to Soil and Water Conservation Dis tricts, which are legal subdivisions of State governments concerned with, and responsible for, conservation problems within a county or other area. Soil conservationists map areas with soil and water conservation problems and help landowners plan and develop con servation programs. These problem areas may include only a few farms and ranches or an entire watershed. Working Conditions Soil conservationists do most of their work in the field. When the weather is bad, they usually work in their offices, but occasionally 96/Occupational Outlook Handbook they have to work outdoors in inclement weather. As is the case with other conservation workers, a large part of the soil conservation ist’s job involves working with other people. For example, they work with farmers, ranch ers, and other land managers in developing conservation programs for their landholdings. When developing a conservation program for a large area, such as a conservation district, soil conservationists may confer with other conservation workers, as well as representa tive landowners and other concerned persons. Employment An estimated 5,000 soil conservationists were employed in 1980, mostly by the Fed eral Government in the Department of Agri culture’s Soil Conservation Service or in the Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Indian Affairs. Soil conservationists employed by the Department of Agriculture work with Soil and Water Conservation Districts in al most every county in the country. Those employed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs generally work near or on Indian reserva tions, most of which are located in the West ern States. Others are employed by State and local governments, and some teach at col leges and universities. Some soil conservationists are employed by rural banks, insurance firms, and mort gage companies that make loans for agricul tural lands. A few also work for public utilities and lumber and paper companies that have large holdings of forested lands. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Very few colleges and universities offer degrees with a major in soil conservation. Most soil conservationists have degrees in agronomy, agricultural education, or general agriculture; a few have degrees in related fields such as wildlife biology, forestry, and range management. Programs of study gener ally include 30 semester hours in natural re sources or agriculture, including at least 3 hours in soils. A knowledge of agricultural engineering is very helpful to soil conservationists, and so are courses in cartography, or mapmaking. Soil conservationists must be able to commu nicate well since much of their work consists of assisting farmers and ranchers in planning and applying sound conservation practices. Also, they must be able to prepare written reports and plans of programs to present to farmers, range managers, and Soil and Water Conservation Districts. Opportunities for advancement are some what limited. However, conservationists working at the county level may advance to the area and State level. Also, soil conserva tionists can transfer to related occupations such as farm management advisors or land appraisers. Those with advanced degrees may find teaching opportunities in colleges and universities. Job Outlook Employment of soil conservationists is ex pected to change little through the 1980’s. Most openings will occur from the need to replace conservationists who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Little change is expected in the number of soil conservationists employed by the Federal government, which is the largest employer of conservationists. However increased employ ment may occur in banks, public utilities, and other organizations that make loans on agricultural lands or that have large holdings of farm or ranchlands. In addition, as con cern for the environment and interest in con serving the productivity of agricultural lands increase, a larger number of colleges may add soil conservation majors to their degree programs, which would increase the demand for soil conservationists to fill teaching posi tions. Earnings Soil conservationists who had a bachelor’s degree and were employed by the Federal Government started at $12,266 a year in ear ly 1981. Those who had outstanding records in college, or who had a master’s degree, started at $15,193 and could advance to $18,585 after 1 year. Soil conservationists with the Federal Government averaged about $24,300 in 1980. Related Occupations Other workers who use science to help conserve and protect our natural resources include animal scientists, agronomists, aquatic biologists, agricultural engineers, foresters, geneticists, horticulturists, plant pathologists, range managers, soil scientists, and wood technologists. Sources of Additonal Information Additional information on employment as a soil conservationist may be obtained from: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conserva tion Service, P.O. Box 2890, Washington, D.C. 20013. Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers Many of the workers described in this sec tion of the Handbook are concerned with the social needs of people. For example, clinical psychologists help the mentally or emotionally disturbed adjust to life through behavior modi fication programs and other techniques. Social workers in a wide range of settings address the needs of individuals, families, groups, and communities. Their work may involve any thing from helping an elderly person adjust to life in a nursing home to organizing fund raising for community social welfare activi ties. Recreation workers help people enjoy their nonworking hours by organizing activi ties in camps, community centers, play grounds, and other settings. Religious workers counsel people in their faith and provide spirit ual and moral leadership within their commu nities. Lawyers advise clients of their legal rights and obligations and suggest particular courses of action in personal and business matters. People in these types of jobs must be tactful, compassionate, and sensitive to the needs of others. They must possess a manner that inspires trust and confidence. In fact, religious workers, lawyers, and others are bound by strict rules of ethics and may not disclose matters discussed in confidence with clients. Patience also is a vital personal char acteristic as clients often are confused, hesi tant, fearful, or angry. They may not fully understand their circumstances and may have difficulty expressing themselves. Other workers described in this section conduct basic and applied research in the social sciences. They deal primarily with data and things rather than people. They use established methods to assemble a body of fact and theory that contributes to human knowledge. Social scientists study all aspects of human society—from an anthropologist studying the origins of the human race or a historian studying an ancient civilization to a political scientist analyzing the results of presidential elections or a market research analyst conducting a survey of consumer preferences. Through their studies and analy ses, social scientists help educators, govern ment officials, business executives, and others to address broad social, economic, and political questions. The ability to think logically and methodi cally and to analyze data is essential to social science research. Other important personal characteristics include objectivity, openmind edness, and systematic work habits. Good oral and written communication skills also are necessary. While training and educational require ments vary among the occupations in this cluster, advanced training leading to a doc toral or equivalent professional degree is of ten necessary for employment in certain settings and for “ professional” recognition. Even in the case of occupations for which entry is possible with a bachelor’s degree, for example, advancement prospects may be quite limited for those without graduate train ing. In terms of training requirements, these occupations demand a greater commitment than most occupations in the Handbook. The Handbook statements that follow in clude more detailed information on the nature of the work, employment, and training re quirements. Information on earnings, work ing conditions, and job outlook also is presented. Lawyers___________ constructing buildings, and administering wills. Because social needs and attitudes are con tinually changing, the legal system that regu lates our social, political, and economic relationships also changes. Lawyers, also called attorneys, link the legal system and society. To perform this role, they must un derstand the world around them and be sensi tive to the numerous aspects of society that the law touches. They must comprehend not only the words of a particular statute, but the human circumstances it addresses as well. As our laws grow more complex, the work of lawyers takes on broader significance. Laws affect our lives in new ways as the legal system takes on regulatory tasks in areas such as transportation, energy conser vation, consumer protection, and social wel fare. Lawyers interpret these laws, rulings, and re g u la tio n s for in d iv id u a ls and businesses. (D.O.T. 110 and 090.227-010) Laws affect every aspect of our society. They regulate the entire spectrum of relation ships among individuals, groups, businesses, and governments. They define rights as well as restrictions, covering such diverse activi ties as judging and punishing criminals, granting patents, drawing up business con tracts, paying taxes, settling labor disputes, Nature of the Work In our society, lawyers act as both advo cates and advisors. As advocates, they repre sent opposing parties in criminal and civil trials by presenting arguments that support their side in a court of law. As advisors, lawyers counsel their clients as to their legal rights and obligations and suggest particular 97 98/Occupational Outlook Handbook courses of action in business and personal matters. Whether acting as advocates or advisors, nearly all attorneys have certain activities in common. Probably the most fundamental ac tivities are the interpretation of the law and its application to a specific situation. This requires in-depth research into the purposes behind certain laws and into judicial deci sions that have applied those laws to circum stances similar to those currently faced by the attorney. Based on this research, the attorney decides what action would best serve the interests of the client. Lawyers must deal with people in a cour teous, efficient manner and not disclose mat ters discussed in confidence with clients. Because lawyers hold positions of great re sponsibility, they must always adhere to strict rules of ethics. Finally, most lawyers write reports or briefs which must communicate clearly and precisely. The more detailed aspects of a lawyer’s job depend upon his or her field and position. While all licensed attorneys are allowed to represent parties in court, some appear in court more frequently than others. A few lawyers specialize in trial work. These law yers usually have an exceptional ability to think quickly, speak with ease and authority, and are thoroughly familiar with courtroom strategy. Trial lawyers still spend consider able time outside the courtroom conducting research, interviewing clients and witnesses, and handling other details in preparation for trial. Although some lawyers deal with many different areas of the law, a significant num ber specialize in one branch of law, such as admiralty, probate, or international law. Communications lawyers, for example, may represent radio and television stations in their dealings with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). They help established stations prepare and file license renewal ap plications, employment reports, and other documents required by the FCC on a regular basis. They also keep their clients informed of changes in FCC regulations. Communica tions lawyers help individuals or corporations buy or sell a station or establish a new one. Lawyers who represent public utilities be fore the Federal Power Commission and other regulatory agencies handle matters involving utility rates. They develop strategy, argu ments, and testimony; prepare cases for pre sentation; and argue the case. These lawyers also inform clients about changes in regula tions and give advice about the legality of their actions. Still other lawyers advise insurance com panies about the legality of insurance transac tions. They write insurance policies to conform with the law and to protect compa nies from unwarranted claims. They review claims filed against insurance companies and represent companies in court. Private practitioners specializing in other areas deal with wills, trusts, contracts, mort gages, titles, and leases. Some manage a person’s property as trustee or see that provi sions of a client’s will are carried out as executor. An increasing number handle only public interest cases—civil or criminal— which have a potential impact extending well beyond the individual client. Attorneys hope to use these cases as a vehicle for legal and social reform. A single client may employ a lawyer full time. Known as house counsel, this lawyer usually advises a company about legal ques tions that arise from business activities. Such questions might involve patents, government regulations, a business contract with another company, or a collective bargaining agree ment with a union. Attorneys employed at the various levels of government constitute still another cate gory. Criminal lawyers may work for the State attorney general, a prosecutor or public defender, or the court itself. At the Federal level, attorneys may investigate cases for the Justice Department or other agencies. Law yers at every government level help develop laws and programs; draft legislation; establish enforcement procedures; and argue cases. Other lawyers work for legal aid soci eties—private, nonprofit corporations estab lished to serve poor people in particular areas. These lawyers generally handle civil rather than criminal cases. A relatively small number of attorneys work in law schools. Most are faculty mem bers who specialize in one or more subjects, while others serve as administrators. Some work full time in nonacademic settings and teach part time. (For additional information, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some attorneys use their legal background in administrative or managerial positions in various departments of large corporations. A transfer from a corporation’s legal department to another department often is viewed as a way to gain administrative experience and rise in the ranks of management. People may use their legal background as journalists, management consultants, finan cial analysts, insurance claim adjusters, real estate appraisers, lobbyists, tax collectors, probation officers, and credit investigators. A legal background also is an asset for political office seekers. Working Conditions Lawyers do most of their work in offices and courtrooms. They sometimes meet in clients’ homes or places of business and, when necessary, in hospitals or prisons. They frequently travel to attend meetings, to gather evidence, and to appear before courts, legis lative bodies, and other authorities. Salaried lawyers in government and private firms generally have structured work sched ules. Law teachers, however, whose sched ules are more flexible, may divide their time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Independent lawyers may work irregular hours while conducting re search, conferring with clients, or preparing briefs during nonoffice hours. Lawyers gen erally work long hours and are under particu larly heavy pressure when a case is being tried. Preparation for court includes keeping abreast of the latest laws and judicial deci sions. Although work generally is not seasonal, the work of tax lawyers may be an exception. Since lawyers in private practice can deter mine their own workload, many stay in prac tice well beyond the usual retirement age. Employment About 425,000 persons worked as lawyers in 1980. About three-fourths of them prac ticed privately, either in law firms or in solo practices. Most of the remaining lawyers held positions in Federal, State, or local gov ernment. Although lawyers are concentrated in the Departments of Justice, Treasury, and Defense, they work for many other Federal agencies. Others are employed as house counsel by public utilities, transportation firms, banks, insurance companies, real es tate agencies, manufacturing firms, welfare and religious organizations, and other busi ness firms and nonprofit organizations. Over 8,000 lawyers taught full or part time in law schools. Some salaried lawyers also have in dependent practices; others do legal work part time while in another occupation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To practice law in the courts of any State, a person must be admitted to its bar. Appli cants for admission to the bar must pass a written examination; however, a few States drop this requirement for graduates of their own law schools. Lawyers who have been admitted to the bar in one State occasionally may be admitted in another State without taking an examination if they meet that State’s standards of good moral character and have a specified period of legal experience. Federal courts and agencies set their own qualifications for those practicing before them. To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an applicant must complete at least 3 years of college and graduate from a law school approved by the American Bar Asso ciation (ABA) or the proper State authorities. (ABA approval signifies that the law school meets certain standards developed by the as sociation to promote quality legal education. With certain exceptions, graduates of nonapproved schools generally are restricted to tak ing the bar examination and practicing in the State in which the school is located.) A few States accept the study of law in a law office or in combination with study in a law school; only California accepts the study of law by correspondence as qualification for taking the bar exam. Several States require registration and approval of students by the State Board of Examiners, either before they enter law school or during the early years of legal study. Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/99 Although there is no nationwide bar exam, 44 States and the District of Columbia par ticipate in the Multistate Bar Examination (MBE). The MBE, covering issues of broad interest since the early 1970’s, is given in addition to the State bar exam. States vary in their treatment of MBE scores. The required college and law school edu cation usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate study followed by 3 years in law school. Although some law schools accept a very small number of students after 3 years of college, most require applicants to have a bachelor’s degree. To meet the needs of stu dents who can attend only part time, a num ber of law schools have night or part-time divisions which usually require 4 years of study. In 1979, about one-eighth of all graduates of ABA-approved schools were part-time students. Competition for admission to law school is intense. Enrollments rose very rapidly during the early 1970’s, with applicants far outnum bering available seats. Competition for ad mission remains stiff, especially in more prestigious law schools. Although enroll ments are expected to level off during the 1980’s, admission to law school will remain the first of several hurdles for prospective lawyers. Preparation for a career as a lawyer really begins in college. Although there is no rec ommended “ prelaw” major, the choice of undergraduate program is important. Certain courses and activities are desirable because they give the student the skills needed to succeed both in law school and in the profes sion. Essential skills—the ability to write, to read and analyze, to think logically, and to communicate verbally—are learned during high school and college. An undergraduate program that cultivates these skills while broadening the student’s view of the world is best. Majors in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities all are suitable, al though a student should not specialize too narrowly. Regardless of one’s major, courses in English, foreign language, public speak ing, government, philosophy, history, eco nomics, and mathematics, among others, are highly recommended. Students interested in a particular aspect of law may find related courses helpful; for example, engineering and science courses for the prospective patent attorney, and account ing for the future tax lawyer. In addition, typing is advisable simply for convenience in law school. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good grades and the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), administered by the Educa tional Testing Service. In 1980, the Ameri can Bar Association had approved 170 law schools. Others were approved by State au thorities only. During the first year or year and a half of law school, students generally study funda mental courses such as constitutional law, contracts, property law, and judicial proce dures. In the remaining time, they may elect specialized courses in fields such as tax, la bor, or corporation law. Practical experience often is acquired by participation in schoolsponsored legal aid or legal clinic activities, in the school’s moot court competition in which students conduct practice trials under the supervision of experienced lawyers and judges, and through writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. A number of law schools have clinical programs where students gain legal exper ience through practice trials and law school projects under the supervision of practicing lawyers and law school faculty. Law school clinical programs might include work in legal aid clinics, for example, or on the staff of legislative committees. Part-time or summer clerkships in law firms, government agen cies, and corporate legal departments also provide experience that can be extremely valuable later on. Such training can provide references or lead directly to a job after graduation, and can help students decide what kind of practice best suits them. Clerk ships also may be an important source of financial aid. Graduates receive the degree of juris doc tor (J.D.) or bachelor of law (LL.B.) as the first professional degree. Advanced law de grees are desirable for those planning to spe cialize, do research, or teach. Some law students pursue joint degree programs, which generally require an additional year or more. Joint degree programs are offered in a num ber of areas, including law and business ad ministration, law and public administration, and law and social work. After graduation, lawyers must keep in formed about legal and nonlegal develop ments that affect their practice. An attorney representing electronics manufacturers, for example, must follow trade journals and the latest Federal regulations. Attorneys in the State Department must remain well versed in current events and international law, while divorce lawyers read about the changing role of the family in modem society. Many law schools and State and local bar associations provide continuing education courses that help lawyers stay abreast of recent develop ments. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Persons planning careers in law should like to work with people and be able to win the respect and confidence of their clients, associates, and the public. In tegrity and honesty are vital personal quali ties. Intellectual capacity and reasoning ability are essential to analyze complex cases and reach sound conclusions. At times, law yers need creativity when handling new and unique legal problems. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions. Newly hired salaried attorneys usually act as research assistants to exper ienced lawyers or judges. After several years of progressively responsible salaried employ ment, many lawyers go into practice for themselves. Some lawyers, after years of practice, become judges. Job Outlook Employment of lawyers grew very rapidly during the late 1970’s. Faster-than-average growth is expected to continue through the 1980’s as increased population, business ac tivity, and government regulation help sus tain the strong demand for attorneys. This demand also will be spurred by the growth of legal action in such areas as consumer pro tection, the environment, and safety, and an anticipated increase in the use of legal ser vices by middle-income groups through pre paid legal service programs. As colleges and universities add law courses to their liberal arts, business, and other curriculums, addi tional lawyers may be needed to teach part time. Most jobs, however, will be created by the need to replace lawyers who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Despite strong growth in the demand for lawyers, the sizable number of law school graduates entering the job market each year has created keen competition for jobs. While the number of graduates is expected to level off during the 1980’s, competition for jobs will remain intense. Employers will continue to be selective in hiring new lawyers. Graduates of prestigious law schools and those who rank high in their classes should find salaried positions with law firms, on the legal staffs of corporations and government agencies, or as law clerks for judges. Graduates of less prominent schools and those with lower scholastic rat ings will experience some difficulty in find ing salaried jobs. Some graduates may be forced to accept positions for which they are overqualified or in areas outside their field of interest. An increasing proportion will enter fields where legal training is an asset but not normally a requirement. For example, banks, insurance firms, real estate companies, gov ernment agencies, and other organizations seek law graduates to fill many administra tive, managerial and business positions. Due to the competition for jobs, a law graduate’s geographic mobility and exper ience assume greater importance. The will ingness to relocate may be an advantage in getting a job. In addition, employers increas ingly seek graduates who have advanced law degrees and experience in a particular field such as tax, patent, or admiralty law. Establishing a new practice probably will continue to be best in small towns and ex panding suburban areas, as long as an active market for legal services already exists. In such communities, competition is likely to be less than in big cities and new lawyers may find it easier to become known to potential clients; also, rent and other business costs are somewhat lower. Nevertheless, starting a new practice will remain an expensive and risky proposition that should be weighed carefully. Salaried positions will continue largely in urban areas where government 100/Occupational Outlook Handbook agencies, law firms, and big corporations are concentrated. Some lawyers are adversely affected by cyclical swings in the economy. During re cessions, the demand for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, draft ing wills, and handling real estate transac tions, declines. Also, corporations are less likely to litigate cases when declining sales and profits result in budgetary restrictions. Although few lawyers actually lose their jobs during these times, earnings may decline for many. Some corporations and law firms will not hire new attorneys until business im proves. Several factors, however, mitigate the overall impact of recessions on lawyers. During recessions, individuals and corpora tions face other legal problems, such as bankruptcies and foreclosures, that require legal action. Furthermore, the continuous emergence of new laws and legal interpreta tions will create new opportunities for law yers. Earnings In 1980, starting salaries for recent law school graduates ranged from $10,000 a year in some small firms to over $35,000 in some larger ones. Beginning attorneys in private industry averaged around $21,000. In the Federal Government, annual starting salaries for attorneys in early 1981 were about $18,600 or $22,500, depending upon aca demic and personal qualifications. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new gradu ates include: Academic record; type, size, and location of employers; and the desired specialized educational background. The field of law makes a difference, too. Patent lawyers, for example, generally are among the highest paid attorneys. Salaries of experienced attorneys also vary widely according to the type, size, and loca tion of the employers. The average salary of the most experienced lawyers in private in dustry in 1980 was over $60,000. General attorneys in the Federal Government aver aged around $35,000 a year in 1980; the relatively small number of patent attorneys in the Federal Government averaged around $43,100. Lawyers starting their own practice may need to work part time in other occupations during the first years to supplement their income. Lawyers on salary receive increases as they assume greater responsibility. In comes of lawyers in practice usually grow as their practices develop. Private practitioners who are partners in law firms generally earn more than those who practice alone. Related Occupations Legal training is invaluable in many other occupations. Some of these are abstractors, arbitrators, conciliators, hearing officers, pat ent agents, title examiners, legislative assis tants, and FBI special agents. Sources of Additional Information Persons considering law as a career will find information on law schools and prelaw study in the Prelaw Handbook, published annually (Law School Admission Services, Box 944, Princeton, N.J. 08540). Copies may be available in public or school librar ies. In addition, many colleges and universi ties have a prelaw advisor who counsels undergraduates about their course work, the LSAT, law school applications, and other matters. Information on law schools, financial aid for law students, and law as a career is available from: Information Services, American Bar Association, 1155 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. (There may be a slight charge for publications.) For information on the placement of law graduates and the legal profession in general, contact: National Association for Law Placement, Boston University School of Law, 207 Bay State Rd., Boston, Mass. 02215. Information on legal education is available from: Association of American Law Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 370, Washington, D.C.20036. For advice on financial aid, contact a law school financial aid officer. The specific requirements for admission to the bar in a particular State may be obtained at the State capital from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the Secretary of the Board of Bar Examiners. Social Scientists and Urban Planners Social scientists study all aspects of human society—from the fossilized remains of pre historic life to newly formed religious groups or plans for modem mass transportation sys tems. Social science research provides in sights that help us understand the many different ways in which individuals and groups make decisions, exercise power, or respond to change. Through their studies and analyses, social scientists and urban planners assist educators, government officials, busi ness leaders, and others to solve social, eco nomic, and environmental problems. Depending on their jobs, social scientists and urban planners may need a wide range of personal characteristics. Because they con stantly seek new information about people, things, and ideas, intellectual curiosity and creativity are two fundamental personal traits. The ability to think logically and me thodically is important to a political scientist analyzing the differences between dictators and leaders of democratic governments. The ability to analyze data is important to an economist studying proposals for tax reform. Objectivity, open-mindedness, and systemat ic work habits are important in all kinds of social science research. Perseverance is es sential for an anthropologist who might spend years accumulating artifacts from an ancient civilization. Emotional stability and sensitiv ity are vital to a clinical psychologist work ing with mental patients. And, of course, written and oral communication skills are essential to all these workers. Research is a basic activity for many so cial scientists. They use established methods to assemble a body of fact and theory that contributes to human knowledge. Applied re search usually is designed to produce infor mation that will enable people to make better decisions or manage their affairs more effec tively. Surveys are widely used to collect facts, opinions, or other information. Data collection takes many other forms, however, including excavations at an archeological “ dig;” the analysis of historical records and documents; experiments with human subjects or lower animals in a psychological laborato ry; and the administration of standardized tests and questionnaires. Statistics is becoming an essential part of the training for most social scientists. Math ematics is also very important. Indeed, the widespread introduction of mathematical and other quantitative research methods in eco nomics, political science, market research, experimental psychology, and other fields is among the most important changes in recent times. The ability to use computers for re search purposes is a “ must” in many disci plines. Regardless of their field of specialization, social scientists are concerned with some as pect of society, culture, or personality. An thropologists study the relics and ruins of ancient civilizations, analyze human physical characteristics, and compare the customs, values, and social patterns of different cul tures. Economists study the way we use our resources to produce goods and services. They compile and analyze data that explain the costs and benefits of allocating resources in different ways. Historians describe and interpret the people, ideas, institutions, and events of the past and present. Political sci entists investigate the ways in which political power is amassed and used. Studying topics such as public opinion, political decision making, and ideology, they analyze the struc ture and operation of governments and examine informal political entities as well. Psychologists study human behavior and use their expertise to counsel or advise individ uals or groups. Their research also assists advertisers, politicians, and others interested in influencing or motivating people. Sociolo gists analyze the behavior of groups or social systems such as families, neighborhoods, or clubs. Market research analysts conduct surveys to determine public preferences for a wide variety of products and services. The results of their research are used by business, indus try, and government in formulating policy. Urban and regional planners develop com prehensive plans and programs for the use of land for industrial and public sites. Besides the occupations described in this section, a number of related fields are cov ered elsewhere in the Handbook. See the statements on lawyers, city managers, statis ticians, mathematicians, programmers, sys tems analysts, reporters and correspondents, social workers, college and university facul ty, college student personnel workers, and counseling occupations classified under teachers, librarians, and counselors. The Ph.D. is a minimum requirement for most positions in colleges and universities and is important for advancement to many top level nonacademic posts. Graduates with master’s degrees have more limited profes sional opportunities, although the situation varies a great deal by field. For example, job prospects for master’s degree holders in urban and regional planning are much brighter than for master’s degree holders in history. Bache lor’s degree holders have even more limited opportunities and in most social science oc cupations do not qualify for “professional” positions. The bachelor’s degree does, how ever, provide a suitable background for many different kinds of “junior professional” jobs, such as research assistant, administrative aide, or management trainee. An estimated 264,000 persons were em ployed as social scientists and urban planners in 1980. The interdisciplinary nature of the various fields makes it difficult to determine the exact size of each profession. Psychology and economics are the largest fields; anthro pology is the smallest. About one-third of these workers are em ployed by colleges and universities, where they characteristically combine teaching with research and consulting. The importance of the academic world as a source of employ ment varies widely by discipline, however. For example, a large proportion of urban and regional planners, market research analysts, and psychologists work in nonacademic jobs. The predominance of academic employ ment in such disciplines as history and soci ology may cause problems for these special ists during the 1980’s as college enrollments decline. Compared to the past, few academic positions will be available, and efforts are underway to acquaint new graduates in these fields with alternative or nontraditional career opportunities in areas such as program ad ministration and evaluation. Such positions are available in Federal, State, and local gov ernment agencies; research organizations and consulting firms; hospitals and other health facilities; and labor unions, trade associa tions, nonprofit organizations, and business firms. The number of advanced degrees awarded in the social sciences through the 1980’s is expected to exceed job openings and produce a highly competitive outlook for professional positions traditionally requiring a doctorate. Job prospects are better in some disciplines than in others. As in the past, top graduates of leading universities will have a decided advantage in competing for jobs, especially for the limited number of academic jobs. Other considerations that affect employment opportunities in these occupations include de gree level; field of specialization; specific skills and experience; desired work setting; salary requirements; and geographic mobil ity. More detailed information about the job outlook in these individual occupations ap pears in the following statements. Anthropologists (D .O .T . 055.067 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Anthropologists study people—their evolu tion and physical characteristics, and the cul tures they create. The domain is broad; anthropologists study people’s traditions, be liefs, customs, languages, material posses sions, social relationships, and value systems. They generally concentrate in one of four 101 102/Occupational Outlook Handbook Cleaning a specimen from a tar pit is painstaking work. subfields: Cultural anthropology, archeology, linguistics, or physical anthropology. Most anthropologists specialize in cultural anthropology, sometimes called ethnology. They study the customs, culture, and social life of groups, and may spend months or years living with a group to learn about its way of life. These cultural anthropologists may learn another language while observing and studying a group. Ethnographic research may focus on a particular institution or aspect of group life such as kinship, personality, art, law, religion, economics, or ecological adaptation. The field lends itself to compara tive studies, such as those on different soci eties’ attitudes towards old age. In recent years, anthropologists have ventured beyond their traditional concern with nonindustrialized societies. More and more, their re search deals with groups found in modem urban societies: Ghetto inhabitants, drug ad dicts, politicians, and business leaders, for example. Archeologists study cultures from artifacts and other remains in the ground. Using sci entific techniques for dating and analyzing everything they find, archeologists gather and examine the remains of homes, tools, cloth ing, ornaments, and other evidences of hu man life and activity to reconstruct the inhabitants’ history and customs. Their work requires extensive knowledge of earth sci ence, geology, biology, and paleontology (the study of fossil remains). Archeological fieldwork takes place wherever people have once lived. Sites in all parts of the world span many centuries—from ancient times up to the present. For example, extensive exca vations have provided clues about the social and economic life of ancient Greek, Roman, and Middle Eastern civilizations. In recent years, support has grown for archeological study of relatively modem communities— American colonial settlements and 19th cen tury industrial towns, for example. Linguistic anthropologists study the role of language in various cultures. They examine and relate the sounds and structure of a soci ety’s language to people’s behavior and thought patterns. Their research tells us, for example, that the way people use language may influence the way they think about things. Physical anthropologists are concerned with humans as biological organisms. They study the evolution of the human body and look for the earliest evidence of human life. They also study the effect of heredity and environment on different populations. Their work requires extensive training in anatomy, biology, chemistry, genetics, and the study of primates (the order of mammals that in cludes humans, apes, and monkeys). A phys ical anthropologist might study children’s growth and development or investigate the relationship between diet and health. A knowledge of body structure enables these anthropologists to work as consultants on projects as diverse as the design of military equipment and the sizing of clothing. Anthropometrists specialize in the measurement of the body or skeleton. Anthropologists, like other social scientists, are research-oriented. Most, however, com bine fieldwork or other forms of anthropologi cal research with other activities: Teaching, writing, consulting, or administering pro grams. Moreover, a growing number of an th ro p o lo g ists sp e c ia liz e in app l ie d anthropology, they concern themselves first and foremost with practical applications for research findings. Medical anthropologists, for example, may study cultural attitudes to wards medicine and health care to help formu late a health program for a particular group. Some medical schools hire medical anthro pologists as instructors. Urban anthropolo gists study complex, industrialized societies and examine the influence of city life upon people and their institutions. Some work with architects, designers, and land use experts in planning community development projects. Others advise social service agencies; their cross-cultural insights enable them to help improve the delivery of health, counseling, nutritional, and other services to particular population groups. Still other anthropologists use their knowledge of ethnic customs and values to help educators improve the effective ness of classroom teaching and increase paren tal involvement. The advice of anthropologists has been sought in the planning of bilingual education programs, for example. Preparing cultural environmental impact statements is an increasingly important activ ity for anthropologists, as it is for other social scientists. In many communities, environmen tal protection and historic preservation laws require local authorities to identify historic areas which may be affected by development Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/103 or renovation plans. Typically, those propos ing to construct a new building or demolish an old one are required to suggest ways of avoiding or lessening any adverse impacts on the environment. Generally, the research and writing involved in preparing an impact state ment are done on a consultant basis by an thropologists associated with museums, col leges and universities, research institutes, or private consulting firms. In some cases, an thropologists are hired by highway commis sions or planning departments to prepare impact statements. Working Conditions Dividing their time among teaching, re search, and administration, anthropologists employed by colleges and universities have flexible work schedules. On the other hand, anthropologists working in government agen cies and private firms have much more struc tured work schedules. Anthropologists often work alone behind a desk—reading, analyz ing data, and writing up the results of their research. Many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, and heavy work loads, and sometimes must work overtime. Numerous telephone calls, letters, special re quests for information, meetings, or confer ences may interrupt their routine. When anthropologists participate in field research, working conditions differ, for they are an integral part of a research team. Field work may require traveling to remote areas, working under adverse weather conditions, living in primitive housing, and adjusting to different cultural environments. Physical stamina is important because anthropologists doing fieldwork may have to lift equipment, walk considerable distances, and spend long hours digging. Employment An estimated 7,200 persons worked as an thropologists in 1980. About 4 out of 5 anthro pologists work in colleges and universities, where they teach and do research and consult ing work. (More detailed information may be found in the Handbook statemen* on college and university faculty.) The Federal Government employs several hundred anthropologists, chiefly in the De partments of Interior, State, Agriculture, and the Army, and in the Smithsonian Institution. Anthropologists who work for State and local governments are primarily involved in com munity development planning, health plan ning, archeological research, and historic preservation. A number of them have admin istrative jobs in museums. Some anthropologists work for consulting firms or operate their own consulting ser vices. They conduct research and prepare proposals for government agencies, commu nity organizations, citizens’ groups, and busi ness firms. Some consultants specialize in overseas development projects. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons who want to become anthropolo gists should obtain the Ph.D. degree. Col lege graduates often get temporary positions and assistantships to work on advanced de grees. A master’s degree, plus field experi ence, is sufficient for many beginning profes sional positions, but promotion to top posi tions generally is reserved for individuals who have a Ph.D. degree. Colleges and uni versities require a Ph.D. for permanent teaching appointments. Persons with a mas ter’s or bachelor’s degree in anthropology may qualify for research and administrative positions in government and private firms. A student interested in anthropology should have a broad background in the social and physical sciences and in languages. Those planning to become physical anthro pologists should concentrate on biological sciences. Aspiring archeologists should sup plement their studies with courses in the physical sciences. Cultural anthropology, on the other hand, requires more courses in so cial science and the humanities. Mathemat ics, statistics, and computer science are increasingly important research tools. Under graduates may begin their field training in archeology by arranging, through their uni versity departments, to accompany expedi tions as laborers or to attend field schools established for training. They may later be come supervisors in charge of the digging or collection of material and finally may direct a portion of the work of the expedition. Eth nologists and linguists usually do fieldwork independently. Because most anthropologists base doctoral dissertations on data collected through research, they are experienced fieldworkers by the time they earn the Ph.D. degree. The Federal Government generally re quires a college degree with 24 semester hours in anthropology for entry level posi tions as anthropologists and 20 semester hours in anthropology, including one course in American archeology, for archeologists. However, because competition for Federal jobs is keen, additional education or experi ence may be required. Over 300 colleges and universities have bachelor’s degree programs in anthropology; some 160 offer master’s degree programs and about 90, doctoral programs. The choice of a graduate school is very important. Students interested in museum work should select a school associated with a museum that has anthropological collections. Similarly, those interested in archeology either should choose a university that offers opportunities for sum mer experience in fieldwork or attend an archeological field school elsewhere during summer vacations. Interdisciplinary studies are an important part of an anthropologist’s professional train ing, for anthropology embraces all aspects of life and overlaps many other disciplines, each with its own tradition and body of knowl edge. To bring anthropological insights to bear on projects centered in another disci pline—bilingual education is a good exam ple—anthropologists may have to learn theory and techniques from another field. For this reason, some departments of anthropolo gy are combined with other departments such as sociology or geography. Some anthropology students broaden their employment possibilities by pursuing courses or degrees in other areas including law, medicine, public administration, and educa tion. Anthropologists should have a special in terest in natural history and social studies and enjoy reading, research, and writing. Cre ativity and intellectual curiosity are essential to success in this field. In addition, anthro pologists must be objective and systematic in their work. Perseverance is essential, particu larly for archeologists who may spend years accumulating and piecing together artifacts from ancient civilizations. Archeological fieldwork also may require manual dexterity, as well as the ability to analyze data and think logically. Anthropologists must speak and write well to communicate the results of their work effectively. Job Outlook Employment of anthropologists is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. However, nearly all growth will occur in nonacademic jobs—notably in consulting firms, research institutes, corporations, and Federal, State, and local government agencies. Among the factors contributing to this growth is environ mental, historic, and cultural resource preser vation legislation. This legislation has increased the demand for anthropologists to write environmental impact statements. Dur ing the mid-1970’s, rapid growth in this de mand resulted in a shortage of trained archeologists. Those who had no more than a master’s degree were being hired to work full time or on a temporary contract basis for consulting firms, government agencies, aca demic institutions, and museums. However, as more anthropologists have sought work in the fields of environmental protection and historic preservation, the Ph.D. is increasing ly required. Growing interest in ethnic stud ies may spur demand for anthropological research in that area as well. College and university teaching will re main the largest area of employment for an thropologists. The basic determinant of demand for college faculty is enrollment. College enrollments are expected to decline during the 1980’s. This almost certainly would mean no growth and perhaps even some decrease in employment of college fac ulty over the period. The number of qualified anthropologists seeking to enter the field is expected to ex ceed available positions. As a result, doctor ate holders may face keen competition through the 1980’s, particularly in colleges and universities. Some are expected to accept 104/Occupational Outlook Handbook temporary appointments with little hope of tenure. Graduates with master’s degrees are expected to face very keen competition, al though some may find jobs in junior colleges and government and private agencies. Bache lor’s degree holders who find jobs as anthro pologists may have very limited advancement opportunities. Some teaching positions may be available in high schools for those who meet State certification requirements. Overall, specialties offering the best em ployment prospects include archeology and physical, medical, and urban anthropology. Earnings The results of a 1980 American Anthropo logical Association survey of departments of anthropology included data on faculty sala ries. The average beginning salary for new faculty members without full-time teaching experience ranged from about $15,600 to $19,500 for persons with a Ph.D., and from $13,500 to $14,500 for persons without a Ph.D. Faculty salaries varied widely but gen erally were lower in departments granting only bachelor’s degrees than in departments granting graduate degrees. Most professors earned from $20,000 to over $30,000 a year; associate professors, $18,000 to $30,000; as sistant professors, $15,000 to $27,000; and instructors, $12,000 to $18,000. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. Anthropologists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at about $12,300 or $15,200 a year in early 1981, depending upon the applicant’s aca demic record and experience. The starting salary for those having a master’s degree generally was $18,600 a year; for those hav ing a Ph.D., $22,500. Anthropologists in the Federal Government averaged around $34,800 a year in 1980; archeologists, around $20,600. Many anthropologists in colleges and uni versities supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources such as summer teaching, research grants, and con sulting fees. Related Occupations Like anthropologists, people in several other occupations are concerned with under standing how social institutions operate. Among them are economists, geographers, historians, political scientists, psychologists, sociologists, urban planners, market research analysts, and newspaper reporters. Knowledge of physical, environmental, and biological science often is important to anthropologists. Others whose work requires training in one or more of these fields include geologists, geophysicists, meteorologists, oceanographers, astronomers, chemists, physicists, biochemists, life scientists, and soil scientists. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers (including opportunities for contract work in archeology and historic preservation and State employ ment opportunities for archeologists); job openings; grants and fellowships; and schools that offer training in anthropology, contact: The American Anthropological Association and the Society for American Archeology, 1703 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. For information on careers and fieldwork opportunities in archeology, contact: The Archeological Institute of America, 53 Park Place, New York, N.Y. 10007. Economists (D .O .T. 050 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Economists study the way a society uses scarce resources such as land, labor, raw materials, and machinery to provide goods and services. They analyze the results of their research to determine the costs and benefits of making, distributing, and using resources in a particular way. Their research might focus on topics such as energy costs, inflation, business cycles, unemployment, tax policy, or farm prices. Some economists who are primarily theo reticians may develop theories through the use of mathematical models to explain the causes of inflation. Most economists, howev er, are concerned with practical applications of economic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agriculture, transportation, energy, or health. They use their understand ing of economic relationships to advise busi ness firms, insurance companies, banks, securities firms, industry associations, labor, government, unions, and others. Depending on the topic under study, economists may devise methods and proce dures for obtaining data they need. For ex ample, sampling techniques may be used to conduct a survey, and econometric modeling techniques may be used to develop projec tions. Preparing reports usually is an impor tant part of the economist’s job. He or she may be called upon to review and analyze all the relevant data, prepare tables and charts, and write up the results in clear, concise language. Being able to present economic and statisti cal concepts in a meaningful way is particular ly important for economists whose research is policy directed. Economists who work for business firms may be asked to provide man agement with information to make decisions on marketing and pricing of company pro ducts; to look at the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branches, or diversifying the company’s operations; to analyze the effect of changes in the tax laws; or to prepare economic and business forecasts. Business economists working for firms that carry on operations abroad may be asked to prepare forecasts of foreign economic condi tions. Economists who work for government agencies assess economic conditions in the United States and abroad and estimate the economic impact of specific changes in legis lation or public policy. They study such ques tions as the effect on youth unemployment of changes in minimum wage legislation, for example. Most government economists are in the fields of agriculture, business, finance, labor, transportation, urban economics, or in ternational trade. For example, economists in the U.S. Department of Commerce study domestic production, distribution, and con sumption of commodities or services; those in the Federal Trade Commission prepare indus try analyses to assist in enforcing Federal statutes designed to eliminate unfair, decep tive, or monopolistic practices in interstate commerce; and those in the Bureau of Labor Statistics analyze data on prices, wages, em ployment, and productivity. Economists in colleges and universities teach the theories, principles, and methods of economics. In addition, economics faculty members conduct research, write, and engage in other nonteaching activities. They fre quently are asked to serve as consultants to business firms, government agencies, and in dividuals. (For more information on jobs in colleges and universities, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty.) Working Conditions Economists employed by colleges and uni versities have flexible work schedules, divid ing their time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Economists working for government agencies and private firms, on the other hand, have much more structured work schedules. They often work alone with only reports, statistical charts, computers, and calculators for company. Or they may be an integral part of a research team on some assigned projects. Most econo mists work under pressure of deadlines, tight schedules, and heavy workloads, and some times must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by telephone calls, letters, spe cial requests for data, meetings, or confer ences. Travel may be necessary to collect data or attend conferences. Employment An estimated 44,000 persons worked as economists in 1980. More than one-third of all economists were employed in colleges and universities, while another one-third worked for government agencies, including a wide range of Federal agencies. Private industry, including manufacturing firms, banks, insur ance companies, securities and investment companies, economic research firms, and management consulting firms, employed most of the remaining economists. Some economists run their own consulting busi nesses. A number of economists combine a full-time job in government, business, or an academic institution with part-time or con sulting work in another setting. Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/105 Economists work in all large cities and university towns. The largest numbers are in New York City and Washington, D.C. Some work abroad for companies with major inter national operations; for the Department of State and other U.S. Government agencies; and for international organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Economists must thoroughly understand economic theory and mathematical methods of economic analysis. Since many beginning jobs in government and business involve the collec tion and compilation of data, a thorough knowledge of basic statistical procedures is required. In addition to courses in macroeco nomics, microeconomics, econometrics, and business and economic statistics, training in computer science is highly recommended. At the undergraduate level, courses in the following subjects also are valuable: Business cycles; economic and business history; eco nomic development of selected areas; money and banking; international economics; public finance; industrial organization; labor eco nomics; comparative economic systems; eco nomics of national planning; urban economic problems and policies; marketing; consumer analysis; organizational behavior; and busi ness law. A bachelor’s degree with a major in eco nomics is sufficient for many beginning re search, administrative, management trainee, and business sales jobs. However, graduate training increasingly is required for advance ment to more responsible positions. Areas of specialization at the graduate level include advanced economic theory, comparative eco nomic systems and planning, econometrics, economic development, economic history, environmental and natural resource econom ics, history of economic thought, industrial organization, institutional economics, inter national economics, labor economics, mone tary economics, public finance, regional and urban economics, and social policy. Students should select graduate schools strong in spe cialties in which they are interested. Some schools help graduate students find intern ships or part-time employment in government agencies or economic research firms. Work experience and contacts can be useful in test ing career preferences and learning how the job market for economists really works. In the Federal Government, candidates for entrance positions generally need a college degree with a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, ac counting, or calculus. However, because competition is keen, additional education or experience may be required. A master’s degree generally is the minimum requirement for a job as a college instructor in many junior colleges and small 4-year schools. In some colleges and universities, however, a Ph.D. is necessary for appointment as a teach ing assistant or instructor. The Ph.D. is re quired for a professorship and for tenure, which is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain. Economists use diagrams and charts to explain their findings. In government, industry, research organi zations, and consulting firms, economists who have a graduate degree usually can qualify for more responsible research and administrative positions. A Ph.D. may be necessary for top positions in some organiza tions. Experienced economists may advance to managerial or executive positions in banks, industrial concerns, trade associ ations, and other organizations to formulate business and administrative policy. because economists may spend long hours on independent study and problem solving. So ciability enables economists to work easily with others. Economists must be objective and systematic in their work and must be able to express themselves effectively both orally and in writing. Creativity and intellec tual curiosity are essential to success in this field, just as they are in other areas of scien tific endeavor. About 1,600 colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degree programs in economics; about 270, master’s; and about 120, doctoral programs. Job Outlook Persons who consider careers as econo mists should be able to work accurately with detail since much time is spent on data analy sis. Patience and persistence are necessary Employment of economists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. In addition to growth in demand for economists, many job openings will result from transfers, deaths, retirements, and other separations from the labor force. 106/Occupational Outlook Handbook Overall, economists are likely to have more favorable job prospects than most other social scientists. Opportunities should be best for economists in business and industry, re search organizations, and consulting firms, reflecting the complexity of the domestic and international economies and increased reli ance on quantitative methods of analyzing business trends, forecasting sales, and plan ning purchases and production operations. Employers will seek economists well trained in econometrics and statistics. The continued need for economic analyses by lawyers, accountants, engineers, health service administrators, urban and regional planners, and others will also increase the number of jobs for economists. Their em ployment in State and local government agencies is expected to increase in response to the heavy responsibilities of local authori ties in housing, transportation, environment and natural resources, health, and employ ment development and training. Employment of economists in the Federal Government is expected to rise slowly—in line with the rate of growth projected for the Federal work force as a whole. Since college enrollments are expected to decline during the 1980’s, little or no employment growth is expected in colleges and universities. As a result, many highly qualified economists will enter nonacademic positions. Persons who graduate with a bachelor’s degree in economics through the 1980’s are likely to face keen competition. However, many will find employment in government, industryj and business as management or sales trainees, or as research or administra tive assistants. Those with strong back grounds in mathematics, statistics, and computer science may be hired by private firms for market research work. Candidates who hold master’s degrees in economics face very strong competition for teaching posi tions in colleges and universities, although some may gain positions in junior and com munity colleges. However, they should find good opportunities for administrative, re search, and planning positions in private in dustry and government. Those with a strong background in marketing and finance may have the best prospects in business. Ph.D .’s are likely to face competition for academic positions, although top graduates from lead ing universities should have little difficulty in acquiring teaching jobs. However, a larger number of Ph.D .’s will be forced to accept jobs at smaller, less prestigious institutions. Generalists who have a strong background in economic theory, mathematics, and statistics and who can teach an applied area are in greatest demand. Ph.D.’s should have favor able opportunities in government, industry, research organizations, and consulting firms. Generally, a strong background in eco nomic theory and econometrics provides the tools for acquiring any specialty within the field. Those skilled in quantitative techniques and their application to economic modeling and forecasting may have the best job opportunities. National Association of Business Economists, 28349 Chagrin Blvd., Suite 201, Cleveland, Ohio. 44122. Earnings According to an American Economic As sociation survey, average salaries of econo mists employed in college and university departments offering the Ph.D. degree were as follows in academic year 1979-80: Profes sors, about $34,100; associate professors, about $24,600; assistant professors, about $19,100; and instructors, about $16,100. Average salaries were lower in departments that offered only the master’s or bachelor’s degree. The median base salary of business econo mists in 1980 was $38,000, according to a National Association of Business Economists survey. About one-half of the respondents reported additional compensation from pri mary employment while about one-third re ported income from secondary employment. Economists in general administration and economic advisors commanded the highest salaries while econometricians and teachers had the lowest base salaries. By industry, the highest paid business economists were in the securities and investment and consulting fields; the lowest were in colleges and uni versities and real estate. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en trance salary for economists having a bache lor’s degree was about $12,300 a year in early 1981; however, those with superior aca demic records could begin at about $15,200. Those having a master’s degree could qualify for positions at an annual salary of about $18,600, while those with a Ph.D. could begin at about $22,500. Economists in the Federal Government averaged around $31,400 a year in 1980. Based on a 1980 State government salary survey, average salaries for economists (posi tions requiring a bachelor’s degree) ranged from about $14,100 to $19,300; for principal economists (positions requiring a master’s de gree and experience), from $20,500 to $27,600; and for chiefs of economic research (positions requiring a master’s degree and extensive administrative or supervisory ex perience), from $25,200 to $33,500. Related Occupations Economists are concerned with under standing and interpreting financial matters. Others with jobs in this area include financial analysts, bank officers, accountants and audi tors, underwriters, actuaries, securities sales workers, appraisers, credit analysts, loan of ficers, and budget officers. Sources of Additional Information For information on schools offering grad uate training in economics, contact: American Economic Association, 1313 21st Ave nue South, Nashville, Tenn. 37212. For additional information on careers in business economics, contact: Historians_________ (D .O .T . 052; 090.227-010; 102.117-010) 101; 102.017-010; and Nature of the Work History is the record of past events, insti tutions, ideas, and people. Historians de scribe and analyze the past through writing, teaching, and research. They use standard techniques to locate and evaluate historical evidence. Historians do not accept docu ments, records, or spoken accounts at face value; they study each piece of evidence carefully to determine whether it is reliable or genuine. Once they have established the validity of historical evidence, historians try to determine the significance of their find ings. Sometimes they develop theories to ex plain the importance of facts and their interrelationships. They may, for example, relate their knowledge of the past to current events in an effort to explain the present. Historians almost always specialize. Some concentrate on the history of a country or a region; others study a particular period of time—the 20th century, for example. Al though many historians in this country special ize in the social or political history of the United States or modem Europe, a growing number study African, Latin American, Asian, or Middle Eastern history. Some spe cialize in the history of a field, such as econom ics, medicine, philosophy, religion, science, technology, music, art, military affairs, or the labor movement. Other fields of specialization are genealogy, biography, rare books and doc uments, and historic preservation. Most historians teach in colleges or univer sities. Like other faculty members, they may also lecture, write, and do consulting work. Some historians employed by colleges and universities do only research. (For more in formation on these jobs, see the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) A growing number of historians do many things besides teach, however. Archivists and Curators work for museums, special librar ies, or historical societies, where they typi cally identify, classify, and preserve historical documents, artifacts, objects, and other material. They may also help scholars use manuscripts and artifacts and educate the public through exhibits and publications. Many do extensive research and writing. Biographers use diaries, news accounts, personal correspondence, interviews with rel atives and business associates of their sub jects, and other sources to obtain information about individuals. Genealogists use birth, death, and marriage certificates, court and military records, wills, records of real estate Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/107 transactions, and other evidence to trace a family history. A growing number of historians are em ployed to help protect and preserve historic buildings and sites. They work to identify and interpret our historical heritage, which includes houses, public buildings, factories, churches, forts, public markets, farms, and battlefields. Some historians are employed to manage, interpret, and write about restored communities and other places of historic in terest. Historic preservationists also work to save city neighborhoods and old business dis tricts and maintain unique historic and archi tectural qualities. They also inform the public and government officials of the value of pre serving cultural resources and assist in educa tional activities for which historic properties will be used. This work usually means a joint effort with architects, lawyers, urban plan ners, business and community leaders, and city officials. Some historians consult with editors, pub lishers, and producers of materials for radio, television, and motion pictures. Others do research for government agencies, social sci ence research firms, and similar organiza tions. Public historians help policymakers address increasingly complex social and economic problems. Such historians might be asked, for example, to assist in the prepara tion of an environmental impact statement or to provide information for a community de velopment plan that involves housing, trans portation, energy use, and other vital issues. Working Conditions Historians employed in colleges and univer sities have flexible work schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, and ad ministrative responsibilities. Those in govern ment agencies and private firms, on the other hand, have much more structured schedules. While working alone behind a desk, they read and write research reports. Many experience the pressures of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by telephone calls, letters, special requests for information, meet ings, or conferences. Travel may be necessary to collect information or attend meetings. Employment An estimated 20,000 persons worked as professional historians in 1980. Colleges and universities employed most of them—about 70 percent. Historians also work in archives, libraries, museums, research and educational organizations, historical societies, publishing firms, large corporations, and government agencies. Historians, archivists, and museum curators employed in the Federal Govern ment work principally in the National Ar chives, Smithsonian Institution, General Services Administration, or in the Depart ments of Defense, Interior, and State. Other Federal employers include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Cen tral Intelligence Agency, National Security Historians need a spirit of intellectual inquiry. Agency, and the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Energy, Transportation, and Health and Human Services. A number work for State and local governments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate education usually is necessary for a job in this field. A master’s degree in history is the minimum requirement for the position of college instructor. However, a Ph.D. degree is required for a first appoint ment at some institutions of higher education and for many other entry level positions. A Ph.D. is required for a professorship or a top administrative position, and to gain tenure. However, tenure is becoming increasingly difficult to acquire. Even though historians in the Federal Government generally must have a college degree with 24 semester hours in history, requirements vary for certain specialists. For example, archivists need a college degree with 18 semester hours in American history or government and 12 additional hours of history, American civilization, economics, political science, or related fields; museum curators need an advanced degree in museum studies or in an appropriate field such as art history, American history or the history of technology. However, because competition for Federal jobs is keen, additional education or experience is most often required. Most historians in the Federal Government and in nonprofit organizations have Ph.D. degrees or their equivalent in training and experience. Although a bachelor’s degree with a major in history is sufficient for some beginning jobs in government—either Federal, State, or local—advancement opportunities may be limited for persons without at least a master’s and preferably a Ph.D. in history. Since be ginners likely will collect and preserve his torical data, a knowledge of archival work is helpful. Training for historians is available in many colleges and universities. About 800 schools offer programs for the bachelor’s degree; 330, the master’s; and about 140, the doctor ate. History curriculums in the Nation’s col leges and universities are varied; however, each basically provides training in research methods, writing, and speaking. These basic skills are essential for historians in all posi tions. Quantitative methods of analysis, in cluding statistical and computer techniques, are increasingly important for historians. Most doctoral candidates must exhibit com petence in at least one foreign language. Because of the tightening job market in colleges and universities, more history de partments are placing greater emphasis on preparing students for nonacademic careers. Increasingly, courses and programs are de signed to prepare graduates for museum jobs, archival management, historical editing, pub lic historical studies, historic preservation, and other applied research. Courses in other applied fields such as public administration, business administration, and finance also greatly enhance one’s opportunities for nonacademic employment. Historians spend a great deal of time doing research, writing papers and reports, and giv ing lectures and presentations. They must possess strong analytical skills in order to evaluate historical evidence and work effec tively with abstractions and theories. They must be systematic and objective in their work, since they must consider all relevant facts before reaching a conclusion. Patience and persistence are necessary because histori ans spend long hours in independent study. As in other fields of scientific endeavor, the 108/Occupational Outlook Handbook Most historians and art historians with doctoral degrees are employed in colleges and universities P e rc e n t e m p lo y e d by typ e o f e m p lo y e r, 1979 Government 1.3 Nonprofit organizations .5 Business/industry 5.6 Museums/historical societies 7.2 Research libraries/archives .5 Other .2 A rt h isto rian s H istorians Many historians, particularly those in col lege teaching, supplement their income by teaching summer classes, writing books or articles, or giving lectures. Source: National Research Council qualities of intellectual curiosity and creativ ity are essential. Presenting the results of their research is an important part of a historian’s job, so the ability to communicate effectively—both orally and in writing—is a “ must.” The abili ty to work with others on joint research pro jects can be important. Job Outlook Overall, little if any growth is expected in the employment of historians through the 1980’s. Replacement needs accordingly will constitute the principal source of jobs. This will be particularly true in colleges and uni versities, where the basic determinant of de mand for college faculty is enrollment. College enrollments are expected to decline during the 1980’s. Fewer students almost cer tainly would mean some decrease in employ ment of college faculty over the period. On the other hand, demand for historians to work in nonacademic institutions may in crease. Persons with computer backgrounds and training in quantitative methods in historical research are expected to have the most favor able job opportunities in business, industry, government, and research firms. Historians with strong backgrounds in historic preserva tion, public historical studies, or other applied disciplines such as public administration, busi ness administration, or finance also may be in a relatively favorable position. The oversupply of history graduates is ex pected to continue; throughout the 1980’s, the number of persons seeking to enter the occu pation will greatly exceed available positions. As a result, historians with a Ph.D. are ex pected to face very keen competition for po sitions. Those graduating from prestigious universities may have some advantage in this highly competitive situation. Since academic institutions traditionally employ many highly qualified historians and competition is ex According to a survey by the National Research Council, the 1979 median annual salary for Ph.D .’s in history was $23,900; in educational institutions, $24,400. The medi an annual salary of Ph.D .’s in art history was $21,800; in educational institutions, $22,100. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, histori ans having a bachelor’s degree could start at about $12,300 or $15,200 a year in early 1981, depending upon the applicant’s aca demic record. The starting salary for those having a master’s degree was about $18,600 a year, and for those having a Ph.D., about $22,500. Historians in the Federal Govern ment averaged around $29,000 a year in 1980; museum curators, around $28,300; and archivists, around $26,700. pected to be particularly keen, only a small proportion of new graduates are expected to find full-time teaching positions. Many Ph.D .’s are expected to accept part-time, temporary assignments as instructors with lit tle or no hope of gaining tenure. Applicants who are qualified to teach several areas of history, such as American history combined with Russian or Asian history, should have the best opportunities. An increasing number of Ph.D .’s will take research or administra tive positions in government, industry, re search firm s, and other nonacadem ic institutions. Persons with the master’s degree in history also will encounter severe competition for jobs as historians. Some may find teaching positions in junior and community colleges. Those who have taken courses in historic preservation and museum studies should have the best opportunities to work in government and industry. Those who meet State certifica tion requirements may become secondary school teachers. People with a bachelor’s degree in history are likely to find very limited opportunities for employment as professional historians. However, an undergraduate major in history provides an excellent background for many jobs including international relations, journal ism, library science, and foreign service, and for continuing education in law, business ad ministration, and related disciplines. Many graduates will find jobs in secondary schools or in government, business, and industry as management or sales trainees, or as research or administrative assistants. Earnings According to information from the Ameri can Historical Association, colleges and uni versities offered new Ph.D.’s starting salaries ranging from about $14,000 to $16,000 for the academic year 1979-80. Full professors and top administrators earn substantially more. Related Occupations Historians study past events, institutions, and ideas. Their concern with understanding how societies operate is shared by other work ers, including writers, journalists, political scientists, economists, sociologists, anthro pologists, geographers, urban and regional planners, and market research analysts. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers and job openings for historians, and on schools offer ing various programs in history, is available from: American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, D.C. 20003. For information on careers and schools offering degree programs and courses in his toric preservation, contact: National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1785 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. General information on careers for histori ans is available from: Organization of American Historians, Indiana Uni versity, 112 North Bryan St., Bloomington, Ind. 47401. For additional information on careers for historians, send a self-addressed, stamped en velope to: American Association for State and Local History, 1400 Eighth Avenue South, Nashville, Tenn. 37203. For information on museum careers and museum studies programs, contact: Office of Museum Programs, Arts and Industries Building, Room 2235, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560. For information on training for museum careers, contact: American Association of Museums, 1055 Thomas Jefferson St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20007. Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/109 Market Research Analysts_______ (D .O .T. 050.067-014) Nature of the Work If a business is to be successful, it must provide a product or service people will buy. Yet persuading people to spend their money requires more than simply offering a useful or desirable item. People try a product for many reasons in addition to basic utility. They consider price, of course, as well as convenience, appearance, and a trusted name. For some products, reliability and ease of maintenance are most important. Very of ten, it is the product’s image—created by advertisements, sales promotion, and the type of store in which it is sold—that influences people. Business executives have to make deci sions concerning all these areas when they put a product or service on the market. Other organizations, whether they are asking the public to volunteer their time, contribute to a charity, or even spend a vacation, in their State, must make similar decisions. Market research analysts analyze the buying public and its wants and needs, thus providing the information on which these marketing deci sions can be based. Market research analysts plan, design, im plement, and analyze the results of surveys. Most marketing research starts with a collec tion of data and information about products or services and the people who are likely to buy the product or service. For example, if the researcher’s task is to find out why a company’s frozen foods are not selling well in a certain city, he or she may start by studying the company’s current marketing strategy to see if it matches consumers’ needs. Is the company shipping foods that suit the tastes of most people in the city? Are the prices reasonable for the income of most people in the area? Does the distributor de liver the food to the stores in good condition? Is the company advertising its products, and are the ads seen by the people most likely to buy them? Is the company’s sales force well trained and actively promoting the product to the stores? Are the stores providing good shelf space or are the boxes of food in a comer of the freezer where they may be overlooked? By investigating these and other issues, market research analysts determine what actions should be taken. They may con clude, for example, that sales would be im proved substantially by increased newspaper advertising. Or they may conclude that the company should concentrate its efforts in oth er sections of the country where the product is more successful. Since the goal of marketing is to satisfy the consumer, research analysts often are concerned with finding out customers ’ prefer ences and buying habits. They conduct tele phone, personal, or mail surveys, and some times offer samples of a product to find out whether potential customers are pleased with the design. Market researchers employed by large or ganizations often work with statisticians who help them select a group of people to be interviewed who will accurately represent prospective customers, and “ motivational re search” specialists who design survey ques tions that produce reliable information. Trained interviewers then conduct the sur vey, and office workers tabulate the results under the direction of market research ana lysts. In contrast to surveys for consumer goods, researchers for business and industrial firms often conduct the interviews themselves to gather opinions of a product. They also may speak to company officials about new uses for it. Therefore, they must have a thorough knowledge of both marketing techniques and the industrial uses of the product. Working Conditions Market research analysts usually work in modem, centrally located offices. While mar ket research analysts often function as an integral part of a research team, they spend much time alone—planning surveys, using calculators and computers, preparing statisti cal charts, and analyzing data. Some, espe cially those employed by independent research firms, travel frequently when working with out-of-town clients. Also, they may have to work long hours, including nights and week ends, to meet deadlines. Employment An estimated 29,000 market research ana lysts were employed in 1980. Most jobs for market research analysts are found in manu facturing companies, advertising agencies, and independent research organizations. Large numbers are employed by stores, radio and television firms, and newspapers; others work for university research centers and gov ernment agencies. Market research organiza tions range in size from one-person enterprises to firms with a hundred employees or more. Many market research analysts are em ployed in large cities such as New York where major advertising agencies, indepen dent marketing organizations, and central of fices of large manufacturers are located. However, market research analysts are em ployed in many smaller cities as well—wher ever there are central offices of large manufacturing and sales organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a bachelor’s degree usually is sufficient for trainees, graduate education is necessary for many specialized positions in market research. Graduate study usually is required for advancement, and a sizable num ber of market researchers have a master’s Market research analysts study customer pref erences in order to suggest appropriate sales techniques. degree in business administration or some other graduate degree in addition to a bache lor’s degree in marketing. Some schools offer market research internships in which students gain experience and make contacts that may prove invaluable in landing a job. Some peo ple qualify for jobs through previous experi ence in other types of research; university professors of marketing or statistics, for ex ample, may be hired to head marketing re search departments in business firms or advertising agencies. Sociologists, econo mists, and others who have strong back grounds in quantitative research methods also qualify for many market research positions. Bachelor’s programs in marketing and re lated fields, including courses in statistics, English composition, communications, psy chology, sociology, and economics, are valu able preparation for work in market research. Some market research positions require spe cialized skills such as engineering, or sales experience and a thorough knowledge of the company’s products. Since quantitative re search is central to survey analysis, sales forecasting, cost analysis, and other aspects of market research work, a strong back ground in computer science is helpful. College graduates may find their first job in any of a number of places: The market research department of a large manufacturing company, a research firm, an advertising agency, a lending institution, an insurance company, a government planning agency, or even a university marketing department. Trainees usually start as research assistants or junior analysts. At first, they may do considerable clerical work, such as copying data from published sources, editing and cod ing questionnaires, and tabulating survey re turns. They also learn to conduct interviews and write reports on survey findings. As they 110/Occupational Outlook Handbook gain experience, assistants and junior ana lysts may assume responsibility for specific market research projects, or advance to su pervisory positions. An exceptionally able worker may become market research director or vice president for marketing or sales. Market research analysts must be able to analyze problems objectively and apply var ious techniques to their solution. Creativity is essential in formulating new ideas. Patience and perseverance are necessary to complete long research projects. As advisers to man agement, market research analysts should be skilled in both written and verbal communi cation. Job Outlook Opportunities for the most prestigious, highest paying jobs should be best for appli cants with graduate degrees in business in cluding courses in market research, statistics, and computer science. The growing com plexity of market research techniques also may expand opportunities in this field for psychologists, economists, and other social scientists. Employment of market research analysts is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. Market research employment rises as new products and services are developed, particu larly when business activity and personal in comes are expanding rapidly. In periods of slow economic growth, however, the reduced demand for marketing services may limit the hiring of research workers. Over the long run, population growth and the increased variety of goods and services that businesses and individuals will require are expected to stimulate a high level of marketing activity. Competition among man ufacturers of both consumer and industrial products makes the appraising of marketing situations important. As techniques improve and statistical data accumulate, company of ficials are likely to turn more often to market research analysts for information and advice. As a result, employment of market research analysts is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. New job opportunities are expected to arise in health care facilities, banks, account ing firms, local governments, and other orga nizations to help promote use of their services. For example, market research ana lysts might be needed to help determine the optimum location for a new hospital or sub way station. Earnings Salaries of beginning market researchers ranged from about $12,000 to $17,000 a year in 1980, according to the limited information available. Persons with master’s degrees in business administration and related fields usually started with salaries of about $21,500 a year. Starting salaries varied according to the type, size, and location of the firm as well as the exact nature of the position. Experienced workers such as senior ana lysts received salaries of about $27,000 a year. Earnings were highest, however, for workers in management positions of great responsibility. Directors of market research averaged about $40,000 a year in 1980. Mar ket research directors who had more than 15 years’ experience averaged almost $50,000 a year in 1980. Related Occupations Besides market research analysts, many others are involved in social research—in cluding the planning, implementation, and analysis of surveys to learn more about peo ple’s wants and needs. Some of these work ers include economists, employment research and planning directors, social welfare re search workers, political scientists, urban and regional planners, sociologists, developmen tal psychologists, and experimental psycholo gists. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet, “ Careers in Marketing” (Monograph Series No. 4), may be obtained from: American Marketing Association, 250 Wacker Street, Chicago, 111. 60606. Political Scientists (D .O .T. 051, 059.267-010, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Political scientists study political behavior and institutions. Although some specialize in political theory or philosophy, most political scientists, particularly those specializing in public administration, analyze The organiza tion and operatiorfof government at all levels in the United States and abroad. They ex plore such phenomena as pEfbtrc opinion, po litical parties, elections, special interest groups, and intergovernmental relations. They also study the role of Federal, State, and local governments including the Presi dency, Congress and State legislatures, and the judicial system. Processes and techniques of public administration and public policy making also are of interest to political scien tists. Political scientists examine political and administrative behavior in order to aid gov ernment leaders and others trying to develop policies and plan programs that meet a soci ety’s needs. Like other social scientists, po litical scientists are research oriented and base their theories on a systematic analysis of the data they collect. Depending on the topic under study, a political scientist might con duct a public opinion survey, analyze elec tion results, or compare the principal features of various tax proposals. Some areas of po litical science research are highly quantita tive, and involve the use of sophisticated simulation and modeling techniques. Most political scientists work in colleges and universities. They may combine research or administrative duties with teaching, and often they do consulting work as well. (For more information, see the statement on col lege and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook). Some political scientists are primarily re searchers or consultants in nonacademic orga nizations. They might survey public opinion on a current issue, explore the political and administrative ramifications of government re organization, or suggest ways of mobilizing support for a particular candidate, policy, or administrative change. The results of political science research are used by public officials, political parties, government administrators, legislative staffs and committees, citizens’ groups, legislative reference bureaus, taxpay ers’ associations, and business firms. Because of their understanding of political institutions and political and administrative processes, political scientists are well quali fied for jobs in and out of government. Many are employed in government management and staff positions; others are employed by legislatures and courts; still others are in volved in government relations. Here they may work as lobbyists or consultants for gov ernment liaison by business firms, trade asso ciations, public interest groups, and other organizations. Some political scientists work for large banks and corporations, analyzing political conditions in foreign countries to help these organizations formulate investment plans abroad. Other political scientists work as journalists. A few work primarily as advi sors to candidates for political office. Working Conditions Political scientists employed in colleges and universities divide their time among teaching, research, and administrative re sponsibilities. Those employed by govern ment agencies and private firms, on the other hand, have much more structured schedules. They study and interpret data, prepare re ports, confer with coworkers, and meet with government officials, business executives, and others. Many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, and heavy work loads. and sometimes must work overtime. They may travel to interview people, conduct surveys, attend meetings and conferences, and present reports. Political scientists on foreign assignment must adjust to unfamiliar cultures and cli mates. Those in the diplomatic service work long and irregular hours, both in the office and in many social activities considered part of the job. Employment An estimated 15,000 persons worked as political scientists in 1980. About threefourths worked in colleges and universities. Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/111 An interest in politics and hard work can lead to a job on Capitol Hill. Most of the remainder worked for govern ment firms, political organizations, research institutes, labor unions, public interest groups, or business firms. This estimate does not include political scientists who work as administrators in the government, in the pri vate sector, or in journalism and related posi tions. Political scientists can be found in nearly every college or university town since courses in government and political science are taught in almost all institutions of higher education. Since the national headquarters of many associations, unions, and other organi zations are located in Washington, D.C., this area attracts a sizable number of political scientists in research or policy jobs. Government employs political scientists both domestically and abroad. They deal with legislative or administrative matters in areas such as foreign affairs, international relations, intelligence, housing, economic de velopment, transportation, environmental protection, social welfare, or health. Political scientists also apply their analytical expertise in fields such as marketing, advertising, pub lic relations, personnel, finance, and consum er affairs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate training generally is required for employment as a political scientist. Comple tion of all the requirements for the Ph.D. degree is the prerequisite for appointment to academic positions in some colleges and uni versities and is required for a professorship and tenure, which is becoming increasingly difficult to attain. Because of the tightening academic job market, a Ph.D. is increasingly required for nonacademic jobs. Graduates with a master’s degree can qualify for teaching positions in junior and community colleges and for administrative and research positions in government, indus try, and research or civic organizations. A master’s degree in international relations, for eign service, or a particular foreign area pro vides a suitable background for Federal Government positions dealing with foreign affairs. Competence in one or more foreign languages may be important to enter the For eign Service. Minimum requirements for in telligence, foreign affairs, and international relations specialists in the Federal Govern ment generally include a college degree with 24 semester hours in political science, histo ry, economics, or related fields. However, because competition for Federal jobs is keen, additional education or experience may be required. A growing number of applicants for the Foreign Service, for example, have a Ph.D., law degree, or other advanced de gree. People with a bachelor’s degree in political science may qualify as trainees in such areas as management, research, administration, sales, and law enforcement. Many students with bachelor’s degrees in political science go on to study law, journalism, or some special ized or related branch of political science, such as public administration or international relations. In 1980, about 1,400 colleges and univer sities offered a bachelor’s degree in political science; around 165, master’s programs; about 120, doctoral programs. Approximate ly 250 schools offered specialties in public administration. Some schools combine politi cal science with another discipline such as history in one department, while others have separate departments of political science, public administration, international studies, or other fields. Some universities have sepa rate schools of public affairs and administra tion. Colleges and universities strongly recommend field training and internships in government, politics, public service, and similar fields. Internships give students an opportunity to gain experience and make con tacts for jobs later on. However, the number of internships is limited and prospective in terns face keen competition. Undergraduate programs in political science include courses in the principles of govern ment and politics, State and local government, comparative studies, political theory, foreign area studies, foreign policy, public administra tion and policy, political behavior, constitu tional, administrative, and international law, and many other offerings. Other courses might deal with the problems of detente, politics of economic growth and scientific technology, environmental and energy policies, legal sta tus of women, and international economics. Because of the bleak academic job market, political science departments are placing greater emphasis on preparing students for nonacademic careers. For example, a growing number of programs at both the undergraduate and graduate levels offer courses in quantita tive and statistical methods, including the use of computers. Graduate students may specialize in American government, State and local gov ernment, comparative politics, international relations, foreign area studies, political be havior, political theory, public administra tion, urban affairs, public policy, and other areas. Doctoral candidates often must exhibit competence in one or more foreign languages and quantitative research techniques. Persons planning to be political scientists should have qualities that are important in any research or management career. Most impor tant of all are intellectual curiosity—a ques tioning, probing mind and a keen interest in solving problems—and a commitment to pub lic service. Political scientists also must think objectively and independently, handle data carefully and systematically, and analyze in formation and ideas. Patience and persistence are important in conducting independent re search, and creativity helps in formulating ideas. Because the results of political science research are almost always presented orally or 112/Occupational Outlook Handbook in writing, communication skills are impor tant, too. The ability to write clearly and well is essential. For some political scientists, an intense interest in political systems and the way they operate is an asset. Active participation in student government, local political cam paigns, community newspapers, service clubs, and community activities is recom mended for the practical experience and per spective it can provide. Such experience is particularly useful for political scientists who specialize in politics or com m unity organization. Job Outlook Employment of political scientists is ex pected to increase more slowly than the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Because most political scientists are relative ly young, very few job openings will result from deaths and retirements. Colleges and universities, the traditional employers of highly qualified political scientists, are not expected to hire additional faculty members; indeed, as college enrollments decline, some vacancies may remain unfilled. However, de mand may increase for political scientists who work in nonacademic positions. For ex ample, large banks and corporations may in creasingly hire political scientists to conduct political analyses of conditions in foreign countries to help plan investment strategies. Also, polling and marketing research firms will increasingly seek graduates well trained in survey research methods. Because graduates with advanced degrees in political science will greatly exceed job openings through the 1980’s, even Ph.D .’s will face stiff competition, particularly for academic jobs. The prestige of the university from which a Ph.D. graduates may be in creasingly important in this highly competi tive situation. Many Ph.D .’s seeking college teaching jobs are expected to accept parttime, temporary assignments as instructors with little or no hope of gaining tenure. Graduates seeking to enter the Foreign Ser vice also face very stiff competition. Gradu ates with strong backgrounds in quantitative techniques, including computer science, should have the widest choice of jobs. Those trained in applied fields such as public ad ministration, public policy, and American government also should be in a relatively favorable position. Graduates who majored in comparative politics, international rela tions, and political theory face the most diffi cult job market. Master’s degree holders will face increas ing competition for both academic and nona cademic positions. Some will find teaching jobs in community and junior colleges. As with Ph.D .’s, graduates trained in quantita tive methods, public policy, or public admin istration have the best opportunities for jobs in Federal, State, and local government, re search bureaus, political organizations, and business firms. New graduates with a bachelor’s degree are expected to find few opportunities for jobs as professional political scientists. Many of these graduates are expected to accept positions as trainees in government, business, and industry. Persons who have successfully completed an internship will have an advan tage. For those planning to continue their studies in law, foreign affairs, journalism, and related fields, political science provides an excellent background. Graduates who meet State certification requirements may en ter high school teaching. For additional information on careers in the Foreign Service, contact: Earnings Psychologists_______ According to an American Political Sci ence Association Survey, the median salaries of political scientists employed in educational institutions during 1979-80 were around $27,500 for full professors, $21,500 for asso ciate professors, $16,500 for assistant profes sors, and $14,500 for lecturers and instructors. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en trance salary for those with a bachelor’s de gree, depending upon the a p p lic a n t’s academic record, was about $12,300 or $15,200 a year in early 1981. The starting salary for those with a master’s degree was about $18,600 a year, and for those with a Ph.D., about $22,500. Intelligence special ists in the Federal Government averaged around $29,400 in 1980; international rela tions specialists, $35,300; and foreign affairs specialists, $34,100. Some political scientists, particularly those in college teaching, supplement their income by teaching summer courses or consulting. A political scientist’s training enables him or her to understand the ways in which politi cal power is amassed and used. Knowledge of the political process also is important for journalists, lawyers, city managers, Foreign Service Officers, political campaign manag ers and consultants, pollsters, lobbyists, leg islative liaison officers, political aides, and politicians. Sources of Additional Information The American Political Science Associ ation, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036 offers a career pamphlet for undergraduates and one for fac ulty and graduate students at $1 each. A Guide to Graduate Study in Political Science is available for $7.50 for members and $10 for nonmembers. In addition, a monthly newsletter listing job openings, primarily academic, is available to members of the association. Programs in Public Affairs and Adminis tration, a directory that contains data on the academic content of programs, the student body, the format of instruction, and other information, may be purchased for $10 from: National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, 1225 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 306, Washington, D.C. 20036. Board of Examiners, Foreign Service, Box 9317, Rosslyn Station, Arlington, Va. 22209. For several directories that provide infor mation on internships, contact: The National Society for Internships and Experien tial Education, 1735 I St. NW., Suite 601, Wash ington, D.C. 20006. (D .O .T. 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, and -034; and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Psychologists study human behavior and mental processes to understand and explain people’s actions. Some research psycholo gists investigate the physical, emotional, or social aspects of human behavior. Others in colleges and universities combine teaching, research, and administration. (For more in formation, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty.) Still other psychologists in applied fields counsel and conduct training programs; do market re search; or provide health services in hospitals or clinics. Like other social scientists, psychologists collect and test the validity of data and for mulate hypotheses. Research methods de pend on the topic under study. Psychologists may gather information through controlled laboratory experiments; performance, apti tude, and intelligence tests; observation, in terviews, and questionnaires; clinical studies; or surveys. Psychologists usually specialize. Experi mental psychologists study behavior proc esses, and work with human beings and low er animals such as rats, monkeys, and pi geons; prominent areas of experimental research include motivation, learning and re tention, sensory and perceptual processes, and genetic and neurological factors in be havior. Developmental psychologists study the patterns and causes of behavioral change as people progress through life; some concern themselves with behavior during infancy and childhood, while others study changes that take place during maturity and old age. Per sonality psychologists study human nature, individual differences, and the ways in which those differences develop. Social psycholo gists examine people’s interactions with oth ers and with the social environment; prominent areas of study include group be havior, leadership, attitudes, and interperson al perception. Comparative psychologists study the behavior of different animals, in cluding humans. Physiological psychologists study the relationship of behavior to the bio logical functions of the body. Psychologists in the field of psychometrics develop and Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/113 apply procedures for measuring psychologi cal variables such as intelligence and personality. Clinical psychology is the largest specialty among doctoral psychologists. Clinical psy chologists generally work in hospitals or clin ics, or maintain their own practices. They help the mentally or emotionally disturbed adjust to life. They interview patients; give diagnostic tests; provide individual, family, and group psychotherapy; and design and carry through behavior modification programs. Clinical psy chologists may collaborate with physicians and other specialists in developing treatment programs. Some clinical psychologists work in universities where they train graduate stu dents in the delivery of mental health services. Others administer community mental health programs. Counseling psychologists use sev eral techniques, including interviewing and testing, to advise people on how to deal with problems of everyday living—personal, so cial, educational, or vocational. Educational psychologists design, develop, and evaluate educational programs. School psychologists evaluate students’ needs and problems, facili tate school adjustment, and help solve learning and social problems in schools. Industrial and organizational psychologists apply psycho logical techniques to personnel administration, management, and marketing problems. They are involved in policy planning, training and development, psychological test research, counseling, and organizational development and analysis, among other activities. For ex ample, an industrial psychologist may work with management to develop better training programs and to reorganize the work setting to improve worker productivity. Engineering psychologists, often employed in factories and plants, develop and improve human-machine systems, military equipment, and industrial products. Community psychologists apply psychological knowledge to problems of urban and rural life. Consumer psychologists study the psychological factors that determine an individual’s behavior as a consumer of goods and services. Health psychologists counsel the public in health maintenance to help people avoid serious emotional or physical illness. Other areas of specialization include environ mental psychology, population psychology, psychology and the arts, history of psycholo gy, psychopharmacology, and military and rehabilitation psychology. Working Conditions A psychologist’s specialty and place of employment determine his or her working conditions. For example, clinical and coun seling psychologists in private practice have pleasant, comfortable offices and set their own hours. However, they often have even ing hours to accommodate their clients. Some employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health facilities often work evenings and weekends, while others in schools and clinics work regular hours. Psychologists em ployed by academic institutions divide their Clinical psychologists need to be good listeners. By far the largest proportion of doctoral psychologists are clinical specialists Percent employed by specialty, 1979 10 20 30 40 50 Clinical Experimental Developmental Social Industrial and personnel Counseling and guidance Physiological General School Educational Psychometrics Personality Comparative Other Source: National Research Council time among teaching, research, and adminis trative responsibilities. Some maintain parttime clinical practices as well. In contrast to the many psychologists who have flexible work schedules, some in government and private industry have more structured sched ules. Reading and writing research reports, they often work alone behind a desk. Many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, heavy workloads, and overtime work. Their routine may be interrupted fre quently. Travel may be required to attend conferences or conduct research. Employment An estimated 106,000 people worked as psychologists in 1980. The largest group worked in educational institutions—primarily colleges and universities. Some were coun selors; others were researchers, administra tors, or teachers. The second largest group of psychologists work in hospitals, clinics, rehabilitation cen ters, nursing homes, and other health facili ties. Many others work for government agencies at the Federal, State, and local lev els. The Veterans Administration, the De partment of Defense, and the Public Health Service employ more psychologists than oth er Federal agencies. Psychologists also are employed by research organizations, manage ment counsulting firms, market research firms, and other businesses. After several years of experience, some enter private prac tice or set up their own research or consulting firms. 114/Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree, required for employ ment as a psychologist, is increasingly im portant for advancem ent and tenure, particularly in the academic world. People with doctorates in psychology (Ph.D. or Psy.D.—Doctor of Psychology) qualify for a wide range of responsible research, clinical, and counseling positions in universities, pri vate industry, and government. People with a master’s degree in psycholo gy can administer and interpret tests as psy chological assistants. Under the supervision of psychologists, they can conduct research in laboratories or perform administrative du ties. They may teach in 2-year colleges, or work as school psychologists or counselors. (See the Handbook statements on school counselors and rehabilitation counselors.) People with a bachelor’s degree in psy chology are qualified to assist psychologists and other professionals in community mental health centers, vocational rehabilitation of fices, and correctional programs; to work as research or administrative assistants; to take jobs as trainees in government or business; or—provided they meet State certification re quirements—to teach high school. However, without additional academic training, their advancement opportunities are limited. In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semester hours in psychol ogy and one course in statistics qualify for entry level positions. Competition for these jobs is keen, however. Clinical psychologists generally must have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D. requirements and have served an in ternship; vocational and guidance counselors usually need 2 years of graduate study in counseling and 1 year of counseling experi ence. At least 1 year of full-time graduate study is needed to earn a master’s degree in psy chology. Requirements usually include prac tical experience in an applied setting or a master’s thesis based on a research project. Three to five years of graduate work usually are required for a doctoral degree. The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original research. The Psy.D., based on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation, prepares students for clinical and other applied positions. In clinical or counseling psychology, the re quirements for the doctoral degree generally include an additional year or more of intern ship or supervised experience. Competition for admission into graduate programs is keen. Some universities require an undergraduate major in psychology. Oth ers prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sci ences, statistics, and mathematics. Over 1,100 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in psychology; about 400, a master’s; about 300, a Ph.D.; and about 10, a Psy.D. In addition, a grow ing number of professional schools of psy chology not affiliated with colleges or universities offer the Psy.D. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently accredits Ph.D. training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology as well as Psy.D. programs. In early 1981, over 120 colleges and universities offered fully ap proved programs in clinical psychology; 28, in counseling psychology; 17, in school psy chology; and 6 Psy.D. programs. APA also has approved about 130 internship facilities for doctoral training in clinical and counsel ing psychology. Although financial aid is becoming in creasingly difficult to obtain, some universi ties award fellowships or scholarships, or arrange for part-time employment. The Vet erans Administration (VA) offers predoctoral traineeships to interns in VA hospitals, clin ics, and related training agencies. The Na tional Science Foundation, the Department of Educational institutions, businesses, and hospitals and clinics are the primary employers of doctoral psychologists P e rc e n t e m p lo y e d by ty p e of e m p lo y e r, 1979 Source: National Research Council Health and Human Services, the Armed Forces, and many other organizations also provide financial aid. Psychologists who want to enter independ ent practice must meet certification or licens ing requirements. In 1980, most States and the District of Columbia had such require ments. Licensing laws vary by State, but generally require a doctorate in psychology and 2 years of professional experience. In addition, most States require that applicants pass a written and an oral examination. Most State boards administer a standardized test. Some States certify those with master’s level training as psychological assistants or associ ates. Some States require continuing educa tion for relicensure. Most States require that licensed or certi fied psychologists limit their practice to those areas in which they have developed profes sional competence through training and ex perience. The American Board of Professional Psy chology recognizes professional achievement by awarding diplomas in clinical, counseling, industrial and organizational, and school psy chology. Candidates generally need a doctor ate in psychology, 5 years of experience, and professional endorsements; they also must pass an examination. People pursuing a career in psychology must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compassion, and the ability to lead and in spire others are particularly important for clinical work and counseling. Research psy chologists should be able to do detailed work independently and as part of a team. Verbal and writing skills are necessary to communi cate research findings. Patience and persever ance are vital qualities because results from psychological treatment of patients or re search often are long in coming. Job Outlook Employment of psychologists is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to growth in demand for psychologists, some openings will result from transfers, deaths, retirements, and other separations from the labor force. Several factors may help maintain the de mand for psychologists: (1) Public concern for the development of human resources which may result in more services for minor ities, the elderly, and the poor; (2) increased testing and counseling of children; and (3) legislation emphasizing good health rather than treatment of illness. Some openings are likely to occur as psy chologists increasingly study the effects on people of technological advances in areas such as agriculture, energy, the environment, and the conservation and use of natural re sources. Psychologists also increasingly are involved in program evaluation in such fields as health, education, military service, law enforcement, and consumer protection. Because college enrollments are expected Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/115 to decline during the 1980’s, little or no employment growth is expected in colleges and universities. As a result, there will be keen competition for academic positions. Al though outstanding Ph.D. holders from lead ing universities should have no difficulty in obtaining teaching jobs at top schools, a larg er number of Ph.D .’s will be forced to take jobs at smaller, less prestigious institutions. Some may accept part-time or temporary as signments with little or no hope of gaining tenure. As a result, many psychologists are expected to seek nonacademic jobs. Persons holding doctorates from leading universities in applied areas such as clinical, counseling,.health, and industrial or organiza tional psychology will have more favorable prospects for nonacademic jobs than those trained in research specialties such as experi mental, physiological, and comparative psy chology. Psychologists with extensive training in quantitative research methods and computer science will have a competitive edge over applicants without this background. Persons with only a master’s degree in psychology will probably continue to encoun ter severe competition for the limited number of jobs for which they qualify. Nevertheless, some may find jobs as counselors in schools or as psychological assistants in community mental health centers. Bachelor’s degree holders may find jobs as assistants in reha bilitation centers. Earnings According to a 1979 survey by the Nation al Research Council, the median annual sala ry of doctoral psychologists was about $26,600. In educational institutions, the me dian was about $25,400; in the Federal Gov ernment, about $36,300; in State and local government, about $24,800; in hospitals and clinics, about $25,300; in other nonprofit or ganizations, about $25,400; and in business and industry, about $36,700. Ph.D. or Psy.D. psychologists in private practice and in applied specialties generally have higher earnings than other psychologists. Related Occupations Psychologists are trained to evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals and groups. Others who do this kind of work are psychia trists, social workers, clergy, special educa tion teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers, educational re quirements, and financial assistance, contact: American Psychological Association, Educational Affairs Office, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Information on traineeships and fellow ships also is available from colleges and uni versities that have graduate departments of psychology. Sociologists (D .O .T . 054 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Sociologists study human society and so cial behavior by examining the groups that people form. These groups include families, tribes, communities, and governments, as well as a variety of social, religious, politi cal, business, and other organizations. Soci ologists study the behavior and interaction of groups and trace their origin and growth and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members. Some sociologists are concerned primarily with the characteristics of social groups and institutions. Others are more interested in the ways individuals are affected by the groups to which they belong. Fields of specialization for sociologists in clude social organization, social psychology, rural and urban sociology, racial and ethnic relations, criminology and penology, and in dustrial sociology. Other important special ties include medical sociology—the study of social factors that affect mental and public health; demography—the study of the size, characteristics, and movement of popula tions; gerontology—the study of the special problems faced by aged persons in our rapid ly changing society; and social ecology—the study of the effect of the physical environ ment and technology on people. Sociological research, like other kinds of social science research, involves collecting information, testing its validity, and analyz ing the results. Sociologists usually conduct surveys or do case studies in order to gather the data they need. For example, after pro viding for controlled conditions, a sociologist might test the effects of different styles of leadership on individuals in a small group. A medical sociologist might study the incidence of lung cancer in an area contaminated by industrial pollutants. Sociological researchers also conduct large-scale experiments to test the efficacy of different kinds of social pro grams. They might test and evaluate particu lar programs of income assistance, job training, or remedial education. Increasingly, sociologists apply statistical and computer techniques in their research. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmak ers, administrators, and others interested in social problems and social policy. Sociolo gists work closely with members of other professions including psychologists, physi cians, economists, political scientists, anthro pologists, and social workers. Most sociologists are college and universi ty teachers. Like other college faculty, they may conduct research, do consulting work, or handle administrative duties in addition to teaching. (For more information, see the The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en trance salary for psychologists having a bach elor’s degree was about $12,300 or $15,200 a year in early 1981; counseling psychologists with a master’s degree and 1 year of counsel ing experience could start at $18,600; clinical psychologists having a Ph.D. or Psy.D. de gree and 1 year of internship could start at $22,500. The average salary for psycholo gists in the Federal Government was about $31,800 a year in 1980. According to a 1980 State salary survey, average annual salaries of clinical psycholo gists in State government ranged from about $20,100 to $27,000. These positions usually require a doctor’s degree in clinical psycholo gy plus completion of an approved internship or period of supervised experience. Sociologist advises local officials on points to consider as they plan for future growth. 116/Occupational Outlook Handbook statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some sociologists are primarily adminis trators. They apply their professional knowl edge in areas as diverse as intergroup relations, family counseling, public opinion analysis, law enforcement, education, per sonnel administration, public relations, re gional and community planning, and health services planning. They may, for example, administer social service programs in family and child welfare agencies or develop social policies and programs for government, com munity, youth, or religious organizations. A number of sociologists are employed as consultants. Using their expertise and re search skills, they advise on such diverse problems as halfway houses and foster care for the mentally ill; ways of counseling ex offenders; and market research for advertisers and manufacturers. Increasingly, sociologists are involved in the evaluation of social and welfare programs. Some do technical writing and editing. Working Conditions Most sociologists do a lot of desk work, reading and writing reports on their research. Those employed by colleges and universities have flexible work schedules, dividing their time between teaching, research, consulting, and administrative responsibilities. Those working in government agencies and private firms have more structured work schedules, and many experience the pressures of dead lines, tight schedules, heavy workloads, and overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by numerous telephone calls, letters, requests for information, and meetings. Travel may be required to collect data for research pro jects or attend professional conferences. Employment An estimated 21,000 persons were em ployed as sociologists in 1980. Colleges and universities employ over two-thirds of all so ciologists. A number work for government agencies at all levels and deal with such subjects as poverty, crime, public assistance, population policy, social rehabilitation, com munity development, mental health, racial and ethnic relations, and environmental im pact studies. Sociologists in the Federal Gov ernment work primarily for the Departments of Defense, Health and Human Services, Interior, and Agriculture. Some demogra phers work for international organizations such as the International Bank for Recon struction and Development, the United Na tions, and the World Health Organization. Some persons with training in sociology work as social science analysts, statisticians, and in other positions for Federal agencies. Some sociologists hold managerial, re search, and planning positions in corpora tions, research firms, professional and trade associations, consulting firms, and welfare or other nonprofit organizations. Others run their own research or consulting businesses. Since sociology is taught in most institu tions of higher learning, sociologists may be found in nearly all college communities. They are most heavily concentrated, howev er, in large colleges and universities that of fer graduate training and opportunities for research in sociology. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Ph.D. degree is required for appoint ment to permanent teaching and research po sitions in colleges and universities and is essential for senior level positions in nonaca demic research institutes, consulting firms, corporations, and government agencies. As the academic job market gets tighter during the 1980’s, a Ph.D. will be required increas ingly for virtually all professional sociologist positions. Sociologists with master’s degrees can qualify for administrative and research posi tions in public agencies and private busi nesses, provided they have sufficient training in research, statistical, and computer meth ods. However, advancement opportunities generally are more limited for master’s de gree holders than for Ph.D’s. Sociologists with master’s degrees may qualify for teach ing positions in junior colleges and for some college instructorships. Many colleges, how ever, appoint as instructors only people who have training beyond the master’s degree lev el—frequently the completion of all require ments for the Ph.D. degree except the doctoral dissertation. Although financial aid is increasingly difficult to obtain, some out standing graduate students may get teaching or research assistantships that provide both financial aid and valuable experience. Bachelor’s degree holders in sociology may get jobs as interviewers or as adminis trative or research assistants. Many work as social workers, counselors, or recreation workers in public and private welfare agen cies. Sociology majors who have sufficient training in statistical and survey methods may qualify for positions as junior analysts or statisticians in business or research firms or government agencies. About 140 colleges and universities offer doctoral degree programs in sociology; most of these also offer a master’s degree. In 160 schools, the master’s is the highest degree offered, and about 900 schools have bachelor’s degree programs. Sociology departments offer a wide variety of courses including sociologi cal theory, social statistics and quantitative methods, crime and deviance, dynamics of social interaction, sex roles, population, social stratification, social control, small group anal ysis, urban sociology, social organizations, and sociology of religion, law, the arts, war, politics, education, work and occupations, and mental health. Some departments of sociology have high ly structured programs while others are rela tively unstructured and leave course selection largely up to the individual student. Depart ments have different requirements regarding foreign language skills, courses in statistics, and completion of a thesis for the master’s degree. In the Federal Government, candidates generally need a college degree including 24 semester hours in sociology, with course work in theory and methods of social re search. However, since competition for the limited number of positions is so keen, ad vanced study in the field is highly recom mended. The choice of a graduate school is impor tant for people who want to become sociolo gists. Students should select schools that have adequate research facilities and offer appropriate areas of specialization such as theory, demography, or quantitative meth ods. Opportunities to gain practical expe rience also may be available, and sociology departments frequently help place students in business firms and government agencies. The ability to handle independent research is important for sociologists. Intellectual curi osity is an essential trait; researchers must have inquiring minds and a desire to find explanations for the phenomena they observe. Like other social scientists, sociologists must be objective in gathering information about social institutions and behavior; they need analytical skills in order to organize data effectively and reach valid conclusions; and they must be careful and systematic in their work. Because communicating their findings to other people is such an important part of the job, sociologists must be able to formulate the results of their work in a way that others will understand. The ability to speak well and to write clearly and concisely is a “must” in this field. Job Outlook Employment of sociologists is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most open ings will result from deaths, retirements, and other separations from the labor force. This will be particularly true in colleges and uni versities where the basic determinant of de mand for college faculty is enrollment. College enrollments are expected to decline during the 1980’s. This almost certainly would mean some decrease in employment of college faculty over the period. Some aca demic openings may result from the growing trend to add sociology courses to the curriculums of other academic disciplines, such as medicine, law, business administration, and education. Demand in the nonteaching area will center around the increasing involvement of sociologists in the evaluation and adminis tration of programs designed to cope with social and welfare problems. The number of persons who graduate with advanced degrees in sociology through the 1980’s is likely to exceed greatly the avail able job openings. Graduates with a Ph.D. face increasing competition, particularly for academic positions, although those with de grees from the most outstanding institutions may have an advantage in securing teaching jobs. Academic institutions increasingly seek Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/117 persons qualified to perform a dual role: Teach and also conduct applied research in a university-affiliated organization such as a center for environmental studies. Job search time for new graduates seeking academic jobs will be longer than in the past, and some Ph.D .’s may accept temporary, part-time po sitions as instructors. An increasing proportion of Ph.D .’s are expected to enter nonacademic careers. Some may find research and administrative positions in government, corporations, research organi zations, and consulting firms. Those well trained in quantitative research methods, in cluding survey techniques, advanced statis tics, and computer science, will have the widest choice of jobs. For example, private firms that contract with the government to evaluate social programs and conduct other research increasingly seek sociologists with strong quantitative skills. Demand is expected to be strong for those with training in applied sociology, including such areas as criminol ogy, deviant behavior, medical sociology, so cial gerontology, and demography. For example, international organizations such as the United Nations and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development are ex pected to seek additional demographers to help underdeveloped countries formulate long range public planning programs. Sociologists with training in other applied disciplines, such as public policy, public administration, and business administration, will be attractive to employers seeking managerial and administra tive personnel. Persons with a master’s degree will continue to face very keen competition for academic positions, although some may find jobs in junior and community colleges. They also will face strong competition for the limited number of sociologist positions open to them in nona cademic settings. Some may find research and administrative jobs in government, research firms, and corporations. For example, soci ologists with backgrounds in business and quantitative research methods may find oppor tunities in marketing research firms. Bachelor’s degree holders will find few opportunities for jobs as professional sociolo gists. As in the past, many graduates will take positions as trainees and assistants in government, business, and industry. As with advanced degree holders, training in quantita tive research methods provides these gradu ates with the most marketable skills. Some may find positions in social welfare agencies. For those planning to continue their studies in law, journalism, social work, recreation, counseling, and other related disciplines, so ciology provides an excellent background. Some who meet State certification require ments may enter high school teaching. Earnings According to a 1979 survey by the Nation al Research Council, the median annual sala ry of all doctoral social scientists (including sociologists) was $26,000. For those in edu cational institutions, it was $25,600; in the ing and building codes. Because suburban growth has increased the need for better ways of traveling to the urban center, the planner’s job often includes designing new transporta tion systems and parking facilities. Urban and regional planners prepare for situations that are likely to develop as a result of population growth or social and economic change. They estimate, for example, the community’s long-range needs for housing, transportation, and business and industrial sites. Working within a framework set by the community government, they analyze and propose alternative ways to achieve more ef ficient and attractive urban areas. Before preparing plans for long-range community development, urban and regional planners prepare detailed studies that show the current use of land for residential, busi ness, and community purposes. These reports include such information as the location of streets, highways, water and sewer lines, schools, libraries, and recreational sites. They also provide information on the types of industries in the community, characteris Related Occupations Sociologists are not the only people whose tics of the population, and employment and jobs require an understanding of social proc economic trends. With this information, ur esses and institutions. Others whose work ban and regional planners propose ways of demands such expertise include anthropolo using undeveloped land and design the layout gists, economists, geographers, historians, of recommended buildings and other facilities political scientists, psychologists, urban and such as subway stations. They also prepare regional planners, market research analysts, materials that show how their programs can newspaper reporters and correspondents, and be carried out and what they will cost. Urban and regional planners often confer social workers. with land developers, civic leaders, and other public planning officials. They may prepare Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers, job materials for community relations programs, openings, and graduate departments of soci speak at civic meetings, and appear before legislative committees to explain their pro ology is available from: posals. American Sociological Association, Career and In large organizations, planners usually Research Division, 1722 N St. NW., Washington, specialize in areas such as physical design, D.C. 20036. For information about careers in demogra community relations, and the renovation or reconstruction of rundown business districts. phy, contact: In small organizations, planners must be able Population Association of America, 806 15th St. to do several kinds of work. Federal Government, $34,400; in nonprofit organizations, $28,300; and in business and industry, $33,600. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en trance salary for sociologists with a bache lor’s degree was about $12,300 or $15,200 a year in early 1981, depending upon the appli cant’s academic record. The starting salary for those with a master’s degree was about $18,600 a year, and for those with a Ph.D., about $22,500. Sociologists in the Federal Government averaged around $28,400 a year in 1980. In general, sociologists with the Ph.D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those without the doctoral degree. Many so ciologists, particularly those employed by colleges and universities for the academic year, supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources, such as summer teaching and consulting work. NW., Suite 640, Washington, D.C. 20005. Working Conditions Urban and Regional Planners__________ (D.O.T. 199.167-014) Nature of the Work Urban and regional planners, often called community or city planners, develop pro grams to provide for future growth and revi talization of urban, suburban, and rural communities. They help local officials make decisions to solve social, economic, and en vironmental problems. Planners examine community facilities such as health clinics and schools to be sure these facilities can meet the demands placed upon them. They also keep abreast of the legal issues involved in community develop ment or redevelopment and changes in hous Urban and regional planners spend most of their time in offices. To be familiar with areas that they are developing, however, they occasionally spend time outdoors examining the features of the land under consideration for development, its current use, and the types of structures existing on it. Although most planners have a scheduled 40-hour workweek, they sometimes must attend eve ning or weekend meetings or public hearings with citizens’ groups. Employment About 23,000 persons were urban and re gional planners in 1980. Most work for city, county, or regional planning agencies. A number are employed by State or Federal agencies dealing with housing, transporta tion, or environmental protection. Many planners do consulting work, either part time in addition to a regular job, or full time for a firm that provides services to pri- 118/Occupational Outlook Handbook vate developers or government agencies. Planners also work for large land developers or research organizations and teach in col leges and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers often seek workers who have advanced training in urban or regional plan ning. Most entry jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies require 2 years of graduate study in urban or regional planning, or the equivalent in work experience. Al though the master’s degree in planning is the usual requirement at the entry level, some people who have a bachelor’s degree in city planning, architecture, landscape architec ture, or engineering may qualify for begin ning positions. In 1980, over 75 colleges and universities offered a master’s degree in urban or regional planning. Although students holding a bache lor’s degree in architecture or engineering may earn a master’s degree after 1 year, most graduate programs in planning require 2 or 3 years. Graduate students spend considerable time in workshops or laboratory courses learning to analyze and solve urban and re gional planning problems and often are re quired to work in a planning office part time or during the summer. Candidates for jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies usually must pass civil service examinations to become eligible for appointment. Planners must think in terms of spatial relationships and visualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should be flexible and able to reconcile different viewpoints to make constructive policy recommendations. After a few years’ experience, urban and regional planners may advance to assign ments requiring a high degree of independent judgment such as designing the physical lay out of a large development or recommending policy, program, and budget options. Some are promoted to jobs as planning directors and spend a great deal of time meeting with officials in other organizations, speaking to civic groups, and supervising other profes sionals. Advancement beyond planning di rector is difficult and often occurs only through a transfer to a large city with more complex problems and greater responsibil ities. Job Outlook Employment of urban and regional planners is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s due to the growing importance of environmental, economic, and energy planning. Increased interest in zoning and land-use planning in undeveloped areas, including coastal areas, should spur demand for planners. Expected population growth in suburban locations and in the South and West should increase the workload of zoning and planning agencies and may result in demand for additional planners. Opportunities also are expected to arise in health systems agencies that regulate the growth of primary care facilities. In addition, some jobs will open up because of the need to replace planners who will die, retire, or trans fer to other occupations. However, in recent years, qualified appli cants have exceeded openings in urban or regional planning, and the situation is expect ed to persist unless fewer degrees are award ed through the 1980’s. Budgetary restraints in government may also adversely affect em ployment. As a result, some persons trained as planners will have to accept jobs in other areas of public administration. Graduates of prestigious academic institu tions should have the best job prospects. With increasing competition, geographic mo bility and the willingness to work in small towns or rural areas are important for many job seekers. Earnings Based on a survey by the American Plan ning Association, urban and regional plan ners earned a median annual salary of about $24,000 in early 1980. City, county, and other local governments paid urban and re gional planners median salaries of more than $22,000 a year in early 1980. Salaries varied slightly according to the size of the jurisdic tion. Planners employed by the largest juris dictions earned almost $24,000, while those employed by the smallest jurisdictions earned about $19,000. Planning directors earned median salaries of about $27,000 a year in 1980. Salaries of planning directors varied significantly according to the size of the ju risdiction. Directors employed by large cities earned about $32,500, while those employed by small cities earned less than $20,000. Most planners have sick leave and vacation benefits and are covered by retirement and health plans. State governments paid urban and regional planners average beginning salaries of about $13,800 a year in mid-1980, although plan ners started at more than $20,000 in the States of Alaska and Utah. Salaries of experienced State planners ranged from an average mini mum of nearly $20,300 a year to an average maximum of more than $27,500 a year. Sala ries of State planning directors ranged from an average minimum of about $30,800 to an average maximum of nearly $37,600 in mid1980. Planners with a master’s degree were hired by the Federal Government at about $18,600 a year in early 1981. In some cases, persons having less than 2 years of graduate work could enter Federal service as interns at yearly salaries of about $12,300 or $15,200. Salaries of urban and regional planners employed by the Federal Government averaged $31,100 a year in 1980. Related Occupations Urban and regional planners develop plans for the orderly growth of urban and rural communities. Others whose work requires planning include architects, landscape archi tects, city managers, and planning engineers. Sources of Additional Information Facts about careers in urban and regional planning and a list of schools offering train ing and job referrals are available from: Urban and regional planners need to know a community in order to plan for its long-range needs. American Planning Association, 1776 Massachu setts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Social and Recreation Workers Those considering a career in social work or recreation should be “people-oriented,” for helping people is what the work is all about. Social workers and recreation workers use a variety of techniques to help people cope with crises or live fuller lives. Social workers assist individuals and fam ilies whose lives are being tom apart by poverty, alcoholism, drug abuse, behavior problems, or illness. They find families to adopt or provide foster care for children whose parents can’t take care of them; see to it that needy families are able to give their children proper food, health care, and school ing; and step in when there is evidence of parental neglect or abuse. School social workers help students who have severe per sonal or family problems. Group workers give young people guidance and support so that they will learn to deal with their chang ing lives and develop into responsible adults. Some social workers do corrections work, counseling juvenile delinquents and serving as probation officers or parole officers. Medical social workers counsel hospital pa tients and advise the family as well—perhaps suggesting ways of arranging for home care after the patient leaves the hospital. Psychiat ric social workers, usually employed in hos pitals, clinics, or mental health centers, help patients respond to their treatment and serve as a link with the family and the community at large. Growing attention is being given within the profession to directing and influencing social change. Social planners work with health, housing, transportation, and other planners to suggest ways of making our com munities more wholesome places to live. So cial workers use various forms of direct action to help people deal with some of the basic forces that shape their lives. They may, for example, do research to identify commu nity needs; draft legislation; or comment on government proposals in such areas as hous ing, health, and social and welfare services. Or they may help organizations in the com munity work for social betterment. Recreation workers, too, help individuals and groups in a number of different ways. They develop and supervise activity pro grams for children, teenagers, and adults. Some specialize in therapeutic recreation, and plan and coordinate activities for people who are handicapped, emotionally disturbed, or chronically ill. Like others in the helping professions, recreation workers often operate on a team basis with other professionals in cluding therapists, nurses, physicians, social workers, counselors, and educators. People enter professional positions in so cial work and recreation from a variety of backgrounds. To a certain extent, an appli can t’s formal education determines the amount of responsibility he or she is given and affects advancement opportunities as well. An MSW (master’s in social work) is preferred or required for many social work positions, while a college degree with a ma jor in recreation is increasingly important for those aspiring to a career in recreation or leisure services. In both fields, however, training is offered at the associate, bache lor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. levels. Ordinarily, a candidate with an associate degree would be offered a job as an activity leader or casework aide, while someone with a Ph.D. would be considered for a position in teach ing, research, or administration. But the job market does not always operate as predict ably as this; actual hiring decisions vary from time to time and place to place. Experience, or academic training in a related field, may be the decisive consideration. During the 1980’s, employment growth in the human services area will respond to bud get constraints, and new graduates are likely to experience competition for jobs. However, the job market will be more “ crowded” in some fields of specialization and some parts of the country than in others. More detailed information about job outlook appears in the statements that follow. Social Workers_____ (D .O .T. 195.107-010 through -038; .137-010; .164-010; .167-010, -014, -030, -034, and .267-014) Nature of the Work Social workers are community trouble shooters. Through direct counseling or re ferral to other services, they help individuals, fam ilies, and groups cope with their problems. The nature of the problem and the time and resources available determine which of three traditional approaches—casework, group work, and community organization— social workers will use. Social workers who specialize in social planning and policy use another approach; they help people effect change in social institutions such as health services, housing, or education, or tackle so cial problems such as drug abuse or racial antagonism. In casework, social workers interview indi viduals and families to understand their prob lems and secure the appropriate resources, services, education, or job training. In group work, social workers help people understand themselves and others to achieve a common goal. They plan and conduct activities for children, teenagers, adults, older persons, and other groups in community centers, hos pitals, nursing homes, and correctional insti tutions. In community organization, social workers coordinate the efforts of political, civic, religious, business, and union organi zations to combat social problems through community programs. For a neighborhood or larger area, they may help plan and develop health, housing, welfare, and recreation ser vices. Social workers often coordinate exist ing services, organize fund raising for com munity social welfare activities, and aid in developing new community services. Social workers who specialize in family and child services counsel individuals, work to strengthen personal and family relation ships, and help clients cope with problems. They provide information and referral ser vices in many areas—family budgeting and money management, locating housing, home maker assistance for the elderly, job training, and day care for parents trying to support a family. Social workers who specialize in child welfare seek to improve the physical and emotional well-being of children and youth. They may advise parents on child care and child rearing, counsel children and youth with social adjustment difficulties, and ar range homemaker services during a parent’s illness. Social workers may institute legal action to protect neglected or mistreated chil dren, help unmarried parents, and counsel couples about adoption. After proper evalua tion and home visits, they may place and oversee children in foster homes or institu tions. If these children have serious problems in school, child welfare workers may consult with parents, teachers, counselors, and others to identify the underlying problems. Medical social workers and psychiatric so cial workers are trained to help patients and their families with social problems that may accompany illness, recovery, and rehabilita tion. They work in hospitals, clinics, com munity mental health centers, rehabilitation centers, and nursing homes. Renal social workers (who deal with patients and families of patients suffering from kidney disease) and social workers specializing in drug addiction help patients readjust to their homes, jobs, and communities. Counselors, psychologists, psychiatrists, and nurses with specialized training also help patients and their families cope with social problems resulting from se rious illness. These occupations are described elsewhere in the Handbook. A growing number of social workers spe cialize in the field of aging. They plan and evaluate services for the elderly, and help older persons and their families deal with difficulties brought about by diminished ca pacities and changed circumstances. In nurs ing homes, for example, they help patients 119 120/Occupational Outlook Handbook For some entry level positions, an MSW de gree is preferred or required. Furthermore, an MSW is a decided asset for advancement to a supervisory position. Two years of specialized study including a period of supervised field in struction, or internship, generally are required to earn an MSW. Field placement affords an opportunity to test one’s suitability for social work practice. At the same time, the student may develop expertise in a specialized area and make personal contacts that later are helpful in securing a permanent job. Previous training in social work is not required for entry into a grad uate program, but courses such as psychology, sociology, economics, political science, histo ry, social anthropology, and urban studies, as well as social work, are recommended. Some graduate schools offer accelerated MSW pro grams for a limited number of highly qualified BSW recipients. However, applicants to grad uate programs in social work may face keen competition. In 1980, about 300 colleges and universi ties offered accredited undergraduate pro grams and about 90 offered accredited graduate programs in social work. A growing Job opportunities for social workers are best in the Sunbelt and rural areas. number of programs include courses in ger and their families adjust to the need for long through counseling, educational programs, ontology, the study of aging. Graduate stu and referral to community social programs. dents may specialize in clinical social work, term institutional care. Social workers and probation or parole of Industrial social workers might, for example, community organization, administration, ficers in correctional institutions and correc counsel employees whose performance is af teaching, research, social policy planning, tional programs help offenders readjust to fected by emotional problems, alcoholism, or and a variety of other areas. A limited number of scholarships and fel society. They counsel on the social problems drug abuse. A small but growing number of social lowships are available for graduate educa that arise on returning to family and commu tion. A few social welfare agencies grant nity life, and also may help secure necessary workers are in private practice. Although employment is concentrated in workers “ educational leave” to obtain grad education, training, employment, or commu urban areas, many work with rural families. uate education. nity services. A small number of social workers—em Advancement usually takes the form of ployed by the Federal Government and the promotion to supervisor, administrator, or di Working Conditions Most social workers have a 5-day, 35- to United Nations or one of its affiliated agen rector, although some social workers with 40-hour week. However, many, particularly cies—serve in other parts of the world as advanced degrees go into teaching, research, in private agencies, work part time. Many consultants, teachers, or technicians and es or consulting. Like other administrators, di work evenings and weekends to meet with tablish agencies, schools, or assistance pro rectors of social service agencies hire, train, and supervise staff, develop and evaluate clients, attend community meetings, and han grams. agency programs, make budget decisions, dle emergency situations. Compensatory time Training, Other Qualifications, solicit funds, and represent the agency in generally is granted for overtime. Because and Advancement public. social workers often must visit clients or at The bachelor’s degree in social work tend meetings, the ability to drive a car often (BSW) usually is accepted as the minimum A graduate degree and experience general is necessary. education of the professional social worker. ly are required for supervisory, administra BSW programs generally provide instruction tive, or research work; the last also requires in social work practice, social welfare poli training in social science research methods. Employment About 345,000 social workers were em cies and service, human behavior and the Many administrators have a background in ployed in 1980. Two out of three were em social environment, and social research. Su social work, business or public administra tion, education, or health administration. For ployed in the public sector. Most of these pervised field experience is required. BSW programs prepare graduates for di teaching positions, an MSW is required and worked for State, county, or municipal gov ernments; relatively few worked for the Feder rect service positions such as case worker or a doctorate usually is preferred. In 1981, 26 States had licensing or regis al Government. Social workers are employed group worker. Formal training in social work primarily in departments of human resources, is not always essential for an entry level job tration laws regarding social work practice health, housing, education, and corrections. in the field, however. In many agencies, and the use of professional titles. Usually Those in the private sector work for voluntary casework is performed by individuals who work experience, an examination, or both, nonprofit agencies; community and religious have degrees in the liberal arts or humanities, are necessary for licensing or registration, organizations; hospitals, nursing homes, and sociology and psychology being the most with periodic renewal required. The National home health agencies; and other human ser prevalent majors. Hiring for positions in pub Association of Social Workers allows the use lic agencies usually is subject to State or of the title ACSW (Academy of Certified vice agencies. Some are employed in business and indus local merit system requirements. Applicants Social Workers) for members who have try, as “ industrial social workers.” They are may have to take a written examination, and earned a master’s degree, passed the ACSW located, organizationally, in the personnel their test scores (not their academic creden examination, and gained at least 2 years of department or health unit, and they support tials) determine whether or not they are se job experience. In view of the trend towards employee productivity and quality of life lected for consideration. specialization at advanced levels of social Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/121 work practice, efforts are being made to de vise specialized examinations in addition to the general ACSW examination currently given. Social workers should be emotionally ma ture, objective, and sensitive, and should possess a basic concern for people and their problems. They must be able to handle re sponsibility, work independently, and main tain good working relationships with clients and coworkers. During high school and college, students should do volunteer, part-time, or summer work to determine whether they have the interest and capacity for professional social work. Some voluntary and public social wel fare agencies occasionally hire students as assistants to social workers. Job Outlook Employment of social workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Some expan sion of social services is likely, especially in health-related services in hospitals, nursing homes, community mental health centers, and home health agencies; in programs for the aging; and in personal and family coun seling. Relatively high levels of unemploy ment coupled with problems caused by social change are expected to sustain a strong need for persons in the social service field. Social workers will also be needed to assist profes sionals in other fields, such as transportation, law, and public administration. In addition to jobs resulting from growth in demand for social services, many openings will result from replacement needs. Job prospects for social workers vary a great deal. Opportunities depend to some ex tent upon academic credentials—whether or not an applicant has formal social work train ing, and preferably an MSW—but geograph ic location is probably the most important consideration. Competition is keen in cities where train ing programs for social workers abound, such as Boston and New York. This competition is certain to intensify if social service pro grams in those localities are cut back in re sponse to budget pressures on State and local governments. At the same time, population growth in the Sunbelt States is spurring ex pansion of social service programs there, and some isolated rural areas find it difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. Although graduates having a BSW are re ported to be faring well in the job market, they do not necessarily have an advantage over other college graduates in the search for entry level jobs. Jobs covered by civil service regulations usually are filled through com petitive examination, and an applicant’s un dergraduate major is not a determining factor in the selection. Graduates of MSW and doctoral degree programs are qualified for a wider range of jobs, including planning, administration, re search, and teaching. The outlook for those graduates is expected to be favorable through out the 1980’s, although some may have to relocate. Earnings Salaries for social workers at all levels vary greatly by type of agency (private or public: Federal, State, or local) and geo graphic region, but generally are highest in large cities and in States with sizable urban populations. Private practitioners, administra tors, teachers, and researchers often earn considerably more than social workers in oth er settings. Starting salaries for social case workers (positions requiring a BSW) in State and local governments averaged about $12,000 in 1980, according to a survey conducted by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management; for social service supervisors, the average start ing salary was $15,900. The average annual starting salary for so cial workers (positions requiring an MSW and 1 year of related experience) in hospitals and medical centers was about $16,300 in 1981, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical School. Top salaries for experienced social workers in these settings averaged $21,100. In the Federal Government, social workers with an MSW and no other experience start ed at $18,585 in early 1981; average earnings for social workers in the Federal service were $25,200. Graduates with a Ph.D. or job ex perience may start at a higher salary. Most social workers in the Federal Government are employed by the Veterans Administration and the Departments of Health and Human Services, Education, Justice, and Interior. Related Occupations Through direct counseling or referral to other services, social workers help people solve a range of personal problems. Workers in occupations with similar duties include: Case aides, members of the clergy, counsel ors, counseling psychologists, and vocational rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in social work, contact: National Association of Social Workers, 1425 H St. NW., Suite 600, Southern Building, Washing ton, D.C. 20005. The Council on Social Work Education publishes an annual Directory of Accredited BSW Programs and Directory of Accredited MSW Programs, which may be purchased for $1.20 each, postpaid. These and other publications are available from: Council on Social Work Education, 111 Eighth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. v*— Recreation Workers (D .O .T. 159.124-010; 187.137-010; 195.167-018, .227010 and -014; 352.167-010) Nature of the Work Participation in organized recreation is more important today than ever before as people find the amount of leisure time in their lives increasing. Recreation workers plan, organize, and direct individual and group activities that help people enjoy their leisure hours. They work with people of all ages and socioeconomic levels; the sick and the well; and the emotionally and physically handicapped. Their employment settings range from the wilderness to rural to subur ban and urban, including the inner city. Recreation personnel employed by local governments and voluntary agencies provide leisure-time activities at outdoor neighbor hood playgrounds and indoor recreation cen ters. They furnish instruction in the arts, crafts, and sports. They may supervise re creational activities at correctional institu tions or work closely with social workers to organize programs for the young and the aged. School recreation staff organize the leisure-time activities of school-age children during schooldays, weekends, and vacations. Under the supervision of a camp director, camp counselors lead and instruct campers in nature-oriented forms of recreation such as swimming, hiking, and horseback riding as well as outdoor education. They also provide campers with specialized instruction in a par ticular area such as music, drama, gymnas tics, or tennis. In resident camps, the staff also must insure that the campers have ade quate living conditions. Recreation personnel in industry and in the Armed Forces organize and direct activities | in recreation rooms, athletic programs such ■as bowling and softball leagues, social func) Stions, and other leisure activities for company employees and service men and women. therapeutic recreation is a rapidly growing specialized field designed to help individuals recover or adjust to illness, disability, or spe cific social problems. Recreational therapists work in hospitals, correctional institutions, health and rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and private schools and camps for the mentally retarded, emotionally disturbed, and physically handicapped. Therapeutic recrea tion workers, in conjunction with physicians, prescribe activities on a one-to-one basis. Recreation workers occupy a variety of positions at different levels of responsibility. Recreation leaders provide face-to-face lead ership and are responsible for a recreation program’s daily operation. They may give instruction in crafts, games, and sports, keep records, and maintain recreation facilities. Recreation leaders who give instruction in specialties such as art, music, drama, swim ming, or tennis are called acXiyitv specialists. They often conduct classes and coacK reams in the activity in which they specialize. A camp counselor is generally a recreation lead er and may also be an activity specialist. Recreation leaders usually work under the direction of a supervisor. Recreation supervisors plan programs to meet the needs of the population they serve; supervise recreation leaders, sometimes over 122/Occupational Outlook Handbook directly to a full-time job. The largest num ber of paid employees in the recreation field are part-time or seasonal workers. Typical jobs include summer camp counselors and playground leaders, lifeguards, craft special ists, and after-school and weekend recreation program leaders. Many of these jobs are filled by teachers and college students. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Volunteer experience can lead to a full-time job as an activity director. an entire region; and direct specialized activities. Recreation administrators or directors manage recreation programs. They have overall responsibility for program planning, budget, and personnel. Working Conditions While the average week for recreation workers is 35-40 hours, people entering this field should expect some night work and irregular hours. In addition, workers often spend much of their time outdoors when the weather permits. Recreation workers are employed mostly in urban areas where many people must use the same playgrounds and recreation cen ters. Camp workers, however, often work in rural, less populated areas of the country. Some camp workers live at the camp and their room and board are part of their compensation. Employment About 135,000 persons worked as group recreation workers and camp directors in 1980. (This employment estimate does not include many summer workers.) About 40 percent worked for government agencies, pri marily local recreation departments. These included over 2,000 municipal park and re creation departments, over 1,200 county park and recreation agencies, about 350 special districts, and the State park systems. Several thousand persons worked for the Federal Government as recreation specialists, sports specialists, outdoor recreation planners, and recreation assistants and aides. They worked primarily for the Veterans Administration and the Departments of Defense and Interior. Another 25 percent worked for civic, so cial, and fraternal associations, primarily Boy Scout, Girl Scout, and other youth associ ations. Others worked for health service fa cilities, social service organizations, religious organizations, senior centers and retirement communities, and large business firms. Many jobs for recreation workers are found in private and commercial recreation—includ ing amusement parks, sports and entertain ment centers, wilderness and survival enterprises, tourist attractions, vacation excur sions, hotels and other resorts, camps, health spas, athletic clubs, apartment complexes, and other settings. The recreation field is characterized by an unusually large number of part-time, season al, and volunteer jobs. Some volunteers serve on local park and recreation boards and com missions. The vast majority, however, serve as volunteer activity leaders at local play grounds, or in youth organizations, camps, nursing homes, hospitals, senior centers, and other settings. Many recreation professionals have found that volunteer experience, as well as part-time work during school, can lead A college degree with a major in parks and recreation is an increasingly important quali fication for those seeking full-time career po sitions in the recreation field. Generally, an applicant’s level of formal education and training determines the type of job he or she can get. A number of recreation leader positions currently are filled by high school graduates. However, those seeking jobs with career po tential should obtain a minimum of an associ ate degree. Some jobs as recreation leader require specialized training in a particular field, such as art, music, drama, or athletics. \Most supervisors have a bachelor’s degree plus experience. Persons with a degree in parks and recreation have better prospects for career advancement. A bachelor’s degree and experience are considered minimum requirements for admin istrators. However, increasing numbers are obtaining master’s degrees in parks and re creation as well as in related disciplines. Many persons with backgrounds in other dis ciplines, including social work, forestry, and resource management, pursue graduate de grees in recreation. In industrial recreation, companies seeking recreation directors prefer applicants with a minimum of a bachelor’s degree in recreation with a strong background in business admin istration. While a bachelor’s degree in recrea tion or education is generally the minimum requirement for the job of camp director, a master’s degree is often preferred. Requirements for college faculty in the parks and recreation field vary according to the type of institution. Based on a survey by the National Recreation and Park Associ ation (NRPA), about two-thirds of junior college faculty had a master’s, one-fifth had a bachelor’s, and one-tenth had a Ph.D. de gree; over one-half of senior college faculty had a Ph.D. degree and the remainder had a master’s degree. In 1980, about 210 2-year community col leges offered associate degree recreation leadership and park technician programs; 295 4-year colleges and universities offered park and recreation curriculums. In addition, about 120 master’s degree programs and over 20 doctoral programs were offered. Programs in therapeutic recreation were offered by about 40 community and junior colleges and 125 4-year colleges and universities. A num ber of graduate programs also were offered. The NRPA presently accredits park and recreation curriculums at the bachelor’s and master’s degree levels and is beginning a Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/123 process of accrediting 2-year associate degree programs. Students in accredited bachelor’s degree programs devote about one-half of their time to general education courses in which they may gain knowledge of the natu ral and social sciences including an under standing of human growth and development and of people as individuals and as social beings; history and appreciation of human cultural, social, intellectual, spiritual, and ar tistic achievements; and other areas of inter est. One-fourth of their time involves exposure to professional park and recreation education including history, theory, and phi losophy; community organization; recreation and park services; leadership supervision and administration; understanding of special pop ulations such as the elderly or handicapped; and fieldwork experience. Students spend the remainder of their time developing competen cies in specialized professional areas such as therapeutic recreation (courses in psycholo gy, health, education, and sociology are rec ommended), park management, outdoor recreation, park and recreation administra tion, industrial or commercial recreation (courses in business administration are rec ommended), camp management, and other areas. The American Camping Association has developed a curriculum for camp director education which is utilized by many colleges and universities. Many of the national youth associations offer training courses for camp directors at the local and regional level. Persons planning recreation careers must be good at motivating people and sensitive to their needs. Good health and physical stam ina are required. Activity planning calls for creativity and resourcefulness. Willingness to accept responsibility and the ability to exer cise judgment are important qualities since recreation personnel often work alone. To increase their leadership skills and under standing of people, students are advised to obtain related work experience in high school and college. Opportunities for part-time, summer, or after-school employment, or for volunteer work, may be available in local park and recreation departments, youth ser vice agencies, religious or welfare agencies, nursing homes, camps, parks, or nature cen ters. Such experience may help students de cide whether their interests really point to a human service career. Students also should talk to local park and recreation profession als, school guidance counselors, and others. After a few years of experience, recreation leaders may become supervisors. Although promotion to administrative positions may be easier for persons with graduate training, ad vancement usually is possible through a com bination of education and experience. NRPA has developed national registration standards for professional and technical per sonnel, including both education and exper ience requirements. Over 30 States have adopted these standards. The American Camp ing Association certifies camp directors based upon experience and knowledge of the field. As of mid-1981, Utah and Georgia had mandatory licensing requirements for thera peutic recreation workers. More States are expected to adopt such requirements in the coming years. Therapeutic recreation work ers in long-term care facilities must be regis tered by the NRPA, National Therapeutic Recreation Society’s Board of Registration, or by the State in which they work. Job Outlook Employment of group recreation workers and camp directors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as more people engage in recreation activities during their increased lei sure time; as the number of older people using senior centers and nursing homes in creases; and as additional recreation sites are constructed to serve the needs of an expand ing population. In addition to jobs created by growth in demand for these workers, there will be many openings annually from the need to replace recreation workers who trans fer to other occupations, retire, or die. The job outlook for group recreation work ers is largely dependent on government fund ing for recreation services. In recent years, austerity budgets have been adopted by gov ernments at all levels—a situation which is likely to continue. Furthermore, the number of applicants for full-time positions in the recreation field is likely to exceed available job openings. As a result, competition for jobs as recreation workers is expected to be keen, particularly in public recreation agen cies. Persons with formal training and exper ience in parks and recreation are expected to have the best job opportunities in this field; those with graduate degrees should have the best opportunities for supervisory and admin istrative positions. Job opportunities are expected to be more favorable in therapeutic recreation and private and commercial recreation. Opportunities for specially trained therapeutic recreation work ers are likely to be favorable, in line with the anticipated need for additional staff in many health service facilities. By contrast, competi tion for jobs as camp directors is expected to be very keen. Job experience prior to graduation will great ly help a graduate find a position. Although competition is expected to be keen, many op portunities for part-time and summer employ ment will be available for recreation leaders in local government recreation programs. Many of the summer jobs will be for counselors and craft and athletic specialists in camps. Earnings * According to a 1980 survey by the Interna s tional Personnel Management Association, State governments paid recreation program leaders with a bachelor’s degree average be ginning salaries of about $11,500; experienced workers, about $15,800. Municipalities paid program leaders average beginning salaries of about $13,000; experienced workers, about $17,000. According to NRPA, 2-year associate de gree graduates received starting salaries rang ing from $7,000 to $10,000 in 1981. Individ uals with bachelor’s degrees obtained park and recreation positions with annual salaries that were in the $10,000 to $13,000 range. Persons with graduate degrees generally received high er salaries. Supervisors’ salaries ranged from $15,000 to $20,000. The average salary for chief administrators in public park and recrea tion agencies was about $25,000, and ranged up to $55,000. All salaries varied widely de pending on the size and type of employing agency and geographic location. According to the American Camping As sociation, the average annual starting salary J for camp directors was about $15,000 in 1980. Salaries for experienced camp directors jgnged from $12,000 to $30,000 a year. The average annual starting salary for reccreational therapists (positions requiring a col lege degree in recreational therapy or a related field) in hospitals and medical centers was about $13,000 in 1980, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical School. Top salaries for experienced recrea tional therapists in these settings averaged $16,200, and some were as high as $22,900. tarting salaries for recreation and park essionals in the Federal Government in early 1981 were about $12,300 for applicants with a bachelor’s degree; $15,200 for those with a bachelor’s degree plus 1 year of exper ience; $18,600 for those with a bachelor’s plus 2 years’ experience or a master’s degree; and $22,500 for those with a bachelor’s plus 3 years’ experience or a Ph.D. Recreation and park assistants, aides, and technicians earn less than these professionals. Most public and private recreation agen cies provide vacation and other fringe bene fits such as sick leave and hospital insurance. C Related Occupations Recreation workers must exhibit leadership and sensitivity in dealing with people. Other occupations that require similar personal qual ities include social workers, parole officers, human relations counselors, school counsel ors, clinical and counseling psychologists, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information Information about recreation as a career, employment opportunities in the field, colleges and universities offering park and rec reation curricula, accreditation, and registra tion standards is available from: National Recreation and Park Association, Division of Professional Services, 3101 Park Center Drive, Alexandria, Va. 22302. For information on careers in industrial rec reation, contact: National Industrial Recreation Association, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. For information on careers in camping and job referrals, send request and postpaid return envelope to: American Camping Association, Bradford Woods, Martinsville, Ind. 46151. Religious Workers Most religious workers are members of the clergy. Deciding on a career in the clergy involves considerations different from those involved in other career choices. When per sons choose to enter the ministry, priesthood, or rabbinate, they do so primarily because they possess a strong religious faith and a desire to help others. Nevertheless, it is important to know as much as possible about the profession and how to prepare for it, the kind of life it offers, and its needs for personnel. The number of clergy needed depends largely on the number of people who partici pate in organized religious groups. This af fects the number of churches and synagogues established and pulpits to be filled. In addi tion to the clergy who serve congregations, many others teach or act as administrators in seminaries and in other educational institu tions; still others serve as chaplains in the Armed Forces, industry, correctional institu tions, hospitals, or on college campuses; or render service as missionaries or in social welfare agencies. Persons considering a career in the clergy should seek the counsel of a religious leader of their faith to aid in evaluating their qualifi cations. The most important of these are a deep religious belief and a desire to serve the spiritual needs of others. Priests, ministers, and rabbis also are expected to be models of moral and ethical conduct. A person consid ering one of these fields must realize that the civic, social, and recreational activities of a member of the clergy often are influenced and restricted by the customs and attitudes of the community. The clergy should be sensitive to the needs of others and able to help them deal with these needs. The job demands an ability to speak and write effectively, to organize, and to supervise others. The person entering this field also must enjoy studying because the occupation requires continuous learning and demands considerable initiative and self-disci pline. In addition to the clergy, some lay people are religious workers. Many coordinate the activities of various denominational groups to meet the religious needs of students or direct religious school programs designed to pro mote religious education among members of their faith. Like members of the clergy, they sometimes provide counseling and guidance on marital, health, financial, and religious problems. Education and training requirements as well as job prospects for the clergy vary widely among the faiths and even among branches within some faiths. A detailed dis cussion of training requirements, job pros pects, and other information on the clergy in 124 the three largest faiths in the United States— Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish—is presented in the following statements. Infor mation on the clergy in other faiths and on lay religious workers may be obtained direct ly from leaders of the respective groups. Protestant Ministers (D.O.T. 120.007-010) Nature of the Work Protestant ministers lead their congrega tions in worship services and administer the various rites of their churches, such as bap tism, confirmation, and Holy Communion. They prepare and deliver sermons and give religious instruction. They also perform mar riages; conduct funerals; counsel individuals who seek guidance; visit the sick, aged, and handicapped at home and in the hospital; comfort the bereaved; and serve church mem bers in other ways. Many Protestant minis ters write articles for publication, give speeches, and engage in interfaith, communi ty, civic, educational, and recreational activi ties sponsored by or related to the interests of the church. Some ministers teach in seminar ies, colleges, and universities. The services that ministers conduct differ among Protestant denominations and also among congregations within a denomination. In many denominations, ministers follow a traditional order of worship; in others, they adapt the services to the needs of youth and other groups within the congregation. Most services include Bible reading, hymn sing ing, prayers, and a sermon. In some denomi nations, Bible reading by a member of the congregation and individual testimonials may constitute a large part of the service. Ministers serving small congregations gen erally work on a personal basis with their parishioners. Those serving large congrega tions have greater administrative responsibil ities and spend considerable time working with committees, church officers, and staff, besides performing their other duites. They may share specific aspects of the ministry with one or more associates or assistants, such as a minister of education who assists in educational programs for different age groups, or a minister of music. Working Conditions Ministers are “on call’’ for any serious troubles or emergencies that involve or affect members of their churches. They also may work long and irregular hours in administra tive, educational, and community service activities. Many of the ministers ’ duties are sedentary in nature, such as reading or doing research in a study or a library while preparing ser mons or writing articles. In denominations such as the Methodist Church, ministers are subject to reassignment by a central body to a new pastorate every few years. Employment In 1980, an estimated 230,000 Protestant ministers served individual congregations. Some also worked in closely related fields such as chaplains in hospitals and the Armed Forces. The greatest number of clergy are affiliated with the five largest groups of churches—Baptist, United Methodist, Luth eran, Presbyterian, and Episcopal. All cities and most towns in the United States have at least one Protestant church with a full-time minister. Some churches em ploy part-time ministers; many part-time clergy are seminary students, ministers re tired from full-time pastoral responsibilities, or those who also have secular jobs. Al though most ministers are located in urban areas, many live in less densely populated areas where they may serve two or more congregations. Training and Other Qualifications Educational requirements for entry into the Protestant ministry vary greatly. Some de nominations have no formal educational re quirements, and others ordain persons having varying amounts and types of training in Bi ble colleges, Bible institutes, or liberal arts colleges. In 1980, there were about 150 American theological institutes accredited by the Asso ciation of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada. These admit only stu dents who have received a bachelor’s degree or its equivalent with a liberal arts major from an accredited college. Many denomina tions require a 3-year course of professional study in one of these accredited schools or seminaries after college graduation. The de gree of master of divinity is awarded upon completion. Recommended preseminary or undergrad uate college courses include English, history, philosophy, natural sciences, social sciences, fine arts, music, religion, and foreign lan guages. These courses provide a knowledge of modem social, cultural, and scientific in stitutions and problems. However, students considering theological study should contact, at the earliest possible date, the schools to which they intend to apply, to learn how to prepare for the program they expect to enter. Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/125 and inadequate financial support are expected to result in only limited growth in requirements for ministers. However, the number of persons being ordained has been increasing and is like ly to continue to do so. Asa result, new gradu ates of theological schools are expected to face increasing competition in finding positions and more experienced ministers will face competi tion in their efforts to move to large congrega tions with greater responsibility and more remuneration. The supply-demand situation will vary among denominations, with more favorable prospects for ministers in Evangeli cal churches. Most of the openings for minis ters that are expected through the 1980’s will therefore result from the need to replace those in existing positions who leave the ministry, retire, or die. Employment alternatives for newly or dained Protestant ministers who are unable to find positions in parishes include working in youth counseling, family relations, and wel fare organizations; teaching in religious edu cational institutions; and serving as chaplains in the Armed Forces, hospitals, universities, and correctional institutions. Earnings Salaries of Protestant clergy vary substan tially, depending on age, experience, de nomination, size and wealth of congregation, and geographic location. Based on limited information, the estimated median annual in come of Protestant ministers was about $15,000 in 1980. Related Occupations Protestant ministers advise and counsel in dividuals and groups regarding their religious as well as personal, social, and vocational development. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counseling psychologists, teach ers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Newly ordained ministers often start out as assistant pastors. The standard curriculum for accredited theological schools consists of four major categories: Biblical, historical, theological, and practical. Courses of a practical nature such as psychology, religious education, and administration are emphasized. Many accred ited schools require that students gain expe rience in church work under the supervision of a faculty member or experienced minister. Some institutions offer doctor of ministry degrees to students who have completed 1 year or more of additional study after serving at least a year as minister. Scholarships and loans are available for students of theological institutions. In general, each large denomination has its own school or schools of theology that reflect its particular doctrine, interests, and needs. However, many of these schools are open to students from other denominations. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and grad uate training covering a wide range of the ological points of view. Persons who have denominational qualifi cations for the ministry usually are ordained after graduation from a seminary. In denomi nations that do not require seminary training, clergy are ordained at various appointed times. For example, the Evangelical minister may be ordained with only a high school education. Men and women entering the clergy often begin their careers as pastors of small con gregations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Job Outlook The anticipated slow growth in church mem bership combined with pressures of rising costs Persons who are interested in entering the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guidance worker. Each theological school can supply informa tion on admission requirements. Prospective ministers also should contact the ordination supervision body of their particular denomi nation for information on special require ments for ordination. Rabbis (D.O.T. 120.007-010) Nature of the Work Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their congregations, and teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradition. They conduct religious services and deliver sermons on the Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Like other 126/Occupational Outlook Handbook Rabbis teach and interpret Jewish law and tradition. clergy, rabbis conduct weddings and funeral services, visit the sick, help the poor, com fort the bereaved, supervise religious educa tion programs, engage in interfaith activities, and involve themselves in community affairs. Rabbis serving large congregations may spend considerable time in administrative du ties, working with their staffs and commit tees. Large congregations frequently have an associate or assistant rabbi. Many assistant rabbis serve as educational directors. Rabbis serve either Orthodox, Conserva tive, Reform, or Reconstructionist congrega tions. Regardless of their particular point of view, all Jewish congregations preserve the substance of Jewish religious worship. Con gregations differ in the extent to which they follow the traditional form of worship—for example, in the wearing of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the language of prayer, or the use of music or a choir. The format of the worship service and, therefore, the ritual that the rabbis use may vary even among congregations belonging to the same branch of Judaism. Rabbis also may write for religious and lay publications, and teach in theological semi naries, colleges, and universities. Community and educational activities may also require long or irregular hours. Some of their duties are intellectual and sedentary, such as studying religious texts and researching and writing sermons and arti cles for publication. Rabbis have a good deal of independent authority, since there is no formal hierarchy among them. They are responsible only to the Board of Trustees of the congregations they serve. Employment An estimated 3,000 rabbis served individ ual congregations in 1980; approximately 1,300 were Orthodox rabbis, 850 were Con servative, 750 were Reform, and 60 were Reconstructionist. Some rabbis work as chaplains in the military services, in hospitals and other institutions, or in one of the many Jewish community service agencies. Some are employed in colleges and universities as teachers in Jewish Studies programs. Although rabbis serve Jewish communities throughout the Nation, they are concentrated in major metropolitan areas that have large Jewish populations. Training and Other Qualifications Working Conditions Rabbis work long hours and are “on call” to visit the sick, comfort the bereaved, and provide counseling to those who need it. To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must complete a course of study in a seminary. Entrance requirements and the curriculum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary is associated. About 30 seminaries train Orthodox rab bis. Of these, the Rabbi Issac Elchanan The ological Seminary (an affiliate of Yeshiva University) and the Herbrew Theological College of Skokie are the two largest semi naries in the United States. Both have formal 3-year ordination programs and require a bachelor’s degree for entry. Many Orthodox rabbis are ordained in seminaries with pro grams of varying length. There are no formal requirements for admission to these seminar ies, nor are degrees, other than ordination, always granted. The training, nevertheless, is rigorous. When students have become suffi ciently learned in the Talmud, the Bible, and other religious studies, they may be ordained with the approval of an authorized rabbi, acting either independently or as a represen tative of a rabbinical seminary. The Hebrew Union College—Jewish In stitute of Religion is the official seminary that trains rabbis for the Reform branch of Judaism. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, the official seminary that trains rabbis for the Conservative branch of Juda ism, and the Hebrew Union College require the completion of a 4-year college course, as well as earlier preparation in Jewish studies, for admission to the rabbinical program lead ing to ordination. Normally 5 years of study are required to complete the rabbinical course at the Reform seminary, including 1 year of preparatory study in Jerusalem. Exceptional ly well-prepared students can shorten this 5year period to a minimum of 3 years. A student having a strong background in Jewish studies can complete the course at the Con servative seminary in 4 years; for other enrollees, the course may take as long as 6 years. The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College trains rabbis in the newest branch of Juda ism. A bachelor’s degree is required for ad mission to the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College. The rabbinical program is based on a five-year course of study which empha sizes, in each year, a period in the history of Jewish civilization. In addition, students are required to earn a master’s degree in a related field at an area university. Graduates are awarded the title “ Rabbi” and, with special study, can earn the Doctor of Hebrew Let ters degree. In general, the curriculums of Jewish the ological seminaries provide students with a comprehensive knowledge of the Bible, Tal mud, Rabbinic literature, Jewish history, the ology, and courses in education, pastoral psychology, and public speaking. Students of the Reform seminary get extensive practical training in dealing with social and political problems in the community. Training for al ternatives to the pulpit, such as leadership in community services and religious education, increasingly is stressed. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in fields such as Biblical and Talmu dic research. All Jewish theological seminar Social Scientists, Social Workers, Religious Workers, and Lawyers/127 ies make scholarships and loans available. Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as lead ers of small congregations, assistants to exper ienced rabbis, directors of Hillel Foundations on college campuses, teachers in seminaries and other educational institutions, or chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, the pulpits of large and well-established Jewish congrega tions are filled by experienced rabbis. Job Outlook The job outlook for rabbis varies among the four major branches of Judaism. Orthodox clergy currently face keen com petition because the number of graduates from Orthodox seminaries is increasing at a more rapid pace than the number of pulpits. Rabbis in the Conservative branch of Juda ism, on the other hand, are expected to have good employment opportunities if present trends continue. Reform rabbis are expected to enjoy favor able prospects for available positions because the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, the only seminary that trains rabbis for the Reform branch of Judaism, has recently sought to keep supply and demand in balance by limiting enrollments. Reconstructionist rabbis also are expected to have good employment opportunities, as supply and demand are expected to be in balance through the 1980’s. Newly ordained rabbis who do not have a pulpit may work for a Jewish social service agency, teach in a religious educational insti tution, or serve as chaplain in the Armed Forces or in hospitals, universities, or correc tional institutions. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 3080 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10027. (Conservative) The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, 2540 Amsterdam Ave., New York, N.Y. 10033. (Orthodox) Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Reli gion, whose three campuses are located at 1 W. 4th St., New York, N.Y. 10012; at 3101 Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio 45220; and at 3077 Uni versity Mall, Los Angeles, Calif. 90007. (Reform) Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, 2308-10 N. Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19132. Roman Catholic Priests________ (D.O.T. 120.007-010) Nature of the Work Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiri tual, pastoral, moral, and educational needs of the members of their church. Their duties involve delivering sermons; administering the sacraments of marriage and of penance, and presiding at liturgical functions, such as fu neral services. They also comfort the sick, console and counsel those in need of guid ance, and assist the poor. Earnings Income varies, depending on the size and financial status of the congregation, as well as its denominational branch and geographic location. Rabbis usually earn additional in come from gifts or fees for officiating at ceremonies such as weddings. Based on limited information, the annual earnings of rabbis generally ranged from $20,000 to $50,000 in 1980, including fringe benefits. Some senior rabbis in large congre gations earn over $50,000 a year. Related Occupations Rabbis advise and counsel individuals and groups regarding their religious as well as personal, social, and vocational develop ment. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counseling psychologists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in becoming rabbis should discuss their plans for a voca tion with a practicing rabbi. Information on the work of rabbis and allied occupations can be obtained from: Priest conducts wedding rehearsal. Their day usually begins with morning meditation and Mass, and may end with the hearing of confessions or an evening visit to a hospital or a home. Many priests direct and serve on church committees, work in civic and charitable organizations, and assist in community projects. There are two main classifications of priests—diocesan (secular) and religious. Both types have the same powers acquired through ordination by a bishop. The differences lie in their way of life, the type of work to which they are assigned, and the church authority to whom they are immediately subject. Diocesan priests generally work as individuals in parishes as signed to them by the bishop of their diocese. Religious priests generally work as part of a religious order, such as the Jesuits, Domini cans, or Franciscans. They may engage in specialized activities, such as teaching or mis sionary work, assigned to them by superiors of their order. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and administrative posts in Catholic seminaries, colleges and universities, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large proportion of the church’s institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas diocesan priests are usually concerned with the parochial schools attached to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The members of religious or ders do most of the missionary work con- 128/Occupational Outlook Handbook ducted by the Catholic Church in this coun try and abroad. Working Conditions Priests spend long and irregular hours working for the church and the community. Religious priests are assigned duties by their superiors in their particular orders. Some religious priests serve as missionaries in foreign countries where they may live un der difficult and primitive conditions. Some religious priests live a communal life in mon asteries where they devote themselves to prayer, study, and assigned work. Diocesan priests ordinarily serve church members in parishes and they are “on call” at all hours to serve their parishioners in emer gency situations. They also have many intel lectual duties including study of the scriptures and keeping up with current religious and secular events in order to prepare sermons. Diocesan priests are responsible to the bishop in the diocese. Employment There were approximately 58,000 priests in 1980, according to the National Catholic Conference. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural communi ties. The majority are in metropolitan areas, where most Catholics reside. Large numbers of priests are located in communities near Catholic educational and other institutions. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for the priesthood generally re quires 8 years of study beyond high school. There are over 450 seminaries where students receive training for the priesthood. Preparato ry study may begin in the first year of high school, at the college level, or in theological seminaries after college graduation. High school seminaries provide a college preparatory program that emphasizes English grammar, speech, literature, and social stud ies. Some study of Latin is required and the study of modem languages is encouraged. The seminary college offers a liberal arts program, stressing philosophy and religion; the study of man through the behavioral sci ences and history; and the natural sciences and mathematics. In many college seminar ies, a student may concentrate in any of these fields. The remaining 4 years of preparation in clude sacred scripture; dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics (art of preach ing); church history; liturgy (Mass); and can on law. Fieldwork experience usually is also required; in recent years, this aspect of a priest’s training has been emphasized. Dioce san and religious priests attend different ma jor seminaries, where slight variations in the training reflect the differences in the type of work expected of them as priests. Priests commit themselves not to marry. Postgraduate work in theology is offered at a number of American Catholic universities or at ecclesiastical universities around the world, particularly in Rome. Also, many priests do graduate work in fields unrelated to theology. Priests are encouraged by the Catholic Church to continue their studies, at least informally, after ordination. In recent years, continuing education for ordained priests has stressed social sciences, such as sociology and psychology. Young men never are denied entry into seminaries because of lack of funds. In sem inaries for secular priests, scholarships or loans are available. Those in religious sem inaries are financed by contributions of benefactors. The first assignment of a newly ordained secular priest is usually that of assistant pas tor or curate. Newly ordained priests of reli gious orders are assigned to the specialized duties for which they are trained. Depending on the talents, interests, and experience of the individual, many opportunities for greater responsibility exist within the church. Job Outlook More priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual, education al, and social needs of the increasing number of Catholics. During the past decade, the number of ordained priests has been insuffi cient to fill the needs of newly established parishes and other Catholic institutions, and to replace priests who retire, die, or leave the priesthood. This situation is likely to persist and perhaps worsen, if the sharp drop in seminary enrollment continues, and if an increasing proportion of priests retire as expected. In response to the shortage of priests, cer tain functions within the church traditionally performed by priests are now being per formed by lay deacons, and this trend is expected to increase in the future. Priests will continue to offer Mass, administer the sacra ments, and hear confession, but probably will be less involved in teaching, administrative, and community work. An increasing number of lay deacons are being ordained to preach and perform liturgical functions such as dis tributing holy communion and reading the gospel at the Mass. Earnings Diocesan priests’ salaries vary from dio cese to diocese. Based on limited informa tion, salaries range from $2,000 to $4,000 a year. The diocesan priest also may receive a car allowance of $25 to $50 a month, free room and board in the parish rectory, and fringe benefits such as group insurance and retirement benefits in the diocese. Religious priests take a vow of poverty and are supported by their religious order. Priests who do special work related to the church, such as teaching, usually receive a partial salary which is less than a lay person in the same position would receive. The dif ference between the usual salary for these jobs and the salary that the priest receives is called “contributed service. ” In some of these situations, housing and related expenses may be provided; in other cases, the priest must make his own arrangements. Some priests doing special work may receive the same compensation that a lay person would receive. Related Occupations Roman Catholic priests advise and counsel individuals and groups regarding their reli gious as well as personal, social, and voca tional development. Other occupations involved in this type of work include social workers, clinical and counseling psycholo gists, teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Young men interested in entering the priesthood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priests. For informa tion regarding the different religious orders and the secular priesthood, as well as a list of the seminaries which prepare students for the priesthood, contact the diocesan Directors of Vocations through the office of the local pastor or bishop. Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors Teaching, librarianship, and counseling are ‘‘people-oriented ’’ fields that involve help ing others learn, acquire information, or gain insight into themselves. Professional posi tions require a bachelor’s degree, as a rule, although some require a master’s or doctoral degree. Teaching is one of the largest occupations in the United States. In 1980, more than 1.6 million persons taught full time or part time in kindergartens or elementary schools, and another 1.2 million taught in secondary schools. Nearly 700,000 persons were col lege or university faculty members. Many other teachers provided instruction in pre school programs, including nursery schools and Head Start; in adult education programs; in dance, music, and art studios; and in other places. Librarianship and counseling are much smaller fields. Approximately 145,000 librarians and audiovisual specialists and about 200,000 vocational and educational counselors were employed in 1980. Teaching takes place in many different settings, and most people would agree that education is a life-long process. But perhaps our most influential educational experiences occur during the period of formal education, beginning in preschool or kindergarten and extending through early adulthood. Teachers help students gain the skills they need to function in the world around them, encourag ing them to explore many subjects and mas ter some; to identify interests and values; and to learn to make decisions. Perhaps most important, teachers help students learn to think for themselves. Librarianship is undergoing profound changes as libraries try to keep up with the information explosion, assimilate new tech nology, and respond to budget pressures. Many libraries are restructuring services and looking for new ways to share resources, developments that may alter library staffing patterns as well. Public libraries, long thought of as centers for recreational reading, are enlarging the scope of their activities and finding additional ways to serve the community—as informa tion and referral services, cultural centers, and learning centers or “open universities.” School libraries, also called media centers because so much of their collection is not in printed form, have become an integral part of the learning experience in elementary and secondary schools. College and university li braries provide both reference collections for students and support for highly specialized research. Special libraries and documentation centers, which generally tailor services to a single group of users, have led the field in the use of computers for information storage and retrieval. Expertise in library automation is important for all kinds of librarians, lack the knowledge of business practices and organizational dynamics needed for a suc however. Counseling has many dimensions. The cessful career in private industry. For more Handbook covers four counseling specialties: information, see the statement on personnel School counseling, rehabilitation counseling, and labor relations specialists elsewhere in employment counseling, and college career the Handbook. While library jobs are relatively hard to planning and placement. find, people with information-handling skills Other kinds of counselors provide personal, are in demand in other settings. New infor social, and vocational guidance in a wide mation-handling roles, for which many li range of settings, including community mental brarians are well qualified, are emerging in health centers, halfway houses, and counsel business and industry—in the rapidly devel ing centers for women, minorities, veterans, oping “ information industry” in particular. ex-offenders and alcohol or drug abusers. More detailed information on job outlook Some employers require a master’s degree in and alternative careers appears in the nine counseling, counseling psychology, social statements that follow. work, or a related field, but others do not. Peer counseling, which has proved highly effective in many situations, is conducted by individuals who are trained and supervised by professionals. Peer counselors do not ordinari ly have professional credentials themselves, however. Moreover, counseling is a normal part of the job for many others in the “helping professions,” including members of the cler gy, social workers, psychologists, and nurses. Job prospects in teaching, librarianship, and counseling are relatively poor, overall, as (D .O .T . 166.167-014 and .267-010) a result of anticipated enrollment declines in secondary schools and colleges and universi Nature of the Work ties; pressures to constrain spending for pub Career planning and placement counselors lic education and social services; and an help bridge the gap between education and abundance of qualified jobseekers. Most po work by assisting students and alumni in all sitions in these fields are in the public sector, phases of career planning and job search. where little employment growth is expected Helping students and alumni identify suitable during the 1980’s. Staff cutbacks in school fields of work is just one aspect of the job. systems and social service agencies will in Once a career choice has been made, the tensify competition for jobs. job search begins in earnest, and the counsel Nonetheless, the teaching occupations in or assists in resume writing, searching out particular are so large that replacement needs prospective employers, and setting up job alone will generate a substantial number of interviews. openings throughout the decade. Further Because a curriculum in the liberal arts is more, some specializations and some parts of not specifically career oriented, liberal arts the country are far more promising than oth students in particular benefit from career ers. Jobseekers who have specific kinds of planning and counseling. However, even in training and who are willing to relocate will areas like accounting or engineering, where be in a relatively favorable position. More the connection between college major and over, opportunities in the private sector ap career is quite direct, students may need help pear to be promising for educators with in deciding where and how to look for a job. technical skills and an interest in business. Midlife career changers and returning stu Training and human resource develop dents seeking to update their credentials or ment, a field closely related to teaching, has prepare for a new field also benefit from attracted the attention of growing numbers of career counseling. teachers seeking a career change. Trainers Counselors encourage students to examine need many of the skills that mark successful their interests, abilities, values, and goals, teachers; they, too, must be able to design and assist them in exploring career alterna lesson plans, speak in front of groups, and tives. They may help students test career evaluate performance. And trainers should be interests by arranging internships, field place able to inspire interest and encourage learn ments, or part-time or summer employment. ing. Teachers are among those who have Counselors discuss the kinds of jobs open to responded to job opportunities in the growing college graduates with a particular major and field of employee development. However, help students evaluate the pros and cons of training specialists warn that many teachers further training. To counsel students ade- College Career Planning and Placement Counselors 129 130/Occupational Outlook Handbook Counselor advises college student on job search strategy. quately, counselors must keep abreast of la bor market information, including salaries, training requirements, and job prospects. This means reading career and counseling literature and maintaining contact with indus try and government recruiters. Counselors also help students find jobs. They arrange student interviews with job re cruiters who visit the campus from time to time. The counselors provide employers with information about students and inform stu dents about business operations and person nel needs in industry. They also instruct students on resume writing and interview techniques. Some career planning and placement coun selors, especially those in 2-year and commu nity colleges, advise school administrators on curriculum and course content. They may consult employers and then suggest courses that would prepare students more adequately for local jobs. In addition, some placement directors and counselors, especially those working in small schools, also teach. All counselors maintain a library of career guid ance and recruitment information. Counselors may specialize in areas such as law, education, internships and field place ments, or part-time and summer work. How ever, the extent of specialization usually depends upon the size and type of college as well as the size of the placement staff. Working Conditions Working as they do with students, alumni, faculty, and employers, college career plan ning and placement counselors have peopleoriented jobs. Their work entails a great deal of contact with others—in counseling ses sions, meetings, public appearances, and telephone calls. College counseling offices are busy places, and conflicting demands on the counselor’s time can create considerable pressure. Career planning and placement counselors frequently work more than a 40-hour week; irregular hours and overtime often are necessary, par ticularly during the “recruiting season.” Many persons pursue careers as college counselors because of the intellectual stimu lation and other intangible benefits of an aca demic environment. Employment Nearly all 4-year colleges and universities and many 2-year and community colleges provide career planning and placement ser vices to their students and alumni. Large colleges and universities may have several counselors working under a director of career planning and placement activities, and fre quently have placement officers for each ma jor branch or campus. In many schools, however, career planning and placement is the responsibility of just one person—a direc tor—who may have some clerical assistance. And in small schools, members of the faculty or administrative staff may handle career counseling on a part-time basis. An estimated 5,000 persons worked as col lege career planning and placement counsel ors in 1980. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There is no educational program that spe cifically prepares people for college career planning and placement work. Colleges and universities generally seek applicants with a master’s degree in counseling, college student personnel work, or a behavioral science. Graduate courses for career planning and placement counseling include counseling the ory and techniques, vocational testing, occu pational research and information, theory of group dynamics, personnel management,or ganizational behavior, and industrial relations. Some people enter the field after gaining a broad background in business, industry, gov ernment, or education. Work experience in business or industry or an internship in a career planning and placement office are helpful. Like other counselors, college career plan ning and placement counselors need certain personal traits. Respect and concern for the individual are important in this field. Coun selors must communicate with and gain the confidence of students, faculty, and employ ers to work effectively. Intellectual curiosity and openmindedness are important, for coun selors need to understand the personal, eco nomic, and environmental forces that affect career decisions. People in this field should be energetic and able to work under pressure because they must organize and administer a wide variety of activities. Career planning and placement counselors may advance to assistant director, associate director, or director of career planning and placement; director of student personnel ser vices; or other high-level positions in college and university administration. The statement on College Student Personnel Workers, else where in the Handbook, describes several of these jobs. A doctoral degree is preferred, and may be required, for advancement in this field. Job Outlook Little or no change in employment of career planning and placement counselors is foreseen during the 1980’s, as budgetary constraints force institutions of higher education to limit student services. Although colleges and uni versities will continue to emphasize career planning and placement services for students at all levels, including special groups—adults seeking a midcareer change as well as minor ity, low-income, and handicapped students— schools are likely to use existing staff rather than hire additional personnel. Nearly all job openings will result from the need to replace counselors who transfer to other occupations or retire. As with other academic jobs, applicants for college career planning and placement positions will face keen competition. Those with a master’s degree in counseling or a related field and experience in business or industry may have the best job prospects. Earnings According to a survey of colleges and uni versities, the median salary of student place ment directors was about $20,671 in the 1980-81 academic year. Salaries generally were higher in public than in private institu tions, and higher in major universities and 4year institutions than in 2-year schools. Most counselors are employed on a 12-month ba sis. They are paid for holidays and vacations and usually receive the same benefits as other professional personnel employed by colleges and universities. Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/131 Related Occupations College career planning and placement counselors help students to examine and evaluate their interests, abilities, and goals; explore career alternatives; and look for a job. Others who help people attain goals and solve personal problems include school coun selors, employment counselors, rehabilitation counselors, personnel and labor relations spe cialists, social workers, psychologists, mem bers of the clergy, teachers, and college student personnel workers. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet on college career planning and placement is available from: The College Placement Council, Inc., P.O. Box 2263, Bethlehem, Pa. 18001. College and University Faculty (D .O .T. 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Millions of people enroll in college every year. They enroll for personal enrichment or to obtain the skills they need for a job. While the majority are recent high school graduates, the number of older students on campus is growing. Many are homemakers who are preparing to enter or reenter the work force. Others have returned to school to obtain courses necessary for advancement in their present job or to prepare for a career change. College and university faculty members provide instruction in particular fields of study to meet the needs of these students. Many faculty members conduct several dif ferent courses in the same field—freshman composition and 18th century English litera ture, for example. Many instruct undergrad uates only, while some instruct both undergraduates and graduate students. Still fewer instruct only graduate students. Usual ly, the more experienced and educated facul ty members conduct the higher level classes. College and university faculty members use various methods to present information, depending on the subject, interest, and level of their students. Some conduct lectures in classrooms that seat hundreds of students while others lead seminars for only a few students. Still others work primarily in labo ratories for subjects such as biology, engi neering, or chemistry. Some have the aid of teaching assistants who may lead discussion sections or grade exams. Closed-circuit tele vision, tape recorders, computers, and other teaching aids frequently are used. College faculty members must keep up with developments in their field by reading current literature, participating in profession al activities, and conducting scholarly re search. Writing books or journal articles can be very important, and some college faculty Job prospects for college teachers vary by academic field. members experience a serious conflict be tween their responsibilities to their students and the pressure to “ publish or perish.” The importance of research and publication var ies, however. Research is stressed more at 4year colleges and universities than at 2-year colleges. A recent survey indicated that over one-fourth of the faculty in science and engi neering departments that offered doctoral de grees were engaged in separately budgeted research and development activities. In addition to time spent on preparation, instruction, and research, college and univer sity faculty members work with student orga nizations and act as student advisors, work with the college administration, and in other ways serve the institution and the communi ty. Department heads also have supervisory and administrative duties. Working Conditions College faculty members generally have flexible schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, and administrative re sponsibilities. They may work odd hours, however, such as when teaching classes at night. The normal teaching load usually is heavier in 2-year and community colleges where less emphasis is placed on scholarly research and publication than in major universities. Over 90 percent of all full-time college and university faculty work in institutions that have tenure systems (the assurance of continuing employment with freedom from dismissal without cause). Nearly three-fifths of those faculty members are tenured. Under a tenure system, a faculty member usually receives 1-year contracts during a probation- 132/Occupational Outlook Handbook aiy period lasting at least 3 years and ordi narily no more than 7 years; some universi ties award 2- or 3-year contracts. After the probationary period, institutions consider fac ulty members for tenure. Due to declining enrollments and budgetary constraints, how ever, faculty members now find it increasing ly difficult to gain tenure. Colleges and universities are turning to short-term con tracts and to part-time faculty to save money and avoid long-term commitments. Few professions offer vacation arrange ments as attractive as those in college teach ing. In addition to the summer months during which faculty members may conduct re search, prepare course and teaching materi als, travel, or pursue hobbies, they also have breaks during other school holidays. College faculty share in the growth and development of students and are constantly exposed to new ideas. Many persons pursue teaching careers because of the intangible rewards from working in an academic environment. Employment According to the National Center for Edu cation Statistics, about 691,000 faculty mem bers taught in the Nation’s 3,200 colleges and universities in 1980. An estimated 453.000 faculty members holding the rank of professor, associate professor, assistant pro fessor, or instructor worked full time, and 209.000 worked part time. Approximately 29.000 persons were full time junior instruc tors. In addition to full-time and part-time faculty members, thousands of graduate stu dents teach part time. They are employed as assistant instructors, teaching fellows, teach ing assistants, or laboratory assistants. Public institutions, which amount to less than one-half of all colleges and universities, employ over 70 percent of all full-time facul ty. They employ about two-thirds of the full time faculty in all universities and 4-year colleges, and almost 95 percent in all 2-year institutions. Nearly one-third of full-time faculty teach in universities; almost one-half work in 4year colleges; and over one-fifth teach in 2year colleges. Some part-time faculty are employed in more than one institution of higher education. Others are primarily employed outside of an academic setting—in government, private in dustry or in nonacademic research. These people—sometimes referred to as “ adjunct faculty”—may teach as little as one course a semester. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The overwhelming majority of full-time college and university faculty are classified in four academic ranks: Professors, associate professors, assistant professors, and instruc tors. The top three ranks comprise about four-fifths of all faculty. A small proportion are classified as lecturers. traditional-age college students. Community colleges that emphasize programs for adult learners may be an exception, in which case employment opportunities would be better in those institutions. In general, however, fewer students during the 1980’s almost certainly will mean fewer college faculty members. As a result, job openings will result almost entirely from replacement needs. In any giv en academic institution, the number of vacan cies will be influenced by the age of current faculty, tenure patterns and policies, and re tirement practices. Competition for these openings will be extremely keen, particularly for faculty posi tions in the largest and most outstanding in stitutions. The number of Ph.D. recipients alone will exceed greatly the number of openings for college faculty through the 1980’s. Many graduates who succeed in find ing academic jobs may have to accept parttime or short-term appointments that offer no hope of tenure. Some fields will offer brighter employment prospects than others, of course. Depart ments that report difficulty recruiting enough faculty members include engineering, com puter science, business administration, and law—areas that offer very attractive jobs out side the academic setting. Employment of college faculty is related to the non-academic job market in other fields in still another way: There is an “ echo effect” as favorable job prospects in a particular field—account ing, for example—cause large numbers of students to sign up for courses, thus creating a demand for more teachers. However, changes in job market conditions, especially in fields like engineering that are subject to cyclical fluctuations, may cause a field to lose its popularity with college students—and thereby reduce demand for faculty. Preference for faculty candidates with a doc torate will continue to be much stronger in 4year institutions than in 2-year institutions. At 2-year institutions, the lengthy research-orient ed education required to earn a doctorate may not be considered advantageous. Throughout the 1980’s, an increasing pro portion of prospective college faculty mem Job Outlook The basic factor underlying the demand for bers will have to seek nonacademic jobs. college faculty is enrollment. During the Government and private industry will provide 1960’s and most of the 1970’s, enrollments rose such positions, for the most part. However, and employment of college faculty increased. some persons holding graduate degrees may The steady rise in the number of persons at find it necessary to enter occupations that tending college reflected not only growth in the have not traditionally required a master’s de number of 18- to 21-year-olds, but an increase gree or a Ph.D. in the proportion of college-age persons who actually went to college. This trend is expected Earnings Earnings vary widely according to faculty to change during the 1980’s, as the college age rank and type of institution. In general, fac population decreases. Future college enrollment levels cannot be ulty members in 4-year institutions earn high predicted with certainty, but it seems likely er salaries, on the average, than those in 2that enrollments will decline during the year schools. According to a 1980-81 survey 1980’s. Compared to the recent past, there conducted by the National Center for Educa will be many fewer people of traditional col tion Statistics, salaries for all full-time facul lege age. A growing number of adults have ty on 9-month contracts averaged around entered college in recent years, many on a $23,267; professors, $30,738; associate pro part-time basis, but adult enrollments are not fessors, $23,199; assistant professors, expected to completely offset the decline in $18,900; and instructors, $15,179. Most faculty members enter the profession as instructors and must have at least a mas ter’s degree. Because competition for posi tions is so keen, however, many colleges and universities consider only doctoral degree holders for entry level academic appointments. Doctoral programs usually require 3 to 5 years of study beyond the bachelor’s degree, including intensive research for a doctoral dissertation that makes an original contribu tion to the candidate’s field of study. A working knowledge of one or more foreign languages and, in many fields, advanced mathematical and statistical techniques, often are required as well. Students should consid er carefully their academic potential and mo tivation before beginning doctoral studies. Advancement through the academic ranks usually requires a doctorate plus college teaching experience, even in institutions that hire master’s degree holders as instructors. Assistant professors usually have a few years of prior experience as an instructor, while an appointment as associate professor frequently requires 3 years or more of experience as an assistant professor. For a professorship, ex tensive teaching experience and published books and articles that evidence expertise in one’s discipline usually are essential. Academic, administrative, or professional contributions affect advancement opportuni ties in this field. Research, publication, con sulting work, and other forms of professional recognition all have a bearing on a college faculty member’s chances of rising through the academic ranks. College faculty should have inquiring, analytical minds in order to devote their lives to the pursuit and dissemination of knowl edge. As teachers and researchers, they should be good at communicating, both oral ly and in writing. And as models for their students, they should exhibit dedication to the principles of academic integrity and intel lectual honesty. College faculty must always be open to new ideas—from their students, their peers, and the nonacademic community. Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/133 Many institutions pay according to salary schedules determined by rank. On the aver age, more faculty in public than in private institutions are covered by these schedules. In institutions without schedules, a college senate often determines salaries according to a general set of criteria. Since over 85 percent of full-time faculty members have 9-month contracts, many have additional summer earnings from teaching, research, writing for publication, or other employment. Royalties and fees for speaking engagements may provide additional earn ings. Some faculty members also undertake additional teaching or research projects or work as consultants. Some college and university faculty members enjoy benefits offered by few other professions, including tuition waivers for dependents, hous ing allowances, travel allowances, and paid sab batical leaves. In many institutions, faculty members are eligible for a sabbatical leave after 6 or 7 years of employment. Related Occupations College and university faculty function both as teachers and as researchers, and they must have an aptitude for communicating information and ideas. Related occupations include: Trainers and employee development specialists, writers, consultants, lobbyists, policy analysts, social scientists, mathemati cians, physical scientists, or life scientists. Sources of Additional Information Professional societies generally provide in formation on employment opportunities in their particular fields. Names and addresses of these societies appear in the statements on specific occupations elsewhere in the Handbook. Answers to specific questions pertaining to college and university teaching can be ob tained from: American Association of University Professors, One Dupont Circle, NW., Suite 500, Washington, D.C. 20036. Cooperative Extension Service Workers_______ (D.O.T. 096.121, .127, .161, and .167) Nature of the Work Cooperative Extension Service workers, often called extension agents, conduct educa tional programs on topics such as agriculture, home economics, youth activities, and com munity resource development. They general ly specialize in one of these areas and have titles that match their specialties, such as extension agent for youth activities or exten sion agent for agriculture science and horti culture. They are employed jointly by State Extension specialists give farmers a tour of a test plot. land-grant universities and the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture. Extension agents usually work with groups of people. For example, the extension agent for youth activities leads meetings of 4-H clubs, and during the summer, may organize day camps for young people. Home econom ics agents set up programs of interest to homemakers such as nutrition. They might suggest plans for economical meals and for buying and preparing food. Agricultural ex tension agents conduct meetings on topics of special interest to area farmers. In a county that has much dairy farming, extension agents arrange seminars on subjects such as dairy herd health or raising forage crops. During these seminars, agents teach farmers how to select the proper feeds to meet cows’ nutritional needs and. raise their output of milk, and how to establish a herd-inspection program to recognize and combat health haz ards. They also may help local farmers mar ket their products. Extension agents for community resource development help community leaders plan for economic development and other community needs such as recreational programs and fa cilities, water supply and sewage systems, libraries, and schools. In addition to group work, agents also do fieldwork with individuals. An extension or home demonstration agent may visit a farm er or homemaker to help solve individual problems. Extension workers also provide informa tion to the community at large about their area of specialization through a weekly news paper column, for example, or a marketing report on local radio and television shows for agricultural products important to the area. Occasionally, extension service workers may help produce documentary films on topics in which they have special training for broad cast on local television stations. Also, exten sion workers at some land-grant universities produce programs for university-owned UHF and cable television stations. In addition, State extension specialists at land-grant universities coordinate the efforts of county agents by developing ways of us ing the research in their fields of study at the county level. Some State extension workers also teach at the university. Working Conditions Cooperative Extension Service workers do much paperwork and planning in their of fices, but they also spend considerable time in the field visiting farmers, taping weekly radio shows, or attending seminars at the State university. Extension work is not a 9 to 5 job. To discuss new farming methods and new laws that will affect farmers, extension agents of ten conduct evening meetings so farmers can attend. Most extension service offices are located in small towns. As a result, extension work may be an ideal career for persons who wish to live outside the city. Employment In 1980, most of the approximately 14,000 Cooperative Extension Service agents were employed by counties. Almost all of the more than 3,000 counties have county staffs. Depending on the population, staffs range in size from one agent, who serves a wide vari ety of interests, to a dozen or more agents, each serving a highly specialized need. Most of the remaining extension agents work for State extension services at land-grant univer sities. A few regional staffs serve multi county areas, a small number work for the 134/Occupational Outlook Handbook Extension Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and a few work in urban areas, mostly to organize 4-H activities for youth. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is usually required for a job as an extension service worker. Agri cultural science, home economics, and train ing in teaching or a communications field, such as journalism, also are excellent prep aration. Agricultural extension work almost requires a farm background or work exper ience on a farm. Workers may receive specific instruction in extension work through pre-induction training programs or through regular in-ser vice training programs that cover both educa tional techniques and their particular subject matter. Most States require specialists and agents assigned to multicounty and State staffs to have at least one advanced degree, and, in many, they must have a Ph.D. Job Outlook Employment of Cooperative Extension Service workers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Nevertheless, as agricul tural technology becomes more complicated, more education and communications workers will be needed to relay information about advances in agricultural research and technol ogy to farmers. In urban areas, more exten sion workers will be needed to advise officials on the design of city projects and on nutrition, recreation, and lawn and garden care. Earnings According to limited data, county exten sion agents averaged almost $20,000 in 1980. Earnings vary, however, by State, education, experience, and area of specializa tion. Agricultural extension agents and com munity resource development specialists, for example, had the highest average annual earnings, over $21,000, while home econom ics agents and 4-H club agents had average annual earnings of about $18,500 and $17,500, respectively, in 1980. Related Occupations Extension workers spend most of their time helping farmers and other people imple ment new ideas. Other occupations that in volve helping people help themselves include counselors, dietitians, teachers, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information is available from County Extension offices, the State Director of the Cooperative Extension Service located at each land-grant university, or the Person nel Division, U.S. Department of Agricul ture, Hyattsville, Md. 20782. Employment Counselors (D.O.T. 045.107-010 and -018) Nature of the Work Many times, people look for jobs before they review their own assets or know enough about the labor market. Employment coun selors (sometimes called vocational counsel ors) help people evaluate themselves and their work potential. They help clients identi fy their interests and abilities; make them aware of career opportunities and alterna tives; help them set goals; and assist them in planning the steps they need to take to reach their goals. Most employment counselors work in State employment offices. Others work in community agencies, supported by both pub lic and private funds, that include career counseling centers for women; social service agencies that counsel school dropouts, drug abusers, or ex-offenders; and neighborhood organizations that help direct young people toward meaningful roles in society. Some counselors work in, or operate, private career planning and counseling firms. To help clients gain a better understanding of their vocational interests and skills, coun selors usually begin with an assessment inter view. They explore education, training, work history, interests, skills, values, personal traits, physical capacities, and attitudes to ward work and leisure. They may arrange for aptitude and achievement tests, and if appro priate, request physical capacities reports. Counselors may use role playing, role rever sal, and similar techniques to help clients identify problem areas. After reviewing all the information they have gathered thus far, counselors help their clients identify suitable jobs. During this phase of the counseling process, they may introduce the client to various sources of career and occupational information. Employability planning, the next phase, centers on a review of the client’s employ ment prospects in a particular field. The counselor and client discuss occupational goals and alternatives, and determine what steps need to be taken to reach those goals. Counselors may use techniques such as con frontation to point out discrepancies between stated goals and actual behavior. Where needs are identified, counselors re fer clients to other agencies for additional services. In most instances, these referrals aim to overcome barriers to employment, such as arranging an equivalency exam for someone who has not finished high school, or suggesting a child care facility so that a parent might work. Proper referral requires that employment counselors be thoroughly familiar with other community agencies and the services they provide; that they identify and stay in touch with resource persons in other agencies; and that they know eligibility requirements and referral procedures. Counselors may suggest specific employ ers and appropriate ways of applying for work. In some cases, counselors may contact employers about jobs for applicants, although placement specialists often handle this work in State employment service agencies. After job placement or entrance into training, coun selors may follow up to determine if the applicant needs additional assistance. The kinds of clients a counselor sees dur ing a typical workday depend on the goals of the agency. In public employment offices, for example, counselors typically work with clients who have serious labor market disad vantages, such as high school dropouts, ex offenders, or people who are emotionally unstable. Prospective clients often have trou ble making a realistic job choice, or they may have problems connected with job change or job adjustment. Relatively few ap plicants at public employment offices are se lected for counseling; those who meet the selection criteria tend to be hardest to place. Among the factors considered are re sources—how much counseling time is avail able and how many counseling sessions a client would need—and priority. In public employment offices, the counselor is respon sible for demonstrating a priority of service to special applicant groups, such as veterans, handicapped, women, and minorities. Working Conditions Counselors usually work about 40 hours a week, but some in community agencies may schedule evening appointments to counsel clients already employed. Working space is often limited, but priva cy has been recognized as a critical factor in the counseling process and most offices are designed to be free from noise and distrac tions to allow for confidential discussions with clients. Employment According to the U.S. Employment Ser vice, almost 3,600 persons held positions as employment counselors or counseling supervi sors in public employment offices in 1980. Several hundred other workers, although not classified as employment counselors, engaged in counseling activities in these offices. In addition, several thousand employment coun selors worked for various private or communi ty agencies, primarily in larger cities. Some worked in institutions such as prisons, training schools for delinquent youths, and mental hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require counselors in public em ployment offices to meet civil service or mer it system requirements. However, State standards setting minimum education and ex perience vary widely. Some States require a master’s degree in counseling or a related Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/135 field; others do not. However, the majority of counselors in State employment agencies have a bachelor’s degree plus additional courses in guidance and counseling. Experience in coun seling, interviewing, and job placement also may be required, particularly in the case of those without advanced degrees. Applicants with graduate degrees and addi tional experience may enter at higher levels on the counselor career ladder. In many States, however, individuals with extensive experience in the employment service may enter the counselor career ladder, take the prescribed university courses, and gain the necessary experience to move upward. Entry requirements for counselors are far from uniform in private and community agencies. Most agencies prefer, and some require, a master’s degree in vocational coun seling or in a related field such as psycholo gy, personnel administration, counseling, guidance education, or public administration. Many private agencies prefer to have at least one staff member who has a doctorate in counseling psychology or a related field. For those lacking an advanced degree, employers usually emphasize experience in closely related work such as rehabilitation counsel ing, employment interviewing, school or col lege counseling, teaching, social work, or psychology. In each State, the public employment ser vice provides an initial period of training for newly hired counselors or counselor trainees. In addition, both new and experienced coun selors often enroll for training at colleges and universities during the regular academic year or at institutes or summer sessions. Private and community agencies also often provide in-service training opportunities. Individuals interested in this field should include courses in psychology and sociology in their college program. Graduate level courses include techniques of counseling, psychological principles and psychology of careers, assessment and appraisal, cultures and environment, and occupational informa tion. Counselor education programs at the graduate level are available in more than 400 colleges and universities, mainly in depart ments of education or psychology. To obtain a master’s degree, students must complete 1 to 2 years of graduate study including actual supervised experience in counseling. Persons aspiring to be employment coun selors should have a strong interest in helping others make and carry out vocational deci sions. They should be able to work indepen dently and to keep detailed records. Experienced counselors may advance to supervisory or administrative positions as di rectors of agencies or supervisors of guid ance. Some move into research, consulting work, or college teaching. Still others go into private practice, and set up their own coun seling agencies. Job Outlook Qualified applicants are expected to face keen competition for jobs through the 1980’s. Employment in this small occupation may be adversely affected by cuts in Federal funding for the State, local, and community agencies that provide job counseling. Because of un certainty about future funding levels, it is difficult to project the long run outlook. However, it is likely that little employment growth will occur and most openings for employment counselors will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other fields or retire. Earnings Salaries of employment counselors in State employment offices vary considerably from State to State. The average minimum salary in 1980 was about $13,900; the average maximum salary was about $18,800. Counselors generally receive benefits such as vacations, sick leave, pension plans, and insurance coverage. Related Occupations Employment counselors help people evalu ate their interests, abilities, and attitudes to wards work, and assist them in finding the job that best suits them. Related occupations include college career planning and place ment counselors, school counselors, rehabili tation counselors, parole officers, probation officers, employment interviewers, employee compensation and benefits managers, equal employment opportunity/affirmative actionmanagers, and training and employee devel opment specialists. Sources of Additional Information For general information on employment or vocational counseling, contact: American Personnel and Guidance Association, Two Skyline Place, Suite 400, 5203 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Va. 22041. The nearest local office of your State em ployment service can supply information about job opportunities and entrance require ments for positions in your State. Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers___________ (D .O .T . 092.227-010, -014; 094.224-010, .227-010 through -022; 099.224-010) Nature of the Work Counselors administer aptitude tests and interest inventories. Kindergarten and elementary school teach ers play a vital role in the development of children. What is learned or not learned in these early years can shape students ’ views of themselves and the world, and affect later success or failure in school. 136/Occupational Outlook Handbook Kindergarten and elementary school teach ers introduce children to the basics of math ematics, language, science, and social studies. They try to instill good study habits and an appreciation for learning, and observe and evaluate each child’s performance and poten tial. Elementary school teachers look for cre ative ways of helping children learn, and may use films, slides, computers, or instructional games. They also arrange class trips, speak ers, and class projects. Teachers keep track of their students’ so cial development and health. They study each child’s interactions with classmates and discuss any problems with the parents. Teachers may, for example, meet with the parents of a child who habitually resists au thority to discover the cause and work out a solution. Teachers also report health prob lems to parents and school health officials. One of the teacher’s primary concerns is to insure that each child receives as much per sonalized help as possible. Most elementary school teachers instruct a single group of children in several subjects. In some schools, two or more teachers team teach and are jointly responsible for a group of students or for a particular subject. An increasing number of elementary school teachers specialize in one or two subjects and teach these subjects to several classes. Some teach special subjects such as music, art, or physical education, while others concentrate on the special needs of certain groups: those with reading problems, or those who do not speak English, for example. Much of a teacher’s work occurs outside the classroom. Teachers generally prepare lessons and grade papers at home, and attend faculty meetings and supervise extracurricular activi ties after school. They also serve on faculty committees, such as those to revise curricula or to evaluate the school’s objectives and the students’ performance. To stay up-to-date on educational materials and teaching techniques, they may participate in workshops and other in-service activities and take courses at local colleges and universities. A growing number of elementary school teachers have aides to do clerical work and to help supervise lunch and playground activi ties. Freed from routine duties, these teachers can give more individual attention to students. Working Conditions Teachers spend much of their time stand ing, walking, kneeling, or even sitting on the floor. For example, kindergarten teachers may join their students on the floor to finger paint, cut out pictures, or do other crafts. A teacher may often have to deal with disruptive, disrespectful, and sometimes even violent children, which can be physically and emotionally taxing. Giving appropriate atten tion to disabled pupils also adds to a teacher’s load. Most elementary school teachers work a traditional 2-semester, 10-month school year. (In most States the minimum number of days that public schools must be in session is specified by law; 180 days a year is the usual minimum.) Teachers on a 10-month schedule often are involved in the summer session or take other jobs. Many enroll in college courses or special workshops. Some teachers work in year-round schools where they work 8-week sessions, are off 1 week between sessions, and have a longer midwinter break. This 12-month schedule makes it difficult for teachers to take supplemental jobs. Most States as well as the District of Co lumbia have tenure laws that protect the right to a job of teachers who have taught success fully for a certain number of years. A teacher normally must serve a probationary period of 3 years before attaining tenure status. In some States, tenure is achieved automatically when the probationary period is completed. In other States, teachers who have completed a probationary period are required to negoti ate a new contract. Tenure is not an automat ic guarantee of job security, but it does provide procedural protection in the event of dismissal. Employment More than 1.6 million people worked as kindergarten and elementary school teachers in 1980. Most elementary school teachers work in public schools that have six grades; however, some teach in middle schools that cover the 3 or 4 years between the lower elementary grades and 4 years of high school. Fewer than 14 percent of elementary school teachers work in nonpublic schools. A large proportion of all public elementary school teachers teach in urban areas. Fourteen States require that teachers pass a written examination for certification, and half the States have health, citizenship, or character requirements. Almost half of all States require teachers to have graduate degrees. This re quirement is often coupled with provisions concerning continuing education. Complete information on requirements for elementary school teaching is available from any State department of education or superintendent of schools. Information about whether a particular teacher training program is approved can be obtained from the institution or offering the training or from the State department of edu cation. Training need not be obtained in the State in which one wants to teach. Many colleges and universities offer teacher train ing programs that are approved in other States. Moreover, many States have reciproc ity agreements that allow teachers who have met the certification requirements in one State to become certified in another. Kindergarten and elementary school teach ers should be creative, dependable, and pa tient. Most important, they should want to be directly involved in the educational and emo tional development of children. Competence in handling classroom situations also is important. As a teacher gains experience, he or she may advance to supervisory, administrative, or specialized positions within the school sys tem. Often, however, these positions require additional training and certification. As a re sult, for most teachers, advancement consists of higher pay rather than additional responsi bility or a higher position. Job Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public elementary school teachers to be certified by State education authorities. Some States require teachers in private and parochial schools to be certified as well. Generally, certification is granted by the State Board of Education, the State Superin tendent of Education, or a Certification Ad visory Committee. Elementary school teachers may be certi fied to teach either the early childhood grades (nursery school through the third grade) or the elementary grades (grades 4 through 6 or 8). Some teachers obtain certification to teach special education at the elementary school level. Requirements for certification vary by State, and school systems may have addition al hiring requirements. In all States and the District of Columbia, however, prospective kindergarten or elementary school teachers must have a bachelor’s degree from an insti tution with an approved teacher education program. Teacher training programs include a variety of liberal arts courses, as well as student teaching and prescribed education courses. Job prospects for kindergarten and elemen tary school teachers may improve in the late 1980’s. If enrollments in teacher training in stitutions continue in line with past trends, supply and demand will be roughly in bal ance for the next few years. Beginning in the mid-1980’s, there is a possibility of more openings than qualified applicants, which would mean a favorable employment out look. Although employment is expected to grow, the major source of job openings will be the need to replace teachers who leave the profession. Employment in kindergarten and elemen tary school teaching is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions, primarily because of rising enrollments in the latter part of the decade. Some addi tional positions may be created as a result of efforts to improve the pupil-teacher ratio, while others may result from greater empha sis on special education and bilingual instruc tion. However, public education is under considerable taxpayer pressure to limit spend ing, and some communities are certain to oppose expansion of instructional staff. In deed, in some school systems, budget prob lems may well force layoffs of classroom teachers. Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/137 Enrollment levels and employment of classroom teachers are closely associated. Because of fewer births in the 1960’s, ele mentary enrollments have been on the decline since 1967, when they peaked at nearly 32 million. While birth rates are not projected to increase substantially from the level of the mid-1970’s, the number of births is expected to rise during the decade as a result of the growing number of women entering the prime childbearing ages. The National Cen ter for Education Statistics projects that by 1983 the downward enrollment trend will halt at a level of about 26.5 million. Thereafter, elementary school enrollments will begin to climb, advancing to more than 30 million by 1990. Enrollment growth will not occur at the same rate in all areas of the country, howev er. Largely because of migration to the South and West, population growth (and therefore the increase in enrollments) is ex pected to be greater in those regions. The U.S. Bureau of the Census projects that be tween 1980 and 1990, fully three-fourths of the entire increase in the number of Ameri can children ages 5 to 14 will occur in the Southern and Western States. Growth in the elementary school-age population during the 1980’s is projected to be greatest in the West (11 percent) and smallest in the Northeast (1 percent). Whether or not an elementary school teacher “ shortage” will develop in the late 1980’s depends only in part on the interplay of factors that affect demand for teachers. Factors affecting teacher supply will also play a role, and they are even less predictable than those affecting demand. The basic sources of teacher supply—recent graduates qualified to teach at the elementary school level and former teachers seeking reentry to the occupation—are themselves likely to re spond to changes in the demand for elemen tary school teachers. The greater availability of jobs beginning in the mid-1980’s may en courage more people to prepare for elemen tary school teaching and attract more people from the teacher reserve pool. If such supply responses occur, a shortage of elementary school teachers may not develop. (Training requirements for secondary school teachers are substantially different from those for ele mentary school teachers, and relatively few secondary school teachers are expected to undergo the additional training necessary to become certified to teach at the elementary level.) Earnings According to the National Education As sociation, public elementary school teachers averaged $16,879 a year in 1980-81. Gener ally, States in the Northeast and in the West paid the highest salaries. Collective bargaining agreements cover an increasing number of teachers. In 1980, 31 States and the District of Columbia had laws that required collective bargaining in teacher Pupil enrollment is the basic factor underlying the need for teachers. contract negotiations, and an additional 9 States permitted such bargaining. Most pub lic school systems that enroll 1,000 students or more bargain with teacher organizations over wages, hours, and the terms and condi tions of employment. Related Occupations Kindergarten and elementary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including organizational and administrative abilities, a talent for working with children, communication skills, the power to influence, motivate, and train others, creativity, and lead ership ability. Other occupations that make use of some or all of these aptitudes include child care attendants; trainers and employee develop ment specialists; employment interviewers; li brarians; personnel managers; public relations representatives; social workers; and career, vo cational, and school counselors. Sources of Additional Information Information on certification requirements is available from local school systems and State departments of education. Federal financial aid is available for educa tion students preparing to work with the handicapped. For information, request Spe cial Education Career Preparation from: Closer Look, Box 20013. 1492, Washington, D.C. Information on teachers ’ unions and educa tion-related issues can be obtained from: American Federation of Teachers, 11 Dupont Cir cle NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. General information on the teaching pro fessions can be obtained from local or State 138/Occupational Outlook Handbook affiliates of the National Education Associ ation, or by contacting: National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. A list of colleges and universities accredit ed by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education can be obtained from: National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 202, Washington, D.C. 20006. Librarians (D .O .T. 100 except 100.367-018) Nature of the Work Librarians make information available to people. They serve as a link between the public and the millions of sources of infor mation by selecting and organizing materials and making them accessible. Library work is divided into two basic functions: User services and technical ser vices. Librarians in user services—for exam ple, reference and children’s librarians—work directly with users to help them find the information they need. Librarians in techni cal services—such as acquisitions librarians and catalogers—are primarily concerned with acquiring and preparing materials for use and deal less frequently with the information user. The size of the collection affects the scope of the job. In small libraries or information centers, librarians generally handle all as pects of the work. They select, purchase, and process materials; publicize services; provide reference help to groups and individuals; su pervise the support staff; prepare the budget; and oversee other administrative matters. In large libraries, librarians specialize in a single area, such as acquisitions, cataloging, bibliography, reference, circulation, or administration. Or they may handle special collections. Building and maintaining a strong collec tion are essential in any library, large or small. Acquisitions librarians (D .O .T . 100.267-010) select and order books, period icals, films, and other materials that suit us ers’ needs. To keep abreast of current litera ture, they read book reviews, look over publishers’ announcements and catalogs, con fer with booksellers, and seek advice from library users. A knowledge of book publish ing and business acumen are important, for these librarians are under pressure to get as much for their money as possible. After materials have been received, other librarians prepare them for use. Classifiers (D.O.T. 100.367-014) classify materials by subject matter. They may skim through a publication quickly to be sure what it is about and then assign a classification number. Catalogers (D.O.T. 100.387-010) supervise assistants who prepare cards or other access tools that indicate the title, author, subject, publisher, date of publication, and location in the library. The cards are then filed in the card catalog or other appropriate storage unit. Bibliographers (D .O .T. 100.367-010), who usually work in research libraries, com pile lists of books, periodicals, articles, and audiovisual materials on particular subjects. They also recommend materials to be ac quired in subject areas with which they are familiar. Special collections librarians (D.O.T. 100.267-014) collect and organize books, pamphlets, manuscripts, and other materials in a specific field, such as rare books, genealogy, or music. From time to time, they may prepare reports and exhibits to inform scholars and other researchers about important additions to the collection. Librarians are also classified according to the type of library in which they work: Pub lic libraries, school library/media centers, academic libraries, and special libraries. Public librarians serve people of all ages and from all walks of life. Increasingly, pub lic librarians provide materials and services to specific groups, including persons who, because of physical handicaps, cannot use conventional print materials. The profession al staff of a large public library system may include the chief librarian, an assistant chief, and division heads who plan and coordinate the work of the entire system. The system also may include librarians who supervise branch libraries and specialists in acquisi tions, cataloging, special collectons, and user services. Some public librarians work with specific groups of readers. Children’s librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-018) serve children by finding materials they will enjoy and showing them how to use the library. They may plan and conduct special programs such as story hours or film programs. In serving children, they often work with school and community organizations. Adult services librarians sug gest materials suited to the needs and inter ests of adults. They may cooperate in planning and conducting education programs, such as community development, public af fairs, creative arts, problems of the aging, and home and family. Young adult librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-034) help junior and senior high school students select and use books and other materials. They may organize programs of interest to young adults, such as book or film discussions or concerts of recorded mu sic. They also may coordinate the library’s work with school programs. Community out reach librarians and bookmobile librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-014) develop library ser vices to meet the needs of special groups within the community. They might arrange for materials to be brought to a migrant labor camp, an inner city housing project, or a nursing home, for example. School librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-030) help students learn how to use the school library/media center and show them how to find materials of special interest to them. Working with teachers and media specialists, school librarians familiarize students with the library’s resources. They prepare lists of ma terials on certain subjects and help select materials for school programs. They also se lect, order, and organize materials. Increas ingly, the library/media center is viewed as an integral part of the school’s overall in structional program, and many school librar ians work closely with classroom teachers in curriculum development. They assist teachers in developing study units and participate in team teaching. In large high schools and in many commu nity colleges, the media center’s collection of films, tapes, cassettes, records, and other materials is maintained by a school library media specialist (D.O.T. 100.167-030) or an audiovisual librarian (D.O.T. 100.167-010). Media center professionals also develop audiovisual materials and work with teachers on curriculum. Academic librarians serve students, facul ty members, and researchers in colleges and universities. They work closely with mem bers of the faculty to ensure that the general collection includes reference materials re quired for the hundreds of courses that might be offered during a particular academic year. They also maintain the quality of the collec tion in research areas for which the institu tion is noted. Special librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-026) work in information centers or libraries main tained by government agencies and corporate firms such as pharmaceutical companies, banks, law firms, advertising agencies, medi cal centers, and research laboratories. They build and arrange the organization’s informa tion resources to suit the needs of their users. Often, the collection is highly specialized, being limited to subjects of particular interest to the firm. Special librarians may conduct literature searches, compile bibliographies, or prepare abstracts. In scientific and technical libraries in particular, computerized data bases are an important and much-used part of the collection. Maintaining these, and assist ing users in retrieving information that has been stored in a computer’s memory, are increasingly important parts of the special librarian’s job. The staff of a technical library or docu mentation center may also include informa tion scientists (D .O .T . 109.067-010). Although they work closely with special li brarians, information scientists must possess a more extensive technical and scientific background and a knowledge of various tech niques for handling information. They ab s tra c t c o m p lic a te d in fo rm a tio n into condensed, readable form, and interpret and analyze data for a highly specialized clien tele. Among other duties, they develop clas sification systems, prepare coding and programming techniques for computerized in formation storage and retrieval systems, de sign information networks, and develop microfilm technology. Technological innovations are beginning to alter traditional patterns of library organiza tion, and eventually may affect staffing as Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/139 well. A growing number of libraries are ty ing into remote computer data bases through their computer terminals. The idea of serving users by providing them with access to a variety of commercial data banks took hold initially in corporate libraries and information centers. However, the practice has spread and now some public libraries, too, are linked to commercial data bases. The rise of regional library networks also has profound implications for library operations, for the networks make it less important than it once was for library to own the materials its users want. It doesn’t really matter where the origi nal material is located, if it can be accessed remotely by computer or sent by facsimile machines. Working Conditions Libraries generally are busy, demanding, even stressful places to work. Contact with people, which often is a major part of the job, can be taxing. Physically, the job may require much standing, stooping, bending, and reaching. Librarians typically work a 5-day, 35- to 40- hour week. Public and college librarians may work some weekends and evenings. School librarians generally have the same workday schedule as classroom teachers. A 35- to 40-hour week during normal business hours is common for special librarians. Employment About 135,000 librarians were employed in 1980; another 10,500 individuals worked as audiovisual specialists in school library/ media centers. School and academic libraries together accounted for roughly 7 out of 10 librarians. Public libraries and special librar ies employed the remainder. A small number of librarians served as consultants, adminis tered State and Federal library programs, or taught in schools of library science. Most librarians work in cities and towns. Those attached to bookmobile units serve widely scattered population groups. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in library science (M.L.S.) is necessary to obtain an entry level professional position in most public, academic, and special libraries. About 120 schools offered such degrees in 1980. How ever, most employers prefer graduates of one of the 70 library schools accredited by the American Library Association. Educational preparation for school librarianship is more diverse, reflecting the considerable differ ences among the States in standards and cer tification requirements for public school librarians. Most graduate schools of library science require graduation from an accredited 4-year college or university and good grades. A broad undergraduate background, with well defined major and minor areas of study, is appropriate preparation for graduate library Librarians answer requests for information. education. Schools’ preferences as to under graduate major vary. Some prefer students who have majored in the liberal arts or the humanities, while others seek students who have majored in science or business. In addi tion, some library schools require a reading knowledge of at least one foreign language. Some require introductory undergraduate courses in library science. A typical graduate program in library sci ence includes basic courses in the founda tions of librarianship, including the history of books and printing, intellectual freedom and censorship, and the role of libraries in soci ety. Other basic courses cover material selec tion and processing; reference tools; and user services. Advanced courses are offered in such areas as resources for children or young adults; classification, cataloging, indexing, and abstracting; library administration; and library automation. Because virtually all as pects of routine library operation are subject to automation, many library schools encour age students to take courses in computer and information science. The master’s of library science (M.L.S.) program represents a general, all-round prep aration for library work, but some people specialize in a particular area such as ar chives, media, or library automation. A few M .L.S. degree holders return to library school for an additional year of study to earn a certificate of advanced study. A Ph.D. degree in library science is advantageous for a teaching position or for a top administrative post, particularly in a college or university library or in a large library system. For those interested in special libraries or research libraries, a master’s degree, doctor ate, or professional degree in the appropriate 140/Occupational Outlook Handbook subject specialization is highly desirable. And in academic libraries, an advanced de gree may be essential for promotion to a senior level position. State certification requirements for public school librarians vary widely. Most States require that school librarians be certified as teachers. A degree in library science may not be required, for in many schools, the library has become the “ learning resources center’’ and is staffed by media personnel with a variety of educational backgrounds. Although some media professionals have a bachelor’s or master’s in library science, others have a degree in media resources, educational tech nology, or audiovisual communications. The State department of education can provide information about specific requirements. Some States require certification of public librarians employed in municipal, county, or regional library systems. The State library agency can provide information about these requirements. In the Federal Government, which current ly hires about 150 librarians a year, begin ning positions require completion of a 4-year college course and a master’s degree in li brary science, or demonstration of the equiv alent in experience and education by a passing grade on an examination. Scholarships for training in library science are available from library schools, large li braries, and library associations. Loans and assistantships also are available. Under coop erative work-study programs, another form of financial aid, library schools combine the academic program with practical work expe rience in a library. Because of an abundant supply of qualified jobseekers, employers in some localities now require several years’ experience for what used to be entry level positions. Graduates who have participated in internship programs and work-study programs or who have worked part time may have an employment advantage over other new graduates. Experienced librarians, primarily those who have specialized or completed graduate training in a library school, may advance to administrative positions or to specialized work. A master’s degree in business or pub lic administration may help to obtain such positions. Job Outlook Employment of librarians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, and most job openings will result from replacement needs. However, the demand for individuals with library skills outside the traditional setting is expected to help ease the tight job market for librarians. Furthermore, library school enroll ments, which have been declining since the mid-1970’s, are expected to continue to drift downward. With fewer new graduates of M.L.S. programs entering the job market each year, the oversupply should abate, and employment prospects are expected to bright en during the 1980’s. Employment growth in public libraries is likely to be slower than it has been during the last two decades. Faced with rising materials costs and tighter operating budgets, many libraries are expected to increase their use of support staff and volunteers, and hire fewer additional librarians. Employment of academic librarians is ex pected to decline slightly, a reflection of the overall decline in college enrollments expect ed during the 1980’s. The situation will vary from institution to institution, however. In school libraries, a large sector, little change in employment is foreseen, overall. While elementary school enrollments are pro jected to rise during the decade, secondary school enrollments will continue to fall. In some communities, declining enrollments and fiscal constraints are likely to result in staff cutbacks, with school librarians being transferred to classroom teaching. In other localities, however, population growth will spur demand for educational personnel, in cluding librarians. Opportunities should be favorable for li brarians with specialized knowledge in scien tific and technical fields including medicine, law, engineering, and the physical and bio logical sciences. These jobs are available in special libraries and research libraries, for the most part. Individuals with expertise in com puterized library systems will also be in de mand, because of the widespread use of computers to store information and to handle routine operations such as ordering, catalog ing, and circulation control. Information management outside the tradi tional library setting, a rapidly developing field, is expected to offer excellent employ ment opportunities for library school graduates and practicing librarians with backgrounds in information science and library automation. Private industry, consulting firms, and gov ernment agencies all need qualified people to set up and maintain information systems. Earnings Salaries of librarians vary by type of li brary, the individual’s qualifications, and the size and geographical location of the library. Starting salaries of graduates of library school master’s degree programs accredited by the American Library Association aver aged $13,127 a year in 1979, and ranged from $12,218 in public libraries to $13,742 in school libraries. Starting salaries for tech nical librarians in private industry averaged $14,500 a year in 1980, according to an American Management Associations survey; those with more than 5 years experience averaged $21,300. The median salary for librarians in college and university libraries was $20,987 in 1980. Librarians in the Fed eral Government averaged about $25,500 in 1980. The usual paid vacation after a year’s ser vice is 3 to 4 weeks. Vacations may be longer in school libraries and somewhat shorter in those operated by business and industry. Many librarians are covered by sick leave; life, health, and accident insurance; and pension plans. Related Occupations Librarians play an important role in the transfer of knowledge and ideas by providing people with access to the information they need and want. Jobs requiring similar analyt ical, organizational, and communicative skills include archivists, information scientists, mu seum curators, publishers’ representatives, re search analysts, information brokers, book critics, and records managers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on librarianship, including a listing of accredited education programs and information on scholarships or loans, may be obtained from: American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 111. 60611. For information on a career as a special librarian, write to: Special Libraries Association, 235 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10003. Material about a career in information sci ence may be obtained from: American Society for Information Science, 1010 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Information on graduate schools of library and information science can be obtained from: Association of American Library Schools, 471 Park Lane, State College, Pa. 16801. Information on Federal assistance to schools for library training is available from: Office of Libraries and Learning Technologies, U.S. Department of Education, 400 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20202. Those interested in a position as a librarian in the Federal service should write to: Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress may be obtained direct ly from: Personnel Office, Library of Congress, Washing ton, D.C. 20540. State library agencies can furnish informa tion on scholarships available through their offices, requirements for certification, and general information about career prospects in the State. Several of these agencies maintain job ‘‘hotlines ’’ which report current openings for librarians in the State. State boards of education can furnish infor mation on certification requirements and job opportunities for school librarians. Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/141 Rehabilitation Counselors (D .O .T . 045.107-042) Nature of the Work Every year more and more people overcome mental, physical, or emotional handicaps and become self-sufficient and productive citizens. Some find employment in occupations pre viously thought too complex or physically demanding for them to handle. Others enroll in colleges and technical schools of all kinds. One member of the team of professionals that helps disabled individuals leave a sheltered environment to lead as normal a life as possi ble is the rehabilitation counselor. Rehabilitation counselors start by learning about their client. Not only do they talk with him or her, they may read school reports, confer with medical personnel, and talk with family members to determine the exact nature of the disability. If the disability occurred after the person had begun his or her work life, the counselor may discuss the client’s previous work experience with former em ployers. The counselor also confers with physicians, psychologists, and occupational therapists about the types of tasks the client can perform. At that point, the counselor begins a series of discussions with the client to explore and evaluate training and career options, and uses this information to develop a rehabilitation program. A rehabilitation program may begin with specialized training to help make a disabled person more independent generally. When working with a blind individual, for example, the counselor may arrange for training with seeing-eye dogs. The disabled person then may spend a few months learning to cross streets and ride public transportation systems. Throughout this period, the counselor and disabled client meet regularly to discuss prog ress in the rehabilitation program and any problems that have arisen. A rehabilitation program generally in cludes training for a specific job. Job training is one of several steps in the job placement process, and occurs only after a sufficient amount of evaluation, research, and counsel ing has been done to find the most suitable job for a client. Because a client’s employment success is such an important goal of rehabilitation coun seling, the counselor must keep in touch with the business community to learn the types of workers needed by industry and the training required for each job. Counselors in voca tional rehabilitation agencies spend some of their time publicizing the program and in forming business and community leaders about the services they offer. Rehabilitation counselors in private industry keep up to date on vacancies throughout the firm that might be filled by employees who become physical ly or emotionally disabled. Helping clients prepare for the job market is an important goal of rehabilitation counseling. In addition to exploring job possibilities with disabled persons, rehabilitation counsel ors often make followup contacts to ensure that placement has been successful. If the new employee has a specific problem on the job, the counselor may suggest adaptations to the employer. An increasing number of counselors spe cialize in a particular area of rehabilitation; some work almost exclusively with individ uals who are blind, deaf, mentally ill, or retarded, or with alcoholics or drug addicts. The amount of time spent counseling each client varies with the severity of the disabled person’s problems as well as with the size of the counselor’s caseload. Some rehabilitation counselors are responsible for many persons in various stages of rehabilitation; others, such as those working with the severely dis abled, may work with relatively few cases at a time. Caseload size and amount of time spent with a client primarily depend on the work setting. Working Conditions Rehabilitation counselors generally work a 40-hour week or less. Some evening work is required for speaking at community and civic meetings. They may spend only part of their time in their offices counseling, coordinating services, and performing necessary paper work. The rest of their time is spent away from the office, working with prospective employers, training agencies, and the dis abled person’s family. Rehabilitation counselors must maintain close contact with handicapped clients and their families over many months or even years. The counselor often has the satisfac tion of watching day-by-day progress in the 142/Occupational Outlook Handbook disabled person’s efforts toward indepen dence. At other times, however, the counsel or may experience the disappointment of a client’s failures. Employment About 25,000 persons worked as rehabili tation counselors in 1980, according to the Urban Institute. About 10,000 counselors worked in State and local rehabilitation agen cies financed cooperatively with Federal and State funds. Several hundred vocational reha bilitation specialists and counseling psycholo gists worked in the Veterans Administration’s vocational rehabilitation programs, or in VA hospitals and medical centers. Rehabilitation centers, sheltered workshops, hospitals, men tal health centers, special schools, centers for independent living, and other public and pri vate agencies with rehabilitation programs and job placement services for the disabled employed thousands more. Other rehabilita tion counselors worked in private industry, including insurance companies and other commercial enterprises, manufacturing firms, and rehabilitation consulting firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in rehabilitation coun seling, counseling and guidance, or counsel ing psychology is generally considered the minimum educational requirement for reha bilitation counselors. Vocational rehabilita tion agencies in some States may, however, accept applicants with bachelor’s degrees in rehabilitation services, counseling, psycholo gy, or other related fields. Experience in employment counseling, job development, psychology, education, and social work may be helpful in securing employment as a reha bilitation counselor. Many State agencies have work-study programs whereby em ployed counselors can earn graduate degrees in the field. Approximately 30 colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degrees in rehabilitation ser vices education. In some States, graduates of these programs are hired by vocational reha bilitation agencies as counselors, evaluators, and case managers. Some graduates opt to continue their professional education, and en roll in one of the graduate programs in reha bilitation counseling. In 1980, The Council on Rehabilitation Education accredited graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling offered by about 70 colleges and universities. Usually, 2 years of study—including a period of supervised work experience—are required for the master’s de gree. Master’s degree programs generally of fer courses in human services and psychology, principles of rehabilitation counseling, coun seling theory and techniques, occupational and educational information, and community re sources. Also taught are courses in placement and followup, assessment and evaluation, psy chosocial effects of disability, medical and legislative aspects of rehabilitation, and re search methods. The doctorate in rehabilitation counseling or in counseling psychology may take a total of 4 to 6 years of graduate study. Intensive training in psychology and other social sci ences, as well as in research methods, is required. Counselors in most State vocational reha bilitation agencies are hired in accordance with State civil service and merit system rules. In most cases, applicants must score competitively on a written examination, which sometimes is supplemented by an in terview and evaluation by a board of examin ers. Many private agencies and firms require rehabilitation counselors to be certified. To become certified, counselors must meet edu cational and work experience standards estab lished by the Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, and pass a written examination. Because rehabilitation counselors deal with the welfare of individuals, the ability to teach and accept responsibility is important. It also is essential that they be able to work indepen dently and be able to motivate and guide the activity of others. Counselors who work with the severely disabled need emotional stabil ity. They must be very patient in dealing with clients who may be discouraged, angry, or otherwise difficult to handle. Counselors who have limited experience usually are assigned the less difficult cases. As they gain experience, their caseloads are increased and they are assigned clients with more complex rehabilitation problems. After obtaining considerable experience and more graduate education, rehabilitation counselors may advance to supervisory positions or top administrative jobs. Job Outlook Employment of rehabilitation counselors is expected to grow about as fast the average for all occupations during the 1980’s. Job opportunities may be best in the small but growing private sector, however. Because most State and many private reha bilitation agencies are funded primarily by the Federal Government, employment in these organizations depends largely on the level of government spending. Reductions in Federal funding for rehabilitation services would have an adverse effect on employment in these agencies—at least until alternative funding sources could be found. While future funding levels are impossible to predict, it seems likely that during the 1980’s, most job openings in State vocational rehabilitation agencies will result from replacement needs. Substantial employment growth is expected in the private sector, particularly in insurance companies that handle worker compensation programs and in private for-profit rehabilita tion consulting firms. Demand for qualified rehabilitation counselors in private industry is expected to increase as employers respond to affirmative action legislation and as they be come aware of the savings that can be realized by returning disabled workers to employment. College and universities that employ coordi nators of services to handicapped students are another source of employment opportunities for rehabilitation counselors. Earnings The average minimum salary of rehabilita tion counselors in State agencies was about $13,300 in 1980; the average maximum sala ry was $18,100. Vocational rehabilitation di rectors in these State agencies received average minimum and average maximum sal aries of $32,200 and $39,100, respectively. The Veteran’s Administration paid coun seling psychologists with a bachelor’s degree and 60 hours of graduate credit or more starting salaries of $20,611 in early 1981. In addition, the Veteran’s Administration em ployed a number of vocational rehabilitation specialists—generally with master’s de grees—at starting salaries of $17,035 to $20,611. The average salary of vocational rehabilitation counselors in the Federal Gov ernment was $23,400 in 1980. Related Occupations Rehabilitation counselors help disabled in dividuals become as self-sufficient as their conditions permit. Related occupations in clude: School counselors, employment coun selors, college career planning and placement counselors, social workers, art therapists, dance therapists, music therapists, occupa tional therapists, physical therapists, recrea tional therapists, industrial psychologists, equal employment opportunity/affirmative ac tion specialists, and training and human re source development specialists. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet entitled Seven Careers de scribes the work of rehabilitation counselors, orientation instuctors, and others. Single copies may be obtained from: American Foundation for the Blind, 15 West 16th St. New York, N.Y. 10011. For information about rehabilitation coun seling as a career, contact: American Rehabilitation Counseling Association, Two Skyline Place, 5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite 400, Falls Church, Va. 22041. National Rehabilitation Counseling Association, Cary Building, Suite B-110, 8136 Old Keene Mill Rd., Springfield, Va. 22152. National Council on Rehabilitation Education, 2210 Massachusetts Ave, N W ., Washington, D.C. 20008. American Psychological Association, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. A list of Federally-funded programs offer ing training in rehabilitation counseling may be obtained from: Division of Manpower Development, Rehabilita tion Services Administration, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, D.C. 20201. Information on certification requirements and procedures is available from: Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certifi cation, 162 North State St., Chicago, 111. 60601. Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/143 A list of accredited graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling may be obtained from: Council on Rehabilitation Education, 162 North State St., Chicago, 111. 60601. School Counselors (D.O.T. 045.107-010) Nature of the Work Uncertainty about a career choice, difficul ty with a particular class, or an unhappy home life are examples of problems that stu dents face. Problems cannot always be solved by the student alone; professional as sistance may be needed. Most school systems employ counselors to give individual atten tion to students’ educational, career, and per sonal development. The counselor’s primary role is to help students understand themselves better—their abilities, interests, talents, personality char acteristics, and career options. To accom plish this, counselors often administer tests and conduct individual or group counseling sessions in which they evaluate or explain the results. In some cases they refer students to other specialists within the school system or in the community. School counselors devote their time to the social, behavioral, personal, and career plan ning concerns of youth. In addition to coun seling the students themselves, they consult with parents and with other members of the school staff, such as teachers, school psy chologists, school nurses, and school social workers. Often, teachers and counselors con fer about problems affecting a student or group of students. A teacher may refer a student who appears to have problems deal ing with classmates to a counselor who will attempt to find the cause. Counselors may arrange meetings with parents or community organizations, such as mental health agen cies, if a student’s problems are serious. The counselor also acts as a spokesperson for the individual student who is having difficulty communicating his or her problems to parents or teachers. When necessary, the counselor may attempt to change those aspects of the school environment that are harmful to the psychological well-being of the student. Counselors deal with problems affecting the school as a whole as well as those affect ing only one or two individuals. If drug abuse is a problem, counselors may initiate group counseling sessions to discuss the dan gers of taking drugs. Or they may speak individually with students and their parents. School counselors may also provide educa tional, vocational, or career guidance assis tance. They might run a career information center, for example, or a career education program, which helps students explore career alternatives. A counselor might suggest ways in which teachers could incorporate career information into their classes, arrange field trips to factories and businesses, or show films that depict actual work settings. School counselors must stay up-to-date about opportunities for education and training beyond high school in order to counsel stu dents about admission requirements, entrance exams, sources of student financial aid, and the relative merits of military service, ap prenticeship, job training in a trade school or technical institute, or a college education. High school counselors often help students find part-time and summer jobs and assist them in getting their working papers if they need them. Counselors may help with job placements for students in work-study pro grams, and advise both graduates and drop outs on employment opportunities in the community. Elementary school counselors help chil dren to make the best use of their abilities by identifying these and other basic aspects of the child’s makeup at an early age, and by evaluating any learning strengths or prob lems. Methods used in counseling grade school children differ in many ways from those used with older students. Observations of classroom and play activity furnish clues about children in the lower grades. To under stand children better, elementary school counselors devote much of their time to con sulting with parents and teachers. In some elementary schools, counselors organize ca reer education activities designed to introduce children to the world of work. Some school counselors, particularly in secondary schools, teach units on occupation al information within social studies or other courses. They also may supervise school clubs or other extracurricular activities relat ed to the exploration of career and education al options. Working Conditions Most school counselors work the tradition al 10-month school year with a 2-month va cation, although an increasing number are employed on 10-1/2 or 11 month contracts. Counselors work closely with school admin istrators, teachers, and parents as well as students. Helping students solve specific problems can be emotionally exhausting, as well as rewarding. Employment An estimated 53,000 people worked as public school counselors during 1980; several thousand others worked in private schools. Although school counselors work in both ele mentary and secondary schools, the majority are in secondary schools. Most counselors work in large schools. Those employed in small school districts may be assigned to several schools. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most States require public school counsel ors to have counseling and teaching certifi cates. However, requirements are changing, and a growing number of States no longer require that counselors have a teaching certi ficate. Depending on the State, a master’s degree in counseling, from 1 to 5 years of teaching experience, and some non-education work experience may be required for a coun seling certificate. People who plan to become school counselors should learn the require ments of the State in which they plan to work since requirements vary among States and change rapidly. College students interested in becoming school counselors usually take the regular program of teacher education, with additional courses in psychology and sociology. In Counselor discusses course selection with high school student. 144/Occupational Outlook Handbook States where teaching experience is not a requirement, it is possible to major in a liber al arts program. A few States substitute a counseling internship for teaching experi ence. In some States, teachers who have completed part of the courses required for the master’s degree in counseling are eligible for provisional certification and may work as counselors under master counselor supervi sion while they take additional courses. Counselor education programs at the grad uate level are available in over 450 colleges and universities, usually in the departments of education or psychology. Two years of graduate study usually are necessary for a master’s degree. Most programs provide su pervised field experience. Subject areas of required graduate level courses usually include appraisal of the indi vidual student, individual counseling proce dures and techniques, group guidance, information services for career development, professional relations and ethics, statistics, and research methods. The ability to help young people accept responsibility for their own lives is important for school counselors. They must be able to inspire respect, trust, and confidence. They should be able to coordinate the activities of others and work as part of the team which forms the educational system. School counselors may advance by moving to a larger school; becoming director or su pervisor of counseling or guidance; or, with further graduate education, becoming a col lege counselor, educational psychologist, vo cational psychologist, school psychologist, or school administrator. Usually educational or vocational psychologists must have the Ph.D. degree. $26,500 in the West. School counselors usu ally earn more than classroom teachers. In most school systems, counselors receive regular salary increments as they obtain addi tional education and experience. A small number of counselors supplement their in come by part-time consulting or other work with private or public counseling centers, government agencies, or private industry. Related Occupations School counselors help students gain a bet ter understanding of their interests, abilities, and personality characteristics, and also help them deal with personal, social, academic, and vocational problems. Others who help people in similar ways include college career planning and placement counselors, clinical psychologists, teachers, parole officers, pro bation officers, school social workers, school psychologists, employment counselors, and vocational rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information Career information is available from: American Personnel and Guidance Association, Two Skyline Place, Suite 400, 5203 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Va. 22041. State departments of education can supply information on colleges and universities that offer training in guidance and counseling as well as on the State certification requirements. Secondary School Teachers___________ (D.O.T. 091.221-010, .227-010; 094.224-010, .227-010 through -022; 099.224-010, .227-022) Job Outlook Little change in employment of school counselors is expected through the 1980’s, and most job openings will result from re placement needs. Pupil enrollment, the major factor affect ing employment of school counselors, is ex pected to decline at the secondary level but increase at the elementary level over the next decade. Because fewer counselors are used in elementary schools, however, little if any employment growth is expected overall. In deed, in some places, severe budget con straints will mean fewer counseling positions. Counselors whose positions are cut as a re sults of declining enrollments or fiscal con straints may be able to transfer to classroom teaching in States where counselors must also hold teacher certification. Earnings According to a recent survey, the average salary of school counselors in the academic year 1980-81 was around $20,600. Salaries varied by size, grade level, and locality of the school. Average salaries ranged from around $14,200 in the Southeast to about Nature of the Work The high school years are the years of transition from childhood to young adult hood. They are the years when students delve more deeply into subject matter intro duced in elementary school and learn more about themselves and the world. They are also a time of preparation for adult roles. Secondary school teachers facilitate this process. The primary function of the secondary school teacher is to instruct students in a specific subject, such as English, foreign lan guages, mathematics, social studies, or sci ence. Within a teacher’s specialized subject area, he or she may teach a variety of courses. A social studies teacher, for exam ple, may instruct two 9th grade classes in American History, two 12th grade classes in Contemporary American Problems, and an other class in World Geography. For each class, the teacher develops lesson plans, pre pares and gives examinations, and arranges class projects and other activities. Teachers design their classroom presenta tions to meet the individual needs and abili ties of their students. They may arrange tutoring for students or give advanced assign ments for highly motivated pupils. Recogniz ing the needs of each student can be difficult because most teachers conduct five separate classes a day, each of which may have 10 to 30 students. Teachers use a variety of instructional mate rials including films, slides, and computer terminals. They also may arrange for speakers or trips to supplement the classroom work. Some teachers give vocational education courses, such as welding, auto mechanics, or cosmetology, that train students for jobs after graduation. These teachers instruct with the actual tools of the trade, whether they be 4cylinder car engines or hairdryers. In addition to their regular classes, secon dary school teachers supervise study halls and homerooms, advise student groups, and attend meetings with parents and school per sonnel. Teachers also participate in work shops and college classes to keep up-to-date on their subject specialty and on current trends in education. Working Conditions In addition to hours spent with their classes, teachers spend time preparing les sons, grading papers, making reports, attend ing meetings, and supervising extracurricular activities. As a result, most teachers work well over 40 hours a week. Teaching involves long periods of standing and talking and can be both physically and mentally tiring. Dealing with disruptive stu dents can also be emotionally exhausting. While many teachers work the traditional 10-month school year with a 2-month vaca tion, some school districts have converted to a year-round schedule. Teachers on this type of schedule may work 8 weeks, be on vaca tion for 1 week, and have a 5-week midwin ter break. In most States the minimum number of days that a school must be in session is specified by law; the usual mini mum number of instruction days te 180 days. The District of Columbia and most States have tenure laws that protect the right to a job of teachers who have taught successfully for a certain number of years. A teacher normally must serve a probationary period of 3 years before attaining tenure status. In many States, tenure is automatic if the proba tionary period is completed and the teacher’s contract has not been terminated. In other States, teachers who have completed a proba tionary period are required to negotiate a new contract. Tenure is not an automatic guaran tee of job security, but it does provide proce dural protection in the event of dismissal. Employment About 1.2 million secondary school teach ers were employed in 1980. More than 90 percent taught in public schools. Although they work in all parts of the country, teachers are concentrated in cities and surburan areas. Teachers, Librarians, and Counselors/145 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public secondary school teachers to be certified. Many States require teachers in private and parochial schools to be certified as well. Usually certification is granted by the State Board of Education, the State Su perintendent of Education, or a Certification Advisory Committee. Requirements for certification to teach at the secondary school level vary by State, and school systems may have additional require ments. However, in all States and the Dis trict of Columbia, prospective teachers need a bachelor’s degree from an approved teacher training program with a prescribed number of credits in the subject they plan to teach. They must have completed student teaching and other education courses. Fourteen States require that teachers pass a written examination for certification, and some States have health, citizenship, or char acter requirements. Almost half the States require teachers to have graduate degrees. This requirement is often coupled with provi sions concerning continuing education. (Over half of all States require continuing education for certification.) Prospective teachers may obtain information on certification require ments for secondary school teaching from any State department of education or superin tendent of schools. Information about whether a particular teacher training program is approved can be obtained from the institution offering the train ing from the State department of education. Training need not be obtained in the State in which one wants to teach. Many colleges and universities offer teacher training that is ap proved in other States. Moreover, many States have reciprocity agreements that allow teach ers who have met the certification require ments in one State to become certified in another. Secondary school teachers should be good at working with young people, interested in a special subject, and able to motivate students and to relate knowledge to them. With additional preparation, and another certificate as well, experienced teachers may be able to move into positions as school librarians, reading specialists, curriculum specialists, or guidance counselors. Howev er, for most secondary school teachers, ad vancement takes the form of a higher salary rather than a different job. Relatively few teachers move into administrative or supervi sory positions in a public school system. To do so usually requires at least 1 year of graduate education and several years of class room teaching, and sometimes a special certi ficate as well. Job Outlook Prospective secondary school teachers will face keen competition for jobs throughout the 1980’s. If past trends continue, the supply of persons qualified to teach will greatly exceed requirements, and an increasing proportion of qualified graduates will have to consider alter natives to secondary school teaching. College students interested in becoming secondary school teachers would be well-advised to take courses that are applicable to jobs outside the teaching field. A willingness to relocate may be an advantage in obtaining a teaching job. The prime sources of teacher supply are recent college graduates qualified to teach secondary school and former teachers seeking to reenter the profession. Although reentrants have experience in their favor, many schools may prefer to hire new graduates who com mand lower salaries and whose training is more recent. Employment of secondary school teachers is expected to decline throughout the 1980’s and, as a result, nearly all openings will stem from the need to replace teachers who retire or leave the profession. Pupil enrollment is the basic factor underlying the demand for teachers. Because of fewer births starting in the early 1960’s, secondary school enroll ments began declining in the mid-1970’s. The National Center for Education Statistics projects that enrollment in secondary schools will continue to decline during the 1980’s, thereby reducing the demand for teachers. The decline in enrollment will be more severe in some parts of the country than in others if past trends in migration prevail through the 1980’s. Demand for secondary school teachers could fall precipitously in the Northeast and North Central States, where the U.S. Bureau of the Census projects a decline of close to 25 percent in the number of 15-19 year olds between 1980 and 1990. Although the number of youngsters of secon dary school age is projected to decline in the South and West as well, the decrease is ex pected to be somewhat less, roughly 15 percent. Employment of teachers is also sensitive to changes in State and local expenditures for education. Pressure from taxpayers to limit tax and spending increases are likely to continue through the 1980’s, but budget pressures on public education are far greater in some States and localities than in others. Moreover, school systems respond to budget constraints in dif ferent ways. Increased emphasis on special student needs may lead some school systems to hire teachers to provide special or bilingual education. But budget pressures in other dis tricts will undoubtedly result in the loss of classroom teaching positions. Although the overall outlook for secondary teachers indicates a highly competitive mar ket, employment conditions are favorable in certain fields. Persons qualified to teach mathematics, natural sciences, and physical sciences are currently in great 'demand. Shortages in these fields may well continue, chiefly because of salary competition from business and industry. Some schools report difficulty in finding enough teachers qualified Teaching often continues after the class ends. in special education and bilingual education. Earnings According to the National Education As sociation, public secondary school teachers averaged $17,725 a year in 1980-81. Gener ally, salaries were highest in States in the Northeast and in the West. -^Collective bargaining agreements cover an increasing number of teachers. In 1980, 31 States and the District of Columbia had en acted laws that required collective bargaining in teacher contract negotiations, and an addi tional 9 States permitted such bargaining. In some schools, teachers receive supple mentary pay for coaching sports and working with students in extracurricular activities, such as music, drama, or school publications. Some teachers work in the school system during summer sessions. Others hold summer jobs outside the school system. Related Occupations Secondary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including orga nizational and administrative talents; research abilities; communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train others; record keeping expertise; creativity; helpfulness; and leadership ability. Other occupations which make use of some or all of these aptitudes include: School administrators; career, voca tional, or school counselors; trainers and em ployee development specialists; employment interviewers; encyclopedia research workers; librarians; personnel managers; public rela 146/Occupational Outlook Handbook tions representatives; records managers; sales representatives; and social workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on certification requirements and approved teacher training institutions is available from State departments of education. Federal financial aid is available for educa tion students preparing to work with the handicapped. For information, request Spe cial Education Career Preparation from: affiliates of the National Education Associ ation, or by contacting: Closer Look, Box 1492, Washington, D.C. 20013. Information on teacher unions and educa tion-related issues may be obtained from: National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Federation of Teachers, 11 Dupont Cir cle NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. General information on the teaching pro fessions can be obtained from local or State A list of colleges and universities accredit ed by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education can be obtained from: National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 202, Washington, D.C. 20006. Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners The health professionals whose work is described in the following statements diag nose, treat, and strive to prevent illness and disease. Largest of these occupations is phy sicians, numbering 405,000 persons in 1980, followed by den tists, who numbered 126,000. The other practitioner occupations described in this section of the Handbook are much smaller, ranging in size from veterinar ians (36,000) to podiatrists (12,000). All of them practice the art of healing, but they differ in the methods of treatment they use and in their areas of specialization. Physi cians prescribe medications, exercise, proper diet, and surgery for their patients. Osteopath ic physicians use these treatments and, in addition, manipulate muscles and bones, espe cially the spine. These manipulations are the primary form of treatment given by chiroprac tors. Optometrists specialize in eye care and podiatrists treat foot diseases and deformities. Dentists emphasize not only the treatment but the prevention of problems associated with the teeth and gums. Veterinarians treat animals and inspect meat, poultry, and other food as part of public health programs. Because these practitioners routinely make independent decisions affecting the health and well-being of the public, they are closely regulated. States require that health practi tioners be licensed and pass a State board examination. Only physicians, osteopaths, podiatrists, dentists, and veterinarians can use drugs and surgery in their treatment. Among these seven health practitioner oc cupations, requirements for a license vary from 6 to 9 years of postsecondary education. After graduation from college, osteopaths must complete a 4-year program and physi cians generally a 3- or 4-year program. Most States require a 1-year residency for both physicians and osteopaths. Physicians who specialize must spend additional years in train ing and pass a specialty board examination. Two years of college are required for entry to the 4-year chiropractic schools. Optometrists, podiatrists, and veterinarians all must com plete a minimum of 2 years of college before beginning the 4-year program. Although the employment outlook in most of these occupations is expected to be favor able during the 1980’s, the job market is clearly changing as the supply of newly trained practitioners begins to overtake de mand. The physician shortage that existed during the 1950’s and 1960’s has passed. Indeed, a few cities are oversupplied with physicians. Nonetheless, the population is growing, especially the number of older peo ple who are relatively heavy users of health services, and many geographic areas need additional health care practitioners. So the outlook for most practitioners will be favor able. Veterinary medicine is becoming in creasingly crowded, however. Veterinary school graduates are experiencing some diffi culty finding positions with established practi tioners, and competition is likely to intensify through the 1980’s. For more detailed infor mation about employment outlook, see the individual statements that follow. Training to become a health practitioner is much more rigorous than that for most other professional occupations, but practice also offers unusual rewards. Incomes of health practitioners greatly exceed the average and generally are higher than those of other profes sional workers with similar years of graduate education. Furthermore, health practitioners enjoy great prestige within the community, and most derive considerable satisfaction from knowing that their work contributes directly to the well-being of others. All health practitioners must have the abil ity and perseverance to complete the years of study acquired. They should be emotionally stable, able to make decisions in emergen cies, and have a strong desire to help the sick and injured. Sincerity and an ability to gain the confidence of patients also are important qualities. Books and brochures on health careers are widely available—look for them in libraries, counseling centers, and bookstores. The Sources of Additional Information section at the end of each Handbook statement identi fies organizations that can provide career pamphlets, lists of accredited schools, and sources of financial aid. For an overview of jobs in the health field, including some jobs not covered in the Handbook, request a copy of “ 200 Ways to a Health Career” from: National Health Council, 1740 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019. Another useful publication is the Health Ca reers Guidebook, fourth edition, published in 1979 by the U.S. Department of Labor and the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (now the Department of Health and Human Services.) It is available for $6. from: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Chiropractors (D.O.T. 079.101-010) Nature of the Work Chiropractic is a system of treatment based on the principle that a person’s health is determined largely by the nervous system, and that interference with this system impairs normal functions and lowers resistance to disease. Chiropractors treat patients primar ily by manual manipulation (adjustments) of parts of the body, especially the spinal column. Because of the emphasis on the spine and its position, most chiropractors use X-rays to help locate the source of patients’ difficulties. In addition to manipulation, chiropractors use water, light, massage, ultrasound, electric, and heat therapy. They also prescribe diet, supports, exercise, and rest. Most State laws specify the types of supplementary treatment permitted in chiropractic. Chiropractors do not use prescription drugs or surgery. Working Conditions Almost all chiropractors work in private offices that are clean and comfortable. The typical workweek is 4 1/2 to 5 days. Because most chiropractors are self-employed, they can practice well beyond normal retirement age. Employment About 23,000 persons practiced chiroprac tic in 1980. Most were in private practice and about three-fourths were in solo prac tice—that is, they had no partners. Some were salaried assistants of established practi tioners or worked for chiropractic clinics. A small number taught or conducted research at chiropractic colleges. Chiropractors often locate in small com munities—about half work in cities of 50,000 inhabitants or less. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet certain educational requirements and pass a State board examination. Many States have reci procity agreements that permit chiropractors already licensed in another State to obtain a license without taking an examination. The type of practice permitted and the educational requirements for a license vary considerably from one State to another. For example, 36 State boards recognize only aca demic training in chiropractic colleges ac credited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. In general, State licensing boards require successful completion of a 4-year chiropractic course following 2 years of col- 147 148/Occupational Outlook Handbook ment necessary to open and equip an office, many start as salaried chiropractors to acquire the experience and the funds needed. Job Outlook Employment of chiropractors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Demand for chiropractic is related closely to public ac ceptance of the profession, which appears to be growing, and to the ability of patients to pay for services, either directly or through broader coverage of chiropractic services by public or private health insurance. Enroll ments in chiropractic colleges have grown dramatically, however, and as more students graduate, new chiropractors may find it in creasingly difficult to establish a practice in those areas where other practitioners already are located. Earnings In chiropractic, as in other types of inde pendent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning. New graduates who worked as associates to established practitioners earned more than $15,000 a year in 1980. Experienced chiropractors averaged about $44,000, after expenses, according to a sur vey conducted by the American Chiropractic Association. Related Occupations Chiropractors diagnose, treat, and work to prevent diseases, disorders, and injuries. They emphasize the importance of the nervous sys tem for good health. Others whose professions require similar skills include acupuncturists, audiologists, dentists, naturopathic doctors, optometrists, osteopaths, podiatrists, speech pathologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information Chiropractors treat patients primarily by manual manipulation. lege. Some States require specific college courses such as English, chemistry, biology, or physics. Several States require that chiro practors pass a basic science examination. The National Board of Chiropractic Examin ers’ test given to fourth-year chiropractic stu dents is accepted by 40 State boards in place of a State examination. In 1980, 7 of the 17 chiropractic colleges in the United States were fully accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education; 4 others were recognized candidates working toward accreditation. All chiropractic col leges require applicants to have a minimum of 2 years of undergraduate study, including courses in English, the social sciences, chemistry, biology, and mathematics. Chiropractic colleges emphasize courses in manipulation and spinal adjustments. Most offer a broader curriculum, however, includ ing subjects such as physiotherapy and nutri tion. In most chiropractic colleges, the empha sis during the first 2 years is on classroom and laboratory work in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry, while the last 2 years stress clinical experience. Students com pleting chiropractic training earn the degree of Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.). Chiropractic requires a keen sense of ob servation to detect physical abnormalities and considerable hand dexterity but not unusual strength or endurance. Persons desiring to become chiropractors should be able to work independently and handle responsibility. The ability to work with detail is important. Sym pathy and understanding are desirable quali ties for dealing effectively with patients. Most newly licensed chiropractors either set up a new practice or purchase an estab lished one. Because of the financial invest The board of licensing in each State cap ital can supply information on State licensing requirements for chiropractors. General information on chiropractic as a career is available from: American Chiropractic Association, 2200 Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50312. International Chiropractors Association, 1901 L St. NW„ Suite 800, Washington, D.C. 20036. For a list of chiropractic colleges, as well as general information on chiropractic as a career, contact: Council on Chiropractic Education, 3209 Ingersoll Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50312. For information on requirements for ad mission to a specific chiropractic college, contact the admissions office. Dentists (D .O .T . 072) Nature of the Work Dentists examine teeth and tissues of the Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/149 mouth to diagnose diseases or abnormalities. They take X-rays, fill cavities, straighten teeth, and treat gum diseases. Dentists ex tract teeth and substitute artificial dentures designed for the individual patient. They also perform corrective surgery of the gums and supporting bones. In addition, they may clean teeth and provide other preventive services. Dentists spend most of their time with patients, but may devote some time to labo ratory work such as making dentures and inlays. Most dentists, however—particularly those in large cities—send their laboratory work to commercial firms. Some dentists em ploy dental hygienists to clean patients’ teeth and provide instruction for patient self-care. Dentists may also employ other assistants to perform office work, assist in “chairside” duties, and provide therapeutic services under their supervision. (The work of dental hy gienists and dental assistants is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most dentists are general practitioners who provide many types of dental care; about 10 percent are specialists. The largest group of specialists are orthodontists, who straighten teeth. The next largest group, oral surgeons, operate on the mouth and jaws. The remain der specialize in pedodontics (dentistry for children); periodontics (treating the gums); prosthodontics (making artificial teeth or den tures); endodontics (root canal therapy); pub lic health dentistry; and oral pathology (diseases of the mouth). About 5 percent of all dentists teach in dental schools, do research, or administer dental health programs on a full-time basis. Many dentists in private practice do this work on a part-time basis. Working Conditions Most dental offices are open 5 days a week, and some dentists have evening hours. Dentists usually work between 40 and 45 hours a week, although many spend more than 50 hours a week in the office. Dentists often work fewer hours as they grow older, and a considerable number continue in parttime practice well beyond the usual retire ment age. Employment According to the U.S. Public Health Ser vice, about 126,000 individuals practiced dentistry in the United States in 1980. Nine out of 10 were in private practice. About 5,000 served as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces, and another 1,700 worked in other types of Federal Government posi tions—chiefly in the hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the Public Health Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice dentistry is required in all States and the District of Columbia. To qualify for a license in most States, a candi date must graduate from a dental school ap proved by the American Dental Association Filling a tooth requires manual dexterity. and pass written and practical examinations. In 1980, candidates in 48 States and the District of Columbia could fulfill part of the State licensing requirements by passing a written examination given by the National Board of Dental Examiners. Most State li censes permit dentists to engage in both gen eral and specialized practice. In 14 States, however, a dentist cannot be licensed as a “ specialist” without having 2 or 3 years of graduate education and, in some cases, pass ing a special State examination. In the other 36 States, the extra education also is neces sary, but a specialist’s practice is regulated by the dental profession, not the State licens ing authority. To practice in a different State, a licensed dentist usually must pass that State’s examination. However, at least 21 States grant licenses to dentists from other States on the basis of their credentials. Den tists who want to teach or do research usually spend an additional 2 to 4 years in advanced dental training in programs operated by den tal schools, hospitals, and other institutions of higher education. Dental schools require a minimum of 2 to 4 years of college-level predental education. In fact, most dental students are college gradu ates. Five out of six of the students entering dental schools in 1980 had a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Predental education must in clude courses in the sciences and humanities. Competition is keen for admission to den tal schools. In selecting students, schools give considerable weight to college grades. In addition, all dental schools participate in a nationwide admission testing program, and scores earned on these tests are considered along with information gathered about the applicant through recommendations and in 150/Occupational Outlook Handbook terviews. Many State-supported dental schools give preference to residents of their particular States. Dental school generally lasts 4 academic years, although one institution condenses the program into 3 calendar years. Studies begin with classroom instruction and laboratory work in basic sciences including anatomy, microbiology, biochemistry, and physiology. Courses in preclinical technique and begin ning courses in clinical sciences also are pro vided at this time. The last 2 years are spent chiefly in dental clinics, treating patients. The degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S) is awarded by most dental colleges. An equivalent degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.), is conferred by 19 schools. Earning a dental degree is a costly pro cess, but financial aid is available from the Federal and State governments, health-relat ed organizations, industry, and dental schools themselves. Many dental students rely on student loans to finance their professional training. Dentistry requires both manual skills and a high level of diagnostic ability. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment of space and shape, and a high degree of manual dexterity, as well as scien tific ability. Good business sense, self-disci pline, and the ability to instill confidence are helpful for success in private practice. High school students who want to become dentists are advised to take courses in biology, chem istry, health, and mathematics. Most dental graduates open their own of fices or purchase established practices. Some gain experience with established dentists and save money to equip an office; others may enter residency training programs in ap proved hospitals. Dentists who enter the Armed Forces are commissioned as captains in the Army and Air Force and as lieutenants in the Navy. Graduates of recognized dental schools are eligible for positions in the Fed eral service and for commissions (equivalent to lieutenants in the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Service. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for dentists are expected to be good through the 1980’s. Dental school enrollments have grown in re cent years, and the supply of new dentists is expected to be in balance with the number needed to fill openings created by growth of the occupation and by death or retirement from the profession. Employment of dentists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations due to population growth, in creased awareness that regular dental care helps prevent and control dental diseases, and the expansion of prepayment arrangements, which make it easier for people to afford dental services. Fluoridation of community water supplies and improved dental hygiene prevent tooth and gum disorders and preserve teeth that might otherwise be extracted. However, since the preserved teeth may need care in the future, these measures may in crease rather than decrease the demand for dental care. Similarly, while new techniques, equipment, and drugs, as well as the expand ed use of dental hygienists, assistants, and laboratory technicians, should enable individ ual dentists to care for more patients, these developments are not expected to offset the need for more dentists. There will continue to be a need for den tists to administer dental public health pro grams and teach in dental colleges. Also, many dentists will continue to serve in the Armed Forces. Except for emergencies, dental work gen erally can be postponed. During periods of economic hardship, therefore, dentists could experience a reduction in the volume of work, and in earnings—especially in commu nities affected by mass layoffs. Employment of dentists is not significantly influenced by changes in economic conditions, however. Earnings During the first year or two of practice, dentists often earn little more than the mini mum needed to cover expenses, but their earnings usually rise rapidly as their practice develops. Specialists generally earn consider ably more than general practitioners. The average income of dentists in 1980 was about $55,000 a year, according to the limited in formation available. In the Federal Govern ment, new graduates of dental schools could expect to start at $22,500 a year in 1981. Experienced dentists working for the Federal Government in 1980 averaged $43,000; some earned as much as $52,100. Location is one of the major factors affect ing the income of dentists who open their own offices. For example, in high-income urban areas, dental services are in great de mand. However, a practice can be developed most quickly in small towns, where new den tists can become known easily and where they may face less competition from estab lished practitioners. Although the income from practice in small towns may rise rapidly at first, over the long run the level of earn ings, like the cost of living, may be lower than it is in larger communities. Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, and treat var ious oral diseases and abnormalities. Others whose work involves personal contact and requires a long and rigorous period of scienti fic training include psychologists, optom etrists, physicians, veterinarians, and podiatrists. Sources of Additional Information For information on dentistry as a career and a list of accredited dental schools, contact: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. American Association of Dental Schools, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20036. The American Dental Association also will furnish a list of State boards of dental examiners. Persons interested in practicing dentistry should obtain the requirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of the State where they plan to work. Prospective dental students should contact the office of student financial aid at the schools to which they apply for information on scholarships, grants, and loans, including Federal financial aid for dental students. Optometrists (D .O .T . 079.101-018) Nature of the Work Half the people in the United States wear glasses or contact lenses. Optometrists (doc tors of optometry) provide most of the vision care these people need. They examine peo ple’s eyes to detect vision problems, diseases, and other abnormal conditions. They also test to insure that the patient has proper depth and color perception and the ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. When necessary, they prescribe lenses and treatment. Where evi dence of disease is present, the optometrist refers the patient to the appropriate health care practitioner. Most optometrists supply the prescribed eyeglasses and fit and adjust contact lenses. Optometrists also prescribe vision therapy or other treatment which does not require surgery. In 32 States optometrists may utilize diagnostic drugs; in several of these States they may also utilize drugs to treat eye diseases. Although most optometrists are in general practice, some specialize in work with the elderly or with children. Others work with partially sighted persons, who use microscop ic or telescopic lenses. Still others concen trate on contact lenses or vision therapy. Optometrists teach, do research, consult, and serve on health advisory committees of var ious kinds. Optometrists should not be confused with either ophthalmologists or dispensing opti cians. Ophthalmologists are physicians (doc tors of medicine or osteopathy) who specialize in medical eye care, eye diseases, and injuries; perform eye surgery; and prescribe drugs or other eye treatment, as well as lenses. Dis pensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses according to prescriptions written by ophthal mologists or optometrists; they do not examine eyes or prescribe treatment. (See statements on physicians and dispensing opticians else where in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Optometrists work in places—usually their own offices—that are clean, well lighted, and comfortable. The work requires a lot of at tention to detail. Because optometrists, like other health practitioners, generally are selfemployed, they have considerable flexibility Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/151 in setting their hours of work, and often continue to practice after the normal retire ment age. Many independent practitioners work well over 40 hours a week, including time on Saturdays and in the evening. Employment In 1980, there were about 27,000 practic ing optometrists. More than 9 out of 10 worked full time. Although the majority of optometrists are in solo practice, a growing number are in partnerships or group prac tices. The trend toward partnerships or group practices, which is especially pronounced among younger optometrists, is associated with the high cost of setting up a solo prac tice. For the same reason, some optometrists work as salaried employees in the offices of other optometrists. Some optometrists work in specialized hospitals and eye clinics or teach in schools of optometry. Others work for the Veterans Administration, health maintenance organiza tions, public and private health agencies, and insurance companies. Some optometrists in private practice also act as consultants to industrial safety engi neers, insurance companies, manufacturers of corrective lenses, and others. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Appli cants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometric school or college and pass a State board examination. In some States, appli cants can substitute the examination of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry, given in the second, third, and fourth years of optometric school, for part or all of the written State examination. Some States allow applicants to be licensed without lengthy ex amination if they have a license in another State. In 44 States, optometrists must earn continuing education credits in optometry to renew their licenses. The Doctor of Optometry degree requires a minimum of 6 or 7 years of higher education consisting of a 4-year professional degree pro gram preceded by at least 2 or 3 years of preoptometric study at an accredited universi ty, college, or junior college. Most optometry students enter with at least a bachelor’s degree. In 1981, there were 13 schools and colleges of optometry in the United States accredited by the Council on Optometric Education of the American Optometric Association; accredita tion was pending for 3 other schools. Require ments for admission to these schools usually include courses in English, mathematics, phys ics, chemistry, and biology or zoology. Some schools also require courses in psychology, social studies, literature, philosophy, and for eign languages. All applicants must take the Optometry College Aptitude Test (OCAT). Admission to optometry schools is keenly competitive. Therefore, superior grades in preoptometric college courses may enhance one’s chances for acceptance. Optometrist uses instruments to measure patient’s vision. Because most optometrists are self-em ployed, business ability, self-discipline, and the ability to deal with patients tactfully are necessary for success. Many beginning optometrists enter into as sociate practice with an optometrist or other health professional. Others purchase an es tablished practice or set up a new practice. Some take salaried positions to obtain expe rience and the necessary funds to enter their own practice. Optometrists wishing to advance in a spe cialized field may study for a master’s or Ph.D. degree in visual science, physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health, health administration, health information and communication, or health education. Oneyear graduate clinical residency programs also are available in the optometric special ties of family practice optometry, pediatric optometry, low vision rehabilitation, contact lenses, neuro-optometry, and hospital optom etry. Optometrists who enter the Armed Forces as career officers have the opportunity to work toward advanced degrees and to do research on vision problems. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for optometrists are expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. The number of graduates from the Nation’s 16 schools of optometry is expected to be roughly equal to the number of posi tions that will arise from growth in the de mand for optometrists and the need to replace optometrists who retire or die. Employment of optometrists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. An increase in the total popula tion and the rising proportion of older peo- 152/Occupational Outlook Handbook pie—the group most likely to need vision care—are major factors contributing to the expected growth in the occupation. Greater recognition of the importance of good vision and the broadening of public and private health insurance coverage to include optometric services also should increase the de mand for optometric services. Earnings In 1980, net earnings of new optometry graduates in their first full year of practice averaged about $18,000. Experienced optom etrists averaged about $45,000 annually. Op tometrists working for the Federal Government earned an average of $28,500 a year in 1980. Incomes vary greatly, depending upon loca tion, specialization, and other factors. Optom etrists who start out by working on a salaried basis tend to earn more money initially than optometrists who set up their own solo prac tice. However, in the long run, those with their own private practice have the potential to earn more than those employed by other optom etrists, hospitals, health agencies, retail stores, or other firms. Related Occupations Other occupations in which the main activ ity consists of applying logical thinking and scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat disease, disorders, or injuries in humans or animals are chiropractors, den tists, osteopathic physicians, physicians, po diatrists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on optometry as a career, write to: American Optometric Association, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, Mo. 63141. Additional career information and a listing of accredited optometric educational institu tions as well as required preoptometry courses can be obtained from: muscles, ligaments, and nerves. One of the basic treatments or therapies used by osteo pathic physicians centers on manipulating this system with the hands. Osteopathic phy sicians also use surgery, drugs, and all other accepted methods of medical care. Most osteopathic physicians are “family doctors” who engage in general practice. These physicians usually see patients in their offices, make house calls, and treat patients in osteopathic and other private and public hospitals. Some doctors of osteopathy teach, do research, or write and edit scientific books and journals. In recent years, specialization has in creased. In 1980, about 13 percent of all osteopathic physicians were practicing in spe cialties, including internal medicine, neurol ogy and psychiatry, ophthalmology, anesthe siology, physical medicine and rehabilitation, dermatology, pathology, proctology, radiolo gy, and surgery. Working Conditions Many osteopathic physicians work more than 50 or 60 hours a week. Those in general practice usually work longer and more irregu lar hours than specialists. As osteopathic physicians grow older, they may accept few er new patients and tend to work shorter hours. However, many continue to practice well beyond 70 years of age. Employment About 18,750 osteopathic physicians prac ticed in the United States in 1980, according to Am erican O steopathic A ssociation (A.O.A.) estimates. Almost 85 percent were in private practice. A small number were full-time staff or faculty members of osteo pathic hospitals and colleges, private indus try, or government agencies. Osteopathic physicians are located chiefly in those States that have osteopathic hospital fa cilities. In 1980, three-fifths of all osteopathic physicians were in Florida, Michigan, Penn sylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, Texas, and Mis souri. Twenty-one States and the District of Columbia each had fewer than 50 osteopathic physicians. More than half of all general prac titioners are located in towns and cities having fewer than 50,000 people; specialists, howev er, practice mainly in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications All 50 States and the District of Columbia require a license to practice osteopathic medi cine. To obtain a license, a candidate must be a graduate of an approved school of osteo pathic medicine and pass a State board ex amination. In four States, candidates must pass an examination in the basic sciences before they are eligible to take the profes sional examination; 38 States and the District of Columbia also require a period of intern ship in an approved hospital after graduation from an osteopathic school. The National Board of Osteopathic Examiners also gives an examination which is accepted by most States as a substitute for the State examina tion. Most States grant licenses without fur ther examination to osteopathic physicians already licensed by another State. The minimum educational requirement for entry to one of the schools of osteopathic medicine is 3 years of college work, but in practice almost all osteopathic students have a bachelor’s degree. Preosteopathic education must include courses in chemistry, physics, biology, and English. Osteopathic colleges require successful completion of 3 to 4 years of professional study for the degree of Doc tor of Osteopathy (D.O.). During the first half of professional training, emphasis is Association of Schools and Colleges of Optom etry, Suite 410, 600 Maryland Ave. SW., Wash ington, D.C. 20024. The Board of Optometry in the capital of each State can supply information on licens ing requirements. For information on admission requirements and sources of financial aid, including Feder al loans and scholarships, contact individual optometry schools. Osteopathic Physicians (D .O .T. 071.101-010) Nature of the Work Osteopathic physicians (D .O .’s) diagnose and treat diseases or maladies of the human body. They place special emphasis on the musculo-skeletal system of the body—bones, Osteopathic physicians usually set up practice in communities that have osteopathic hospitals. Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/153 placed on basic sciences, such as anatomy, physiology, and pathology, and on the princi ples of osteopathy; the remainder of the time is devoted largely to experience with patients in hospitals and clinics. After graduation, nearly all doctors of os teopathic medicine serve a 12-month rotating internship (including experience in surgery, pediatrics, internal medicine and other spe cialties) at 1 of the 94 osteopathic hospitals approved by the American Osteopathic Asso ciation for intern or residency training. Those who wish to specialize must have 2 to 5 years of additional training. The osteopathic physician’s lengthy train ing is very costly. Federal and private loans are available to help students meet these costs. In addition, Federal scholarships are available to qualified applicants who agree to a minimum of 3 years’ military service after graduation. In late 1981, there were 15 schools of osteo pathic medicine. Schools admit students on the basis of their college grades, scores on the required New Medical College Admissions Test, and recommendations from premedical college counselors. The applicant’s desire to serve as an osteopathic physician rather than as a doctor trained in other fields of medicine is an important qualification. Colleges also give considerable weight to a favorable recommen dation by an osteopathic physician familiar with the applicant’s background. Newly qualified doctors of osteopathic medicine usually establish their own practice, although a growing number enter group prac tice and some enter government service. Some work as assistants to experienced physicians or join the staff of osteopathic or allopathic (M.D.) hospitals. In view of the variation in State laws, persons who ^ish to become osteo pathic physicians should study carefully the professional and legal requirements of the State in which they plan to practice. The availability of osteopathic hospitals and clinical facilities also should be considered. Persons who wish to become osteopathic physicians must have a strong desire to pur sue this career. They must be willing to study a great deal throughout their career in order to keep up with the latest advances in osteopathic medicine. They should exhibit leadership, emotional stabiliy, and self-confi dence. A pleasant personality, friendliness, patience, and the ability to deal with people also are important. Job Outlook Opportunities for osteopathic physicians are expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. Many localities are without medical practitioners of any kind; many more have few or no osteopathic physicians. In addition, many new osteopaths will be needed to re place those who retire or die. The greatest demand probably will continue to be in States where osteopathic medicine is a widely known and accepted method of treatment, such as Pennsylvania, Florida, and several Midwestern States. Generally, prospects for beginning a successful practice are likely to be best in rural areas, small towns, and city suburbs, where young doctors of osteopathy may establish their professional reputations more easily than in the large cities. The osteopathic profession is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s because of general population growth and the rising proportion of elderly persons, the establishment of addi tional osteopathic hospital facilities, and the extension of third-party payment programs for hospitalization and medical care. Earnings In osteopathic medicine, as in many of the other health professions, income usually rises markedly after the first few years of practice. Earnings of individual practitioners are deter mined mainly by ability, experience, geo graphic location, and the income level of the community served. Graduates who had com pleted an approved 3-year residency but had no other experience received a starting salary at a Veterans Administration hospital of about $38,000 a year in 1981. In addition, those who worked full time received up to $13,000 in other cash benefits or “ special” payments. In general, the income earned by D.O. ’s compares favorably with other profes sions. Specialists usually earn higher incomes than general practitioners. Related Occupations Osteopathic physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Other occupations that require the exercise of similar critical judgments include: Audiologists, chiropractors, dentists, optom etrists, physicians, podiatrists, speech pa thologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information People who wish to practice in a particular State should find out about the requirements for licensure directly from the board of ex aminers of that State. Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the director of student financial aid at the indi vidual schools of osteopathy. Information about Armed Forces Health Professional Scholarships is available from any local mili tary recruiting office. For a list of State boards, as well as general information on osteopathy as a career, contact: American Osteopathic Association, Department of Public Relations, 212 East Ohio St., Chicago, 111. 60611. American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine, 4720 Montgomery Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20814. Physicians (D.O.T. 070.061-010 through .107-014) Nature of the Work Physicians perform medical examinations, diagnose diseases, and treat people who are suffering from injury or disease. They also advise patients on how to prevent disease and keep fit through proper diet and exercise. Physicians generally work in their own of fices and in hospitals, but they also may visit patients in their homes or in nursing homes. Depending on the type of patients they see, physicians may be either generalists or specialists. About three out of ten physicians who provide patient care are generalists, and these include general practitioners (G .P.’s) as well as a number of specialty-trained practi tioners, such as family practitioners and some practitioners in family medicine and pediat rics, who provide general, all-around health care. Recent years have seen a decline in the number of G .P .’s. Instead, almost all medi cal school graduates obtain advanced special ty training in a residency program. The largest of the 38 specialties for which there is postgraduate training are internal medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, pediatrics, radiology, anesthesi ology, ophthalmology, pathology, and ortho pedic surgery. The most rapidly growing specialties are in the primary care area— family practice, internal medicine, and pediatrics. Some physicians combine the practice of medicine with research or teaching in medi cal schools. Others hold full-time research or teaching positions or perform administrative work in hospitals. Working Conditions Many physicians have long working days and irregular hours. Most specialists work fewer hours each week than general practi tioners. As doctors approach retirement age, they may accept fewer new patients and tend to work shorter hours. However, many con tinue in practice well beyond 70 years of age. Employment There were about 405,000 active physi cians in the United States in 1980, according to the American Medical Association (A.M.A.). About 263,000 of these had of fice practices; more than 104,000 others worked as residents or full-time staff mem bers in hospitals. The remaining physi cians—almost 38,000—taught or performed administrative or research duties. In 1980, 12,000 graduates of foreign medi cal schools served as hospital residents in this country. To be appointed to approved resi dencies in U.S. hospitals, alien graduates of foreign medical schools usually must be cer tified by the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates after having passed an examination administered by that organization. The Northeast has the highest ratio of phy sicians to population and the South has the lowest. Because physicians have tended to locate in urban areas, close to hospital and educational centers, many rural areas have been underserved by medical personnel. Cur rently, more medical students are being ex posed to practice in rural communities with 154/Occupational Outlook Handbook the direct support of educational centers and hospitals in more populous areas. In addition, some rural areas offer physicians guaranteed minimum incomes to offset the relatively low earnings typical in rural medical practice. Training and Other Qualifications All States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico require a license to practice medicine. Requirements for licensure include graduation from an accredited medical school, successful completion of a licensing examination, and, in most States, 1 or 2 years of supervised practice in an accredited graduate medical education program (resi dency). The licensing examination taken by most graduates of U.S. medical schools is the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) test that is accepted by all States except Texas and Louisiana. Graduates of foreign medical schools as well as graduates of U.S. medical schools who have not taken the NBME test must take the Federation Licensure Examination (FLEX) that is ac cepted by all jurisdictions. Although physi cians licensed in one State usually can get a license to practice in another without fur ther examination, some States limit this reciprocity. In 1980, there were 126 accredited schools in the United States in which students could begin the study of medicine. Of these, 125 awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine (M.D.); 1 school offered a 2-year program in the basic medical sciences to students who could then transfer to another medical school for the last semesters of study. The minimum educational requirement for entry to a medical school is 3 years of col lege; some schools require 4 years. A few As the supply of physicians grows, opportunities will be better in some specialties than in others. medical schools allow selected students who have exceptional qualifications to begin their professional study after 2 years of college. Most students who enter medical schools have a bachelor’s degree. Required premedical study includes under graduate work in English, physics, biology, and inorganic and organic chemistry. Stu dents also should take courses in the human ities, mathematics, and the social sciences to acquire a broad general education. Recent studies have shown that medical students with undergraduate majors in the humanities did as well in their medical studies as those who majored in the sciences. Medicine is a popular field of study, and applicants must compete for entry with high ly motivated students who generally excelled in premedical education. Factors considered by medical schools in admitting students in clude their academic record and their scores on the New Medical College Admission Test, which is taken by almost all applicants. Consideration also is given to the applicant’s character, personality, and leadership quali ties, as shown by personal interviews, letters of recommendation, and extracurricular ac tivities in college. Many State-supported medical schools give preference to residents of their particular State and, sometimes, those of nearby States. Most medical students take 4 years to complete the curriculum for the M.D. de gree. Some schools, however, allow students who have demonstrated outstanding ability to follow a shortened curriculum, generally lasting 3 years. A few schools offer the M.D. degree within 6 years of high school graduation. The first semesters of medical school are spent primarily in laboratories and classrooms, learning basic medical sciences such as anato my, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, microbiology, and pathology. Additionally, students gain some clinical experience with patients during the first 2 years of study, learn ing to take case histories, perform examina tions, and recognize symptoms. During the last semesters, students spend most of their time in hospitals and clinics under the supervision of clinical faculty, where they gain experience in the diagnosis and treatment of illness. After graduating from medical school, al most all M .D .’s serve a residency of at least 3 years. Those planning a career as a gener alist spend 3 years in a family practice, gen eral internal medicine or pediatrics residency. Almost 95 percent of medical school gradu ates expect to seek specialty board certifica tion. Those doctors must select an approved residency program, pass the board’s certifica tion examination, and meet any other certifi cation board requirements. Some physicians who want to teach or do research take grad uate work leading to a master’s or Ph.D. degree in a field such as biochemistry or microbiology. Medical training is very costly because of the long time required to earn the medical Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/155 degree. However, financial assistance in the form of loans and scholarships is available from the Federal Government, State and lo cal governments, and private sources. Some of this aid requires the student to demonstrate financial need or to commit a minimum of 3 years’ time to service in the Armed Forces upon graduation. Persons who wish to become physicians must have a strong desire to serve the sick and injured. They must be self-motivated and competitive to survive the pressures of pre medical and medical education and the de manding workload during the residency that follows medical school. They must be will ing to study a great deal in order to keep up with the latest advances in medical sci ence. Sincerity and a pleasant personality are assets that help physicians gain the confi dence of patients. Physicians should be emo tionally stable and able to make decisions in emergencies. The majority of newly qualified physicians open their own offices or join associate or group practices. Those who have completed 1 year of graduate medical education (a 1year residency) and enter active military duty initially serve as captains in the Army or Air Force or as lieutenants in the Navy. Gradu ates also qualify for professional medical po sitions in the Federal service. Job Outlook The employment outlook for physicians is expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. However, the shortage of physicians clearly is past, except for rural and inner city areas that continue to have difficulty attracting medical personnel. Medical school enroll ments have increased and new graduates, combined with foreign medical graduates seeking to practice here, will continue to increase the supply of physicians throughout the 1980’s. In some areas considered very desirable, evidence of an oversupply of phy sicians is emerging. This phenemenon is ex pected to become more common in coming years and should encourage doctors to plan carefully in selecting a specialization and a location in which to practice. New physicians should have little difficulty establishing a practice, provided they are willing to locate where doctors are not in oversupply. A greater percentage of new medical graduates are entering the primary care spe cialties, and this may help alleviate a critical shortage of this type practitioner in many localities. With more physicians in primary care there may be an increasing movement of physicians into rural and other areas that have experienced shortages in the past. Growth in population will create much of the need for more physicians. In addition, a larger percentage of the population will be in the age group over 65, which uses more physicians’ services. The effective demand for physicians’ care is expected to increase because of greater ability to pay, resulting from widespread availability of prepayment Specialists outnumber general practitioners by 5 to 1 Percent of physicians by specialty group, 1980 Other specialty Psychiatry Anesthesiology, etc. Surgical specialty General practice Obstetrics/gynecology Orthopedic surgery, etc. Medical specialty Internal medicine Pediatrics, etc. Source: American Medical Association programs for hospitalization and medical care, including Medicare and Medicaid. In addition, more physicians will be needed for medical research and for the growing fields of public health, rehabilitation, industrial medicine, and mental health. To some extent, the rise in the demand for physicians’ services will be offset by devel opments that raise physicians’ productivity. For example, increasing numbers of allied health personnel are assisting physicians; new drugs and medical techniques are shortening illnesses; and growing numbers of physicians are using their time more effectively by en gaging in group practice. The use of physi cian assistants and nurse practitioners also may increase the productivity of physicians. Earnings Stipends of medical school graduates serv ing as residents in hospitals vary according to the type of residency, geographic area, and size of the hospital, but allowances of $16,000 to $17,000 a year are common. Many hospitals also provide full or par tial room, board, and other maintenance allowances to their residents. Graduates who had completed approved 3year residencies but had no other medical experience received a starting salary at Veteran s’ Administration hospitals of about $38,500 a year in 1981. In addition, those working full time received up to $13,000 in other cash benefits or “ special” payments. Newly qualified physicians who establish their own practice must make a sizable finan cial investment to equip a modem office. During the first year or two of independent practice, physicians probably earn little more than the minimum needed to pay expenses. As a rule, however, their earnings rise rap idly as their practices develop. Physicians have among the highest average annual earnings of any occupational group. Physicians earned an average net income of $74,500 in 1980. Historically, most special ists, such as radiologists and surgeons, have earned much more than family or general practitioners. However, earnings of family practitioners have risen sharply in recent years. Earnings of physicians depend on fac tors such as the region of the country in which they practice; the patients ’ income lev els; and the physicians’ skills, personality, and professional reputation, as well as the length of experience. Self-employed physi cians usually earn more than those in salaried positions. Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Other occupations that require similar kinds of skill and critical judgment include audiologists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, osteo pathic phsyicians, podiatrists, speech pa thologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information Persons who wish to practice in a particu lar State should inquire about licensure re quirements directly from the board of medical examiners of that State. Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the directors of student financial aid at medical schools. Information about Armed Forces Health Professions Scholarships is available from any local military recruiting office. For a list of approved medical schools, as well as general information on premedical education, financial aid, and medicine as a career, contact: Council on Medical Education, American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago 111. 60610. Association of American Medical Colleges, Suite 200, One Dupont Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. 156/Occupational Outlook Handbook Podiatrists (D .O .T. 079.101-022) Nature of the Work Because we use them so often in walking, running, or just standing, we are constantly and painfully aware when our feet hurt. To get relief, a growing number of foot sufferers are paying a visit to the podiatrist. Podiatrists diagnose and treat diseases and deformities of the foot. They perform surgery; fit corrective devices; and prescribe drugs, physical ther apy, and proper shoes. To help in diagnoses, they take X-rays and perform or prescribe blood and other pathological tests. Podiatrists treat a variety of foot conditions, including corns, bunions, calluses, ingrown toenails, Podiatrists diagnose and treat foot problems. skin and nail diseases, deformed toes, and arch disabilities. Whenever podiatrists find symptoms of a medical disorder affecting other parts of the body—arthritis, diabetes, or heart disease, for example—they refer the patient to a physician while continuing to treat the foot problem. More than 4 of every 5 podiatrists are gener alists who provide all types of foot care. How ever, some podiatrists specialize in foot surgery, orthopedics (bone, muscle, and joint disorders), podopediatrics (children’s foot ail ments), or podogeriatrics (foot problems of the elderly). With the growing popularity of jog ging, tennis, racquetball, and other fast-mov ing sports, the specialty of sports medicine is also showing rapid growth. Working Conditions Podiatrists usually work independently in their own offices. Their work week is gener ally 40 hours, and they may set their hours to suit their practice. Employment Of the 12,000 podiatrists active in 1980, the majority were located in large cities. Those who had full-time, salaried positions worked mainly in hospitals, podiatric medical colleges, or for other podiatrists. The Veter ans Administration and public health depart ments employ podiatrists on either a full- or part-time basis. Others serve as commis sioned officers in the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatry. To qualify for a license, an applicant must graduate from an accredited college of podi atric medicine and pass a written and oral State board proficiency examination. Six States—Arizona, Georgia, Michigan, New Jersey, Oklahoma, and Rhode Island—also require applicants to serve a 1-year residency in a hospital or clinic after graduation. Three-fourths of the States grant licenses without further examination to podiatrists al ready licensed by another State. The five colleges of podiatric medicine are located in California, Illinois, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Minimum entrance requirements at these schools include 3 years of college work with courses in English, chemistry, biology or zoology, physics, and mathematics. Competition for entry to these schools is keen, however, and most entrants surpass the minimum requirements. About 85 percent of the class entering in 1980 held at least a bachelor’s degree, and the average enrollee had an overall grade point average of “ B” or better. All colleges of podiatric medicine also require applicants to earn an acceptable score on the New Medical Col lege Admissions Test. Of the 4 years in podiatry school, the first 2 are spent in class room instruction and laboratory work in anatomy, bacteriology, chemistry, pathology, physiology, pharmacology, and other basic sciences. During the final 2 years, students gain clinical experience while continuing their academic studies. The degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M .) is awarded to graduates.Additional education and expe rience generally are necessary to practice in a specialty. Federal, State, and private loans are available for needy students to pursue full-time study leading to a degree in podiat ric medicine, and some Federal scholarships are available for students willing to locate in underserved areas after graduation. Persons planning a career in podiatry should have scientific aptitude and manual dexterity, and like detailed work. A good business sense and congeniality also are as sets in the profession. Most newly licensed podiatrists set up their own practices. Some purchase estab lished practices, or take salaried positions to Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners/157 gain the experience and money they need to begin their own practice. Job Outlook Opportunities for graduates to establish new practices, as well as to enter salaried positions, should be favorable through the 1980’s. Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions as podiatry gains recognition as a heal ing art and as an expanding population demands more health services. Broader par ticipation in fast-moving sports that tend to aggravate foot disorders, as well as the grow ing number of older people who need foot care and who are entitled to certain podia trists’ services under Medicare, also should spur demand. injuries. They help prevent the outbreak and spread of animal diseases, some of which can be transmitted to human beings. Veterinar ians perform surgery on sick and injured ani mals and prescribe and administer medicines and vaccines. Over one-third of all veterinarians treat small animals or pets exclusively. Another one-third treat both large and small animals. Almost 10 percent specialize in the health and breeding of cattle, poultry, sheep, swine, or horses. The remainder are in a variety of practice specialties. Some veterinarians in spect food, investigate disease outbreaks, or work in laboratories as part of Federal and State public health programs. Others teach in veterinary colleges, work in zoos or animal laboratories, or engage in medical research. Working Conditions Earnings Newly licensed podiatrists build their prac tices over a number of years. Income during the first several years is usually low but generally rises significantly as the practice grows. A net income of over $50,000 a year is common for established podiatrists. Newly licensed podiatrists hired by Veterans Ad ministration hospitals earned starting salaries between $22,486 and $26,951 in 1980. Related Occupations Podiatrists work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Other occupations that require similar skills include audiologists, chiropractors, dentists, optom etrists, osteopathic physicians, physicians, speech pathologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information Information on license requirements in a particular State is available from that State’s board of examiners in the State capital. Information on colleges of podiatric medi cine, entrance requirements, curriculums, and student financial aid is available from: American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 20 Chevy Chase Circle NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20015. For additional information on podiatry as a career, contact: American Podiatry Association, 20 Chevy Chase Circle NW., Washington, D.C. 20015. Veterinarians (D.O.T. 073. except .361-010) Nature of the Work The doctor who treats your pet poodle or mynah bird, the government official who in spects meats sold at the supermarket, the scientist who heads a medical research team investigating the mysteries of disease—any one of these could be a veterinarian (doctor of veterinary medicine). Veterinarians diag nose, treat, and control animal diseases and Veterinarians usually treat pet animals in hospitals and clinics. Those who specialize in large animal practice usually work out of well equipped mobile clinics and drive considerable distances between farms and ranches to care for their animal patients. Veterinarians are some times exposed to injury, disease, and infection. Those in private practice often work long hours. Veterinarians in rural areas may have to work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Because they are self-employed, veterinarians in private practice usually can continue working well be yond normal retirement age. Employment About 36,000 veterinarians were profes sionally active in 1980. Most were in private practice. The Federal Government employed about 2,550 veterinarians, chiefly in the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Pub lic Health Service. About 600 more were commissioned officers in the veterinary ser vices of the Army and Air Force. Other employers of veterinarians are State and local governments, international health agencies, colleges of veterinary medicine, medical schools, research laboratories, livestock farms, animal food companies, and pharma ceutical companies. Veterinarians are located in all parts of the country, and the type of practice generally varies according to geographic setting. Veter inarians in rural areas mainly treat farm ani mals; those in small towns usually engage in general practice; those in cities and suburban areas often limit their practice to pets. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require veterinarians to have a license. To obtain a license, applicants must have a Doc tor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M . or V.M.D.) degree from an accredited college of veterinary medicine and pass written and—in most States—oral State board profi ciency examinations. Some States issue li censes without further examination to veterinarians already licensed by another State. For positions in research and teaching, an additional master’s or Ph.D. degree usually is required in a field such as pathology, physi ology, toxicology, or laboratory animal medicine. The D.V.M. or V.M.D. degree requires a minimum of 6 years of college consisting of a 4-year professional degree program preced ed by at least 2 years of preveterinary study that emphasizes the physical and biological sciences. Several veterinary medical colleges require 3 years of preveterinary work, and most applicants have completed 4 years of college. In addition to rigorous academic in struction, professional training includes con siderable practical experience in diagnosing and treating animal diseases, performing sur gery, and performing laboratory work in anatomy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical subjects. In 1980, 22 colleges of veterinary medi cine in the U.S. were accredited by the Council on Education of the American Vet erinary Medical Association. Admission to these schools is highly competitive. Each year there are many more qualified applicants than the schools can accept. Serious appli cants usually need grades of “ B” or better, especially in science courses. Experience in part-time or summer jobs working with ani mals is advantageous. Colleges usually give preference to residents of the State in which the college is located, because these schools are largely State supported. In the South and West, regional educational plans permit co operating States without veterinary schools to send students to designated regional schools. In other areas, colleges that accept out-ofState students give priority to applicants from nearby States that do not have veterinary schools. The Federal Government provides some scholarships and loans for students in schools of veterinary medicine, subject to the avail ability of funds; several of the Federal fi nancial assistance programs involve a period of service in an underserved area after graduation. Most veterinarians begin as employees or partners in established practices. Those who can afford the substantial investment needed for drugs, instruments, and other startup costs may set up their own practices. An even greater investment is needed to open an animal hospital or purchase an established practice. Newly qualified veterinarians may enter the military services as commissioned offi cers, or qualify for Federal positions as meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control work ers, epidemiologists, research assistants, or commissioned officers in the U.S. Public Health Service. A license is not required for Federal employment. Job Outlook Veterinary employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s, primarily because of growth in the companion animal (horses, 158/Occupational Outlook Handbook $21,065 a year in 1981. The average annual salary of veterinarians in the Federal Govern ment was $34,100 in 1980. The average sal ary paid veterinarians working for local governments was $24,500 in 1980. The in comes of veterinarians in private practice vary considerably, depending on factors such as location, type of practice, and years of experience, but usually are higher than those of veterinarians employed by government agencies. Related Occupations Veterinarians use their professional train ing to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Others who require similar skills are audiologists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, osteopathic physi cians, physicians, podiatrists, and speech pathologists. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet entitled Today’s Veterinarian presents information on veterinary medicine as a career and lists accredited colleges of veterinary medicine. A free copy may be obtained by submitting a request, together with a self-addressed, stamped business-size envelope, to: American Veterinary Medical Association, 930 N. Meacham Rd., Schaumburg, 111. 60196. A third of all veterinarians treat small animals or pets. dogs, and other pets) population. Emphasis on scientific methods of raising and breed ing livestock and poultry and growth in pub lic health and disease control programs also will contribute to heightened demand for veterinarians. Despite relatively rapid growth in employ ment, newly qualified veterinarians will face increasing competition in establishing prac tices, for the number of veterinary school graduates rose sharply in the 1970’s and is expected to continue growing. The consider able expense of establishing a practice has prompted more and more graduates to seek employment with established veterinarians until they can finance their own practices. If this trend continues, competition for jobs with existing veterinary practices will grow. Earnings Newly graduated veterinarians employed by the Federal Government started at Information on opportunities for veterinar ians in the U.S. Department of Agriculture is available from: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Field Service O ffice, Employment Services, Butler Square West, 5th Floor, 100 N. 6th St., Minne apolis, Minn. 55043. Food Safety and Quality Service, Personnel Divi sion, Butler Square West, 4th Floor, 100 N. 6th St., Minneapolis, Minn. 55043. Prospective veterinary students should contact the financial aid officer of the schools to which they apply for admission for infor mation on scholarships, grants, and loans. Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants The health professionals described in this section of the Handbook care for the sick, help the disabled, and advise individuals and communities on ways of maintaining and im proving their health. Nursing is the largest by far of these occupations. More than one mil lion registered nurses were employed in 1980. The other occupations described here vary in size from pharmacists (about 141,000 in 1980) to physician assistants (9,500). Registered nurses are an essential part of the health team and work primarily on hospital staffs, providing direct patient care. A growing number work in long-term care facilities in cluding nursing homes, rehabilitation centers, and mental hospitals. Some engage in commu nity health, industrial, or school nursing, while others work in clinics or physicians’ offices or do private duty nursing. With additional spe cialized training and experience, registered nurses may qualify for jobs as nurse practition ers, nurse midwives, or nurse anesthetists. In these “expanded roles,’’ nurses perform tasks that otherwise would be performed by a physi cian. Three principal kinds of nursing educa tion programs—diploma, associate degree, and bachelor’s degree—prepare students for careers as registered nurses. There are differ ences among them that should be understood by the prospective nursing student. However, all nursing education programs share the goals of teaching nurses the scientific basis of mod em nursing practice, familiarizing them with the latest treatment and rehabilitation tech niques, and equipping them to understand pa tients’ social and psychological needs as well as their medical ones. The relatively new occupation of physician assistant involves direct patient care by work ers who are specially trained to perform many of the more routine medical tasks nor mally carried out by a physician. These tasks include taking medical histories, doing rou tine examinations, and making hospital rounds. Physician assistants work under the supervision of a physician, usually right in the office. Some, however, practice in rural health clinics and other places where physi cians are not readily available. Training com monly lasts 2 years; some programs accept as students only people with previous expe rience in the health field. Legal provisions permitting physician assistants to practice are not uniform throughout the country, in part because the occupation is so new. Therapists work directly with patients who are injured, disabled, or emotionally dis turbed, using a variety of techniques to help them regain physical or emotional indepen dence. Physical therapists use exercise and other treatments to help patients increase strength, mobility, and coordination. Occupa tional therapists teach skills of everyday liv ing, including vocational skills, to people who are disabled or handicapped. Their goal is to help patients adapt to their limitations and learn to be as self-sufficient as possible. Speech pa thologists and audiologists work with children and adults who have speech, language, or hear ing impairments. Statements describing each of these occupations appear below. Rehabilita tion counselors, whose work is closely related to that of therapists, are described elsewhere in the Handbook. Mention should be made of a number of other therapists who aid in rehabilitation. Ori entation therapists for the blind help newly blinded persons learn to move about unassist ed; to handle such everyday activities as dress ing, grooming, eating, and using the telephone; and to communicate by means of Braille, read ing machines, or other devices. Recreation therapists, also known as therapeutic recrea tion workers, are trained to use sports, games, crafts, and hobbies as part of the rehabilitation of ill, disabled, or handicapped persons. (See the statement on recreation workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Art, dance, and music therapists help patients resolve physical, emo tional, or social problems through nonverbal means of communication. Horticultural thera pists use gardening for therapeutic purposes— as a group activity for persons with mental or emotional problems, for example. A bache lor’s degree with a health professions special ization is standard preparation for most therapy occupations. For some jobs, a master’s degree is essential. Dietitians and pharmacists also use special skills and expertise to assist sick or disabled persons, although they do not provide direct patient care. Having completed college pro grams that include bacteriology, chemistry, and other sciences, these workers draw on a body of scientific knowledge when they de vise therapeutic treatment or give advice on the effects of diet or drugs. Both fields offer opportunities to practice in a variety of set tings. Dietitians plan diets to meet the nutri tional needs of groups as diverse as hospital patients, school children, prisoners, and hotel guests. Pharmacists generally work in hospi tals or community pharmacies where they dispense drugs and medicines prescribed by health practitioners. Like other health profes sionals, dietitians and pharmacists sometimes teach or do consulting work in addition to their primary job. Pharmacists, physical therapists, and regis tered nurses must have a license in order to practice. State licensing requirements protect the public by insuring that health care workers meet minimum standards of education and competence. Students considering one of these careers should investigate the State licensing requirements where they plan to work. Employment in these occupations is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Population growth, especially the increase in the number of older people, will spur demand for health care. During the decade of 1980’s, as the number of persons aged 75 and over rises from 9.4 to 12.0 million, demand for a full range of health care services for older per sons is bound to increase. However, the availability of public and private health insur ance, and insurance terms that prescribe which services are reimbursable, will contin ue to affect the actual level of employment. Increased coverage for services provided in convalescent institutions and outpatient care facilities, for example, has contributed to em ployment growth in these areas. While it is clear that employment of health care workers is affected by changes in the extent and terms of insurance coverage, it is not clear what changes in health care financing are likely to occur during the 1980’s. Employment in spe cific professions may increase more or less rapidly than currently anticipated. In addition to new jobs created by growth of the health field, many openings occur each year due to replacement needs. Turnover is a major reason for the current shortage of nurses in some communities. Several other sections of the Handbook contain statements on health careers. Check the alphabetical index at the back to lo cate the statements on health services ad ministrators, dental assistants, medical as sistants, optometric assistants, occupational therapy assistants, physical therapy assis tants, dispensing opticians, ophthalmic labo ratory technicians, and dental laboratory technicians. Books and brochures on health careers are available in libraries, counseling centers, and bookstores. The Sources of Additional Infor mation section at the end of each Handbook statement identifies organizations that can 159 160/Occupational Outlook Handbook provide pamphlets, lists of accredited schools, and sources of financial aid. For an overview of jobs in the health field, includ ing some jobs not covered in the Handbook, request a copy of “ 200 Ways to a Health Center” from: National Health Council, 1740 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019. Another useful publication is the Health Careers Guidebook, fourth edition, pub lished in 1979 by the U.S. Department of Labor and the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (now the Department of Health and Human Services). It is avail able for $6.00 from: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Dietitians__________ (D .O .T. 077.061-010, .117-010, .127-1)10, -014, -018, -022, and .167-010) Nature of the Work Nutrition is the science of food and its effect on the body. It is concerned with the nutrients in food, their use in body chemis try, and—in the final analysis—the relation ship between diet and health. Dietitians provide nutritional counseling to individuals and groups; set up and supervise food service systems for institutions such as hospitals and schools; and promote sound eating habits through education and research. In this field, the term “ nutritionist” applies to a number of different health professionals involved with food science and human nutri tion. Among these are dietitians, food tech nologists, and home economists. (The work of food technologists is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Among dietitians, major areas of special ization include administration, education, re search, and clinical and community dietetics. Administrative dietitians apply the princi ples of nutrition and sound management to large-scale meal planning and preparation, such as that done in hospitals, prisons, com pany cafeterias, schools, and other institutions. They supervise the planning, preparation, and service of meals; select, train, and direct food service supervisors and workers; budget for and purchase food, equipment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. Dietitians who are directors of dietetic departments also decide on departmental policy; coordinate dietetic ser vices with the activities of other departments; and are responsible for the dietetic department budget, which in large organizations may amount to millions of dollars annually. Clinical dietitians, sometimes called thera peutic dietitians, assess nutritional needs, de velop and implement nutrition care plans, and evaluate and report the results in hospi tals, nursing homes, or clinics. Clinical dieti tians confer with doctors and other members of the health care team about patients’ nutri tional care, instruct patients and their families on the requirements and importance of their diets, and suggest ways to maintain these diets after leaving the hospital or clinic. In a small institution, a dietitian may perform both administrative and clinical duties. Community dietitians or nutritionists may counsel individuals and groups on sound nu trition practices to prevent disease, maintain health, and rehabilitate persons recovering from illness. They may engage in teaching and research with a community health focus. This work covers areas such as special diets, meal planning and preparation, and food bud geting and purchasing. Dietitians or nutri tionists in this field usually are associated with community health programs; they may be responsible for planning, developing, co ordinating, and administering a nutrition pro gram or a nutrition component within the community health program. They work mainly for public and private health and so cial service agencies, including “ meals-onwheels programs,” congregate meals for older Americans, and women-infant children nutritional programs. Research dietitians seek ways to improve the nutrition of both healthy and sick people. They may study nutrition science and educa tion, food management, food service systems and equipment, or how the body uses food. Other research projects may investigate the nutritional needs of the aging, persons who have chronic diseases, or space travelers. Re search dietitians need advanced training in this field and usually are employed in medi cal centers or educational facilities, or they may work in community health programs. Dietetic educators teach dietetics to mem bers of the health care team in medical and educational institutions. Some teach this sub ject to consumer groups and adult education classes. Working Conditions Although most dietitians work 40 hours a week, dietitians in hospitals may sometimes work on weekends, and those in commercial food services have somewhat irregular hours. Dietitians spend much of their time in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas, such as research laboratories, classrooms, or offices near food preparation areas. However, they do spend time in kitchens and serving areas that often are hot and steamy. Dietitians working in hospital and clinical settings may have to be on their feet a lot; those involved in consulting spend significant time traveling. Employment About 44,000 persons worked as dietitians in 1980. Part-time work is available in this field; approximately 15 percent of all dieti tians work part time. Health care facilities including hospitals, nursing homes, and clinics are major employ ers of dietitians, accounting for about 65 per cent of the total. About 1,200 work for the Veterans Administration or the U.S. Public Health Service. Colleges, universities, and school systems employ about 10 percent of all dietitians and another 10 percent direct food service systems for child care or residential care facilities. Most of the rest work for public health agencies, restaurants or cafeterias, and large companies that provide food service for their employees. Some are self-employed. A growing number of dietitians do consult ing work. Much of the dietetic supervision for nursing homes, for example, is provided by dietitians working on a consultant basis. Some dietitians have their own consulting firms, while others consult on the side. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree, with a major in foods and nutrition or institution management, is the basic educational requirement for dietitians. This degree can be earned in about 240 col leges and universities, usually in departments of home economics and food and nutrition sciences. Required college courses include food and nutrition, institution management, chemistry, bacteriology, and physiology. Oth er courses that also are important are math ematics, data processing, psychology, soci ology, and economics. It is also possible to prepare for this profession by receiving an ad vanced degree in nutrition, food service man agement, or related sciences and providing evidence of qualifying work experience. To qualify for professional certification, the American Dietetic Association (ADA) recom mends completion of an approved dietetic in ternship or a coordinated undergraduate program. The internship lasts 6 to 12 months and combines clinical experience under a quali fied dietitian with some classroom work. In 1980, 81 internship programs were accredited by the ADA. A growing number of coordinat ed undergraduate programs have been devel oped that enable students to complete their clinical experience requirement while obtain ing their bachelor’s degree. In 1980, there were 77 of these programs offered by medical schools and allied health and home economics departments of colleges and uni versifies. These programs also are accredited by the ADA. Persons meeting the qualifications established by the ADA’s Commission on Dietetic Regis tration and passing the registration examination can become Registered Dietitians (R .D .’s). Continuing education is required to maintain registration. Experienced dietitians may advance to as sistant or associate director or director of a dietetic department. Advancement to higher level positions in teaching and research re quires graduate education; public health nu tritionists usually must earn a graduate degree. Graduate study in institutional or business administration is valuable to those interested in administrative dietetics. About 30 percent of all dietitians have acquired advanced degrees in related areas. Persons who plan to become a dietitian should have organizational and administrative ability, as well as high scientific aptitude, and should be able to work well with a Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/161 variety of people. Among the courses recom mended for high school students interested in careers as dietitians are home economics, business administration, biology, health, mathematics, and chemistry. Job Outlook Employment of dietitians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s to meet the rapidly expanding needs of hospitals and long-term care facilities. The factors that spur demand for health services in general—population growth and the aging of the population, greater health consciousness, and widespread ability to pay for medical care under public and private health insurance programs—also will spur demand for dietitians. In addition, dietitians will be needed in other settings, such as industrial plants and restaurants. Di etitians also will be needed to staff communi ty health programs and to conduct research in food and nutrition. An increasing number of experienced dietitians are entering manage ment positions in private industry. In addition to new jobs, many others will open each year to replace those who transfer to other kinds of work, retire, or die. Opportunities should remain favorable for dietitians who wish to work part time. In recent years, nursing homes have used (under the supervision of registered dieti tians) dietetic assistants trained in vocationaltechnical schools and dietetic technicians trained in ADA-approved programs in com munity colleges to help meet the demand for dietetic services. Employment opportunities should continue to be favorable for graduates of these programs. Earnings Entry level salaries of hospital dietitians averaged about $15,800 a year in 1981, ac cording to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Some experienced hospital dietitians received as much as $25,872 a year. The median salary for teaching dietitians was approximately $21,400 in 1980, accord ing to a survey by the American Dietetic Association; for dietetic directors, $23,400; for food service administrators, $19,100; for clinical dietitians, $17,400; for research dieti tians, $17,600; and for community dietitians, $17,900. The entrance salary in the Federal Govern ment for those completing an accredited in ternship was about $15,200 in early 1981. Beginning dietitians with a master’s degree who had completed an internship earned about $18,600. In 1980, the Federal Govern ment paid experienced dietitians average sal aries of about $21,900 a year. Dietitians usually receive benefits such as paid vacations, sick leave, holidays, health insurance, and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Dietitians apply the principles of nutrition in a variety of situations. Other workers with Dietitians see to it that schoolchildren are served nutritious meals. similar duties include food and beverage ana lysts, food chemists, food technologists, homemakers, home economists, executive chefs, and food service managers. Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Sources of Additional Information Occupational Therapists For information on accredited dietetic in ternship and coordinated undergraduate pro grams, scholarships, employment opportuni ties, registration, and a list of colleges providing training for a professional career in dietetics, contact: The American Dietetic Association, 430 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. The U.S. Office of Personnel Manage ment, Washington, D.C. 20415, will send information on the requirements for dietitians in Federal Government hospitals and for pub lic health nutritionists and dietitians in the (D.O.T. 076.121-010) Nature of the Work Occupational therapists provide services to people who are mentally, physically, or emo tionally disabled. Like most of the other health professionals, occupational therapists usually work as a member of a medical team, which may include a physician, physical therapist, vocational counselor, and other 162/Occupational Outlook Handbook professionals. The team members evaluate the patient in terms of their individual spe cialties and consult with each other to arrive at an overall evaluation of the patient’s ca pacities, skills, and abilities. Together they develop short- and long-term goals and the means by which they may be achieved. Therapists select activities that are suited to the developmental level, physical capacity, intelligence, and interests of each patient. These activities are designed to develop inde pendence, prepare patients to return to work, develop or restore basic functions, and aid in adjustment to disabilities. Activities of var ious kinds are the primary therapy tools. For instance, occupational therapists may use woodworking, weaving, or other therapeutic activities to help patients improve motor skills, strength, endurance, concentration, motivation, or other physical and/or mental capacities. Other patients might engage in therapeutic activities that develop the func tional skills, abilities, and capacities needed for the tasks of everyday living, such as dressing and eating. In addition to planning and directing thera peutic activities, occupational therapists may design and make special equipment for dis abled patients; make and apply splints; assist in the selection and use of equipment to help patients adapt to their environment and/or impairment; and recommend changes in home or work environments. Although they cannot be expert in all these activities, occu pational therapists must know enough about them to understand their therapeutic values and to set them into motion. Occupational therapists tend to work with certain types of disability and age groups. For instance, approximately 3 out of 5 occu pational therapists work principally with per sons who have physical disabilities and the rest work with patients who have psychologi cal or emotional problems or developmental deficits. Some work exclusively with chil dren and young adults; others work exclu sively with the elderly. Besides working with patients, occupation al therapists supervise student therapists, oc cupational therapy assistants, volunteers, and auxiliary nursing workers. The chief occupa tional therapist in a hospital may teach medi cal and nursing students the principles of occupational therapy. Many therapists super vise occupational therapy departments, co ordinate patient activities, or are consultants to public health departments and mental health agencies. Some teach in colleges and universities. Working Conditions Although occupational therapists generally work a standard 40-hour week, they may occasionally have to work evenings or week ends. Their work environment varies accord ing to the setting and available facilities. In a Job prospects for occupational therapists are very good. large rehabilitation center, for example, the therapist may work in a spacious room equipped with machines, handtools, and oth er devices that often generate noise. In a nursing home, the therapist may work in a kitchen, using food preparation as therapy. In a hospital, building blocks or paints may be used as rehabilitation devices. Wherever they work and whatever equipment they use, they generally have adequate lighting and ventila tion. The job can be physically tiring because therapists are on their feet much of the time. Employment About 19,000 occupational therapists were employed in 1980. More than one-half worked in hospitals, including long-term rehabilitation and psychiatric hospitals. Nurs ing homes, another major employer, ac counted for about 15 percent of all oc cupational therapists. A number worked for school systems and schools for handicapped children. Most of the others worked in reha bilitation centers, clinics, community mental health centers, home health agencies, and adult day care programs. Some worked in vocational rehabilitation programs. Many oc cupational therapists work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational preparation for this field re quires a bachelor’s degree. Fifteen States and the District of Columbia require a license to practice occupational therapy. Applicants for a license must have a degree or certificate from an accredited educational program and, to qualify, must pass the State licensure program. In 1980, the Committees on Allied Health Education and Accreditation of the American Medical Association and the American Oc cupational Therapy Association accredited programs in occupational therapy offered by 55 colleges and universities. Fifty four of these schools offer a bachelor’s degree pro gram, and one offers only a master’s degree program. Some of the 55 schools also offer programs leading to a certificate or a master’s degree in occupational therapy for students who have a bachelor’s degree in another field. A graduate degree often is required for teaching, research, or administrative work. Course work in occupational therapy pro grams includes physical, biological, and be havioral sciences and the application of occupational therapy theory and skills. These programs also require students to work for 6 to 9 months in hospitals, health agencies, or schools to gain experience in clinical prac tice. Graduates of accredited educational pro grams are eligible to take the American Occupational Therapy Association certifica tion examination to become registered occu pational therapists (OTR). Occupational therapy assistants who are certified by the Association (COTA’s) and have 4 years of approved work experience also are eligible to take the examination to become registered occupational therapists. COTA’s considering Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/163 this path of entry to the occupation should contact the Director of Certification of the American Occupational Therapy Association to identify the types of experience required to qualify for the examination and to determine the availability of suitable work settings. Entry to educational programs is highly competitive and applicants are screened care fully. Persons considering this profession should have above average academic perform ance and grades of “ B” or better in biology, chemistry, and other high school science courses. In addition to biology and chemis try, high school students interested in a ca reer as an occupational therapist are advised to take courses in health, and the social sci ences. College students who consider trans ferring from another academic discipline to an occupational therapy program in their sophomore or junior year need superior grades because competition for entrance to programs is more intense after the freshman year. Persons considering this career must be able to work with people of all kinds and all ages, with temperaments and personalities that are likely to be as varied as patient illnesses and handicaps. To gain patients’ confidence, it is necessary to have a warm, friendly personality that inspires both trust and respect. In addition to these qualities, it is also necessary to have ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities to individ ual needs. The potential therapist also needs to be skilled, patient, and resourceful in teaching, since patients often present unusual and difficult learning problems. Newly graduated occupational therapists generally begin as staff therapists. Advance ment is chiefly to supervisory or administra tive positions; some therapists pursue ad vanced education to teach and/or conduct research. cal Branch. Most experienced occupational therapists earned between $19,000 and $23,000, with some administrators earning more than $30,000 annually. In early 1981, beginning therapists em ployed by the Federal Government, most of whom worked for the Veterans Administra tion, earned starting salaries of about $13,700 a year. The average salary paid oc cupational therapists with the Federal Gov ernment was about $19,300 in 1980. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for occupational therapists are expected to be very favorable through the 1980’s. Although enrollments in occupational therapy programs are continuing to rise, the number of graduates is expected to fall short of the jobs that will open up due to employment growth and replacement needs. Employment in this occupation is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations due to continued support for rehabilitation programs of various kinds. As existing programs expand and new ones are established, therapists will be needed to staff hospital rehabilitation departments, commu nity health centers, long-term care facilities, psychiatric hospitals, schools for children with developmental and learning disabilities, and home health programs. Earnings Beginning salaries for occupational thera pists in hospitals averaged about $16,700 a year in 1981, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medi the medical team in matters related to daily patient care in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health care facilities. Their role is cru cial to safe, efficient, and proper therapeutic care. Related Occupations Occcupational therapists use specialized knowledge to help patients prepare to return to work and generally aid them to adjust to their disability. Other workers performing similar duties include orthotists, prosthetists, physical therapists, speech pathologists and audiologists, rehabilitation counselors, thera peutic recreation workers, art therapists, mu sic therapists, and dance therapists. Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupational therapy as a career, write to: American Occupational Therapy Association, 1383 Piccard Dr., Rockville, Md. 20850. Pharmacists (D.O.T. 074.161-010) Nature of the Work Pharmacists dispense drugs and medicines prescribed by doctors and dentists. They also supply and advise people on the use of many medicines that can be obtained without pre scriptions. Pharmacists must understand the use, composition, and effect of drugs and how they are tested for purity and strength. They may maintain patient medication pro files and advise physicians on the proper selection and use of medicines. Compound ing—the actual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and solutions—is now only a small part of phar macists’ practice, since most medicines are produced by manufacturers in the dosage and form used by the patient. Pharmacists employed in community phar macies may have other duties. Besides dis pensing medicines, some pharmacists buy and sell nonpharmaceutical merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy. Other pharmacists, however, operate prescription pharmacies that dispense only medicines, medical supplies, and health accessories. Pharmacists in hospitals and clinics dis pense inpatient and outpatient prescriptions and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs; they also make sterile solutions, buy medical supplies, teach in schools of nursing and allied health profes sions, and perform administrative duties. In addition, pharmacists work as consultants to Working Conditions Pharmacists usually work in a clean, welllighted, and well-ventilated area that resem bles a small laboratory. Shelves are lined with hundreds of different drug products. In addition, some items are refrigerated and all controlled substances are kept under lock and key. Pharmacists spend a lot of time on their feet. According to a recent survey, pharmacists average 44 hours a week in their primary work setting. Many pharmacists work in a secondary setting where they average 15 hours a week, often as a consultant to a nursing home or other facility. Pharmacies often are open in the evenings and on week ends, and all States require a licensed phar macist to be in attendance during pharmacy hours. Self-employed pharmacists often work more hours than those in salaried positions. Employment About 141,000 persons worked as pharma cists in 1980. About 100,000 pharmacists worked in community pharmacies. Of these, about one-fourth owned their own pharma cies; the others were salaried employees. Most of the remaining pharmacists worked for hospitals, pharmaceutical manufacturers, wholesalers, and government and educational institutions. Quite a few community and hos pital pharmacists provide service to nursing homes and other health facilities in addition to their primary jobs. As a rule, pharmacy services in nursing homes are provided by independent practitioners rather than by em ployees salaried by the nursing homes. Some pharmacists work part time. Pharmacists employed by the Federal Government work chiefly in hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service. Other Fed eral agencies that employ pharmacists—for their drug knowledge, as well as to dispense drugs—include the Department of Defense, the Food and Drug Administration and other branches of the Department of Health and Human Services, and the Drug Enforcement Administration. State and local health agen cies and pharmaceutical and other profes sional associations also employ pharmacists. Most towns have at least one pharmacy with one pharmacist or more in attendance. Most pharmacists, however, practice in or near cities and in those States that have the largest populations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. To obtain a license, one must graduate from an accredited pharmacy degree 164/Occupational Outlook Handbook program (a few States allow graduation from foreign pharmacy programs), pass a State board examination, and—in all States—have a specified amount of practical experience or serve an internship under the supervision of a licensed pharmacist. Internships generally are served in a community or hospital pharmacy. In 1980, all States except California, Florida, and Hawaii granted a license without reex amination to qualified pharmacists already licensed by another State. Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in more than one State. At least 5 years of study beyond high school are required to graduate from one of the degree programs accredited by the American Council on Pharmaceutical Educa tion in the 72 colleges of pharmacy. Five years are needed to obtain a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) or a Bachelor of Pharmacy (B.Pharm.) degree, the degrees received by most graduates. Depending on a student’s educational background, 6 or 7 years are required for a D octor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree. Most pharmacy schools offer the baccalaureate degree, and over onethird also offer the professional doctorate de gree; four schools offer only the latter. The Pharm.D. degree as well as the B.S. and B.Pharm. degrees may serve as the entry degree for licensure as a pharmacist. Admission requirements vary. A few col leges admit students directly from high school. Most colleges of pharmacy, howev er, require entrants to have completed 1 or 2 years of prepharmacy education in an accre dited junior college, college, or university. A prepharmacy curriculum usually emphasizes mathematics and basic sciences, such as chemistry, biology, and physics, but also in cludes courses in the humanities and social sciences. Because entry requirements vary among colleges of pharmacy, prepharmacy students should inquire about and follow the curriculum pattern required by the college they plan to attend. The bachelor’s degree in pharmacy is the minimum educational qualification for most positions in the profession. An increasing num ber of students are enrolled in advanced profes sional programs leading to the Pharm.D. de gree. A master’s or Ph.D. degree in pharmacy or a related field usually is required for research work, and a Pharm.D., master’s, or Ph.D. usually is necessary for administrative work or college teaching. Although a number of phar macy graduates interested in further training pursue an advanced degree in pharmacy, there are other options. Some enter medical, dental, or law school, and others pursue graduate de grees in related disciplines. Areas of special study include pharmaceu tics and pharmaceutical chemistry (physical and chemical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body), pharmacognosy (drugs derived from plant or animal sources), hospital phar macy, clinical pharmacy, and pharmacy ad ministration. Clinical pharmacy is the synthesis of basic and pharmaceutical science education and the application of this knowl edge to drug management problems in the care of patients. Courses in pharmacy admin istration are particularly helpful to pharma cists who become executives or managers. All colleges of pharmacy offer courses in pharmacy practice, designed to teach students the skills involved in compounding and dis pensing prescriptions, and to strengthen their understanding of professional ethics and re sponsibilities. In many cases, professional training increasingly emphasizes direct pa tient care as well as consultative services to other health professionals. A limited number of Federal scholarships and loans are available for students studying full time toward a degree in pharmacy. In addition, scholarships are awarded annually by drug manufacturers, chain drugstores, cor porations, State and national pharmacy asso ciations, colleges of pharmacy, and other organizations. Since many pharmacists are self-em ployed, prospective pharmacists interested in this type of practice should have business sense and the ability to gain the confidence of clients. Honesty, integrity, orderliness, and accuracy are important attributes. Pharmacists often begin as employees in community pharmacies. After they gain ex perience and secure the necessary capital, they may become owners or part owners of pharmacies. A pharmacist with experience in a chain drugstore may advance to a manage rial position, and later to a higher executive position within the company. Hospital phar macists who have the necessary training and experience may advance to director of phar macy service or to other administrative posi tions. Pharmacists in industry often have opportunities for advancement in manage ment, sales, research, quality control, adver tising, production, packaging, and other areas. Some individuals put their pharmaceutical training to work in related fields. For exam ple, pharmacists are hired as sales or medical service representatives by drug manufacturers and wholesalers. They sell medicines to retail pharmacies and to hospitals and inform health personnel about new drugs. Some teach in colleges of pharmacy, supervise the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, or are in volved in research and the development of new medicines. Pharmacists also edit or write technical articles for pharmaceutical journals. Some combine pharmaceutical and legal training in jobs as patent lawyers or consultants on pharmaceutical and drug laws. Job Outlook Employment of pharmacists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The employ ment outlook for pharmacists is expected to Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/165 be favorable, overall, but the anticipated sur plus of pharmacy graduates in some localities seems likely to produce keen job competition in those places. Besides openings created by growth in the demand for pharmacists, many openings will result from the need to replace pharmacists who transfer to other types of work, retire, or die. Demand for pharmacists will be stimulated by population growth and the aging of the population, which will cause pharmacies to open or expand in regions experiencing growth and in places where concentrations of older people are developing. Morever, com munity pharmacies are expected to hire more pharmacists because of a trend towards shorter working hours. The projected in crease in the elderly population is especially important, for the elderly are relatively heavy users of medicine and drugs. Other factors likely to spur demand for pharmacists during the 1980’s include scientific advances that have made a wider range of drug products available for preventive and therapeutic uses; the rising standard of health care; and the growth of public and private health insurance programs that provide payment for prescrip tion drugs. Employment of pharmacists in hospitals and other health facilities is expected to rise faster than in other work settings. Pharma cists with advanced training will be needed for college teaching and top administrative posts. Earnings Salaries of pharmacists are generally influ enced by the location, size, and type of em ployer, as well as the duties and responsibilities of the position. The average starting salary for pharmacists working in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers was about $21,300 a year in 1981, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch; experienced pharmacists in these workplaces averaged about $27,200 a year. Pharmacists who do consulting work in addition to their primary job may have total earnings considerably higher than this. Exper ienced pharmacists, particularly owners or managers of pharmacies, often earn consider ably more. The minimum entrance salary in the Fed eral Government for a new graduate with a bachelor’s degree from an approved pharma cy degree program was about $15,200 a year in 1981. However, most graduates qualified for a beginning salary of about $18,600 a year; those with 2 years of graduate work, about $22,500 a year. Pharmacists with addi tional years of experience may start at a higher salary. The average salary for all fed erally employed pharmacists was about $23,900 in 1980. According to a survey conducted by the American Association of Colleges of Phar macy, average annual salaries of full-time personnel in colleges of pharmacy during 1980 were as follows: Deans, about $48,500; assistant and associate deans, about $38,600; full professors, around $38,800; associate professors, around $30,700; and assistant professors, about $24,600. With the proliferation of chain drugstores and the increasing difficulty of owning a pharmacy, some pharmacists have joined un ions. The main unions organizing pharma cists are the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union and District 1199, an affiliate of the Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union. pain, or prevent permanent disability follow ing a disabling injury or disease. Their pa tients include accident victims, handicapped children, and stroke victims. Physical ther apy also is used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, nerve injuries, am putations, fractures, and arthritis. Initially, physical therapists review and evaluate the patient’s condition and medical records, perform tests or measurements, and interpret the findings. Then they develop a treatment plan in cooperation with the pa tient’s physician. The goal is to help patients Related Occupations Pharmacists fill the prescriptions of physi attain maximum muscle strength and motor cians, dentists, and other health practitioners skills but, at the same time, accept and adjust and are responsible for selecting, compound to the limiting effects of their disabilities. ing, dispensing, and preserving drugs and Patients often are suffering emotional as well medicines. Workers in other professions re as physical stress, and treatment requires sen quiring similar educational training and who sitivity in addition to technical proficiency on work with pharmaceutical compounds or per the part of the therapist. Since treatments may be prolonged, the form related duties include pharmaceutical bacteriologists, pharmaceutical chemists, and full cooperation of the patient is very impor tant. As a first step, therefore, physical pharmacologists. therapists familiarize themselves with pa tients’ personal backgrounds, as well as with Sources of Additional Information Additional information on pharmacy as a their medical histories, and make an effort to career, preprofessional and professional re- - gain their trust and confidence. The therapistquirements, programs offered by colleges of patient relationship can be highly impor pharmacy, and student financial aid is avail tant in determining the effectiveness of the treatment. able from: Therapeutic procedures include exercises American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, for increasing strength, endurance, coordina Office of Student Affairs, 4630 Montgomery tion, and range of motion; electrical stimula Ave., Suite 201, Bethesda, Md. 20014. General information on pharmacy is avail tion to activate paralyzed muscles; instruction in carrying out everyday activities and in the able from: use of helping devices; and the application of American Pharmaceutical Association, 2215 Con massage, heat, cold, light, water, or electric stitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. Information about chain drugstores is ity to relieve pain or improve the condition of muscles and skin. To carry out these proce available from: dures, therapists must have detailed knowl National Association of Chain Drug Stores, 413 edge of human anatomy and physiology and N. Lee St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. General information on retail pharmacies know what steps may be taken to correct disease and injury. is available from: Treatment can be more effective and pro National Association of Retail Druggists, 1750 K gress faster if patients and their families un St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For a list of accredited colleges of pharma derstand the purpose and plan and know just how they can help. Physical therapy services cy, contact: include instructing patients and their families American Council on Pharmaceutical Education, in how to carry on prescribed treatment pro One East Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601. grams at home. They may need specific in Information on requirements for licensure struction in the techniques of muscle in a particular State is available from the contraction and relaxation or in the care and Board of Pharmacy of that State or from: use of braces or prosthetic appliances. Phys National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, One ical therapists may personally conduct the East Wacker Dr., Suite 2210, Chicago, 111. 60601. treatment program or supervise a program Information on college entrance require conducted by a physical therapist assistant. ments, curriculums, and financial aid is Physical therapists usually perform their available from the dean of any college of own evaluations of patients; in some hospitals pharmacy. and nursing homes, however, the director or assistant director of the physical therapy de partment may handle this work, which requires extensive training and experience. Therapists may treat patients with a wide variety of prob lems, or they may specialize in pediatrics, geri (D.O.T. 076.121-014) atrics, orthopedics, sports m edicine, neurology, or cardiopulmonary diseases. Physical Therapists Nature of the Work Physical therapists plan and administer treatment for patients referred by a physician in order to restore bodily functions, relieve Working Conditions Physical therapists generally work in pleasant surroundings. Evening and weekend 166/Occupational Outlook Handbook hours may be required, especially for those in private practice who must be available at times convenient for their patients. The job can be physically exhausting. In addition to standing for long periods, therapists must move equipment and help patients turn, stand, or walk. Employment About 34,000 physical therapists were em ployed in 1980. About half worked in hospi tals. A substantial number provided physical therapy services in nursing homes—either as staff members or on a contract basis. Thera pists also worked in rehabilitation centers, schools and residential facilities for handi capped children, home health agencies, out patient clinics, and physicians’ offices. Some taught, conducted research, or served as con sultants. A number of physical therapists were in private practice. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States, the District of Columbia, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico require a license to practice physical therapy. Appli cants for a license must have a degree or certificate from an accredited physical ther apy educational program and, to qualify, must pass a State licensure examination. Ap plicants may prepare for State licensure ex aminations in physical therapy through one of three types of programs, depending upon pre vious academic study. High school graduates can earn a 4-year bachelor’s degree in phys ical therapy at a college or university. Stu dents who already hold a bachelor’s degree in another field, such as biology, can earn a second bachelor’s degree, or a certificate, or an entry level master’s degree in physical therapy. In 1981, there were 7 certificate programs, 100 bachelor’s degree programs, and 8 mas ter’s degree programs accredited to provide entry level training. There were also 16 other master’s degree programs and 5 doctoral de gree programs that provided advanced train ing to those already in the field. One of the master’s degree programs is sponsored jointly by the U.S. Army and Baylor University; graduates are commissioned as officers in the Army. The physical therapy curriculum includes science courses such as anatomy, physiology, neuroanatomy, and neurophysiology; it also includes specialized courses such as biome chanics of motion, human growth and devel opment, and manifestations of disease and trauma. Besides receiving classroom instruc tion, students get supervised clinical expe rience administering physical therapy to patients in hospitals and other treatment centers. Competition for entry to physical therapy programs is keen. Consequently, students se riously interested in attending a physical ther apy program must attain superior grades in their earlier studies, especially in science courses. High school courses that are useful include health, biology, chemistry, social sci ence, mathematics, and physics. Personal traits that physical therapists need include patience, tact, resourcefulness, and emotional stability to help patients and their families understand the treatments and adjust to their handicaps. Physical therapists also should have manual dexterity and physical stamina. Many persons who want to deter mine whether they have the personal qualities needed for this occupation volunteer for sum mer or part-time work in the physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic. A graduate degree combined with clinical experience increases opportunities for ad vancement, especially to teaching, research, and administrative positions. Job Outlook Physical therapist helps patient exercise leg. Employment of physical therapists is ex pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s be cause of increased public support for rehabili tation services. Many new positions for physical therapists will be created as pro grams to aid disabled persons expand, and as nursing homes and other long-term care fa cilities attempt to provide residents with more adequate therapy and rehabilitation services. The aging of the population will spur de mand for physical therapists and other reha bilitation personnel in hospitals, nursing homes, and home health agencies. The num ber of people who need therapy will increase sharply: Very rapid growth is projected for the population age 75 and above, an age group that suffers a relatively high incidence of disabling accidents and illnesses. Howev Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/167 er, the degree to which population growth is translated into new jobs for physical thera pists will depend upon other factors as well, including the extent to which health care providers encourage this level of care for elderly patients, and the availability of funds to pay for it. Job prospects in physical therapy should continue to be excellent. New graduates are in great demand, and although enrollments are rising, the number of people completing training programs during the 1980’s is ex pected to fall short of demand. In addition to the jobs created by increased demand for therapists, many openings will result from replacement needs. Many part-time positions will be available. Earnings Starting salaries for new physical therapy graduates averaged about $17,000 a year in 1981, according to a national survey conduct ed by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Earnings of experienced physical therapists averaged about $21,600, with some earning nearly $27,000 a year. Beginning therapists employed by the Vet erans Administration (VA) earned starting salaries of $13,700 a year in 1981. The aver age salary paid therapists employed by the VA in 1980 was about $19,600 annually; supervisory therapists may eam more than $24,000. rience, such as nurses, to become PA’s. With skills similar to—though less extensive than—those of a physician, PA’s can perform many time-consuming tasks normally done by physicians. They interview patients, take medical histories, perform physical examina tions, order laboratory tests, make tentative diagnoses, and prescribe appropriate treat ments. Studies show they have the training to care for 8 out of 10 people who visit a family practitioner’s office in any one day. Physi cian assistants, however, must always work under the direction of a licensed, “ supervis ing physician.’’ Alternate titles sometimes used by these workers are MEDEX, physician associate, and community health medic. Some PA’s assist physicians in such specialty areas as pediatrics or surgery. They perform routine procedures such as physical examinations, provide postoperative care, and assist during complicated medical procedures such as car diac catheterizations. These specialist PA’s include child health associates, orthopedic physician assistants, urologic physician as sistants, surgeon assistants, and emergency room physician assistants. Working Conditions Physician assistants work in the same places as physicians. Hospitals, clinics, and physicians ’ offices usually provide a comfort able, well-lighted environment, although PA’s must often stand for long periods and do considerable walking. The workweek and schedule vary accord ing to the setting. Some emergency room PA’s work 24-hour shifts twice weekly and others work three 12-hour shifts each week. The workweek of PA ’s who work in physi- Related Occupations Physical therapists are concerned with the treatment and rehabilitation of persons with physical or mental disabilities or disorders. They may use exercise, massage, heat, water, electricity, and various therapeutic devices to help their patients gain independence. Others who do similar work include occupational therapists, speech pathologists and audiolo gists, orthotists, prosthetists, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a physical therapist and a list of accredited educational programs in physical therapy are available from: American Physical Therapy Association, 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. 1156 Physician Assistants (D.O.T. 079.364-018) Nature of the Work The occupation of physician assistant (PA) came into being during the 1960’s, when physicians were in short supply. The idea was to use the large number of medical corpsmen trained during the Vietnam conflict to ease the medical shortage. Additional training enabled these ex-medics and other people who had extensive patient-care expe Physician assistants treat common injuries and ailments. 168/Occupational Outlook Handbook dans’ offices may include some night office hours or early morning hospital rounds visit ing patients. PA’s in clinics usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Employment An estimated 9,500 physician assistants were employed in 1980. Most PA’s work for physicians who are in private practice. About 25 percent are employed by hospitals, includ ing those of the Veterans Administration and Public Health Service. A small but growing number of PA ’s work for prepaid health plans or clinics. Despite efforts to encourage physicians to practice where they are needed most, many rural areas and inner cities remain under served. Almost 20 percent of all Americans live in counties with a population less than 50,000, yet only 8 percent of all active phy sicians are located in these areas. PA’s pro vide crucial health care services in these areas; more than 40 percent of all PA’s prac tice in them. Although most PA ’s in medically under served areas are associated with physicians in private practice, some work in clinics, where a physician might be available just 1 or 2 days each week. For the balance of the week, a PA working with one or more nurses, technicians, or medical assistants pro vides all health care services. PA’s in these clinics usually have quick telephone access to a physician for consultation, but experience has shown that normally few consultations are needed. The Rural Health Clinics Service Act of 1977 helped promote this type of practice by making reimbursement by Medi care easier; currently, over 10 percent of all PA’s practice in one of these clinics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In 1980, 64 educational programs for pri mary care physician assistants or surgeon as sistants were approved by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation of the American Medical Association. Admission requirements to these programs vary from a high school diploma to a bache lor’s degree, but 60 credit hours—2 years— of college work in a science or health profes sions program is common. Entry is very competitive; many applicants already hold a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Currently, 80 percent of the students in PA programs had extensive experience in health care before they started their studies. Many programs consider such experience, in jobs ranging from medical technician to nursing aide, an important requirement for admission. Still, lack of experience need not be a barrier to applicants who are otherwise qualified. Training programs are generally 2 years in length, although some are longer and a few that require prior health-related training are shorter. These programs are located in medi cal schools and in community colleges, 4year colleges, and universities affiliated with accredited teaching hospitals. PA training be gins with a classroom or preclinical phase that lasts 9 to 12 months. Classroom instruc tion includes anatomy, physiology, chemis try, medical terminology, human behavior, pharmacology, clinical medicine, radiology, microbiology, and pathology. Students then spend about a year doing clinical work in a series of clinical rotations. Some of the rota tions—or medical specialties—include family practice, inpatient medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, emergency medi cine, internal medicine, psychiatry, and pedi atrics. Often, one or more of the rotations are served under the “preceptorship” or supervi sion of a physician who is seeking to hire a PA. This trial employment often leads to a permanent position. Most PA programs award graduates a cer tificate attesting to their training. Some pro grams award an associate of arts degree, and the 20 or so that require extensive college work prior to admission award a bachelor’s or master’s degree to graduates. Often, stu dents may apply their PA course work to ward satisfying the requirements for a bachelor’s degree. The MEDEX training program is a slight variation of the PA program. MEDEX pro grams are designed especially for trainees who have had extensive, direct patient care experience, usually in roles such as medical corpsman or registered nurse. This extensive background allows for a shorter period of classroom training and increased emphasis on clinical experience. MEDEX students usual ly gain most of this clinical experience work ing with the supervising physician who will hire them upon graduation. MEDEX pro grams are slightly shorter than other PA pro grams, lasting about 18 months. The activities of PA’s are regulated in nearly every State, but the requirements vary widely. Some States require that PA ’s be formally trained or certified by the National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc. (NCCPA). Most States also require PA’s to register with the State medi cal board or a similar agency. Because there is so much variation, however, aspiring PA’s should review the laws in those States where they wish to practice. Thirty-five States re quire PA’s to be certified. In 1980, about 8,000 or 85 percent of them had gained certi fication. Applicants may qualify to take the certification to examination in 1 of 3 ways. By far the most common way is to graduate from an approved PA training program. The second way, available only to registered nurses, is to complete an approved pediatric or family nurse practitioner program. Third, applicants may qualify if they have a high school diploma (or a general equivalency cer tificate) and have worked full-time for the past 4 years in a clinical setting as a physi cian assistant or nurse practitioner, and their employer can verify to the NCCPA that the work experience included all of the essential health care functions of a physician assistant. The certification examination itself consists of an all-day written test and a practical component to assess the candidates’ skills in conducting a physical examination. Individuals planning a career as a physi cian assistant should be conscientious and willing to study a great deal throughout their career in order to keep up with medical ad vances. They should exhibit leadership, selfconfidence, and emotional stability. A pleasant personality, patience, and the ability to deal with all kinds of people are also helpful. Formal lines of advancement have not evolved within this young profession. There are no head PA ’s in hospitals or nursing homes as there are head nurses; by the very nature of the profession, individual PA ’s are supervised by physicians. Since a supervising physician shares responsibility for the quality of care rendered by the PA, this relationship must be a close one, and a middle level of supervision would be an interference. For most PA ’s, advancement takes the form of the added responsibilities and higher earnings that come with experience and, sometimes, with completion of continuing education courses. Job Outlook A recent survey revealed that very few PA ’s in search of a position were unable to find one. New graduates may have had to accept jobs in medically underserved areas, but they did not necessarily view this as a hardship. Over half of the students in train ing programs said they would prefer to prac tice in a small city or town. Long-term employment prospects for PA’s are more difficult to assess. The occupation, though still very small, has experienced ex traordinary growth: The number of PA ’s in creased from fewer than 100 in 1970 to about 9,500 in 1980. The extent of future growth in the occupation remains uncertain because of a number of unresolved issues in the area of health policy. Restrictions on reimbursement for the ser vices of PA ’s is one of the most important questions clouding the profession’s future. Studies have established that substituting PA ’s for some physicians can lower payroll costs without reducing the quality of care. However, the majority of health insurance plans—including Medicare and Medicaid, in most cases—do not provide for reimburse ment of services performed solely by a PA. This uncertainty regarding payment makes many hospitals and physicians reluctant to hire PA’s. Another unsettling factor is the diversity of State laws that regulate the kinds of services PA ’s may perform. In some States, they have the authority to make medical decisions and prescribe treatment. In others, they are al lowed to practice only under the immediate supervision of a physician. Most States re strict PA prescribing to a limited number of drugs. Some prohibit PA ’s from writing pre scriptions. Furthermore, many of these laws are under review in the State legislatures, and employers may be reluctant to hire PA’s Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/169 without knowing what rules will govern their use in coming years. The supply of physicians also may affect future prospects for PA ’s. In the early 1960’s, the Federal Government launched a series of programs designed to expand the number of graduates from U.S. medical schools. There is some concern now that the job may have been accomplished too well. A study released in 1980 by the Graduate Medical Education National Advisory Com mittee warned of a probable oversupply of physicians by 1990. Barring a major increase in demand, such as might result from passage of a national health insurance program, the increased number of physicians could lead to lower patient loads for physicians, and de mand for PA’s could decline. An oversupply of physicians might also lead more doctors to locate in the medically underserved areas where PA ’s now tend to locate. A dispersal of physicians to more remote areas could displace PA’s and lower the demand for their services. However, sparsely populated areas prob ably will always have trouble attracting full time physicians, and PA services in these areas will remain an important contribution to health care. Some developments could heighten rather than curtail demand for PA’s. An increase in the number of prepaid health plans, such as health maintenance organizations (HMO’s), holds some promise for future PA employ ment. These plans provide complete health care services to members for a set annual charge. Many of these plans are attempting to cut costs by substituting physician assist ants for some physicians. Because the plan collects payment directly from the client, the problem of collecting fees from insurance plans is avoided. The use of PA’s in these prepaid health programs should provide many employment opportunities in cities. The increase in the population over 65 could also have a favorable impact on the employment of PA ’s. Compared to younger people, the elderly visit physicians more of ten, spend more money on medicine and drugs, and spend much more on hospital stays. Resolution of the reimbursement issue could lead to greater employment of PA’s by nursing homes and home health care agencies that serve the elderly. Also affecting the outlook for PA’s are en rollments in PA training programs. In recent years, enrollments have leveled off. The Grad uate Medical Education National Advisory Committee recommended that PA training con tinue at current levels (about 1,500 in 1980). Earnings In 1981, physician assistants just starting work in hospitals and medical centers earned about $18,000 on the average, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Typically, the highest pay for PA ’s in these settings was about $22,000, although some earned as much as $32,000. The average salary of PA’s in all settings was about $19,000 in 1980. PA’s in health maintenance organizations, hospitals, and physicians’ offices earn slightly more than those in clinics. Veterans Administration hospitals started PA’s at the GS-8 level, or about $16,800 a year in 1980. Advancement to GS-12 is pos sible. Average earnings for all PA’s em ployed in VA hospitals were about $24,000. Related Occupations Other health workers who provide patient care that requires a similar level of skill and training include nurse practitioners, physical therapists, and occupational therapists. Sources of Additional Information For more information about the profession, send for the brochure, “ The PA Profession, What You Should Know,” available free from: Association of Physician Assistant Programs, 2341 Jefferson Davis Hwy., Suite 700, Arlington, Va. 22202. Information on individual PA training pro grams also is available from the Association. The 1981-82 edition of its publication enti tled Profile contains a list of educational pro grams and a description of each program complete with accreditation status, admission procedures and requirements, and cost. Infor mation on certification requirements is also given. Profile may be ordered from the As sociation for $10 prepaid. For a description of the national certifying examination for primary care physician assis tants and eligibility requirements, write to: National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc., 3384 Peachtree Rd. NE., Suite 560, Atlanta, Ga. 30326. Registered Nurses ( D O T . 075.117 through .374) Nature of the Work Registered nurses (R .N .’s) perform a wide variety of health care functions. They ob serve, assess, and record symptoms, reac tions, and progress of patients; administer medications; assist in the rehabilitation of patients; instruct patients and family mem bers in proper health maintenance care; and help maintain a physical and emotional envi ronment that promotes recovery. Some R .N .’s administer community health pro grams, conduct research, or teach. The set ting usually determines the scope of the nurse’s responsibilities. - Hospital nurses constitute by far the larg est group of nurses. Most are staff nurses who provide skilled bedside nursing care and carry out the medical regimen prescribed by physicians. They may also supervise licensed practical nurses, aides, and orderlies. Hospi tal nurses usually work with groups of pa tients who require similar nursing care. For instance, some nurses work with patients who have had surgery; others care for chil dren, the elderly, or the mentally ill. Registered nurses working in nursing homes provide bedside nursing care to pa tients convalescing from surgery or an ill ness, and to those suffering from chronic illnesses and disabilities. They also supervise licensed practical nurses and nursing aides. — Private duty nurses give individual care to patients who need constant attention. They may work in a home, a hospital, or a conva lescent institution. Community health nurses care for patients in clinics, homes, schools, and other commu nity settings. They instruct patients and fam ilies in health care and give periodic care as prescribed by a physician. They also may instruct community groups in proper diet and arrange for immunizations. These nurses work with community leaders, teachers, par ents, and physicians in community health education. Some community health nurses work in schools. — Office nurses assist physicians, dental sur geons, and occasionally dentists in private practice or clinics. Sometimes they perform routine laboratory and office work in addition to their nursing duties. — Occupational health or industrial nurses provide nursing care to employees in industry and government and, along with physicians, promote employee health. As prescribed by a doctor, they treat minor injuries and illnesses occurring at the place of employment, pro vide for the needed nursing care, arrange for further medical care if necessary, and offer health counseling. They also may assist with health examinations and inoculations. — Nurse educators teach students the princi ples and skills of nursing, both in the class room and in direct patient care. They also conduct continuing education courses for reg istered nurses, practical nurses, and nursing assistants. Working Conditions Nurses generally work indoors in welllighted, comfortable buildings. Community health nurses may be required to travel to patients in all types of weather. Although most nursing tasks are not strenuous, nurses need physical stamina because they spend considerable time walking and standing. Emotional stability is required in order to cope with human suffering and frequent emergencies. Because patients in hospitals and nursing homes require nursing care at all times, staff nurses in these institutions may be required to work nights and weekends. Employment About 1,105,000 registered nurses were employed in 1980. About one-third worked part time. Two out of three registered nurses work in hospitals. The remainder use their nursing skills in a variety of settings. Nursing homes employed about 86,000 registered nurses in 170/Occupational Outlook Handbook Nurse in hospital intensive care unit monitors patient. 1980, and the offices of doctors, dentists, and other health practitioners accounted for over 70,000. There were nearly 63,000 com munity health nurses, employed primarily in public health departments, home health agen cies, and visting nurse associations. Approxi mately 40,000 R .N .’s were school nurses, and 25,000 worked as occupational health nurses in business and industry. About 30,000 were private duty nurses. Quite a few nurses hold positions in edu cation, research, or administration that in volve little if any direct patient care. Such positions require experience, advanced train ing, or both. About 38,000 nurse educators taught in schools of nursing in 1980, and many other nurses were staff members of health organizations, consulting firms, or re search organizations. Some worked for State boards of nursing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice nursing is required in all States and in the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, an applicant must be a grad uate of a State-approved school of nursing and pass the State board examination. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination or endorsement of a license issued by another State. There are three types of nurse training programs—2-year associate degree programs, 3-year diploma programs, and 4- or 5-year bachelor’s degree programs. Associate degree programs are offered in community and jun ior colleges; diploma programs, by hospitals and independent schools; and bachelor’s de gree programs, in colleges and universities. Several associate degree programs provide practical nurses with the training necessary to qualify for licensure as registered nurses while they continue to work part time. Graduation from high school is required for admission to all schools of nursing. In 1980, about 1,403 nurse training programs were offered in the United States. In addi tion, there were about 127 master’s degree and several doctoral degree programs provid ing advanced education in nursing. Individuals considering a career in nursing should bear in mind that the kind of program they choose—associate, diploma, or bache lor’s degree—affects the opportunities that will be open to them in the future. For super visory or administrative positions, for jobs in public health agencies, and for admission to graduate nursing programs, for example, a bachelor’s degree in nursing is necessary. Those considering research, consulting, teaching, or a clinical specialization also should start their nursing education in a bach elor’s program. To move from one type of program to another is possible but can be costly and time consuming. All nurse training programs include class room instruction and supervised nursing prac tice in hospitals and other health facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiol ogy, microbiology, nutrition, psychology, and nursing. They also get supervised clini cal experience in the care of patients who have different types of health problems. Stu dents in bachelor’s degree programs as well as in some of the other programs are assigned to community agencies to learn how to care for patients in clinics and in the patients’ homes. Varying amounts of general educa tion are combined with nursing education in all three types of programs. Students who need financial aid may quali fy for federally sponsored nursing scholar ships or low-interest loans. Those who want to pursue a nursing career should have a sincere desire to serve humanity and be sym pathetic to the needs of others. Nurses must be able to accept responsibility and direct or supervise the activity of others; they must have initiative, and in appropriate situa tions be able to follow orders precisely or determine if additional consultation is re quired; and they must use good judgment in emergencies. From staff positions in hospitals, experi enced nurses may be promoted to the posi tion of head nurse, assistant director, and eventually, director of nursing services. For nurses who prefer close contact with patients, career advancement may take the form of clinical specialization or training to become a nurse practitioner. Both of these options re quire graduate education. Clinical special ization, for example, requires completion of a master’s degree program. Gerontological nurses are clinical specialists who provide full nursing care to elderly patients in what ever setting they are found. Other areas of specialization include pediatrics and maternity. At least 45 postbachelor’s degree programs prepare R.N. ’s for independent roles as nurse practitioners. As nurse practitioners, they can perform physical examinations and use diag nostic and health assessment skills beyond those of regular nurses. Areas of practice include: Pediatrics, geriatrics, community health, mental health, midwifery, and medi cal-surgical nursing. Both clinical specialists and nurse practi tioners can seek certification of their ad vanced status in nursing. The American Nurses’ Association grants certification to those who meet requirements for advanced training and experience and pass the certifica tion examination. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for registered nurses will continue to be favorable through the 1980’s. In addition to the need to fill new positions, large numbers of nurses will be required to replace those who leave the field each year. Opportunities for both full-time and parttime work are very good at present; there is a Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/171 widespread shortage of nurses. However, the supply of R .N .’s is expected to increase dur ing the 1980’s as a result of the expansion of training programs that occurred in the 1970’s. The current shortage is expected to abate, provided employers offer sufficiently attrac tive wages and working conditions. Even so, shortages of R .N .’s are likely to persist in some areas—rural areas and big city hospitals in particular. But some competition is expect ed for the more desirable, higher paying jobs, especially in areas considered highly attractive because of climate, local recrea tional facilities, or natural beauty, and in areas where training programs abound. Nurses with a bachelor’s degree should have the best prospects in these areas. For nurses who have had graduate education, the out look is excellent for obtaining positions as administrators, teachers, clinical specialists, and community health nurses. Employment of registered nurses is expect ed to increase faster than the average for all occupations because of population growth and the aging of the population. Other fac tors that will stimulate demand for nurses include: Widespread availability of public and private health insurance; broader access to health care as a result of growing emphasis on noninstitutional care; and increased inter est in preventive medicine and rehabilitation of the handicapped. on student financial aid. One booklet de scribes master’s degree programs to prepare nurse practitioners, clinical specialists, and nurse educators. For a complete list of NLN publications, write for a career information booklet. Send your request to: Career Information Services, National League for Nursing, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, N.Y. 10009. Respiratory Therapy Workers_________ (D O T. 079.361) Nature of the Work Working Conditions Respiratory therapy workers generally work a 40-hour week. Because many hospi tals operate around the clock, they may be required to work evenings or weekends. Res piratory therapy workers spend long periods standing and, in an emergency, may work under a great deal of stress. The inhalants they work with are highly flammable; howev er, adherence to safety precautions and regu lar testing of equipment minimize the danger of fire. Employment An estimated 50,000 persons worked as respiratory therapists, technicians, or assis tants in 1980. Most worked in hospitals in respiratory therapy, anesthesiology, or pul monary medicine departments. Others worked for oxygen equipment rental compan ies, ambulance services, and nursing homes. Respiratory therapy workers, sometimes called inhalation therapy workers, treat pa Training, Other Qualifications, tients with cardiorespiratory problems. Treat and Advancement ment may range from giving temporary relief Respiratory apparatus has become increas to patients with chronic asthma or emphyse ingly complex in recent years and, although ma to giving emergency care in cases of many respiratory therapy workers are trained heart failure, stroke, drowning, or shock. on the job, formal training now is stressed Respiratory therapy workers are among the for entry to the field. first medical specialists called for emergency In 1980, nearly 400 institutions offered treatment of acute respiratory conditions aris programs in respiratory therapy that were ap ing from head injury or drug poisoning. The proved by the Committee on Allied Health therapy worker’s role is a highly responsible Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) of one because if a patient stops breathing for the American Medical Association. High Earnings Staff nurses in non-Federal hospitals had longer than 3 to 5 minutes, there is little school graduation is required for entry to average earnings of $17,000 a year in 1980. chance of recovery without serious brain these programs. Courses for therapists range This was above the average for nonsupervi- damage, and if oxygen is cut off for more from 21 months to 4 years and include both sory workers in private industry, except than 9 minutes, death results. theory and clinical work. A bachelor’s degree Following doctors’ orders, respiratory ther is awarded for completion of a 4-year pro farming. Registered nurses working in nurs ing homes had average earnings of about apy workers use special equipment, such as gram and an associate degree for shorter $14,500. Industrial nurses averaged $17,000 respirators and positive-pressure breathing courses. Technician courses usually last a year in mid-1980, according to a survey machines, to treat patients who need tempo about 1 year and graduates are awarded certi conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. rary or emergency respiratory assistance. For ficates. Areas of study for both types of In 1981, the Veterans Administration paid example, they use aerosol inhalants to admin programs include human anatomy and physi inexperienced nurses who had a diploma or ister medication so that it is confined to the ology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, and an associate degree the starting salary of lungs. They often treat patients who have mathematics. Technical courses deal with $13,672 a year; those with a bachelor’s de undergone surgery. The anesthesia adminis procedures, equipment, and clinical tests. gree, $15,993. Nurses employed in all Fed tered during surgery depresses respiration, so Respiratory therapists who have a certifi eral Government agencies earned an average respiratory therapy is prescribed to restore cate of completion from a CAHEA-approved of $19,690 in 1980. full, deep breathing and protect the patient therapist training program, 62 semester hours Most hospital and nursing home nurses against respiratory illness that could compli of college credit, and 1 year of experience receive extra pay for work on evening or cate recovery. They also show patients and following completion of the program are eli night shifts. Nearly all receive from 5 to 13 their families how to use equipment at home. gible to apply for registration by the National paid holidays a year, at least 2 weeks of paid Other duties include keeping records of the Board for Respiratory Therapy (NBRT). The vacation after 1 year of employment, and cost of materials and charges to patients, and registry examination consists of written and also some type of health and retirement maintaining and making minor repairs to clinical simulation tests. Applicants must equipment. , benefits. pass both to be awarded the Registered Res There are three levels of workers within piratory Therapist (RRT) credential. In Related Occupations the field of respiratory therapy: Therapists, 1980, about 11,000 therapists had been Other occupations with responsibilities and technicians, and assistants. Therapists and registered. duties similar to registered nurses include; technicians perform essentially the same du Individuals who complete a CAHEA-ap Occupational therapists, paramedics, physical ties. However, the therapist is expected to proved technician training program and have therapists, physician assistants, and respira have a higher level of expertise and may be 1 year of experience in respiratory therapy tory therapists. expected to assume some teaching and super may apply to the NBRT for examination for visory duties. Respiratory assistants have lit the Certified Respiratory Therapy Technician tle contact with patients and spend most of (CRTT) credential. The CRTT examination Sources of Additional Information The National League for Nursing (NLN) their time taking care of the equipment, in is less comprehensive than the registry ex publishes a variety of materials about nursing cluding cleaning, sterilizing, and storing it. amination and consists of a single written and nursing education, including a list of Many are new to the job and are training to test. Approximately 28,000 respiratory tech nicians had been certified in 1980. approved schools of nursing and information advance to the technician or therapist level. 172/Occupational Outlook Handbook In contrast to therapists and technicians, there are no standard hiring requirements for the position of respiratory assistant. Require ments are set by the head of the hospital department that is hiring workers. For exam ple, some may require only a high school diploma. People who want to enter the respiratory therapy field should enjoy working with peo ple and should be sensitive to patients’ phys ical and psychological needs. Respiratory therapy workers must be able to pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. Operating the complicated respiratory therapy equipment requires me chanical ability and manual dexterity. High school students interested in a career in this field are encouraged to take courses in health, biology, mathematics, physics, and bookkeeping. Respiratory therapists can advance to as sistant chief, chief therapist, or, with gra duate education, to instructor of respiratory therapy at the college level. Respiratory tech nicians and assistants can advance to the therapist level by taking the appropriate train ing courses. Job Outlook Employment of respiratory therapy work ers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as a result of population growth, greater health consciousness, and widespread accessibility of hospital and surgical care through public and private health insurance. Demand for these workers also should in crease due to the rising proportion of older persons. The rate of surgery increased during the 1970’s, with the most pronounced increase in operations occurring among persons 65 years of age and older, the segment of the popula tion with the greatest frequency of heart and lung problems. The increase in surgery among the elderly may result in part from technological advances that make surgical procedures safer and more effective than they used to be, so that potential benefits to the elderly patient outweigh the risks. If this trend continues, demand for respiratory ther apy workers will be heightened. Additional openings will arise from the need to replace those individuals who trans fer, retire, or die. Employment prospects should be excellent for graduates of formal training programs. If the number of these graduates continues to rise, those without this training may face some competition. Earnings The starting salary of respiratory therapists employed in hospitals averaged about $14,200 a year in 1981, according to a sur vey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced respiratory therapists in hospitals earned an average sal ary of $18,100 a year in 1981. Salaries of respiratory technicians and assistants are low er than those of respiratory therapists. The Federal Government paid respiratory therapists starting salaries of about $9,800 a year in early 1981 if they had 1 year of CAHEA-accredited postsecondary school training, and about $11,000 for those with 2 years of CAHEA-accredited training. Respiratory therapy workers in hospitals receive the same benefits as other hospital personnel, including hospitalization, paid va cations, and sick leave. Some institutions provide tuition assistance or free courses, pension programs, uniforms, and parking. Related Occupations Respiratory therapy workers administer res piratory therapy care and life support to patients with heart and lung difficulties under the super vision of a physician. Other workers who care for, treat, or train people to improve their phys ical well-being include: Dialysis technicians, emergency medical technicians, licensed prac tical nurses, registered nurses, occupational therapists, and physical therapists. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning education pro grams is available from: American Association for Respiratory Therapy, 1720 Regal Row, Suite 112, Dallas, Tex. 75235. Information on the certification of respira tory therapists and respiratory technicians can be obtained from: The National Board for Respiratory Therapy, Inc., 11015 West 75th Terrace, Shawnee Mission, Kan. 66214. A list of accredited and non-accredited postsecondary programs in respiratory ther apy, arranged by State, may be found in Programs and Schools, A supplement to the Directory of Postsecondary Schools with Oc cupational Programs, 1978, a publication of the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics. This publica tion and similar directories put out by com mercial publishers may be available in counseling centers or large public libraries. Local hospitals can provide information on openings and training opportunities. Speech Pathologists and Audiologists (D .O .T . 076.101 and .107) Nature of the Work Respiratory therapists are among the first specialists called for emergency treatment of breathing problems. One American in ten is unable to speak or hear clearly. When left uncorrected, speech and hearing impairments are serious handi caps that can cause trouble throughout life. Children who have difficulty speaking or hearing cannot participate fully with other children in play or in ordinary classroom activities. Sometimes these children seem to have mental or emotional problems, when in fact the problem is hearing. Adults with speech or hearing impairments may have ad justment problems on the job. Speech pa thologists and audiologists provide direct services to these people by evaluating their speech or hearing disorders and providing treatment. The speech pathologist works with chil dren and adults who have speech, language, and voice disorders resulting from causes such as total or partial hearing loss, brain injury, cleft palate, mental retardation, emo tional problems, or foreign dialect. The au Registered Nurses, Pharmacists, Dietitians, Therapists, and Physician Assistants/173 diologist primarily assesses and treats hearing problems, sometimes by dispensing hearing aids. Speech and hearing, however, are so interrelated that, to be competent in one of these fields, one must be familiar with both. The duties of speech pathologists and au diologists vary with education, experience, and place of employment. In clinics, such as those in schools and hospitals, they use diag nostic procedures to identify and evaluate speech and hearing disorders. Then, in coop eration with physicians, psychologists, phys ical therapists, and counselors, they de velop and implement an organized program of therapy. Speech pathologists and audiologists in colleges and universities teach courses in the principles of communication, communication disorders, and clinical techniques. Like other college faculty, they also have non-teaching activities. They do research and consult, and might, for example, plan and participate in educational programs in speech and hearing for physicians, nurses, and teachers. Some provide clinical services on campus. Although most speech pathologists and audiologists do some administrative work, directors of speech and hearing clinics and coordinators of speech and hearing in schools, health departments, or govern ment agencies may be totally involved in administration. Working Conditions Many speech pathologists and audiologists work more than 40 hours a week. They gen erally work in clean, comfortable surround ings and spend most of their time at a desk or table. Although the job is not physically de manding, the close attention to detail and intense concentration needed can be mentally exhausting. These workers receive immense satisfaction from seeing their clients’ speech and hearing improve, but a lack of progress can be very frustrating. they wish to locate. In 31 States, those offer ing speech pathology and audiology services in private practice, clinics, or other settings outside of schools must be licensed. Licen sure requirements vary among the States. Programs in speech pathology and audi ology are offered at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. However, bachelor’s de gree programs usually are regarded as pre professional. They prepare students to enter a graduate level program, or equip them for jobs as audiology technicians or aides. Un dergraduate courses in speech pathology and audiology programs include anatomy, biol ogy, physiology, physics, sociology, linguis tics, semantics, and phonetics. Courses in speech and hearing as well as in child psy chology and psychology of the exceptional child also are helpful. This training usually is available at colleges that offer a broad liberal arts program. In 1980, about 230 colleges and universi ties offered master’s or Ph.D. programs in speech pathology and audiology. Courses at the graduate level include advanced anatomy and physiology of the areas involved in hear ing and speech; acoustics; psychological as pects of communication; and analysis of speech production, language abilities, and auditory processes. Graduate students also take courses in the evaluation and remedi ation of speech, language, and hearing disor ders. All students at the graduate level receive supervised clinical training in com municative disorders. Meeting the American Speech-LanguageHearing Association’s (AS-L-HA) require ments for a Certificate of Clinical Compe tence (CCC) usually is necessary to advance professionally. To earn the CCC, a person must have a master’s degree or its equivalent, complete a 1-year internship approved by the Association, and pass a national written examination. Speech pathologists and audiologists should be able to approach problems objec tively and have a concern for the needs of others. They also should have considerable patience, because a client’s progress often is slow. A person who desires a career in speech pathology or audiology should be able to accept responsibility, work independently, and direct others. The ability to work with detail also is important. Job Outlook Employment of speech pathologists and audiologists is expected to increase faster than the average for all other occupations through the 1980’s. Population growth will add to the number of persons having speech and hearing problems. In addition, there is a trend toward earlier recognition and treatment of hearing and language problems in chil dren. Many school-age children, thought to have learning disabilities, actually have lan guage or hearing disorders that speech pa thologists and audiologists can treat. Growth will be fastest during the early part of the decade as school systems increase their speech-language-hearing staffs to comply with the requirements of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. After these goals are met, however, employ ment is expected to level off. While school systems are expanding speech-language-hearing staffs to comply with the Handicapped Children’s Act, em ployment opportunities for those with a mas ter’s degree generally should be favorable, but the large number of graduates entering this field will likely exceed openings during Employment About 35,000 persons worked as speech pathologists and audiologists in 1980. About half worked in public schools. Colleges and universities employed many in clinics and research centers. The rest worked in hospi tals, speech and hearing centers, government agencies, industry, and private practice. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in speech-language pa thology or audiology is the standard creden tial in this field. Medicare and Medicaid, for example, only pay for speech pathology ser vices provided by a practitioner with a mas ter’s degree. Furthermore, those working in public schools generally are required to have a practice certificate issued by the State edu cational agency. Certification requirements vary among the States, so individuals consid ering this type of setting should inquire about specific requirements in those States where Speech pathologists and audiologists test children in order to identify and evaluate speech and hearing disorders. 174/Occupational Outlook Handbook the latter half of the decade. Although some jobs will be available for those having only a bachelor’s degree, the preference shown by many employers for the master’s degree will continue to limit opportunities at the bache lor’s degree level. Many openings will occur outside of the large metropolitan areas, and graduates should take this into consideration when seeking employment. Competition for teaching positions in colleges and universities will be very strong throughout the period. Earnings Audiologists in hospitals and medical cen ters had average starting salaries of about $17,000 a year in 1981, compared to about $17,400 for speech pathologists, according to a national survey conducted by the Universi ty of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced audiologists averaged $21,300 a year—about the same as speech pathologists. The annual starting salary in the Federal Government for speech pathologists and au diologists with a master’s degree was about $18,600 in early 1981. Those having a doc toral degree were eligible to start at about $22,500. The average salary of all speech pathologists and audiologists working for the Federal Government in 1980 was $27,200. Many speech pathologists and audiolo gists, particularly those in colleges and uni versities, supplement their income by acting as consultants, doing research, and writing books and articles. Almost all receive bene fits such as paid vacations, sick leave, and retirement programs. Related Occupations Speech pathologists and audiologists spe cialize in the diagnosis and treatment of speech, language, and hearing problems. Workers in other professions who also per form rehabilitative functions include occupa tional therapists, optometrists, physical thera pists, and some physicians and podiatrists. Sources of Additional Information State departments of education can supply information on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. A list of accredited college and university graduate programs and a booklet on student financial aid as well as general career infor mation are available from: American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20852. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association also issues a directory of accre dited and nonaccredited graduate programs entitled Guide to Graduate Education in Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 1980. The Guide costs $8. Health Technologists and Technicians Many jobs in the health field owe their existence to the development of new labora tory procedures, diagnostic techniques, and life support systems. The sophisticated medi cal equipment in use today—computerized axial tomography (CAT) scanners, dialysis machines, and cardiac monitors—has created jobs for computerized tomographers, dialysis technicians, and cardiology technicians. Still other occupations will emerge as advances in the biomedical field occur. Five of the statements in this section of the Handbook describe health careers that in volve operating or monitoring biomedical equipment: Electrocardiograph technicians, electroencephalographic technologists and technicians, medical laboratory workers, ra diologic technologists, and respiratory ther apy workers. Dozens of other jobs have come into being with the introduction of new equipment. Radiologic (X-ray) technologists operate the familiar X-ray machine. Some of them specialize. Computerized tomographers, for example, use equipment linked to a computer for cross-section X-rays of the brain or other parts of the body. Mammographers use Xray techniques for breast examinations. Diag nostic medical sonographers use equipment which produces an image from sound waves reflected from the body to examine internal organs. Electrocardiograph (EKG) techni cians operate equipment that monitors a pa tient’s heart action. Many cardiac tests besides the EKG are in use today, and cardi ology technicians of various kinds perform or assist with phonocardiograms, echocardio grams, stress tests, cardiac catheterizations, and other tests that enable physicians to de tect heart problems. Dialysis technicians, who operate kidney machines, and perfusion ists, who operate heart-lung machines, are examples of health workers who operate equipment on which patients’ very lives depend. Preparation for these careers varies. Some workers learn their skills on the job through several months of classroom and laboratory study combined with closely supervised clini cal experience. As a rule, the newer the occupation, the more likely that training will be provided on the job. In most of these fields, however, workers obtain their training through formal programs, 1 or 2 years in length, that are offered by hospitals, commu nity colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and universities. A few of these occupations require more extensive preparation. Training requirements for specific occupations are de scribed in the statements that follow. The distinction between a health technolo gist and a health technician lies in the com plexity of the job. Technologists perform at a higher level of responsibility than techni cians, and therefore need more training. The length of this training varies with the occupa tion. For example, medical technologists, who use laboratory techniques to test speci mens of body fluids and tissues for evidence of disease, need a bachelor’s degree with a specialization in medical technology, and medical technicians usually are graduates of 2-year programs. Electroencephalographic (EEG) technologists, who operate machinery that monitors the electrical activity of pa tients’ brains, generally complete 1 or 2 year training programs, while training for EEG technicians lasts only about 6 months. Some of the occupations discussed in this section of the Handbook reflect successful efforts to extend the services of highly skilled health practitioners by redesigning auxiliary jobs. The job of the dental hygienist, for example, has been expanded so that dentists can serve more patients without sacrificing the quality of care. Preparation for a career in dental hygiene requires completion of a formal 2-year program. The job of emergen cy medical technician illustrates another re sponse to the need to provide health care in the absence of a practitioner. These workers are specially trained to provide medical atten tion when no physician or nurse is available— typically at the site of a fire, automobile accident, or other emergency. Other health careers discussed in this sec tion that require 1 or 2 years of specialized training after high school are medical record technician, surgical technician, and licensed practical nurse. Practical nursing is by far the largest of these occupations. About 550,000 licensed practical nurses were employed in 1980. Oth er large occupations included medical labora tory workers (205,000), emergency medical technicians (120,000), and radiologic tech nologists (106,000.) Employment in the oth er occupations discussed in this section ranges from medical record technicians and clerks (55,000) to electroencephalographic technologists (5,000.) Employment in the health industry is ex pected to grow much faster than the average for all industries through the 1980’s due to population growth, especially the substantial increase in the number of older people. But the availability of public and private health insurance will continue to have a significant impact on the actual level of employment in the health industry and on the occupational mix as well. An increase in the number of persons covered by health insurance would generate greater demand for health services and an increase in employment. Moreover, health insurance terms that prescribe what kinds of health care are reimbursable also affect jobs. Thus, coverage for services pro vided in convalescent institutions and outpa tient care facilities has contributed to employ ment growth in these areas of health care. More generous coverage for home health care services would stimulate demand for those services, thus altering the occupational mix of health care workers. While it is clear that health industry employment is affected by changes in funding levels and in the ser vices for which funding is available, it is not clear what changes in health care financing are likely to occur during the 1980’s. In addition to jobs created by growth in the health field, many new workers will be needed each year to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the occupations for other reasons. Several other sections of the Handbook con tain statements on health careers. Check the alphabetical index at the back to locate the statements on health services administrators, dental assistants, medical assistants, optometric assistants, occupational therapy assistants, physical therapy assistants, dispensing opti cians, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, and dental laboratory technicians. Books and brochures on health careers are available in libraries, counseling centers, and bookstores. The Sources of Additional Infor mation section at the end of each Handbook statement identifies organizations that can provide pamphlets, lists of accredited schools, and sources of financial aid. For an overview of jobs in the health field, includ ing some jobs not covered in the Handbook, request a copy of “ 200 Ways to a Health Career” from: National Health Council, 1740 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019. Another useful publication is Health Ca reers Guidebook, fourth edition, published in 1979 by the U.S. Department of Labor and the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (now the Department of Health and Human Services.) It is available for $6.00 from: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402. Dental Hygienists (D.O.T. 078.361-010) Nature of the Work Dental hygienists, working under the di rection of a dentist, provide direct patient care; they remove deposits and stains from patients’ teeth, expose and develop dental Xray films, and perform various other preven- 175 176/Occupational Outlook Handbook tive and therapeutic services. Helping the public develop and maintain good oral health is another important aspect of the job, and hygienists may instruct patients in the proper selection and use of toothbrushes and other devices, for example, or explain the relation ship between diet or smoking and oral health. Specific responsibilities of the hygienist vary, depending on the law of the State where the hygienist is employed, but may include removing scale from teeth; applying topical fluoride to prevent tooth decay; taking medical and dental histories; taking X-rays; making impressions of teeth for study mod els; and preparing other diagnostic aids. Pain control and restorative procedures may be performed by dental hygienists in some States. Dental hygienists who work in school sys tems serve in several capacities. Clinical Dental hygienists clean and scale teeth. functions include examining children’s teeth, assisting the dentist in determining the dental treatment needed, and reporting the findings to parents. They also scale and polish teeth and give oral hygiene instruction. In addi tion, they develop and deliver classroom and assembly programs on oral health. A few dental hygienists assist in research projects. Those having advanced training may teach in schools of dental hygiene. Working Conditions Dental hygienists usually work in clean, well-lighted offices. Important health safe guards for persons in this occupation are reg ular medical checkups and strict adherence to established procedures for using X-ray equipment. Dental hygienists employed full time in private offices usually work between 35 and 40 hours a week. They may work on Satur days or during evening hours. Some hygien ists work for two dentists or more. Employment About 36,000 persons worked as dental hygienists in 1980, according to the U.S. Public Health Service. Many are employed part time. Most work in private dental of fices; some may contract their services to several dentists or dental offices. Public health agencies, school systems, industrial plants, clinics, hospitals, dental hygiene schools, and the Federal Government are other sources of employment for dental hy gienists. Some graduates of bachelor’s degree programs are commissioned officers in the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental hygienists must be licensed. To obtain a license, a candidate must graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass both a written and a clinical examina tion. For the clinical examination, the appli cant is required to perform dental hygiene procedures, such as removing deposits and stains from a patient’s teeth. In 1980, candi dates in 48 States and the District of Colum bia could complete part of the State licensing requirements by passing a written examina tion given by the National Board of Dental Examiners. Few States permit dental hy gienists licensed in other States to prac tice in their jurisdictions without further examination. In 1980, 210 schools of dental hygiene in the United States were accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Most programs grant an associate degree; others lead to a bachelor’s degree. A few institu tions offer both types of programs. Six schools offer master’s degree programs in dental hygiene. Completion of an associate degree pro gram usually is sufficient for the dental hy gienist who wants to practice in a private dental office. To do research, teach, and work in public or school health programs, at least a bachelor’s degree usually is required. Dental hygienists with a master’s degree work as teachers or administrators in dental hygiene and dental assisting training pro grams, public health agencies, and in associ ated research. Competition is keen for admission to den tal hygiene schools. The minimum require ment for admission to a school of dental hygiene is graduation from high school. Sev eral schools that offer the bachelor’s degree admit students to the dental hygiene program only after they have completed 2 years of college. Many schools also require that appli cants take an aptitude test given by the American Dental Hygienists’ Association. Dental hygiene training given in the Armed Forces usually does not fully prepare one to pass the licensing exam, but credit for that training may be granted to those who Health Technologists and Technicians/177 seek admission to accredited dental hygiene programs. The curriculum in a dental hygiene pro gram consists of courses in the basic sci ences, dental sciences, clinical sciences, and liberal arts. These schools offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, pharmacology, nutrition, histology (the study of tissue structure), periodontology (the study of gum diseases), dental materials, and clini cal dental hygiene. People who want to become dental hygien ists should enjoy working with others. The ability to put patients at ease is helpful, for patients often are under stress. Personal neat ness, cleanliness, and good health also are important qualities. Dental hygienists must have manual dexterity because they use var ious dental instruments with little room for error within a patient’s mouth. Among the courses recommended for high school stu dents interested in careers in this occupation are biology, health, chemistry, speech, and mathematics. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for dental hy gienists are expected to be very good through the 1980’s. Despite an anticipated rise in the number of graduates from schools of dental hygiene, demand is expected to be greater than supply if recent trends in enrollments continue. There also should be good opportu nities for those desiring part-time employ ment and for those willing to work in rural areas. Employment of dental hygienists is expect ed to grow much faster than the average for all occupations because of the demand for dental care that will be generated by an ex panding population, the growing awareness of the importance of oral health, and an increase in dental prepayment plans. The use of dental auxiliaries is more prevalent in some places than others, however; more widespread acceptance on the part of dentists of the value of the hygienist in increasing the dentist’s productivity is likely to spur demand for these workers in areas where they are not extensively utilized. Younger dentists, in par ticular, tend to hire hygienists, because they are taught in dental school how to make effective use of auxiliaries in their dental practice. The trend toward group practice among dentists should also result in jobs for dental hygienists. Earnings Earnings of dental hygienists are affected by the type of employer, education, and ex perience of the individual hygienist, and the geographic location. Dental hygienists who work in private dental offices usually are salaried employees, although some are paid a commission for work performed, or a combi nation of salary and commission. Dental hygienists working full time in pri vate offices earned between $14,000 and $17,000 a year in 1980, according to the limited data available. In 1980, the Federal Government paid dental hygienists with no experience starting salaries of about $11,000 a year. Dental hygienists working for the Federal Government earned average annual salaries of about $13,100. Public health den tal hygienists earned average annual salaries of about $14,250 in 1980. Dental hygienists who work for school systems, health agencies, the Federal Gov ernment, or State agencies have the same hours, vacation, sick leave, retirement, and health insurance benefits as other workers in these organizations. Related Occupations Dental hygienists relieve dentists from many routine tasks. Other occupations per forming similar duties for dentists and physicians include dental assistants, den tal laboratory technicians, general duty nurses, nurse anesthetists, and radiologic technologists. Sources of Additional Information For information about accredited programs and the educational requirements to enter this occupation, contact: Division of Professional Development, American Dental Hygienists’ Association, Suite 3400, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. The State Board of Dental Examiners in each State, or the National Board of Dental Examiners, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611, can supply information on licens ing requirements. Electrocardiograph Technicians______ (D.O.T. 078.362-018) Nature of the Work Electrocardiograms (EKG’s) are graphic heartbeat tracings produced by an instrument called an electrocardiograph. These tracings record the electrical changes that occur dur ing and between heartbeats. Physicians order electrocardiograms to diagnose certain forms of heart disease including irregularities in heart action and to analyze changes in the condition of a patient’s heart over a period of time. Some physicians use electrocardio grams as a routine diagnostic procedure for persons who have reached a certain age. In many fields, electrocardiograms are required as part of preemployment physical examina tions. Often the test is done for surgery. Many new cardiac tests are used today, including “ invasive” tests such as cardiac catheterization, in which a tube (catheter) is inserted through the patient’s blood vessel into the heart. Generally, EKG’s are used together with these other cardiac tests. Since the equipment is mobile, EKG tech nicians can record electrocardiograms in a doctor’s office, in the EKG department of a hospital, or at the patient’s bedside. After explaining the procedure to the patient, the technician attaches from 3 to 12 electrodes— also called “leads”—to the chest, arms, and legs of the patient. Often the technician ap plies a gel between the electrodes and the patient’s skin, to facilitate the passage of the electrical impulses. The patient usually lies down, face up, during this procedure. By manipulating switches on the electrocardio graph and repositioning the electrodes across the chest, the technician produces various tracings of the heart’s electrical action. A stylus records the tracings on a long roll of graph paper. The test may be given while the patient is resting, or is doing exercise. The technician must know the anatomy of the chest and heart to properly select the exact locations for the chest electrodes. If the elec trodes are placed in the wrong location, an inaccurate reading will result. After the recording has been completed, the technician prepares the electrocardiogram for analysis by a physician, usually a heart specialist. Technicians must be able to recog nize and correct any technical errors, such as crossed wires or electrical interference, that prevent an accurate reading. They also must call the doctor’s attention to any significant deviations from the norm. EKG technicians sometimes conduct other tests such as vectorcardiograms, which are multidimensional traces; stress testing (exer cise tests); pulse recordings; and Holter mon itoring and scanning, which is a 12- to 24hour recording of the EKG on magnetic tape. In addition, some technicians schedule ap pointments, type doctors’ diagnosis, maintain patients’ EKG files, and care for equipment. Working Conditions Unless they are involved in an emergency case, EKG technicians usually work in a relaxed atmosphere. A lot of their time is spent on their feet. They work directly with patients and therefore must be able to relate to many kinds of people. Technicians generally work a 5-day, 40hour week, which may include Saturdays and Sundays. Those working in hospitals also may be required to work evening hours. Employment Nearly 20,000 persons worked as electro cardiograph technicians in 1980. Most EKG technicians worked in cardiology departments of large hospitals. Others worked part time in small general hospitals where workloads are usually not great enough to demand full-time technicians. Some worked full or part time in clinics and cardiologists’ offices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most EKG technicians are trained on the job. Training—usually conducted by an EKG supervisor or a cardiologist—lasts up to 1 month for basic EKG tests and up to 1 year 178/Occupational Outlook Handbook technicians can advance to monitor techni cians, Holter monitoring technicians, stress testing technicians, echocardiogram techni cians, cardiac catheterization technicians, cardiovascular technicians, cardiopulmonary technicians, and cardiology technologists. Promotion to supervisory positions also is possible. Job Outlook Employment of EKG technicians is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s due to more extensive use of EKG’s during routine phys ical examinations, prior to surgery, and in conjunction with other cardiac tests. Other factors contributing to the increased demand for EKG technicians include general popula tion growth, greater health consciousness, and the widespread availability of health in surance programs that help people pay for diagnostic procedures. Demand also should increase due to the rising proportion of older persons, the segment of the population re quiring the most cardiac testing. In addition to job openings resulting from increased demand for EKG technicians, many vacancies will occur as workers trans fer to other kinds of work, retire, or die. Technicians with formal training or Armed Forces training should find the most favor able prospects. Earnings EKG technicians must know exactly where to place the electrodes on the patient’s body. for more complex ones. Applicants for onthe-job training generally must be high school graduates. High school courses that are recommended for students interested in this field include health, biology, and typing. Familiarity with medical terminology is help ful; it can be acquired in classes on human anatomy and physiology and by studying a medical dictionary. Formal training programs offered by voca tional and technical schools and junior and community colleges also provide these skills. The basic EKG test can be learned in courses lasting 6 weeks. The 1- to 2-year programs provide more extensive training. The Ameri can Cardiology Technologists Association (ACTA) recognizes some of these programs. Training also is available in the Armed Forces. The American Cardiology Technologists Association administers two written examina tions—one for proficiency in the basic EKG procedure; the other for proficiency in both the basic and advanced EKG procedures. EKG technicians who pass earn the title of Certified Cardiology Technologist and Reg istered Cardiology Technologist, respective ly. These credentials may help EKG technicians obtain better paying positions. Persons who want to become EKG techni cians should have mechanical aptitude, the ability to follow detailed instructions, pres ence of mind in emergencies, reliability, and patience. EKG technician is the entry level position in the field of cardiovascular technology, and opportunities for advancement are good. With proper training and experience, EKG EKG technicians employed in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers earned starting salaries of about $10,200 a year in 1981, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Some experienced EKG technicians earned as much as $17,800 a year. EKG technicians employed by the Federal Government are called Medical Machine Technicians. Depending on their education and experience in this occupation, beginners could earn annual salaries ranging from $10,963 to $16,826 in 1981. Usually, EKG technicians earn slightly less than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. In general, those EKG technicians with previous formal training earn higher starting salaries than those who learn on the job. Also, EKG technicians who perform more sophisticated tests are paid more than those who perform only basic ones. EKG technicians in hospitals receive the same fringe benefits as other hospital person nel, including hospitalization, vacation, and sick leave benefits. Some institutions provide tuition assistance or free education courses, pension programs, and uniforms. Related Occupations Some other occupations requiring operation of technical equipment to test a patient’s medi cal condition include audiometrists, electroencephalographic (EEG) technologists and technicians, radiologic (X-ray) technologists, and medical laboratory workers. Health Technologists and Technicians/179 Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportunities. The American Cardiology Technologists Association responds to inquiries about mem bership and their credentialing program. Contact them at: American Cardiology Technologists Association, 1 Bank St., Suite 307, Gaithersburg, Md. 20760. Electroencephalographic Technologists and Technicians_____ chine can be repaired promptly. EEG techni cians must know how to recognize changes in the patient’s neurologic, cardiac, and respi ratory status. EEG technicians also need a basic understanding of the kinds of medical emergencies that can occur in laboratories to be able to react properly if an emergency arises. For example, if a patient suffers an epileptic seizure, the EEG technician must take the proper action. EEG technologists usually perform all the duties of EEG technicians but have a broader knowledge of the various aspects of EEG work. They also may use EEG equipment in conjunction with other electrophysiologic monitoring devices, such as tape recorders, computers, and video equipment. They also can repair the equipment if it is not working properly. After producing an EEG recording, the technologist may be asked to write a description of the recording for the use of the electroencephalographer. Supervising EEG technicians is part of an EEG technologist’s job. Besides direct super vision during EEG recordings, this includes such things as arranging work schedules and teaching EEG techniques. Technologists of ten have administrative responsibilities, such as managing the laboratory, keeping records, scheduling appointments, ordering supplies, and establishing protocol. Working Conditions EEG technologists and technicians usually work in clean, well-lighted surroundings. About half of their time on duty is spent on their feet and a lot of bending over is neces sary. They may have to contend with patients who are unruly or very ill. (D.O.T. 078.362-022) Nature of the Work The field of electroencephalography (EEG) is concerned with recording and studying the electrical activity of the brain. A machine called an electroencephalograph records this activity and produces a written tracing of the brain’s electrical impulses. This record of brain waves is called an electroencephalo gram. Neurologists and other qualified medi cal practitioners use electroencephalograms to help diagnose the extent of injury for patients suspected of having brain tumors, strokes, or epilepsy; to measure the consequences of in fectious diseases on the brain; and to deter mine if there is any organic explanation in cases where individuals suffer from serious adjustment problems or learning difficulties. EEG also may be used prior to vital organ transplant operations, to help determine when the potential donor is “medically” dead. The people who operate EEG equipment are known as EEG technicians and technolo gists. The main job of an EEG technician is to produce electroencephalograms, under the supervision of an EEG technologist or an electroencephalographer (a physician special izing in electroencephalography). Before do ing this job, the technician takes a simplified medical history of the patient and helps the patient relax for the test. The technician then applies the electrodes of the electroenceph alograph to designated spots on the patient’s head and makes sure that the machine is working well. The technician chooses the most appropriate combinations of instrument controls and electrodes to produce the kind of record needed. EEG technicians must be able to recognize and correct any artifacts that appear (an artifact is an electrical or me chanical event that comes from somewhere other than the brain, such as eye movement or interference from electrical lights). If there are any mechanical problems with the elec troencephalograph, the technician must ad vise his or her supervisor, so that the ma EEG technicians watch closely for any malfunctioning of the equipment. 180/Occupational Outlook Handbook A 5-day, 40-hour workweek with little overtime is normal, although some hospitals require EEG technologists and technicians to be “ on call” (ready to report to work at a moment’s notice) after hours and on week ends and holidays. These employees general ly work during the day, but those involved in sleep studies work evenings and nights. Employment About 5,000 persons worked as electroencephalographic technologists and technicians in 1980. Most worked full time. Although most EEG personnel work in hospitals, jobs are also available in private offices of neu rologists and neurosurgeons. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most EEG technicians working in 1980 had learned their skills on the job. Applicants for EEG trainee positions need a high school diploma, as a rule. Often, EEG trainees in hospitals transfer to the neurology department from other jobs in the hospital, such as EKG technicians. With advances in medical tech nology, however, electroencephalographic equipment has become increasingly sophisti cated and its use requires technicians with more training and skill. Formal training for EEG personnel is of fered by hospitals, medical centers, commu nity colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and colleges and universities. In 1980, there were 53 formal training programs, 19 of which were approved by the American Medi cal Association’s Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation. Pro grams usually last from 1 to 2 years and include laboratory experience as well as classroom instruction in neurology, anatomy, neuroanatomy, physiology, neurophysiology, clinical and internal medicine, psychiatry, and electronics and instrumentation. Gradu ates receive associate degrees or certificates. High school graduation normally is required for entrance into these programs. EEG personnel who have 1 year of train ing and laboratory experience, and who suc cessfully complete a written and oral examination administered by the American Board of Registration of Electroencephalo graphic Technologists (ABRET), are desig nated “ Registered EEG Technologist” (R. EEG T.). Although not a requirement for employment, registration by ABRET is ac knowledgment of a technologist’s qualifica tions and makes better paying jobs easier to obtain. Persons who want to enter this field should have manual dexterity, good vision, an apti tude for working with electronic equipment, and the ability to work with patients as well as with other health professionals. High school students considering a career in this occupation should take courses in health, bi ology, human anatomy, and mathematics. Some EEG technologists in large hospitals can advance to chief EEG technologist and take on increased responsibilities in laborato ry management and in teaching basic tech niques to new personnel or students from EEG training programs. Chief EEG tech nologists generally are supervised by an electroencephalographer, or a neurologist or neurosurgeon. Job Outlook Employment of EEG technologists and technicians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s due to the increased use of EEG’s in surgery, in diagnosing and monitoring pa tients with brain disease, and in research on the human brain. EEG technologists and technicians increasingly will perform other clinical electrophysiological examinations— for example, somatosensory, visual, and au ditory evoked responses—that have been made possible by recent advances in clinical neurophysiology. Contributing to the in creased demand for EEG technologists and technicians is the projected expansion of the health industry that is associated with a growing and aging population and greater access to health care through public and pri vate health insurance programs. In addition to openings from increased de mand for EEG technologists and technicians, many openings will arise when workers transfer to other kinds of work, retire, or die. Job prospects will be best for persons who have graduated from a formal training pro gram or are registered by ABRET. Earnings Starting salaries of EEG technicians em ployed by hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged $11,600 a year in 1981, according to a survey by the Univer sity of Texas Medical Branch. Starting sala ries for registered EEG technologists were $1,000 to $2,000 higher. Usually, EEG technicians earn about as much as the aver age for all non supervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Top salaries of ex perienced EEG technicians ranged as high as $20,400 a year. Highly qualified technolo gists may earn more as teachers in special training situations, supervisors of EEG labo ratories, or program directors of schools of EEG technology. EEG technologists and technicians em ployed by the Federal Government are called Medical Machine Technicians. Depending on education and experience, beginning an nual salaries ranged from $10,963 to $16,826 in early 1981. EEG technologists and technicians in hos pitals receive the same benefits as other hos pital personnel, including hospitalization, vacation, and sick leave benefits. Some insti tutions may provide tuition assistance or free courses, pension programs, uniforms, and parking. Related Occupations Other occupations whose main work con sists of performing medical activities under supervision are audiometrists, dental assist ants, electrocardiograph technicians, electro diagnostic technicians, licensed practical nurses, nursing aides, occupational therapy assistants, surgical technicians, orderlies, physical therapy aides, and psychiatric aides. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportunities. For general information about a career in electroencephalography as well as a list of accredited formal training programs, contact: Executive Office, American Society of EEG Technologists, 32500 Grand River Ave., #103, Farmington, Mich. 48024. Information on registration with ABRET is available from: The Psychological Corporation, 304 E. 45th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Emergency Medical Technicians_______ (D .O .T . 079.374-010) Nature of the Work An automobile accident, a heart attack, a near drowning, an unscheduled childbirth, a poisoning, a gunshot wound—all of these situations demand urgent medical attention. Seeing medical emergencies like these han dled on television has made millions of Americans aware of the crucial role played by emergency medical technicians (EMT’s), sometimes called ambulance attendants. A call from a dispatcher sends EM T’s— who usually work in teams of two—to the scene of the emergency. Although speed is essential, the EM T’s obey the traffic laws for the operation of emergency vehicles. They also must know the best route to take in the face of traffic, road construction, and weather conditions. Upon arriving at the scene of the emer gency, the driver parks the ambulance in a safe place to avoid accidents. If no police are present, bystanders may be enlisted to lend a hand. For instance, in the case of an auto mobile accident, bystanders can help control traffic by placing road flares, removing de bris, and redirecting traffic. EM T’s first determine the nature and ex tent of the victims’ illnesses or injuries and establish priorities for emergency medical care. They look for medical identification emblems that denote if the victim has epilep sy, diabetes, or other similar medical condi tions, so they can provide the correct treatment. EMT’s give appropriate emergen cy care, including opening and maintaining an airway, restoring breathing, controlling bleeding, treating for shock, immobilizing fractures, bandaging, assisting in childbirth, managing mentally disturbed patients, and giving initial care to poison and bum victims. Health Technologists and Technicians/181 When persons are trapped, such as in an automobile accident, EMT’s face a double problem. First they must assess the victims’ injuries and supply all possible emergency medical care and protection to the trapped persons. Then they must use the correct equipment and techniques to remove the vic tims safely. EMT’s may request additional help or special rescue or utility services by radio or telephone from a dispatcher. In case of death, EM T’s notify the proper authorities and arrange for the protection of the deceased’s property. When patients must be transported to a hospital, EMT’s place the patients on stretch ers, lift them into the ambulance, and secure both the patients and the stretchers for the ride. EMT’s then drive to the proper hospi tal, as determined by protocol, or lacking that, they choose the nearby hospital they consider best equipped and staffed to treat their patients. To assure prompt treatment upon arrival, EMT’s report by radio directly to the hospital emergency department or the emergency dispatcher about the nature and extent of injuries or illness, the number of persons being transported, and the destina tion. They may ask for additional advice from the hospital’s emergency medical staff. On the way to the emergency department, EMT’s monitor patients’ vital signs and give additional care as needed or as directed by a physician with whom they have radio contact. Upon arrival at the hospital, they help transfer the patients from the ambulance to the emergency department. They report their observations and care of the patients to the emergency department staff for diagnostic purposes and as a matter of record. EMT’s may help the emergency department staff. One of the duties of EM T’s is to maintain a clean, well-equipped ambulance. After each run, EMT’s replace the used linen, blankets, and other supplies, send the reus able items to be sterilized, and carefully check all equipment so that the ambulance is ready for the next trip. If they have carried patients who have contagious infection, they decontaminate the interior of the ambulance and report such calls to the proper authori ties. In cases of radiation contamination, they seek special experts to remove the radiation. EMT’s make sure that the ambulance is in good operating condition by checking the gasoline, oil, tire pressure, lights, siren, heat er, brakes, and communications equipment before their shift begins. In addition to the basic EMT, whose work has been described, there are two other types of EMT’s: EMT-Paramedics and EMT-Dispatchers. Working with radio communication under the direction of a physician, EMTParamedics may, depending on State law, administer drugs, both orally and intrave nously, and use more complex equipment, such as a defibrillator, than basic EMT’s. Although they do not deal directly with emergency patients, EMT-Dispatchers never theless play an important role. They receive Emergency medical technicians must act quickly when they arrive at the scene of an accident. and process calls for emergency medical as sistance. By telephone and radio, they serve as a communications link between the appro priate medical facility and those who are sent to attend the emergency patients. Dispatchers talk with the various parties involved and, in consultation with medical authorities, decide upon the best course of action. They then send the appropriate persons and resources to the emergency site and coordinate the move ment of emergency medical vehicles. EMTDispatchers also handle communications for public safety agencies, such as police and fire departments, so that services like traffic and fire control can be performed. ing, kneeling, bending, and lifting. Although their work can be very strenuous and can produce great pressure, they must be careful to avoid accidents. EMT’s employed by fire departments often have a 56-hour workweek. Those employed by hospitals, private firms, and police depart ments usually work 40 hours a week. Some EMT’s, especially those in police and fire departments, have to be “on call” for ex tended periods. Volunteer EMT’s have var ied work schedules, but many put in from 8 to 12 hours a week. Because many ambu lance services function 24 hours a day, EMT’s often work nights and weekends. Working Conditions Employment Because EM T’s must treat patients indoors and out, they are exposed to all kinds of weather. Much of their time is spent stand In 1980, an estimated 120,000 persons worked as paid EMT’s, a small but growing number of whom were EMT-Paramedics. 182/Occupational Outlook Handbook Roughly 170,000 more worked as volunteers on rescue squads—mostly associated with fire departments. Most paid EMT’s worked full time, while most volunteer EM T’s worked part time. Many paid EM T’s work for police and fire departments and private ambulance compa nies. Funeral homes providing ambulance service employ some EM T’s, although in recent years many funeral homes have left this field. A few EMT’s work on hospitalbased ambulance squads. A small but grow ing number of EM T’s work in hospital emer gency departments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Few EM T’s received formal training until recent years. Now instruction in emergency medical care techniques is mandatory. A standard training course is the 100-hour pro gram designed by the U.S. Department of Transportation. This program, or its equiv alent, is available in all 50 States and the District of Columbia. It is offered by police, fire, and health departments; in hospitals; and as a special course in medical schools, col leges, and universities. This course provides instruction and prac tice in dealing with emergencies such as bleeding, fractures, airway obstruction, car diac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Stu dents learn to use and care for common emergency equipment, such as backboards, suction machines, splints, oxygen delivery systems, and stretchers. Physicians, nurses, and experienced EM T’s usually give the lec tures and demonstrations. After completing the basic EMT program, students may take a 2-day course dealing with the removal of trapped victims, as well as a 5day course on driving emergency vehicles. Also available is a course lasting several days to train EMT-Dispatchers. Training programs for EMT-Paramedics generally last from 3 to 5 months. In 1980, there were about 350 training programs for EMT-Paramedics. The American Medical Association’s Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation has recently begun accrediting these pro grams. In many places, refresher courses and continuing education are available to EM T’s. Although admission requirements vary from State to State and often, from course to course, admittance to an EMT training course generally requires that the applicant be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or the equivalent, and have a valid driver’s license. Among high school subjects recommended for persons interested in the field are driver education and health and sci ence courses. Training in the Armed Forces as a “ medic” also is considered good prepara tion for prospective EM T’s. Graduates of approved EMT training pro grams who meet certain experience require ments and pass a written and practical examination administered by the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians earn the title of Registered EMT-Ambulance. To maintain their proficiency, EM T’s must register again every 2 years. To reregis ter, an EMT must be working as an EMT, meet a continuing education requirement, and pay a fee. In 1978, the National Registry began to register EMT-Paramedics. This registration requires current registration or State certifica tion as an EMT-Ambulance, successful com pletion of an EM T-Paramedic training program, 6 months of field experience as an EMT-Paramedic, and passing a written and practical examination. Reregistration is re quired every 2 years. Another type of registration was intro duced in 1980, the EMT-Intermediate. This level of registration is above that for basic EM T’s, but below that for EMT-Paramedics. The examination covers the first part of the EMT-Paramedic training curriculum and builds upon the basic EMT skill levels. Cur rent registration or certification at the basic EMT level is a prerequisite. Although not a general requirement for employment, registration with the National Registry is acknowledgment of an EMT’s qualifications and makes higher paying jobs easier to obtain. In 1980, about 90,000 basic EM T’s were registered. In addition, all 50 States have some kind of certification procedure. In 13 States, regis tration with the National Registry is required. Seven other States offer the choice of their own certification examination or the National Registry examination. Twenty-nine States accept registration with the National Registry as the basis of reciprocity EMT’s should have good dexterity and physical coordination. They must be able to lift and carry up to 100 pounds. EM T’s need good eyesight (eyeglasses may be used) with accurate color vision. Because EMT’s often work under trying conditions, they must exercise good judg ment under stress and have leadership ability. Emotional stability and the ability to adapt to many different situations help them handle difficulties. They should have a neat and clean appearance and a pleasant personality. Job Outlook Employment of paid EM T’s is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations during the 1980’s. As the popu lation grows—the older segment in particu lar—more people are expected to use ambulance services, increasing the need for EM T’s. Also likely to contribute to the growth in demand for workers in the occupation are developments in the field of emergency medicine, which is emerging as a specialized field of practice for physicians, nurses, and allied health personnel. As the occupation of emergency medical technician becomes more professionalized, appropriately trained EM T’s are assuming greater responsibility within the health care system. This upgrading of the profession is expected to create more jobs for paid EM T’s in particular. Employ ment also will be spurred by the expansion of emergency medical services to such settings as nursing homes, factories, sports events, and international flights and cruises. Still another factor influencing demand for paid EM T’s is the switch from volunteer to paid ambulance services in many communi ties. A trend is apparent in some cities to establish ambulance service as the third es sential community service, following police and fire protection. Growth in this area could be affected, however, by competing demands for the municipal dollar. Many ambulance services depend on local government fund ing, and budget constraints could limit growth or even force the elimination of some EMT jobs. Persons seeking paid EMT positions with fire and police departments are expected to face stiffer competition than those seeking positions with private companies. In general, public EMT jobs offer higher salaries and better fringe benefits than those in the private sector. Further, in some communities, appli cants for EMT jobs must contend with the generally stiff competition for any kind of position with the police or fire department. In addition to job opportunities created by increased demand for EM T’s, many openings will occur each year because of the need to replace those who transfer to other kinds of work, retire, or die. Earnings Earnings of EMT’s depend on the type of employer, the training and experience of the individual, and the geographic location. In general, graduates of approved basic training programs received starting salaries of between $7,000 and $11,000 annually in 1980, depending on the community. With experience, they can earn up to $13,000 a year. Beginning EMT-Paramedics usually earn annual salaries of at least $10,000, while experienced EMT-Paramedics earn as much as $20,000 a year. EM T’s employed by the Federal Government are called Emer gency Ambulance Service Technicians. De pending on their education and experience in this occupation, applicants could earn begin ning annual salaries ranging from $10,963 to $16,826 in early 1981. EM T’s working for police and fire departments usually are paid the same salaries as police officers and fire fighters. (See statements on police officers and firefighters elsewhere in the Handbook.) The employee benefits offered by private companies, such as vacation, sick leave, and health insurance, vary widely. EMT’s em ployed by hospitals and police and fire de partments receive the same benefits as the other employees. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers often are placed in life-or-death situations that re quire quick and level-headed reactions are police officers and firefighters. Health Technologists and Technicians/183 Sources of Additional Information Working Conditions Information concerning training courses, registration, and job opportunities for pro spective EMT’s can be obtained by writing to the Emergency Medical Services Director of your State. Information about the registration of EMT’s also is available from: Practical nurses in hospitals generally work 40 hours a week, but often this includes some work at night and on weekends and holidays. Although the work is not strenu ous, they often must stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. In private homes, LPN’s usually work 8 to 12 hours a day and go home at night. Private duty nursing affords a great deal of indepen dence in setting work hours and the length and frequency of vacations. National Registry of Emergency Medical Techni cians, P.O. Box 29233, Columbus, Ohio 43229. General information about EMT’s is avail able from: National Association of Emergency Medical Tech nicians, P.O. Box 334, Newton Highlands, Mass. 02161. Licensed Practical Nurses_________ Employment About 550,000 persons worked as LPN’s in 1980, according to the U.S. Public Health Service. About three-fifths worked in hospi tals. Many others worked in nursing homes, rehabilitation centers, psychiatric hospitals, and other long-term care facilities. Some LPN’s had jobs in clinics or doctors’ offices. Self-employed nurses worked in hospitals or in the homes of their patients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia re quire practical nurses to have a license. To qualify, applicants must complete a State-ap proved practical nursing course and pass a writ ten examination. Educational requirements for enrollment in State-approved programs range from completion of eighth or ninth grade to high school graduation. Many schools do not require a high school diploma but prefer gradu ates. In addition, physical examinations and aptitude tests usually are required. (D.O.T. 079.374-014) Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (LPN’s) help care for the physically or mentally ill and infirm. Under the direction of physicians and registered nurses, they provide nursing care that requires technical knowledge but not the professional education and training of a regis tered nurse. (The work of registered nurses is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) In California and Texas, licensed practical nurses are called licensed vocational nurses. In hospitals, LPN’s provide much of the bedside care. They take and record tempera tures and blood pressures, change dressings, administer certain prescribed medicines, and help patients with bathing and other personal hygiene. They assist physicians and regis tered nurses in examining patients and in carrying out nursing procedures. They also assist in the delivery, care, and feeding of infants. Some practical nurses work in spe cialized units such as intensive care or recov ery rooms. There they perform special nursing procedures and operate sophisticated equipment to provide care for seriously ill or injured patients. In some instances, experi enced LPN’s supervise hospital attendants and nursing aides. LPN’s who work in private homes provide day-to-day patient care that seldom involves highly technical procedures or complicated equipment. In addition to providing nursing care, they may prepare meals, see that pa tients are comfortable, and help keep up their morale. They may teach family members how to perform simple nursing tasks. In doctors’ offices and in clinics, LPN’s prepare patients for examination and treat ment, administer medications, apply dress ings, and teach patients prescribed health care regimens. They also may make ap pointments and record information about patients. LPN’s provide much of the bedside care in hospitals and nursing homes. 184/Occupational Outlook Handbook In 1980, about 1,230 State-approved pro grams provided practical nursing training. Trade, technical, or vocational schools of fered more than half of these programs. Oth er programs were available at community and junior colleges, hospitals, and health agen cies. Several programs operated by the Armed Forces for military personnel were State-approved for practical nurse training. Graduates of these programs can apply for licensure. Practical nurse training programs generally last 1 year and include both classroom study and clinical practice. Classroom instruction covers nursing concepts and principles and related subjects including anatomy, physiol ogy, medical-surgical nursing, pediatrics, ob stetrics, psychiatric nursing, administration of drugs, nutrition, first aid, and commu nity health. In addition, students receive supervised clinical experience—usually in a hospital. LPN’s should be emotionally stable and have a deep regard for human welfare, be cause work with the sick and injured can be upsetting. As part of a health care team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Advancement opportunities are limited, al though in-service educational programs pre pare some LPN’s for work in specialized areas, such as postsurgery recovery rooms or intensive care units. Increasingly, however, practical nurse training programs are being designed to allow practical nurse graduates to continue their education, eventually satisfying the formal requirements for registered nurse. For exam ple, in over 80 associate degree RN pro grams, the first year of study satisfies the educational requirements for LPN. After this first year of study, students can apply for licensure as a practical nurse and begin work ing, or complete both years of course work and seek licensure as a registered nurse. Job Outlook The employment outlook for L P N ’s should be very good through the 1980’s. Em ployment is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations in response to the needs of a growing and aging population and the widespread availability of public and pri vate health insurance. Also, newly licensed practical nurses will be needed each year in large numbers to replace those who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Earnings According to surveys conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, LPN’s in hospi tals earned about $12,500 a year in 1980, on average, while those in nursing homes earned about $11,400 a year. Federal hospitals offered beginning LPN’s an annual salary of $8,952 in 1981. Many hospitals give pay increases after specific periods of satisfactory service. Paid holidays and vacation, health insurance, and pension plans are typical benefits provided by hospitals. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve working closely with people while helping them include: Emergency medical technician, social service aide, and teacher aide. Sources of Additional Information A list of State-approved training programs and information about practical nursing is available from: National League for Nursing, 10 Columbus Cir cle, New York, N.Y. 10019. National Association for Practical Nurse Educa tion and Service, Inc., 254 West 31st St., New York, N.Y. 10001. For information about a career in practical nursing, contact: National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., 250 West 57th., New York, N.Y. 10106. Information about employment opportuni ties in Veterans Administration hospitals is available from local Veterans Administration hospitals and also from: Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. 20420. Medical Laboratory Workers___________ (D .O .T. 078.121-010, .261-010 and -014, .281-010, .361-014 and -030, .381-010 and -014, and .687-010) Nature of the Work Laboratory tests play an important part in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of many diseases. Medical laboratory workers, often called clinical laboratory workers, in clude three levels of personnel: Medical tech nologists, technicians, and assistants. They perform laboratory tests on specimens taken from patients by other health professionals, such as physicians. They perform these tests under the general direction of pathologists (physicians who diagnose the causes and na ture of disease) and other physicians, or doc toral scientists who specialize in clinical chemistry, microbiology, or the other bio logical sciences. Medical laboratory workers analyze blood, tissues, and fluids in the hu man body by using precision instruments such as microscopes and automatic analyzers. Medical technologists, who usually have 4 years of postsecondary school training, per form complicated chemical, biological, he matological, microscopic, and bacteriological tests. These may include chemical tests to determine, for example, the blood cholesterol level, or microscopic examination of the blood to detect the presence of diseases such as leukemia. Technologists microscopically examine other body fluids; make cultures of body fluid or tissue samples to determine the presence of bacteria, parasites, or other mi croorganisms; and analyze the samples for chemical content or reaction. They also may type and cross-match blood samples for transfusions. Technologists in small laboratories per form many types of tests, while those in large laboratories usually specialize. Among the areas in which they can specialize are biochemistry (the chemical analysis of body fluids), blood bank technology (the laborato ry work of a blood bank), cytotechnology (the study of human body cells), hematology (the study of blood cells), histology (the study of human and animal tissue), and mi crobiology (the study of bacteria and other microorganisms). Most medical technologists conduct tests related to the examination and treatment of patients. Others do research, develop labora tory techniques, teach, or perform adminis trative duties. Medical laboratory technicians, who gen erally have 2 years of postsecondary school training, perform tests and laboratory proce dures that require a high level of skill but not the in-depth knowledge of highly trained technologists. Like technologists, they may work in several areas or specialize in one field. Medical laboratory assistants, who gener ally have a year of formal training, assist medical technologists and technicians in rou tine tests and related work that can be learned in a relatively short time. In large laborato ries, they may specialize in one area of work. For example, they may identify different types of blood cells on slides. In addition to performing less complex tests, assistants may store and label plasma; clean and sterilize laboratory equipment, glassware, and instru ments; prepare solutions following standard laboratory formulas and procedures; keep records of tests; and identify specimens. Working Conditions Medical laboratory personnel generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Those working in a hospital can expect some evening and weekend duty. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet. Laboratories generally are well lighted and clean. Although unpleasant odors and infec tious materials often are present, few hazards exist if proper methods of sterilization and handling of specimens, materials, and equip ment are used. Employment About 205,000 medical laboratory workers were employed in 1980. Most medical labo ratory personnel work in hospitals. Others work in independent laboratories, physicians’ offices, clinics, public health agencies, phar maceutical firms, and research institutions. Laboratory facilities generally are concen trated in metropolitan areas. Some medical laboratory workers work part time. In 1980, Veterans Administration hospitals and laboratories employed about 3,000 medi cal technologists and about 1,700 medical Health Technologists and Technicians/185 laboratory technicians. Others worked for the Armed Forces and the U.S. Public Health Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational requirement for a beginning job as a medical technologist is 4 years of college including completion of a specialized training program in medical technology. Undergraduate work includes satisfactory completion of courses in chemistry, biologi cal sciences, and mathematics. These studies give the technologist a broad understanding of the scientific principles underlying labora tory work. Specialized training usually re quires 12 months of study and includes extensive laboratory work. In 1980, about 650 hospitals and schools offered programs accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Association through the National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences. Many of these programs were affiliated with colleges and universities where a bachelor’s degree is awarded upon completion. A few hospitalbased programs require a bachelor’s degree for entry. Many universities offer advanced degrees in medical technology and related clinical laboratory sciences for technologists who plan to specialize in a certain area of labora tory work or in teaching, administration, or research. Medical laboratory technicians acquire their training in a variety of educational settings. Many enroll in accredited programs, 2 years in length, offered by community and junior col leges and colleges and universities. Some are trained in the Armed Forces. Other technicians receive training in vocational and technical schools. In 1980, the CAHEA accredited 105 of these programs, and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools accredited 30. Most medical laboratory assistants are trained on the job. In recent years, however, an increasing number have completed 1-year training programs conducted by hospitals, community and junior colleges, or vocational schools. In 1980, the CAHEA accredited 99 training programs for medical laboratory as sistants. Applicants should be high school graduates or have an equivalency diploma with courses in science and mathematics. The programs include classroom instruction and practical training in the laboratory. They often begin with a general orientation to the clinical laboratory followed by courses in bacteriology, serology, parasitology, hema tology, clinical chemistry, blood banking, and urinalysis. In 1980, CAHEA also accredited 74 train ing programs for cytotechnologists, 47 for histologic technicians, and 57 for specialists in blood bank technology. After they pass the appropriate examina tions, medical technologists may be certified Medical laboratory workers use sophisticated equipment to test body fluids and tissues. as Medical Technologists, MT (ASCP), by the Board of Registry of the American Soci ety of Clinical Pathologists; Medical Tech nologists, MT, by the American Medical Technologists; Clinical Laboratory Scien tists, CLS, by the National Certification Agency for Medical Laboratory Personnel; or Registered Medical Technologists, RMT, by the International Society of Clinical Lab oratory Technology. These organizations also certify technicians. Some States require both medical tech nologists and medical laboratory technicians to be licensed. They are: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Kentucky, Ne vada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Tennessee. In California, New York, and Pennsylvania only technologists need to be licensed. Requirements for licensure in some States include a written examination. Accuracy, dependability, and the ability to work under pressure are important personal characteristics for a medical laboratory work er. Manual dexterity and normal color vision are highly desirable. Persons interested in a medical laboratory career should use considerable care in se lecting a training program. They should get information about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, educational costs, the ac creditation of the school, the length of time the training program has been in oper ation, instructional facilities, and faculty qualifications. Technologists may advance to supervisory positions in certain areas of laboratory work, or, after several years’ experience, to admin istrative medical technologist in a large hos pital. Graduate education in one of the biological sciences, chemistry, management, or education usually speeds advancement. Technicians can advance to technologists by getting additional education and experience. Similarly, assistants can become technicians by acquiring more education and experience. Job Outlook Employment of medical laboratory work ers is expected to expand faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as physicians continue to make exten sive use of laboratory tests in routine phys ical checkups and in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Indirectly influencing growth of the field are population growth, greater health consciousness, and the wide spread availability of public and private health insurance. The use of automated laboratory test equipment is expected to lead to an increase in the number of medical laboratory techni cians and assistants relative to technologists. Through technological advances, technicians and assistants can operate equipment to per 186/Occupational Outlook Handbook form tests that previously required the skill of a technologist. Technologists will be needed to fill super visory positions in all laboratories. In addi tion to openings resulting from increased demand for these workers, many jobs will become available each year because of the need to replace medical workers who transfer to other kinds of work, retire, or. die. American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Board of Registry, P.O. Box 12270, Chicago, 111. 60612. Earnings National Certification Agency for Medical Labo ratory Personnel, 1625 I St. NW., Suite 123, Washington, D.C. 20006. Salaries of medical laboratory workers vary depending on the employer and geographic location. In general, medical laboratory work ers employed in large cities received the high est salaries. Starting salaries for medical technologists employed by hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged about $15,800 a year in 1981, according to a survey con ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Beginning salaries for medical labo ratory technicians averaged about $12,200 a year in 1981; for cytotechnologists, about $14,700; for histology technicians, about $12,600. According to the same survey, ex perienced medical technologists working in hospitals, medical schools, and medical cen ters averaged about $20„600 a year in 1981. Similarly, medical laboratory technicians with experience averaged about $16,000 a year; cytotechnologists, $18,100; histology technicians, $15,900. The Federal Government paid newly graduated medical technologists with a bach elor’s degree a starting salary of about $12,300 a year in 1981. Those having expe rience, superior academic achievement, or a year of graduate study entered at about $15,200. The Federal Government paid medical laboratory assistants and technicians starting salaries ranging from about $9,800 to $12,300 a year in 1981, depending on the amount and type of education and experi ence. Medical technologists in the Federal Government averaged about $17,500 a year, and medical technicians, about $14,700 a year, in 1980. Medical laboratory workers normally re ceive vacation and sick leave benefits; some have retirement plans. Related Occupations Medical laboratory workers perform a wide variety of tests to help physicians diag nose and treat disease. Their principal activ ity is the analysis and identification of substances. Workers in other occupations who perform laboratory tests include biologi cal aides, chemistry technologists, criminal ists, and food testers. Sources of Additional Information Information about education and training for medical technologists, technicians, and laboratory assistants who meet standards rec ognized by the American Medical Associ ation, the U.S. Department of Education, or both, as well as career information on these fields, is available from; American Society for Medical Technology, 330 Meadowfem Drive, Houston, Tex. 77067. American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, Ind. 46514. For information about other technician training programs, contact: International Society for Clinical Laboratory Tech nology, 818 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo. 63101. For a list of training programs for medical technologists, technicians, and assistants that are approved by the American Medical Asso ciation, write: Department of Allied Health Education and Ac creditation, American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610. For a list of training programs for medical laboratory technicians accredited by the Ac crediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, write: Secretary-ABHES, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, Ind. 46514. Information about employment opportuni ties in Veterans Administration hospitals is available from the Office of Personnel (054E), Veterans Administration, Washing ton, D.C. 20420. Information about clinical and research employment opportunities with the National Institutes of Health is available from the Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20205. Medical Record Technicians and Clerks________ (D .O .T. 079.367-014 and 245.362-010) Nature of the Work A medical record documents a patient’s condition and treatment in a hospital, clinic, or other health care institution. Physicians, allied health personnel, hospital adminis trators, public health authorities, and in surance companies rely on these records, which medical record technicians and clerks maintain. Developing and maintaining a medical in formation system for a hospital or other health facility requires the teamwork of medi cal record administrators, technicians, and clerks. The work of medical record adminis trators is described elsewhere in the Hand book. Technicians and clerks do most of the gathering and organizing of medical records. These workers transcribe medical data, ana lyze and code information, File, maintain registries, compile statistics, and abstract records. In large hospitals, a medical administrator supervises and coordinates recordkeeping ac tivities, but in smaller hospitals, experienced medical record technicians often manage the department. In most nursing homes, a medi cal record clerk, working under a medical record consultant who is a Registered Record Administrator (RRA) or an Accredited Rec ord Technician (ART), is responsible for medical records. Medical record clerks perform routine clerical tasks. They assemble information for records in sequence; check all forms, signa tures, and dates; and locate the patient’s pre vious medical records. They code and enter selected information such as sex, age, and referral source on the record. Medical record clerks answer routine requests and gather statistics for reports. Some medical record clerks transcribe reports of operations, X-ray and laboratory examinations, and special treatments given to patients. Medical record technicians perform duties that may need more technical knowledge than record clerks. The technician codes diseases, operations, and special therapies according to recognized classification systems and enters the codes on medical records for easier re view of the patient’s history. Analyzing rec ords and cross-indexing medical information make up a large part of the technician’s work. Technicians review records for consis tency, completeness, and accuracy; they refer incomplete records to the person who com piled them. In response to inquiries from law firms, insurance companies, and government agen cies, technicians gather statistics and prepare periodic reports on types of diseases treated, surgery, and use of hospital beds. They also supervise medical record clerks, prepare spe cial studies for the medical staff and tabulate data from records for research. They may take records to court. Working Conditions Medical record personnel generally work a standard 40-hour week in a comfortable of fice environment within a hospital, nursing home, or other health care facility. Because incorrect or misplaced medical records could affect the health and well-being of a patient, close attention to detail is required. Some aspects of the job are highly repetitive. Employment An estimated 20,000 medical record tech nicians and 35,000 clerks were employed in 1980. Although most technicians and clerks work in hospitals, a growing number are employed in nursing homes, clinics, commu nity health centers, group practices, and health maintenance organizations. To deter mine liability for payment, insurance com panies employ medical record technicians to collect information from patients’ records. Public health departments hire technicians to supervise data collection from health care Health Technologists and Technicians/187 institutions and to assist in research to im prove health care. Manufacturers of medical record systems, services, and equipment also employ medical record personnel to develop and market their products. Some medical record technicians work for small health care facilities on a consultant basis. A few are self-employed providing medical transcription services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to fill technicians positions with graduates of 2-year associate degree programs accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Associ ation in collaboration with the American Medi cal Record Association (AMRA). In 1980, community and junior colleges offered 80 accredited programs. Required courses include biological sciences, medical terminology, medical record science, business management, and data processing. Persons with this training can take the Accredited Record Technician (ART) examination. Those who pass enter as technicians, and can often look forward to more responsible positions. In 1981, there were about 14,000 ART’s. The outlook for technicians with a 2-year associate degree or its equivalent will be ex cellent through the 1980’s. Medical record technicians are likely to need this level of training as the documentation of medical care becomes more specialized and complex. For that reason, jobseekers without formal train ing may experience strong competition as medical record technicians. Opportunities for part-time work will continue. Earnings Earnings of medical record clerks and technicians vary greatly according to locality. Beginning technicians averaged $12,500 in 1980, according to the limited data available. Experienced technicians in hospital record departments averaged about $15,000. Some earned over $23,000 a year. High school graduates who have basic sec retarial skills can enter the medical record field as beginning clerks. About 1 month of on-the-job training will prepare them for rou tine tasks that do not require much special ized skill. Although not required, high school courses in science, health, typing, mathemat ics, and office practice are helpful. The AMRA offers a correspondence course in medical transcription that can be taken either as a home study program or as in-service training. The certificate given upon the successful completion of the course is helpful in applying for a job as a medical record clerk. Knowledge of medical terms and references provides a good foundation for advancement. Medical record clerks with several years’ experience can advance to the technician lev el upon completion of the AMRA Indepen dent Study Program and obtaining 30 credit hours in medical record technology from an accredited college. After completing these requirements, the technician is eligible to take the ART examination for accreditation. Job Outlook Employment of medical record technicians and clerks is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s due to the health care needs of a growing and aging population and the in creased paperwork associated with third-party payments for medical care; greater use of diagnostic procedures; and intensive review and regulation of health care providers. In addition, many openings will occur because of replacement needs. Medical record clerk locates patient’s file. In Federal hospitals, medical record clerks earned a beginning annual salary of about $9,800 in early 1981. Annual salaries of experienced medical record technicians ranged from about $11,000 to $19,000. In 1980, about 1,900 medical record technicians in the Federal Government averaged about $12,500 a year. Outstanding medical record techni cians may work up to higher supervisory positions with corresponding pay increases, although Registered Record Administrators fill most positions. Like most hospital employees, medical record personnel receive paid holidays and vacations, and health, insurance, and retire ment benefits. Related Occupations Medical record technicians and clerks per form a variety of technical and clerical duties 188/Occupational Outlook Handbook including verification, transcription, and fil ing. Other workers with similar duties in clude information clerks, insurance clerks, library technical assistants, medical secre taries, and medical transcriptionists. Sources of Additional Information A list of approved schools for medical record technicians, facts about the correspon dence courses for medical transcription and medical record personnel, and additional de tails about medical record technicians are available from: American Medical Record Association, John Han cock Center, Suite 1850, 875 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Radiologic (X-ray) Technologists (D .O .T. 078.361-018 and .362-026) Nature of the Work Bone fractures, ulcers, blood clots, and brain tumors are just a few of the medical problems that involve the use of X-rays in their treatment, either for diagnosis or ther apy. X-rays of the chest may also be taken during routine medical checkups to detect the presence of lung diseases in the early stages. The people who operate radiologic equipment and take X-ray pictures (also known as radiographs) are called radiologic technologists or radiographers. They usually work under the supervision of radiologists— physicians who specialize in the use of radiographs. Radiologic technologists may work in any of the three specialties within the field of radiologic technology. The most widely known specialty is X-ray technology or radi ography, taking radiographs of parts of the human body for study by a radiologist in diagnosing a patient’s problem. The other two are radiation therapy technology, the use of radiation-producing machines to give therapeutic treatments recommended by radi ologists; and nuclear medicine technology, the application of radioactive material to help radiologists diagnose or treat illnesses or injuries. Before a radiologic technologist can per form any work on a patient, a physician must issue a requisition ordering the work done. Similar to prescriptions for drugs, these req uisitions assure that radiologic technologists treat only people certified as needing such treatment by physicians. Radiologic technologists prepare patients for radiologic examinations, assuring that they remove any articles of clothing, such as belt buckles or jewelry, through which Xrays cannot pass. They then position the pa tients, who either lie on a table or stand, so that the correct parts of the body can be radiographed, always taking care not to ag gravate injuries or make the patients uncom fortable. To prevent unnecessary radiation exposure to unaffected parts, the technologist surrounds the exposed area with radiation protection devices, such as lead shields, or in some way limits the size of the X-ray beam. After the necessary preparations, the tech nologist positions the radiation equipment at the correct angle and height over the appro priate area of a patient’s body. Using instru ments similar to a measuring tape, the technologist measures the thickness of the section to be radiographed. He or she sets the proper controls on the machine, such as those regulating exposure time, to produce radio graphs of the right density, detail, and con trast. The technologist then places a properly identified X-ray film of the correct size under the part of the patient’s body to be examined, and makes the exposure. Afterward, the tech nologist removes the film and develops it for interpretation by a radiologist. Throughout the procedure, the technologist is careful to use only as much radiation as is necessary to obtain a good diagnostic examination. When examining a patient using fluoros copy (watching a patient’s internal body movements on a monitor or screen), the ra diologic technologist prepares a solution of barium sulphate for the patient to drink. As this solution passes through the patient’s di gestive tract, a physician looks for diseases, injuries, or defects in the patient’s digestive system. When fluoroscopic examinations are performed, whether on the digestive tract or on other parts of the body such as chest, heart, or blood vessels, the technologist as sists the physician by preparing and position ing the patient, adjusting the machine, applying the correct exposure, and making any necessary follow-up radiographs. In radiation therapy, which is mainly used for treating cancer, the radiologic technolo gist works under the close supervision of a radiologist. The technologist applies the cor rect amount of radiation for the proper period of time to the affected part of the patient’s body. The technologist also must keep ade quate records of the treatment and is respon sible for the comfort and safety of the patient during the treatment. In nuclear medicine, the radiologic tech nologist also works under the direct supervi sion of a radiologist. The technologist pre pares solutions of radioactive material that, when swallowed by the patient or injected, are absorbed by the patient’s internal organs. Because diseased tissues generally react dif ferently from healthy ones when subjected to radioactive substances, it is possible to trace the development of disease. The tech nologist uses special cameras or scanners that pick up the radioactivity, and operates in struments that measure the intensity of the radioactivity. In addition to the duties involved in oper ating radiologic equipment, radiologic tech nologists may have certain administrative tasks. Technologists prepare and maintain patients ’ records—keeping track of the devel oped film, the date it was taken, and the radiologist’s diagnosis. They also may main tain files, schedule appointments, prepare work schedules and, in general, manage radi ology departments or facilities. Some radiologic technologists are full time instructors in programs of radiologic technology. Working Conditions Radiologic technologists generally work a 40-hour week that may include evening or weekend hours. Technologists are on their feet a lot and may be required to lift or turn disabled patients. There are potential radiation hazards in this field; however, these hazards have been greatly reduced by the use of safety devices such as instruments that measure radiation exposure, lead aprons, gloves, and other shielding. In addition, technologists are trained to protect themselves and their patients. Employment About 106,000 persons worked as radiolo gic technologists in 1980. Of these, approxi mately 15 percent specialized in nuclear medicine or radiation therapy technology. Hospitals employ about three-fourths of all radiologic technologists; most of the remain der work in medical and dental laboratories, and in physicians’ and dentists’ offices or clinics. About 3,000 radiologic technologists are employed by the Federal Government, mainly in the Veterans Administration. Some radiologic technologists work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The general requirement for entry into this field is the completion of a formal education program in radiography. In 1981, the Com mittee on Allied Health Education and Ac creditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Association (AMA) accredited 770 programs in radiography, 148 programs in nuclear medicine technology, and 89 pro grams in radiation therapy technology. These programs, which are usually 2 years in length but which may be part of a 4-year degree curriculum, are offered by hospitals, medical schools, colleges, and universities. Some award a certificate; others lead to associate or bachelor’s degrees. Education also may be obtained in the military services or through courses in radiologic technology offered by vocational or technical schools. While em ployers generally pay graduates of bachelor’s degree programs the same starting salaries as those of 2- and 3-year programs, there is more potential for advancement for those holding the bachelor’s degree. Those plan ning to be educators or administrators should pursue the bachelor’s or master’s degree. All programs accept only high school graduates or the equivalent. Courses in math ematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. Health Technologists and Technicians/189 Radiologic technology programs include courses in anatomy, physiology, patient care procedures, physics, radiation protection, principles of imaging, medical terminology, positioning, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pathology. Registration with the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists is an asset in obtaining highly skilled and specialized posi tions. Registration requirements include graduation from an accredited program of radiography and the satisfactory completion of a written examination. After registration, the title “ Registered Technologist (ARRT)” may be used. Once registered in radiography, technologists may be certified in radiation therapy technology or nuclear medicine tech nology by completing an additional year of combined classroom study and clinical edu cation in either of those disciplines. according to the University of Texas sur vey, and experienced personnel averaged $18,900 a year. Nuclear medicine technolo gists had average earnings of about $15,700 to start and $19,400 after several years of experience. The Federal Government paid new gradu ates of CAHEA-accredited programs of ra diologic technology a starting salary of about $11,000 a year in 1981. In 1980 the Federal Government paid diagnostic radiologic tech nologists average salaries of $14,900 a year; therapeutic radiologic technologists received $15,700 and nuclear medicine technicians, $16,200. Sick leave, vacations, insurance, and other benefits are comparable to those covering other workers in the same organization. Related Occupations Radiologic technologists operate sophisti cated technical equipment to help physi cians, dentists, and other medical practi tioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include dental hygien ists, electrocardiograph technicians, electroencephalographic technologists, and medi cal technologists. Sources of Additional Information For more information about a career in radiologic technology, write: American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 55 E. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, 111. 60604. Department of Allied Health Education and Ac creditation, American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610. Good health, emotional stability, and a sincere desire to work with the sick and disabled are important qualifications for this profession. As openings occur, some experienced technologists in large radiography depart ments may qualify as instructors in radiologic technology or advance to supervisory radiolo gic technologists. Job Outlook Employment in the field of radiologic technology is expected to expand faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, as radiologic equipment is increasing ly used to diagnose and treat disease. Oppor tunities for nuclear medicine technologists and radiation therapy technologists should be especially favorable because of the growing use of nuclear medicine in diagnostic tests and continued research into methods of can cer treatment involving radiation therapy. While job prospects for radiographers are good, overall, there reportedly is a glut in the Northeast and a shortage in the South and the Northwest. Jobseekers should take ac count of these regional differences, which may persist. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for these workers, many openings will occur because of replacement needs. Opportunities for part-time work will be best in physicians’ offices and clinics where full-time radiologic services may not be required. Earnings Starting salaries of radiologic technologists employed in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged about $13,600 a year in 1981, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medi cal Branch. Experienced radiologic technolo gists averaged about $17,400 a year. Workers with more specialized skills generally earn more. Radiation therapy tech nologists started at about $15,300 in 1981, X-ray equipment must be positioned precisely to produce good results. 190/Occupational Outlook Handbook Surgical Technicians (D .O .T. 079.374-022) Nature of the Work Surgical technicians, occasionally called surgical technologists or operating room tech nicians, assist surgeons and anesthesiologists before, during, and after surgery. They work under the supervision of registered nurses or surgical technologist supervisors. They help set up the operating room with the instruments, equipment, sterile linens, and fluids such as glucose that will be needed during an operation. Surgical technicians also may prepare patients for surgery by washing, shaving, and disinfecting body areas where the surgeon will operate. They may transport patients to the operating room and help drape and position them on the operating table. During surgery, they pass instruments and other sterile supplies to the surgeons and the surgeons’ assistants. They hold retractors, cut sutures, and help count the sponges, needles, and instruments used during the operation. Surgical technicians help prepare, care for, and dispose of specimens taken for testing during the operation and help apply dress ings. They may operate sterilizers, lights, suction machines, and diagnostic equipment. After the operation, surgical technicians help transfer patients to the recovery room and assist nurses in cleaning and stocking the operating room for the next operation. Working Conditions Surgical technicians work in clean, welllighted, cool environments. They need stam ina to be on their feet the whole time they are on duty and to pay close attention to operations. Most surgery is performed during the day, but some workplaces, such as emergency sur gery units, require 24-hour coverage. A 40hour, 5-day workweek is normal for surgical technicians, although many are required at times to be “on call” (available to work on short notice). Employment About 31,500 persons worked as surgical technicians in 1980. They worked in hospi tals or other institutions that have operating room, delivery room, and emergency room facilities. Some surgical technicians—often called private scrubs—were employed direct ly by surgeons to assist them during all their operations. Most surgical technicians worked full time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Surgical technicians pass instruments to the surgeon during operations. Currently, nearly all technicians receive their training in vocational and technical schools, hospitals, and community and junior colleges. Most training programs last from 9 months to 1 year; some community college programs, however, last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. High school graduation normally is required for entrance to these programs. Students receive classroom train ing as well as supervised clinical experience. Required courses include anatomy, physiol ogy, and microbiology. Other courses in clude the care and safety of patients during surgery, use of anesthesia and its hazards, and nursing procedures. Students also learn how to sterilize instruments; prevent and con trol infection; and handle special drugs, solu tions, supplies, and equipment. In 1980, there were 87 training programs accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Educa tion and Accreditation. Some surgical technicians are trained on the job, in programs that vary from 6 weeks to 1 year, depending on the trainee’s qualifi cations and the objectives of the training. On-the-job training programs in many hospi tals include classroom as well as clinical in struction. Applicants need a high school education or the equivalent. Some hospitals prefer applicants who have worked as nursing aides or practical nurses. Sometimes other workers in a hospital—for example, medical laboratory workers, radiology technicians, or emergency medical technicians—transfer into this occupation and are trained on the job. Some surgical technicians receive training in the Armed Forces. Regardless of where they are trained, surgical technicians are ex pected to keep abreast of new developments in the field of surgery, such as laser surgery, so they will be able to work with the new equipment and procedures. The Association of Surgical Technologists awards a certificate to surgical technicians who pass a comprehensive written examina tion. A Certified Surgical Technologist Health Technologists and Technicians/191 (CST) is recognized as competent in the field and may be paid a higher salary. Con tinuing education is required to maintain certification. Manual dexterity is a necessity for surgical technicians because they must handle various instruments quickly. They must be conscien tious, orderly, and emotionally stable. In sur gery, there is very little margin for error. High school students interested in careers in this occupation are advised to take courses in health and biology. Some surgical technicians advance to as sistant operating room administrator and as sistant operating room supervisor. Assistant operating room administrators deal with the administrative aspects of running an operat ing room, such as ordering supplies and ar ranging work schedules, while assistant operating room supervisors actually direct other technicians in the operating room. Job Outlook Employment in this field is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. Those factors that will generate very strong demand for other health workers will also spur demand for surgical technicians—namely, population growth and the aging of the population, greater health consciousness, and widespread ability to pay for hospital and surgical care under public and private health insurance programs. Also contributing to the growth in demand for workers in this small occupation is the practice, in some hospitals, of assigning sur gical technicians a greater number of routine operating room tasks. Due to the relaxation of certain government regulations and to cost containment efforts by hospital administra tors, surgical technicians are performing more and more tasks previously handled by operating room nurses. The rate of surgery increased during the 1970’s, with the most pronounced increase in operations occurring among persons 65 years of age and older. The increase in surgery among the elderly may result in part from technological advances that make surgical procedures safer and more effective than they used to be, so that the potential benefits to the elderly patient outweigh the risks. If this trend continues, demand for surgical techni cians will be heightened. In addition to job openings resulting from increased demand for surgical technicians, many openings will occur because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other kinds of work, retire, or die. Graduates of formal training programs or surgical technicians with certification will have the best opportunities for the job open ings that will occur. Persons without these qualifications can expect to face competition for jobs of their choice. ly $14,200 annually. Surgical technicians employed by the Federal Government are classified as Operating Room Nursing Assist ants. Depending on education and experi ence, applicants earned beginning annual sal aries ranging from $8,951 to $16,826 in early 1981. Graduates of formal training programs of ten earn higher salaries than workers without this training. Salaries, reflecting variations in the cost of living, also vary widely by geo graphic location, with those on the East and West Coasts generally higher. Surgical tech nicians directly employed by surgeons tend to earn more than surgical technicians employed by hospitals and similar institutions. Usually, surgical technicians earn about as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Earnings Sources of Additional Information The average starting salary for surgical technicians was about $11,200 a year in 1981, according to a national survey conduct ed by the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. Experienced techni cians earned average salaries of approximate Additional information on a career as a surgical technician, on training programs for the occupation, and on certification is avail able from: Related Occupations Other workers who perform medical ac tivities under supervision are chiropractor as sistants, dental assistants, electrocardiograph technicians, electroencephalographic tech nologists, licensed practical nurses, medical assistants, nursing aides, occupational ther apy assistants, orderlies, and physical therapy aides. Association of Surgical Technologists, Caller No. E, Littleton, Colo. 80120. Writers, Artists, and Entertainers phers, engravers, painting restorers, prop mak ers, silversmiths, decorators, exhibit designers, clothing designers, and furniture designers. tal number of people who worked in these occupations at some time during the year. Table 1. Employment of selected writers, artists, and entertainers, 1980 For writers, language is a ‘‘tool of the trade. ’’ They use the written or spoken word to inform, persuade, or entertain—or to express their own individuality. Poets, playwrights, lyricists, novelists, and short-story writers use language primarily for creative expression. Among those who use language to inform or persuade are journalists, speechwriters, joke writers, script writers, and copywriters. (The work of education writers, medical writers, business writers, and other technical writers is described in another section of the Handbook.) Some people in communications occupations do rela tively little writing. Among them are editors, who revise and coordinate the work of others; proofreaders, who read and correct copy; and literary agents, who appraise and try to get manuscripts published. Radio and television announcers and interpreters rely on the spoken word to do their jobs. Performing artists express themselves through music, drama, or dance. Whereas writers and visual artists can capture a mo ment forever by transferring it to paper or canvas, performing artists express their cre ativity through movement or motion—-in short, through a “performance.” And just as no moment of human life can be lived again, no two live performances are ever exactly the same. Performing artists may use their talent to say something serious or profound about the human condition or they may simply pro vide entertainment. Because communicating with an audience is such an integral part of the performer’s art, stage presence and rap port with an audience are qualities an artist must develop and refine. Actors and ac tresses, singers, dancers, musicians, come dians, magicians, mimes, trapeze artists, gymnasts, and figure skaters are just a few of the many different occupations in the per forming arts. People in design occupations use visual means such as light, space, color, and texture to convey feelings or create a particular effect. They need esthetic sensitivity, color sense, and talent. A fine artist creates a painting or sculp ture primarily to express an emotion or idea. Applied artists create esthetically pleasing ob jects that serve a practical purpose. Working by hand, for the most part, they employ artistic skills and techniques to produce utilitarian ob jects. The design field includes people as di verse as sculptors, graphic artists, commercial artists, sign painters, illustrators, photogra In some of these occupations, particularly those in the performing arts, few jobs offer permanent employment; most are short-term engagements or contracts. With an oversup ply of qualified people vying for work, many writers, artists, and entertainers have to settle for occasional or part-time employment in their chosen field. They work for pay when they can. The rest of the time, they study, practice, and take temporary jobs unrelated to their art—such as waiting on tables or sales clerking. The employment figures in the ac companying table therefore understate the to Creativity, imagination, and talent are pre requisites for a career as a writer, artist, or entertainer. People in these fields use a variety of media to express ideas and emotions, and to describe and interpret the human experience. Occupation Designer .............................................. Instrumental musician ...................... Commercial artist.............................. Writer and editor1 .............................. Photographer....................................... Public relations specialist ............... Reporter and correspondent............. Radio and television announcer . . . A ctor.................................................... Singer .................................................. Dancer.................................................. Film editor ......................................... Music director ................................... Employment 165,000 138,000 120,000 110,000 91,000 87,000 57,000 51,000 21,000 19,000 6,500 4,500 4,000 ‘Wage and salary workers only. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. People who aspire to a creative career need to be realistic about their talent, for that is what counts most in getting a job or establishing a reputation. Practical experience—in local the atrical productions or on a community newspa per, for example—can help in getting started. However, even very talented people must be willing to spend years of their lives mastering a skill and then wait for a ‘‘break”—an opportu nity to perform, to exhibit their work, or to have a manuscript published. Writers, artists, and entertainers need to be flexible enough to cope with job insecurity and willing to live on an irregular income. Job prospects in a number of creative occupations are described in the statements that follow. Communications Occupations The art of communications is as old as humanity. Its importance in modem society becomes apparent when you try to imagine the world without radio, television, newspa pers, magazines, or books. From the earliest discoveries of papermaking techniques to to day’s use of computers that transmit informa tion with hitherto unimagined speed, people have sought ways of recording the events around them and conveying the information to others. Communication is a process that begins when someone observes what is hap pening, analyzes and interprets that informa tion, and transmits it to an audience through a variety of media. The communications field includes a broad range of occupations having to do with re search, writing, editing, and production; it encompasses educational, medical, business, speech, joke, screen, and fiction writing; in terpreting, translating, public relations, ad vertising, and many other specialties. This section of the Handbook describes four of these occupations—newspaper reporters and correspondents, public relations workers, ra dio and television announcers and newscas ters, and writers and editors. Communications occupations require a broad education, with preparation either in the liberal arts and humanities or in a scienti fic or technical field, depending on specific career interest. The intellectual habits ac quired during college are important. Acute powers of observation and the ability to think clearly and logically are necessary traits, be cause people in these jobs need to understand the significance of the events they observe. An excellent command of language—both written and oral—is essential. It is through appropriate choice of words or phrases that writers, for example, get the desired effect from their material. A feeling for language enables reporters and correspondents to breathe life and meaning into events that occur every day. A knack for dramatization through the spoken word makes radio and television announcers and newscasters attrac tive to audiences of all kinds. In addition to a broad education and out standing language skills, people in communi cations jobs may need to be very well informed about a particular subject. Depend ing on the job, they may need to be versed in economics, law, politics, science, engineer ing, computer science, education, music, or sports. They may be called upon to explain legal issues discussed by experts at an inter national conference on the law of the sea; national economic and political events for readers of a small-town newspaper; the latest developments in data communications tech nology for readers of a trade journal; or the history of jazz, classical, bluegrass, or other music featured on a radio show. Communications workers must perform well under pressure. A reporter who submits a story late may delay a newspaper edition, resulting in a loss of newsstand sales. A television announcer who does not react quickly to emergencies on the air can cause the show’s ratings to decline. A public rela tions worker who gives out incorrect infor mation about a company’s operations can damage its public image. Competition for most communications jobs is keen, for the field traditionally attracts many more jobseekers than there are job openings. Some people are attracted by the glamorous image of media jobs—the oppor tunities to meet public figures, to appear be fore nationwide audiences, and to attend special events. This glamorous aspect of the job obscures the hard work most of these jobs entail. Journalists, for example, spend hours every day on the tedious but essential task of making contacts, checking facts, and following leads. Despite the keen competition, jobs will be available through the 1980’s for talented peo ple who have acquired appropriate education and experience. For some, willingness to take a job where one is available—in a small town instead of Los Angeles or New York City—and willingness to start at the bottom may make the difference between success and failure in breaking into the field. After that, a combination of talent, education, mo tivation, imagination, and luck can lead to a rewarding career. Public Relations Workers______ (D.O.T. 165.067-010 and .167-010) Nature of the Work How successfully an organization presents its goals and policies to the public may affect its acceptance, prosperity, and even its con tinued existence. Public relations workers help businesses, governments, universities, and other organizations build and maintain a positive public reputation. Public relations workers apply their talents and skills in many different areas. They may handle press, community, or consumer rela tions, political campaigning, interest-group re presentation, fundraising, or employee recruit ment. Public relations is not only “telling the employer’s story,” however. Understanding the attitudes and concerns of customers, em ployees, and various other “publics”—and communicating this information to manage ment to help formulate policy—is also an important part of the job. In improving com munication, public relations workers promote understanding and cooperation among the di verse groups that make up our society. Public relations departments are found in a variety of organizations, and workers must tailor their programs to an employer’s par ticular needs. A public relations director of a college or university, for example, may spend most of the time recruiting a student body, while one in a large corporation may work with stockholders, government agen cies, and community groups. Public relations workers put together infor mation that keeps the public aware of their organization’s policies, activities, and accom plishments, and keeps management aware of public attitudes. After preparing the informa tion, they may contact people in the media who might be interested in printing, televis ing, or broadcasting their material. Many radio or television announcements, special reports, newspaper items, and magazine arti cles start at public relations workers’ desks. Sometimes the subject is a company and its policies towards its employees or its role in the community. Often the subject is a public issue, such as health, nutrition, energy, or the environment. Public relations workers also arrange and conduct programs in which company repre sentatives will have direct contact with the public. Such work includes setting up speak ing engagements and helping prepare speech es for company officials. These workers often represent employers at community pro jects or occasionally may show films at school assemblies, plan conventions, or man age fundraising campaigns. Public relations staff members in very large firms may number 200 or more, but in most firms the number is much smaller. The director of public relations, who is often a vice president of the company, may develop overall plans and policies with a top manage ment executive. In addition, large public re lations departments employ writers, research workers, and other specialists who prepare material for the different media, stock holders, and other groups the company wish es to reach. Workers who handle publicity for an indi vidual or direct public relations for a universi ty, small business, or nonprofit organization may handle all aspects of the job. They con tact people outside the organization, do the necessary planning and research, and prepare material for publication. These workers may combine public relations duties with advertis ing or sales promotion work; they may be top level officials or in more junior positions. The most skilled public relations work of making 193 194/Occupational Outlook Handbook Extracurricular activities such as writing for a school publication or television or radio station provide valuable experience. Many schools help students gain part-time or sum mer internships in public relations which pro vide training that can help in competing for entry positions. Membership in the Public Relations Student Society of America pro vides an opportunity for students to exchange views with public relations workers and to make professional contacts that may be help ful later in securing a full-time job in the field. A portfolio of published articles, tele vision or radio programs, slide presentations, and other work samples usually is an asset in finding a job. Public relations workers tailor their programs to meet the company’s needs. overall plans and maintaining contacts usual ly is done by the department director and highly experienced staff members. Working Conditions Although the workweek for public rela tions staffs generally is 35 to 40 hours, schedules may be rearranged because public relations programs operate against deadlines. Preparing and delivering speeches, attending meetings and community activities, and outof-town travel may all be a part of the public relations worker’s routine. Thus, any of their regular assignments or special events may require workers to be at the job or “on call” around the clock. Employment About 87,000 persons were public rela tions workers in 1980. Manufacturing firms, public utilities and transportation companies, insurance companies, and trade and profes sional associations employ many of them. A sizable number work for government agen cies (the Federal Government alone employs several thousand public information special ists), or for schools, colleges, museums, and other educational, religious, and human ser vice organizations. The rapidly expanding health field also offers opportunities for pub lic relations work, in hospitals, pharmaceuti cal companies, and medical associations, for example. Many workers are employed by public relations consulting firms which fur nish services to clients for a fee. Some work for advertising agencies. Public relations workers are concentrated in large cities where press services and other communications facilities are readily avail able, and where many businesses and trade associations have their headquarters. Many public relations consulting firms, for example, are in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. A trend, however, is the dispersal of public relations jobs throughout the Nation, including smaller towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college education combined with public relations experience is excellent preparation for public relations work. Although most be ginners have a college degree in journalism, communications, or public relations, some employers prefer a background in a field related to the firm’s business—science, fi nance, or engineering, for example. Some firms seek college graduates who have worked for the news media. In fact, many editors, reporters, and workers in closely re lated fields enter public relations work. In 1980, about 90 colleges and 25 graduate schools offered degree programs or special curriculums in public relations, usually ad ministered by the journalism or communica tions department. In addition, about 200 colleges offered at least one course in this field. Typical courses include public relations theory and techniques, organizational com munication, public relations management and administration, and practical courses in pub lic relations. Specialties are offered in public relations in business, government, and non profit organizations. Courses in advertising, journalism, business administration, political science, communications, psychology, and creative writing also help in preparing for a career in public relations. Persons who have a bachelor's degree in public relations or a related field generally enter staff positions whereas those with a graduate degree in pub lic relations are more qualified for adminis trative and managerial jobs. Public relations workers spend much time gathering information. Creativity, initiative, and the ability to express thoughts clearly and simply are important to the public rela tions worker. Fresh ideas are so vital in public relations that some experts spend all their time developing new ideas. People who choose public relations as a career need an outgoing personality, selfconfidence, and an understanding of human psychology. They should have the enthusi asm to motivate people. The ability to be competitive but function as part of a team are important qualifications. Public information positions in the Federal Government generally require a college de gree. Media, writing, or editing experience may help in gaining such a position. Re quirements for similar positions in State and local governments vary. Some companies—particularly those with large public relations staffs—have formal training programs for new employees. In oth er firms, new employees work under the guidance of experienced staff members. Be ginners often maintain files of material about company activities, scan newspapers and magazines for appropriate articles to clip, and assemble information for speeches and pam phlets. After gaining experience, they work on more difficult assignments, such as writ ing press releases, speeches, and articles for publication. In some firms, workers get all round experience whereas in other firms they specialize. Promotion to supervisory jobs may come as workers show they can handle more de manding and creative assignments. Some ex perienced public relations workers start their own consulting firms. The Public Relations Society of America accredits public relations workers who have at least 5 years’ experience in the field and have passed a comprehensive 6-hour exami nation (4 hours written, 2 hours oral). Em ployers consider professional recognition through such accreditation a sign of compe tence in this field. Job Outlook Employment of public relations workers is expected to increase about as fast as the Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/195 average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to new jobs resulting from growth in demand for these workers, openings will occur each year as workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Demand for public relations workers may slacken as employers delay expansion or cut their staff during business slowdowns, but over the long run, corporations, associations, health facilities, and other large organizations are expected to maintain or expand their pub lic relations staffs. Competition for beginning jobs is keen, for the glamour and excitement of public relations attract large numbers of jobseekers, including those who wish to transfer from newspaper, advertising, and closely related jobs. Prospects for a career in public relations are best for highly qualified applicants—tal ented people with sound academic prepara tion and some media experience. Most openings for beginners are expected to occur in such organizations as corporations, public relations consulting firms, manufacturing firms, health facilities, and others. Earnings Starting salaries for college graduates be ginning in public relations work generally ranged from $10,000 to $13,000 a year in 1980; persons with a graduate degree often started at a higher salary. The salaries of experienced workers gener ally are highest in large organizations with extensive public relations programs. Accord ing to a 1981 survey, the median annual salary of top level public relations workers was $38,000. Median annual salaries ranged from about $30,000 in hospitals to $50,000 in public relations consulting firms. In the Federal Government, bachelor’s de gree holders generally started at $15,200 a year in early 1981; master’s degree holders generally started at $18,600 a year; additional education or experience could qualify appli cants for a higher salary. Public information specialists in the Federal Government aver aged about $29,000 a year in 1980. field, salaries, and other items is available from: Dudley House, P.O. Box 600, Ex eter, N.H. 03833. P R R e p o r te r , Additional information on job opportuni ties and the public relations field in general may be purchased for $1 from: Service Department, P u b lic R e la tio n s N e w s , 127 East 80th St., New York, N.Y. 10021. Radio and Television Announcers and Newscasters_______ (D .O .T 131.067-010, .267-010, and -018, and 159.147-010) Nature of the Work Announcers and newscasters are the most familiar of the many occupations in radio and television broadcasting. At radio stations, most announcers are disc jockeys. They in troduce recorded music; present news, sports, weather, and commercials; interview guests; and report on community activities and other matters of interest to the audience. Often they “ ad-lib” much of the commentary. In small stations, they may operate the control board, sell commercial time to advertisers, and write commercial and news copy. Many radio stations also have news reporters who broadcast directly from the scene. Announcers (D.O.T. 159.147-010) at tele vision stations and large radio stations often specialize in a particular kind of program ming such as sports events, general news broadcasts, or weather reports. They must be thoroughly familiar with these areas and, if a written script is required, may do the re search and writing. Television news broadcasting requires spe cialized “ on-camera” personnel—anchors, television news reporters, and broadcast news analysts. In large news operations, such as those of stations in major cities or originating at a national network, all three often take part in the news broadcast. The news anchor, or a pair of co-anchors, presents the day’s important news stories. Throughout the broadcast, the anchors, sometimes called newscasters (D .O .T . 131.267- 010), introduce films and interviews prepared by news reporters (D .O .T . 131.267- 018) that provide in-depth informa tion on the event being covered. Radio and television broadcast news ana lysts (D.O.T. 131.067-010), called com mentators, also discuss current news stories, but normally interpret them or discuss how specific events may affect the Nation or us personally. Frequently a smaller television station em ploys only a news anchor who reads accounts of the day’s stories and introduces back ground reports provided by the networks or by a television news service. Announcers frequently partipate in com munity activities. A sports announcer, for example, might be the master of ceremonies at a touchdown club banquet or greet custom ers at the opening of a new sporting goods store. Some announcers become well-known and highly paid personalities. Working Conditions Announcers and newscasters usually work in well-lighted, air-conditioned, soundproof studios. However, when broadcasting from the site of a fire, flood, or other emergency situation, newscasters may face some haz ards. Injuries are uncommon and can be avoided by using basic safety equipment and Related Occupations Public relations workers develop and dis tribute persuasive material in order to create a favorable public reputation. Other workers with similar jobs include fundraisers, account executives, lobbyists, promotion managers, advertising managers, and police officers in volved in community relations. Sources of Additional Information Career information and a list of schools accredited by the Public Relations Society of America and the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Commu nications are available for $1 from: Career Information, Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 845 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. Current information on the public relations Radio announcers often operate the control board. 196/Occupational Outlook Handbook following the instructions of fire and police officials at the scene. Working within a tight schedule requires split-second timing and can be physically and mentally demanding. Those who enjoy the work, however, feel that the intangible re wards—creative work, many personal con tacts, and the satisfaction of becoming well known in the area their station serves—far outweigh the disadvantages of irregular and often unpredictable hours, work pressures, and disrupted personal lives. Employment About 51,000 persons worked as radio and television announcers and newscasters in 1980. In addition to staff announcers, some freelance announcers sell their services for individual assignments to networks and sta tions, or to advertising agencies and other independent producers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry to this profession is highly competi tive. While formal training in a college or technical school is valuable, station officials pay particular attention to taped auditions that present samples of an applicant’s delivery and—in television—appearance and style on commercials, news, interviews, and other copy. College graduates and others hired by television stations usually start out as produc tion assistants, researchers, or reporters and are given a chance to move into announcing if they show an aptitude for broadcasting. Announcers must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, good timing, and ex cellent pronunciation. Correct English usage and a knowledge of dramatics, sports, music, and current events improve chances for suc cess. Good judgment and the ability to react quickly in emergencies are important because announcers may be required to “ ad-lib” all or part of a show. A neat, pleasing appearance is essential, of course, for television an nouncers and news broadcasters,. The most successful announcers combine an appealing personality with poise to win the following of large audiences. High school courses in English, public speaking, dramatics, foreign languages, and electronics, plus sports and music hobbies, are valuable background for prospective an nouncers. A liberal arts education provides an excellent background for an announcer, and many universities offer courses of study in the broadcasting field. Students at these institutions also may gain valuable exper ience by supplementing their courses with part-time work at the campus radio station and summer work at local stations, filling in for vacationing staff members. A number of private broadcasting schools offer training in announcing. Persons considering enrolling in any school, whether public or private, that offers training for a broadcasting career should contact the personnel managers of radio and television stations, broadcasting trade organizations, and the Better Business Bureau in their area to determine the school’s performance in pro ducing suitably trained candidates. Announcers generally get their first broad casting jobs in a small station. Because an nouncers in small radio stations sometimes operate transmitters, prospective announcers often obtain a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restricted radiotelephone operator permit. This qualifies them to be come involved in the routine operation of radio transmitters and makes them much more useful to these stations. Of course, employers may be even more attracted to those who have a general radiotelephone op erator license. (For additional information on licensure, see the statement on broadcast technicians elsewhere in the Handbook. Announcers usually work in several differ ent stations in the course of their careers. After acquiring experience at a station in a small community, an ambitious and talented announcer may move to a better paying job in a large city. An announcer also may ad vance by hosting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. In the national networks, competition for jobs is particularly intense, and announcers often must be college graduates and have several years of successful announcing experience before they are given an audition. Job Outlook Competition for beginning jobs as an nouncers and newscasters will be very keen through the 1980’s. The broadcasting field will continue to attract many more jobseekers than there are jobs. It will be easier to get a job in radio than in television because more radio stations hire beginners. These jobs gen erally will be located in small stations, how ever, and the pay will be relatively low. Because competition for ratings is so intense in major metropolitan areas, large radio and television stations will continue to seek high ly experienced announcers and newscasters who have proven that they can attract a large audience. Employment of announcers and newscast ers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as new radio and television stations are licensed. Additional jobs will become available as more cable television stations begin their own programming. Employment of radio announcers may not keep pace with the increase in the number of stations, how ever, because of the increased use of auto matic programming equipment. Some jobs in this relatively small occupation will result from the need to replace experienced an nouncers who die, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Over the years, em ployment in this occupation has not been significantly affected by downturns in the economy. When poor business conditions and decreasing advertising revenues have forced employment reductions, radio and television stations generally have cut back the number of production and “ behind-thescenes” workers, rather than reduce the num ber of announcers and broadcasters. Earnings In 1980, announcers generally started at $150 to $160 a week in small stations, ac cording to the limited information available. Earnings among experienced announcers were much higher, and some well-known announcers in major metropolitan areas earned extremely high salaries. As a rule, salaries increase with the size of the commu nity and the station, and salaries in television are higher than those in radio. Announcers employed by educational broadcasting sta tions generally earn less than those who work for commercial stations. Most announcers in large stations work a 40-hour week and receive overtime pay for additional hours. Many announcers in small stations work a considerable amount of over time. Working hours consist of both time on the air and time spent in preparing for broad casts. Evening, night, weekend, and holiday duty occurs frequently since many stations broadcast 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Related Occupations The success of radio and television an nouncers and news broadcasters is largely dependent upon their ability to speak effec tively to their audiences. Others for whom oral communications skills are vital are inter preters, narrators, sales workers, public rela tions workers, and dramatic and comedy performers. Sources of Additional Information For a list of schools that offer programs and courses in broadcasting, contact: Broadcast Education Association, NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. 1771 N St. For information on FCC licensure, write to: Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20552. Reporters and Correspondents (D .O .T . 131.267-018) Nature of the Work Reporters and correspondents play an im portant role in American society. They gather information and write stories that inform us about local, State, and national events; present differing points of view on current issues; and monitor the actions of public officials and others who exercise power. In covering a story, they may do background research, re view public records, and interview a variety of people. As a rule, reporters take notes or use a tape recorder while collecting facts and write their stories upon returning to the office. In order to meet deadlines, however, they some times telephone their information or stories to Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/197 rewriters who write or transcribe the stories for them. Most reporters and correspondents work for newspapers. Large daily papers frequent ly assign teams of reporters to investigate social, economic, or political conditions and other reporters to specific locations or “beats,” such as police stations or the courts, to gather news originating in these places. General assignment reporters write up local news, such as a story about a school board meeting or an obituary of a community lead er. Many newspaper, magazine, and wire service reporters with a background or inter est in a particular subject analyze and inter pret the news in specialized fields such as medicine, politics, foreign affairs, sports, fashion, art, theater, consumer affairs, travel, finance, social events, science, education, business, labor, and religion. Critics review restaurants and movies as well as literary, artistic, and musical works and live perfor mances while editorial writers present view points on topics of public interest. Newspapers, magazines, and wire services frequently station reporters known as corre spondents in large cities as well as in other countries to prepare stories on major news events occurring in these locations. Reporters on small newspapers cover all aspects of local news, and also may take photographs, write headlines, lay out pages, edit wire ser vice copy, and write editorials. On some small weeklies, they also may solicit adver tisements, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. Reporters spend much of their time checking out leads. Working Conditions ers worked for magazines, wire services, and in radio and television broadcasting. The work of reporters and correspondents is usually hectic. They are under pressure to meet deadlines and most work under the most trying conditions. In the office, they must contend with loud conversation and the confusion of people constantly on the go. Some assignments covering wars, political uprisings, fires, floods, and other events may be dangerous. Working hours vary by type of publica tion. Reporters working for morning papers usually work from late afternoon until mid night. Those with afternoon or evening pa pers generally work from early morning until early or midaftemoon. Although magazine reporters often can schedule their work dur ing the day, all reporters may have to change their work hours to meet a deadline or to update an earlier report because of late break ing developments. Their work may demand long hours, irregular schedules, and some travel. Foreign correspondents often work late at night to send news to papers in time for printing. Employment About 57,000 persons worked as reporters and correspondents in 1980. Four of every five worked for newspapers, either large city daily papers or daily or weekly papers in suburban communities and small towns. Oth Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most editors prefer graduates who have a degree in journalism, which includes training in the liberal arts along with professional training in journalism. Some editors consider a liberal arts degree sufficient. A few prefer applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in liberal arts and a master’s degree in journal ism. High school courses that are important include English, journalism, social studies, and typing. In 1980, the vast majority of journalism graduates who landed jobs on newspapers, magazines, or with news wire services pre pared specifically for news work by majoring in news-editorial journalism. Bachelor’s degree programs in journalism are available in about 240 colleges. About three-fourths of the courses in a typical un dergraduate journalism curriculum are in lib eral arts. Required journalism courses include introductory mass media, basic re porting and copy editing, history of journal ism, and press law and ethics. Other journalism courses are elected in the student’s specific area of interest. About 350 community and junior colleges offer journalism courses or programs. Credit earned may be transferable to 4-year college programs in journalism. Some junior colleges also offer programs especially designed to prepare the student directly for employment as a general assignment reporter. However, such graduates find it increasingly difficult to compete with graduates of 4-year programs. The Armed Forces also provide some train ing in journalism. A master’s degree in journalism was of fered by about 70 schools in 1980; about 20 schools offered the Ph.D. degree. Some graduate programs are intended primarily as preparation for news careers, while others concentrate on preparing journalism teachers, researchers and theorists, and advertising and public relations workers. Liberal arts courses useful to persons pre paring for a reporting career include English courses with an emphasis on writing, sociolo gy, political science, economics, history, psy chology, computer science, business, and speech. The ability to read and speak a foreign language also is desirable. Those who aspire to reporting in a specialized field—science or finance, for example—should concentrate on course work in those subject areas. Typing skill is essential because reporters type their own news stories. Also, familiarity with a typewriter keyboard is important be cause a growing number of reporters work where computerized word-processing equip ment is used for writing and editing stories. The ability to take shorthand also is useful. 198/Occupational Outlook Handbook Often, a knowledge of news photography is valuable. The Newspaper Fund and individual news papers and magazines offer summer intern ships that provide college students with an opportunity to perform a variety of basic reporting or editing duties. Experience ac quired through such internships helps im measurably in job placement after gradua tion. In addition, more than 3,000 journalism scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships were awarded to college journalism students by universities, newspapers, foundations, and professional organizations in 1979. News reporting involves a great deal of responsibility, because what a reporter writes frequently influences the opinion of the read ing public. Reporters should be dedicated to serving the public’s need for accurate and impartial news. Although reporters work as part of a team, they have an opportunity for self-expression. The ability to present facts and opinions clearly and succinctly is essen tial for success in this field. Accuracy and objectivity are equally important, because un true or libelous statements can lead to costly lawsuits. Important personal characteristics include a ‘‘nose for news, ’’ curiosity, persistence, initia tive, poise, resourcefulness, an accurate mem ory, and the physical stamina and emotional stability to deal with pressing deadlines, irregu lar hours, and sometimes dangerous assign ments. Because some assignments lead reporters to unfamiliar places, they must be able to adapt to strange surroundings and feel at ease around a variety of people. Some who compete for full-time reporter jobs find it is helpful to have had experience as a “ stringer”—a part-time reporter who covers the news in a particular area of the community and is paid on the basis of the stories printed. High school and college newspapers, and church or community news letters also provide writing and editing exper ience that may be helpful in getting a job. Most beginners start with small publica tions as general assignment reporters or copy editors. A few outstanding journalism gradu ates are hired by large city papers and nation al magazines, but this is the exception rather than the rule. Large employers generally re quire several years of reporting experience. Beginning reporters are assigned duties such as reporting on civic and club meetings, summarizing speeches, writing obituaries, in terviewing important visitors to the commu nity, and covering police court proceedings. As they gain experience, they may report more important events, cover an assigned “beat,” or specialize in a particular field. Reporters may advance to reporting for larger papers or press services. However, competition for such positions is keen and news executives receive many applications from highly qualified reporters every year. Some experienced reporters become columnists, cor respondents, editorial writers, editors, or top executives; these positions represent the top of the field and competition for them is ex tremely keen. Other reporters transfer to re lated fields such as public relations or preparing copy for radio and television news programs. Job Outlook Employment of reporters and correspon dents is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. This growth will come about because of an increase in the number of smalltown and suburban daily and weekly newspapers. For the most part, little or no increase is anticipated in the number of big city dailies, although some of them may increase the size of their reporting staffs. Magazines and radio and television broadcasting should continue to provide a significant number of jobs, but major news magazines and large radio and television stations primarily seek only exper ienced reporters. In addition to the openings that result from employment growth, open ings will arise from the need to replace re porters who die, retire, transfer to other fields of work, or leave the profession for other reasons. Overall, graduates who have majored in news-editorial journalism and completed an internship while in school should have the best prospects for reporting jobs. Most edi tors prefer to hire the top graduates of accre dited programs. Talented writers who can handle highly specialized scientific or techni cal subjects will be at an advantage on the job market. Small newspapers often look for beginning reporters who are acquainted with the community and who can help with pho tography and other aspects of newspaper pro duction. Persons without at least a bachelor’s degree in journalism will face increasingly stiff competition for entry level positions. Newspapers and magazines located in small towns and suburban areas are expected to continue to offer the most opportunities for beginning reporters. Journalism graduates who are willing to relocate and start at rela tively low salaries are likely to find reporting jobs on these newspapers. Openings arise on small publications as reporters gain exper ience and move up to editorial positions, or transfer to reporting jobs on larger newspa pers and magazines. Competition for reporting jobs on large metropolitan newspapers and national maga zines will be keen. Most of these employers require experience and do not ordinarily hire new graduates. Sometimes, however, new graduates find jobs on major publications be cause they have credentials in an area for which the paper has a pressing need. Occa sionally, the experience and contacts gained through an internship program or summer job lead to a reporting job directly after graduation. Because enrollments in journalism educa tion programs are expected to rise through the 1980’s, college teaching opportunities are expected to be good for qualified appli cants—generally, Ph.D.’s with practical re porting experience. Some highly qualified re porters with a master’s degree will find teach ing positions in journalism departments of colleges and junior colleges. This favorable outlook for journalism educators contrasts with the generally bleak prospect for college faculty in many other academic disciplines. Employment of reporters and correspon dents generally is not cut back sharply during slack economic periods, but when business conditions force publishers to reduce spend ing, new hiring may be temporarily slowed or even halted. College graduates who have majored in journalism also have the background for work in such closely related fields as adver tising and public relations. Every year, a substantial number of journalism graduates take media jobs in these fields. Other gradu ates accept sales, managerial, and other non media positions, while still others continue their training and then find jobs in fields such as law, business, public administration, and political science. Earnings Reporters working for daily newspapers and magazines having contracts negotiated by the Newspaper Guild had starting salaries ranging from about $165 to $587 a week in 1980. The majority earned between $225 and $300 a week. Reporters having 4 or 5 years of exper ience averaged $406 a week in early 1980. Virtually all experienced reporters earned over $300 a week while the top contractual salary was $616 a week. A number of top reporters on big city dailies earned even more, on the basis of merit. In general, earn ings of reporters are above the average earn ings of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Most newspaper reporters generally work a 5-day, 35- or 40-hour week and receive extra pay for overtime work. Benefits may vary widely according to length of service and the size and location of the newspapers. Most reporters, however, receive benefits such as paid vacations, group insurance, and pension plans. Related Occupations Reporters and correspondents must write clearly and effectively to succeed in their profession. Others for whom writing ability is essential include technical writers, adver tising copy writers, public relations workers, educational writers, fiction writers, biogra phers, screen writers, and editors. Sources of Additional Information Career information, including pamphlets entitled “ Your Future in Daily Newspapers” and “ Facts about Newspapers,” is available from: American Newspaper Publishers Association Foundation, The Newspaper Center, Box 17407, Dulles International Airport, Washington, D.C. 20041. Information on careers in journalism, col- Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/199 leges and universities that offer degree pro grams in journalism or communications, and journalism scholarships and internships may be obtained from: The Newspaper Fund, Inc., P.O. Box 300, Princeton, N.J. 08540. For a list of junior and community colleges offering programs in journalism, contact: National Community College Journalism Associ ation, San Antonio College, 1300 San Pedro Ave nue, San Antonio, Tex. 78284. Information on union wage rates for news paper and magazine reporters is available from: The Newspaper Guild, Research and Information Department, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D C. 20005. For a list of schools with accredited pro grams in their journalism departments, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: Accrediting Council on Education for Journalism and Mass Communication, School of Journalism, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. 65205. For general information about careers in journalism, contact: Association For Education in Journalism, Univer sity of South Carolina School of Journalism, Co lumbia, S.C. 29208. “ Careers in Communications,” a booklet providing information on opportunities for women in newspaper reporting and other communications fields is available from: material to be used, and finally put it into words that will convey it to the reader with the desired effect. Writers often revise or rewrite sections searching for the best organization of the material or just the right phrasing. Newswriters—writers employed by newspapers and radio and television news departments—write news items for inclusion in newspapers or news broadcasts. Starting with information supplied by reporters or wire services, they write news stories or scripts for newscasters. Editors frequently do some writing and almost always do much rewriting, but their primary duties are to plan the contents of the publication and to supervise its preparation. They decide what will appeal to readers, assign topics to writers, and oversee the pro duction of the book, magazine, or newspa per. In small organizations, one editor has full responsibility for the publication. In larg er ones, an executive editor oversees the ac tivities of associate or assistant editors who have responsibility for particular subjects, such as fiction, international news, or sports. Administrative duties of editors include hir ing and firing writers and other employees, planning budgets, negotiating contracts with freelance writers, and general managerial du ties. In broadcasting companies, program, di rectors have responsibilities comparable to those of editors. Editors and program directors are often helped by assistants who may have the title of assistant editor, editorial assistant, copy editor, or production assistant. Many of these assistants hold entry level jobs. They review copy for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. They check manuscripts for reada bility, style, and agreement with editorial policy. They add and rearrange sentences to improve clarity or delete incorrect and unnec essary material. Editorial assistants also per form research for writers and verify facts, dates, and statistics. They may help prepare material for publication or broadcast by ar ranging page layouts of articles, photographs, and advertising or by planning the use of films. They may also compose headlines, prepare copy for typesetters, and proofread the printer’s galleys. Some editorial assistants read and evaluate manuscripts submitted by freelance writers or answer letters about pub lished or broadcast material. Production as sistants clip stories that come over the wire services’ printers, answer phones, and make copies of material for news writers, editors, and program directors. Working Conditions Working conditions for writers and editors vary with the kind of publication they work on and the kind of articles they produce. Iff; Women In Communications, Inc., P.O. Box 9561, Austin, Tex. 78766. Names and locations of newspapers and a list of schools and departments of journalism are published in the Editor and Publisher International Year Book, available in most public libraries and newspaper offices. Writers and Editors (D.O.T. 131 except .067-030 and -034; .087-014; .267-010, -018, -022, and -026; 132.) Nature of the Work Writers and editors communicate through the written word. Writers develop original fiction and nonfiction prose for books, maga zines, trade journals, newspapers, technical studies and reports, company newsletters, ra dio and television broadcasts and advertise ments. Editors supervise writers and select and prepare material for publication or broad casting. Two specialized types of writers— technical writers and newspaper reporters and correspondents—are described elsewhere in the Handbook. Writers start by selecting a topic or being assigned one by an editor. They then gather information on the topic through personal observation, library research, and interviews. Sometimes the information gathered may cause writers to change the focus to a related topic that is more interesting. From the infor mation gathered they select and organize the Editorial assistants prepare material for publication by arranging page layouts. 200/Occupational Outlook Handbook Most work independently. Some work in comfortable, private offices; others work in noisy rooms filled with the sound of typing and other writers tracking down information over the telephone. The search for informa tion sometimes requires travel and visits to diverse workplaces, such as factories, of fices, the ballpark, or the theater, but many have to be content with telephone interviews and the library. The workweek usually runs 35 to 40 hours. Night and weekend work is required of those who prepare morning or weekend publications and broadcasts. Some workers must also put in overtime to meet deadlines or to cover a late-developing story. The more frequently the publication is issued, the more frequent the deadlines and the greater the pressure to meet them. Employment In 1980, 110,000 people earned salaries as writers or editors. Nearly 40 percent worked for newspapers, magazines, and book pub lishers. Substantial numbers also worked on journals and newsletters published by busi ness and non-profit organizations, such as professional associations, labor unions, and religious organizations. Others wrote and edited advertising and public relations materi als for advertising agencies, public relations firms, and large corporations. Some also worked in radio and television broadcasting; others developed publications for Federal, State, and local governments. Persons who write and edit for major book publishers, magazines, broadcasting compan ies, advertising agencies and public relations firms, and the Federal Government tended to be concentrated in large cities like New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Phila delphia, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. More widely dispersed throughout the country, on the other hand, were those who work for newspapers; corporations; and pro fessional, religious, business, technical, and trade union magazines or journals. Thousands of other persons worked as freelancers—earning some income from their articles, books and, less commonly, televi sion and movie scripts. Most supported themselves primarily with income from other sources. Training. Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal educational requirements for writ ing and editing jobs vary. A college degree is required by many employers, but there is little agreement as to the preferred major. Some employers look for a broad liberal arts background or a major in literature, history, philosophy, or one of the social sciences. Others prefer to hire people with degrees in communication sjor journalism. Some jobs, such as technical writing, require a degree in a specialized field—engineering, business, or one of the sciences, for example. Whatever their educational backgrounds, writers and editors must be able to express ideas clearly and logically. Creativity, intel lectual curiosity, a broad range of knowl edge, self-motivation, and perseverance are also valuable assets. For some jobs, the abili ty to concentrate amid confusion and to pro duce under pressure is essential. Since writing requires research, writers must be familiar with research techniques. Editors must have good judgment in deciding what material to accept and what to reject. They must also have tact and the ability to guide and encourage others in their work. All prospective writers need practical writ ing experience. High school and college news papers, literary magazines, and small community newspapers and radio stations all provide valuable—but sometimes unpaid— experience. Many magazines, newspapers, and radio and TV stations have summer in ternships in which students can learn about the publishing and broadcasting business. Interns might run errands, answer phones, conduct some research and interviews, or even write short pieces, depending on the employer. Advancement for writers and editors de pends, in part, on the size of the organization for which they work. In small firms, begin ning writers and editors may do a little bit of everything, not only working as editorial or production assistants but also writing or edit ing material right away. They often advance by moving to other firms, so turnover among beginning writers and editors is high. In larg er firms, jobs are usually structured more formally. Persons in entry level positions generally do research, fact checking, or copy editing. They take on full-scale writing or editing duties less rapidly than do the em ployees of small companies. Advancement comes as they are assigned more important articles to write or edit. Job Outlook Employment of writers and editors is ex pected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Growth in the employment of writers and editors will largely depend on the growth of the industries that employ these workers. Employment of salaried writers and editors by newspapers, periodicals, book publishers, and nonprofit organizations—including re search agencies and religious, business, pro fessional, and civic associations—is expected to increase with growing demand for their publications. Growth of advertising and pub lic relations agencies should also be a source of new jobs. Besides jobs created by in creased demand for writers and editors, many job openings will occur as experienced work ers in this field transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Employment in radio and television broad casting is expected to increase much faster than the average through the 1980’s. In the past decade, there has been a huge upsurge in the number of FM radio and educational TV stations. In the future, increased use of cable television and of television sets that receive news directly from servicing companies may have an important impact on the employment of writers and editors. Each year, thousands of young people with college degrees in English, journalism, com munications, and the liberal arts seek writing and editing jobs. Many end up in other occu pations because the number of people quali fied to work as writers and editors greatly exceeds the number of positions available, despite the high turnover in these occupations. Throughout the 1980’s, the outlook for writing and editing jobs is expected to continue to be keenly competitive. Opportunities will be best in firms that prepare business and trade publi cations and in technical writing. Persons con sidering careers in writing and editing should keep their options open because the job market in this field is very competitive. Academic preparation in a field unrelated to writing may prove useful to some people, either to qualify them as writers specializing in that field, or to qualify them for a job in the field itself in the event that they are unable to get a salaried writing job. Earnings In 1980, beginning salaries for writers and editorial assistants ranged from $12,000 to $16,000 annually, according to surveys by the American Management Associations. Salaries for experienced writers and research ers generally ranged between $18,000 and $26,000 a year, depending on their qualifica tions and the size of the publication on which they work. Experienced editors generally earned between $17,000 and $31,000 a year; supervisory editors, $22,000 to $34,000 a year. Senior editors on large circulation newspa pers and magazines earn over $50,000 per year. Many writers and editors supplement their salaried income by doing freelance work. Writers and editors employed by the Fed eral Government earned an average of $24,000 a year in 1980. Related Occupations Writers and editors communicate ideas and information to individuals for their education and entertainment. Other communications occupations include technical writers, news paper reporters and correspondents, radio and television announcers, advertising and public relations workers, and teachers of journalism. Sources of Additional Information For information on writing and editing ca reers in the field of communications, contact: Women in Communications, Inc., P.O. Box 9561, Austin, Texas 78766. For a journalism career and scholarship guide, contact: The Newspaper Fund, Inc., P.O. Box 300, Princeton, N.J. 08540. For information on college internships in magazine editing, contact: American Society of Magazine Editors, 575 Lex ington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. Design Occupations People in design occupations are applied artists. They design products, plan and ex ecute window and interior displays, illustrate publications, and compose and take photo graphs. They are concerned with the function and appearance of articles for everyday use as well as with the places in which people live and work. Good design means creating objects and environments which not only serve their purpose well but are also pleasing to the eye. Pleasant surroundings can boost our spirits and productivity, and products and packaging that are designed for ‘‘eye appeal ’’ are likely to attract buyers. Manufacturers, retail and wholesale trade establishments, ad vertising agencies, printing and publishing firms, and television and motion picture stu dios employ these people. Many are selfemployed, working in their own art studios. Applied artists design a variety of products, settings, and advertisements as well as oversee the work of other artists or craft workers who produce or install them. Commercial artists design newspaper and TV advertisements as well as catalog, books, and instructional mate rials; Photographers take pictures to convey an idea or tell a story; industrial designers develop functional, attractive articles for ev eryday use; display workers design and install exhibits of clothing, accessories, and furni ture; interior designers and decorators arrange furnishings and spaces in homes, stores, and offices; floral designers create floral arrange ments to express the thought and sentiments of the sender. Design careers require varying levels of training. While floral designers often learn their duties on the job and may not even need a high school diploma, industrial designers as a rule must complete 4 or more years of college. Persons with appropriate experience and a major in engineering, architecture, and fine arts may also gain entry to this field. A liberal arts education and training in painting, sculp ture, and architecture are important for com mercial artists. Although not a requirement, formal training is becoming increasingly im portant for interior designers. This is available in 3-year professional school programs of interior design as well as in 4-year college and university programs. The curriculum for these occupations includes principles of design, art and art history, mechanical and architectural drawing, painting, architecture, and basic en gineering. Although a college degree is not necessary for photographers and display work ers, 2-year and 4-year institutions of higher education offer courses that are useful for these occupations. Regardless of the amount of formal training required, people in the design field must be creative, imaginative, persistent, and able to communicate ideas visually. Artistic talent is crucial in all the design occupations. People in this field need strong color sense, an eye for detail, a sense of balance and proportion, and sensitivity to beauty. In finding a job, good portfolio—a collection of examples of a person’s best work—is sometime more important than for mal education. Because styles and tastes in art and fashion change with almost breathtaking speed, peo ple in this field need to be versatile and open to new ideas and influences. Creative work can be frustrating, even discouraging, during periods when new ideas don’t come—or when the designer’s ideas clash with those of a client. Sometimes a concept or layout has to be changed to accommodate a client. Dealing with clients calls for tact and sound professional judgment. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently are important traits for people in the design field. It is the designer’s job to come up with a solution to a client’s design problem that is both esthetic and prac tical. These workers need self-discipline to start projects on their own, and to budget their time in order to meet deadlines. Busi ness acumen and sales ability are important for the many people in this field who are freelancers or run their own businesses. The statements that follow discuss design occupations in more detail. Several other jobs that require design skills are described else where in the Handbook. See the statements on urban and regional planners, engineers, architects, and landscape architects. Commercial and Graphic Artists and Designers__________ (D .O .T. 017.281-034; 141.031-010, .061, .067-010, .081; 142.031-010, .061-014, .081-018; 149.031-010; 962.381-018; 970.381-018, .661-014, and .681-026) Nature of the Work Some professional artists are painters, who produce works of art intended to be displayed in museums, art galleries, and homes. Most, however, are commercial and graphic artists and designers, who illustrate and design the flood of magazine, newspaper, and TV ad vertisements as well as catalogs, brochures, instruction manuals, technical literature, book and record jackets, textiles, and many other items requiring visual appeal. The field of commercial art, also called graphic art or design, is very broad and in cludes some activities only loosely related to what is usually thought of as art. Most peo ple in the field work in either illustration or design. Illustrators paint or draw pictures. Many do a variety of illustration work while others are specialists. Fashion illustrators (D .O.T. 141.061014) specialize in stylish and fashionable illustrations of the latest in women’s and men’s clothing. This specialty is perhaps the most glamorous and “artistic” commercial art specialty. While fashion illustrators can be interpre tive in their drawings, technical illustrators (D.O.T. 017.281-034) strive for accuracy. Technical illustrators make drawings of tech nical products for instruction manuals, sales brochures, and advertisements. They often work closely with engineers and technicians and must understand the workings of the items they draw. Medical illustrators (D .O .T. 141.061026) combine an interest in art with knowl edge of the biological sciences. They draw illustrations of parts of the human body. Their work is used in medical textbooks and other publications, for research purposes, and in lectures and presentations. Cartoonists (D.O.T. 141.061-010) form another illustration specialty. They draw po litical cartoons, newspaper comic strips, and comic books. Some cartoonists work with others who create the idea or story and write the captions. Most cartoonists, however, must have humorous, critical, or dramatic talents in addition to drawing talent. Animators (D.O.T. 141.081-010) draw the large series of pictures which, when transferred to film, form the animated car toons seen in the movies and on TV. Anima tors are employed almost exclusively in the motion picture industry, which produces ani mated cartoons for TV and the movies. Some illustrators draw “ story boards” for TV commercials. Story boards present TV commercials in a series of scenes in much the same way as a newspaper comic strip tells a story, so that the advertising agency and the client (the company doing the advertising) can evaluate the effectiveness of proposed commercials. Story boards may also serve as guides to placement of actors and cameras and to other details during the production of the commercials. Some illustrators draw for children’s books; others specialize in book and record jacket illustration. Designers. Many in art-related jobs do little or no drawing, but instead create or supervise the creation of effective visual impressions of advertisements and industrial products. Art directors (D.O.T. 141.031-010) de cide the art, design, photography, and type 201 202/Occupational Outlook Handbook many commercial artists. Other industries also employ commercial artists in in-house advertising and graphic arts departments. Commercial and graphic artists are con centrated in larger cities. New York City has by far the largest concentration because it is the center of the advertising and publishing industries. Chicago and Los Angeles also have many artists. However, there are com mercial and graphic artists employed almost everywhere except in very small towns and rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Commercial artist preparing a “mechanical” which will be used for printing a pamphlet. style that go into published materials and TV advertisements. In many organizations, an executive or managing art director is in charge of a number of art directors who are assigned to many individual projects or ad vertising accounts. Art directors create a visual effect that will sell a product. They may design and illus trate advertisements or other artwork them selves, or direct and supervise others in this work. Art directors are usually well paid and have commensurate responsibility. Their job is considered the top commercial art-related job, although some regard art directors as managers or administrators rather than artists. Letterers (D.O.T. 970.661-014) select the most appropriate type based on their knowl edge of a wide variety of styles. They either hand-letter headlines and other important text or they use available printing type. Since most type styles can be supplied by printers, the use of hand lettering is diminishing. However, knowledge of lettering is important for almost all graphic and commercial art jobs. Graphic designer (D.O.T. 141.061-018) is a general title that can describe anyone from a designer specializing in corporate symbols and letterheads to a designer of a variety of visual items such as signs, posters, and magazine covers. Package designers (D.O.T. 142.081018) create package designs that catch the consumer’s eye, using their knowledge of the technical aspects of packaging as well as a keen marketing sense. Book designers design book jackets, select type for the text, and prepare the layout of photographs and artwork. Textile designers (D.O.T. 142.061014) design the prints and graphic designs woven into or printed on textiles, combining a knowledge of textile production with a keen sense of good graphic design. The lowest level art positions in an adver tising agency or art studio are layout or paste-up workers. These jobs are often entry level positions and may not be considered art jobs. However, they provide experience for aspiring commercial artists. Layout workers take the elements of the advertisement (pho tographs, illustrations, and text) and carefully position them according to the art director’s instructions. This “ mechanical,” as it is called, is used by the magazine or newspaper as a guide in printing the advertisement. Working Conditions Many commercial artists are full-time sala ried employees. They work in offices and studios and usually have hours and working conditions similar to those of other office workers. But a large proportion of commercial art ists, especially illustrators, are freelancers. Freelancers do individual projects for whoev er wishes to use their services. Until an illus trator develops a reputation and a regular clientele, he or she will not receive a steady income. Much effort often must be expended on selling potential customers on the quality of one’s work and in acquiring experience and a reputation. Freelancers can set their own hours and working conditions. Howev er, both freelance and salaried commercial artists must frequently meet tight deadlines which necessitate long hours of work until the project is complete. Employment In 1980, about 120,000 people worked as commercial and graphic artists and designers. The majority were employed by the advertising industry, either directly or indirectly as free lancers, or by graphic art studios which do much of their work for advertising agencies. The publishing industry also employs In the graphic arts field, demonstrated abil ity rather than evidence of appropriate train ing or other qualifications is all that is needed for success. The device used by almost all in the graphic arts field to gain employment or freelance work is the “portfolio,” a collection of examples of the artist’s best work. Evi dence of appropriate talent and flair shown in the portfolio is the most important factor used by art directors and others in deciding whether to hire or contract out work to an artist. In theory, a person with a good portfo lio but no training or experience could suc ceed in graphic arts. In reality, to put to gether a successful portfolio, most aspiring graphic artists must acquire skills in a post secondary art school—usually in a 4-year program. A bachelor’s degree in fine arts is less useful because many of the technical skills necessary are not taught and the em phasis is on art for its own sake rather than on art for marketing and other purposes. There also are many other kinds of art schools, some with 2-year associate degree programs, as well as vocational education programs. Some of these provide the techni cal skills necessary to get a beginning job but may not give the background necessary for advancement. However, there are always ex ceptions to any rule in this field. What really counts is talent, and some with little or no formal training have been very successful in commercial art. Persons hired in advertising agencies or graphic arts studios often start with relatively routine work such as paste-ups or mechani cals. While doing this work, however, they may observe and practice their skills on the side. Those with talent may advance to assis tant art director and then to art director. Others may gain enough skill to succeed as a freelancer or may prefer to specialize in an area such as lettering. Many freelancers get started by working part time as a freelancer while continuing to hold a full-time job. Oth ers have enough talent and confidence in their ability to start out as a freelancer imme diately after they graduate from art school. Many actually freelance part time while still in'school, an excellent way to develop exper ience and a portfolio of published work. Advancement for the freelancer consists of developing a set of clients who regularly contract for work at good rates. Some suc cessful freelancers develop wide recognition Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/203 for their skill in specialties such as children’s book illustration or high fashion illustration. These freelancers earn high incomes and can pick and choose the type of work they will do. Job Outlook The commercial art and graphics field has a glamorous and exciting image. Because few formal entry qualifications exist, there is a large supply of people who at least partially qualify for entry. Consequently, keen compe tition exists for salaried jobs and freelance work. Many commercial artists are only able to find enough freelance work to occupy themselves part time. Many freelancers are also forced to charge very low prices for their work until they acquire experience and a good reputation. Despite an oversupply of those seeking commercial art jobs, those with outstanding talent are eagerly sought. Employment of commercial and graphic artists is expected to grow through the 1980’s as advertising and design continue to expand with the economy. However, the supply of those seeking entry to this field will probably continue to exceed requirements. Those with above-average talent and a mastery of graph ic art skills will continue to be in demand. Display Workers (D .O .T. 298.081-010, .381-010) Nature of the Work It happens every day: A shopper browsing through a clothing store notices an attractive outfit on a mannequin and decides to buy one just like it. A fishing enthusiast sees a dis play of angling equipment in a store window, goes in, and buys a new reel. Eye-catching displays in store windows and stores attract customers and encourage them to buy. Knowing how effective this form of advertis ing can be, some stores allot a large share of their publicity budget to displays. Merchandise displayers (D.O.T. 298.081010) create a visual background or a “buying” atmosphere through displaying merchandise. They design and install displays of clothing, accessories, and furniture in store windows, showcases, and on the sales floor. Their aim is to develop attractive and attention-getting ways of showing merchandise. Display workers known as model dressers specialize in dressing mannequins. Others are designat ed according to the area they decorate as showcase trimmers or window dressers. Display workers use imagination and cre ative ability as well as knowledge of color harmony, composition, and other fundamen tals of art and interior design when creating an overall setting to show off the merchan dise. They may, for example, choose a theme—a beach setting to advertise bathing suits or surfing equipment—and design a colorful display around this theme. After the design has been approved by the display Earnings Earnings for commercial artists vary wide ly. Those in entry level paste-up or layout jobs may make little more than the minimum wage. Art directors, by contrast, can make $30,000-$40,000 or more per year. Earnings for freelancers vary even more. Those strug gling to gain experience and a reputation may sometimes be forced to charge what amounts to less than the minimum wage for their work. Well-established freelancers are able to make a very comfortable living. Freelancers of course do not receive any of the usual fringe benefits such as health insurance or retirement benefits that salaried employees receive. In 1980, Federal Government employees in art-related jobs earned an average salary of about $20,700 per year. Related Occupations Many occupations in the advertising indus try such as account executives or creative directors are related to commercial and graphic art and design. Workers in other oc cupations in which visual art skills are ap plied are architects, display workers, floral designers, industrial designers, interior de signers, landscape architects, and photogra phers. The various printing occupations are related to graphic art, as are teachers of art and design. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on graphic art ists, write to: The Graphic Artists Guild, 30 East 20th St., Room 405, New York, N.Y. 10003. The National Art Education Association, 1916 Association Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. Display worker constructs a prop to be used in a department store window. 204/Occupational Outlook Handbook manager, display workers obtain the props and other necessary accessories. Their craft skills come into play at this time. Display workers often construct many of the props themselves using hammers, saws, spray guns, and other tools. They may be assisted in these tasks by carpenters, painters or by store maintenance workers. Sometimes display workers use merchandise from other store departments as props. They may also use old props designed for previous displays, or order props from firms that specialize in them. The display workers install back ground settings such as wallpaper and carpet ing, lighting equipment, and the props. Every 7 to 14 days, they dismantle and re place old displays with new ones. In large stores that employ many display workers, each may specialize in an activity such as carpentry, painting, making signs, or setting up interior or window displays. A display director usually supervises and co ordinates the activities of all departments and confers with store, merchandising, and sales managers to select merchandise for promo tion and plan displays. Commercial decorators (D.O.T. 298.381010) are often employed by the promoters of trade exhibitions to prepare and install decora tions and displays for trade and industrial shows, exhibitions, festivals, and other special events. Working Conditions Display personnel have the opportunity to do creative work. Creating a design and transforming it into reality can be a highly rewarding experience. Display workers usually work 35 to 40 hours a week. During busy seasons, such as before Christmas and Easter, they may work overtime, nights, and weekends to prepare special displays. Construction and installation of displays frequently require prolonged standing, bend ing, stooping, and working in awkward posi tions. Display workers risk injury from falls off ladders, from contact with sharp or rough materials, and from the use of power tools, but serious injuries are uncommon. ners are hired as helpers to dismantle dis plays, carry props, and do other routine tasks. Gradually, they are assigned more dif ficult tasks such as building props, and, if they show artistic talent, planning simple de signs. Training time varies, however, de pending on the beginner’s ability and the variety and complexity of displays. A high school diploma is the minimum requirement for most beginning jobs. Courses that provide helpful training for dis play work include art, woodworking, me chanical drawing, and merchandising. Some employers seek applicants who have com pleted college courses in art, interior decorat ing, fashion design, advertising, or related subjects. Display work is included in the curriculum of many of the distributive education and marketing programs taught in high schools and community and junior colleges. Fashion merchandising schools and fine arts institutes also offer courses useful to display workers. Creative ability, imagination, manual dex terity, and mechanical aptitude are among the most important personal qualifications need ed in this field. Good physical condition and agility are needed to carry equipment, climb ladders, and work in close quarters without upsetting props. Advancement may take several forms. A display worker with supervisory ability might become display director in a large store, and then progress to sales promotion director or head of store planning. Freelance work is another avenue of ad vancement. Relatively little financial invest ment is needed to start a freelance business in the design field. However, this is a highly competitive area and business is likely to be slow until the firm’s reputation is established. For this reason, some workers moonlight un til they have enough clients for full-time work. The display worker’s skills also could lead to jobs in other art-related occupations such as interior decoration or photography. These occupations, however, require additional for mal training. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most display workers learn their trade through informal on-the-job training. Begin Earnings Among large employers, wages for begin ners ranged from $3.20 to $4.50 an hour in 1980. Beginners who have completed college courses in art, interior decorating, or related subjects generally received the higher sala ries. Experienced display workers' salaries ranged from $160 to $400 a week, depending largely on experience and ability. Most dis play managers earned between $15,000 and $25,000 a year. Experienced managers in large metropolitan department stores may earn considerably more. The earnings of freelancers depend on their talent and reputation on the number and kinds of stores or clients they service, and on the amount of time they work. Many highly skilled freelancers earn more than $25,000 a year. Related Occupations Display workers draw, paint, design, and construct displays that promote the sales of merchandise. An ability to recognize differ ent shades and colors and the ability to form a mental image of how shapes and forms can be combined and arranged in artistic ways are some of the skills needed to succeed in this kind of work. Others whose work re quires these skills include exhibit designers, floral designers, graphic designers, interior designers, and set designers. Sources of Additional Information Details on career opportunities can be ob tained from local retailers, such as depart ment stores, and from local offices of the State employment service. Floral Designers (D .O .T . 142.081-010) Nature of the Work Employment About 26,000 persons were employed as display workers in 1980. Most worked in retail stores such as department and clothing stores. Display workers were employed in many other kinds of retail stores, however, including variety, drug, and shoe stores and in book and gift shops. Others worked on a freelance basis or for design firms that handle professional window dressing for small stores. Geographically, employment is distributed much like the Nation’s population, with most jobs in large towns and cities. Employment opportunities will continue to be concentrated in large stores, most of which are located in metropolitan areas. Job Outlook Employment of display workers is expect ed to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Employment growth will reflect the expansion of retail trade as well as the growing popularity of visual merchandising, which involves exten sive use of merchandise to decorate the store and frequent changes of displays. In addition to the jobs resulting from employment growth, openings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Employment of display workers may be affected by economic fluctuations, howev er, since their jobs depend on the volume of sales in retail establishments and people tend to buy less during economic downturns. Floral designers arrange flowers and fo liage into a design to express the sentiments of the sender. In performing their work, flo ral designers combine knowledge of flower and plant forms and floral design techniques with their creativity to produce floral and plant gifts, decorations, and tributes. Designers must know the names, care and handling techniques, and lasting characteris tics of flowers, and information about the growing of flowering plants. They must also know the seasonal availability and prices of flower and plant materials. In any given day, designers may receive such orders as decorative flowering plants, bouquets, corsages, centerpieces, funeral flowers, and artificial or dried-flower ar rangements. Special events such as weddings Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/205 and parties also provide floral designers with opportunities to display their creative talents. Designers play a very important role in the success of flower shops; beautifully designed floral arrangements invite customers to browse and buy. Designers usually work from a written or der sometimes indicating occasion, customer preference for color and type of flower, price, and the date, time, and place the ar rangement or plant is to be delivered. Cus tomers sometimes leave the choice of flowers, color, and design to the discretion of the designer. For example, a funeral order may read “easel spray of red and white flowers.” For the foundation, the designer may attach a styrofoam base near the top of a three-legged wire stand. Appropriate flowers such as white gladiolas and red carnations are select ed from the floral refrigerator. The price of the order and the cost of the flowers deter mine the number and variety of flowers used. The flowers are cut to the needed length and usually wired for security. Stems may be strengthened with wooden sticks for easy in sertion into the base. To provide a background for the flowers, the designer may insert leafy branches, such as chamaedorea or fern, into the base. If glad iolas are used, they are spaced so that the tips of the flowers approximate an oval or dia mond shape. When carnations are used, they are placed among the gladiolas to provide contrasting form, color harmony, and depth. A bow may be placed at the focal point of the spray, and additional foliage added to conceal construction. The spray is ready for delivery. All this takes only about 15 min utes for an experienced floral designer. Floral designers also may help customers select flowers, plants, gifts, and floral acces sories. During slack periods, designers some times decorate flowering plants, arrange planters and terrariums, prepare accessories and containers for future use, prepare win dow displays, or take inventory. The variety of duties performed by a floral designer de pends on the size of the shop and the number of designers employed. Self-employed floral designers must combine skills of artistic de sign with business management and sales ability. In a one-person operation the florist must do everything from growing flowers to keeping books. He or she must know flow ers, how to buy wisely, how to use past records for future orders, and how to care for flowers and plants to avoid loss. The success of a business will in part depend on the owner’s ability to get along with other busi ness people and customers. Working Conditions Floral designers often stand for long per iods. Work areas are often cool and humid to preserve the flowers. Designers are exposed to sudden temperature changes when entering or leaving storage refrigerators. In general, how ever, florist shops are clean and well ventilat ed and provide a pleasant work atmosphere. Floral designer assembles loose flowers into an artistic arrangement. Employment An estimated 56,000 floral designers were employed in 1980. Nearly all designers work in the retail flower shops common to large cities, suburban shopping centers, and small towns. Geographically, employment is dis tributed much the same as the population. Many shops are small and employ only one or two floral designers; many designers man age their own stores. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An increasing number of prospective en trants take courses in floral design offered in adult education programs, junior colleges, and commercial floral design schools. Long er programs, some offering a college degree in floriculture and floristry provide training in flower marketing and shop management. Formal training in floral design usually gives a prospective designer an advantage in ob taining a job over applicants who have no training. However, since speed and creative ability are the most important elements in successful floral designing, talent and train ing acquired through actual work experience also is valuable. Many people who want to become design ers are trained on the job by the owner, manager or an experienced floral designer. Initially,they may copy simple arrangements that use one type of flower. As they gain experience, they do original designs required for special orders. Usually a person can be come a fully qualified floral designer after 2 years of on-the-job training. Good color vision, manual dexterity, stam ina, and the ability to arrange various shapes and colors in attractive patterns are the pri mary qualifications for this occupation. A high school diploma is desirable, although not essential. Applicants must be able to write legibly and to do the simple arithmetic necessary to write up bills. High school courses in art, business arithmetic, bookkeep ing, selling techniques, and other business subjects are helpful. Experience gained by working part time in a flower shop while still in school is very helpful. Floral designers with supervisory ability may advance to manager or design supervi sors in large flower shops. Those who have the necessary funds may open their own shops. Job Outlook Employment of floral designers is expect ed to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as fresh flower sales decline and a shift from floral arrangements to loose flowers and nonper ishable decorations continues. In addition to job openings created by employment growth, many openings will arise as designers trans fer to other occupations retire, or die. Employment of floral designers is affected by ups and downs in the economy. During a recession, those working in shops in areas of high unemployment may be laid off. Earnings Experienced designers usually earned be tween $5 and $10 an hour in 1980, according to the limited information available. Inexperi enced floral designers generally earned a lit tle more than the minimum wage. Earnings of self-employed florists vary greatly, de pending on the profitability of their business. In small shops, floral designers usually work 8 hours a day, Monday through Satur day. In many large shops, designers who 206/Occupational Outlook Handbook work Saturday get a day off during the week. Designers generally work long hours before holidays such as Easter, Mother’s Day, Val entine’s Day, and Christmas when the de mand for flowers and plants is great. Most designers receive holiday and vaca tion pay. Those working in small shops usu ally receive limited fringe benefits. Some employers pay part of the cost of group life and health insurance but few contribute to retirement plans other than social security. Floral designers in a few cities are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. Related Occupations Floral designers need to have an eye for detail and a sense of balance, color, propor tion, and esthetic appeal. Others whose jobs require similar aptitudes include display workers, graphic designers, interior design ers, set designers, artists, and art teachers. Sources of Additional Information For additional information about careers in floral design and addresses of schools offer ing courses in this field, write to: Society of American Florists, 901 N. Washington St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Industrial Designers (D .O .T. 142.061-026) Nature of the Work A consumer wants a product—whether it’s a home appliance, a new car, or a ballpoint pen—to be as attractive, functional, safe, and easy to use as possible. Industrial designers combine artistic talent with knowledge of product use, marketing, materials, and meth ods of production to create the best and most appealing design and thereby make the prod uct competitive with similar goods in the marketplace. As the first step in their work, industrial designers gather information on how the product compares with competing products, the needs of the user of the product, fashion trends, and effects of the product on its envi ronment. After initial research, industrial de signers sketch several designs and consult with a development team of product plan ners, engineers, production specialists, and sales and market research personnel about the feasibility of each idea. They consider such factors as performance, quality, visual ap peal, convenience, utility, safety, mainte nance, and total cost to the manufacturer, distributor, retailer and consumer. After company product managers select the most suitable product design alternatives, the industrial designer or a professional mod eler makes a model. After consumer testing and necessary revisions, a final or working model is made, usually of the material to be used in the finished product. The ap proved model is then engineered, tooled, and manufactured. Although most industrial designers are product designers, others are involved in dif ferent facets of design. To create favorable public images for companies and for govern ment services, some designers develop trade marks or symbols that appear on products, advertising, brochures, and stationery. Some design containers and packages that both pro tect and promote their contents. Others pre pare small display exhibits or the entire presentation for industrial fairs. Corporate designers usually work only on products made by their employer. This may involve filling day-to-day design needs of the company or long-range planning of new pro ducts. Independent designers who serve more than one industrial firm, either as freelance designers or as members of consulting firms, often plan and design a great variety of prod ucts. Working Conditions Industrial designers generally work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated rooms. They normally work a 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week, but occasionally, work extra hours to meet deadlines. Designers may face frustration at times when their designs are rejected. Independent consultants, who are paid by the assignment, are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones to maintain workloads. Employment Industrial designers aim for reliability, safety, ease of maintainence, and visual appeal. An estimated 13,000 persons were em ployed as industrial designers in 1980. Most worked for large manufacturing companies designing consumer or industrial products or for design consulting firms. Others did free Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/207 lance work, or were on the staffs of architec tural and interior design firms. A few taught industrial design in colleges, universities, and art schools. Most industrial design consultants work in large cities such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. Designers with industrial firms usually work in or near the manufacturing plants of their companies, of ten in medium-sized cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A course of study in industrial design in an art school, university, or technical college is the usual requirement for entering this field. Most large manufacturing firms hire only those who have a bachelor’s degree in indus trial design. Persons majoring in engineering, architecture, and fine arts may qualify if they have artistic talent and experience in indus trial design. In 1980, 28 colleges and art schools of fered programs in industrial design that were either accredited by the National Association of Schools of Art or recognized by the Indus trial Designers Society of America. Most of these schools award a 4 or 5 year bachelor’s degree in industrial design or art. A few also offer a master’s degree in industrial design. A master’s degree is usually needed for teaching, but not for private practice or work in manufacturing companies. Many schools do not allow formal entry into bachelor’s degree program until a student has success fully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be required to sub mit sketches and other examples of their ar tistic ability. Many industrial design programs in col leges or universities include courses in basic engineering, art, physical, natural and behav ioral sciences, and marketing and business administration. Art schools generally stress a strong foundation in art. In most programs, students spend much time in the lab design ing three dimensional objects. In studio courses, students make models with clay, wood, plaster, and other easily worked mate rials. In schools that have the necessary ma chinery, students make models of their designs while learning to use metalworking and woodworking tools and machinery. Stu dents also take courses in drawing, drafting, and other visual communications skills. Many schools also offer courses in computer aided design. Industrial designers must have creative tal ent, drawing skills, the ability to translate abstract ideas into tangible designs, and the foresight to anticipate consumer needs. They must understand and meet the needs and tastes of the public, rather than design only to suit their own artistic needs. Designers should expect their ideas to be modified and resubmitted many times before final accep tance. Since industrial designers must coop erate with product planners, engineers and other staff members, the ability to work and communicate with others is essential. A sound understanding of marketing, sales, and other business practices is especially impor tant to those interested in consulting work. Applicants for jobs should assemble a “ portfolio” of photographs, drawings and sketches to demonstrate their creativity and ability to communicate ideas. Beginning industrial designers frequently do simple assignments. As they gain exper ience, they work on their own, and may become supervisors with major responsibility for the design of a product or group of pro ducts. Those who have an established reputa tion and the necessary funds may start their own consulting firms. Job Outlook Employment in this relatively small occupa tion is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Although the trend in recent years has been away from frequent redesign of household products, automobiles, and industrial equip ment, continued emphasis on quality, ecology, product safety, new products such as business and office machines as well as an emphasis on design of high technology products in medicine should increase demand for industrial design ers. In addition to openings resulting from in creased demand for industrial designers, some employment opportunities will arise each year as designers die, retire, or transfer to other fields. Demand for industrial designers may fluc tuate over short-run periods. During econom ic downturns when the market for new products is dampened, the need for these workers also tends to decline. New graduates may face stiff competition during such times. Earnings Salaries for inexperienced industrial de signers with a bachelor’s degree generally averaged about $15,000 a year in 1980, ac cording to a recent survey. Staff or junior designers with 2 years of experience aver aged $18,000 a year. Salaries of those with many years of experience were higher, de pending upon individual talent and the size and type of firm. In addition to the basic salary, industrial designers may receive bo nuses based on the quality of work, special projects, or sales. Earnings of industrial designers who own their consulting firms fluctuate greatly, but in general tend to be higher than the average earnings of salaried industrial designers. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects and materials to optimize their appearance, function, and value include architects, clothes designers, commercial art ists, display designers, floral designers, inte rior designers, and set designers. Sources of Additional Information A brochure about careers and a list of schools offering courses and degrees in in dustrial design are available for $2 from: Industrial Designers Society of America, 1717 N St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Interior Designers (DOT. 142.051-014) Nature of the Work Interior designers make our living, work ing, and playing areas more attractive and functional. They plan and supervise the de sign and arrangement of building interiors and furnishings. They work on private homes or commercial establishments like offices, restaurants, clubs, and theaters. , When planning a space and its furnishings, a designer first considers its purpose, the needs of its occupants, and the client’s bud get and taste. For instance, a designer might consider a very expensive couch which would easily soil for a living room but not for a recreation room, or a doctor’s reception room. Next, the designer prepares color sketches and detailed scaled plans of the finished inte rior. He or she shows these, along with color charts, photographs of furniture and accesso ries, samples of upholstery and drapery mate rials, and wall coverings to the client. The designer also provides estimates of the cost of everything required to complete the pro ject. Sometimes clients do not approve the plans, in which case the designer must revise them. Once the client approves both the plans and the cost, the designer orders the furnish ings, contracts for and supervises the work of painters, floor finishers, carpet layers, and other craft workers, and makes sure the fur nishings are installed and arranged according to plan. Designers who work in large department and furniture stores advise customers on decorating and design plans. Although their principal function is to sell the store’s mer chandise, they may suggest furnishings from other sources when essential to the custom er’s plans. Department store designers also frequently advise the store’s buyers and ex ecutives about style and color trends in interi or furnishings. Some interior designers work on large pro jects such as the interiors of entire office buildings, hospitals, and libraries. Generally, they plan the complete layout of rooms with out changes to the structure of the building. They also may redesign or renovate the inte riors of old buildings. In these cases, they confer with architects to make sure that plans comply with building codes. Some interior designers also design the furniture and acces sories to be used, and then arrange for their manufacture. A few design the interiors of ships and aircraft or stage sets used for mo tion pictures or television. Regardless of where they are working, de signers must deal with paperwork; they must place orders, figure estimates, and maintain 208/Occupational Outlook Handbook for magazines that feature articles on home furnishings. Some experienced interior designers with business ability run their own firms, either alone or in partnership with other designers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Interior designer coordinates wall and floor coverings and furniture. records of where to purchase hundreds of different types of furnishings. Handling busi ness matters such as these requires accuracy and close attention to detail. Working Conditions Designers’ work hours are sometimes long and irregular. They usually adjust their work day to suit their clients, meeting with them during the evening or on weekends when necessary. They may transact business in cli ents’ homes or offices, in their own offices, or in a variety of other locations. Designers generally work at their own pace in a quiet atmosphere, but sometimes the work is hectic. Most design jobs require coordinating the activities of building trades workers and suppliers, which is not an easy task when deadlines are tight and delivery problems crop up. The ability to handle peo ple and many details, even under pressure, is very important. Employment An estimated 35,000 persons worked as interior designers in 1980, primarily in large cities. Most designers work for design firms. They work independently with the firm’s cli ents or serve as assistants to senior designers. Others work as members of design teams, sometimes with architects and engineers. Some interior designers work in large de partment or furniture stores. Others work for hotel and restaurant chains, builders, govern ment agencies, and other organizations that do a great deal of building or renovation. Some work for architects, furniture suppliers, antique dealers, and furniture and textile manufacturers. Interior designers also work Formal training in interior design is in creasingly important for entry into this field. Most architectural firms, well-established de sign firms, department and furniture stores, and other major employers accept only pro fessionally trained people for beginning jobs. Training is available in 3-year certificate or diploma programs in professional schools of interior design, and in 4-year college or uni versity programs in interior design. The cur riculum usually includes principles of design, history of art, freehand and mechanical draw ing or architectural drafting, painting, archi tecture as it relates to interiors, design of furniture and exhibits, and study of materials, such as woods, plastics, metals, and fabrics. Knowledge of furnishings, art pieces, and antiques is important. In addition, courses in business and management are valuable. Keeping up with new fibers, finishes, and materials as well as government regulations, flammability standards, and product perfor mance is also essential. Membership in the American Society of Interior Design (ASID) or in the Institute of Business Designers is a recognized mark of achievement in this profession. Membership usually requires the completion of 3 or 4 years of post high school education in de sign, at least 2 years of practical experience in the field, and completion of a written and design-problem examination. The 10-hour design-problem test covers space allocation and furniture selection and arrangement, as well as lighting and electrical plans. Beginners usually need 1 to 3 years of onthe-job training before they advance to de signer. They may act as receptionists, shoppers who match materials or find acces sories, stockroom assistants, salespersons, assistant decorators, and junior designers. Beginners who do not get trainee jobs often sell furniture, fabric, lamps, or other interior furnishings in department or furniture stores to gain experience in dealing with customers and to become familiar with the merchandise. There is no guarantee, however, that this experience will result in a job in design, although it could lead to a career in merchan dising. Experienced designers may advance to de sign department head or to other supervisory positions in department stores or in large design firms. If they have the necessary funds and aptitude for business, they may open their own firms. Although formal education is important, talented individuals with a background in art or architecture and environmental design, as well as imagination, creativity, and an abil ity to sell themselves, may find work as freelancers. Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/209 Artistic talent is crucial for interior design ers. People in this field need a strong color sense, an eye for detail, a sense of balance and proportion and an ability to think in 3dimension. Because styles and tastes in art and fashion change quickly, people in this field need to be versatile and alert to new ideas and trends. A successful designer must also be wellorganized and good at handling details. The ability to work well with people is very im portant, for a designer must be able to deal effectively with clients, suppliers, and craft workers such as carpenters, electricians, and plumbers. Job Outlook Persons seeking beginning jobs in interior design are expected to face competition through the 1980’s. Interior design is a com petitive field that requires talent, training, and business ability, and many applicants vie for the better jobs. Talented college gradu ates who major in interior design and gradu ates of professional schools of interior design will find the best opportunities for employ ment. Those with less talent or without for mal training will find it increasingly difficult to enter this field. Employment of interior designers is ex pected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Growth in population, personal incomes, and expenditures for home and office furnishings and the increasing use of design services in commercial establishments should result in a greater demand for these workers. In addition to new jobs, openings will be created by the need to replace designers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Department and furniture stores are ex pected to employ an increasing number of designers as their share in the growing vol ume of design work for commercial estab lishments and public buildings increases. Interior design firms also are expected to continue to expand. Employment of interior designers, howev er, is sensitive to changes in general econom ic conditions because some people forego design services when the economy slows down. Earnings Beginners usually are paid a straight salary plus a small commission. Starting salaries range from the minimum wage plus a small commission to a fixed salary of about $8,000 to $14,000 a year. Firms in large metropoli tan areas usually pay the highest salaries. Corporations pay higher starting salaries than architectural or space design firms. Some experienced interior designers are paid straight salaries, some receive salaries plus commissions based on the value of their sales, and others work entirely on commissions. Incomes of moderately experienced de signers were generally between $15,000 and $25,000 a year in 1980 while very talented designers and those in senior positions ranged from $30,000 to about $50,000 annually. A few nationally recognized professionals earned well over $50,000 annually. The earnings of self-employed designers vary widely, depending on the volume of business, their professional reputation, the economic level of their clients, and their own business competence. Related Occupations Interior designers must have artistic talent, be creative, and have good color sense and good taste. Other occupations that require similar skills include exhibit designers, set designers, fabric and wallpaper designers, furniture designers, display workers, floral designers, photographers, and manufac turers’ sales workers who handle interior furnishings. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in interior design and a list of schools offering programs in this field, contact: American Society of Interior Design, 730 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. Career information is also available from: Institute of Business Designers, National Head quarters, 1155 Merchandise Mart, Chicago, 111. 60654. Photographers (D.O.T. 143 except .062-022) Nature of the Work Photographers use their cameras and film to portray people, places, and events much as a writer uses words. Those who are skillful can capture the personality of individuals or the mood of scenes which they photograph. Photographers specializing in scientific, medical, or engineering photography expose worlds normally hidden from our view. Although their subject matter varies wide ly, all photographers use the same basic equipment. The most important tool, of course, is the camera, and most photogra phers own several. Unlike snapshot cameras, which have a lens permanently attached to the camera body, the professionals’ cameras are generally constructed to use a variety of lenses designed for close-up, medium-range, or distance photography. Besides cameras and lenses, photographers use a variety of film and colored filters to obtain the desired effect under different light ing conditions. When taking pictures indoors or after dark, they may use electronic flash units, floodlights, reflectors, and other spe cial lighting equipment. Some photographers develop and print their own photographs in the darkroom and may enlarge or otherwise alter the basic im age. Many photographers send their work to laboratories for processing. Because the procedures involved in still photography are quite different from those in motion picture photography, many photogra phers specialize in one or the other. Howev er, the demand is growing for photographers who have training in both areas. In addition to the skilled use of cameras and accessories, photographers must be able to compose their pictures with creativity and to recognize a potentially good photograph. Still photographers (D.O.T. 143.062-030) may specialize in a particular type of photog raphy, such as portrait, fashion, or industrial work. Portrait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of persons and often work in their own studios. For special events, such as weddings or christenings, however, they take photographs in churches and homes. Portrait photographers in small studios, like other small business owners, frequently han dle all aspects of their business. They arrange for advertising and schedule appointments; set and adjust equipment before taking the pic tures; develop and retouch negatives; develop proofs; and mount and frame pictures. They also purchase supplies and take care of the billing and recordkeeping. Industrial photographers take pictures of a wide range of subjects including livestock, manufactured articles, buildings, and groups of people. They frequently do photography for catalogs. Companies use their work in publications to report to stockholders or to advertise company products or services. To create attractive, eye-catching promotional pictures, advertising photographers must command a broad array of photographic tech niques. Industrial photographers ,also photo graph groups of people for employee news magazines or take motion pictures of workers operating equipment and machinery for man agement’s use in analyzing production or work methods. S cien tific ph o to g ra p h ers ( D . O . T . 143.062) and biological photographers (D.O.T. 143.362-010) provide illustrations and documentation for scientific publications and research reports. The photographs and slides they produce are also used for teaching purposes. These photographers usually spe cialize in a particular field, such as engineer ing, aerodynamics, medicine, biology, or chemistry. Some design photographic equip ment for use as a research tool. For example, medical researchers often use ultraviolet and infrared photography, fluorescence, and Xrays to obtain information not visible under normal conditions. Time-lapse photography (where time is stretched or condensed), pho tomicrography (where the subject of the pho tography may be magnified 50 or 70 times or more), and photogrammetry (surveying an area using aerial photography) are other spe cial techniques. Photojournalists (D.O.T. 143.062-034) photograph newsworthy events, places, peo ple, and things for publications such as news papers and magazines or for television news shows. They may also prepare educational slides, filmstrips, and movies. 210/Occupational Outlook Handbook Photojournalists take pictures to illustrate magazine and newspaper articles. Working Conditions Working conditions for photographers vary. Those who have salaried jobs usually work a 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week. Photog raphers in business for themselves usually work longer hours. Depending upon the as signment, working hours for freelance pho tographers vary. Freelance, press, and commercial photog raphers travel frequently and may work in uncomfortable surroundings. Sometimes the work can be dangerous, especially for photojournalists assigned to cover stories on natu ral disasters or military conflicts. Many photographers work under pressure. Deadlines and demanding customers must be satisfied. Freelance photographers may find soliciting new clients frustrating and tedious. Employment About 91,000 photographers were em ployed in 1980. The greatest proportion worked in photographic or commercial art studios; many others worked for newspapers, magazines, radio and television broadcasters, or motion picture companies. Government agencies, photographic equipment suppliers and dealers, and industrial firms also em ployed large numbers of photographers. Some were employed by colleges, universi ties, and other educational institutions. They prepared promotional and educational materi als and also taught photography. Many worked freelance, taking pictures to sell to advertisers, magazines, and other customers; over 40 percent of all photographers were self-employed. Jobs for photographers are found in all parts of the country—both small towns and large cities—but are concentrated in the more populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a high school education is desir able, photography has no set entry require ments for formal education or training. Employers usually seek applicants who have a broad technical understanding of photogra phy as well as other photographic talents, such as imagination, creativity, and a good sense of timing. Technical expertise can be obtained through practical experience, post secondary training, or some combination of the two. Some jobs do require that applicants have specialized knowledge in areas outside of photography. Photographic training is available in col leges, universities, junior colleges, and art schools. About 75 colleges and universities offered 4-year curriculums leading to a bach elor’s degree in photography in 1980. Some colleges and universities grant master’s de grees in specialized areas, such as photojour nalism. In addition, some colleges have 2- year curriculums leading to a certificate or an associate degree in photography. A formal education in photography gives a fundamen tal background in a variety of equipment, processes, and techniques. Art schools offer useful training in design and composition, but not the technical training needed for pro fessional photographic work. The Armed Forces also train people in photographic skills. People may prepare for work as photogra phers in a commercial studio through 2 or 3 years of on-the-job training as a photogra pher’s assistant. Trainees generally start in the darkroom where they learn to mix chemi cals, develop film, and do photoprinting and enlarging. Later they may set up lights and cameras or help an experienced photographer take pictures. Amateur experience is helpful in getting an entry job with a commercial studio, but posthigh school education and training usually are needed for industrial or scientific photog raphy. Here success in photography depends on being more than just a competent photog rapher, and adequate career preparation re quires some knowledge of the field in which the photography is used. For example, work in scientific, medical, and engineering re search, such as photographing microscopic organisms, requires a background in the par ticular science or engineering specialty as well as skill in photography. Photographers must have good eyesight and color vision, artistic ability, and manual dexterity. They should be patient, accurate, and enjoy working with detail. Some knowl edge of mathematics, physics, and chemistry is helpful for understanding the use of var ious lenses, films, light sources, and devel opment processes. Some photographic specialties require ad ditional qualities. Commercial or freelance photographers must be imaginative and origi nal in their thinking. Those who specialize in photographing news stories must recognize a potentially good photograph and act quickly; otherwise, an opportunity to capture an im portant event on film may be lost. Writing ability sometimes is important for photojour nalists, who may write captions and accom panying articles for their photographs. Photographers who specialize in portrait pho tography need the ability to help people relax in front of the camera. Newly hired photographers are given rela tively routine assignments that do not require split-second camera adjustments or decisions on what subject matter to photograph. News photographers, for example, may be assigned to cover civic meetings or photograph snow storms. After gaining experience, they ad vance to more demanding assignments, and some may move to staff positions on national news magazines. Photographers with excep tional ability may gain national recognition for their work and exhibit their photographs in art and photographic galleries, or publish them in books. A few industrial or scientific photographers may be promoted to supervi Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/211 sory positions. Magazine and news photogra phers may eventually become heads of graphic arts departments or photography editors. Job Outlook Employment of photographers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to openings resulting from increased demand for photographers, others will occur each year as workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Employment is expected to grow as busi ness and industry place greater importance upon visual aids in meetings, stockholders' reports, sales campaigns, and public relations work. Photography is becoming an increas ingly important part of law enforcement work, as well as scientific and medical re search, where opportunities are expected to be good for those with appropriate technical skills. Employment in photojournalism is ex pected to grow slowly. Employment of portrait and commercial photographers is also expected to grow slow ly, and competition for jobs as portrait pho tographers and photographers’ assistants is expected to be keen. These fields are rela tively crowded since photographers can go into business for themselves with a modest financial investment, or work part time while holding another job. Increased use of self processing cameras in commercial photogra phy has contributed to crowding in this field, since little training is required for such work. Photographers in the Federal Government earned an average of $18,200 a year in 1980. Experienced photographers generally earn salaries that are above the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Although self-employed and free lance photographers often earn more than salaried workers, their earnings are affected greatly by general business conditions and the type and size of their community and clientele. Related Occupations Earnings Beginning photographers who worked for newspapers that have contracts with The Newspaper Guild had weekly earnings be tween $175 and $649 in mid-1981, with the majority earning between $250 and $335. Newspaper photographers with some exper ience (usually 4 or 5 years) averaged about $440 a week in mid-1981. Almost all exper ienced newspaper photographers earned over $300; the top salary was $678 a week. Besides photographers, other workers who rely on their visual arts talents in their jobs include commercial artists, floral designers, illustrators, industrial designers, painters, and sculptors. Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from; Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 1090 Executive Way, Des Plaines, 111. 60018. Performing Artists The excitement of opening night, the thrill of an audience’s applause, the joy of public recognition and admiration—these are some inducements for people to enter the perform ing arts. The opportunity for creative selfexpression and the development of one’s artistic talents are other reasons why some people become performing artists. The performing arts include acting, danc ing, instrumental music, and singing. These fields have the common goals of entertaining, communicating with, and affecting the emo tions of audiences. All of a performer’s work depends entirely upon his or her personal qualities—such as speech, appearance, facili ty in body movement, finger dexterity, and mental capacities. Most aspiring artists spend many years in intensive training and practice before they are ready for professional performances. They not only need great natural talent but also determination, a willingness to work long and hard in their chosen field, and some luck. Within the performing arts, the number of talented persons seeking employment gener ally exceeds by far the number of positions available. As a result, many performers are not able to find enough work in their field to be employed full time all year long. Many supplement their incomes by teaching, or work much of the time in occupations unre lated to the performing arts. Only the most successful performers can earn a living solely from their art; therefore, persons interested in these careers may wish to consider training for a backup or alternative field of work. The statements that follow give detailed information on actors and actresses, dancers, musicians, and singers. Actors and Actresses (D .O .T. 150.047-010) Nature of the Work Actors and actresses entertain and commu nicate with people through their interpretation of dramatic roles. They rely on facial and verbal expression as well as body motions for their creative effort. Making a character come to life before an audience is a job that has great glamour and fascination. However, acting requires persis tence, practice, and hard work, as well as a special talent. Only a few actors and ac tresses achieve recognition as stars on the stage, in motion pictures, or on television. A somewhat larger number are well-known, ex perienced performers, who frequently are cast in supporting roles. However, most ac Digitized fortors and actresses struggle for a toehold in FRASER http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 212 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the profession and pick up parts wherever they can. Employment for actors is character istically unsteady. Many take temporary jobs, often as waiters or salesworkers, while waiting for their next acting parts to come along. Beginning stage actors generally start in “bit” parts where they speak only a few lines. If successful, they may progress to larger, supporting roles. They frequently serve as understudies for the principals. Film and tele vision actors, in contrast, may begin in large roles or move into programs from working in commercials. In addition to the actors and actresses with speaking parts, “extras,” who have no lines to deliver, are used in almost all motion pictures and many television shows and the ater productions. Some actors move into acting-related jobs as drama coaches or directors of stage, tele vision, radio, or motion picture productions. A few teach drama in colleges and universi ties, where they usually specialize in a par ticular aspect of drama, such as stage movement, stage speech and voice, or acting. Some professional actors employed by the ater companies also teach acting in courses offered to the public. Working Conditions Acting demands patience and total commit ment, since aspiring actors and actresses must wait for parts or filming schedules, work long hours, and travel often. Evening work is a regular part of a stage actor’s life. Flawless performances require the tedious memorizing of lines and repetitive rehearsals—sometimes late at night after performances. Performances on television programs often allow little time for rehearsal, so that the actor must deliver a good performance with very little preparation. An actor needs stamina to withstand the heat of stage or studio lights, or the adverse weather conditions that may exist “on location. ” When plays are on the road, weekend traveling often is necessary. Employment At any one time in 1980, an average of about 21,000 actors and actresses worked in motion pictures, stage plays, industrial shows, and commercials. Many others were between acting jobs, so that the total number of people actually employed as actors and actresses sometime during the year was high er. In the winter, most employment opportu nities on the stage are in New York and other large cities. In the summer, stock companies in suburban and resort areas provide employ ment. In addition, many cities have “ little theaters,” repertory companies, and dinner theaters, which provide opportunities for lo cal amateur talent as well as for professional actors and actresses. Normally, casts are se lected in New York City for shows that go “ on the road.” Employment in motion pictures and film for television is centered in Hollywood and New York City, although a few studios are located in Miami and other parts of the coun try. In addition, many films are shot on loca tion and employ local professionals and nonprofessionals as “day players” and “ ex tras.” A number of American-produced films are shot in foreign countries. In television, most opportunities for actors are at the head quarters of the major networks—in New York, Los Angeles, and, to a lesser extent, Chicago. A few local television stations oc casionally employ actors. Training and Other Qualifications Aspiring actors should take part in high school and college plays, or work with little theaters and other acting groups for experience. Some people do enter the field without formal training in acting. However, formal training or acting experience is generally nec essary. Training in dramatic arts can be ob tained at specialized schools in New York and Los Angeles, and at about 620 colleges and universities throughout the country offer ing bachelor’s or higher degrees in dramatic and theater arts. College drama curriculums usually include courses in liberal arts, stage speech and movement, directing, play writ ing, play production, and history of the dra ma, as well as practical courses in acting. From these, the student develops an appre ciation of the great plays and the roles he or she may play. In all media, the best way to start is to use local opportunities and to build on them. Many actors who are successful in local and regional productions eventually try to obtain work in New York or Los Angeles. Model ing experience may also be helpful in obtain ing employment in television or motion pictures. Persons who plan to pursue an act ing career need talent, creative ability, and training that will enable them to portray dif ferent characters. They must have poise, stage presence, and the ability to affect an audience. At the same time, the ability to follow directions is important. Physical ap pearance is often a deciding factor in being selected for particular roles. Actors should be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Many actors rely on agents or managers to find them performing engagements, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. To become a movie extra, one must usual ly be listed by Central Casting, a no-fee Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/213 agency that works with the Screen Extras Guild and supplies all extras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Applicants are accepted only when the number of persons of a particular type on the list—for example, athletic young men, old ladies, or small chil dren—is below the foreseeable need. In re cent years, only a very small proportion of the total number of applicants have succeed ed in being listed. An actor employed as an extra in a film has very little opportunity to advance to a speaking role in that film. The length of a performer’s working life depends largely on training, skill, versatil ity, and perseverance. Some actors and ac tresses work almost indefinitely. Many actors leave the occupation, however, because they can not find enough acting work to make a living. Outlook The large number of people desiring acting careers, the lack of formal entry require ments, and the relatively small number of job openings have resulted in keen competition for acting jobs in the past. During the 1980’s, many openings will occur as actors leave the occupation. In addition, some growth in em ployment is expected, in commercial the aters, with non-profit acting companies, and in television. However, there are not ex pected to be openings for all jobseekers, and the keen competition for acting jobs is ex pected to continue. Only the most talented are expected to be able to find regular employment. Earnings Actors and actresses who appear on the stage belong to the Actors’ Equity Associ ation; in motion pictures, including television films, to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or to the Screen Extras Guild, Inc.; in television or radio, to the American Federation of Tele vision and Radio Artists (AFTRA). These unions and the producers of the shows sign basic collective bargaining agreements which set minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of employment. Each actor also signs a separate contract, which may provide for a higher salary than that specified in the basic agreement. The minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions was about $475 in 1980. Those in small “ off-Broadway” the aters received minimums ranging from $153 to $317 a week, depending on the seating capacity of the theater. For shows on the road, the minimum rate was $45 extra per day. (All minimum salaries are adjusted up ward automatically, by union contract, com mensurate with increases in the cost of living as reflected in the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Consumer Price Index.) In 1980, motion picture and television ac tors and actresses earned a minimum daily rate of $259, or $903 for a 5-day week. For extras, the minimum rate was $68 a day. Television actors also receive additional Actors use body motion and facial expressions to create their characters. compensation for reruns. However, earnings of most actors and ac tresses from acting work are low because their employment is irregular. According to data from Actors Equity Association, which represents about 26,000 actors in the legiti mate theater, about 16,000 of their members had no earnings in 1979; and 6,000 members made less than $5,000; 3,600 members earned between $5,000 and $30,000, and only 400 members earned more than $30,000. The Screen Actors Guild, which has over 40,000 members reports that over 80 percent earned less than $5,000 from act ing jobs in 1979; fewer than 5 percent earned $25,000 or more. Therefore, many actors must supplement their incomes from acting by maintaining other, nonacting jobs. There are well-known actors and actresses who have salary rates above the minimums, and the salaries of the few top stars are many times the figures cited. Eight performances amount to a week’s work on the legitimate stage, and any addi tional performances are paid for as overtime. After the show opens, the basic workweek is 36 hours, including 12 hours for rehearsals. Before it opens, however, the workweek usu ally is longer to allow time for rehearsals. Many actors who earn more than a set minimum per year are covered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, including hospitalization insurance, to which employers contribute. Under some employment condi tions, Equity and AFTRA members have paid vacations and sick leave. Most stage actors get little if any unemployment com pensation solely from acting since they sel dom have enough employment in any State to meet the eligibility requirements. 214/Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Actors and actresses entertain people through their interpretations of dramatic roles. They rely on facial and verbal expres sions as well as body motions for their cre ative expression. Related occupations for people with these skills include: Clowns, co medians, dancers, directors, disc jockeys, drama teachers or coaches, impersonators, mimes, narrators, and radio and television announcers. Other people working in theatri cal occupations related to acting are play wrights, choreographers, script writers, stage managers, and set designers. Occupations in volved with the business aspects of theater productions include producers, touring man agers, booking managers, and actor’s agents. including weekends and holidays. For shows on the road, weekend travel often is required. Most performances take place in the evening, and dancers must become accustomed to working late hours. Therefore, many danc ers, by their thirties, transfer to related occu pations such as choreographer or dance teacher or find work in other occupations. Certain celebrated dancers, however, contin ue performing beyond the age of 50. Places of Employment Information about grants made in the per forming arts is available from: An average of about 6,500 people worked as professional dancers at any one time in 1980. Many others were between engage ments so that the total number of people employed as dancers at some time or other during the year was greater. In addition, in 1980, there were about 23,000 dance instruc tors in secondary schools, colleges and uni versities, dance schools, and private studios. Of these, many also worked from time to time as performers themselves. New York City is the home for about onehalf of the major dance companies. Other cities with full-time dance companies are Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Salt Lake City, Cincin nati, Cleveland, Boston, Philadelphia, and Atlanta. Information Office, National Endowment for the Arts, 2401 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20506. Training and Other Qualifications Sources of Additional Information Information on colleges and universities and conservatories that offer a major in dra ma is available from: American Theater Association, 1000 Vermont Ave. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Information about nonprofit regional the atres in the U.S. may be obtained from: Theater Communications Group, Inc., 355 Lex ington Ave., New York, N .Y ., 10017. League of Professional Theatre Training Pro grams, Suite 1515, 1860 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10023. Dancers (D.O.T. 151.047-010) Nature of the Work Dancing is an ancient and worldwide art used to interpret an idea or a story, or simply to physically express rhythm and sound. Many professional dancers perform in classi cal ballet, which includes the stylized, tradi tional repertory, or modem dance, which allows more free movement and self-expres sion. Others perform in dance adaptations for musical shows, in folk, ethnic and jazz dances, and in other popular kinds of danc ing. In addition to being an art form for its own sake, dance also is used to complement opera, musical comedy, and television per formances. In dance productions, performers most of ten work as a group, although a few top artists solo. Many dancers combine stage work with teaching. Some dancers create or choreograph original dances, teach them to performers, and sometimes direct and stage the presentations of their work. Working Conditions Dancing is strenuous. Rehearsals require very long hours, and usually take place daily, Serious training for a career in dancing traditionally begins by about age 12. Early ballet training begins at age 7 or 8 and is usually given by private teachers and inde pendent ballet schools. Students who demon strate potential in the early teens receive more intensive and advanced professional training at regional ballet schools or schools conducted under the auspices of the major ballet companies. Leading dance school companies often have summer training pro grams from which they select candidates for admission to their regular full-time training program. Early and intensive training also is important for the modem dancer, but modem dance does not require as many years of training as ballet. Most dancers have their professional auditions by age 17 or 18, but training and practice never end. For example, professional ballet dancers take from 10 to 12 lessons a week for 11 or 12 months of the year, and must spend many additional hours practicing and rehearsing. Because of the strenuous and time-con suming training required, a dancer’s general education may be minimal. However, a broad general education including music, lit erature, history and the visual arts gives a background helpful in the interpretation of dramatic episodes, ideas, and feelings. About 110 colleges and universities confer bachelor’s or higher degrees in dance, gener ally through the departments of physical edu cation, music, theater, or fine arts. Most programs concentrate on modem dance. A college education is not essential to ob taining employment as a professional dancer. In fact, ballet dancers who postpone their first audition until graduation may compete at a disadvantage with younger dancers. On the other hand, a college degree can be helpful for the dancer who retires at an early age, as often happens, and wishes to enter another field of work. Although a college education is an advan tage for college or university teaching, it is not necessary for teaching dance or choreog raphy in a studio. Studio schools usually require teachers to have experience as per formers; colleges and conservatories general ly require graduate degrees, but performance experience often may be substituted. Maturi- Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/215 ty and a broad educational background also are important. The dancer’s life is one of rigorous prac tice and self-discipline; therefore patience, perseverance, and a devotion to dance are essential. Good health and physical stamina are necessary, in order to practice and per form and to follow the rugged travel schedule often required. Seldom does a dancer perform unaccom panied. Therefore, ability to function as part of a team is important. Dancers also should be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Body height and build should not vary much from the average. Good feet and nor mal arches also are required. Above all, one must have agility, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm, and a feeling for music, as well as a creative ability to express oneself through dance. Many dancers retire in their thirties or transfer to related fields such as teaching dance or becoming choreographers or dance directors. Employment Outlook The large number of people seeking pro fessional dancing careers and the relatively small number of job openings have resulted in keen competition for dancing jobs in the past. During the 1980’s some job openings will occur as dancers leave the occupation. In addition, employment of dancers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations, with new professional dance companies, dance groups affiliated with col leges and universities, and in television. However, there are not expected to be open ings for all jobseekers, and keen competition is expected to continue. Earnings Dancers in opera ballet, classical ballet, and the modem dance belong to the Ameri can Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those on live or videotaped television belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who perform in films and TV belong to the Screen Actors Guild or the Screen Extras Guild; and those in musi cal comedies join Actors’ Equity Associ ation. The unions and producers sign basic agreements specifying minimum salary rates, hours of work, and other conditions of em ployment. However, the separate contract signed by each dancer with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement regarding salary, hours of work, and working conditions. Many dancers who have professional engagements from time to time are not represented by any unions. In 1980, the minimum salary for dancers in opera and other stage productions was about $330 a week. The single performance rate for ballet dancers was $125. Dancers on tour received an allowance of $45 a day in 1980 for room and board. Minimum perform ance rates for dancers on television ranged from $386 to $408 for a 1-hour show, de pending on the number of dancers in the group. The performance rate covers 18 hours of rehearsal over a 3-day period, in addition to the performance. The normal workweek is 30 hours (6 hours per day maximum) spent in rehearsals and matinee and evening perform ances. Extra compensation is paid for addi tional hours worked. However, earnings of most dancers from dancing are low because their employment is irregular. They often must supplement their incomes by taking temporary jobs unrelated to dancing. Dancers covered by union contracts are entitled to some paid sick leave and various health and welfare benefits provided by their unions. Employers contribute toward these benefits. Most other dancers do not receive any fringe benefits. Related Occupations Dancers express concepts and emotions through their body movements. They need grace, rhythm, and body control. Some relat ed occupations which utilize actual training in dance or specialized knowledge of dance forms include acrobats, athletes, choreo graphers, dance critics, dance instructors, dance notators, dance therapists, and recrea tion workers. Sources of Additional Information A list of colleges and universities that teach dance, including details on the types of courses offered, is available from: National Dance Association, a Division of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Educa tion, Recreation, and Dance, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. For information on all aspects of dance, including job listings, contact: American Dance Guild, 1133 Broadway, Room 1427, New York, N .Y . 10010. Enclose a stamped, self-addressed envelope. Information about the related field of dance therapy, along wih a list of schools that offer degrees in the field, is available from: American Dance Therapy Association, Suite 230, 2000 Century Plaza, Columbia, Md. 21044. Musicians (D.O.T. 152.041-010) Nature of the Work The vast variety and wide appeal of music make it difficult to imagine a world without musicians. Professional musicians—those whose livelihoods depend upon performing for others—may play in a symphony orches tra, dance band, rock group, or jazz “com bo.” Whether their specialty is classical or popular music they all have behind them many years of formal or informal study and practice. Popular music performers usually play the trumpet, trombone, clarinet, saxophone, or gan, or one of the “rhythm” instruments—the piano, string bass, drums, or guitar. Most play engagements in nightclubs and restau rants, for musical comedies, in concerts, and at weddings and other special events. The best known artists sometimes perform on television. Classical musicians play in symphony, op era, ballet, and theater orchestras, in churches and synagogues, and for other groups that re quire orchestral accompaniment. Some form small chamber music groups—usually a string quartet or a trio. These musicians play string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instruments. Many pianists accompany vocal or instrumen tal soloists, choral groups, or provide back ground music in restaurants or other places. Most organists play in churches; often they direct the choir. A few well-known musicians give their own concerts, appear as soloists with sym phony orchestras, and make recordings. Working Conditions Musicians generally perform at night and on weekends, and also spend time in practice and rehearsal. Performances often require travel. Many musicians find only part-time work or experience unemployment between engagements. They often supplement their incomes with other types of jobs. Employment An average of about 138,000 persons worked as performing musicians at any one time in 1980. Others were between engage ments, so that the total number of people employed as musicians some time during the year was greater. Many work in cities in which entertain ment and recording activities are concentrat ed, such as New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, Nashville, Miami Beach, and New Orleans. Many classical musicians perform with one of the 32 major symphony groups, the 30 regional orchestras, 115 metropolitan orchestras, or the hundreds of community orchestras. Many musicians also work in smaller cities and towns, playing in churches, clubs, and restaurants, and for weddings and other events. The Armed Forces, too, offer careers in their musical organizations. Training and Other Qualifications Many people who become professional musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. People need intensive training to acquire the necessary skill, knowledge of music, and ability to interpret music. This training may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or university music program, or in a music conservatory. For study in an institu tion, an audition frequently is necessary. Many teachers in these schools are accom plished artists who will train only promising young musicians. 216/Occupational Outlook Handbook About 500 colleges, universities, and mu sic conservatories offer bachelor’s and/or higher degrees in music. About 600 conser vatories and colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in music education to quali fy graduates for a State certificate to teach in an elementary or secondary school. Those who play popular music must have an understanding of and feeling for that style of music, but classical training may expand their employment opportunities. As a rule, they take lessons with private teachers when young, and seize every opportunity to make amateur or professional appearances. As they gain experience and become known, they perform with better known bands and orchestras. Young persons who consider careers in mu sic should have musical talent, versatility, cre ative ability, and poise and stage presence to face large audiences. Since quality perform ance requires constant study and practice, selfdiscipline is vital. Moreover, musicians who play concert and nightclub engagements must have physical stamina because of frequent trav eling and night performances. They must also be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Many musicians rely on agents or manag ers to find them performing engagements, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Employment Outlook The large number of people desiring to be professional musicians, the lack of formal entry requirements for many types of jobs, and the relatively small number of job open ings have resulted in keen competition for jobs in the past. During the 1980’s, many openings will occur as musicians leave the occupation. In addition, employment is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. However, there are not expected to be openings for all jobseekers, and the keen competition for jobs as a musi cian is expected to continue. Only the most talented are expected to be able to find regu lar employment. Because of the ease with which a musician can enter private music teaching, the number of music teachers has been more than suffi cient to meet demand and probably will con tinue to be. Earnings Earnings often depend on a performer’s professional reputation as well as on geo graphic location. Minimum salaries for musicians in major symphony orchestras in 1980 ranged from $252 to $600 a week, according to the American Symphony Orchestra League. Minimums in the regional symphony orches tras ranged from about $100 to $350 a week. Minimum wages for musicians in metropoli tan symphony orchestras were generally be tween $20 and $40 per concert or rehearsal. Some musicians earned substantially more than the minimums, however. The major symphony orchestras have sea sons ranging from 28 to 52 weeks. Metro politan and regional orchestras have shorter seasons. Musicians in large metropolitan areas who had steady engagement contracts to play at dances, clubs, variety shows, ballets, musical comedies, and concerts, generally earned minimums ranging from $10 to $25 per hour in 1980. Wages for similar engagements in smaller cities and towns tended to be less. Musicians employed in motion picture re cording earned a minimum of about $133 for a 3-hour session; those employed in televi sion commercials earned a minimum of $61 each for 2 to 4 musicians and $56 each for more than 5 musicians for a 1-hour session. Musicians employed by recording companies were paid a minimum of about $147 for a 3hour session in 1980. Musicians employed by symphony orches tras work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks. Many other musicians may face rela tively long periods of unemployment between jobs. Thus, their earnings generally are lower than those in many other occupations. More over, since they may not work steadily for one employer, some performers cannot qual ify for unemployment compensation, and few have either sick leave or vacations with pay. For these reasons, many musicians give pri vate lessons or take jobs unrelated to music to supplement their earnings as performers. Many musicians belong to a branch of the American Federation of Musicians, an AFLCIO union. Concert soloists may also belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Aside from actual performers, there are many music-related occupations. These in clude arrangers, composers, conductors, di rectors, orchestrators, librettists, and music therapists. A technical knowledge of musical instru ments is required by instrument repairers and tuners and copyists. In addition, there are a number of occupations in the business side of music such as booking agents, con cert managers, music store owners and man agers, salespersons of records, sheet music, and musical instruments, and music publish ers. Others whose work involves music are disc jockeys, music critics, sound and audio technicians, music librarians, and radio and TV announcers. Sources of Additional Information For answers to specific questions about wages, hours of work, and working condi tions for professional musicians, contact: Many professional musicians teach. American Federation of Musicians (AFL-CIO), 1500 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10036. Writers, Artists, and Entertainers/217 The requirements for certification of or ganists and choir masters are available from: stamina, and public acceptance of the artist, all of which may be affected by age. American Guild of Organists, 815 Second Ave., Suite 318, New York, N.Y. 10017. Employment For information about a career in music therapy, contact: National Association for Music Therapy, Inc., P.O. Box 610, Lawrence, Kans. 66044. For programs in music teacher education, contact: Music Educators National Conference, 1902 Asso ciation Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. Information about certification of private music teachers is available from: Music Teachers National Association, 2113 Carew Tower, Cincinnati, Ohio 45202. A list of accredited schools of music is also available for $5 from: National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, Va. 22090. An average of about 19,000 persons worked as professional singers at any one time in 1980. Many others were between singing jobs, so that the total number of people employed as singers sometime during the year was greater. Opportunities for singing engagements are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, San Francisco, Dallas, and Chica go—the Nation’s chief entertainment centers. Nashville is a major center for performances and recordings by country and western singers. Many singers also work part time in church and synagogue choirs, or give private singing lessons. Many other people with singing back grounds are employed as music teachers in elementary and secondary schools, colleges, universities, and conservatories, and as choir masters in church and synagogue choirs. (See the statements on teachers elsewhere in Handbook.) Training and Other Qualifications A broad background in music, including its theory and history, is desirable, although it is not essential for all types of singing. The ability to dance also may be helpful for some roles. In addition, knowing how to play the piano may be an asset. As a rule, voice training should not begin until after the indi vidual has matured physically. An audition often is required for advanced voice training. Voice training often continues for years after a singer’s professional career has started. Training for singers of classical music is available through private voice lessons and A brochure entitled Careers in Music pro duced jointly by the three organizations listed above, is available from any of the three. Information about careers in orchestra management is available from: American Symphony Orchestra League, P.O. Box 669, Vienna, Va. 22180. Singers (D.O.T. 152.047-022) Nature of the Work Singing is an age-old form of entertain ment which, in one form or another, can be understood and appreciated by almost every one. Singers interpret music using their knowledge of voice production, melody, and harmony. They sing character parts or per form in their own individual styles. Singers are classified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass, or by the type of music they sing, such as opera, rock, folk, or country and western. A small number of singing stars make recordings or go on concert tours. Somewhat larger numbers of singers obtain leading or supporting roles in operas and popular music shows, secure engagements as concert solo ists in oratorios and other types of perfor mances, or become members of opera and musical comedy choruses and other profes sional choral groups. Popular music singers perform in movies, on the stage, on radio and television, in concerts, and in nightclubs and other places of entertainment. Working Conditions Singers generally perform at night and on weekends, and must also practice and attend rehearsals. Except for a few well-known per formers, few singers have steady jobs. Most experience some unemployment between en gagements, or have to supplement their in comes with other kinds of jobs. Moreover, a singing career sometimes is relatively short, since it depends on a good voice, physical Singers use their knowledge of melody and harmony in interpreting character parts. 218/Occupational Outlook Handbook degree programs in music conservatories or departments of music in colleges and univer sities. These schools provide voice training, and also training in music interpretation, music-related foreign languages, and, some times, dramatics. Four-year programs grant a bachelor of music, bachelor of science or arts (in music), or bachelor of fine arts. Those who plan to teach singing in public schools need at least a bachelor’s degree in music and must meet the State certification requirements for teachers. About 600 conservatories, col leges, and universities offer a degree program in music education. About 500 colleges, uni versities and conservatories offer bachelor’s degrees in music. Although voice training is an asset for singers of popular music, many with un trained voices have successful careers. The typical popular song does not require a voice with as wide a range as is required for classi cal music, and the lack of voice projection may be overcome with a microphone. Singers of popular songs may become known by participating in local amateur shows or performances. These engagements may lead to employment with local dance bands or rock groups and possibly later with better known ones. Besides musical ability, a singing career requires an attractive appearance, poise and stage presence, and perseverance. Singers also must have physical stamina to adapt to frequent traveling and rigorous time sched ules, which often include night perfor mances. They also must be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. Many singers rely on agents to find them perform ing engagements, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Job Outlook The large number of people desiring singing careers, the lack of formal entry requirements for many types of singers, and the relatively small number of job openings have resulted in keen competition for singing jobs in the past. During the 1980’s, some openings will occur as singers leave the occupation. In addition, some growth in employment is expected, in opera, theater, nightclubs, and other areas. However, there are not expected to be open ings for all jobseekers, and the keen competi tion for singing jobs is expected to continue. Only the most talented are expected to be able to find regular employment. Earnings The union minimum rate for concert sing ers who were part of a chorus was $55 per performance in 1980. Members of an opera chorus earned a minimum daily rate of $50 per performance. A featured soloist received a minimum of $200 for each single perfor mance. A few opera soloists and popular singers, however, earned thousands of dollars per performance. Minimum wage rates for group singers on network or syndicated tele vision ranged between $160 and $200 per singer for a 1-hour show. Solo or duo singers received minimums of about $400 each for a one hour TV show. The minimum scale for phonograph recording artists is $100 per side. However, earnings of most singers from singing are low because their employment is irregular. Professional singers usually belong to a branch of the Associated Actors and Artistes of America, an AFL-CIO union. Singers on the concert stage or in opera belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those who sing on radio or television or make recordings are members of the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; singers in the variety and nightclub field be long to the American Guild of Variety Art ists; those in musical comedy and operettas belong to the Actors’ Equity Association; and those on television or in motion pictures be long to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc. Related Occupations Others who have careers concerned with vocal and instrumental music include com posers, arrangers, orchestrators, and song writers, as well as voice and music teachers, choir directors, and music therapists. There are many occupations in the business and technical side of music, such as artists’ man agers, business managers, booking managers, sound controllers, audio operators, sound re cording technicians, and music librarians. Sources of Additional Information A directory of accredited schools and de partments of music is available for $3.25 from: National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, Va. 22090. For information regarding programs in mu sic teacher education, contact: Music Educators National Conference, 1902 Asso ciation Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. Information about certification of private music teachers is available from: Music Teachers National Association, 2113 Carew Tower, Cincinnati, Ohio 45202. A brochure entitled Careers in Music is available from any of the three organizations listed above. Technologists and Technicians, Except Health Technologists and technicians provide the technical assistance necessary for engineer ing, scientific, computer, and similar profes sional activities. These workers focus on the practical elements of a job, leaving the pol icy, theory, and design aspects to others. Technologists and technicians perform the day-to-day tasks required in carrying out a project or running an operation. They may operate testing and measuring equipment in a laboratory; make drawings of new designs; build models of new projects; program com puters; or safely guide airplanes to their desti nations. They are employed wherever tech nical assistance in a specialized area is needed. Most technologists and technicians work closely with and are supervised by profes sional workers. For example, engineering technicians work with engineers, science technicians with scientists, teacher aides with teachers, and legal assistants with lawyers. They are usually part of a team that is en gaged in a particular project or operation. In most specialties, technologists and tech nicians use complex electronic or mechanical instruments, technical manuals, or other spe cialized materials. For example, air traffic controllers guide pilots by reading sophisti cated radar screens. Legal assistants conduct research using specialized law books. Pro grammers work with computers. Because of the diversity of technologist and technician occupations, training require ments vary widely. All technologists and technicians must finish high school; however, most jobs require specialized postsecondary training. Training is offered at junior and community colleges, technical institutes, vo cational schools, and extension divisions of colleges and universities. These programs usually emphasize practical courses and “hands-on” experience in a particular special ty. Programs vary in length. For example, most legal assistant programs require 2 years ’ work. On the other hand, many programmers complete 4-year bachelor’s degree programs. In addition to acquiring a formal educa tion, technologists and technicians often re ceive on-the-job training from their employers. For example, programmers must spend at least several months working under close supervision. Upon completion of their training, they are capable of handling all aspects of their jobs. Occasionally, technolo gists and technicians take additional courses to keep abreast of technological advance ments in their specialty. While the knowledge and personal charac teristics required in these jobs vary, most technologists and technicians need certain qualities. They often need a good foundation in mathematics and the basic sciences—phys ics, chemistry, and biology. They must apply practical knowledge to the solution of prob lems. Because they are often part of a team, technologists and technicians must follow di rections well and effectively communicate their findings to others. They must be pa tient, precise, and organized in their work habits. Also, most technologists and techni cians need manual dexterity to work with various kinds of equipment. Nearly every industry employs some types of technologists or technicians. The accom panying table provides 1980 employment es timates for a range of occupations in this cluster. Table 1. Employment in selected technologist and technician occupations other than health, 1980 Occupation Electrical and electronics technician ....................................... Drafter.................................................. Computer programmer ................... Mechanical engineering technician ....................................... Library technical assistant ............. Industrial engineering technician . . Air traffic controller........................ Civil engineering technician........... Broadcast technician ........................ Tool programmer, numerical control............................................. Embalmer........................................... Title examiner and abstractor . . . . Employment 359,000 322,000 228,000 49,000 35,000 32,000 29,000 25,000 17,000 12,000 11,000 10,000 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. The following section of the Handbook presents detailed information on the nature of the work, employment, training require ments, job outlook, earnings, and working conditions for a representative sample of technologist and technician occupations. Air Traffic Controllers (D.O.T. 193.162-018) Nature of the Work Air traffic controllers are the guardians of the airways. They keep track of planes flying within their assigned area, and instruct pilots so as to keep the planes safe distances apart. Their immediate concern is safety, but con trollers also must direct planes efficiently to minimize delays. Some regulate airport traf fic; others regulate flights between airports. Although airport tower controllers watch over all planes travelling through the airport’s airspace, their main responsibility is to orga nize the flow of aircraft in and out of the airport. Relying both on radar and visual observation, they closely monitor each plane to maintain a safe distance between all air craft and to guide pilots between the hanger or ramp and the end of the airport’s airspace. During arrival or departure, each plane is handled by several controllers. As a plane approaches an airport, the pilot radios ahead to inform the terminal of its presence. The “ arrival controller” in the radar room just beneath the control tower has a copy of the plane’s flight plan and already has observed the plane on radar. If the way is clear, the arrival controller directs the pilot to a run way; if the airport is busy, the plane is fitted into a traffic pattern with other aircraft wait ing to land. As the plane nears the runway, the pilot is asked to contact the tower. There, a “ local controller,” who also is watching the plane on radar, monitors the aircraft the last mile or so to the runway, delaying any depar tures that would interfere with the plane’s approach. Once the plane has landed, a “ground controller” in the tower directs it along the taxiways. The ground controller works almost entirely by sight, but may use radar if visibility is very poor. A similar procedure is used for departures. The ground controller directs the plane to the proper runway. The local controller then in forms the pilot about conditions at the air port, such as the weather, speed and direction of wind, and visibility. The local controller also instructs the pilot to take off, arranging a temporary break in arriving traf fic if necessary. Once in the air, the plane is guided out of the airport’s airspace by the “departure controller.” After each plane departs, airport tower con trollers notify “enroute controllers” who will next take charge. There are 25 enroute control centers located around the country. Airplanes generally fly along designated routes; each center is assigned a certain airspace contain ing many routes. Enroute controllers work in teams of up to three members, depending on how heavy traffic is; each team is responsi ble for a section of the center’s airspace. A team, for example, might be responsible for 219 220/Occupational Outlook Handbook all planes that are between 30 to 100 miles north of an airport and flying at an altitude between 6,000 and 18,000 feet. To prepare for planes about to enter the team’s airspace, the “ manual handoff control ler” organizes flight plans coming over tele type machines. If two planes are scheduled to enter the team’s airspace at a similar time, location, and altitude, this controller may arrange with the preceding control unit for one plane to change plans. The previous unit may have been another team at the same or an adjacent center, or a departure controller at a neighboring terminal. As a plane ap proaches a team’s airspace, the “ radar hand off controller” accepts responsibility for the plane from the previous controlling unit. The controller also delegates responsibility for the plane to the next controlling unit when the plane leaves the team’s airspace. The “radar controller,” who supervises the other team members, observes the planes in the team’s airspace on radar and communi cates with the pilots when necessary. Radar controllers warn pilots about nearby planes, bad weather conditions, and other possible hazards. Two planes on a collision course will be directed around each other. If a pilot wants to change altitude in search of better flying conditions, the controller will check to determine that no other planes will be along the proposed path. As the flight progresses, the team responsible for the air craft notifies the next team in charge. Through team coordination, the plane arrives safely at its destination. Both airport tower and enroute controllers usually control several planes at one time and often have to make quick decisions about completely different activities. For example, a controller might direct a plane on its land ing approach and at the same time provide pilots entering the airport’s airspace with in formation about conditions at the airport. While instructing these pilots, the controller also would observe other planes in the vicini ty, such as those in a holding pattern waiting for permission to land, to ensure that they remain well separated. In addition to airport towers and enroute centers, air traffic controllers also work in flight service stations operated at over 300 airports. These controllers provide pilots with information on the station’s particular area, including terrain, preflight and inflight weath er information, suggested routes, and other information important to the safety of a flight. Working Conditions Controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work additional hours for which they receive overtime pay or equal time off. Because control towers and centers operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers rotate night and weekend shifts. During busy times controllers must work rapidly and under great stress. Mental pres sure is particularly acute when traffic stacks up under poor flying conditions. They must keep track of several planes at the same time and make certain all pilots receive correct instructions. Employment About 29,000 persons worked as air traffic controllers for the Federal Aviation Adminis tration (FAA) in 1980, at airports in towers and flight service stations and in enroute traf fic control centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Air traffic controller trainees are selected through the competitive Federal Civil Service System. Applicants must pass a written test that measures their ability to learn the con troller’s duties. In addition, applicants must have 3 years of general work experience or 4 years of college, or a combination of both. Applicants must pass physical and psycho logical examinations and have vision cor rectable to 20/20. For airport tower and enroute center positions, applicants must be less than 31 years old. Those 31 years old and over are eligible for positions at flight service stations. Potential controllers should be articulate, since directions to pilots must be given quickly and clearly. A good memory also is important because controllers constantly re ceive information which they must immedi ately grasp, interpret, and remember. Decisiveness is an asset, since controllers often have to make quick decisions. Successful applicants receive a combination of on-the-job and formal training to learn the fundamentals of the airway system, Federal aviation regulations, controller equipment, and aircraft performance characteristics. They receive approximately 16 weeks of intensive training, including practice on simulators, at the FA A Academy in Oklahoma City. It then takes several years of progressively more re sponsible work experience, interspersed with considerable classroom instruction and inde pendent study, to become a fully qualified controller. At airports, new controllers begin in the tower, where they clear planes for takeoff. The next step is to ground controller fol lowed by local controller, then departure con troller, and finally, arrival controller. At an enroute traffic control center, new controllers first deliver teletyped flight plans to teams, gradually advancing to manual handoff con troller, then radar handoff controller and then radar controller. Failure to become proficient in any position at a facility within a specified time may result in dismissal. Controllers who fail to complete either the academy or the onthe-job portion of the training are dismissed. Each year controllers must pass a physical examination. They must pass a job perform ance examination twice each year and a physical examination once a year. Controllers can transfer to jobs at different locations, or advance to supervisory posi tions, including management or staff jobs in air traffic control and top administrative jobs in the FAA. Job Outlook Employment of air traffic controllers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to openings resulting from growth in the demand for controllers, others will arise as experienced controllers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other rea sons. Competition for jobs should be keen, however, because the number of qualified Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/221 applicants is expected to be much greater than the number of openings. As the number of aircraft increases, the skyways will become more congested and more controllers will be needed. Also, to prevent collisions, the FA A has created spaces near certain airports and above certain altitudes within which pilots must receive directions from air traffic controllers. If, as expected, the number and size of these spaces are expanded, additional controllers will be needed despite the greater use of new, automated control equipment. College graduates or individuals who have civilian or military experience as controllers, pilots, or navigators will have the best em ployment opportunities. The demand for air travel and the work loads of air traffic controllers decline during recessions, but controllers seldom are laid off. Until the demand for air travel resumes, few new controllers are hired. Earnings Air traffic controllers who started with the FAA in early 1981 earned about $12,300 or $15,200 a year, depending on their educa tion, experience, and score on the FAA writ ten examination. In 1980, controllers averaged $29,900 a year. Depending on length of service, they receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave each year, life insurance, health bene fits, and, due to the stress involved in the work, a more liberal retirement program than other Federal employees. Related Occupations Other occupations which involve the direc tion and control of traffic in air transportation are airline-radio operator, airplane dispatch er, and flight service specialist. Broadcast Technicians________ (D.O.T. 003.167-030 and -034; 193.167-014, .262-018 and -038; 194.262-010 and -018, .282, .362, and .382014; 822.281-030; 962.162, .167-010, .281-014 and -018, .362-014, .384, and .665) Nature of the Work Broadcast technicians operate and maintain the electronic equipment used to record and transmit radio and television programs. They work with microphones, sound and video tape recorders, light and sound effects, television cameras, transmitters, and other equipment. In the control room of the radio or televi sion broadcasting studio, these technicians operate equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and range of sounds and colors in the material being recorded or broadcast. They also operate control panels that select the source of the material being broadcast. Technicians may switch from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local pro grams. By means of hand signals and, in television, by use of telephone headsets, they give technical directions to personnel in the studio. When events outside the studio are to be broadcast, technicians go to the site and set up, test, and operate the equipment. After the broadcast, they dismantle the equipment and return it to the station. As a rule, broadcast technicians in small stations perform a variety of duties. In large stations and in networks, on the other hand, technicians are more specialized, although specific job assignments may change from day to day. Transmitter operators monitor and log outgoing signals and are responsible for operating the transmitter. Maintenance technicians set up, adjust, service, and repair electronic broadcasting equipment. Audio control engineers regulate sound pickup, transmission, and switching, and video con trol engineers regulate the quality, bright ness, and contrast of television pictures. The lighting equipment used during the produc tion of television programs is controlled by lighting technicians. When programs origi nate outside the studio, field technicians set up and operate broadcasting equipment. Re cording technicians operate and maintain sound recording equipment; video recording technicians operate and maintain video tape recording equipment. Some technicians oper ate equipment designed to produce special effects, such as the illusions of a bolt of lightning or the sound of a police siren. The terms “operator,” “engineer,” and “ techni cian” often are used interchangeably in de scribing these jobs. Supervisory personnel with job titles such as chief engineer or transmission engineer direct activities concerned with the operation and maintenance of studio broadcasting equipment. Working Conditions Broadcast technicians generally work in doors in pleasant surroundings. Many sta tions are air-conditioned because transmitters and other electronic equipment must be oper ated at cool temperatures. Broadcasts outside the studio, however, may require technicians to work out of doors under less favorable conditions. Network technicians may ocasionally have to work long hours under great pressure to meet broadcast deadlines. Sources of Additional Information For further information, request Govern ment Careers, publication GA-300-128, (en close a self-addressed mailing label) from: U.S. Government Printing Office, Library and Statutory Distribution Service, 5208 Eisenhower Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22304. A pamphlet providing general information about controllers and instructions for submit ting an application is available from any U.S. Office of Personnel Management Job Information Center. Look under U.S. Gov ernment, Office of Personnel Management, in your telephone book to obtain a local Job Information Center telephone number and call for a copy of Announcement 418. If there is no listing in your telephone book, dial the toll-free number 800-555-1212 and request the number of the Office of Person nel Management Job Information Center for your location. Broadcast technicians need a strong technical background, including courses in electronics. 222/Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Job Outlook About 17,000 broadcast technicians were employed in radio and television stations in 1980. Television stations employ, on the average, many more technicians than radio stations. Although broadcast technicians are employed in every State, most are located in large metropolitan areas. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, and Washing ton, D.C.—the originating centers for most of the network programs. People seeking beginning jobs as broadcast technicians face strong competition, especial ly in major metropolitan areas where the number of qualified jobseekers greatly ex ceeds the number of openings. Prospects for entry level positions are best in smaller cities for people with appropriate training in elec tronics. As is the case with other occupations in radio and television broadcasting, stations in major metropolitan areas seek highly ex perienced personnel to fill broadcast techni cian jobs. Employment of broadcast technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. New job opportunities for technicians will arise as new commercial radio and tele vision stations go on the air, established sta tions increase their broadcasting hours, and cable television stations broadcast more of their own programs. However, demand for broadcast technicians may not keep pace with the increase in broadcasting because of laborsaving technical advances such as com puter controlled programming and remote control of transmitters. Technological devel opments such as these have shifted the em phasis from operations to maintenance work, which frequently is performed by service per sonnel employed by broadcasting equipment manufacturers. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced techni cians who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Federal law requires that anyone who op erates broadcast transmitters in radio and television stations must have a restricted ra diotelephone operator permit, for which no examination is required. Persons who work with microwave or other internal radio com munications equipment however, must have a general radiotelephone operator license, is sued after the applicant passes a series of written examinations. These cover com munications law and regulations, radio oper ating practices, and basic communications electronics. High school courses in algebra, trigonom etry, physics, electronics, and other sciences provide valuable background for a career in this occupation. Building electronic hobby kits and operating a “ham” or amateur radio also are good introductions to broadcasting technology. Taking an electronics course in a technical school is still another good way to acquire the knowledge for becoming a broad cast technician. Some persons gain work ex perience as temporary employees while filling in for regular broadcast technicians who are on vacation. Many schools give courses especially de signed to prepare the student for the FCC’s license test. Technical school, community college, or college training is an advantage, particularly for those who hope to advance to supervisory positions or to the more spe cialized jobs in large stations and in the networks. Broadcast technicians must have an aptitude for working with electrical and mechanical systems and equipment. Manual dexterity, the ability to perform tasks requiring precise, coordinated hand movements, is necessary for success in this occupation. Entry level workers are instructed and su pervised by the chief engineer, or by other experienced technicians, concerning the work procedures of the station. They generally be gin their careers in small stations, operating the transmitter and handling other technical duties, after a brief instruction period. As they acquire more experience and skill, they are assigned to more responsible jobs. Those who demonstrate above-average ability may move into top level technical positions such as supervisory technician or chief engineer. A college degree in engineering is becoming increasingly important for advancement to supervisory and executive positions. Earnings In 1980, average earnings for technicians at radio stations were $262 a week. In televi sion, earnings were somewhat higher, about $295 a week. As a rule, technician wages are highest in large cities and large stations. Technicians in the largest stations earned, on the average, about two-thirds more than those in the smallest stations. Earnings of exper ienced technicians were much higher and li censed technicians who can perform the full range of tasks are, of course, the highest paid. Television stations usually pay higher salaries than radio stations because television work is generally more complex. Technicians employed by educational broadcasting sta tions generally earn less than those who work for commercial stations. Most technicians in large stations work a 40-hour week with overtime pay for addition al hours. Broadcast technicians in small sta tions generally work a considerable amount of overtime. Evening, night, and weekend work frequently is necessary since many sta tions are on the air 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Related Occupations Broadcast technicians need the electronics training and hand coordination necessary to operate technical equipment; they generally complete specialized postsecondary pro grams, including courses in electronics and engineering. Others whose jobs have similar requirements include drafters, engineering and science technicians, surveyors, air traffic controllers, radiologic technologists, respira tory therapy workers, electrocardiograph technicians, electroencephalographic techni cians, and medical laboratory technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about radiotelephone oper ator permits and licenses, write to: Federal Communications Commission, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20554. For information on careers for broadcast technicians, write to: National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For a list of schools that offer programs or courses in broadcasting, contact: Broadcast Education Association, National Asso ciation of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. Drafters___________ (D .O .T . 001.261-010 and -014; 002.261-010; 003.281-010 and -014; 005.281-010 and -014; 007.161-018, .167-022, .261-010, -014, -018, -022, and .281-010; 010.281-010, -014, -018; 014.281-010 and -017) Nature of the Work When building a satellite, television set, or bridge, workers follow drawings that show the exact dimensions and specifications of the entire object and each of its parts. Workers who draw these plans are drafters. Drafters prepare detailed drawings based on rough sketches, specifications, and calcu lations made by scientists, engineers, archi tects, and designers. They also calculate the strength, quality, quantity, and cost of mate rials. Final drawings contain a detailed view of the object from all sides as well as specifi cations for materials to be used, procedures followed, and other information to carry out the job. In preparing drawings, drafters use com passes, dividers, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices. They also use techni cal handbooks, tables, and calculators to help solve problems. Drafters increasingly use computer-aided systems and electronic draft ing equipment to prepare drawings. Drafters are classified according to the work they do or their level of responsibility. Senior drafters translate an engineer’s or ar chitect’s preliminary plans into design “ lay outs” (scale drawings of the object to be built). Detailers draw each part shown on the layout, and give dimensions, materials, and other information to make the drawing clear and complete. Checkers carefully examine drawings for errors in computing or recording dimensions and specifications. Under the su pervision of experienced drafters, tracers make minor corrections and trace drawings for reproduction on paper or plastic film. Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/223 Drafters usually specialize in a particular field of work, such as mechanical, electri cal, aeronautical, structural, or architectural drafting. Working Conditions Although drafters usually work in welllighted and well-ventilated rooms, they often must sit and do very detailed work for long periods of time. This work may cause eye strain and back discomfort. Employment About 322,000 persons worked as drafters in 1980. Engineering and architectural firms are the largest employers of drafters. Many drafters also work in durable goods manufac turing industries, such as fabricated metals and electrical equipment and machinery, and in construction. About 20,000 drafters worked in govern ment in 1980, primarily at the State and local level. Most drafters in the Federal Govern ment worked for the Department of Defense. Some drafters worked for colleges and uni versities and nonprofit organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants for drafting positions who have acquired training in tech nical institutes, junior and community col leges, extension divisions of universities, and vocational and technical high schools. Some persons receive training and experience in the Armed Forces. Others qualify through onthe-job training programs combined with part-time schooling or through 3- to 4-year apprenticeship programs. Training for a career in drafting, whether in a high school or post-high school program, should include courses in mathematics, phys ical sciences, mechanical drawing, and draft ing. Shop practices and shop skills also are helpful since most higher level drafting jobs require knowledge of manufacturing or con struction methods. Many technical schools offer courses in structural design, architectur al drawing, and engineering or industrial technology. Those planning careers in drafting should be able to do freehand drawings of threedimensional objects and also detailed work requiring a high degree of accuracy. They should have good eyesight and manual dex terity. In addition, they should be able to function as part of a team since they work directly with engineers, architects, designers, and other workers. Artistic ability is helpful in some specialized fields! High school graduates usually start out as tracers. Those having post-high school tech nical training may begin as junior drafters. After gaining experience, they may advance to checkers, detailers, senior drafters, or su pervisors. Some mJty become independent designers. Job Outlook Employment of drafters is expected to in Drafters need to pay careful attention to detail. crease faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s because of industrial growth and the increasingly complex design problems of products and processes. Open ings also will result from the need to replace drafters who move into other fields of work, retire, or die. Holders of an associate degree in drafting and persons who are trained in the use of computer-aided drafting systems and elec tronic drafting equipment will have the best prospects for employment. Many large em ployers already require post-secondary tech nical education, though well-qualified high school graduates who have studied drafting may find opportunities in some types of jobs. Photoreproduction of drawings and the ex panding use of electronic drafting equipment and computers, however, will reduce the need for less skilled drafters. Drafters are highly concentrated in indus tries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy such as engineering and architectural services and durable goods manufacturing. During an economic recession, drafters may be laid off as fewer products are designed, less research and development work is done, and fewer drafting services are needed. ernment salary for all drafters was about $14,000 a year in 1980. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers are required to prepare or understand detailed drawings, make accurate and precise calcula tions and measurements, and use various measuring devices include architects, engi neering technicians, engineers, landscape ar chitects, photogrammetrists, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers for drafters is available from: American Institute for Design and Drafting, 3119 Price Rd., Bartlesville, Okla. 74003. See Sources of Additional Information in the following statement on engineering and science technicians. Engineering and Science Technicians Nature of the Work Earnings In private industry, beginning drafters averaged about $10,200 a year in 1980, while more experienced drafters averaged be tween $11,700 and $17,200 a year. Senior drafters averaged about $21,700 a year in 1980. The Federal Government paid drafters who have an associate degree starting salaries of about $11,000 a year in early 1981. Those with less education or experience generally started at $9,800. The average Federal Gov Knowledge of science, mathematics, in dustrial machinery, and technical processes enables engineering and science technicians to work in all phases of business and govern ment—from research and design to manufac turing, sales, and customer service. Although their jobs are more limited in scope and more practically oriented than those of engineers or scientists, technicians often apply the theo retical knowledge developed by engineers and scientists to actual situations. Techni cians frequently use more complex electronic and mechanical instruments, experimental 224/Occupational Outlook Handbook laboratory equipment, and drafting instru ments. Almost all technicians described in this statement must be able to use technical handbooks and calculators, and some must work with computers. In research and development, one of the largest areas of employment of engineering and science technicians, these workers set up experiments and calculate the results, some times with the aid of computers. They also assist engineers and scientists in developing experimental equipment and models by mak ing drawings and sketches and, frequently, by doing routine design work. In production, technicians usually follow the plans and general directions of engineers and scientists, but often without close super vision. They may prepare specifications for materials, devise tests to insure product qual ity, or study ways to improve the efficiency of an operation. They often supervise pro duction workers to make sure they follow prescribed plans and procedures. As a prod uct is built, technicians check to see that specifications are followed, keep engineers and scientists informed on progress, and in vestigate production problems. As sales workers or field representatives for manufacturers, technicians give advice on installation and maintenance of complex ma chinery, and may write specifications and technical manuals. (See statement on techni cal writers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Technicians may work in engineering, physical science, or life science. Within these general fields, job titles may describe the level (biological aide or biological techni cian), duties (quality control technician or time study analyst), or area of work (me chanical, electrical, or chemical). An engineering technician might work in one of the following areas: Aeronautical Technology. In this area, the technician works with engineers and scientists to design and produce aircraft, rockets, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Many aid engineers in preparing design layouts and models of struc tures, control systems, or equipment installa tions by collecting information, making computations, and performing laboratory tests. For example, a technician might estimate weight factors, centers of gravity, and other items affecting load capacity of an airplane or missile. Other technicians prepare or check drawings for technical accuracy, practicability, and economy. Aeronautical technicians frequently work as manufacturers’ field service representa tives, serving as the link between their com pany and the military services, commercial airlines, and other customers. Technicians also prepare technical information for instruc tion manuals, bulletins, catalogs, and other literature. (See statements on aerospace engi neers, aircraft mechanics, and technical writ ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigera tion Technology. Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration technicians design, manu facture, sell, and service equipment to regu late indoor temperatures. Technicians in this field often specialize in one area, such as refrigeration, and sometimes in a particular type of activity, such as research and development. When working for firms that manufacture temperature-controlling equipment, techni cians generally work in research and engi neering departments, where they assist en gineers and scientists in the design and testing of new equipment or production meth ods. For example, a technician may construct an experimental model to test its durability and operating characteristics. Technicians also work as sales workers for equipment manufacturers or dealers, and must be able to supply engineering firms and other contrac tors that design and install systems with information on installation, maintenance, op erating costs, and the performance specifica tions of the equipment. Other technicians work for contractors, where they help design and prepare installation instructions for airconditioning, heating, or refrigeration sys tems. Still others, in customer service, are responsible for supervising the installa tion and maintenance of equipment. (See statement on air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics elsewhere in the Handbook.) Civil Engineering Technology. Technicians in this area assist civil engineers in planning, designing, and constructing highways, bridges, dams, and other structures. They often specialize in one area, such as highway or structural technology. During the planning stage, they estimate cost, prepare specifica tions for materials, or participate in survey ing, drafting, or designing. Once construc tion begins, they assist the contractor or superintendent in scheduling construction ac tivities or inspecting the work to assure con formance to blueprints and specifications. (See statements on civil engineers, drafters, and surveyors and surveying technicians else where in the Handbook.) Electronics Technology. Technicians in this field develop, manufacture, and service elec tronic equipment and systems. The types of equipment range from radio, radar, sonar, and television to industrial and medical mea suring or control devices, navigational equip ment, and computers. Because the field is so broad, technicans often specialize in one area, such as automatic control devices or electronic amplifiers. Furthermore, techno logical advances are constantly opening up new areas of work such as integrated circuit technology. When working in design, production, or customer service, electronic technicians use sophisticated measuring and diagnostic de vices to test, adjust, and repair equipment. In many cases, they must understand the field in which the electronic device is being used. To design equipment for space exploration, for example, a technician must consider the need for minimum weight and volume and maxi mum resistance to shock, extreme tempera ture, and pressure. Some electronics tech nicians also work in technical sales, while others work in the radio and television broad casting industry. (See statement on broadcast technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Industrial Engineering Technology. Techni cians in this area, usually called industrial production technicians, assist industrial engi neers on problems involving the efficient use of personnel, materials, and machines to pro duce goods and services. They prepare lay outs of machinery and equipment, plan the flow of work, make statistical studies, and analyze production costs. Industrial engineer ing technicians also conduct time and motion studies (analyze the time and movements a worker needs to accomplish a task) to im prove the production methods and procedures in manufacturing plants. Many industrial engineering technicians acquire experience that enables them to quali fy for other jobs. For example, those special izing in machinery and production methods may move into industrial safety. Others, in job analysis, may set job standards and inter view, test, hire, and train personnel. Still others may move into production supervi sion. (See statements on personnel and labor relations workers and industrial engineers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Mechanical Engineering Technology. Me chanical engineering technology is a broad term that covers a large number of special ized fields including automotive, diesel, and production technology and tool and machine design. Mechanical engineering technicians assist engineers in design and development work by making freehand sketches and rough layouts of proposed machinery and other equipment and parts. This work requires knowledge of mechanical principles involving tolerance, stress, strain, friction, and vibration factors. Technicians also analyze the costs and practi cal value of designs. In planning and testing experimental ma chines and equipment for performance, dura bility, and efficiency, technicians record data, make computations, plot graphs, ana lyze results, and write reports. They some times recommend design changes to improve performance. Their job often requires skill in the use of complex instruments, test equip ment, and gauges, as well as in the prepara tion and interpretation of drawings. When a product is ready for production, technicians help prepare layouts and draw ings of the assembly process and of parts to be manufactured. They frequently help esti mate labor costs, equipment life, and plant space. Some mechanical engineering techni cians test and inspect machines and equip ment in manufacturing departments or work Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/225 with engineers to eliminate production prob lems. Others are technical sales workers. Tool designers are among the better known specialists in mechanical engineering technol ogy. Tool designers prepare sketches of de signs for cutting tools, jigs, dies, special fixtures, and other devices used in mass pro duction. Frequently, they redesign existing tools to improve their efficiency. They also make or supervise others who make detailed drawings of tools and fixtures. (See state ments on mechanical engineers and drafters elsewhere in the Handbook.) Instrumentation Technology. Automated manufacturing and industrial processes, oceanographic and space exploration, weath er forecasting, satellite communication sys tems, environmental protection, and medical research have helped to make instrumentation technology a fast-growing field. Technicians help develop and design complex measuring and control devices such as those in a space craft that sense and measure changes in heat or pressure, automatically record data, and make necessary adjustments. These techni cians have extensive knowledge of physical sciences as well as electrical-electronic and mechanical engineering. Several areas of employment opportunity for technicians exist in the physical sciences: Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical engineers to develop, sell, and utilize chemical and related products and equipment. Most chemical technicians do re search and development, testing, or other laboratory work. They often set up and con duct tests on processes and products being developed or improved. For example, a tech nician may examine steel for carbon, phos phorus, and sulfur content or test a lubricating oil by subjecting it to changing temperatures. The technician measures reac tions, analyzes the results of experiments, and records data that will be the basis for decisions and future research. Chemical technicians in production general ly put into commercial operation those prod ucts or processes developed in research laboratories. They assist in making the final design, installing equipment, and training and supervising operators on the production line. Technicians in quality control test materials, production processes, and final products to insure that they meet the manufacturer’s speci fications and quality standards. Many also sell chemicals or chemical products as technical sales personnel. Many chemical technicians use computers and instruments, such as a dilatometer (which measures the expansion of a substance). Be cause the field of chemistry is so broad, chemical technicians frequently specialize in a particular industry, such as food processing or pharmaceuticals. (See statements on chem ists and chemical engineers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Mathematical technicians work with scien tific and engineering personnel to solve tech nological problems encountered in research and development and other areas. They apply standardized mathematical formulas to raw data to help translate these data into usable equations, graphs, and other forms. Math ematical technicians often use computers, card punch machines, calculators, and data processing equipment. (See statement on mathematicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Meteorological technicians support mete orologists in the study of atmospheric condi tions. Technicians calibrate instruments, observe, record, and report meteorological oc currences, and assist in research projects and the development of scientific instruments. Geological technicians assist geologists in evaluating earth processes. Currently much research is being conducted in seismology, petroleum and mineral exploration, and ecol Technicians often build laboratory equipment. ogy. These technicians install and record measurements from seismographic instru ments, assist in field evaluations of earth quake damage and surface displacement, or assist geologists in earthquake prediction re search. In petroleum and mineral exploration, they help conduct tests and record sound wave data to determine the likelihood of suc cessful drilling, or use radiation detection instruments and collect core samples to help geologists evaluate the economic possibilities of mining a given resource. Hydrologic technicians gather data to help hydrologists predict river stages and water quality levels. They monitor instruments that measure water flow, water table levels, or water quality, and record and analyze the data obtained. (See statement on oceanogra phers elsewhere in the Handbook.) 226/Occupational Outlook Handbook Technicians in the life sciences gener ally are classified in either of two broad categories: Agricultural technicians work with agri cultural scientists in food production and pro cessing. Plant technicians conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and quality of crops, or to increase resistance of plants to disease, insects, or other hazards. Techni cians in soil science analyze the chemical and physical properties of various soils to help determine the best uses for these soils. Ani mal husbandry technicians work mainly with the breeding and nutrition of animals. Other agricultural technicians are employed in the food industry as food processing technicians. In quality control or in food science research, they help scientists develop better and more efficient ways of processing food material for human consumption. (See statement on food technologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biological technicians work primarily in laboratories where they perform tests and ex periments under controlled conditions. Mi crobiological technicians study microscopic organisms and may be involved in immunol ogy or parasitology research. Laboratory ani mal technicians study and report on the reaction of laboratory animals to certain physical and chemical stimuli. They also study and conduct research to help biologists develop cures for human diseases. By con ducting experiments and reporting the results to a biochemist, technicians assist in analyz ing biological substances (blood, other body fluids, foods, and drugs). A biological tech nician also might work with insects to study insect control, develop new insecticides, or determine how to use insects to control other insects or undesirable plants. (See statements on life scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Technicians also specialize in fields such as metallurgical (metal), electrical, and opti cal technology. In the nuclear energy field, technicians work with scientists and engi neers on problems of radiation safety, inspec tion, and decontamination. Other areas of work include environmental protection, where technicians study the problems of air and water pollution, and industrial safety. Working Conditions Technicians work under a wide variety of conditions. Most work regular hours in labo ratories and industrial plants. Others work part or all of their time outdoors. Some occa sionally are exposed to safety or health haz ards from equipment or materials. Employment About 885,000 persons worked as engi neering and science technicians in 1980. About four-fifths of all technicians worked in private industry. In the manufacturing sector, the largest employers were the electrical equipment, chemical, machinery, and aero space industries. In nonmanufacturing, large numbers worked in wholesale trade, commu nications, and in the engineering and archi tectural services industries. In 1980, the Federal Government em ployed about 100,000 technicians, chiefly as engineering and electronics technicians, bio logical technicians, meteorological techni cians, and physical science technicians. The largest number worked for the Department of Defense; most of the others worked for the Departments of Agriculture, Transportation, Interior, and Commerce. State government agencies employed about 50,000 engineering and science technicians, and local governments about 13,500. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although persons can qualify for techni cian jobs through many combinations of work experience and education, most em ployers prefer applicants who have had some specialized technical training. Specialized training is available at technical institutes, junior and community colleges, extension di visions of colleges and universities, and pub lic and private vocational-technical schools. A few engineering and science students who have not completed the bachelor’s degree and others who have degrees in science and mathematics also are able to qualify for tech nician positions. Persons also can qualify for technician jobs by less formal methods. Workers may learn through on-the-job training, apprentice ship programs, or correspondence schools. Some qualify on the basis of experience gained in the Armed Forces. However, post secondary training is becoming increasingly necessary for advancement to more responsi ble jobs. Some of the types of postsecondary and other schools that provide technical training are discussed in the following paragraphs: Technical Institutes. Technical institutes of fer training to qualify students for a job im mediately after graduation with a minimum of on-the-job training. In general, students receive intensive technical training but less theory and general education than they would in engineering schools or liberal arts col leges. A few technical institutes and commu nity colleges offer cooperative programs in which students spend part of the time in school and part in paid employment related to their studies. Such practical work exper ience can be a decided advantage when seek ing full-time employment as an engineering or science technician. Some technical institutes operate as regular or extension divisions of colleges and uni versities. Other institutions are operated by States and municipalities, or by private organizations. Junior and Community Colleges. Curriculums in junior and community colleges which prepare students for technician occupations are similar to those in technical institutes but emphasize theory and liberal arts. After com pleting the 2-year programs, some graduates qualify for technician jobs while others con tinue their education at 4-year colleges. Area Vocational-Technical Schools. These postsecondary public institutions serve stu dents from surrounding areas and emphasize training in skills needed by employers in the local area. Most require a high school degree or its equivalent for admission. Other Training. Some large corporations conduct training programs and operate pri vate schools to meet their needs for techni cally trained personnel in specific jobs; such training rarely includes general studies. Training for some technician occupations, for instance tool designers and electronic techni cians, is available through formal 2- to 4year apprenticeship programs. The apprentice gets on-the-job training under the close su pervision of an experienced technician and related technical knowledge in classes, usual ly conducted after working hours. The Armed Forces have trained many technicians, especially in electronics. Al though military job requirements generally differ from those in the civilian economy, military technicians often find private or ci vilian government jobs with only minimal additional training. Many private technical and correspond ence schools often specialize in a single field of technical training, such as electronics. Some of these schools are owned and operat ed by large corporations that have the re sources to provide up-to-date training in a technical field. Those interested in a career as a technician should have an aptitude for mathematics and science and enjoy technical work. An ability to do detailed work with a high degree of accuracy is necessary; for design work, cre ative talent also is desirable. Technicians are part of a scientific team, and often work closely with engineers and scientists as well as other technicians and skilled workers. Some technicans, such as repair and mainte nance technicians, should be able to work independently and to deal effectively with customers. Because technicians work with various tools and equipment, manual dexter ity also is important. Engineering and science technicians usual ly begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of an exper ienced technician, scientist, or engineer. As they gain experience, they receive more re sponsibility and carry out a particular assign ment under only general supervision. Technicians may eventually move into super visory positions. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for engineering and science technicians are expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. Employment of technicians will grow faster than the average for all occupations. Opportunities will be best for graduates of postsecondary school technician training programs, particularly Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/227 programs in which students gain practical work experience. Besides openings resulting from the growth in demand for technicians, numerous technicians will be needed to re place those who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Industrial expansion and the increasing complexity of modem technology underlie the anticipated increase in demand for techni cians. Many will be needed to work with the growing number of engineers and scientists in developing, producing, and distributing new and technically advanced products. Automation of industrial processes and the growing importance of environmental protec tion, energy development, and other areas of scientific research will add to the demand for technical personnel. Employment of engineering and science technicians is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, a decline in research and development funds, new prod uct designs, and expenditures for other engi neering and scientific activities may result in layoffs of some technicians. Until the econo my recovers, hiring of new technicians is limited. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in engineering technology, contact: Engineers Council for Professional Development, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Information on schools offering technician programs is available from: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. State departments of education also have information about approved technical insti tutes, junior colleges, and other educational institutions within the State offering postsec ondary school training for specific technical occupations. Other sources include: American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, One Dupont Circle, Suite 410, Wash ington, D.C. 20036. National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Legal Assistants (D.O.T. 119.267-026) Earnings In private industry in 1979, technicians who completed a 2-year postsecondary school program earned starting salaries of about $11,600 a year, according to a survey by the Engineering Manpower Commission; those who did not complete a 2-year program started at about $10,100 a year. Graduates of 2-year programs with 5 years’ experience earned about $14,300 a year in 1979, while nongraduates with some experience earned about $12,400. Senior technicians averaged about $22,300 a year in 1980, according to a Department of Labor survey. Nature of the Work In recent years, the demand for legal ser vices has increased to a point where many lawyers are too busy to handle all of their work efficiently. In response to this problem, some lawyers have tried to free themselves from tasks that do not require a lawyer’s expertise. Legal assistants, also called “ para legals ”or “legal technicians,” have made this possible. By using legal assistants, lawyers can provide legal services to more persons at less cost. Legal assistants work directly under the supervision of a lawyer. While the lawyer always takes final responsibility for the legal assistant’s work, a legal assistant is allowed to perform all the functions of a lawyer other than accepting clients, setting legal fees, giv ing legal advice, or presenting a case. Legal assistants generally perform back ground work for the lawyer. For example, a legal assistant who helps a lawyer prepare a case for trial often investigates the facts of the case to make sure that all relevant infor mation is known. The legal assistant then researches the appropriate laws, recorded ju dicial decisions, legal articles, and other ma terial to determine whether the client has a good case. After analyzing all the informa tion, the legal assistant prepares a written opinion on how the attorney should proceed. The attorney then decides how the case should be handled. If the attorney decides to bring a lawsuit for the client, the legal assist ant may prepare legal arguments, file plead ings with the court, obtain affidavits, and assist the attorney during the trial. The legal assistant also may keep files of all documents and correspondence important to the case. Besides trial-related work, legal assistants may help draft documents such as contracts, mortgages, separation agreements, and trust instruments for an attorney’s clients. They may help prepare tax returns and plan es tates. Some legal assistants coordinate the activities of law office employees and keep financial records for the law office. Legal assistants who work for corporations help attorneys handle corporate matters such as employee contracts, shareholder agree ments, stock option plans, and employee benefit plans. They may help prepare and file annual financial reports and secure loans for the corporation. Legal assistants also review Starting salaries for all technicians in the Federal Government were fairly uniform in early 1981. A high school graduate with no experience could expect $9,800 annually to start. With an associate degree, the starting salary was $11,000, and with a bachelor’s, $12,300 or $15,200. With more experience, however, earnings are significantly higher. The average annual salary for all engineering technicians employed by the Federal Govern ment in 1980 was $20,100; for physical sci ence technicians, $18,100; and for life science technicians, $13,600. Related Occupations Engineering and science technicians apply scientific principles in their work. Other technicians whose work activities involve the application of scientific principles include forestry technicians, broadcast technicians, drafters, surveying technicians, television and radio service technicians, computer ser vice technicians, dental laboratory tech nicians, and medical technologists and technicians. Legal assistants perform background research for lawyers. 228/Occupational Outlook Handbook government regulations to make sure that the corporation operates within the law. The duties of legal assistants who work for the Federal, State, or local government vary depending on the type of agency that em ploys them. Generally, legal assistants in government analyze legal material for inter nal use, maintain reference files, conduct re search for attorneys, collect and analyze evidence for agency hearings, and prepare informative or explanatory material on the law, agency regulations, and agency policy for general use by the agency and the public. Legal assistants employed in community legal service projects help the poor, the aged, and other persons in need of legal aid. They file forms, conduct research, and pre pare documents. When authorized by statute, they may represent clients at administrative hearings. Some legal assistants, usually those in small and medium-sized law firms, have var ied duties. One day the legal assistant may be doing research -on judicial decisions on improper police arrests and the next day may help prepare a mortgage contract. This re quires a general knowledge of many areas of the law. Most legal assistants—those who work for large, departmentalized law firms, govern ment agencies, and corporations—specialize in one area of the law. Some specialties are real estate, estate planning, family law, labor law, litigation, and corporate law. Even within specialties, functions often are broken down further so that a legal assistant deals with one narrow area of the specialty. For example, legal assistants who specialize in labor law may deal exclusively with em ployee benefits. Working Conditions Legal assistants do most of their work at desks in offices and law libraries. Occasion ally, they travel to gather information and perform other duties. They may work alone or with others. Most legal assistants work a standard 40hour week. Sometimes, they work very long hours and are under pressure to meet dead lines. Usually they do not get paid for over time work, although they may receive compensatory time off. Legal assistants handle many routine as signments. Some find that these assignments offer little challenge and become frustrated with their duties. On the other hand, many lawyers assign more responsible tasks as the legal assistant gains experience. Further more, as new laws and judicial interpreta tions emerge, legal assistants are exposed to many new legal problems that make their work more interesting and challenging. Employment In 1980, an estimated 36,000 persons worked as legal assistants. Private law firms employ the majority; most of these work for firms with 15 or more attorneys. Legal assis tants are found in nearly every Federal Gov ernment agency; the Departments of Justice, Treasury, and Interior and the General Ser vices Administration are the largest employ ers. State and local government and publicly funded legal services projects also employ legal assistants. Banks, real estate develop ment companies, insurance companies, ac counting firms, management consulting firms, manufacturing firms, and other corpo rate offices hire legal assistants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Several methods of entry into the legal assistant profession are available. A few em ployers require only a high school diploma and train their legal assistants on the job. Some employers train other experienced le gal personnel, such as legal secretaries, for legal assistant positions. Increasingly, how ever, employers require formal legal assistant training. Several hundred formal programs in legal assistance are available from 4-year colleges and universities, law schools, community and junior colleges, business schools, proprietary schools, and a few law firms. The require ments for admission to these training pro grams vary widely. Some require some college or a bachelor’s degree. Others accept high school graduates or persons with legal experience. A few schools require standard ized tests and personal interviews. Most legal assistant programs are complet ed in 2 years, although some take as long as 4 years. A few programs of very intensive instruction last only a few weeks. Some schools offer general legal assistant training with courses in many different areas of the law, including legal research techniques. Others provide training in specialized areas of the law, such as real estate, estate plan ning and probate, litigation, family law, and income taxation. Many legal assistant train ing programs include an internship in which students gain practical experience by working in a law office, corporate legal department, or government agency. Depending on the program, graduates may receive a certificate, an associate degree, or, in some cases, a bachelor’s degree in legal assistance. Some graduates of legal assistant programs enter other law-related occupations such as claims examiner, title examiner, and legal investigator. Currently, legal assistants need not be cer tified. The National Association of Legal Assistants, however, has established stand ards for voluntary certification. Legal assist ants who meet these standards are eligible to take a 2-day examination given by the Certi fying Board of Legal Assistants. This exami nation is administered each year at several regional testing centers. Persons who pass this examination may use the designation Certified Legal Assistant (CLA). All legal assistants must read, write, and speak well. They must handle legal problems logically and effectively communicate their findings and opinions to their supervising attorney. They must understand legal termi nology and have good research and investiga tive skills. Legal assistants must always stay abreast of new developments in the law that affect their duties. Because legal assistants often deal with the public and other employees, they must be courteous and uphold the high ethical stand ards of the legal profession. A few States have established ethical guidelines that legal assistants in the State must follow. Experienced legal assistants usually are given progressively more responsible duties and are less closely supervised. In large law firms, corporate legal departments, and gov ernment agencies, experienced legal assist ants may supervise other legal assistants and delegate work assigned by the attorneys. While advancement opportunities usually are limited, a few legal assistants are promoted to managerial positions. Job Outlook Employment of legal assistants has grown tremendously since the emergence of this oc cupation in the late 1960’s. Although the rate of growth should slow somewhat during the 1980’s, employment still is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupa tions. The emphasis on hiring legal assistants should continue in both legal and law-related fields so that the cost, availability, and effi ciency of legal services can be improved. In addition to employment growth, numerous job openings will arise as persons leave the occupation for various reasons. Private law firms will continue to be the largest employers of legal assistants as an increased population sustains the need for legal services. The growth of prepaid legal plans also should contribute to the demand for the services of law firms. Other organiza tions, such as corporate legal departments, insurance companies, real estate and title in surance firms, and banks, will continue to hire legal assistants. Job opportunities are expected to expand throughout the private sector as companies become aware of the value of legal assistants. Legal assistants may find increased job op portunities in the public sector. Community legal services programs may provide greater assistance to the poor, the aged, minorities, and middle-income families. Because these programs operate on limited budgets, legal as sistants will be used to keep expenses down without having to limit services. Federal, State, and local government agencies, consum er organizations, and the courts also should continue to hire legal assistants in increasing numbers. While job openings for legal assistants are expected to increase significantly, so will the number of persons pursuing this career. As the number of graduates from legal assistant training programs rises, competition for jobs should increase. Still, job prospects for per sons with formal legal assistant training are expected to be good throughout the 1980’s. Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/229 To a limited extent, legal assistant jobs are affected by the business cycle. During reces sions, the demand for some discretionary le gal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate trans actions, declines. Corporations are less in clined to initiate litigation when falling sales and profits lead to budgetary restrictions. As a result, legal assistants employed in offices adversely affected by a recession may be laid off. On the other hand, during recessions, individuals and corporations face other legal problems, such as bankruptcies and foreclo sures, that require legal solutions. Further more, the continuous emergence of new laws and judicial interpretations creates new busi ness for lawyers and legal assistants without regard to the business cycle. Earnings Earnings of legal assistants vary greatly. Salaries depend on the training and exper ience the legal assistant brings to the job, the type of employer, and the geographic loca tion of the job. Generally, legal assistants who work for large law firms or in large metropolitan areas earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in less populated regions. According to an American Management Associations survey, starting salaries for le gal assistants averaged around $15,100 a year in 1980. Salaries for legal assistants with 1-3 years’ experience averaged $17,200, while those with 5-8 years’ experience averaged $20,300. Legal assistants hired by the Federal Gov ernment in early 1981 started at $12,300 or $15,200 a year, depending on their training and experience. The average annual salary of legal assistants who worked for the Federal Government in 1980 was about $21,800. legal assistant association. A list of legal assistant associations can be obtained from: National Federation of Paralegal Associations, P.O. Box 1410, Ben Franklin Station, Washing ton, D.C. 20044. Library Technicians and Assistants______ (D .O .T . 100.367-018; 209.387-026; 222.587-014; 249.365-010, .367-046, and .687-014) Nature of the Work Library technicians and assistants perform the many support activities involved in oper ating a library. They help professional librar ians to acquire, organize, and make material accessible to users. Like librarians, techni cians and assistants work either in technical or user services. Those in user services work directly with the public helping find the in formation needed. Those in technical ser vices are primarily concerned with acquiring and preparing materials for use and deal less frequently with the public. Technicians’ jobs usually are more responsible and less routine in nature than those of library assistants. Library technicians (D.O.T. 100.367-018) are also known as library technical assist ants . They answer questions about use of the card catalog, direct library users to standard references, perform routine cataloging of li brary materials, file cards in catalog drawers, verify information on order requests, and may supervise other support staff. Some li brary technicians operate and maintain audio visual equipment such as projectors and tape recorders. They may also assist library users with microfilm or microfiche readers, or re trieve information from a computer data base. Technicians sometimes work on spe cial projects. A technician with artistic abil ity, for example, might design posters and displays. Library assistants (D.O.T. 249.367-046) may have other job titles, depending on the practice in the library where they work. They may be called library clerks, library attend ants, desk attendants, library helpers, or cir culation clerks. Assistants check books in and out, sort and shelve library materials, repair damaged books, and answer routine inquiries. They may keep current files of special materials, such as newspaper clip pings and pictures. Assistants also do many routine tasks involved in purchasing and pro cessing library materials. Working Conditions Library technicians and assistants work with people, books, numbers, and mechani cal equipment. At times their jobs may be very repetitive—when calculating circulation statistics, for example. At other times, how ever, they may work on special projects such as designing posters and setting up displays. The job may require much standing, stoop ing, bending, lifting, and reaching. Library technicians and assistants in gov ernment and other special libraries—such as those in business and law firms and research centers—usually work a regular 40-hour week, but those in public libraries and college and university libraries may work weekend and evening hours. In schools, library techni cians and assistants work regular school hours. Employment In 1980, 154,000 library technicians and assistants worked in libraries of every de scription; small libraries employed just one or Related Occupations Several other occupations also call for a specialized understanding of the law and the legal system but do not require the exten sive training of a lawyer. Some of these are abstractors, claims examiners, health and regulatory inspectors, legal investigators, oc cupational safety and health workers, patent agents, police officers, and title examiners. Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a legal assistant and a list of legal assistant schools approved by the American Bar Association are available from: American Bar Association, Standing Committee on Legal Assistants, 1155 East Sixtieth St., Chi cago, 111. 60637. For information on certification of legal assistants, contact: National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 3005 East Skelly Dr., Suite 120, Tulsa, Okla. 74105. Information on local training programs and job prospects is available from your local Library technician uses microfiche reader to retrieve information. 230/Occupational Outlook Handbook two support personnel, while very large li braries employed hundreds. In late 1980, the Federal Government em ployed about 4,400 library technicians. Most worked in Department of Defense libraries or in the Library of Congress. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma is the usual re quirement for a library assistant. However, some libraries may hire persons who have not completed high school to work as pages; these workers retrieve books from closed stacks and shelve returned books. As in most clerical occupations, typing ability is helpful. Some academic libraries require library as sistants to have a bachelor’s degree. Although some individuals with high school education may find jobs as library technicians, most employers prefer people with at least some college. Post-high school education has become increasingly necessary as libraries with tight budgets seek technical ly trained individuals who are able to assume greater responsibilities and because the num ber of people with college training seeking library technician jobs has increased. Although many library technicians are trained on the job, libraries encourage sup port staff members to take courses in library technology to improve their job skills. In 1979, 116 institutions, mostly 2-year colleges, offered training for library techni cians. Junior and community college pro grams generally lead to an associate of arts degree in library technology and include 1 year of liberal arts courses and 1 year of library-related study. Students study the pur poses and organization of libraries, and how they operate. They learn to order, process, catalog, and circulate library materials. Some receive training in library automation. Many learn to produce audiovisual materials such as posters, transparencies and audio and vid eo tapes and to use and maintain audiovisual equipment. Applicants should be aware that, credits earned in an associate degree library technology program do not apply toward a professional degree in library science. Job Outlook Employment of library technicians and as sistants is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. However, many library technicians and assistants will be needed annually to replace those who transfer to other fields, retire, or die. Continued employment growth is expected in special libraries such as business, mediqal, and law libraries. Little or no growth is expected in school, academic, or public li braries because of tight budgets and a declin ing school age population. Some growth will result as technicians and assistants increas ingly perform routine tasks formerly done by librarians. Earnings Salaries for library technicians and as sistants vary widely depending on the size of the library or library system as well as the geographic location and size of the community. Salaries of library technicians in the Fed eral Government generally were between $10,963 and $15,193 in early 1981. Most library assistants earned between $8,951 and $9,766 during the same year. Related Occupations Library technicians and assistants keep records, catalog, sort and shelve materials, and assist library users. Other occupations with similar duties include records manage ment technicians, information specialists, re ceptionists, data processing control clerks, medical records technicians, customer com plaint clerks, title searchers, insurance claims clerks, reservation clerks, secretaries, mail clerks, records custodians, and teacher aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a library technician can be obtained from: Council on Library/Media Technical Assistants, Wilbur Wright College Library, 3400 North Aus tin Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60634. For information on training programs for library-media technical assistants, write: American Library Association, Office for Library Personnel Resources, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 111. 60611. Programmers (D .O .T. 020.162-014, .167-018, .167-022, .187-010, .187-014; and 219.367-026) Nature of the Work Computers can process vast quantities of information rapidly and accurately, but only if they are given step-by-step instructions to follow. Because the machines cannot think for themselves, computer programmers must write detailed instructions called programs that list in a logical order the steps the ma chine must follow to organize data, solve a problem, or do some other task. Programmers usually work from descrip tions prepared by systems analysts who have carefully studied the task that the computer system is going to perform—perhaps organiz ing data collected in a survey or estimating the stress on portions of a building during a hurricane. These descriptions contain a de tailed list of the steps the computer must follow, such as retrieving data stored in an other computer, organizing it in a certain way, and performing the necessary calcula tions. (A more detailed description of the work of systems analysts is contained else where in the Handbook.) An applications programmer then writes the specific program for the problem, by breaking down each step into a series of coded instructions using one of the languages developed especially for computers. Some organizations, particularly smaller ones, do not employ systems analysts. In stead, workers called programmer-analysts are responsible for both systems analysis and programming. Programs vary with the type of problem to be solved. For example, the mathematical cal culations involved in payroll accounting proce dures are different from those required to determine the flight path of a space probe. A business applications programmer developing instructions for billing customers would first take the company records the computer would need and then specify a solution by showing the steps the computer must follow to obtain old balances, add new charges, calculate finance charges, and deduct payments before determin ing a customer’s bill. The programmer then codes the actual instructions the computer will follow in a high-level programming language, such as COBOL. Next, the programmer tests the operation of the program to be sure the instructions are correct and will produce the desired infor mation. The programmer tries a sample of the data with the program and reviews the results to see if any errors were made. If errors did occur, the program must be changed and rechecked until it produces the correct results. This is called “debugging” the program. Finally, an instruction sheet is prepared for the computer operator who will run the pro gram. (The work of computer operators is described in the statement on computer oper ating personnel.) Although simple programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use complex mathematical formulas or many data files may require more than a year of work. In some cases, several programmers may work together in teams under a senior program mer’s supervision. Applications programmers are usually business oriented,. engineering oriented, or science oriented. 'A different type of special ist, the systems programmer, maintains the general instructions (called software) that control the operation of the entire computer system. These workers make changes in the sets of instructions that determine the alloca tion of the computer’s resources among the various jobs it has been given. Because of their knowledge of operating systems, sys tems programmers often help applications programmers determine the source of prob lems that may occur with their programs. Working Conditions Programmers work about 40 hours a week, but their hours are not always from 9 to 5. Once or twice a week programmers may report early or work late to use the computer when it is available; occasionally, they work on weekends. When a new program is being tested, programmers may get calls from com puter operators asking for advice at all hours of the day or night. Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/231 Employment In 1980, about 228,000 persons worked as computer programmers. Most were employed by manufacturing firms, data processing ser vice organizations, government agencies, and insurance companies. Many programmers work in large firms that need and can afford expensive computer systems. Small firms, which generally re quire computers only for payroll or billing purposes, often pay data processing service organizations to do this work. Small firms may maintain their own low-cost, small busi ness computers. Systems programmers usual ly work in research organizations, computer manufacturing firms, and large computer centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal training require ments for progammers because employers’ needs vary. Most programmers are college graduates; others have taken special courses in computer programming to supplement their experience in fields such as accounting or inventory control. Employers using computers for scientific or engineering applications prefer college graduates who have degrees in computer or information science, mathematics, engineer ing, or the physical sciences. Graduate de grees are required for some jobs. Very few scientific organizations are interested in ap plicants who have no college training. Although some employers who use com puters for business applications do not re quire college degrees, they prefer applicants who have had college courses in data pro cessing, who are experienced in computer operation or payroll accounting but who have no college training are promoted to program ming jobs; however, they need additional data processing courses to become fully qualified programmers. Although it may be preferred, prior work experience is not essen tial for a job as a programmer; in fact, about half of all entrants to the occupation have little or no work experience. Computer programming is taught at public and private vocational schools, community and junior colleges, and universities. Instruc tion ranges from introductory home study courses to advanced courses at the gradu ate level. High schools in many parts of the country also offer courses in computer programming. An indication of experience and profes sional competence at the senior programmer level is the Certificate in Computer Program ming (CCP). This designation is conferred by the Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals upon candidates who have Dassed a basic five-part examination. In addi:ion, individuals may take another section of he exam in order to specialize in business, science, or systems applications. In hiring programmers, employers look for people who can think logically and are capa Programmers debug programs before they are run. ble of exacting analytical work. The job calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work with extreme accuracy even under pres sure. Ingenuity and imagination are particu larly important when programmers must find new ways to solve a problem. Beginning applications programmers usual ly spend their first weeks on the job attending training classes. After this initial instruction, they work on simple assignments while com pleting further specialized training programs. Programmers generally must spend at least several months working under close supervi sion before they can handle all aspects of their job. Because of rapidly changing tech nology, programmers must continue their training by taking courses offered by their employer and software vendors. For skilled workers, the prospects for advancement are good. In large organizations, they may be promoted to lead programmers and be given supervisory responsibilities. Some applica tions programmers may become systems pro grammers. Both applications programmers and systems programmers often become sys tems analysts or are promoted to managerial positions. deaths. However, many vacancies will be created as experienced workers transfer into jobs as systems analysts or managers. The demand for applications programmers will increase as many more processes once done by hand are automated, but employment is not expected to grow as rapidly as in the past. Improved software, such as utility pro grams that can be used by other than data processing personnel, will simplify or elimi nate some programming tasks. More systems programmers will be needed to develop and maintain the complex operating programs made necessary by higher level computer lan guages, as well as to link or coordinate the output of different computer systems. Job prospects should be excellent for college graduates who have had computerrelated courses, particularly for those with a major in computer science or a related field. The number of persons with computer skills is not expected to keep pace with rising demand. Graduates of 2-year programs in data processing technologies also should have good prospects, primarily in business applications. Earnings Job Outlook Employment of programmers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s as computer usage expands, particularly in firms providing ac counting, business management, and comput er programming services, and in organizations involved in research and development. In addition to jobs resulting from increased de mand for programmers, many openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Because many programmers are relatively young, few openings will result from retirements or Average weekly earnings of programmer trainees in private industry ranged from $250 to $330 in 1980, according to surveys con ducted in urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and firms engaged in research on data processing occupations. In general, pro grammers earn about twice as much as the average earnings of all nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farming. Sys tems programmers generally earn more than applications programmers, and lead program mers earn more than either systems or appli cations programmers. For example, experi enced systems programmers averaged about 232/Occupational Outlook Handbook $470 a week compared to $400 for applica tions programmers. Average weekly salaries for lead systems programmers were $505, compared to $430 for lead applications pro grammers. In the Federal civil service, the entrance salary for programmers with a col lege degree was about $200 a week in early 1981. Programmers working in the North and West earned somewhat more than those working in the South. Those working for data processing services and public utilities had higher earnings than programmers em ployed in banks, advertising, or educational institutions. Related Occupations Other workers in mathematics, business, and science who solve detailed problems in clude systems analysts, mathematicians, stat isticians, engineers, financial analysts, actuaries, mathematical technicians, and op erations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about the occupa tion of programmer is available from: American Federation of Information Processing Societies, 1815 North Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Information about the Certificate in Com puter Programming is available from: The Institute for Certification of Computer Profes sionals, 35 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 2828, Chicago, 111. 60601. Technical Writers (D .O .T. 131.267-026) Nature of the Work Technical writers put scientific and techni cal information into readily understandable language. They research, write, and edit technical materials and also may produce publications or sales or audiovisual materials. Technical writers use their knowledge of a technical subject area—laser beams or phar macology, for example—along with their command of language and versatility of style to convey information in a way that is helpful to people who need it—scientists, engineers, technicians, mechanics and repairers, manag ers, sales representatives, and the general public. In addition to clarifying technical in formation, technical writers often use their writing skills in marketing, advertising, and public relations work. Some organizations use job titles other than “technical writer.” Depending on the employer, people in technical writing jobs may be called staff writers, publications engi neers, communications specialists, industrial writers, medical writers, communicators, or instructional materials developers. Technical writers instruct and inform through the use of written words. They pre pare manuals, catalogs, parts lists, and in structional materials used by sales repre sentatives to sell machinery or scientific equipment and by technicians to install, maintain, and service it. Instructional aids assist people who operate complex equip ment—for example, technicians who monitor sophisticated diagnostic equipment in a hos pital’s coronary care unit. Many technical writers prepare manuals and training aids for military weapons and equipment. Sometimes technical writers write scripts for training films, or prepare instructional materials for self-teaching cassettes, filmstrips, or kits. Technical writers often are part of a team, working closely with scientists, engineers, accountants, and others. Many technical writers prepare reports on research. They communicate research devel opments to other scientists, engineers, and technicians to help prevent duplication of ef fort and to speed scientific and technical pro gress. Hundreds of such progress reports may be sent from one company department to another each year. Technical writers also pre pare detailed reports for government regula tory agencies. Some reports—environmental impact statements, for example—require such a detailed treatment of technical subjects that they are prepared primarily by scientists, with the assistance of technical writers. Technical writers also may prepare propos als—requests for money or facilities to con duct projects, develop prototypes of new products, or do research. A team of technical writers usually writes the final proposal using technical information prepared by scientists and engineers and cost estimates from man agers and accountants. Technical writers may also write specifica tions; prepare speeches and news releases; edit and write technical books and journals; prepare articles for popular magazines; devel op advertising copy, promotional brochures, and texts for exhibits and displays; and han dle technical documentation. They also sometimes prepare annual corporate reports to stockholders. Technical writers starting an assignment learn as much as they can about the subject within the time permitted. They study re ports, blueprints, sketches, drawings, parts lists, specifications, mockups, and product samples to become familiar with product technologies and production methods. They also read technical journals; consult with en gineers, scientists, and technicians who may have worked on a project; and examine the equipment. After they have assembled the information needed for the document, they draw up an outline which they will use to prepare a rough draft. The draft may under go several revisions before being accepted in final form. Technical writers usually co ordinate the preparation by technical illus trators, drafters, or photographers of tables, charts, illustrations, and other artwork for the document. Established technical writers may work on a freelance basis or open their own agencies or consulting firms. Freelance technical writ ers sell their work to publishers, manufactur ing firms, and advertising agencies. They usually are hired to complete specific assign ments such as writing about a new product or technique. Working Conditions Most salaried technical writers have struc tured work schedules but they sometimes work overtime when under pressure to meet publication deadlines. Freelance writers set their own hours and often work at home. Technical writers spend much of their time at their office desks, but acquiring and assem bling information often require visits to li braries and the offices of information sources. Onsite inspection of scientific pro jects and other research may require travel. Employment An estimated 25,000 technical writers and editors were employed in 1980. Many work for large firms in the electronics, aircraft and parts, chemical, pharmaceutical, and comput er manufacturing industries. Firms in the en ergy, communications, and computer software fields also employ many technical writers, as do research laboratories. Many technical writers work directly for business and trade publications; professional journals in engineering, medicine, physics, chemistry, and other sciences; and with pub lishers of scientific and technical books. Medical writers inform health profession als and the public about discoveries and de velopments in health and medicine. They work in hospitals, drug firms, universities, medical associations, laboratories, publishing houses, public relations firms, and advertis ing agencies. The rapidly growing information industry provides another area of employment for technical writers. Technical information cen ters run by major industrial firms and re search laboratories and commercial firms that provide clients with access to computerized data bases employ technical information spe cialists to collect, process, and manage a vast amount of information. Technical writers are particularly well suited for these jobs because of their combination of technical and commu nications skills. The Federal Government employs about 1,700 technical writers and editors in areas as diverse as the physical sciences, weapons development, agriculture, and health. About three-fourths work for the Department of De fense, writing manuals that keep military per sonnel informed on the construction, maintenance, and use of weapons and instru ments. The Departments of Interior, Agricul ture, and Health and Human Services, and the National Aeronautics and Space Admin istration also employ technical writers. Technical writers are employed throughout the country but the largest concentrations are in the Northeast, Texas, and California. Technologists and Technicians, Except Health/233 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no rigid requirements for entry into the field. People having a variety of backgrounds find jobs as technical writers. Employers seek people whose education, work experience, and personal pursuits indi cate that they possess both writing skills and appropriate scientific or technical knowledge. Knowledge of graphics and other aspects of publication production may be helpful in get ting a job. An understanding of communica tions technology and computers is in creasingly important. A college degree is helpful, and many employers require it. Many employers prefer candidates with a degree in science or engi neering, plus a minor or an advanced degree in English, journalism, or technical commu nications. Others emphasize writing ability. They look for candidates with degrees in journalism, Engiish, or the liberal arts and courses or practical experience in a technical field—computer science or biochemistry, for example. Many employers consider only seasoned, experienced writers in filling vacancies. Some firms hire recent college graduates for writer trainee positions. People with back grounds in science or engineering or with degrees in technical writing are often pre ferred. However, a degree in almost any field may be acceptable if the candidate has technical and communications skills. Begin ners can develop experience and demonstrate their ability through unpaid writing for local weekly newspapers and student or technical journals. A portfolio of writing samples is invaluable when applying for a job. Most technical writers do not enter the occupation directly from college. The major ity work initially in other jobs, usually as technicians, scientists, or engineers. Some begin as research assistants, editorial assis tants, or trainees in a company’s technical information or advertising departments. In time, these people may assume writing duties and develop technical communication skills. When a flair for writing becomes evi dent, they may seek a technical writing posi tion in the same company or find a writing job elsewhere. Technical writers should be logical and intellectually curious. They must be accurate and able to organize a mass of detailed mate rial. Persistence and patience are important because acquiring information is not always easy. Because they often are part of a team of scientists, engineers, and technicians, they should be able to work with others; this requires tact and a cooperative attitude. Technical writers sometimes work alone with little or no supervision, so they must be self-disciplined. Freelance writers in particular must be self-starters. They must be disciplined, moti vated, and good at budgeting both time and money in order to deal with periods when there is too much work—or not enough. In 1980, about 10 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s degree programs in technical communication, science or medical writing, science information, or technical journalism; a few had master’s degree programs. Several community and junior colleges offered associ ate degree programs. Programs in technical writing are interdis ciplinary. Most are based in communica tions, journalism, or language and literature departments, and have close cooperation with the mathematics, engineering, and science departments. At most schools, about 30 per cent of the courses are in communications. Courses include communication theory, writ ing and editing, layout and design, and graphics. From 25 to 40 percent are in sci ence or technology, and the remainder are in the social sciences and humanities, foreign languages or electives. At many schools, internships in industry or government give technical writing students first-hand job experience. Hundreds of other colleges and universities offer technical writing or related courses which are available to science and engineer ing students. Related courses in copy editing, publication design, graphic arts, typography, technical advertising, industrial communica tions, and proposal writing, for example, are also desirable because they broaden the pub lications background of writers, making them more valuable to prospective employers. Many engineering schools offer English courses to sharpen writing skills, and several have extensive course offerings in technical writing. Several schools of journalism offer courses in medical journalism. Numerous special institutes, seminars, and workshops are available to bring experi- Some technical writers work for defense contractors. 234/Occupational Outlook Handbook enced technical writers up to date. These are sponsored by colleges and universities, tech nical communication consultants, or organi zations that specialize in employee training and development. Beginners often do library research for ex perienced technical writers and prepare drafts of reports. As they demonstrate their ability to write and organize information, they are given more responsibility. Experienced writ ers in companies with large technical writing staffs become technical editors or shift to administrative positions in the publications or technical information departments. The top job in technical writing is publications man ager, in charge of producing all technical documents. The manager supervises not only the technical writers and editors, but also the staff responsible for illustrations, photogra phy, reproduction, and distribution. After gaining experience and contacts, some technical writers freelance or form their own firms. Some handle industrial publicity and technical advertising for corporate clients. Other technical communications firms write and produce catalogs, manuals, and brochures for the promotion of a new product. Some experienced technical writers conduct writing seminars in industry and government, and oth ers teach at colleges or universities in addition to their regular jobs. Some technical writers freelance by becoming specialists in particular scientific or technical subjects. They some times prepare syndicated newspaper columns or articles for popular magazines. Job Outlook Employment of technical writers is expect ed to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addi tion to jobs created by increased demand, openings will result from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations, re tire, or die. Demand for technical writers is expected to increase because of the continuing expan sion of scientific and technical information and the continued need to communicate it to researchers, corporate managers, sales repre sentatives, and technicians. With the increas ing complexity of industrial and scientific equipment, more users will depend on the technical writer’s ability to prepare precise but simple explanations and instructions. However, the tendency for many scientists and engineers to do their own writing may limit growth of technical writing jobs. Expenditures for research and development (R&D) will continue to have a significant ef fect on job opportunities for technical writers. Their employment, like that of scientists and engineers, is linked to spending levels for re search and for product development in areas such as national defense, energy development and conversion, medicine, environmental health and safety, and communications tech nology. Through the 1980’s, R&D expendi tures are expected to increase more rapidly than during the 1970’s. If actual expenditures differ significantly from the levels anticipated, the outlook for technical writers would be altered. Relatively few job openings are expected in the Federal Government, where the num ber of technical writers and editors employed has remained about the same since the late 1960’s. Most vacancies will occur as the result of retirements or transfers to other jobs. Employment opportunities will be best for experienced technical writers and for begin ners who have both demonstrated writing ability and a scientific or technical back ground. Graduates of technical writing pro grams should be in particular demand. Competition for technical writing jobs will probably continue to be less keen than for writing and editing jobs in general. Earnings Starting salaries for technical writers aver aged $15,200 a year in 1980, according to a survey by the American Management Asso ciations. Annual salaries of experienced tech nical writers generally ranged from $17,000 to $25,000, while those of editors ranged from about $21,000 to more than $31,000, depending upon their level of responsibility. In the Federal Government, beginning technical writers with a bachelor’s degree, including 15 semester hours in science, engi neering, or computer science, were paid $12,266 a year in late 1980; those with supe rior academic records or 1 year’s experience could start at $15,193 a year. In 1980, the average salary for technical writers in Federal agencies was around $25,800 a year. Salaries of technical writers depend on education, experience, and ability to pro duce, as well as on the type, size, and loca tion of their employer. Earnings generally are higher on the East Coast and in California. Freelancing can provide additional income, but freelance earnings depend on the writer’s ability, reputation, and success in generating assignments. Prospective full-time freelance writers should be able to support themselves until they establish contacts in the publish ing or scientific world and receive regular assignments. Related Occupations Technical writers must make their writing clear and meaningful to their audiences. Other occupations in which writing ability is essential include specification writers, newspaper re porters and correspondents, translators, adver tising copy writers, public relations workers, educational writers, fiction writers, biogra phers, and screen writers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in technical writing and illustrating, contact: Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 815 15th St. N.W ., Suite 501, Washington, D.C. 20005. A c a d e m ic P r o g r a m s in T e c h n ic a l C o m m u n ic a tio n , a listing of colleges and universities that offer programs in technical writing, is also avail able from the Society for $6. For information on careers in business communication, contact: American Business Communication Association, c/o University of Illinois, 100 English Building, 608 South Wright St., Urbana, 111. 61801. Marketing and Sales Occupations Sales work offers a wide range of career opportunities. In some sales jobs, people are their own bosses, determine their own sched ules, and have their earnings depend entirely upon their performance. Other jobs are more routine, with structured work schedules and regular pay. Supervisory positions in sales enable individuals to use their leadership and administrative abilities. Managers plan, orga nize, and coordinate retail, wholesale, insur ance, real estate and other sales activities and supervise sales workers. In all kinds of sales work, opportunities are good for flexible or part-time working hours. This section of the Handbook describes sales workers in retail trade, wholesale trade, manufacturing, insurance, real estate, and se curities. Also discussed are automobile sales workers, automobile parts counter workers, models, travel agents, advertising workers, and cashiers. As the accompanying table in dicates, retail trade sales workers is the larg est marketing and sales occupation. Table 1. Employment in selected marketing and sales occupations, 1980 Occupation Retail trade sales w orker................. Cashier .................................................. Wholesale trade sales worker ......... Store manager ..................................... Manufacturer’s sales worker............. Insurance sales agent ........................ Wholesaler ........................................... Securities sales agent ........................ Travel agent and accommodation appraiser ........................................... Automobile parts department manager............................................. Real estate appraiser.......................... Employment 3,347,000 1,592,000 1,085,000 962,000 437,000 327,000 248,000 63,000 52,000 47,000 36,000 graduates with majors in any field, or indi viduals with comparable job experience, and train them on the job or in their own training programs. Many sales workers learn through years of on-the-job experience, often supple mented by home study, employer training, and college courses. Thus, a real estate agent may take university extension courses; a de partment store beauty counselor may partici pate in an industry-sponsored training pro gram; and a jewelry sales worker may learn through years of observation and experience on the job. Even in the most routine kinds of selling, a high school diploma is an asset to a begin ner. Courses in business, marketing, and merchandising are particularly good prepara tion. Many high schools have work-study programs that allow students to work part time in local businesses while attending classes in retailing. The proportion of sales workers who are college graduates has risen rapidly, from about 12 percent in 1970 to 21 percent in 1980. This is due in part to a need for more highly trained workers in some jobs. It also reflects the fact that many more college graduates are seeking sales jobs. Personal attributes are extremely important in sales occupations—more so than in many other jobs. Sales workers must be outgoing, enthusiastic, and persuasive. They have to be poised and at ease with strangers, and good at striking up a conversation and relating to other people. Success in sales takes initiative, energy, self-confidence, and self-discipline. Arithmetic skills are an asset. Sales workers often find their sales ability and product knowledge can be used in a variety of jobs. For example, a retail trade furniture sales worker may become a furniture manufactur ers’ sales representative. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Job Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for sales work are as varied as the work itself. For jobs selling standardized merchandise such as magazines, candy, cigarettes, and cosmetics, employers usually seek high school graduates and have experienced sales clerks train them on the job. In some large stores, they may also attend training courses. Those who sell com plex products or services, such as electronic equipment or liability insurance, need sub stantial education and training. For some sales positions, employers seek college graduates with majors in science or engineer ing. For other jobs, employers seek college Employment in most sales occupations is expected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to jobs resulting from growth, thou sands of openings will occur each year as experienced workers transfer to other occupa tions, retire, or die. Earnings For some jobs in sales, such as sales clerks, earnings are usually low—many pay at or only a little above the minimum wage. For others, such as wholesale and manufac turers’ sales workers, and in insurance and securities sales, earnings can be as high as the average for professional workers such as accountants and engineers. Advertising Workers (D.O.T. 050.067-014; 131.067-014; 141.031-010, .061-014, .018, .022, .067-010; 162.157-038; 163.167-010; 164.117-010, -014, .167-010; 247.137-010, .382-010, .387-010; 254.357-014; 259.357-018) Nature of the Work Virtually every business—whether a ‘‘mom and pop” grocery store or a large corpora tion—advertises its products or services to attract customers. Nationwide, $50 billion were spent on advertising in 1980. On a small scale, advertising can be done in-house by one person; on a large scale, advertising requires people in many different jobs. Cre ative workers such as writers and artists de velop and produce ads, while people with business ability coordinate the efforts of oth ers and arrange to broadcast the ads on radio and television, publish them in newspapers or magazines, mail them directly, or post them on billboards. Jobs in Advertising Agencies. Companies doing the advertising often do not produce the ads themselves. Instead, they engage ad vertising agencies to create the general idea for an advertising campaign, prepare the ads, and arrange for them to be printed, broad cast, or televised. Agencies produce almost all national newspaper, magazine, radio, and TV ads. The following are important occupa tions found in most agencies. An account executive (D.O.T. 164.167010) is in charge of the advertising for each of the agency’s clients, or accounts. In small agencies, the owner or manager may act as account executive. Account executives deter mine the nature of the advertising to be pro duced for their clients, coordinate and review all the agency’s activities involved in produc ing it, and maintain good relations between the agency and the client. Account execu tives usually handle one large account or several smaller accounts. Copywriters (D.O.T. 131.067-014) write the text of ads, called copy, and scripts for radio and TV ads. Copywriters must be able to write persuasively and should have an excellent command of English. Good copywriting calls for creativity, imagination, and a sense of salesmanship. Art directors (D.O.T. 141.031-010) are re sponsible for the visual appearance of ads, including the arrangement on the page, type style, photographs, and illustrations. Art direc tors often supervise those who lay out each ad, draw illustrations, and take photographs. Some agencies employ commercial or graphic artists (D.O.T. 141.061-014, -022) 235 236/Occupational Outlook Handbook to draw company trademarks, illustrations, and other parts of the ad that can’t be pro duced with photographs or readily available typefaces. It is common, however, for much of this work to be handled by freelance com mercial artists, who may contract work with many different agencies or companies. (See also statement on commercial and graphic artists and designers elsewhere in the Hand book.) Agencies also employ layout artists (D.O.T. 141.061-018), who set up printed ads for reproduction, arrange photographs and text for best effect, and select the size and type of print. Media directors, media buyers, and their assistants (D.O.T. 162.157-038; 247.382010) buy space or time for ads in the appro priate media, which are any of the forms of communication used for advertising, includ ing newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and billboards. The media director must not only recommend the most effective media for each client’s advertising campaign but also the most effective publications, TV or radio stations, or billboard location. Beginners of ten start in the media department doing re search on the relative effectiveness of various media for each client. Production managers and their assistants arrange to have the ad printed, filmed, or recorded. They often deal with other firms or with freelance workers, who do much of this work. This work is especially important in the case of producing TV advertisements, because there are high costs and exacting standards involved in producing even the simplest commercial. Marketing research workers (D .O .T . 050.067-014) provide information on the age, sex, and income level of a product’s potential buyers, and their shopping habits and prefer ences. This is used in planning advertising campaigns. They also evaluate the effective ness of advertising campaigns after they begin. (See also statement on market research analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Non-Agency Jobs. Although advertising agencies are the most visible employers of advertising workers, companies who under take to do their own advertising and the media employ more advertising workers. Most companies have a marketing depart ment, headed by a marketing director who is in charge of selling its products. Advertising is just one aspect of the marketing effort, which also includes research on new product lines, packaging design, management of the sales force, direct mail campaigns, and other sales promotional efforts. In this department, the advertising tnanager (D.O.T. 164.117010) recommends how much to spend on advertising, what goals the advertising should meet, and which advertising agency would be most effective. After selecting an agency, the advertising manager monitors and supervises the agency’s efforts. Some companies, especially large retail firms, produce their own advertising and have what amounts to an in-house advertising agency. They employ copywriters, art direc tors, layout artists, media directors, and oth ers who perform much the same functions as those with similar titles in advertising agen cies. Other companies engage an advertising agency to do most of their work, but employ advertising workers in-house to produce sales materials, brochures, and displays, and to perform other advertising related duties they prefer to handle within the company. Newspapers, magazines, and radio and TV stations and networks employ space or broadcast-time sales workers (D .O .T . 254.357-014; 259.357-018) to call on adver tisers and advertising agencies and persuade them to buy advertising space or time. As with all sales workers, these people must have sales ability. They must be familiar with the characteristics of the readers, listen ers, or viewers of their media, as well as the merits of their publication or station. This position can be a good starting point for entry into the field and can lead to higher level jobs in the media as well as in agencies and with advertisers. In addition, some media employ advertising workers such as copy writers who help small advertisers prepare their ads. Working Conditions The advertising field is highly competitive. Advertising workers often are under pressure to produce effective advertising and do not have as much job security as most other workers. Although advertising workers usu ally work regular hours, they may be expect ed to work overtime to meet deadlines. Employment About 100,000 advertising workers were employed in advertising agencies in 1980; probably two or three times this number were employed in other industries. Many of the largest advertising agencies are located in New York City, where most national adver tising is prepared. However, many agencies are in other large cities, especially Chicago, Los Angeles, and Detroit. New York also is the center of the broad casting and publishing industries, as well as the site of many corporate headquarters. Therefore it also has a concentration of non agency advertising people. Although many smaller cities have some advertising workers connected with local media and retail firms, few advertising workers are employed in smaller towns and rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of advertising work and types of employers, there is little agreement on the best preparation for an ad vertising job. Hiring practices are influenced by the employer’s size and organizational structure. A bachelor’s degree with a liberal arts, journalism, art, or business major is usually the minimum requirement. A major in advertising can be good preparation, but many employers do not consider this of any greater value than a liberal arts background, at least at the undergraduate level. Whatever the major field of study, it is important to develop good writing skills, especially for those who aim for jobs as copywriters. Those with the master’s degree in business administration are preferred for managerial or research-oriented jobs, as opposed to creative jobs such as copywriter or art director. A master’s degree in advertising is also consid ered good preparation for many jobs. Many employers believe that the ability to create ideas for effective ads is a flair that can’t be taught. Therefore they often give preference to applicants who have had some experience in advertising-related jobs or extracurricular activities. Part-time jobs in an advertising agency or in the advertis ing department of a business are ideal, but very scarce. Because advertising is a form of selling, a sales job can provide valu able experience. Writing or selling ads for a college newspaper also is considered good experience. Previous experience in journalism or other writing is useful for those who wish to be copywriters, while training and experience in business, marketing, finance, and economics is useful for business-oriented advertising jobs. Beginning advertising workers often start doing media or marketing research. Those with artistic backgrounds may start as lay out workers and those with writing skills, as copywriters. Some large employers have management training programs. Formal edu cational qualifications and seniority usually do not matter as much in advertising as in other fields. Advancement to account execu tive or other higher level job can be rapid for those with ability. Job Outlook Employment of advertising workers is ex pected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Economic growth will mean additional prod ucts and services that need to be advertised, while population growth will increase the number of potential customers. However, employment growth is tied closely to the health of the economy. In a recession, some advertisers reduce advertising expenditures, which results in layoffs. Unlike the situation in many other industries where layoffs affect primarily production workers, advertising layoffs affect those in all levels. A highly paid account executive and an inexperienced layout worker both can be fired if an agency loses a large account or an advertiser cuts its ad budget. People who have been laid off, however, eventually find another advertising job. Earnings Earnings in advertising vary depending on experience and individual ability. Based on limited data, beginning advertising workers Marketing and Sales Occupations/237 Automobile Parts Counter Workers (D.O.T. 185.167-038 and 279.357-062) Nature of the Work Advertising worker buying newspaper advertising space. generally started at $10,000-$ 18,000 a year in 1980, although those with an MBA or an MA in advertising from a leading university often started at $18,000-$25,000 per year. Within 3 or 4 years most workers can expect to earn roughly $18,000-$25,000 a year. Earnings of account executives with 5 to 10 years’ experience averaged between $25,000 and $40,000 a year in 1980. Senior execu tives and highly talented individuals often make much more. workers, insurance agents and brokers, man ufacturers’ sales workers, sales managers, real estate agents and brokers, and wholesale trade sales workers. Also related to advertis ing workers are buyers, public relations workers, and occupations such as journalist which involve writing. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in the advertis ing field, send a stamped, self-addressed en velope to: Related Occupations American Advertising Federation, 1225 Connecti cut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Advertising and sales occupations are highly interrelated. Sales occupations which involve considerable persuasion and product demonstration include automobile sales American Association of Advertising Agencies, 666 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. For information on advertising agency ca reers, contact: Periodically, parts for cars, vans, trucks, and other motor vehicles must be replaced to keep them in proper working condition. Sell ing these replacement parts as well as acces sories is the job of the automobile parts counter worker. Most automobile parts counter workers are employed in wholesale and retail automobile parts stores and automobile dealerships. Those in wholesale and retail parts stores sell parts for many makes and models of vehi cles . Their customers include independent re pair shops, service stations, self-employed mechanics, and “ do-it-yourselfers.” Counter workers employed in dealerships handle parts for the makes of vehicles sold by the dealers and spend most of their time supplying parts to the mechanics in the dealers’ repair shops. Parts stores and dealerships stock thou sands of items ranging from carburetors to rearview mirrors. Parts counter workers must be able quickly to identify and locate any of these parts for their customers, even when customers provide only a general description of the items they want. This requires a good knowledge of parts catalogs and the layout of the stockroom. After getting parts for customers, counter workers use price lists to determine their cost, fill out sales receipts, and collect pay ment or file the charge on the customer’s account. When counter workers do not have in stock the part a customer wants, they may check for interchangeable parts. If none is available, counter workers may place a spe cial order with their supplier or refer the customer to another dealer or parts store. If customers are not sure what is wrong with their vehicle, counter workers may ad vise them as to which parts need to be re placed. Counter workers also keep parts catalogs and price lists up to date, replenish stock, and unpack incoming shipments. They also may take care of the paperwork involved in selling, such as recording sales and taking inventories. In some firms, particularly small wholesale stores, counter workers also repair parts. Automobile parts managers supervise and train counter workers, order parts from sup pliers, keep sales records, and verify cash receipts. In most automobile parts depart ments and stores, managers spend some of their time selling parts. Working Conditions Automobile parts counter workers usually work in clean and well-lighted stockrooms. The work is not physically strenuous, but they spend much time standing or walking. Because many customers find it convenient to shop on weekends, some counter workers must work on Saturday and Sunday. Counter 238/Occupational Outlook Handbook ditions. Regardless of how tight family budgets may become during a recession, replacements must be purchased for broken automobile parts if the vehicle is to be restored to safe operating condition. Replacement of worn parts during routine maintenance can sometimes be de ferred, but only at the risk of later, more expen sive repairs, inconvenient breakdowns, or even an accident. In addition, during downswings in the economy people are more likely to replace parts and repair older automobiles rather than take on the much greater financial burdens required to replace the vehicle with a newer one. Thus, because sales of automobile re placement parts remain fairly stable regardless of the level of economic activity, layoffs of parts counter workers are rare. Earnings Since they deal with the public, parts counter workers should be friendly and tactful. workers may have to rush during busy times and sometimes must deal with difficult customers. Employment About 105,000 persons worked as auto mobile parts counter workers in 1980. Most worked for automobile dealers and retail automobile parts stores. Others worked for wholesalers and distributors of automotive parts. Trucking companies and buslines also employ parts workers to maintain their stockrooms and dispense parts to mechanics who repair their fleets; however, these workers usually do not sell parts to customers. Because dealerships and automobile parts stores are located throughout the country, parts counter workers are employed in almost every town and city. Most who work for warehouse distributors, trucking companies, and buslines are employed in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many parts counter workers learn the trade on the job. Beginners usually start as parts deliverers or trainees. In some firms, begin ners work as stock or receiving clerks. (See statements on stock clerks and receiving clerks elsewhere in the Handbook.) By filling out order forms and restocking shelves, train ees gradually become familiar with the differ ent types of parts, the use of catalogs and price lists, and the layout of the stockroom. Although trainees may wait on customers after a few months’ experience, it generally takes about 2 years to learn every aspect of the job. Generally, employers prefer to hire high school graduates who have some knowledge of automotive mechanics and parts, as well as mathematical ability. Courses in auto motive mechanics, commercial arithmetic, merchandising, selling, and bookkeeping are helpful. Practical experience gained by work ing in a gasoline service station, automobile repair shop, or on vehicles as a hobby also is helpful. Since they often deal with the public, auto mobile parts counter workers should be neat, friendly, and tactful. A good memory and the ability to write legibly and concentrate on details also are important. Counter workers with supervisory and business management ability may become parts department managers or store manag ers. Others who are especially good at deal ing with people may become outside sales representatives for parts wholesalers and dis tributors. These people sell parts to automo bile repair shops, service stations, trucking companies, and other businesses that buy parts and accessories on a regular basis. Some counter workers open their own auto mobile parts stores. Job Outlook Employment of automobile parts counter workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. More workers will be needed to sup ply parts for the growing number of motor vehicles in use. Besides jobs arising from growth in de mand, many openings are expected to be created because of the need to replace experi enced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Employment in this occu pation is not expected to fluctuate significant ly from year to year because the demand for automobile parts, unlike some products, is not very sensitive to changing economic con Automobile parts counter workers typically work 40 to 48 hours a week. They may be paid a weekly or monthly salary or at an hourly wage rate. In addition, they may receive com missions on sales. Counter workers employed by automobile dealers in 23 large cities had estimated average earnings of $6.90 an hour in 1980, about the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Automobile parts managers—particularly store managers—had higher earnings. Many were paid a salary with sales incentives rather than an hourly wage. Some parts counter workers are mem bers of the following unions: The Internation al Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Sheet Metal Workers’ Inter national Association; and the Internation al Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Related Occupations Receiving automobile parts shipments, storing parts in their proper places, and then issuing them to customers are important as pects of the automobile parts counter work er’s job. Workers in many other occupations also receive, store, and issue supplies, mer chandise, or equipment. Examples are inven tory clerks, material clerks, property clerks, shipping and receiving clerks, stock clerks, and tool-crib attendants. Sources of Additional Information Details about employment opportunities may be obtained from local automobile deal ers and parts wholesalers and distributors, locals of the unions previously mentioned, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about the occupa tion, write to: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 20212. Marketing and Sales Occupations/239 Automobile Sales Workers_______ (D.O.T. 273.353-010) Nature of the Work The automobile plays an essential role in the lives of most Americans. People use their cars to commute to work, to pick up their children from school, to go on vacation, and for various other purposes depending on their needs. When choosing a car that will meet their needs as well as their personal tastes, car buyers often need assistance. Automobile sales workers provide this assistance. When a customer enters the showroom, the sales worker tries to find out what kind of car the customer wants. Is the customer interested primarily in economy or in a highperformance automobile? Sales workers em phasize the points that please their customers. To demonstrate these points, such as per formance, ride, and handling, customers may test-drive cars. Most people want to bargain over the price of cars or the allowance they get for trade-ins, and some dealers expect sales workers to negotiate, especially if they are overstocked that month. A sales worker generally knows what price the dealer will accept, but no sale is final until the manager approves the terms the sales worker has offered. ing their leads, sales workers may contact prospects by phone or mail. Working Conditions Although automobile sales workers stand much of the time, their job is not physically strenuous. They spend most of their time waiting on customers in well-lighted, wellheated, and well-ventilated showrooms. For the convenience of their customers, automobile sales workers frequently work evenings, weekends, and holidays. Many dealers assign sales workers “floortime”— hours they spend in the showroom greeting customers. For example, a sales worker may be in the showroom from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. one week, from 3 p.m. to 9 p.m. the next week, and all day on Saturdays. When not in the showroom, they may deliver cars and look for new customers a few hours each day. Due to the highly competitive nature of selling, automobile sales workers may be subject to stress. They often are under pres sure to meet their sales quota yet must re main pleasant even when they are tired or waiting on hard-to-please customers. Employment An estimated 157,000 persons worked as automobile sales workers in 1980. Many small used-car dealerships employ only one sales worker, while some new car dealerships employ more than 50 sales workers and sell thousands of cars a year. Most automobile sales workers work in heavily populated areas. The final step of overcoming the custom ers’ hesitancy to buy and getting the order (closing the sale) is difficult in any sales work. Because cars are such an expensive purchase, experienced sales workers or managers often assist beginners in closing a sale. Once the sale is made, the car must be registered and license plates obtained from the State department of motor vehicles. Sales workers fill out the necessary forms and, if customers desire, arrange for financing and insurance as well. Finally, sales workers set up a delivery date for the cars and answer any additional questions buyers have. Successful sales workers always seek to develop customer loyalty and in this manner build repeat business. Therefore, after deliv ery, they often contact customers to thank them for their business and to ask if they are satisfied with the car. From time to time, they also may send customers literature on new models. Successful sales workers cannot simply wait for prospects to walk into the show room. Instead, they must follow leads on prospective customers by obtaining names of prospects from automobile registration re cords and from dealer sales, service, and finance records. They also can get leads from gas station operators, parking lot attendants, and others whose work brings them into fre quent contact with car owners. After obtain Sales workers should be good at striking up conversations with strangers. 240/Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sales managers and experienced sales workers train most beginners on the job. In large dealerships, beginners may receive sev eral days of classroom training to learn how to obtain leads on prospective customers, to make sales presentations, and to close sales. In addition, manufacturers furnish training manuals and other educational material for sales workers to study. In almost every deal ership, managers continually guide and train sales workers, both on the job and at periodic sales meetings. Sales managers also may at tend the training programs which manufactur ers offer for new sales campaigns. A high school diploma usually is the mini mum educational requirement for beginners. Courses in English or public speaking, in particular, can help build confidence in one’s ability to talk with customers. Also, courses in mathematics, consumer education, mer chandising, business law, and psychology can provide a good background for this type of work. Previous sales experience or other work requiring contact with the public is not required, but it is helpful. Many persons in automobile sales, for example, previously were in furniture, appliance, or door-to-door sales. Since automobiles are a major purchase, dealers prefer sales workers who exhibit the maturity which can inspire customer confi dence. As a result, many employers prefer applicants who are at least in their mid- or late twenties. The success of automobile sales workers often depends upon their ability to gain the respect and trust of their customers. There fore, they must be tactful, well-groomed, and able to express themselves well. Auto sales workers, like other sales workers, must have the drive and motivation to contact prospec tive customers, the ability to plan and or ganize an effective sales presentation, and an in-depth knowledge of their product and related matters, including automobile financ ing and insurance. Because automobile sales workers occasionally work for days without making a sale, they need self-confidence and determination to get through these slow periods. Employees who have managerial ability may advance to assistant sales manager, sales manager, or general manager. Many prefer to remain sales workers, however, and enjoy the freedom of changing dealerships or working in different parts of the country. Some managers and general managers open their own dealership or become partners in dealerships. Job Outlook Employment of automobile sales workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as the demand for automobiles increases. In addi tion to jobs resulting from growth in demand for sales workers, thousands of openings will occur annually as workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Over the long run, rising population and personal incomes will lead to increased car sales, and employment of sales workers will grow. Because sales are affected by changing economic conditions and consumer prefer ences, employment will fluctuate from year to year. Opportunities for beginners will be plentiful in some years but scarce in others. In lean years, workers with poor sales re cords may be laid off, or may find jobs in other fields. Many, however, return to sell ing when the demand for cars increases. Earnings Most automobile sales workers are paid a commission, that is, a percentage of either the price of every car they sell or the profit the dealer makes on each sale. They may earn another commission when customers fi Auto sales fluctuate from year to year, causing jobs for automobile sales workers to be abundant in some years and scarce in others Retail sales of passenger cars (millions) nance or insure their cars through the dealer. Because car sales vary from month to month, sales workers’ commissions also vary. Many dealers pay commissioned sales workers a modest weekly or monthly salary so that they will have a steady income. Others give sales workers advances against future commis sions. A few dealers pay a straight salary. Because it takes some time for beginners to learn the business, dealers often guarantee them a modest salary for the first few weeks or months. Automobile sales workers averaged about $18,000 a year in 1980, according to the limited information available. Top sales workers earned considerably more. Earnings varied widely depending on individual ability and experience, geographic location, and the type and size of the dealership. Many dealerships, especially the larger ones, also provide bonus and other special incentive programs for selling more cars than expected. Sales workers receive many fringe bene fits. Dealers often furnish their sales staffs with demonstrator cars free of charge, or sell or lease demonstrators at a discount. Sales workers also receive discounts on cars they buy for personal use. Related Occupations Sales play an important part in marketing many products and services. Among the many sales occupations that require personal contact and a special knowledge of the prod uct or service being sold are insurance agents, manufacturers’ sales workers, real es tate agents, recreation and sporting goods sales workers, securities sales workers, shoe sales workers, stereo equipment sales work ers, and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information Details on employment opportunities may be obtained from local automobile dealers or the local office of the State employment ser vice. For general information about the work, write to: National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. Cashiers (D .O .T . 211 .362-010, .367-010, .462, .467, .482, and 249.467-010) Nature of the Work Source: Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association Supermarkets, movie theaters, and restau rants are among the many businesses that employ cashiers to handle payments from customers. Most cashiers receive money, make change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. The related occupation of bank tell er is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. In addition to these duties, cashiers, de pending on their place of employment, may do other work and have different job titles. Marketing and Sales Occupations/241 Those employed in theaters, for example, are often called box office cashiers or ticket sell ers. They operate ticket-dispensing machines and answer telephone inquiries. Restaurant cashiers, sometimes called cashier checkers, may handle reservations for meals and spe cial parties, type menus, or sell items at the candy and cigarette counter. In supermar kets and other self-service stores, cashiers known as checkout clerks, checkers, or gro cery clerks wrap or bag purchases. They also may restock shelves and mark prices, rear range displays of merchandise, and take in ventory. In many offices, cashiers, known as agency or front-office cashiers, type, operate the switchboard, do bookkeeping, and act as receptionists. Cashiers operate several types of ma chines. Many use cash registers that print the amount of the sale on a paper tape. A rapidly growing number of cashiers operate electron ic registers, computerized point-of-sale regis ters, or computerized scanning systems. Depending upon its complexity, a computer ized system may automatically calculate the necessary taxes and record inventory num bers and other information. Such registers are replacing less versatile, conventional models in many stores. Cashiers who work in hotels and hospitals use machines that record charges for telephone, medical, and other services and prepare itemized bills. Cashiers may also operate adding and change-dispens ing machines. Working Conditions Most cashiers work indoors, often in small booths or behind counters located near store entrances. They may have to stand for long periods of time. In some cases, they are exposed to cold drafts in the winter and con siderable heat during the summer. Employment In 1980, about 1,600,000 persons worked as cashiers. More cashiers work in supermar kets and other foodstores than in any other kind of store. However, cashiers are needed in businesses and organizations of all types and sizes, and many find jobs in department stores, drugstores, shoestores, hardware stores, furniture stores, and other kinds of retail stores. Restaurants, hotels, theaters, schools, and hospitals also employ a large number of cashiers. Businesses employing cashiers are located in large cities, suburban shopping centers, small towns, and rural areas. The Federal Government employs a small number, primarily in the Department of Defense, in clubs, cafeterias, and exchanges on military installations. Opportunities for part time work are very good. Nearly half of all cashiers work part time; about 1 in 4 is a student. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer beginning cashiers with high school diplomas. Although there are no specific educational requirements, courses in business arithmetic, bookkeeping, typing, and other business subjects are good prepa ration for cashier jobs. Cashier training is offered as part of many public school voca tional programs. Many employers offer on-the-job training for cashiers. In a small firm, the beginner is trained on the job by an experienced worker. In large firms, cashier training programs of ten include classroom instruction in the use of electronic or computerized registers and in other phases of cashier’s jobs. Many persons enter cashier positions without significant pri or work experience. For some jobs, however, employers seek persons who have special skills or business experience, such as typing or selling. Many openings, especially full time positions, are filled by promoting quali fied part time workers already employed by the firm. Persons who want to become cashiers should be able to do repetitious work accu rately. They need finger dexterity, a high degree of eye-hand coordination, and an apti tude for working with figures. Because they meet the public, cashiers should be neat in appearance and able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with customers. Promotion opportunities for cashiers tend to be limited. However, the cashier’s job affords a good opportunity to leam an em ployer’s business and so may serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible job, such as bookkeeper or manager. Cashiers working in chainstores and other large retail businesses, for example, may advance to department or store managers. Job Outlook Many job openings for cashiers are expect ed through the 1980’s. The occupation is large, and employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Growth in eating and drinking places, par ticularly in fast food chains, is expected to be especially rapid. However, even more open ings will occur as cashiers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Oppor tunities for part-time employment are also expected to continue to be very good. Employment of cashiers is likely to be affected by the use of computerized checkout systems, which are beginning to replace cash registers in some supermarkets. An optical or magnetic scanner transmits the code number (Universal Product Code-UPC) of each pur chase to a computer that is programmed to record a description and price of the item, add the tax, and print out a receipt. The computer also keeps track of the store’s in ventory and places orders with the warehouse when stock is needed. The widespread adop tion of automated checkout systems in super markets and other establishments is expected to slow employment growth of cashiers and other workers. However, resistance from consumer and labor groups may limit the adoption of such systems. Employment in the supermarket industry is not very sensitive to Cashiers may have to stand for long periods of time. fluctuations in the economy, since people must eat whether they have a job or not. Earnings Beginning cashiers often earn only the minimum wage required by law. In establish ments covered by the Federal law, the mini mum was $3.10 an hour in 1980. In addition, minimum wages in many establishments are governed by State law. Where State minimums are higher, the establishment pays at least that rate. Cashiers earn wages ranging from the minimum in a given establishment to several times that amount. According to a 1981 Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of grocery stores, the top median hourly union rates for full-time cashiers ranged from $4.93 to $8.79. Wages tended to be highest in the West and the North Central region and low est in the South; wages generally were higher in large metropolitan areas than in smaller cities. Experienced full-time cashiers who were members of the United Food and Commer cial Workers International Union earned average wages of $8.45 per hour in 1980; beginners earned average wages of $4.64 per hour. Wages for nonunion cashiers are gener ally lower than those for union cashiers. Many cashiers are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. Others are represented by a variety of unions, depending on the industry in which they work. They generally receive health in surance, annual and sick leave, pension bene fits, and similar benefits available to other workers. Hours of work for cashiers may vary de pending on needs of the employer. Cashiers often work during rush periods such as holi days, weekends, late afternoons, and eve nings. Work at these times often is required in theaters, restaurants, and foodstores. Many cashiers in these places work part time 242/Occupational Outlook Handbook or on split shifts. Full-time cashiers in super markets and other large retail stores usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week; however, they may work on weekends and have time off during the week. ance policies covering the costs of hospital and medical care or loss of income due to illness or injury. Many agents may also ad vise clients about securities, such as mutual fund shares or variable annuities. Related Occupations Working Conditions Cashiers pay or receive money and keep account of such exchanges. Other workers with similar duties include bank tellers, ticket sellers, post office clerks, toll collectors, sales clerks, and adding-machine operators. Agents do a considerable amount of local travel to meet with clients. They generally arrange their own hours of work, and often schedule evening and weekend appointments for the convenience of clients. Some agents work more than 40 hours a week. Sources of Additional Information Details about employment opportunities are available from local businesses and the local office of the State employment service. Insurance Agents and Brokers (D.O.T. 250.257-010) Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact with an insurance company through an agent or broker. When individuals or companies de cide to buy insurance, they get in touch with one of these professionals to help them select the right policy for their needs. Insurance agents and brokers sell policies that provide individuals and businesses with financial pro tection against loss. They plan for the finan cial security of individuals, families, and businesses; advise about insurance protection for an automobile, home, business, or other property; prepare reports and maintain rec ords; or help a policyholder obtain settlement of an insurance claim. Specialists in group policies may help an employer to set up payroll deductions for employees covered by the policy. Insurance agents are insurance company em ployees; brokers are independent business per sons who sell for many insurance companies and place policies directly with the company that best meets a clients’ needs. Otherwise, agents and brokers do much the same kind of work. Agents and brokers sell one or more of the three basic types of insurance: Life, proper ty-liability (casualty), and health. Life insur ance agents, sometimes called life under writers,- offer policies that pay survivors when a policyholder dies. Depending on the policyholder’s circumstances, a life policy also can be designed to provide retirement income, funds for the education of children, or other benefits. Casualty insurance agents sell policies that protect individuals and busi nesses from financial losses as a result of automobile accidents, fire or theft, or other losses, as well as industrial or commercial lines, covering workers’ compensation, pro duct liability, or medical malpractice. Many life and casualty agents also sell health insur Employment More than 325,000 agents and brokers sold insurance in 1980, thousands of whom worked part time. About one in four is selfemployed. Many agents and brokers special ize in life insurance or in property-liability insurance. A growing number of agents (called multiline agents) offer both life and property-liability policies. Agents and brokers are employed in cities and towns throughout the country, but most work in or near large population centers. Almost all insurance agents and brokers work out of local company offices or independent agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although many employers prefer college graduates for jobs selling insurance, most hire high school graduates with potential or proven sales ability or those who have been successful in other types of work. Many col leges and universities offer courses in insur ance, and some schools offer a bachelor’s degree in insurance. College courses in fi nance, accounting, economics, business law, government, and business administration en able the insurance agent to relate insurance to other personal finance problems and to eco nomic conditions. Courses in psychology, sociology, and public speaking can prove useful in improving sales techniques. College training may help the agent grasp the funda mentals and procedures of insurance selling more quickly. All agents and most brokers must obtain a license in the State where they plan to sell insurance. In most States, licenses are issued only to applicants who pass written examina tions covering insurance fundamentals and the State insurance laws. Agents who plan to sell mutual fund shares and other securities also must be licensed by the State. New agents usually receive training at the agen cies where they work and frequently also at the insurance company’s home office. Be ginners sometimes attend company-sponsored classes to prepare for examinations. Others study on their own and accompany experi enced sales workers when they call on pro spective clients. Agents and brokers can broaden their knowledge of the insurance business by tak ing courses at colleges and universities and attending institutes, conferences, and semi nars sponsored by insurance organizations. The Life Underwriter Training Council (LUTC) awards a diploma in life insurance marketing to agents who successfully com plete the Council’s 2-year life program. This program emphasizes practical selling skills. There is also a course in health insurance. The National Association of Health Under writers awards the Registered Health Under writer (RHU) designation to those indi viduals who successfully complete a series of courses. Life insurance agents or brokers can qualify for the Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) designation by passing a series of examinations given by the American College of Bryn Mawr, Pa; property-liability agents can qualify for the Chartered Property Casu alty Underwriter (CPCU) designation by passing a series of examinations given by the American Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters. The RHU, CLU, and CPCU designations are recognized marks of achievement in their respective fields. A new designation, Accredited Advisors in Insur ance, is also available. Agents and brokers can qualify for this by passing a series of three one-semester courses covering princi ples of insurance production, multiple-lines insurance production, and agency operation and marketing. Agents and brokers should be enthusiastic, self-confident, and able to communicate ef fectively. They should be able to inspire cus tomer confidence. Many employers give personality tests to prospective employees be cause personality attributes are important in sales work. Since agents usually work with out supervision, they must be able to plan their time well and have initiative to locate new clients. An insurance agent who shows sales abili ty and leadership may become a sales man ager in a local office. A few agents advance to agency superintendent or company vicepresident. However, many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, particularly in the property-li ability field, establish their own independent agencies or brokerage firms. Job Outlook Employment of insurance agents and brokers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as the volume of insurance sales con tinues to expand. Many additional jobs will open as agents and brokers transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Due to the highly competitive nature of insurance selling, many beginners leave the field because they are unable to establish a sufficiently large clien tele. Therefore, opportunities should be fa vorable for ambitious people who enjoy sales work. Future demand for agents and brokers de pends on the volume of insurance sales. The volume of life and health insurance should increase rapidly over the next decade as many more workers enter the 25-54 age Marketing and Sales Occupations/243 The National Association of Life Underwriters, 1922 F St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For career information on property-liability agents, contact: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. Independent Insurance Agents of America, 100 Church St., New York, N.Y. 10007. Alliance of American Insurers, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. The National Association of Independent Insurers, Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Washing ton St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Manufacturers’ Sales Workers__________ (D.O.T. 260 through 279.357) Insurance agent calculates the cost of increasing a policyholder’s coverage. group. People in this group have the greatest need for life and health insurance, and pro tection for homes, automobiles, and other valuables. Life insurance sales also should grow as more families select policies de signed to provide retirement income and edu cational funds for their children. Additional life insurance sales will also reflect the grow ing need for life insurance and disability pro tection for working women. Rising incomes as well as a concern for financial security also may stimulate sales of mutual funds, variable annuities, and other investments. Sales of property-liability insurance should rise as more people seek coverage not only for their homes and cars but also for expen sive, advanced technology products such as home computers and video recorders, and as complex types of commercial coverage, such as product liability, workers’ compensation, prepaid legal, kidnap, and pollution liability insurance are expanded. Employment of agents and brokers may not keep pace with the rising level of insur ance sales because more policies will be sold to groups and by mail. In addition, each agent should be able to handle more business as computers take over more routine clerical tasks. The trend toward multiline agents also will cause employment to rise more slowly than the volume of insurance sales. Most individuals and businesses consider insurance a necessity, regardless of economic conditions. Therefore agents are not likely to face unemployment because of a recession. Earnings Beginners in this occupation often are guaranteed a moderate salary while they learn the business and build a clientele. In many large companies, new agents received a me dian salary in 1981 of about $1,200 a month during this training period, which usually lasts about 6 months. Thereafter, most agents are paid on a commission basis. The size of the commission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold, and whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Life insurance agents with 5 or more years of experience had a median income of $22,000 in 1981, but thousands of agents and brokers earned more than $40,000 a year, and many earned more than $100,000. Casualty insur ance agents, usually earned higher incomes. Agents and brokers generally pay their own automobile and travel expenses. Inde pendent brokers must also pay office rent, clerical salaries, and other operating expenses out of their earnings. Most agents have paid vacations, group life and health insurance plans, and retire ment pensions. The size of most pensions depends on how much insurance an agent sells. Related Occupations Other workers who sell complex or expen sive products or services include real estate agents and brokers, securities sales workers, financial advisors, estate planning specialists, and manufacturers’ sales workers. Sources of Additional Information General occupational information about in surance agents and brokers is available from the home office of many life and propertyliability insurance companies. Information on State licensing requirements may be obtained from the department of insurance at any State capital. Information about a career as a life insur ance agent also is available from: American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St. NW., Washington, D.C ., 20006. Nature of the Work Practically all manufacturers employ sales workers. Manufacturers’ sales workers sell mainly to other businesses—factories, banks, wholesalers, and retailers. They also sell to hospitals, schools, libraries, and other institutions. ( Manufacturers ’ sales workers visit prospec tive buyers to inform them about the prod ucts they sell, analyze the buyers’ needs, suggest how their products can meet these needs, and take orders. Sales workers visit firms in their territory, using an approach adapted to their line of merchandise] Those who handle crackers or cookies, for example, emphasize their wholesomeness, attractive packaging, and variety. Sometimes sales workers promote their products at trade shows and conferences. Sales workers who deal in technical pro ducts, such as electronic equipment, often are called industrial sales workers. Some engi neers, often called sales engineers, also sell technical products. (See statement on engi neers elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addi tion to providing information on their firms’ products, they help prospective buyers with technical problems. For example, they may recommend improved materials and machin ery for a firm’s manufacturing process, draw up plans of proposed machinery layout, and estimate cost savings from buying their equipment. They present this information to company officials and negotiate a sale, a process which may take many months. They may work with engineers in their own com panies adapting products to a customer’s spe cial needs. Technical sales workers some times train customers’ employees to operate and maintain new equipment, and make fre quent visits to make certain that it is func tioning properly. Manufacturers’ sales workers spend most of their time visiting prospective customers. They also prepare reports on sales prospects 244/Occupational Outlook Handbook or customers’ credit ratings, plan their work schedules, draw up lists of prospects, make appointments, handle correspondence, and study literature about their products. Working Conditions Some manufacturers’ sales workers have large territories and do considerable travel ing. They may be away from home for sever al days or weeks at a time. Others usually work near their “home base. ” Manufacturers’ sales workers call at the time most conven ient to customers and may have to travel at night or on weekends. Frequently, they spend evenings writing reports. However, some plan their schedules for time off when they want it. Employment Nearly 440,000 people were manufactur ers’ sales workers in 1980. Some worked out of their company’s home office, often located at a manufacturing plant. The majority, how ever, worked out of branch offices, usually in big cities near prospective customers. Large numbers of sales workers are em ployed by the printing and publishing, chemi cal, fabricated metal products, electrical, and other machinery industries, as well as the transportation and food products industries. In addition, there are many independent sales representatives who are self-employed and who work for a straight commission based on the dollar amount of their sales. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree is increasingly desirable for a job as a manufacturers’ salesworker. Manufacturers of nontechnical products usu ally seek graduates with degrees in liberal arts or business administration. Manufactur ers of technical products usually seek gradu ates with degrees in science or engineering. Drug sales workers, also known as pharma ceutical detailers, usually need a background in biology and chemistry. Manufacturers of electrical equipment, heavy machinery, and some types of chemicals prefer to hire people who have studied engineering, phys ics, or chemistry. (Information on chemists, engineers, and others with the technical training suitable for work as manufacturers’ sales workers is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many companies, especially those that manufacture technical products, have formal training programs for beginning sales work ers that last 2 years or longer. In some pro grams, trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, installation, and distribution of the product. In others, trainees take formal classroom in struction at the plant, followed by on-the-job training in a branch office under the supervi sion of a field sales manager. A pleasant personality and appearance and the ability to get along well with people are important. Because sales workers may have to walk, stand for long periods, or carry product samples, some physical stamina is necessary. As in most selling jobs, arithmetic skills are an asset. Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervisors, branch managers, or dis trict managers. Those with managerial ability eventually may advance to sales manager or other executive positions; many top execu tives in industry started as sales workers. Frequent contact with business people in other firms helps sales workers transfer to other jobs. Some go into business for them selves as independent representatives. Others find opportunities in advertising and market ing research. Job Outlook Employment in this field is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Industrial firms, chainstores, and institutions that pur chase large quantities of goods at one time frequently buy directly from the manufactur er. The need for sales workers should in crease as manufacturers emphasize sales activities to compete for the growing number of these valuable accounts. Many openings also will occur each year because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. As is the case in other sales jobs, turnover is fairly high. Each year, a number of new manufacturers’ sales workers discover that they are not cut out for selling and leave the occupation. Because sales are affected by changing economic conditions and consumer prefer ences, employment opportunities and earn ings may fluctuate from year to year. Overall, opportunities are expected to be good for persons with appropriate product knowledge or technical expertise, plus the personal traits necessary for successful selling. Earnings Manufacturers sales worker meets with prospective purchaser. Earnings for manufacturers’ sales workers may depend on the type of compensation plan. Some manufacturers pay experienced sales workers a straight commission, based on the dollar amount of their sales (as in the case of independent representatives); others pay a fixed salary. Most use a combination of salary and commission, salary and bonus, or salary, commission, and bonus. Bonus payments may depend on individual perform ance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Salaries for inexperienced sales workers ranged between $13,900 and $15,400 a year in 1980, according to a survey conducted by the American Management Associations. Marketing and Sales Occupations/245 The highest starting salaries generally were paid by industrial goods manufacturers. Ex perienced sales workers generally earned be tween $17,400 and $23,100 in 1980, depending upon the firm and the product. The highest paid sales workers generally earned between $26,200 and $33,500. Medi an total compensation (salary plus bonus or commission) for inexperienced sales workers ranged between $14,100 and $17,500 a year in 1980. Experienced sales workers received between $21,000 and $24,400, while sales supervisors earned between $32,400 and $37,400 during the same year. The highest total compensation was generally paid by in dustrial goods manufacturers. Related Occupations Manufacturers’ sales workers must have sales ability and a specific knowledge of the products they sell. Some related occupations that require these skills are buyers, route drivers, field-contact technicians, wholesale trade sales workers, real estate sales workers, insurance sales workers, and securities sales workers. Sources of Additional Information For more information on the occupation of manufacturers’ sales worker, write: Manufacturers’ Agents National Association, P.O. Box 16878, Irvine, Calif. 92713. Models___________ (D .O .T. 297.667-014; 961.367-010; and .667-010) Nature of the Work Selling a product always is easier if an attractive person is shown using it. In maga zine advertisements and television commer cials, models can be seen posing with a wide variety of products, including cars, soft drinks, and perfume. Most models, however, are used to show the latest in fashion designs and cosmetics. There are several different kinds of mod els. Fashion models generally work for cloth ing m a n u fa c tu re rs, dress d e sig n e rs, department stores, or dress salons. They may model clothing in formal fashion shows or private showings or model informally—in store restaurants or on the sales floor, for example. In formal fashion shows, these models display clothing on a platform or runway. While the commentator describes what they are wearing, they stand, turn, and walk past customers and photographers and point out special features of the design. They may stop to tell individual customers a gar ment’s price and style number during infor mal fashion shows where runways or platforms are not generally used. Some fashion models specialize in show room work. Known as showroom or fitting models, they are employed by clothing man ufacturers to model clothes and accessories for the fashion buyers who visit manufactur ers’ showrooms on their regular buying trips. Many of these models work in New York’s garment district. For showroom models, standard measurements are essential; perfect size may be more important than a beautiful face. When new spring or fall designs are being shown, these models are extremely busy. During slack times, however, they may have some general office duties, such as typ ing or filing. Photographic models are hired by advertis ing agencies and freelance photographers, usually for a particular assignment. These models are seen on magazine covers and billboards in advertisements of all kinds; they generally are at the top of their profession. Artists’ models pose for painters, sculptors, photographers, or art students. They must be able to hold a pose for a long period of time. Some models work in films and television doing commercials and demonstrating cos metics, shampoos, deodorants, and other per sonal products. M odels with acting experience may be preferred for this type of work. Models may be hired to demonstrate new products and services at exhibits, trade shows, and sales meetings. They also are hired to appear at conventions, benefits, and political rallies. Models sometimes are sought for jobs as beauty consultants, fashion consultants, personal shoppers, or tour guides. Working Conditions Modeling can be a glamorous and exciting career. Very successful models enjoy fame, travel, and the opportunity to meet famous personalities. However, the work is hard and not nearly as glamorous as many believe. Modeling is physically demanding; working Modeis must be able to hold a pose. hours are irregular and often very long; and getting work in the first place can be diffi cult. Building and maintaining a reputation as a model take determination and the expendi ture of considerable time and attention on one’s personal appearance. Models sometimes must work under un comfortable conditions, posing under hot stu dio lights, for example. The work can affect their personal lives because models must al ways look fresh and well rested for the cam era and may have to limit their social activities. In addition, models may have to spend a good part of every day on beauty care. Fashion models doing informal modeling work at a leisurely pace. They generally show to several customers a day. During slack periods, they may stroll through the store wearing apparel that store owners wish to bring to the attention of their clients. Fash ion show models also experience slack per iods when showrooms are free of buyers. Of course, they must be prepared to model and change outfits quickly when buyers appear. Those who deal with the public must be tactful, courteous, and feel comfortable around all kinds of people. Employment An estimated 60,000 persons worked full time as models in 1980. In New York City’s garment district, clothing manufactur ers, designers, and wholesalers employ mod els full time to show their latest fashion designs to prospective retail buyers. The overwhelming majority of models, however, work on a freelance basis through agencies that arrange assignments for them. Many models only receive occasional assignments and need other jobs to support themselves. Advertising agencies, retail stores, maga- 246/Occupational Outlook Handbook zines, and photographers almost always em ploy agency models for their fashion articles or advertisements. Modeling jobs are available in nearly all urban areas, but most jobs are in New York City because it is the center of the fashion industry. Other major cities offering opportu nities include Chicago, Detroit, Los Ange les, Dallas, Miami, San Francisco, Boston, Washington, D.C., Atlanta, Philadelphia, and Houston. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The most important asset for a model is a distinctive and attractive physical appear ance. Advertisers and clothing designers hire models who have the right “ look” for their product and a face or style that is “eye catching.” Female fashion models usually must be between 5 feet 5 inches and 5 feet 10 inches tall. Male models generally must be between 6 feet and 6 feet 2 inches tall and wear a size 40 or 42 regular suit. Size requirements for specific assignments are quite rigid because manufacturers’ and designers’ samples are standard and clothes must fit the models without alteration. Broad shoulders, good co ordination, and grace also are definite assets for fashion models. Photographic models must have fine, regu lar features and good teeth, hands, and legs. Wide-set eyes and a long neck are also essen tial. Certain assignments, such as modeling shoes or jewelry, emphasize a model’s legs or neck, for example. Above all, however, a model’s photogenic qualities determine his or her success. There are no educational requirements for models; some have completed high school and modeling school while others have had college training. Courses in drama, dancing, art, and fashion design are useful because they can help in developing poise and a sense of style. Any kind of formal training in de veloping modeling techniques can be helpful in this competitive job market. Models should enjoy working with people and exhibit poise and self-confidence under the pressures of competition, tight schedules, and quick costume changes. Physical stamina is important because models are on their feet most of the time and must sometimes assume rather awkward positions when posing for photographers. To look their best under such pressure, models must maintain excellent health. Aspiring models should understand the distinction between modeling schools and modeling agencies. Modeling schools teach students how to style their hair, walk and stand with good posture, pose in front of a camera, and apply makeup. Students also learn about skin care, diet and nutrition, ex ercise, speech, and etiquette. The main busi ness of these schools is conducting classes; helping their graduates find work is not their central concern. Modeling schools vary in quality, and individuals considering enrolling in a modeling school should be sure that they select a reputable school, preferably one that is licensed by its State and has a good place ment service. Modeling agencies, on the other hand, are essentially employment agencies; they are in the business of finding and scheduling as signments for their models. They work on a commission basis, usually charging both the client and the model they represent. For ev ery job the agency arranges, the model gen erally pays 10 to 20 percent of the modeling fee. Modeling agencies assist their models in various ways and may even provide training to help a model develop a distinctive style. However, agencies are selective about the models they accept and normally take on only the most promising beginners. Once a model is listed with an agency, the agency makes an effort to find steady work for him or her. Agencies usually help their models assemble a portfolio of photographs of themselves in various poses and kinds of clothing. The agency and or the model then shows the portfolio to prospective clients. A portfolio is a necessary part of a model’s career and requires constant updating as the model’s career progresses. Not all models get their jobs through mod eling agencies. Some department stores hold auditions that give aspiring models a chance to model at store fashion shows. (Sales jobs in department stores can provide useful ex perience in selecting and coordinating fash ions, using makeup, and, occasionally, informal modeling.) Fashion shows spon sored by local community organizations offer another opportunity for prospective models. As models gain experience and build a repu tation, they move on to more prestigious and lucrative assignments. Modeling also can be a stepping stone to other jobs in the fashion field, such as staff editor of a fashion magazine, consultant for a cosmetic firm, or fashion coordinator for a department store. Some models take courses in art and design and may become fashion illustrators or designers. Others become buy ers or sales representatives. A few models who work in television commercials become actors or actresses. Job Outlook Competition for available modeling jobs will continue to be keen through the 1980’s. The glamour of modeling attracts many more persons than are needed in the occupation. Competition is particularly keen in New York City where models can earn the highest salaries working for national advertisers; oth er major cities, however, increasingly offer opportunities in this occupation. Experienced models will continue to receive most of the assignments. Although rising advertising expenditures and sales of clothing and accessories should cause the demand for both photographic and fashion models to increase, most job open ings each year will result from the need to replace models who leave the occupation. Many models have to retire when they lose their youthful appearance. Others leave the occupation because their particular “ look” goes out of style or becomes associated with an outdated product. Male models gen erally have a longer working life than female models. Earnings A model’s earnings depend on the number, length, and type of assignments he or she receives. Female models generally command higher salaries than male models. Although a few top models earn as much as or more than top business executives, most earn far less. According to the limited information avail able, fashion models working full time for manufacturers or wholesalers generally earned around $22,000 a year in 1980. Models who work for more than one em ployer receive a fee for their work. If they are registered with an agency, they pay a commission for the services it provides. Models working for major agencies in New York City on a steady basis earned from about $20,000 to $55,000 a year; most earned around $35,000. Models in other cities earned lower rates. Part-time photo graphic models generally earned from $50 to $100 an hour; models working in retail stores or conventions earned from $8 to $12 an hour. Models in other major cities earned lower rates. These rates are misleading, how ever, because many models, especially be ginners, work only a few hours each week and spend a great deal of their time audition ing for prospective clients. Models’ incomes also depend on the type of work they do, whether runway or photographic work. The more versatile the model, the greater the number of assignments and the greater the income he or she may receive. Although photographic modeling often pays well, mod els usually must provide their own accesso ries, such as wigs and hairpieces, and pay for their transportation. Occasionally, a model must buy a complete outfit in order to get a particular job. Models working as extras in television commercials earned about $180 a day in 1980; principal characters earned around $275 a day and sometimes received addition al income when the commercial was rerun. Models in industrial or educational films earned about $225 a day. Television models must be members of the American Feder ation of Television and Radio Artists and/or the Screen Actors Guild, Inc. Related Occupations A pleasing physical appearance, grace, and the ability to relate to other people are the essential ingredients in a model’s success. Others for whom these qualities are impor tant include demonstrators, guides, stand-ins or doubles for star performers, character im personators, and entertainers. Marketing and Sales Occupations/247 Sources of Additional Information Information on careers and training for models is available from: World Modeling Association, P.O. Box 100, Cro ton-on-Hudson, New York, N.Y. 10520. Employers of models, such as retail stores, advertising agencies, magazines, and news papers, also may be able to recommend rep utable modeling agencies and schools. >/ V Real Estate Agents and Brokers________ (D.O.T. 186.117-058; 250.157-010, .357-014 and -018) Nature of the Work Shelter, whether a house or an apartment, is the single most expensive item in most people’s budgets. Thus, people generally seek the help of a real estate agent or broker when buying or selling a home. These work ers have a thorough knowledge of the hous ing market in their community. They know which neighborhoods will best fit their cli ents’ lifestyles and budgets, local zoning and tax laws, and where to obtain financing for the purchase. Agents and brokers also act as a medium for price negotiations between buyer and seller. Brokers are independent business people who not only sell real estate owned by oth ers, but also rent and manage properties, make appraisals, and develop new building projects. In closing sales, brokers often ar range for loans to finance the purchases, for title searches, and for meetings between buy ers and sellers when details of the transac tions are agreed upon and the new owners take possession. A broker’s resourcefulness and creativity in arranging financing often mean the difference between success and fail ure in closing a sale. In some cases, agents assume the responsibilities in closing sales. Brokers also manage their own offices, ad vertise properties, and handle other business matters. Some combine other types of work, such as the sale of insurance or the practice of law, with their real estate business. Real estate agents generally are indepen dent sales workers who contract their services with a licensed broker. Today, relatively few agents work as employees of a broker or realty firm. In selling or renting real estate, agents generally first meet with potential buyers to get a feeling for the type of home they would like and can afford. Then, they may take the client to see a number of homes that appear to meet the needs and income of the client. Because real estate is so expensive, agents may have to meet several times with a pro spective buyer to discuss properties. In an swering questions, agents emphasize those selling points that are likely to be most im portant to the buyer. To a young family looking at a house, for example, they may About half a million people work as real estate agents. point out the convenient floor plan and the fact that schools and shopping centers are close by. Whenever bargaining over price becomes necessary, agents carefully follow the seller’s instructions and may present counteroffers in order to get the best possible price. There is more to agents’ jobs, however, than just selling. Since they must have prop erties to sell, agents spend a significant amount of time obtaining “ listings” (owner agreements to place properties for sale with the firm). Much time is spent on the tele phone exploring leads gathered from adver tisements and personal contacts. When listing property for sale, agents make comparisons with similar property being sold to determine its fair market value. Most real estate agents and brokers sell residential property. A few, usually in large firms, specialize in commercial, industrial, or other types of real estate. Each specialty re quires knowledge of that particular type of property and clientele. Selling or leasing business property, for example, requires an understanding of leasing practices, business trends, and location needs. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about transportation, utilities, and labor sup ply. To sell residential properties, the agent must know the location of schools, religious institutions, shopping facilities, and public transportation, and be familiar with tax rates and insurance coverage. Working Conditions Although real estate agents and brokers generally base their operations in offices, most of their time is spent outside the office— showing properties to clients, evaluating 248/Occupational Outlook Handbook properties for sale, meeting with prospective clients, and performing a wide range of other duties. Brokers provide office space, but agents generally furnish their own automobiles. Agents and brokers often work long hours—more than 50 a week. In addition, they often work evenings and weekends to suit the convenience of their clients. Employment According to a Bureau of the Census sur vey, an estimated 580,000 persons sold real estate as their primary occupation in 1980; many others sold on a part-time basis while working in other occupations. Most real estate firms are relatively small; indeed, some brokers operate a one-person business. Some large firms have several hun dred real estate agents operating out of many branch offices. A growing number of brokers, currently about 30 percent, have en tered into franchise agreements with national or regional real estate organizations. Under this type of arrangement, similar to many fast-food restaurant operations, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the privilege of using the more widely known name of the parent organization. Although franchised brokers often receive help in training sales people and in running their offices, they bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of the firm. Real estate is sold in all areas, but employ ment is concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller but rapidly growing communities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Real estate agents and brokers must be licensed in every State and in the District of Columbia. All States require prospective agents to be a high school graduate, be at least 18 years old, and pass a written test. The examination—more comprehensive for brokers than for agents—includes questions on basic real estate transactions and on laws affecting the sale of property. Most States require candidates for the general sales li cense to complete at least 30 hours of class room instruction and those seeking the broker’s license to complete 90 hours of formal training in addition to a specified amount of experience in selling real estate (generally 1 to 3 years). Some States waive the experience requirements for the broker’s license for applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in real estate. State licenses gener ally must be renewed every year or two, usually without reexamination. Some States, however, require continuing education for li cense renewal. As real estate transactions have become more complex, many of the large firms have turned to college graduates to fill sales posi tions. A large number of agents have some college training, and the number of college graduates selling real estate has risen substan tially in recent years. However, personality traits are fully as important as academic background. Brokers look for applicants who possess such characteristics as a pleasant per sonality, honesty, and a neat appearance. Maturity, tact, and enthusiasm for the job are required in order to motivate prospective cus tomers in this keenly competitive field. Agents also should have a good memory for names and faces and business details, such as taxes, zoning regulations, and local land-use laws. Persons interested in beginning jobs as real estate agents often apply in their own com munities, where their knowledge of local neighborhoods is an advantage. The beginner usually learns the practical aspects of the job under the direction of an experienced agent. Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and experienced agents. Larger firms generally offer more extensive programs than smaller firms. Over 800 univer sities, colleges, and junior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can earn an associate or bachelor’s degree with a major in real estate; several offer advanced degrees. Many local real estate boards that are members of the National Association of Real tors sponsor courses covering the fundamen tals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses in appraisal, mortgage financing, property development and management, and other subjects also are available through var ious National Association affiliates. Trained and experienced agents can ad vance in many large firms to sales or general manager. Persons who have received their broker’s license may open their own offices. Training and experience in estimating proper ty value can lead to work as a real estate appraiser, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may spe cialize in property management. Those who gain general experience in real estate, and a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their localities, may enter mortgage financing or real estate invest ment counseling. Job Outlook Employment of real estate agents and brokers is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s in order to satisfy a growing demand for housing and other properties. In addition, many openings will occur each year as work ers die, retire, or leave for other reasons. Replacement needs are high because a rela tively large number of people transfer to oth er work after a short time selling real estate. Employment growth in this field will stem primarily from increased demand for home purchases and rental units. Shifts in the age distribution of the population over the next decade will result in a larger number of young adults with careers and family re sponsibilities. This is the most geographi cally mobile group in our society and the one that traditionally makes the bulk of home purchases. As their incomes rise, these people also may be expected to purchase larger homes and vacation properties. During periods of declining economic activity and tight credit, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers may de cline. During these periods, the number of persons seeking sales positions may out number openings. Competition among agents and brokers is keen and prospects for a career in real estate will be best for well-trained, ambitious peo ple who enjoy selling. The proportion of part-time real estate agents has declined in recent years as brokers have demanded great er skill and professionalism from those sell ing real estate. This decline is expected to continue as agents need more specialized knowledge to handle real estate transactions. Earnings Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings—very few real estate agents work for a salary. The rate of commission varies according to the type of property and its value; the percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved land usually is higher than that paid for sell ing a home. Commissions may be divided among sev eral agents and brokers. The broker and agent in the firm that obtained the listing generally share their part of the commission when the property is sold; the broker and agent in the firm that made the sale also generally share their part of the commission. Although an agent’s share varies greatly from one firm to another, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. The median salary of full-time real estate agents was $14,700 a year in 1980, accord ing to a survey conducted by the National Association of Realtors; agents working few er than 30 hours a week averaged about $4,400. According to the same survey, real estate brokers earned a median salary of nearly $29,000 a year in 1980. The most successful agents and brokers earn consider ably more. Some firms, especially the large ones, furnish group life, health, and accident insurance. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but individual ability, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property also affect earnings. Sales workers who are active in community organizations and local real estate boards can broaden their contacts and increase their earnings. A begin ner’s earnings often are irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by with out a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent a drawing account against future earn ings, this practice is not usual with new employees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live on until commis sions increase. Related Occupations Selling expensive items, such as homes, requires certain personal characteristics in cluding maturity, tact, and a sense of respon sibility. Other sales workers who find these Marketing and Sales Occupations/249 character traits important in their work in clude automobile sales workers, securities sales workers, insurance agents and brokers, yacht brokers, travel agents, and manufactur ers’ representatives. Sources of Additional Information Details on licensing requirements for real estate agents and brokers are available from most local real estate organizations or from the State real estate commission or board. For more information about opportunities in real estate work, as well as a list of colleges and universities offering courses in this field, contact: National Association of Realtors, 430 N. Michi gan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Retail Trade Sales Workers________ (D O T. 260 through 290.477) Nature of the Work The success of any retail business depends largely on its sales workers. Courteous and efficient service from behind the counter or on the sales floor does much to satisfy cus tomers and build a store’s reputation. Whether selling furniture, electrical appli ances, or clothing, a sales worker’s primary job is to interest customers in merchandise— by describing its construction, demonstrating its use, and showing various models and col ors. For some jobs, special knowledge or skills are needed. In a pet shop, for example, sales workers must know about the care and feeding of animals. However, in jobs selling standardized articles such as food, hardware, linens and housewares, sales workers often do little more than take payments and wrap purchases. (Cashiers also wrap or bag pur chases, receive payments, and make change. See the statement on cashiers elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to selling, most retail sales workers make out sales checks, receive cash payments, and give change and receipts. They also handle returns and exchanges of merchandise and keep their work areas neat. In small stores, they may help order mer chandise, stock shelves or racks, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare displays. Working Conditions Most sales workers in retail trade work in clean, comfortable, well-lighted stores. Some, however, work outside the store. Kitchen equipment sales workers may visit prospective customers’ homes, for example, to help them plan renovations, and used-car sales workers may spend much time at an outdoor lot. Many sales workers must stand for long periods. Many sales workers have a 5-day, 40-hour week, although in some stores the standard Sales workers should be able to explain a product’s special features. workweek is longer. Because Saturday is a busy day in retailing, employees usually work that day and have a weekday off. Longer than normal hours may be scheduled before Christmas and during other peak per iods. Some, especially those employed by stores in suburban shopping centers, regular ly work one evening or more a week. Part-time sales workers generally work during peak hours of business—daytime rush hours, evenings, and weekends. Employment In 1980, more than 3.3 million sales work ers were employed in retail businesses. They worked in stores ranging from the small drug or grocery store employing one part-time sales person to the giant department store with hundreds of sales workers. They also worked for door-to-door sales companies and mail-order houses. The largest employers of retail trade sales workers are department stores and other general merchandise stores, apparel and accessories, food, drug, and fur niture stores, and car dealers. (For a discus sion of sales workers in motor vehicle dealerships, see statements on automobile parts counter workers, automobile sales workers, and automobile service advisors elsewhere in the Handbook.) Retail sales jobs are distributed geographi cally much the same way as the population; most sales workers are employed in cities and their nearby suburbs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally prefer high school graduates for sales jobs, but also hire those with less education. Persons under 18 may need a work permit. Thousands of high schools across the country have distributive education pro grams, generally with a cooperative arrange ment between the school and businesses. Students work part time at local stores while taking courses in merchandising, accounting, and other aspects of retailing. The experience and education gained can improve their pros pects for permanent employment. Many distributive education programs in clude adult and continuing education. In ad dition, a federally funded project called “70,001” focuses on the needs of disad vantaged youth and high school dropouts. Involving schools and colleges across the Na tion, “ 70,001” combines full-time employ ment with part-time instruction after hours. Many high schools and colleges have a chapter of Distributive Education Clubs of America (DECA), a service organization dedicated to the goals of teaching distributive education and good citizenship. DECA mem bers—students and faculty—run their local 250/Occupational Outlook Handbook chapter, elect officers, and plan and partici pate in activities on the local, State, and national levels. Persons interested in sales jobs should apply to the personnel offices of large retail stores, where they are likely to be interviewed and, in some cases, given an aptitude test. Employers prefer those who enjoy working with people and have the tact to deal with difficult custom ers. Among other desirable characteristics are an interest in sales work, a pleasant personal ity, a neat appearance, and the ability to com municate clearly. In most small stores, an experienced em ployee or the proprietor instructs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and operating the cash register. In many larg er stores, training programs are more formal and include specialized training in selling certain products. Inexperienced sales workers in department stores typically begin in housewares, notions, and other departments where a customer needs little assistance. As they gain exper ience and seniority, they move to positions of greater responsibility. The most experienced— and the highest paid—sales workers sell ‘‘big ticket” items such as large appliances, furni ture, and rugs. This work requires the most knowledge of the product and the greatest talent for persuasion. Traditionally, capable sales workers with out a college degree could advance to manage ment positions. However, a college education is now becoming increasingly important for advancement. Large retail businesses general ly prefer to hire college graduates as manage ment trainees. Despite this trend, capable employees with less than a college degree should still be able to advance to administra tive or supervisory work in large stores. Opportunities for advancement are limited in small stores where one person, often the owner, does most managerial work. Retail selling experience may be an asset in quali fying for sales work with wholesalers or manufacturers. Job Outlook Employment of retail trade sales workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as the retail trade industry expands in response to a growing population and higher personal incomes. The volume of sales will outpace employment increases, however, as self-service—already the rule in most foodstores—is extended to variety and other kinds of stores. Retail trade will continue to be a good source of job opportunities for high school graduates. Prospects for sales jobs are good because retail selling is a large occupation and turnover is high. Most openings will occur as experienced sales workers leave their jobs. In addition to full-time jobs, there will be many opportunities for part-time workers, as well as for temporary workers during peak selling periods such as the Christmas season. During recessions the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers may decline. Purchases of durable goods and “big ticket” items, such as cars and appliances, are most likely to be postponed during diffi cult economic times. In areas of high unem ployment, sales of all types of goods may decline. Layoffs, however, are unlikely. Since sales worker turnover is usually very high, employers often can cut employment by simply not replacing all those who leave. Earnings In 1980, the starting wage for most retail sales positions (including part time and tem porary) not covered by union contracts was the Federal minimum wage, $3.35 an hour. Some stores doing less than $325,000 in business per year paid less, since they are not required to pay the minimum wage. In 1980, median earnings, including bonuses and com missions, generally ranged from $8,312 to $14,203 a year for full-time sales workers. Earnings are likely to be higher than the median in jobs that require special sales abili ty or technical knowledge of merchandise, for example, in automobile, major appliance, and furniture sales. Some sales workers receive salary plus commissions—that is, a percentage of the sales they make. Others are paid only com missions. Those paid by commission may find their earnings greatly affected by ups and downs in the economy. Sales workers in many retail stores may buy merchandise at a discount, often from 10 to 25 percent below regular prices. This privilege sometimes is extended to the em ployee’s family. Some stores, especially the large ones, pay part or all of the cost of life insurance, health insurance, and a pension. Related Occupations Sales workers apply a general knowledge of sales techniques and specific knowledge of the products they sell. These skills are used by people in a number of other occupations, including demonstrators, route drivers, real estate sales agents, telephone solicitors, buy ers, insurance agents and brokers, and manu facturers’ representatives. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retailing may be obtained from the personnel offices of local stores; from State merchants’ associations; or from local unions of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. Information on distributive education pro grams may be obtained from your State em ployment service or by writing to: U.S. Department of Education, Division of Vocational/Technical Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. For information about a “70,001 ” program in your area, write: “70,001” Limited. 600 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20024. Securities Sales Workers_____ (D .O .T . 251.157-010) Nature of the Work When investors want to buy or sell stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, or other fi nancial products, they call on securities sales workers to put the “ market machinery” into operation. Both individuals with a few hun dred dollars and large institutions with mil lions to invest need such services. These workers often are called registered represen tatives, account executives, or brokers. When an investor wishes to buy or sell securities, sales workers may relay the order through their firms’ offices to the floor of a securities exchange, such as the New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street. If a security is not traded on an exchange, the sales work er sends the order to the firm’s trading de partment which trades it directly with a dealer in the over-the-counter market. After the transaction has been completed, the sales worker notifies the customer of the final price. Securities sales workers also provide many related services for their customers. Depend ing on a customer’s knowledge of the market, they may explain the meaning of stock mar ket terms and trading practices; offer finan cial counseling; devise an individual financial portfolio for the client including securities, life insurance, tax shelters, annuities, and other investments; and offer advice on the purchase or sale of a particular security. Not all customers have the same invest ment goals. Some individuals may prefer long-term investments designed either for capital growth or to provide income over the years; others might want to invest in short term securities that they hope will rise in price quickly. Securities sales workers fur nish information about the advantages and disadvantages of an investment based on each person’s objectives. They also supply the lat est price quotations on any security in which the investor is interested, as well as informa tion on the activities and financial positions of the corporations these securities represent. Securities sales workers may serve all types of customers or they may specialize in one type only, such as institutional investors. They also may specialize in certain kinds of securities, such as mutual funds. Some han dle the sale of new issues, such as cor poration securities issued to finance plant expansion. Beginning securities sales workers spend much of their time searching for customers. They may meet some clients through busi ness and social contacts. But many sales workers find it useful to get additional expo sure by teaching adult education investment courses or giving lectures at libraries or so- Marketing and Sales Occupations/251 cial clubs. Telephone solicitation also is common. Once they have established a clien tele, securities sales workers put more effort into servicing existing accounts and less into seeking new ones. Working Conditions Securities sales workers usually work in offices where there is much activity. In large offices, for example, rows of sales workers sit at desks in front of “quote boards” that continually flash information on the prices of securities. When sales activity increases, due perhaps to unanticipated changes in the econ omy, the pace may become very hectic. Established sales workers usually work the same hours as others in the business commu nity. Beginners who are seeking customers may work much longer, however. Some sales workers accommodate customers by meeting with them in the evenings or on weekends. Employment About 63,000 persons were employed as securities sales workers in 1980. In addition, a substantial number of people in other occu pations also sold securities. These include partners and branch office managers in secu rities firms as well as insurance agents and brokers offering securities to their customers. Securities sales workers are employed by brokerage firms, investment bankers, and mutual funds in all parts of the country. Many of these firms are very small. Most sales workers, however, work for a small number of large firms with main offices in big cities (especially in New York) and ap proximately 7,200 branch offices in other areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because a securities sales worker must be well informed about economic conditions and trends, a college education is increasingly important, especially in the larger securities firms. Although employers seldom require specialized academic training, courses in business administration, economics, and fi nance are helpful. Many employers consider personality traits as important as academic training. Employers seek applicants who are well groomed, able to motivate people, and ambitious. Because maturity and the ability to work independent ly also are important, a growing number of employers prefer to hire those who have achieved success in other jobs. Successful sales or managerial experience is very helpful to an applicant. Securities sales workers must meet State licensing requirements, which generally in clude passing an examination and, in some cases, furnishing a personal bond. In addi tion, sales workers must register as represen tatives of their firm according to regulations of the securities exchanges where they do business or the National Association of Secu rities Dealers, Inc. (NASD). Before begin ners can qualify as registered representatives, Securities sales workers spend much of their time talking with clients. they must pass the Securities Exchange Com mission’s General Securities Examination, or examinations prepared by the exchanges or the NASD. These tests measure the prospec tive representative’s knowledge of the securi ties business, customer practices, and recordkeeping procedures. Character investi gations also are required. Most employers provide on-the-job training to help sales workers meet the requirements for registration. In member firms of all major ex changes, the training period is at least 4 months. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom instruction in security analysis and effective speaking, take courses offered by business schools and other institutions and as sociations, and undergo a period of on-the-job training lasting up to two years. In small firms, sales workers generally receive training in out side institutions. Sales workers take training, through their firms or outside institutions, to keep abreast of new financial products as they are intro duced on the market. Training in the use of computers is becoming very important as the securities sales business becomes increasing ly automated. The principal form of advancement for securities sales workers is an increase in the number and the size of the accounts they handle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of individual investors, eventu ally they may handle very large accounts such as those of banks and pension funds. Some experienced sales workers become branch office managers and supervise other sales workers while continuing to provide services for their own customers. A few rep resentatives may become partners in their firms or do administrative work. expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addi tion to jobs resulting from growth, many sales workers will be needed annually to re place those who transfer to other jobs, retire, or die. Due to the highly competitive nature of securities sales work, many beginners leave the field because they are unable to establish a sufficient clientele. Employment of securities sales workers is expected to expand as economic growth and rising personal incomes increase the funds available for investment. Growth in the number and size of institutional investors will be particularly strong as more people purchase stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, annuities, and contribute to the en dowment funds of colleges and other non profit institutions. In addition, more workers will be needed to sell securities issued by new and expanding corporations and by State and local governments financing public im provements. Mature individuals with suc cessful work experience should find many job opportunities. The demand for securities sales workers fluctuates as the economy expands and con tracts. Thus, in an economic downturn the number of persons seeking jobs usually ex ceeds the number of openings—sometimes by a great deal. Over the long run, however, job opportunities for securities sales workers are expected to be more favorable. During severe slumps in market activity, job pros pects and income stability will be greater for sales workers who are qualified to provide their clients with complete financial services than for those who rely strictly on commis sions from stock transactions. Job Outlook According to the Securities Industry Asso ciation, earnings of full-time, experienced se The number of securities sales workers is Earnings 252/Occupational Outlook Handbook curities sales workers who service individual investors averaged over $40,000 a year in 1980. Those who service institutional ac counts averaged over $88,000. Trainees usually are paid a salary until they meet licensing and registration requirements. After registration, a few firms continue to pay a salary until the new representative’s commis sions increase to a stated amount. The salaries paid during training usually range from $900 to $1,200 a month. After candidates are licensed and regis tered, their earnings depend on commissions from the sale or purchase of stocks and bonds, life insurance, or other securities for customers. Commission earnings are likely to be high when there is much buying and sell ing and lower when there is a slump in market activity. Most firms provide sales workers with a steady income by paying a “draw against commission”—that is, a mini mum salary based on the commissions which they can be expected to earn. A few firms pay sales workers only salary and bonuses that usually are determined by the volume of company business. Related Occupations Similar sales jobs requiring specialized knowledge include insurance agents and real estate agents. Other occupations in the secu rities business are broker floor representatives and commodities brokers. family, on the other hand, the travel agent would recommend less expensive, off-sea son, all-inclusive packages and special air fares. The agent would describe a wide range of hotel facilities and arrange the most eco nomical but pleasurable trip. The agent also would arrange for a car rental or escorted bus tours, suggest local tourist attractions and restaurants, and acquaint the family with the city’s climate. For international travel, the agent would also provide information on customs regula tions, required papers (passports, visas, and certificates of vaccination), and the most re cent currency exchange rates. When making travel arrangements, travel agents consult a variety of sources for infor mation on departure and arrival times, fares, and hotel ratings and accommodations. They often use their own travel experiences as a basis for making recommendations. Some travel agents, especially in large agencies, may devote most of their time to visiting different hotels, resorts, and restaurants to rate their comfort, cleanliness, and quality of food and service. Travel agents also do considerable promo tional work. They may give slide or movie presentations to social and special interest groups, arrange advertising displays, and meet with business managers to suggest com pany-sponsored trips. Working Conditions Travel agents usually travel at substantially reduced rates. Sometimes hotels or resorts offer travel agents free holidays. Most travel agents do not, however, spend much time traveling. Most of their time is spent behind a desk conferring with clients, completing paperwork, contacting airlines and hotels for travel arrangements, and pro moting group tours. Many agents, especially those who are self-employed, frequently work long hours. Employment In 1980, about 52,000 persons worked as travel agents. A very small portion of these people worked as travel accommodation ap praisers who evaluated various hotels and restaurants. Though travel agents work in every part of the country, they are concentrated in major population centers where the best business opportunities exist. About one-half of all travel agencies are in large cities; one-third, in suburban areas; and one-fifth, in small towns and rural areas. Roughly one-fourth of all travel agents are self-employed. Generally, these persons gained experience and recognition in an es tablished travel agency before going into business for themselves. Sources of Additional Information Further information concerning a career as a securities sales worker is available from: Securities Industry Association, 20 Broad St., New York, N.Y. 10005. (There is a $1 charge for this material.) Career information also may be obtained from the personnel departments of individual securities firms. Travel Agents (D .O .T . 252.157-010) Nature of the Work Planning your own trip can be frustrating and time consuming. Many travelers, there fore, seek the assistance of travel agents— specialists who have the information and know-how to make the best possible travel arrangements, with their clients’ tastes, bud gets, and other requirements in mind. Consider, for example, the contrast be tween arrangements for an executive with a tight schedule and a family of four on a restricted budget, both planning a visit to Washington, D.C. The executive might want to fly first class, stay in a hotel suite he or she could use for business meetings, and have a limousine ready upon arrival to make business calls. The agent would make the necessary arrangements, and perhaps send the bill to the executive’s company. For the Travel agents rely on computers for up-to-the-minute information on fares and accommodations. Marketing and Sales Occupations/253 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Students can prepare for careers as travel agents by working part time or during sum mers as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. As they gain experience, they may enter either a formal or informal training program given by the agency, take on greater responsibilities, and eventually as sume the full workload of a travel agent. Experience as an airline reservation agent also is a good background for a travel agent. Several home-study courses provide a basic understanding of the travel industry. Travel courses are offered in vocational schools, adult education programs in public high schools, community colleges, and 4-year col leges. A few colleges offer a bachelor’s degree in travel, service/marketing, and in tourism. Experienced travel agents can take an ad vanced course, leading to the designation of Certified Travel Counselor, offered by the Institute of Certified Travel Agents. Another recognized mark of achievement in this field is a certificate of proficiency from the American Society of Travel Agents. It is awarded to those who pass five tests covering the duties of travel agents. Although few college courses relate direct ly to the travel industry, a college education is sometimes preferred by employers. Courses in geography, foreign languages, history, and computer science are most use ful. Courses in accounting and business man agement also are important, especially for those who expect to start their own travel agencies. Broad experience as a national or interna tional traveler is an asset, since the ability to speak with some personal knowledge about a city or foreign country often helps to influ ence clients’ travel plans. As a sales representative, the travel agent must be pleasant and patient. Agents often must demonstrate their efficiency and sense of responsibility to hard-to-please clients. Travel agents who start their own agencies must gain formal conference approval before they can receive commissions. Conferences are organizations of airlines, shiplines, or rail lines; the International Air Transport Associ ation, for example, is the conference of inter national airlines. To gain conference approval, an agency must be in operation, be financially sound, and employ at least one experienced travel agent. Since conference approval can take a year or more to obtain, most self-employed agents make very little profit in their first year. Their income generally is limited to commis sions from hotels and tour operators and to nominal fees for making complicated ar rangements. For those considering starting their own agency, working capital between $30,000 and $50,000 will be needed to carry the agency through a profitless first year. There are no Federal licensing require ments for travel agents. However, Rhode Island, Ohio, and Hawaii now have licensing requirements. In California, travel agents not approved by a conference are required to have a license. Job Outlook Employment of travel agents is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Some job openings will occur as new agencies open and existing agencies expand, but most will occur as experienced agents die, retire, or leave the occupation. However, since the industry generally is sensitive to the fluctu ations of the economy, opportunities at any given time depend heavily upon whether or not people can afford to travel. Long-dis tance travel plans are likely to be deferred during economic downturns. For example, travel spending decreased significantly during the 1973-75 recession. Despite economic fluctuations, spending on travel is expected to increase significantly through the 1980’s. As business activity ex pands, so will business-related travel. Also, with rising incomes and increasing emphasis on leisure-time activities, more people are expected to travel—and do so more frequent ly—than in the past. The use of charter flights and larger, more efficient planes, especially for trips to other countries, have brought air transportation within the budget of many Americans. The recent easing of government regulation of air fares and routes should also help increase traveling by fostering greater competition among airlines to offer better and more af fordable service. More travel agents will be needed to handle this extra business. In addition, more and more foreign visitors come to the United States each year, and American travel agents and travel wholesal ers often organize tours for these visitors. Earnings Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on commissions from airlines and other carriers, tour opera tors, and lodging places. Commissions for domestic travel arrangements are about 9 per cent; for cruises, about 10 percent; for hotels, sightseeing tours, and car rentals, 10 percent; and for international travel, about 8 percent. When travel agents arrange individual plans that require several connections on different transportation modes, they generally charge the customer a service fee for the time and expense involved. For most services, how ever, commissions constitute the agent’s only compensation. During the first year or two, while await ing conference approval, self-employed trav el agents generally have very low earnings. Even established agents experience less prof itable years during periods of economic downturn. Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency determine the salary of a travel agent. Salaries of travel agents gen erally ranged from $9,500 to $18,000 a year in 1980. Salaried agents usually have stand ard benefits—pension plans, insurance cov erage, paid vacations—that self-employed agents must provide for themselves. Related Occupations Travel agents organize and schedule busi ness, education or leisure travel or Activities. Other workers with similar responsibilities include secretaries, tour guides, airline reser vation agents, rental car agents, and travel counselors. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training oppor tunities, contact: American Society of Travel Agents, 711 5th Ave nue, New York, N.Y. 10022. Wholesale Trade Sales Workers (D.O.T. 260 through 279.357) Nature of the Work Sales workers in wholesale trade help move goods from the factory to the con sumer. They represent wholesalers that dis tribute to stores selling directly to the consumer. A wholesale drug sales worker, for example, may sell many brands of drugs, soap, and cosmetics to local pharmacies. Likewise, a wholesale construction materials distributor sells lumber, bricks, glass, and other construction materials to builders who would otherwise have to deal with many manufacturers. Wholesale trade sales workers visit buyers for retail, industrial, and commercial firms, and institutions such as schools and hospitals. They show samples, pictures, or catalogs that list items their company stocks. They may also show customers how their products can save money and improve productivity. For example, when selling electrical machinery, they may demonstrate how the new equip ment will cut the firm’s costs. Sales workers seldom urge customers to purchase any par ticular product, since they handle a large number of items. Instead, they offer prompt, dependable service so buyers will become regular customers. Wholesale sales workers perform many services for retailers, such as checking the store’s stock and ordering items that will be needed before the next visit. Some wholesale sales workers help retailers improve and up date ordering and inventory systems and ad vise them about advertising, pricing, and window and counter displays. Sales workers who handle machinery may give technical assistance on installation and maintenance. 254/Occupational Outlook Handbook Sales workers keep records of sales, for ward orders to their wholesale houses, pre pare reports and expense accounts, plan work schedules, draw up lists of prospects, make appointments, and study literature describing their products. Some collect money for their companies. Working Conditions Sales workers often have long, irregular work hours. Although they call on customers during business hours, they may travel at night or on weekends to meet their sched ules. However, most sales workers seldom are away from home for more than a few days at a time. They may spend evenings writing reports and orders, carry heavy cata logs and sample cases, and be on their feet for long periods. Employment About 1.1 million persons were employed as wholesale sales workers in 1980. Most operated out of home offices in wholesale houses which usually are located in large cities. Sales workers may cover a territory in a small section of a city with many retail stores and industrial users or, in less populat ed regions, they may cover half a State or more. Firms selling machinery to industrial and business users are the largest employers of wholesale sales workers. Other large employ ers are companies that sell food products, motor vehicles and parts, hardware and plumbing, and electrical goods. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The background needed for sales jobs var ies by product line and market. Complex products require technical backgrounds. Drug wholesalers, for example, seek people with a college degree in chemistry, biology, or pharmacy as trainees. Wholesalers provide training on characteristics of their products and how to sell them. For non-technical pro ducts such as food, sales ability and familiar ity with manufacturers and brands is more important than knowledge about the product itself. Most wholesale sales workers get their jobs by working up the ladder or by transfer ring in with the appropriate background. Some employers hire high school graduates for nonselling jobs or as sales trainees. These beginners usually work in several kinds of nonselling jobs before being assigned to sales. They may start in the stockroom or shipping department to become familiar with the thousands of items the wholesaler carries or in the bookkeeping department to learn about prices and recordkeeping. They are likely to work on “ inside” sales, writing tele phone orders, before they actually observe and work with experienced sales workers on calls to customers. Usually it takes 2 years or longer to prepare trainees for outside selling. Sales trainees in very large wholesale firms participate in formal training programs that combine classroom instruction with short ro tations in nonselling jobs. In most firms, however, trainees learn informally by observ ing experienced workers and trying the dif ferent aspects of the work. As they become familiar with customers and procedures, they gradually take on the full responsibility of the job. Experienced sales workers also transfer from manufacturing and retail trade sales po sitions. Their experience with a particular product line gives them an advantage over the newcomers to the field because they don’t require much on-the-job training. Sales workers sometimes can augment their on-the-job training with college courses relevant to wholesale distribution. Trade as sociations also sponsor training programs. Experienced sales workers with leadership and sales ability may advance to supervisor, sales manager, or other executive positions. selling ability. In addition to new positions created by increased demand for wholesale trade sales workers, many openings will re sult from turnover, which is fairly high in this occupation because not all new sales workers find they are suited to the competi tive nature of selling. The number of wholesale sales workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, as the volume and variety of goods produced in the economy expand. Businesses and institutions will require a wide variety of products for their own use and for eventual resale. Most firms will continue to purchase these prod ucts from wholesale distributors. Earnings Compensation plans differ among firms. One plan is salary plus a commission based on sales; others are straight commission or straight salary. Some include a bonus. Al though most wholesale sales workers have steady, year-round work, sales (and commis sions) on products like air conditioners fluc tuate through the year. To provide sales workers with a steady income, many com panies pay them a “ draw” against annual commissions. Beginning sales workers averaged around $18,500 a year in 1980, according to a Re search Institute of America sales compensa tion survey. Experienced sales workers earned considerably more. Since commis sions often make up much of the sales work er’s income, earnings vary widely. They also depend on the sales worker’s experience and seniority, as well as on the product line. Median earnings of typical sales workers in 1980 varied from $23,000 in hardware, plumbing, and heating materials to $30,800 in lumber and building materials. Median earnings of the highest paid sales workers ranged from $33,000 in food products to $49,500 in lumber and building materials. Related Occupations In addition to sales ability, wholesale trade sales workers often have a knowledge of hundreds of similar products. Some oc cupations requiring the same skills are buy ers, sales-service promoters, manufacturing sales workers, field contact technicians, and demonstrators. Sources of Additional Information Job Outlook Wholesale trade sales worker discusses floor covering with a customer. Employment opportunities for sales work ers in wholesale trade are expected to be good for those with product knowledge and Information on jobs in wholesale selling may be obtained directly from local whole sale houses or from associations of wholesal ers in many of the larger cities. Administrative Support Occupations Including Clerical jobs—jobs requiring constant contact with customers—employers seek persons who are pleasant, tactful, and outgoing. Many employers prefer applicants who have some knowledge of office practices. High schools, community and junior col leges, business schools, and home study schools teach these skills. Business education programs typically in clude courses in typing, shorthand, clerktypist skills, and office procedures. WorkWhile administrative support jobs are lo study programs provide students with cated in virtually all industries, they are con experience in a clerical job while still in centrated in the fast-growing service, trade, school. and finance sectors. Because of this concen Whether or not they have had formal busi tration, these jobs are expected to grow more ness training, beginning clerical workers gen rapidly than the average for all occupations erally receive on-the-job training. They learn through the 1980’s. how their employers keep records and be Employers prefer high school graduates for come familiar with the kinds of business clerical jobs. They look for people who un forms used. Workers may learn to operate derstand what they read, know basic spelling adding and duplicating machines or word and grammar, and can use arithmetic. The processing equipment, or learn stock hand ability to type and do neat, accurate paper ling or inventory control procedures. work is required for nearly all entry level Continuing changes in word processing positions; some employers give applicants and computer technology have increased the typing or clerical aptitude tests. For jobs demand for clerical workers who are suffi such as bank clerks, bookkeepers, cashiers, ciently adaptable and versatile to learn to collection workers, and statistical clerks, an operate new equipment. Secretaries and typ ability to work with numbers is particularly ists, for example, may periodically attend important. For bank teller, hotel clerk, recep classes to learn to operate new word process tionist, and reservation and passenger agent ing equipment, information storage systems, and other automated equipment. Advancement opportunities for clerical workers are good, and many employers pro Table 1. Employment in selected administrative vide courses in skills needed for more de support and clerical occupations, 1980 Occupation Employment manding jobs. As workers become more highly skilled, they are assigned more diffi Secretary............................................. 2,469,000 cult tasks. Junior typists, for example, may General office clerk ........................ 2,395,000 be promoted to senior typists as their speed Bookkeeper and accounting clerk . 1,715,000 and accuracy improve. Receptionists who Typist .................................................. 1,067,000 learn typing and office procedures may be Bank clerk ......................................... 988,000 come secretaries. Promotion to such jobs as Stock c le r k ..................... 822,000 administrative assistant, office manager, or Receptionists....................................... 635,000 Receptionist ................................... 402,000 clerical supervisor generally depends on lead Switchboard operator/receptionist 233,000 ership ability, work experience, and knowl Computer operating personnel . . . . 558,000 edge of the organization. About 19 million people worked in admin istrative support occupations, including cleri cal, in 1980. Workers in this group prepare and keep records; operate office machines; arrange schedules and make reservations; col lect, distribute, or account for money, mate rial, mail, or messages; or perform similar administrative duties. Data on the number employed in selected occupations are present ed in the following table. Keypunch operator........................ Computer operator........................ Peripheral equipment operator . . Bank teller ......................................... Clerical supervisor............................ Teacher a id e....................................... Shipping and receiving c le r k ......... Telephone operator .......................... Stenographer....................................... File clerk ........................................... Order clerk ......................................... Production clerk................................. Payroll and timekeeping clerk . . . . SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. 325,000 184,000 49,000 480,000 430,000 415,000 390,000 337,000 280,000 271,000 250,000 201,000 179,000 Sources of Additional Information Many State employment service offices can provide information about earnings, hours, and employment opportunities in cleri cal jobs. Information concerning training for clerical occupations in your State is available from: State Supervisor of Office Occupations Education, State Department of Education, State capital. A directory of private business schools located in cities throughout the country may be obtained free of charge from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1730 M St. N.W. Suite 600, Washington, D.C. 20036. For the names of organizations that can provide information about specific occupa tions, see the discussions of individual cleri cal occupations that follow. Airline Reservation and Ticket Agents (D.O.T. 011.061, .161.010, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work In any company, the way in which em ployees deal with the public and the quality of the service they provide often make the difference between a satisfied customer and a dissatisfied one. In airline companies, reser vation and ticket agents provide this impor tant personal contact. These employees reserve seats, sell tickets, and help passen gers board planes. Airline reservation agents work at large central offices. They answer customer tele phone inquiries on subjects such as late arri vals and departures, fares, schedules, and cities serviced by their airline. Their main function, however, is to book customer reser vations. After finding out where a customer wants to go, when, and from which airport he or she wants to leave, agents check to find out if space is available. Each agent has access to a computer terminal and, by typing instructions on the keyboard, can quickly ob tain information on flight schedules and seat availability. If the plane is full, the agent may sug gest an alternate flight. Sometimes agents will check to see if space is available on other airlines flying to the same destination, and may book these seats for the caller, especially if their airline can provide the service on the return trip. If the customer makes a reservation, the agent types his or her name and other information into the computer to reserve the space. Agents also can change or cancel reservations at the customer’s request, simply by modifying the record on the computer. Airline ticket agents work at airports or in downtown ticket offices. Like reservation agents, they book space on flights for cus tomers. But ticket agents also prepare tickets, calculate fares, and accept payment. At air ports and a few ticket offices, they also tag passengers ’ luggage for shipment on the plane. 255 256/Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement tions and ticket information. Ticket agents keep records of passengers on each plane and assist customers with problems such as lost or damaged baggage. Ticket agents also help passengers board planes. They may use the public address system to announce boarding gates and times. At the gate, these agents collect tickets, issue boarding passes, and sometimes assign seats. They also check to make sure that flight attendants have all the equipment needed for the flight. When passengers are disembarking, agents may provide information on ground transportation and local hotels. At small airports, ticket agents also may load and unload baggage and freight on the ramp. Working Conditions Although agents generally work 40 hours a week, schedules are irregular since air lines operate flights at all hours. Agents with the least seniority often work nights and weekends. During holidays and other busy periods, ticket agents may find the work hectic due to the large number of passengers who must be accommodated rapidly. When operations are interrupted, such as when weather conditions lead to delays or rerouting of flights, agents serve as the buffer between the airlines and their customers. Trying to pacify irate passen gers under these conditions can be very difficult. Employment In 1980, the airlines employed about 49,000 reservation agents and 37,000 ticket agents. Most worked in downtown ticket and reservation offices and at large metropolitan airports where most airline passenger busi ness originates. Some were employed in smaller communities served by airlines. Because reservation and ticket agents must deal directly with the public, airlines have strict hiring standards about appearance, per sonality, and education. A good speaking voice is essential because these employees frequently use the telephone or public address system. High school graduation generally is required, and some college training is pre ferred. Previous work experience dealing with the public is desirable. Reservation agents must be able to type. New reservation agents receive about a month of classroom instruction. They are taught company policy and government regula tions that cover ticketing procedures and other matters related to the airline. They learn to read schedules, calculate fares, and plan passenger itineraries. They also are taught to use the com puter to obtain information on schedules and seat availability, and to reserve space for pas sengers. They are tested daily and homework usually is assigned. To accommodate large numbers of callers, reservation agents must keep the time spent on each call to a minimum without alienating customers. Thus, learning how to carry on conversations in an organized, yet pleasing manner, is an important part of their training. After completing classroom in struction, new agents work under supervisors or experienced agents for several weeks. Learning the work of a ticket agent general ly requires only a week of classroom instruc tion. During this time new agents are taught how to tag bags, read tickets and schedules, and assign seats. This is followed by about a week of on-the-job training under an exper ienced agent. Usually, new ticket agents start by tagging the bags of passengers who already have tickets. As they become more exper ienced, they learn to reserve space, make out tickets, and handle assignments at the boarding gate. Advancement opportunities are limited. Some reservation and ticket agents are promot ed to supervisory positions and a small number eventually become city and district sales man agers for airline ticket offices. Job Outlook Employment of airline reservation and ticket agents is not expected to change significantly through the 1980’s. Despite the anticipated increase in airline passengers, growth in the number of agents will be limited as airlines install and upgrade computers to process reser vations, keep records, and perform other rou tine tasks. Although many openings will arise as experienced agents transfer to other jobs, retire, or die, applicants will find considerable competition for openings because the glamour and travel benefits associated with airline jobs attract many people. Employment of reservation and ticket agents is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. Many agents are laid off during recessions when the demand for air travel declines. Until this demand resumes, few new agents are hired. Earnings Ticket agents had estimated weekly earn ings of $371 in 1980, according to a survey of airlines. Reservation agents averaged $339. As an added benefit, agents and their immediate families are entitled to reduced fare on their own and many other airlines. Many agents belong to labor unions. Four unions cover most of the organized agents: The Air Line Employees Association; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employees; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chaffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who must be friendly and pleasant while providing information or as sisting people include ground hosts/hostesses (air transportation), appointment clerks, in formation clerks, receptionists, and touristinformation assistants. Sources of Additional Information For a pamphlet describing the duties of reservation and ticket agents, write to: Air Line Employees Association, 5600 S. Central Ave., Chicago, 111. 60638. Information about jobs in a particular air line may be obtained by writing to the per sonnel manager of the company. Addresses of companies are available from: Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Bank Clerks_______ (D .O .T. 209.687-022; 210.382-014, -018, -022, -026, -058; 216.362-014, -026, and .382-038; 217.382-010, -014; 219.362-062; and 249.382-010) Nature of the Work All organizations need clerks to handle paperwork. Because of the specialized nature of banking, some clerical duties in banks differ from those of other businesses. (Secre taries, typists, receptionists, and other cleri cal workers whose jobs are much the same in banks as in other businesses are discussed in greater detail elsewhere in the Handbook.) In a small bank, one clerk may do several jobs, such as sorting checks, totaling debit and credit slips, and preparing monthly state ments for depositors. In a large bank, how ever, each clerk usually specializes and fre quently has a special job title, as well. Many bank clerks use office machines unique to banking. Clerks known as sorters (D.O.T. 209.687-022) separate documents— checks, deposit slips, and other items—into different groups and tabulate each ‘‘batch ’’ so they may be charged to the proper accounts. Often clerks use canceling and adding ma chines in their work. Proof-machine opera tors (D.O.T. 217.382-010) use equipment Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/257 that sorts checks and deposit slips, adds their amounts, and records the tabulations. Bookkeeping workers comprise a large group of bank clerks. The job titles of book keepers generally reflect the kinds of records they keep—for example, Christmas club book keeper, discount bookkeeper, interest-accrual bookkeeper, trust bookkeeper, and commod ity loan clerk. Bookkeeping-machine opera tors (D .O .T. 210.382-022 and -026)— sometimes called account clerks, posting ma chine operators, or recording clerks—run con ventional or electronic posting machines to record financial transactions. Reconcilement clerks (D.O.T. 210.382-058) process finan cial statements from other banks to reconcile differences, ensure accuracy, and aid the au diting of accounts. Trust securities clerks (D.O.T. 219.362-062) post investment trans actions made by trust officers on behalf of bank customers. In addition to duties indicat ed by their titles, many of these workers do routine typing, calculating, and posting. Other clerical employees whose duties and job titles are unique to banking include coun try-collection clerks (D.O.T. 216.362-014), who sort thousands of pieces of mail daily and determine which items must be held at the main office and which should be routed to branch banks for collection; transit clerks (D.O.T. 217.382-014), who sort checks and drafts on other banks, list and total the amounts involved, and prepare documents to be mailed for collection; interest clerks (D.O.T. 216.382-038), who keep records on interest-bearing items that are due to or from the bank; and mortgage clerks (D.O.T. 249.382-010), who type legal papers dealing with real estate upon which money has been loaned, and maintain records relating to taxes and insurance on these properties. Electronic data processing has created several new clerical occupations unique to banking. These include the electronic readersorter operator, who runs electronic check sorting equipment; the check inscriber or encoder, who operates machines that print information in magnetic ink on checks and other documents for machine reading; and the control clerk, who keeps track of the large volume of documents flowing in and out of the computer division. Other occupations in clude card-tape converter operator, coding clerk, console operator, data typist, data converting machine operator, data examina tion clerk, high-speed printer operator, tape librarian, teletype operator, and verifier operator. Working Conditions Although some bank clerks work evenings or weekends, most generally work about 36 hours per week during normal business hours. Clerks generally do not deal with cus tomers. Much of their work is routine and requires remaining at work stations for ex tended periods. Employment Banks employed nearly 1,000,000 clerks in 1980. Secretaries, typists, bookkeepers, The never-ending flow of paperwork in banks creates clerical jobs. and office machine operators were among the largest groups of workers. Many clerks work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement institute, which is an arm of the American Bankers Association and has over 400 chap ters in cities across the country and numerous study groups in small communities, also of fers correspondence study and assists local banks in conducting cooperative training pro grams. The great majority of banks use AIB facilities; many banks use other training sources as well. In general, promotion de pends upon the worker’s performance, quali fications, and motivation as well as the available openings. High school graduation is considered ade quate preparation for most beginning clerical jobs in banks. Most clerks have at least a high school education. Courses in bookkeep ing, typing, business arithmetic, and office machine operation are desirable. Applicants may be given brief tests to determine their ability to work rapidly and accurately, and to Job Outlook communicate effectively with others. They Employment of bank clerks is expected to should be able to work under close supervi grow faster than the average for all occupa sion as part of a team. tions through the 1980’s. In addition to op Beginners often are hired as file clerks, portunities stemming from growth in the in keypunch operators, transit clerks, or clerk- dustry, many jobs will arise from the need typists. Most new employees receive some to replace the large number of clerks who form of in-service training. While a few may die, retire, or leave their jobs for other rea start as messengers, others immediately begin sons each year. As a result, banking should training to operate various office machines. continue to be a good source of steady full A clerk in a routine job may be promoted time and part-time employment for clerical to a clerical supervisory position, to teller or workers. credit analyst, and eventually to senior super Jobs for clerks will arise as established visor. Advancement to a bank officer posi banks expand their services and new banks tion is a possibility for outstanding clerks and branches open. Employment growth will who have had college training or have taken differ markedly among individual clerical oc specialized courses in banking. Additional cupations. Nearly all banks use electronic education—particularly courses offered by the equipment that lessens demand for workers American Institute of Banking (AIB)—may such as check sorters and bookkeeping ma help clerks and other workers advance. The chine operators. Moreover, the need for key 258/Occupational Outlook Handbook punch operators is declining as banks shift from punched card to magnetic tape-based computer systems. New technologies, however, are unlikely to displace large numbers of workers. Over all, the banking industry and employment of clerks in the industry are expected to grow. Workers whose duties are given to a machine most likely will be reassigned to new jobs created by the change or to duties related to new banking services. Further, employment of bank clerks is not affected by slowdowns in economic activity because cyclical swings in the economy seem to have little immediate effect on banking activities. Earnings Salaries for clerical workers vary widely, depending upon the worker’s actual position and length of experience, as well as the size and location of the bank. Based on a survey of banks, an inexperienced typist usually earned between $130 and $160 a week in 1980. Among experienced workers, the low est paid file clerks earned between $130 and $160 a week, while the highest paid secre taries earned between $220 and $340 a week. In general, financial institutions have paid clerical workers lower salaries than have firms in other industries, such as wholesale trade or manufacturing. Related Occupations Many clerical skills and abilities required in banking also are needed in other sectors of the financial community and in many other industries. For example, accounting clerks combine an ability to record and compute numerical data with a knack for concentrating on detail to provide and maintain accurate, comprehensive, and up-to-date financial re cords. Other clerical workers who perform similar duties include audit clerks, book keepers, claims examiners, payroll clerks, and timekeepers. Administrative clerks perform a variety of office tasks, including preparing corre spondence, running errands, and maintaining records. Others who perform similar tasks in clude insurance, mortgage, real-estate, secu rities, and court clerks. Bank messengers gather, sort, and distrib ute various items and documents within and outside the bank. Other workers who similar ly process information include correspond ence clerks, expediters, mail handlers, and medical record technicians. Proof-machine operators employ concen tration and finger dexterity to process large amounts of financial data quickly and accu rately. Other occupations requiring similar capabilities in the operation of machines in clude billing machine operators, keyboard operators, Linotype operators, tabulating ma chine operators, and typists. Sources of Additional Information General information about banking occu pations, training opportunities, and the bank ing industry itself is available from: American Bankers Association, Bank Personnel Division, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. National Association of Bank Women, Inc., Na tional Office, 500 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. National Bankers Association, 499 S. Capitol St. SW., Suite 520, Washington, D.C. 20003. Information on careers with the Federal Reserve System is available from: Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve System, Personnel Department, Washington, D.C. 20551, or from the personnel department of the Federal Reserve bank serving each geographic area. State bankers’ associations can furnish spe cific information about job opportunities in their State. And writing directly to a particu lar bank to inquire about job openings can produce favorable results. For the names and addresses of banks in a specific location as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories, which are published twice each year: T h e A m e r ic a n B a n k D ir e c to r y (Norcross, McFad- den Business Publications). B a n k e r s D ir e c to r y - T h e B a n k e r ’s B lu e B o o k W o r ld B ank D ir e c to r y Working Conditions Although some tellers work evenings or on Saturdays, most generally work during the day, Monday through Friday. Continual communication with customers, repetitive tasks, and prolonged standing within a fairly small area characterize the job. (Chi cago, Rand McNally International). P o l k ’s tellers use computer terminals to record de posits and withdrawals. In other banks, they write deposit receipts and passbook entries by hand. Tellers’ duties begin before and continue after banking hours. They begin the day by receiving and counting an amount of working cash for their drawer; this amount is verified by a supervisor, usually the head teller. Tell ers use this cash for payments during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. After banking hours, tellers count cash on hand, list the currency-received tick ets on a settlement sheet, and balance the day’s accounts. They also sort checks and deposit slips. Paying and receiving tellers may supervise one clerk or more. (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.). Bank Tellers______ (D.O.T. 205.362-026; 211.132-010, .362-014, -018, -022, -026; 216.362-018 and 219.462-010) Nature of the Work Most bank customers have contact with the teller, the individual who cashes checks and processes deposits or withdrawals. Many banks employ one or two 1‘all-purpose ’’ tellers; larger banks employ tellers in more special ized functions. One teller, for example, sells savings bonds; another accepts payment for customers’ utility bills. A third receives depos its for Christmas club accounts; and a fourth keeps records and performs the necessary paperwork for customer loans. Still other tell ers handle foreign currencies, sell travelers’ checks, or compute interest on savings ac counts. Banks employed about 480,000 tellers in 1980, many of whom worked part time. Commercial tellers, the most common kind of teller, cash customers’ checks and handle deposits and withdrawals from check ing and savings accounts. Before cashing a check, the teller must see that the written and numerical amounts agree, verify the identity of the person to receive payment, and be certain that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller must carefully count out the cash to avoid errors. Often a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier’s check, which the teller types up and verifies. When accepting a deposit, the teller checks the accuracy of the deposit slip and enters the total in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use machines to make change and total deposits. In some banks, Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring tellers, banks seek people with these basic qualities: Clerical skills, friendli ness, and attentiveness. Although not re quired, a high school diploma is generally preferred. Most tellers have at least a high school education. Maturity, neatness, tact, and courtesy are also important because cus tomers deal with tellers far more frequently than with other bank employees. Although a teller works independently, his or her record keeping is closely supervised. One should enjoy working with numbers and feel com fortable handling large amounts of money. New tellers usually observe experienced workers for a few days before doing the work themselves. Training may last from a few days to 3 weeks or longer. Beginners usually start as commercial tellers; in large banks which have a separate savings teller’s ‘‘cage, ’’ they may start as savings tellers. Often banks simultaneously train tellers for other clerical duties. (See the statement on bank clerks elsewhere in the Handbook.) The conditions governing advancement of tellers are much the same as those for clerks. The teller interested in promotion has access to education and other sources of additional training. Such self-improvement efforts, coupled with excellent performance on the job, would make a teller an attractive candi date for promotion. After gaining experience, a teller in a large bank may advance to head teller; outstanding tellers who have had some college or specialized training offered by the banking industry may be promoted to officer or a managerial position. Tellers and other support personnel can prepare for better jobs through courses offered by the American In stitute of Banking (AIB), an arm of the American Bankers Association. The insti tute, which has over 400 chapters in cities across the country and numerous study Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/259 groups in small communities, also offers cor respondence study and assists local banks in conducting cooperative training programs. The great majority of banks use AIB facilities; many banks use other training sources as well. Job Outlook The number of bank tellers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s as banks expand services. Thousands of openings will occur each year as a result of growth in demand for tellers and the need to replace tellers who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. The relatively high replacement needs in this occupation are expected to be an important source of job opportunities. Qualified applicants should find good em ployment prospects for both full-time and part-time employment. Although increased use of mechanical and electronic equipment may eliminate some routine duties and speed other work, total employment is not likely to be ad versely affected. Further, since cyclical swings in the economy seem to have little immediate effect on banking activities, tell ers generally continue to work even during economic downturns. Earnings Based on a survey of banks, most beginning tellers earned between $130 and $160 a week in 1980. Salaries of experienced tellers varied, depending upon the length of service, the location and size of the bank, and the worker’s specific duties. Most savings tellers, for ex ample, earned between $150 and $190 a week in 1980, while note tellers usually earned between $170 and $230 a week. In general, the greater the range of responsibilities the teller performs, the higher the salary. Related Occupations Tellers combine a knowledge of bank pro cedures with quickness and accuracy to ex change money, checks, and other financial items with customers. Other workers with similar duties include cashiers, toll collec tors, post office clerks, auction clerks, and ticket sellers. Bank tellers spend most of their time serving customers. State bankers ’ associations can furnish spe cific information about job opportunities in their State. And writing directly to a particu lar bank to inquire about job openings can produce favorable results. For the names and addresses of banks in a specific location as well as the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following directories, which are published twice each year: T h e A m e r ic a n B a n k D ir e c to r y B a n k e r s D ir e c to r y - T h e B a n k e r ’s B lu e B o o k (Chi cago, Rand McNally International). P o l k ’s Sources of Additional Information (Norcross, McFad- den Business Publications). W o r ld B ank D ir e c to r y (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co). General information about banking occu pations, training opportunities, and the bank ing industry itself is available from: American Bankers Association, Bank Personnel Division, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. National Association of Bank Women, Inc., Na tional Office, 500 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. National Bankers Association, 499 S. Capitol St. SW., Suite 520, Washington, D.C. 20003. Information on careers with the Federal Reserve System is available from: Board of Governors, The Federal Reserve System, Personnel Department, Washington, D.C. 20551, or from the personnel department of the Federal Reserve bank serving each geographic area. Bookkeepers and Accounting Clerks Nature of the Work Every business needs systematic and upto-date records of accounts and business transactions. Bookkeepers and accounting clerks maintain these records in journals and ledgers and on other accounting forms. They also prepare periodic financial statements showing all money received and paid out. The duties of bookkeeping workers vary with the size of the business. However, virtually all of them use calculating machines each day. Many use check-writing and bookkeep ing machines. In many small firms, a general bookkeeper handles all the bookkeeping. He or she ana lyzes and records all financial transactions, such as orders and cash sales. General book keepers also check money taken in against money paid out to be sure accounts “bal ance,” calculate the firm’s payroll, and make up employees’ paychecks. General book keepers also prepare and mail customers ’ bills and answer telephone requests for informa tion about orders and bills. In large businesses, several bookkeepers and accounting clerks work under the direc tion of a head bookkeeper or accountant. In these organizations, bookkeeping workers of ten specialize in certain types of work. Some, for example, prepare statements of a company’s income from sales or its daily operating expenses. Some enter information on accounts receivable and accounts payable into a computer and review computer print outs for accuracy and completeness. Others record business transactions, including pay roll deductions and bills paid and due, and compute interest, rental, and freight charges. They also may type vouchers, invoices, and other financial records. 260/Occupational Outlook Handbook The volume of business transactions is ex pected to grow rapidly, with a corresponding increase in the need for accounting records. However, the need for bookkeeping workers, who maintain these records, will not increase as fast, because of the increasing use of advanced computers that process data more accurately, rapidly, and economically than older computers or workers processing it by hand. Earnings Beginning accounting clerks in private firms averaged $9,575 a year in 1981, ac cording to a Bureau of Labor Statistics sur vey. Most experienced accounting clerks averaged between $11,431 and $13,454 per year, while senior level accounting clerks averaged $16,886 per year. In early 1981, the starting salary in the Federal Government was $8,951 for book keeping workers right out of high school. Those who had 1 year of experience or 1 year of education beyond high school could start at $9,766. Bookkeepers maintain records of accounts and business transactions. Working Conditions For the most part, working conditions for bookkeepers and accounting clerks are the same as those for other office employees in the same company. Bookkeeping requires sit ting for long periods and involves examining detailed numerical information. Some per sons may find this tiring. Workers who oper ate older bookkeeping machines may be exposed to high noise levels. Newer equip ment is relatively quiet, however. Employment About 1,700,000 persons were employed as bookkeepers and accounting clerks in 1980. Jobs for bookkeeping workers are found throughout the economy—in business firms mostly, but also in schools, hospitals, nonprofit organizations, and government agencies. Approximately 1 bookkeeper in 3 works for a retail or wholesale firm. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates who have taken business arithmetic, bookkeeping, and princi ples of accounting meet the minimum re quirements for most bookkeeping jobs. Many employers prefer applicants who have com pleted business courses at a community or junior college or business school. The ability to use bookkeeping machines and computers is an asset. A knowledge of typing also is useful. Training for this occupation is widely available. Bookkeeping is taught in high schools, community and junior colleges, and business schools and colleges. Business edu cation programs typically include bookkeep ing-accounting, business law, business arithmetic, office practices, and principles of data processing and computer operation for office workers. Some programs give business students an opportunity to learn on the job through work-study programs arranged by high schools and local businesses. The work experience, together with the first-hand knowledge of office procedures, can help when students look for jobs after graduation. In a few States, bookkeepers and account ing clerks who work on tax returns must be licensed. State licensing agencies can provide information on the requirements in your area. Bookkeeping workers need to be good at working with numbers and concentrating on details. Small mistakes can be very serious in this field, so bookkeepers need to be careful, accurate, and orderly in their work. Because they often work with others, bookkeepers should be cooperative and able to work as part of a team. Newly hired bookkeeping workers begin by recording routine transactions such as ac counts receivable or accounts payable. As they gain experience, they advance to more responsible assignments, such as preparing income statements, reconciling accounts, and reviewing computer printouts. Some bookkeeping workers are promoted to supervisory jobs. Others who enroll in college accounting programs may advance to jobs as accountants. Bookkeeping experience provides a good background for college courses in accounting but normally cannot be credited towards a degree in accounting. Job Outlook Jobs for bookkeepers and accounting clerks will be numerous through the 1980’s. Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. The occupation is large and turnover is high; thus many openings will occur because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other jobs also must be good at working with numbers. Among such workers are bank tellers, collec tion workers, insurance clerks, and statistical clerks. Sources of Additional Information See the statement on administrative sup port occupations for sources of additional information. Claim Representatives (D .O .T . 168.267-014, 191.167-014, 205.367-018, 241.217-010, .362-010 and .267-018) Nature of the Work Fast and fair settlement of all claims is essential to any insurance company for meet ing its commitments to policyholders and pro tecting its own financial position. The people who investigate claims, negotiate settlement with policyholders, and authorize payment are known as claim representatives—a group that includes claim adjusters and claim examiners. When a property-liability (casualty) insur ance company receives a claim, the claim adjuster determines whether the policy covers it and the amount of the loss. Adjusters use reports, physical evidence, and testimony of witnesses in investigating a claim. When their company is liable, they negotiate with the claimant and settle the case. Adjusters must make sure that settlements reflect the claimant’s actual losses. They must protect their company from false or inflated claims but, at the same time, settle valid claims fairly and promptly. Some ad justers are allowed to issue checks on com pany funds; most, however, submit their Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/261 findings to claim examiners who review them to insure that proper procedures have been followed and then authorize payment. Some adjusters work with all lines of in surance. Others specialize in claims from fire damage, marine loss, automobile damage, workers’ compensation loss, or product liabil ity. Several States have “ no-fault” auto mobile insurance plans that relieve the adjuster from determining responsibility for a loss. Adjusters in these States still must de cide the amount of loss, however. A growing number of casualty companies employ spe cial adjusters to settle small claims, usually minor automobile or homeowner damage claims. These workers, generally called “in side adjusters” or “telephone adjusters,” con tact claimants by telephone or mail and have the policyholder send repair costs, medical bills, and other statements to the company. Many companies centralize this operation in a drive-in claims center where the cost of repair is determined and a check is issued on the spot. Adjusters work away from the office most of the time. They may be called to the site of an accident, fire, or burglary. Adjusters plan and schedule the activities needed to dispose of a claim. They keep written or taped re cords of information obtained from witnesses and other sources and prepare reports of their findings. In life and health insurance companies, the counterpart of the claim adjuster is the claim examiner, who investigates question able claims or those exceeding a specified amount. Examiners may check claim appli cations for completeness and accuracy, inter view medical specialists, consult policy files to verify information on a claim, or cal culate benefit payments. Generally, examin ers are authorized to investigate and ap prove payment on all claims up to a certain limit; larger claims are referred to a senior examiner. Examiners checking incorrect or question able claims correspond with investigating companies, field managers, agents, or the family of the insured. Claim examiners occa sionally travel to obtain information by per sonal interview, or contact State insurance departments and other insurance companies. In addition to verifying claims and approving payment, examiners also maintain records of settled claims and prepare reports to be sub mitted to their company’s data processing department. Some experienced examiners serve on committees, conduct surveys of claim practices within their company, and help devise more efficient ways to process claims. They, like claim adjusters, some times testify in court on contested claims. Working Conditions Claim adjusting is not a desk job. It re quires that a person be physically fit because much of the day may be spent in traveling, walking outdoors, and climbing stairs. Ad Claim adjuster inspects automobile damage to determine amount of the loss. justers may have to work evenings or week ends to interview witnesses and claimants. Since most companies provide 24-hour claim service to their policyholders, some adjusters always must be on call. Occasionally, an experienced adjuster may travel to the scene of a disaster, such as a hurricane .or a riot, to work with local personnel. Some cases may require travel outside the United States. Claim examiners have desk jobs that re quire no unusual physical activity. Although the average workweek for examiners is 35 to 40 hours, they may work longer at times of peak claim loads or when quarterly and annu al statements are prepared. They also may travel occasionally. Employment About 210,000 persons worked as claim representatives in 1980. Most claim adjusters worked for almost 2,900 insurance compan ies that sell property and liability coverage. Some were employed by independent adjust ing firms that contract for their services for a fee. These independent firms ranged from national companies employing hundreds of adjusting specialists to small 3- or 4-person local operations. A relatively small number of adjusters represent the insured rather than the insurance company. These “public adjust ers” are retained by individuals, government agencies, banks, financial organizations, and business firms to negotiate their claims against insurance companies for fire and al lied property losses. Most claim examiners worked for life in surance companies in large cities, such as New York, San Francisco, Chicago, Dallas, and Philadelphia, where most home offices are located. 262/Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement tices and Federal and State insurance laws and regulations. Since they may have to check premium payments, policy values, and other numerical items in processing a claim, examiners should be adept at making math ematical calculations. Both adjusters and ex aminers should have a good memory and enjoy working with details. Beginning adjusters and examiners work on small claims under the supervision of an experienced worker. As they leam more about claim investigation and settlement, they are assigned claims that are higher in loss value and more difficult. Trainees are promoted as they demonstrate competence in handling assignments and as they progress in their course work. Because of the complexity of insurance regulations and claims proce dures, workers who lack formal academic training may advance more slowly than those with 2 or more years of college. Employees who show competence in claims work or administrative skills may be promoted to de partment supervisor in a field office or to a managerial position in the home office. Qualified adjusters and examiners sometimes transfer to underwriting or sales departments. Although a growing number of insurance companies prefer college graduates, many hire those without college training, particu larly if they have specialized experience. For example, persons experienced in automobile repair may qualify as auto adjusters, and those with clerical experience might be hired as inside adjusters. No specific field of college study is rec ommended. Although courses in insurance, economics, or other business subjects are helpful, a major in almost any field is ade quate preparation. An adjuster who has a business or accounting background might specialize in financial loss from business in terruption or damage to merchandise. Col lege training in engineering is helpful in adjusting industrial claims. A legal back ground is most helpful to those handling workers’ compensation and product liability cases. Most large insurance companies provide on-the-job training and home study courses to beginning claim adjusters and examiners. Claim representatives are encouraged to take courses designed to enhance their profession Job Outlook al skills. For example, the Insurance Institute Employment of claim representatives is of America offers a six-semester study pro expected to grow faster than the average for gram leading to an associate degree in claims all occupations through the 1980’s as the adjusting upon successful completion of six number of insurance claims continues to in examinations. Adjusters can prepare for these crease. In addition to jobs created by growth examinations by independent home study or in the need for these workers, many jobs will through company or public classes. A profes result from the need to replace workers who sional Certificate in Insurance Adjusting also die, retire, or transfer to other jobs. is available from the College of Insurance in Several factors point to a growing volume New York City. of insurance and a resulting need for claim The Life Office Management Association adjusters. Over the next decade many more (LOMA), in cooperation with the Interna workers will be in the 25-54 age group. tional Claim Association, offers a claims People in this group have the greatest need education program for life and health exam for life and health insurance and protection iners. The program is part of the LOMA for homes, automobiles, and other posses Institute Insurance Education Program lead sions. New or expanding businesses will ing to the professional designation, Fellow, need protection for new plants and equipment Life Management Institute (FLMI), upon and for insurance covering their employees’ successful completion of eight written health and safety. examinations. As ways of doing business continue to Most States require adjusters to be li change, the demand for certain kinds of censed. Applicants usually must comply with claim adjusters will be stronger than for oth one or more of the following: Pass a written ers. For example, the growing trend toward examination covering the fundamentals of ad drive-in claim centers and claim handling by justing; complete an approved course in in telephone should reduce the demand for auto surance or loss adjusting; furnish character mobile adjusters while it stimulates demand references; be at least 20 or 21 years of age for inside adjusters. Independent adjusters and a resident of the State; and file a surety who specialize in automobile damage claims should continue to suffer some loss of busi bond. Because they often work closely with ness. Prospects should be excellent, howev claimants, witnesses, and other insurance er, for adjusters who specialize in complex professionals, representatives must be able to business insurance such as marine cargo, adapt to many different persons and situa workers’ compensation, product and pollution tions. They should be able to communicate liability, and kidnap and ransom insurance. effectively and gain people’s respect and cooperation. For example, when adjusters’ Earnings According to a survey of property and evaluations of claims differ from those of the persons who have suffered the loss, they liability companies, claim adjusters earned a should be able to explain their conclusions median salary of $15,000 a year in 1980; clearly and tactfully. Examiners need to un senior adjusters earned about $22,000 a year. derstand medical and legal terms and prac Most public adjusters are paid a percentage of the amount of the settlement. Adjusters are furnished a company car or are reim bursed for use of their own vehicles for busi ness purposes. A survey by the Life Office Management Association revealed that ex perienced individual life claim examiners earned average salaries of $16,000 a year in 1980 and their supervisors earned average salaries of about $21,000. According to the survey of property and liability companies, casualty claim examiners earned a median salary of $20,500. Claim supervisors in casu alty companies earned a median salary of $21,500 a year. Most insurance companies have liberal va cation policies and other employee benefits. Almost all insurance companies provide em ployer-financed group life and retirement plans. Related Occupations Other workers who have to make decisions on the basis of financial data include audi tors, loan officers, credit managers, and real estate appraisers. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as a claim examiner or adjuster is available from the home offices of many life and property and liability insurance companies. Information about licensing requirements for claim adjusters may be obtained from the department of insurance in each State. Information about career opportunities in these occupations also may be obtained from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. Alliance of American Insurers, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. The National Association of Independent Insurers, Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. National Association of Independent Insurance Adjusters, 175 West Jackson Blvd., Chicago, 111. 60604. For information about public insurance ad justing, contact: National Association of Public Adjusters, 131 East Redwood St., Suite 210, Baltimore, Md. 21202. Career information on life insurance claim examining is available from: American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Collection Workers (D .O .T . 241.357-010, .367-010, -022, and -026) Nature of the Work Companies that lend money or extend credit expect to be paid on time. However, customers who “buy now” do not always “pay later.” Collection workers, often called bill collectors or collection agents, help maintain a company’s financial well-being by keeping delinquent and bad debts to a minimum. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/263 A collector’s primary job is to persuade people to pay their unpaid bills. The collector usually receives a bad debt file after normal billing methods, such as monthly statements and collection form letters, have failed to elicit payment. The file contains information about the debtor, the nature and amount of the un paid bill, the last charge incurred, and the last time payment was made. The collector then contacts the debtor by phone or mail, inquires why the bill is still unpaid, and tries to get the debtor to pay or make new arrangements for payment. In some cases, people do not pay a bill because they feel that the bill is incorrect, that the merchan dise they bought is faulty, or that services they were billed for were not properly performed. In these cases, collectors recommend that the debtors resolve these disagreements by con tacting the original sellers. If the problems are not settled, the collectors again contact the customers to convince them that they were properly charged and should pay the debts. When customers have financial emergen cies or have mismanaged their money, col lectors may work out new paym ent schedules. If collectors find customers fraud ulently avoiding payment of their bills, they may recommend that the files be turned over to an attorney. When a debtor moves without leaving a forwarding address, the collector may inquire at the post office, search telephone directo ries, and call on references listed on the original credit application. In large collection operations, this may be done by collection workers known as skip tracers. In small organizations, bill collectors may perform other functions besides contacting de linquent customers. They may advise custom ers with financial problems, or contact customers to determine if they are satisfied with the way their accounts are being handled. Some collection workers, called reposses sors, are employed by creditors to locate and return goods such as automobiles and furni ture which have not been paid for. Working Conditions Since collectors make their contacts by telephone, they spend most of their time in an office. On rare occasions, a collector may visit the debtor. While their workplaces are usually pleasant, collectors may have to take verbal abuse from hostile customers. Most collectors work 40 hours a week. In order to catch people at home, some work flexible schedules, that is, they start late and work into the evening, or take off on a weekday and work on Saturday. Some collectors work part time during evenings and weekends. Employment About 89,000 collection workers were em ployed in 1980. Most collectors are em ployed by commercial banks, finance companies, credit unions, and collection agencies. Others work for retail and whole sale businesses and public utilities. Jobs for collectors are located throughout the United States, but most are in heavily populated urban areas. Many firms with branch offices in rural areas locate their col lection departments in nearby cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school education usually is suffi cient for entry into the collection field. Be cause a collector handles delinquent accounts on a person-to-person basis, high school courses in psychology and speech may be useful. Entry level collectors are generally given on-the-job training by a supervisory employ ee or experienced worker who helps them learn collection procedures and telephone techniques. Training also is available through the American Collectors Association, which holds special seminars throughout the country to assist collectors in improving their collec tion and skip tracing techniques. A collector’s most valuable asset is the ability to get along with people without an tagonizing them. He or she must be alert, imaginative, and quick-witted to handle the awkward situations that are part of collection work. While collectors should be sympathetic to the billpayers’ problems, they also must be persuasive, tactful, and assertive to overcome some debtors ’ reluctance to fulfill their finan cial obligations. Because a collector spends most of the day on the telephone, a pleasant speaking voice and manner are important. Collectors with above-average abilities may become collection managers or super vise a staff of collectors. A few collection workers progress to other positions in the credit field, such as credit authorizer, bank loan officer, or credit manager. Job Outlook Employment of collection workers is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as a result of the increasing volume of credit pur chases. While this growth will create some new jobs, a much more significant source of openings is the high turnover in this occupa tion. Many people find the job of persuading people to pay their bills to be distasteful, and leave, as do those whose earnings are low because they do not collect enough debts. For these reasons, employers also have diffi culty recruiting people for this occupation. Therefore, job applicants with the necessary aptitudes and temperament have good pros pects for landing a job. The strongest compe tition for collection positions will be in large metropolitan banks that generally offer higher salaries and better opportunities for advance ment than other employers. The demand for collection workers through the 1980’s will be spurred by the expansion of credit card services and the further growth of retail stores. Delinquent accounts are an unavoidable aspect of the A collector’s main job is to persuade people to pay their unpaid bills. credit system. As businesses extend attractive credit terms for the purchase of more goods and services to more and more people, the number of delinquent accounts can be ex pected to increase. Additional “callers” will be required to service these accounts on an individual basis. Earnings Incomes of collection workers vary sub stantially because employers generally pay salary plus a commission or bonus based on the amount of debts collected. Limited infor mation available indicates that beginning col lectors averaged $9,000 a year in 1980; experienced collectors averaged between $12,000 and $15,000. Related Occupations Many other workers deal with customers to adjust claims and arrange for payment of debts. Some of these workers are customercomplaint clerks, credit analysts, credit re porters, and loan counselors. Sources of Additional Information Information on jobs as collection workers as well as other positions in a credit collec tion office is available from: American Collectors Association, 4040 W. 70th St., Minneapolis, Minn. 55435. Computer Operating Personnel__________ (D .O .T . 203.582-022, -026, -030, 046, -070; 206.387030; 208.685-030; and 213.132-010 and -014, .362-010, .382-010, and .685-010) Nature of the Work All data systems require specialized work ers to enter data and instructions, operate the computer, and retrieve the results. The data 264/Occupational Outlook Handbook to be processed and the instructions for the computer are called “input;” the results are called “output.” Information is entered into a computer sys tem by data entry personnel in a variety of ways. In some systems, keypunch operators prepare input by punching patterns of holes in computer cards to represent specific let ters, numbers, and special characters, using a machine similar to a typewriter. In others, data typists use special machines that convert the information they type to holes in cards or magnetic impulses on tapes or disks. Most newer systems are capable of remote data entry. The user sits at a machine equipped with a typewriter keyboard and an electronic screen that displays the data as they are en tered directly into the computer. In some newer systems, data enter the computer at the source of the transaction being recorded, for example, at the loading dock or at a super market checkout line. Once the input is coded—prepared in a form the computer can read—it is ready to be processed. Console operators, who monitor and control the computer, decide what equip ment should be set up for each job by examining the special instructions that the programmer has written out. To process the input, they make sure the computer has been loaded with the correct cards, magnetic tapes, or disks, and then start the computer. While it is running, they watch the computer console, paying special attention to signals, such as error lights, that could indicate a malfunction. If the computer stops or an error is signalled, operators must locate the problem and solve it or terminate the program. In some systems, devices directly connected to the computer provide output in the form desired by the programmer. In others, high speed printers or card-tape-converters run by auxiliary equipment operators—high-speed printer operators and card-tape-converter operators—perform this function. Frequently, data on punched cards, mag netic tape, or disks are kept for future use. Tape librarians classify and catalog this ma terial and maintain files of current and pre vious versions of programs, listings, and test data. In smaller organizations, librarians may do some data entry as well as coordinate the activities of the programmer and the oper ations department. Working Conditions Because electronic computers must be op erated at carefully controlled temperatures, operators work in well-ventilated rooms; airconditioning counteracts the heat generated by machine operations. When the equipment is operating, however, the computer room can be noisy. Some console and auxiliary equipment op erators work evening or night shifts because many organizations use their computers 24 hours a day. Tape librarians usually work only day shifts. Employment About 558,000 persons worked as console, auxiliary equipment, and keypunch operators in 1980. Although workers in these occupations are employed in almost every industry, most work in manufacturing firms, wholesale and retail trade establishments, and firms that provide data processing services for a fee. Many additional computer and peripheral equipment operators work for insurance com panies, banks, and government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Computer operator refers to manual in order to solve a problem. In firms that have just installed a new computer system, tabulating and bookkeep ing machine operators may be transferred to jobs as keypunch or auxiliary equipment op erators, or console operators. Most often, however, employers recruit workers who al ready have the necessary skills to operate the equipment. Many high schools, public and private vo cational schools, private computer schools, business schools, and community or junior colleges offer training in computer operating skills. The military services also offer valu able training in a number of computer skills. In addition, a growing number of business firms across the country hold weekend semi nars on data processing for high school stu dents. Similarly, computer professional associations encourage student participation in professional conferences. Employers in private industry usually re quire a high school education, and many prefer to hire console operators who have some community or junior college training, Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/265 especially in data processing. The Federal Government requires a high school diploma, unless applicants have had specialized train ing or experience. Many employers test ap plicants to determine their aptitude for computer work, particularly their ability to reason logically. Keypunch operators and other data entry personnel often are tested for their ability to work quickly and accurately. Beginners usually are trained on the job. The length of training needed varies—auxil iary equipment operators can learn their jobs in a few weeks, but console operators require several months of training because they must become sufficiently familiar with the comput er equipment to be able to identify the causes of equipment failures. Keypunch and auxiliary equipment opera tors should be able to work under close su pervision as part of a team. They also must feel comfortable working with machines and doing repetitive, organized tasks. Console operators, however, must use independent judgment, especially when working without supervision on second and third shifts. Advancement opportunities for keypunch and auxiliary equipment operators are limited because data entry techniques are becoming more specialized. However, promotion to a supervisory position is possible after several years on the job. With additional training, often including community or junior college study, a few operators advance to jobs as console operators. Console operators also may be promoted to supervisory positions, or to jobs that com bine supervision and console operation. Through on-the-job experience and additional training, some console operators advance to jobs as programmers. Job Outlook Changes in data processing technology will have differing effects on computer oper ating occupations. Employment of console and peripheral equipment operators, for ex ample, is expected to rise much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Employment of keypunch opera tors, on the other hand, should continue to decline. Recent advances in miniaturizing circuits have enabled manufacturers to reduce both the size and the cost of computer compo nents. As this technology develops, a contin ued expansion in the use of computers is expected, especially by small businesses. Employment of console and peripheral equip ment operators in data processing service firms may grow less rapidly than in the past as more small firms install their own comput er systems, but overall demand for these workers should remain fairly strong. This same technology will further reduce demand for keypunch operators. The primary reason for this decline is the increased use of computer terminals and storage of data on disks and cassettes. As direct data entry tech niques continue to become more efficient, the Technological advances will increase the need for computer and peripheral equipment operators but lessen the demand for keypunch operators Employment (thousands) Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics importance of punched cards as a form of input will diminish. Despite the anticipated decline in employment, many openings will occur each year as workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Hotel Front Office Clerks__________ (D.O.T. 238.362-010 and .367-030) Earnings Weekly earnings of keypunch operator trainees in private industry averaged around $200 in 1980, according to surveys conduct ed in urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and firms engaged in research on data processing occupations. Lead operators earned from $220 to $250 weekly. Weekly earnings of beginning console op erators averaged about $205. Experienced workers earned from $240 to $300, and lead operators earned from $300 to $375 weekly. Average weekly earnings for tape librarians in 1980 were $230. In the Federal Government, console opera tors and keypunch operators without work experience started at about $140 a week in early 1981. Throughout the economy in 1980, console operators earned slightly more and keypunch operators earned slightly less than average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers orga nize data and process information on elec tronic equipment include secretaries and typists, printing typesetters and compositors, transcribing machine operators, and file clerks. Sources of Additional Information Further information on data processing ca reers is available from: American Federation of Information Processing Societies, 1815 North Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Nature of the Work Handling room reservations, greeting guests, issuing keys, and collecting payments are among the duties performed by hotel and motel front office clerks. Because many smaller hotels and motels require minimal staffs, the front office clerk may also func tion as a bookkeeper, cashier, or telephone operator. Large hotels, however, usually em ploy several front office clerks to perform various services, such as receiving mail, pro viding information, or issuing keys. About 80,000 persons worked as front office clerks in 1980. Room or desk clerks assign rooms to guests and answer questions about hotel ser vices, checkout time, or parking facilities. In assigning rooms, they must consider guests’ preferences while trying to maximize hotel revenues. These clerks fill out guests’ regis tration forms and sometimes collect pay ments. Room clerks are always in the public eye and, through their attitude and behavior, greatly influence guests ’ impressions and pro mote a hotel’s reputation. Reservation clerks record written or tele phoned requests for rooms, prepare registra tion forms, and notify room clerks of guests’ arrival times. Rack clerks keep records of room assign ments to advise housekeepers, telephone op erators, and maintenance workers that rooms are occupied. Working Conditions Since hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work is common. While 266/Occupational Outlook Handbook ly have made the transition to managerial positions. Most hotels promote front office workers from within so that a key or mail clerk may be promoted to room clerk, then to assistant front office manager, and later to front office manager. Although a college background is generally not required for front office work, it is an asset for advancement to management. Clerks may also improve their opportunities for promotion by taking home or group study courses in hotel management such as those sponsored by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association. Job Outlook Employment of front office clerks is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as ad ditional hotels and motels are built and chain and franchise operations spread. Employment growth, however, will be limited by the use of computerized front office systems in most hotel and motel chains. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, die, or retire. Seasonal job opportunities will be available in resort establishments that are open only part of the year. Earnings A job as a front office clerk can lead to a career in hotel management. hotel clerks work on shifts, fewer employees work at night than during the day. Hotel clerks sometimes must stand for pro longed periods of time. They may experience the stress of dealing with irate patrons. The job can be particularly hectic around check out time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually select high school graduates who have some clerical aptitude as front office clerks. A knowledge of book keeping is helpful for work in a smaller hotel or on the night shift, because clerks often have a wider range of duties under these circumstances. Occasionally, employees in other hotel occupations, such as bellhops or elevator operators, may be promoted to front office jobs. Newly hired workers usually begin as mail, information, or key clerks and receive their training on the job. The training period is usually brief and includes an explanation of the job’s duties and information about the hotel, such as room locations and services offered. Once on the job, they receive help and supervision from the assistant manager or an experienced front office worker. Some clerks may need additional training in data processing or office machine operation be cause of the increased use of computerized front office systems. A presentable appearance, a courteous and friendly manner, and a desire to help people are important traits for front office clerks. Another attribute helpful for work in larger hotels or resorts that cater to a diverse clien tele is the ability to speak a foreign language. In the past, front office personnel frequent Earnings of front office clerks depend on the location, size, and type of hotel in which they work. Large luxury hotels and those located in metropolitan and resort areas gen erally pay front office clerks more than less expensive hotels and those located in less populated areas. In 1980, clerks earned from $3.64 to $7.05 per hour, according to a survey of metropolitan areas. Those working the night shift generally receive additional compensation. Most hotel employees receive 5 to 10 paid holidays a year, paid vacations, sick leave, life insurance, medical benefits, and pension plans. Some hotels offer bonuses, education al assistance, and other benefits to their employees. Some clerks belong to the Hotel Employ ees and Restaurant Employees International Union. Related Occupations Hotel front office clerks are often the first employees customers deal with, and it is important that they leave customers with a good impression. Other workers who are also responsible for giving a good first impression are receptionists, hosts and hostesses, and sales clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers and scholarships in the lodging industry may be obtained from: The American Hotel and Motel Association, 888 7th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. For a directory of colleges and other schools offering programs and courses in hospitality education, write to: Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/267 Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, Human Development Building, Room 118, University Park, Pa. 16802. Mail Carriers (D .O .T. 230.363-010 and .367-010) Nature of the Work Most mail carriers travel planned routes delivering and collecting mail. Carriers start work at the post office early in the morning, where they spend a few hours arranging their mail for delivery and taking care of other details. A carrier may cover the route on foot, by vehicle, or by a combination of both. On foot, carriers carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it in a cart. In some areas, a car or small truck is used to deliver mail. Residential carriers cover their routes only once a day, but some carriers assigned to a business district may make two trips a day. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to road side mailboxes, and to large buildings, such as offices or apartments, which have all the mailboxes on the first floor. Besides delivering and collecting mail, carriers collect money for postage-due and c.o.d. (cash on delivery) fees and obtain signed receipts for registered, certified, in sured mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, carriers re turn to the post office with mail gathered from street collection boxes and homes, and businesses. They turn in the mail receipts and money collected during the day and may separate letters and parcels for further proc essing by clerks. Many city carriers have more specialized duties. Some deliver only parcel post while others collect mail from street boxes and receiving boxes in office buildings. In con trast, rural carriers provide a wide variety of postal services. In addition to delivering and picking up mail, they sell stamps and money orders and accept parcels, letters, and items to be registered, certified, or insured. All carriers answer customers’ questions about postal regulations and services and pro vide change-of-address cards and other postal forms when requested. Working Conditions Most carriers begin work early in the morning, in some cases as early as 4 a.m. if they have routes in the business district. Car riers spend most of their time outdoors in all kinds of weather delivering mail. Even those who drive often must walk when making deliveries and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post when loading their vehicles. The job, however, has its advantages. Car riers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon. They are free to work at their own pace as long as they Mail carriers spend much of their time outdoors. cover their routes within a certain period of time. charged veteran, and ten points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing offi Employment cer chooses one of the top three applicants; The U.S. Postal Service employed nearly the rest of the names remain on the list to be 250,000 mail carriers in 1980, three-quarters considered for future openings. of them full time. Although about 50,000 Mail carriers are classified as casual, partwere rural carriers, most worked in cities time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. and suburban communities throughout the Casual workers are not career employees, but Nation. are hired to help deliver mail during peak mailing or vacation periods of the year. PartTraining, Other Qualifications, time flexible carriers are career employees who do not have a regular work schedule, and Advancement Mail carriers must be U.S. citizens or but replace absent workers and help with have been granted permanent resident-alien extra work as the need arises. Part-time flexi status in the United States. They must be at ble carriers usually work less than 40 hours least 18 years old (at least 16, if they have a per week. Part-time regulars have a set work high school diploma). Applicants must quali schedule—for example, 4 hours a day. Full fy on a written examination that measures time carriers usually work a 40-hour week their speed and accuracy at checking names over 5 or 6 days, but may work additional and number and their abilities to memorize overtime hours when required. New carriers are trained on the job. They mail distribution systems. Applicants must have a driver’s license, a may begin as part-time flexible city carriers good driving record, and pass a road test. and become regular or full-time carriers in Before appointment, mail carriers must pass order of seniority as vacancies occur. Carri a physical examination and may be asked to ers can look forward to obtaining preferred show that they can lift and handle mail sacks routes as their seniority increases, or higher level jobs such as carrier technician, or pro weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants for mail carrier jobs should ap motion to supervisory positions. ply at a post office in the area where they wish to work. Applicants’ names are listed in Job Outlook order of their examination scores. Five points Employment of mail carriers is expected to are added to the score of an honorably dis decline through the 1980’s due to decreases 268/Occupational Outlook Handbook in the volume of mail. Continuing increases in use of the telephone rather than the written word, and electronic communications sys tems that transfer funds or transmit printed material instantaneously over telephone lines should result in less mail to be delivered. Growing business use of cheaper private de livery systems such as newspaper carriers, couriers, and parcel services is expected to divert additional mail. Possible cutbacks in delivery service from 6 days to 5 days per week could result in further loss of mail carrier jobs. Despite declining employment levels, thousands of job openings will result annually from the need to replace exper ienced carriers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Openings will be concen trated in areas with rapid population growth. Although the volume of mail to be deliv ered rises and falls with the level of business activity, as well as with the season of the year, full-time mail carriers have never been laid off. When mail volume is high, full-time carriers work overtime, part-time carriers work additional hours, and casual carriers may be hired. When mail volume is low, overtime is curtailed, part-time carriers work fewer hours, and casual workers discharged. The projected long-term employment decline probably will not cause layoffs of permanent workers but will be achieved by elimination of some positions vacated by workers who leave voluntarily, as was the case during the 1970’s. Earnings In late 1980, experienced full-time city delivery mail carriers earned an average sala ry of $19,275 a year, about one and one-half times as much as average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Full-time carriers started at a rate of $18,282 a year and could rise to a maximum of $20,944 after 8 years. They also received 10-percent additional pay for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Part-time flexible carriers began at $9.05 an hour in late 1980, with periodic increases up to $10.38 an hour after 8 years. Rural delivery carriers had average base salaries of $20,121 in late 1980. Their earn ings are determined through an evaluation of the amount of work required to service their routes. Carriers with heavier workloads gen erally earned more than those with lighter workloads. Rural carriers also received a maintenance allowance when required to use their own vehicles. trance examinations and specific employment opportunities for mail carriers. Postal Clerks (D .O .T. 243.367-014) In addition to selling stamps and money orders, clerks at post office windows weigh packages to determine postage and check to see if their condition is satisfactory for mail ing. Clerks also register, certify, and insure mail and answer questions about postage rates, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Occasionally they may help a cus tomer file a claim for a damaged package. Nature of the Work Working Conditions Most people are familiar with the post office window clerk behind the counter who sells stamps and accepts parcel post. Howev er, most postal clerks are distribution clerks who sort incoming and outgoing mail in workrooms out of public view. Postal clerks work at local post offices or at large central mail processing facilities. Those at local post offices sort local mail for delivery to individual customers. Incoming mail collected from local collection boxes is forwarded to the nearest mail processing cen ter. There, clerks sort and prepare the mail for delivery. About 300 mail processing centers throughout the country service post offices in surrounding areas. There, mailhandlers un load the sacks of incoming mail and separate it into groups of letters, parcel post, maga zines, and newspapers. They feed letters through stamp-canceling machines, then take the mail to other workrooms to be sorted by postal clerks according to destination. There, clerks operating electronic letter sorting ma chines push keys corresponding to the ZIP code of the local post office to which each letter will be delivered; the machine drops letters into proper slots. Other clerks sort odd-sized letters, magazines, and newspapers by hand. Finally, the mail is sent to local post offices for further sorting according to delivery route. Working conditions of clerks differ accord ing to work assignments and type of laborsaving machinery available. In small post offices, clerks may use a hand truck to move heavy mail sacks from one part of the build ing to another and sort mail by hand. In large post offices and mail processing centers, chutes and conveyors move the mail, and much of the sorting is done with machines. When not operating a letter sorting machine, clerks usually are on their feet, reaching for sacks and trays of mail and placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays. Distribution clerks may become bored with the routine of sorting mail unless they try to improve their speed and accuracy. They also may have to work at night or on weekends, because most large post offices process mail around the clock. A window clerk, on the other hand, has a greater variety of duties, frequent contact with the public, and a generally less strenu ous job. Window clerks rarely have to work at night. Employment Two out of every five Postal Service em ployees were postal clerks in 1980. The ma jority of the 265,000 postal clerks work at mail processing centers, although many still sort mail and provide window services at local post offices throughout the country. Related Occupations Postal clerks and mailhandlers play an im portant role in moving the Nation’s mail, and their work and qualifications are closely related to those of mail carriers. Related delivery occupations include messengers, merchandise deliverers, delivery-route truckdrivers, news paper delivery drivers, and newspaper carriers. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment service offices can supply details about en Window clerks determine postage and sell stamps. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/269 Three out of four clerks worked full time; most of the others were part-time employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postal clerks must be U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent resident-alien status in the United States. They must be at least 18 years old (at least 16 if they have a high school diploma). They must qualify on a written examination that measures their speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and their abilities to memorize mail distribu tion systems. Applicants must also pass a physical examination and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants who are to work with an electronic sorting ma chine must pass a special examination which includes a machine aptitude test. Applicants should apply at the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work. Applicants’ names are listed in the order of their scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran, and 10 points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. When a va cancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list for future appointments. New clerks are trained on the job. Most clerks begin with simple tasks to learn regional groupings of States, cities, and ZIP codes. To help clerks learn these groups, many post offices offer classroom instruction. A good memory, good coordination, and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are important. Distribution clerks work close ly with other clerks, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting deadlines. Window clerks must be courteous and tact ful when dealing with the public, espe cially when answering questions or receiving complaints. Postal clerks are classified as casual, parttime flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casual workers are not career employees, but are hired to help process mail during peak mailing or vacation periods of the year. Parttime flexible clerks are career employees who do not have a regular work schedule but replace absent workers and help with extra work as the need arises. Part-time flexible clerks usually work less than 40 hours per week. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule—for example, 4 hours a day. Full time clerks usually work a 40-hour week over 5 days. Most clerks begin as part-time flexible em ployees and become full-time workers in or der of seniority as vacancies occur. Full-time clerks may bid for preferred assignments such as the day shift, a window job, or a higher level nonsupervisory position as expe diter or window service technician. Clerks also may advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Employment of postal clerks is expected to decline through the 1980’s as more efficient automated sorting machines are installed. The quantity of mail handled by the postal service is expected to decline because of ris ing postal rates, greater use of telephones, and new ways of distributing advertising cir culars. In addition, growing quantities of mail will be transmitted electronically, and will require little or no sorting. Nevertheless, many job openings will result from the need to replace clerks who transfer to other occu pations, retire, or die. Openings will be con centrated in areas with rapid population growth. Although the volume of mail to be pro cessed rises and falls with the level of busi ness activity, as well as with the season of the year, full-time postal clerks have never been laid off. When mail volume is high, full-time clerks work overtime, part-time clerks work additional hours, and casual clerks may be hired. When volume is low, overtime is curtailed, part-time clerks work fewer hours or may be laid off, and casual workers are discharged. The projected long term employment decline probably will not cause layoffs of permanent workers, but will be achieved by elimination of some positions vacated by workers who leave voluntarily, as was the case during the 1970’s. Receptionists Earnings Working Conditions In 1980, experienced full-time postal clerks averaged $19,222 a year, about one and one-half times the average for all nonsu pervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Full-time postal clerks started at a base rate of $18,282 a year and increased to a maximum of $20,944 after 8 years. Clerks working part-time flexible schedules started at $9.05 an hour and could advance to $10.38 an hour after 8 years. Clerks who work night shifts receive 10-percent addi tional pay. Full-time postal employees have more job security than workers in most other industries. Because receptionists greet customers and visitors, they usually work in areas that are carefully designed and furnished to make a good impression. Working conditions usually, are pleasant; offices are clean, well lighted, and relatively quiet. Although most have regular hours, re ceptionists in hospitals and some profes sional offices may work weekends or in the evenings. Related Occupations Mail carriers and mailhandlers play an im portant role in moving the Nation’s mail, and their work and qualifications are closely re lated to that of postal clerks. Postal clerks sort mail by hand or by keyboarding address es into electronic letter-sorting machines. Other information processing occupations that have related duties include mail clerks, file clerks, routing clerks, sorters, medical record clerks, clerk-typists, cashiers, key punch operators, and ticket sellers. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment service offices can supply details about en trance examinations and specific employment opportunities for postal clerks. (D .O .T. 237.367-038) Nature of the Work All organizations want to make a good first impression on the public. This is an important part of the job of the receptionist, who generally is the first person a caller sees. Receptionists greet customers and other visitors, determine their needs, and refer call ers to the person who can help them. Recep tionists’ day-to-day duties vary a great deal, depending on where they work. Those in hospitals and doctors’ offices, for example, may obtain personal and financial informa tion and then direct patients to the proper waiting rooms. In beauty shops, receptionists arrange appointments and may show custom ers to the operator’s booth. In factories or large business firms, they provide callers with identification cards and arrange for es corts to take them to the proper office. Many receptionists keep records of callers, the times at which they called, and the per sons to whom they were referred. When they are not busy with callers, receptionists may type, file, or operate a switchboard. Some receptionists open and sort mail and collect and distribute messages. Still others prepare travel vouchers and do simple bookkeeping. Employment About 635,000 persons worked as recep tionists in 1980. Although receptionists work in almost every kind of organization, about one-third work for doctors, dentists, hospi tals, nursing homes, and other health service providers. Large numbers of receptionists also work in factories, wholesale and retail stores, real estate offices, and firms provid ing a wide range of business and personal services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement This occupation offers good opportunities for persons without prior work experience. Employers usually require that receptionists have a high school diploma. Personal characteristics are very important in this occupation. A receptionist should like meeting new people and have a desire to be helpful and informative. A neat appearance, a pleasant voice, and an even disposition also are important. 270/Occupational Outlook Handbook working for the Federal Government aver aged around $11,500 a year in 1980. Related Occupations A number of other workers deal with the public, receive and provide information, or direct people to others who can assist them. Among these are information clerks, infor mation and referral aides, and customer ser vice representatives. Sources of Additional Information See the introduction to this section on administrative support occupations, in cluding clerical, for sources of additional information. Secretaries and Stenographers______ (D .O .T. 201.162-010, .362-010, -014, -018, -022, and 030, 202.362-010, -014, -018, and -022) Nature of the Work Because receptionists do not work under close supervision, common sense and a thor ough understanding of how the business is organized help them handle various situations that arise. Promotion opportunities for receptionists are limited, especially in small offices. In large workplaces, however, a receptionist who has clerical skills may advance to a better paying job as a secretary, administra tive assistant, or bookkeeper. English, typing, shorthand, business arith metic, basic accounting and bookkeeping, of fice procedures, and other useful subjects for receptionists are taught in high schools throughout the country. College or business school training also can be helpful in advanc ing to better paying office jobs. Many com panies have their own training programs so that the skills needed for advancement can be learned on the job. Job Outlook Employment of receptionists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. Thousands of open ings will result each year as businesses expand and many experienced receptionists transfer to other jobs, stop working for per sonal reasons, retire, or die. The number of replacements will be quite large because the occupation is large and turnover is high. Employment of receptionists is expected to grow more rapidly than employment of all clerical workers combined. This is largely because so many receptionists work for firms providing business and professional ser vices—sectors of the economy that are ex pected to continue to show strong growth— particularly doctors’ and dentists’ offices, hospitals, and other health service facilities. In addition, more and more firms are coming to recognize the importance of the' reception ist in promoting good public relations. Fur ther, because the receptionist’s work is of a person-to-person nature, it is unlikely to be affected by office automation. Since many receptionists also perform sec retarial duties, persons with good typing, stenographic, and other skills should have the best job prospects. Earnings Full-time switchboard operator-reception ists working in urban areas averaged $187 a week in 1980, compared with an average of $235 a week for all nonsupervisory and pro duction workers in private industry, except farming. Receptionists working in the West had average weekly earnings of $198. Those in the South averaged about $177 a week. In the Federal Government, beginning informa tion receptionists with a high school diploma or 6 months of work experience earned about $8,300 a year in early 1981. Receptionists The efficiency of any organization depends in large part upon secretaries and stenogra phers, who are at the center of communica tions within the firm. They process and transmit information to the staff and to other organizations. Secretaries perform a variety of adminis trative and clerical duties so that their em ployers can work on other matters. They schedule appointments, give information to callers, organize and maintain files, fill out forms, and take and transcribe dictation. The amount of time secretaries spend on these and other duties—including typing—depends on the way office work is handled within the organization. In offices that have word processing cen ters, administrative secretaries handle every thing except dictation and typing. Their duties range from filing, routing mail, and answering telephones to more complex work such as answering letters, doing research, and preparing statistical reports. Administra tive secretaries often work in clusters of three or four so that they can help each other. Because they are released from dictation and typing, they can serve several members of the professional staff. Some secretaries do highly specialized work for which training is available in busi ness schools and colleges as well as commu nity colleges. Legal secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-010) prepare legal papers and corre spondence such as summonses, complaints, motions, and subpoenas. They may also re view law journals and assist in other ways with legal research. Medical secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-014) transcribe dictation, prepare correspondence, and assist physicians or medical scientists with reports, speeches, articles, and conference proceedings. They need to know medical terminology and be familiar with hospital or laboratory proce- Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/271 dures. Technical secretaries assist engineers or scientists. In addition to the usual secretar ial duties, they may prepare much of the correspondence, maintain the technical li brary, and gather and edit materials for scien tific papers. Another specialized secretary is the social secretary (D.O.T. 201.162-010), who ar ranges social functions, answers personal correspondence, and keeps the employer in formed about all social activities. Member ship secretaries (D .O .T . 201.362-018) compile and maintain membership lists, re cord the receipt of dues and contributions, and give out information to members of orga nizations and associations. They may have such other duties as sending out newsletters and promotional materials. School secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-022) handle secretarial du ties in elementary and secondary schools; they may take care of correspondence, pre pare bulletins and reports, keep track of mon ey for school supplies and student activities, and maintain a calendar of school events. Stenographers (D.O.T. 202.362-014) and stenotype operators (D.O.T. 202.362-022) take dictation and then transcribe their notes on a typewriter. They may either take short hand or use a stenotype machine that prints symbols as certain keys are pressed. General stenographers, including most beginners, take routine dictation and do other office tasks such as typing, filing, answering tele phones, and operating office machines. Ex perienced and highly skilled stenographers take difficult dictation and do more responsi ble clerical work. They may sit in on staff meetings and later give a summary report or a word-for-word record of the proceedings. They also supervise other stenographers, typ ists, and clerical workers. Technical stenog raphers must know the terms used in a par ticular profession. They include medical, legal, and engineering or scientific stenogra phers. Some experienced stenographers take dictation in foreign languages; others work as public stenographers serving traveling busi ness people and others. Shorthand reporters (D.O.T. 202.362010) are specialized stenographers who re cord all statements made in a proceeding. Shorthand reporters often work as court re porters. They take down all statements made at legal proceedings and present their record as the official transcript. Many other short hand reporters work as freelance reporters who record out-of-court testimony for attor neys, proceedings of meetings and conven tions, and other private activities. Still others record the proceedings in the U.S. Congress, in State legislatures, and in State and Federal agencies. Many reporters dictate notes on magnetic tapes that a typist can transcribe later. Many other reporters transcribe their notes with the help of note readers, persons skilled in reading back shorthand notes. A growing number of reporters use Computer Aided Transcription (CAT), a system in which a computer directly translates the re porter’s shorthand notes into English. Be Secretaries are in great demand. cause the reporter’s transcript is the official record of a proceeding, accuracy is vitally important. Print shop stenographers (D .O .T . 202.362-018) take dictation and use typewrit ers to transcribe the dictated material and to prepare metal printing plates to be used by addressing machines. Working Conditions Secretaries usually work in offices that are clean, well lighted, and free from high noise levels except during peak typing periods. Their jobs often involve sitting for long per iods, and typing often requires working from materials that are difficult to read. Executive secretaries, who perform a number of duties, have the variety in their jobs that many peo ple prefer. Secretaries and stenographers generally work a standard 40-hour week. In some cities, especially in the Northeast, the sched uled workweek is 37 hours or less. Office work lends itself to alternative or flexible working arrangements, and many secretaries hold part-time or temporary jobs. Some participate in job-sharing arrange ments, in which two people divide responsi bility for a single job. A few employers are experimenting with “home based” offices; so phisticated equipment installed in secretaries’ homes enables them to transcribe material at home and, almost instantly, produce printed copy in an office miles away. Employment Nearly 2.5 million secretaries were em ployed in 1980. About 280,000 persons worked as stenographers. Secretaries are employed in organizations 272/Occupational Outlook Handbook of every description. They work for busi nesses that engage in manufacturing, mining, construction, wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and communications. Banks, insurance companies, investment firms, and real estate firms are important employers, too. Secretaries work in Federal, State, and local government agencies. Half of them, however, are employed by organizations that provide services to the public: Educational institutions, hospitals and other health facili ties, law firms, membership organizations, and companies that provide business ser vices. Among the latter are employment agencies that provide “ office temporaries” and word processing service bureaus. Stenographers, too, are employed through out the economy. Two out of five, however, work for government agencies, a reflection of the large number of shorthand reporters working in courts, legislatures, and agencies in the executive branch. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma generally is re quired for a job as a secretary or stenogra pher. Most employers prefer applicants who have had secretarial training at a college or business school. Courses vary from a few months’ instruction in office practices, short hand, and typing to 1- to 2-year programs that teach a broad range of secretarial skills. Shorthand reporters generally must complete a 2-year course in a shorthand reporting school. While specific hiring requirements for sec retaries vary a great deal, many firms in major metropolitan areas require a typing speed of 65 words a minute and shorthand of about 90 words a minute. Knowledge of shorthand is a “definite plus” in landing a high-paying secretarial job, and many em ployers insist on it. Some require word pro cessing skills as well. In addition to a solid grounding in secre tarial skills, employers look for a good com mand of the English language and an aptitude for numbers. Some firms look for individuals with excellent interpersonal skills, since secretaries must be tactful in their dealings with many different people. Discretion, judgment, organizational ability, and initiative are important for the more re sponsible secretarial positions. Continuing changes in the office environ ment, many made possible by the computer, have increased the demand for secretaries and stenographers who are adaptable and versa tile. Workers must be prepared to be re trained whenever an employer introduces new equipment. Secretaries may have to spend days or weeks in classes to learn to operate word processing equipment, informa tion storage systems, and other automated equipment. The frequency with which office equipment is changed or updated makes re training and continuing education an integral part of the job, and employers seek workers who understand and accept the inevitability of change. Employers usually have no preferences among the many different shorthand meth ods. For court reporters, however, the prefer ence is for stenotype (machine shorthand), not only because reporters can write faster using stenotype, but also because they can feed stenotype notes to a computer for high speed transcription. The most important fac tors in hiring and promotion are speed and accuracy. To qualify for jobs in the Federal Government, stenographers must be able to take dictation at a minimum of 80 words per minute and type at least 40 words per min ute. Workers must achieve higher rates to advance to more responsible positions. In private firms the requirements vary, but ap plicants with the best speed and accuracy will receive first consideration in hiring. Many shorthand reporting jobs require more than 225 words of dictation per minute; shorthand reporters in the Federal Government general ly must take at least 175 words a minute. Several States require each court reporter to be a Certified Shorthand Reporter (CSR). A certification test is administered by a board of examiners in each of the States that have CSR laws. The National Shorthand Report ers Association confers the designation Reg istered Professional Reporter (RPR) upon those who pass a two-part examination and participate in continuing education programs. The RPR designation is recognized as the mark of excellence in the profession. Opportunities for advancement for secre taries and stenographers include promotion to successively more responsible positions with in the occupation—or a career change. As secretaries gain experience, they can qualify for the designation Certified Professional Secretary (CPS) by passing a series of exams given by the Institute of Certifying Secre taries, a department of Professional Secre taries International. This designation is recognized by a growing number of employ ers as the mark of achievement in the secre tarial field. Stenographers may advance to secretarial jobs; those who acquire the neces sary speed through additional training can become shorthand reporters. Qualified secretaries who broaden their knowledge of their company’s operations may be promoted to positions such as admin istrative assistant, clerical or secretarial su pervisor, and office manager. By taking college courses or completing a degree pro gram in a field such as business, marketing, accounting, or personnel administration, sec retaries may progress into entry level man agement positions. Secretaries and stenographers with word processing experience can advance to jobs as word processing trainers, supervisors, or managers within their own firms or in a secretarial or word processing service bureau. They also can get jobs with manufacturers of word processing and other office equip ment in positions such as instructor or sales representative. Job Outlook Employment of secretaries is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s as the expansion of business and government continues to cre ate more paperwork. Many jobs will be available every year due to increased demand for secretaries and the need to replace those who transfer to other jobs, retire, or die. Demand for secretaries will rise as new organizations are established and existing ones expand. Hospitals, nursing homes, and university medical centers; insurance com panies offering new forms of protection; and banks providing financial services to a grow ing and increasingly affluent population are just a few of the organizations that will need secretaries in the years ahead. Neither office automation nor economic downturns are expected to have an adverse impact on employment of secretaries. Techno logical developments in office equipment are certain to continue, and they will bring about further changes in the secretary’s work envi ronment. However, automated office equip ment cannot substitute for the personal qualities that are essential to the job. Fluctu ations in the level of business activity have little effect, overall, on employment of clerical workers. Even during slack periods, compan ies must process paperwork. And when busi ness failures lead to layoffs, secretaries and stenographers normally find other jobs soon. Skilled secretaries are in great demand, and this situation is expected to continue. Job prospects are especially favorable for secre taries with excellent typing and shorthand skills, word processing experience, organiza tional ability, judgment, and initiative. Opportunities are excellent for temporary or part-time work in the secretarial field. Employers are increasingly receptive to such arrangements because of the shortage of qualified secretaries in many parts of the country. Employment of stenographers is expected to continue the decline of recent years. The widespread use of dictation machines has greatly reduced the need for office stenogra phers, and the traditional “ steno pool” is be coming a thing of the past. In contrast, demand for skilled shorthand reporters should remain strong as State and Federal court sys tems expand to handle the rising number of criminal court cases and civil lawsuits. Com petition for entry level jobs as shorthand re porters is increasing, as more students enter the field. Opportunities will be best for those who have earned certification by the National Shorthand Reporters Association. Earnings Secretaries and stenographers’ salaries vary a great deal, usually reflecting differences in skill, experience, and level of responsibility. Salaries in different parts of the country also vary; earnings generally are lowest in southern cities and highest in northern and western urban areas. In 1980, for example, secretaries averaged $13,364 a year in the Administrative Support Occupations, Including Cierical/273 Northeast, $14,066 in the North Central re gion, $14,586 in the West, and $12,818 in the South. Stenographers in private industry averaged $13,191 a year in 1981, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey, while experienced stenographers averaged $15,727. According to the same survey, secretaries to supervisors in small offices averaged $12,947 a year in 1981. Secretaries to officers in small companies had average yearly salaries of $ 13,769; those work ing for middle management in large companies averaged $15,576. Secretaries holding greater responsibilities, such as executive secretaries to corporate officers, earned average salaries of $16,872 per year. According to a survey by the American Management Associations, in 1980 office workers received the following average annu al salaries: Secretary.................................................. $11,856 Bilingual secretary.................................. 12,844 Legal secretary ...................................... 13,572 Executive secretary ................................ 13,416 Secretary to staff vicepresident ............ 14,716 Secretary to executivevice president .. 16,952 Secretary to chief executive officer . . . 19,812 9,932 Junior stenographer................................ Senior stenographer................................ 11,492 12,584 Legal stenographer ................................ Beginning clerk-stenographers in the Fed eral Government earned from $9,766 to $12,266 a year in early 1981 depending on education, training, and experience. Short hand reporters generally earn higher salaries than stenographic office workers. In 1980, according to a survey made by the National Shorthand Reporters Association, beginning reporters employed by courts earned average salaries of $16,800 a year, while beginning reporters who were self-employed averaged $14,800 a year. Earnings vary, depending on speed, education, experience, and geographi cal location (earnings are generally higher in large cities than in rural areas). Starting salaries for secretaries in the Fed eral Government ranged from $9,776 to $15,193 a year. Clerk-stenographers and sec retaries employed by the Federal Govern ment in 1980 had average annual salaries of about $12,100 and $14,700, respectively. Employers usually pay secretaries and ste nographers who have word processing exper ience higher salaries than those without such experience. Most secretaries and stenographers in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vacation after working 1 year. With added years of service, vacations may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance, pension plans and other fringe benefits often are provided. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are bookkeepers, receptionists, office managers, personnel clerks, typists, adminis trative assistants, medical assistants, and le gal assistants. may spend much of their time standing, walking, or kneeling. Working closely with the students can be both physically and emo tionally tiring. Sources of Additional Information For career information, write to: Professional Secretaries International, 2440 Per shing Rd., Suite G10, Kansas City, Mo. 64108. Information on careers in secretarial work and a directory of business schools and col leges are available from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1730 M St. NW., Suite 600, Washington, D.C. 20036. High school students interested in careers as legal secretaries may request the pamphlet So You Want To Be A Legal Secretary. Write to: National Association of Legal Secretaries (Interna tional), 3005 East Skelly Dr., Tulsa, Okla. 74105. For information about shorthand reporting, contact: National Shorthand Reporters Association, 118 Park St. SE„ Vienna, Va. 22180. State employment offices can provide in formation about job openings for secretaries and stenographers locally and nationwide. Employment About 415,000 persons worked as teacher aides in 1980. Although they are employed in both elementary and secondary schools, aides are concentrated in the early grades. A substantial number have been hired in recent years to assist special education teachers who work with physically, mentally, or emotion ally handicapped children. Many aides work in large city schools or in suburban schools bordering major metropolitan areas. Howev er, aides are also employed in small schools, notably in rural areas that find it difficult to retain enough qualified teachers. Many school systems rely on the services of volunteers who are willing to work as teacher aides. While volunteers generally do not receive any payment for their services, volunteer experience may make it easier for a person to obtain a paid position as a teacher aide later on. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Teacher Aides_____ (D .O .T . 099.327-010, 219.467-010 and 249.367-074) Nature of the Work Teacher aides handle routine classroom tasks so that teachers can spend more time teaching. They work with students in the classroom, and assist with nonteaching activi ties such as recording grades or setting up equipment. Aides’ responsibilities vary greatly by school district. In some schools, aides work directly in the instruction of children. Under the supervision and guidance of the teacher, they help students individually or in small groups. An aide might listen to one student read, help another find information for a re port, or watch a third demonstrate a skill. Sometimes, the teacher has an aide take charge of a special project for a group of students, such as preparing equipment for a science demonstration. In other schools, teacher aides primarily handle routine nonteaching tasks. They may grade tests and papers, check homework, and keep health and attendance records. Secretar ial duties such as typing, filing, and duplicat ing materials for the teacher’s use may be part of the aide’s job. Sometimes, teacher aides are expected to stock supplies, operate audiovisual equipment, and keep classroom equipment in order. They also may supervise students during lunch and recreation periods and school bus loading. Working Conditions Teacher aides may work full time or part time. They may work inside or outdoors and Educational requirements for teacher aides vary widely. Some schools expect aides to have a high school diploma; others do not insist on it. Still other schools require aides to have some college training. Schools that delegate a significant amount of classroom responsibility to aides usually require more training than those which primarily assign aides to clerical or monitor jobs. Teacher aides generally receive their train ing for classroom work on the job. However, a number of 2-year and community colleges offer associate degree programs that prepare graduates to work directly in the classroom as teacher aides. Newly hired teacher aides undergo a peri od of orientation and training in which they learn how to help the classroom teacher work with students. Aides are taught how to oper ate audiovisual equipment, administer first aid, and keep records. They learn to make charts and other instructional materials and also learn to prepare bulletin boards and work with other art media. In addition, they are made familiar with the organization and operation of a school, and they learn about the methods used to teach handwriting, read ing, math, science, and other school subjects. Personal traits are among the most impor tant qualifying factors for the teacher aide’s job. Aides should be able to work with chil dren and to handle classroom situations with fairness and patience. Preference may be giv en in hiring to those with previous experience working with children. Aides also must dem onstrate initiative and a willingness to follow the classroom teacher’s directions. They must have basic speech and writing skills and be able to communicate effectively with students 274/Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations The educational support activities that teacher aides perform demand organizational skills, cooperativeness, recordkeeping abili ties, and a talent for getting along with peo ple. Other occupations requiring some or all of these skills include childcare attendants, career guidance technicians, home health aides, library attendants, medical record tech nicians, nurse aides, receptionists, record custodians, and retail sales clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information on a wide range of educationrelated issues, including teacher aide unioni zation, can be obtained from: American Federation of Teachers, 11 Dupont Cir cle, Washington, D.C. 20036. General information on education-related issues is also available from local affiliates of the National Education Association, or by writing to: National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Teacher aides encourage students to participate in class activities. and teachers. Clerical skills may be neces sary also. Thirteen States have certification proce dures for teacher aides. To qualify, a teacher aide may need a high school diploma or general equivalency degree (G.E.D.), or even some college. Kansas, Louisiana, and Wisconsin grant permits for paraprofessionals in the field of special education. Many schools have additional regulations regarding the hiring of teacher aides. For example, applicants for positions which are funded through special programs such as CETA may be required to have a family income below a certain level. Some school districts give preference in hiring to persons residing within the school district. Health regulations may require that teacher aides pass a physical examination. The local superintendent of schools and the State department of education can provide detailed information on employment requirements. Advancement for teacher aides, usually in the form of higher earnings or increased re sponsibility, comes primarily with exper ience. Some school districts provide release time so that aides may take courses. In this way, aides eventually can earn bachelor’s degrees and become certified teachers. creases are expected to be greater in those regions than in the Northeast and North Cen tral States. The U.S. Bureau of the Census projects that between 1980 and 1990, fully three-fourths of the entire increase in the number of American children aged 5-14 will occur in Southern and Western States. Job Outlook Earnings Employment of teacher aides is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The project ed increase in elementary school enrollments beginning in the mid-1980’s is expected to heighten demand for aides during the latter half of the decade. Enrollment growth will not occur at the same rate in all parts of the country, however. Largely because of migra tion to the South and West, enrollment in In 1980-81, teacher aides involved in teaching activities earned an average of about $4.50 an hour; those performing only non teaching activities averaged about $4.30 an hour. Earnings varied by region and also by the work experience and academic qualifica tions of the aide. Many aides are covered by collective bargaining agreements and have health and pension benefits similar to those of the teachers in their schools. Teacher aide employment is highly sensi tive to changes in State and local expendi tures for education. Pressure from taxpayers to limit tax and spending increases are likely to continue through the 1980’s, but budget pressures on public education are far greater in some States and localities than in others. Moreover, school systems respond to budget constraints in different ways. Severe curtail ment of educational spending would undoubt edly result in staff cutbacks in some school districts, while other districts might respond by hiring more teacher aides and fewer teach ers. A number of teacher aide positions are financed through a variety of Federal pro grams; reductions in Federal funding would affect some districts more than others. Because of relatively high turnover in the occupation, most openings for teacher aides during the 1980’s are expected to occur as a result of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Telephone Operators (D .O .T . 235.222-010, .462-010, .562-014, .662-014, -018, -022, -026, and 239.367-026) Nature of the Work Although millions of telephone numbers are dialed directly each day, making a call sometimes requires the assistance of a tele phone operator. An operator may be needed because a caller wants to reverse long-dis tance charges, find out a telephone number in another city, or know the cost of a call. Operators also help contact the police or fire departments in an emergency or arrange con ference calls for business executives. Providing these services are two groups of telephone operators. The operators who work in telephone company central offices prob ably are the most familiar. But many busin esses and large organizations receive so many calls that they employ operators to run their private branch exchange (PBX) switch boards. Sometimes operators place calls by inserting and removing plugs that make switchboard connections and by listening and speaking into their headsets. However, many switchboards, especially those in telephone company central offices, are operated by pushbuttons. Telephone company operators known as central office operators help customers with calls that require assistance, such as personto-person, coin-station and collect calls. They obtain the information needed to com plete the call and record the details for bill ing. Those who make long distance connections are called long distance opera tors. Directory assistance operators look up and provide telephone numbers. Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/275 PBX operators, sometimes called PBX at tendants, run switchboards for business firms and other establishments. They connect inter office or house calls, answer and relay out side calls, assist company employees in making outgoing calls, supply information to callers, and record charges. In small estab lishments, PBX operators may do other of fice work such as typing or sorting mail. Many act as receptionists or information clerks. Telephone company operators with the ap propriate qualifications can become privatebranch-exchange service advisors, sometimes called customer instructors. Their job is to conduct training classes in the operation of switchboard and teletype equipment on be half of the telephone company either at the company’s training school or on the custom er’s premises. Qualified operators also can become service observers. Service observers monitor the telephone conversations between operators and customers to observe the opera tor’s behavior, technical accuracy, and adher ence to company policies. Police district switchboard operators run switchboards to receive and transmit police communications, such as calls from citizens for assistance or police officers in the field. Communication-center operators handle air port authority communication systems and monitor electronic equipment alarms. For ex ample, they use the public address system to page passengers or visitors. Telephone answering-service operators manage switch boards to provide answering service for clients. Working Conditions Telephone company operators generally work 37 1/2 hours a week. The scheduled hours of PBX operators generally are the same as those of other clerical workers in the firm. In telephone companies, however, and in hotels, hospitals, and other places where telephone service is needed on a 24-hour basis, operators work on shifts, on holidays, and on weekends. Some operators work split shifts—that is, they are on duty during the peak calling periods in the late morning and early evening and have time off in between. Telephone companies normally assign shifts by seniority. These operators, like all tele phone company employees, are subject to 24hour call. In general, though, they work overtime only during emergencies. Because an operator cannot make up time missed, telephone companies strictly regulate atten dance and punctuality. Operators usually work in pleasant, well lighted, air-conditioned surroundings. The job of a telephone operator requires little physical exertion; however, during peak call ing periods, the pace at the switchboard may be hectic. Often operators are unable to leave their seats during these periods. An operator’s work generally is quite repetitive and, in the telephone companies, it is closely supervised. In most telephone company central offices, telephone operators use computerized equipment. Employment About 340,000 telephone operators were employed in 1980. More than one-half worked as PBX operators in manufacturing plants, hospitals, department stores, or busi nesses. The remainder worked in telephone companies. Roughly one-fourth of all opera tors work part time, although relatively few of those employed by telephone companies do so. Employment is concentrated in heavily populated areas, and large numbers of tele phone operators work in the New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles metropolitan areas. An increasing number work in rapidly growing areas such as Houston and Denver. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons interested in becoming telephone operators should like to serve the public, be pleasant, courteous, and patient, and not mind sitting for long periods of time. A clear, pleasing voice and good hearing are important. In addition to being good listen ers, prospective operators should have good reading, spelling, and arithmetic ability. Good eye-hand coordination and manual dex terity are useful. Many telephone companies and business firms require applicants, includ ing operators, to pass a physical examination. Some employers require a high school diplo ma for operator jobs. High school courses in speech, office practices, and business math provide a helpful background for persons in terested in this occupation. New operators are taught how to use the equipment and keep records of calls. Once they have learned the procedure, they put through practice calls. In the telephone com panies, classroom instruction usually lasts up to 3 weeks and is followed by on-the-job training. Classroom instruction covers the time zones and geography so that central office operators understand rates and know where major cities are located. Tapes are used to familiarize trainees with the dial tone, busy signal, and other telephone sounds and to improve diction and courtesy by giv ing them an opportunity to hear their own voices. Training is tailored to the knowledge requirements of the section in which the em ployee is going to work. Close supervision continues after training is completed. PBX operators who handle routine calls usually have a somewhat shorter training period than telephone company operators. In large businesses, an instructor from the local telephone company may train new employees. Telephone company operators may be pro moted, after 1 or 2 years of experience, to junior service assistant or service observer, assisting the supervisor by monitoring tele phone conversations. Promotion to supervi sor also is possible. Some operators advance to other clerical jobs or to telephone craft jobs such as installer and repairer. Large firms may advance PBX operators to more responsible clerical positions; however, many small businesses have limited advancement opportunities. Job Outlook Because employment of telephone and PBX operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average through the 1980’s, most openings will occur because of the need to replace experienced operators who stop working or transfer to other occupations. Employment of telephone company opera tors, which has been declining for the past 25 years, is likely to level off during the 1980’s as reduced labor requirements resulting from 276/Occupational Outlook Handbook technological innovation are offset by in creased service demand. Technological changes that raise productivity—thus reduc ing the need for operators—are virtually cer tain to continue. At the same time, the outlook is for continued strong growth in both residential and business demand for tele phone services. Moreover, new markets are expected to develop, including electronic funds transfer systems and home data pro cessing. Provided this increased service de mand offsets the employment impact of new technologies, little change in the number of telephone operators will occur. Technological innovations have taken place in a number of areas. Many telephone companies have installed electronic switching systems in their central offices, thus reducing the need for manual switching. Traffic ser vice position systems have been added; these automatically feed data about each telephone connection, such as the length and cost of the call, into a computer that processes the billing statements. Formerly an operator tab ulated and then transferred this information to the statement. It is now possible in many places to direct dial numbers in other coun tries, without the help of an operator. The task of responding to “ intercept” calls (va cant, changed, or disconnected numbers) is being automated. A device automatically an swers those calls with a computer-assembled voice response explaining the reason for in terception and giving new number infor mation. The monitoring and computing of charges on calls from pay telephones also is being automated, eliminating another func tion normally performed by operators. Direc tory assistance operators now can find numbers more quickly because they use a computerized system that shows the infor mation on a screen, whereas before they had to leaf through paper directories. Another change, while not of a technological nature, is expected to reduce the demand for di rectory assistance operators. A number of telephone companies now charge customers for directory assistance calls, thus prompt ing customers to dial numbers directly and use telephone directories to locate unknown numbers. Employment of PBX operators also is ex pected to remain relatively stable through the 1980’s. Growth in the number of small bu sinesses will generate demand for PBX ser vices, but this expansion will be offset somewhat as large businesses convert either to more sophisticated systems that require fewer operators or to Central Exchange (CENTREX). With CENTREX, incoming and outgoing calls can be dialed directly without an operator’s assistance. Operators are less sensitive to fluctuations in the business cycle than other workers in the telephone industry. The volume of tele phone calls is affected very little by the up swings and downturns in the economy. Telephone companies report that they hire fewer operators during recessions, but that is because there is less turnover (and conse quently fewer openings) when other jobs are relatively hard to find. Few PBX operators are laid off during recessions because even in slow times, businesses must keep their lines of communication open. Technological change has had a far greater effect than the business cycle on employment of telephone company operators. However, operators are seldom laid off, for collective bargaining agreements ensure that the com panies reduce employment either through at trition or by retraining or reassignment. Related Occupations Other workers who provide information to the general public include customer service representatives, dispatchers, hotel clerks, in formation clerks, police aides, receptionists, reservation agents, taxicab starters, and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information Earnings For more details about employment oppor tunities, contact your local telephone com pany or union that represents telephone workers. For general information on tele phone operator jobs, write to: Telephone companies in 1980 paid opera tors the following average hourly wages: International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St., NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. All telephone operators ................ $7.36 Telecommunications International Union, P.O. Box 5462, Hamden, Conn. 06518. Chief operator ............................................ Service assistant and instructor................ Experienced switchboard operator............ Operator in training .................................. Other switchboard employees .................. 11.73 8.67 7.23 5.16 11.48 Earnings of experienced telephone opera tors are about the same as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. A 1980 survey by the International Personnel Management Asso ciation of workers at all levels of govern ment showed that beginning telephone operators averaged $8,388 per year, while those with experience averaged $9,996. In 1980, the Federal Government paid starting telephone operators $8,951 per year. The average annual salary that year for all oper ators employed by the Federal Government was $11,200. Most telephone company operators are members of the Communications Workers of America, the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, or the Telecommunica tions International Union. For these opera tors, union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time required to ad vance from one step to the next (it normally takes 4 years to rise from the lowest paying, nonsupervisory operator position to the high est). Contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the normal 7 1/2 hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all Sunday and holi day work. Most contracts provide a pay dif ferential for nightwork and split shifts. Paid vacations are granted according to length of service. Usually, contracts provide for a 1week vacation beginning with 6 months of service; 2-weeks for 1 to 6 years; 3-weeks for 7 to 14 years; 4 -weeks for 15 to 24 years; and 5-weeks for 25 years and over. Depend ing on locality, holidays range from 9 to 11 days a year. Additional provisions include paid sick leave; group life, medical, and den tal insurance; sickness and accident benefits; retirement and disability pensions; a savings plan; and an employee stock ownership plan. Insurance, pensions, holidays, vacations, and other benefits for PBX operators are the same as those for other clerical employees in the firm. For general information on the indepen dent (non-Bell) telephone industry and career opportunities in it, request copies of “Inde pendent Phonefacts” and “Is it for You? A Career in the Independent Telephone Indus try” from: United States Independent Telephone Association, 1801 K St. NW„ Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. Typists____________ (D O T. 203.362-010, -018, .382-010, -026, .582-010, -014, -018, -034, -038, -054, and -066) Nature of the Work A rapid flow of written communication is essential to the modem office. The typist helps to maintain this flow by making neat, typed copies of handwritten, printed, and re corded words. Beginning or junior typists usually type headings on form letters, copy directly from handwritten drafts, and address envelopes. Often, they perform other office tasks as well: Answering telephones, filing, and oper ating copiers, calculators, and other office machines. More experienced typists do work that re quires a high degree of accuracy and inde pendent judgment. Senior typists work from rough drafts which are difficult to read or which contain technical material. They may plan and type complicated statistical tables, combine and rearrange materials from differ ent sources, or prepare master copies to be reproduced on copying machines. Clerk typists (D.O.T. 203.362-010) com bine typing with filing, sorting mail, answer ing telephones, and other general office work. Varitype operators (D.O.T. 203.382026) produce master copies, such as stencils, on machines similar to typewriters. Borde reau clerks (D.O.T. 203.382-010) compile data and type applications for insurance com panies. Perforator typists (D.O.T. 203.582038) operate special typewriters that perforate tape or paper to facilitate the subsequent Administrative Support Occupations, Including Clerical/277 automatic reproduction from master copy of data such as letters and reports. Crypto graph ic-m ach in e o p e ra to rs ( D . O . T . 203.582- 018) operate cryptographic equip ment to code, transmit, and decode secret messages for units of the Armed Forces, law enforcement agencies, or business organiza tions. Braille operators (D.O.T. 203.582010) operate typewriter-like machines that impress dots in metal sheets used in making braille books. Braille typists (D.O.T. 203.582- 014) use braille typewriters to tran scribe reading material for use by the blind. In a growing number of organizations, word processing centers handle the transcrip tion and typing for several departments. In these centers, magnetic-tape-typewriter oper ators (D.O.T. 203.582-034) produce letters and reports on high-speed machines that use a magnetic tape card or disk to store typed material in a programmed memory. These “computer-typewriters” eliminate a great deal of retyping because corrections can be made before the final copy is produced. Terminalsystem operators (D.O.T. 203.362-018) op erate a keyboard linked to a computer terminal to produce business, scientific, or technical publications in a printlike format. These operators use a coded command to enter, store, retrieve, or delete information, and to secure a finished copy. Terminal oper ators (D.O.T. 203.582-054) type letters or numbers onto the keyboard of an on-line computer typewriter terminal to transmit and receive data from a computer in another loca tion. They compare the readout on a printed copy or viewing screen with the source docu ments to detect and then correct errors. tions of various kinds, including educational institutions, hospitals, membership organiza tions, and firms that provide business ser vices. Among the latter are “office tempo raries” agencies and word processing service bureaus. About 30 percent of all typists work in Federal, State, and local government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Typists generally need a high school diplo ma. While specific hiring requirements vary a great deal, many employers require a typ ing speed of 45-55 words per minute. Some require word processing training or experi ence. Familiarity with standard office equip ment, especially copiers, is an asset. Good spelling, punctuation, and grammar are important skills for typists. Those who transcribe recorded dictation need sharp hear ing. Typists should be neat, accurate, and attentive to detail. They must be able to concentrate amid distractions. Many employers prefer applicants who have some knowledge of office practices. High schools, community colleges, business schools, and home study schools teach these skills. A number of companies and government agencies have training programs to help cleri cal employees upgrade their skills and ad Working Conditions Typists usually work in offices that are clean and well lighted. They sit for long periods and sometimes must contend with high noise levels caused by various office machines. Typists generally work a standard 40-hour week. In some cities, especially in the North east, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or less. Office work lends itself to alternative or flexible working arrangements and many typ ists hold part-time or temporary jobs. Some are freelance typists who are self-employed; others get short-term jobs through employ ment agencies that specialize in “ office temporaries.” Employment Nearly 1.1 million persons worked as typists in 1980. In addition, many other workers— including secretaries, newspaper reporters, writers, and editors—used typing skills in their jobs. Typists are employed throughout the econ omy. Approximately 35 percent work for business firms—chiefly those in manufactur ing; wholesale and retail trade; transporta tion, communications, and public utilities; and finance, insurance, and real estate. An other 35 percent work in service organiza Many typists have part-time or temporary jobs. vance to more responsible positions. Many States and localities sponsor programs to train unemployed and low-skilled workers for entry jobs as typists. As beginners increase their skills, they of ten advance to higher level typing jobs. Some typists are promoted to supervisory jobs in word processing centers. Others who master additional skills can move into secre tarial jobs. Job Outlook The number of typists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s as business expan sion increases the volume of paperwork. In addition to jobs resulting from the demand for more typists, many openings will occur every year because of replacement needs. Turnover in this occupation, with its relative ly low skill and pay levels, is very high. Very good job prospects are expected for typists in the years ahead, and opportunities should continue to be excellent for typists who prefer temporary or part-time work. De mand should be particularly strong for work ers who are versatile enough to handle other office jobs besides typing. Many employers prefer applicants with word processing exper ience; some require it. Even during slack economic periods, em ployment of typists is fairly stable because companies must process paperwork regard- 278/Occupational Outlook Handbook less of the level of business activity. When typists are laid off because of business or plant failures, they usually find other typist jobs easily. Earnings According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey, beginning typists averaged $9,959 a year in 1981. Those with experience aver aged $12,358 a year. According to 1980 survey data from the American Management Associations, junior typists had average salaries of $8,996 a year; clerk-typists, $9,568; senior typists, $10,192; statistical typists, $10,192; and senior word processing operators, $11,596. In early 1981, the Federal Government paid starting clerk-typists from $8,951 to $10,963 a year, depending on education, training, and experience. Average yearly earnings for all clerk-typists in the Federal Government were about $10,400 in 1980. Typists generally receive higher salaries if they have word processing experience. Most typists in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2-week vaca tion after working 1 year. With added years of service, vacations may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance, pension plans, and other fringe benefits often are provided. phers, receptionists, office machine opera tors, telephone operators, personnel clerks, and administrative assistants. Related Occupations State employment offices can provide in formation about job openings for typists lo cally and nationwide. Many other office workers use typing skills. Among these are secretaries, stenogra Sources of Additional Information Information concerning training for clerical occupations in your State is available from: State Supervisor of Office Occupations Education, State Department of Education, State capital. A directory of private business schools may be obtained from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1730 M St. NW., Suite 600, Washington, D.C. 20036. Service Occupations Workers in service occupations perform a wide variety of tasks ranging from policing streets and fighting fires to serving food and cleaning buildings. In 1980, more than 15.5 million people were employed in service jobs. The major groups of service occupa tions are discussed below: Protective service occupations. Over 1.7 million persons were employed to safeguard lives and property in 1980. The majority were police officers, guards, or firefighters. Others included sheriffs and bailiffs, crossing guards, ski patrollers, lifeguards, and dog catchers. Most protective service workers are government employees, working primarily at the local level. Protective service work is often routine, yet sometimes dangerous. Food and beverage preparation and ser vice occupations. The largest group of ser vice workers, about 6.2 million persons in 1980, prepare and serve food in restaurants, cafeterias, schools, hospitals, and other insti tutions. Workers in this group include cooks and chefs, waiters and waitresses, bartenders, kitchen workers, and food counter workers. Health service occupations. Workers in this group include dental assistants, and nurs ing aides, orderlies, and attendants. These workers are employed in hospitals, nursing homes, rehabilitation centers, and doctors’ and dentists’ offices. They typically perform routine but essential tasks that involve a great deal of personal contact. Cleaning and building service occupa tions . Workers in these occupations clean and maintain buildings such as apartments, houses, schools, and offices. The group in cludes janitors, elevator operators, maids, and pest controllers. Personal service occupations. Workers in this group range from barbers and cosmetolo gists to sightseeing guides and geriatric aides. The ability to deal with all kinds of people is a “must” in these jobs. Nearly 1.7 million persons were employed in personal service jobs in 1980. Private household service occupations. Most of the nearly 1 million private house hold workers employed in 1980 were domes tic workers who cleaned their employers’ homes, prepared meals, and cared for chil dren. Others included launderers, caretakers, and companions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training and skill requirements differ greatly among the various service occupa tions. FBI special agents, for example, must have a college degree. Barbers and cosme tologists need specialized vocational training. Still other occupations—household workers, building custodians, and hotel bellhops, for example—have no specific educational re quirements for entry, although a high school diploma is always an advantage. For many service occupations, personality traits and special abilities may be as impor tant as formal schooling. Thus, physical strength and endurance are a necessity for work as a porter, lifeguard, or window clean er; and a pleasing manner and appearance are especially important for a waiter or waitress, elevator operator, or usher. Other service workers, such as store and hotel detectives and travel guides, need good judgment and should be skillful in dealing with people. Some service workers eventually go into business for themselves as caterers or restau rant operators, for example, or proprietors of barber or beauty shops. This may be difficult for people without a good basic education and some knowledge of the business in which they work. Job Outlook The service occupations are expected to grow faster than any other major occupation al group through the 1980’s. For example, health service occupations will grow much faster than the average for all occupations as population growth, an aging population, and continued emphasis on using auxiliary health personnel create more demand for all health care occupations. More police officers and guards will be needed in the future as popula tion increases and the need for protection against crime, theft, and vandalism continues to grow. Rising incomes, increasing leisure time, and the growing number of women who combine family responsibilities and a job are likely to cause the demand for food service workers to grow as more people dine out. Employment of private household work ers, on the other hand, is expected to expe rience little change, despite a strong demand for these workers. Jobs are expected to be plentiful in most service occupations because turnover is high. Detailed information on the nature of the work, working conditions, employment, training requirements, job outlook, and earn ings in many of the service occupations men tioned here is presented in the following statements. 279 Protective Service Occupations The safety of individuals and property is essential in a civilized society. More than 1.7 million protective service workers were em ployed in 1980 to check crime, prevent and minimize loss of life and property, and en force regulations that protect our safety and rights at home and on the job. Table 1. Employment in selected protective service occupations, 1980 Occupation Employment Guard ...................................................... Police officer and sh eriff.................... Firefighter................................................ Correction officer ................................. School crossing guard.......................... Crossing or bridge tender .................. Lifeguard ................................................ 650,000 581,000* 275,000 103,000 41,000 29,000 19,000 ‘Includes 30,000 police officers and detectives em ployed by the Federal Government. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. About 3 out of 5 protective service work ers are government employees—working pri marily at the local level. During the 1980’s, employment of protective service workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations, the result of an expanding population and an increasing level of economic activity. Careers in protective service occupations require varied combinations of education and experience. Workers such as FBI special agents must have at least a bachelor’s degree, while some guards and correction officers may have less than a high school education. Most protective service occupations, howev er, require a high school diploma. In many cases, a college degree is an asset for ad vancement to higher level positions. In addition to educational requirements, most protective service workers must under go formal training programs and get on-thejob experience before they are fully qualified. Training programs last from several days to a few months and emphasize specific jobrelated skills. Personal qualifications such as physical fit ness, honesty,and an understanding of human nature are important. Persons seeking careers in protective service occupations should de sire to serve the community and be able to exercise good judgment under a variety of conditions. Although protective service jobs are usual ly routine, they are sometimes dangerous. Protective service workers face substantially higher risks of death or personal injury than most other occupations when confronting acts of violence, public disorder, or destruction of property. However, their jobs often afford 280 opportunities to exercise a great deal of re sponsibility, to work with a minimum of direct supervision, and to work outdoors. Be cause protecting lives and property is an around-the-clock responsibility, many protec tive service occupations work at night and on weekends. This section describes the work of several protective service occupations: Correction officers, FBI special agents, firefighters, guards, police officers, and State police officers. Correction Officers (D .O .T. 372.137, .367-014, .667-018, and .677; and 375.367) Nature of the Work Correction officers are charged with the safekeeping of persons who have been ar rested, are awaiting trial, or who have been tried and convicted of a crime and sen tenced to serve time in a correctional insti tution. They maintain order within the in stitution, enforce rules and regulations, and often supplement counseling that inmates re ceive from psychologists and other mental health professionals. To make sure inmates are orderly and obey rules, correction officers keep a close watch on everything the immates do—work ing, exercising, eating, and bathing. They assign and supervise inmates’ work assign ments, as well as instruct and help them on specific tasks. Sometimes it is necessary to search inmates and their living quarters for weapons or drugs, to settle disputes between inmates, and to enforce discipline. Correc tion officers cannot show favoritism to any inmate and must report all who violate rules. To prevent escapes, officers serve as guards on towers and at gates. They count inmates periodically to make sure all are present. Correction officers inspect facilities to as sure the safety and security of prisoners. They check cells and other areas of the in stitution for unsanitary conditions, fire haz ards, and evidence of infraction of rules by inmates. Periodically, they inspect locks, window bars, grill doors, and gates for tampering. Correction officers report orally and in writing on inmate conduct and on the quality and quantity of work done by inmates. Offi cers also report disturbances, violations of rules, and any unusual occurrences. They usually keep a daily record of their activities. Correction officers escort inmates to and from cells and other areas and admit and accompany authorized visitors within the fa cility. From time to time, they may inspect mail for contraband, administer first aid, or assist police authorities by investigating crimes committed within the institution and by searching for escaped inmates. Counseling and helping inmates with prob lems also is an important part of the correc tion officer’s job. Institutions usually employ psychologists and social workers to counsel inmates, but correction officers supplement the work of the professionals on an informal basis. Officers help inmates adjust to institu tional life, prepare for later civilian life, and avoid future criminal behavior. They may arrange a change in a daily schedule so that an inmate can visit the library, help inmates get news of their families, talk over personal problems that may have led to committing a crime, or suggest where to look for a job after release from prison. In some institu tions, officers have a more formal counseling role and may lead or participate in group counseling sessions. Correction sergeants directly supervise correction officers. They usually are respon sible for maintaining security and directing the activities of a group of inmates during an assigned watch or in an assigned area. Working Conditions Correction officers may work indoors or outdoors, according to their duties. Some indoor areas are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, but others are overcrowded, hot, and noisy. Outdoors, they may be subject to disagreeable weather conditions. Working in a correctional institution can be hazardous, and in the past, correction officers occa sionally have been injured or killed during disturbances. Correction officers usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week. Prison security must be provided around the clock, which means some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. During emergencies, officers may work overtime. Employment There were about 103,000 correction offi cers in 1980. Nearly half worked at State correctional institutions such as prisons, pris on camps, and reformatories. Most of the remainder worked at city and county jails or other institutions run by local governments. A few thousand correction officers worked at Federal correctional institutions. Most correction officers work in relatively large institutions located outside metropolitan areas, although a significant number work in jails and other smaller facilities located in cities and towns. Service Occupations/281 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most institutions require that correction of ficers be at least 21 years old and have a high school education or its equivalent, or qualify ing work experience. They must be in good health. Many States require candidates to meet formal standards of physical fitness, eyesight, and hearing. Strength, good judg ment, and the ability to think and act quickly are assets. Some States require candidates to have 1 or 2 years of experience in corrections or related police work. A few States require candidates to pass a written examination. The Federal Government, as well as al most every State and a few localities, pro vides training for correction officers. Some States have special training academies. Most States, however, provide informal on-the-job training. Academy trainees generally receive at least 4 to 8 weeks of instruction on institutional policies, regulations and procedures, the be havior and custody of inmates, writing re ports, and security. On-the-job trainees receive 2 to 6 months of similar training in an actual job setting under an experienced officer. Experienced officers sometimes re ceive inservice training to keep abreast of new ideas and procedures. With additional education, experience, and training, qualified officers may advance to correction sergeant or other supervisory or administrative positions. Officers sometimes transfer to related areas, such as probation and parole. Job Outlook Employment of correction officers is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as addi tional officers are hired to supervise inmates more closely and to relieve tensions in crowded correctional institutions. Expansion and new construction of correctional facilities are also expected to create many new jobs for correction officers. Many additional job openings will result from high job turnover and the need to replace workers who retire or die. Employment of correction officers is not usually affected by changes either in econom ic conditions or die overall level of govern ment spending because security must be maintained in correctional institutions at all times. When government spending is trimmed, corrections programs are usually affected less than other programs. Even when corrections budgets are cut, correction offi cers are rarely laid off. With traditionally high turnover of jobs in this occupation, staffs can be cut quickly just by not replacing those who leave. Earnings In 1980, salaries for correction officers varied widely by level of government. At the local level, starting salaries in 1980 averaged $10,600 a year for correction officers and $13,200 a year for supervisors. Through informal counseling, correction officers help inmates adjust to prison life. At the State level, correction officers aver aged a starting salary of $11,900 per year in 1980 and a maximum salary of $15,800 a year, although they could earn maximum sal aries of more than $20,000 in some States. Earnings of correction sergeants ranged from an average minimum of $13,650 to an aver age maximum of $18,350 at the State level, although they could earn more than $24,000 in some States. At the Federal level, the starting salary was $12,266 per year; correction sergeants and other supervisory officers could advance to maximum salaries of more than $25,000 per year. The average salary for all Federal correction officers and correction sergeants was $16,300 per year. Correction officers usually are provided uniforms or an allowance to purchase their own. Most are provided or can participate in hospitalization or major medical insurance plans; many officers can get disability and life insurance. Officers employed by the Fed eral Government and most State governments are covered by civil service systems or merit boards. Related Occupations A number of related careers are open to high school graduates who are interested in the protective services and the field of securi ty. Bailiffs guard offenders and maintain or der in courtrooms during proceedings. Body guards escort and protect people from injury or invasion of privacy. Border and immigra tion guards take into custody persons at tempting to enter the country illegally. House or store detectives patrol business establish ments to protect against theft and vandalism and to enforce standards of good behavior. 282/Occupational Outlook Handbook Security guards protect government, com mercial, and industrial property against theft, vandalism, illegal entry, and fire. Police offi cers and deputy sheriffs maintain law and order, prevent crime, and arrest offenders. Other corrections careers are open to per sons interested in working with offenders. Probation and parole officers counsel offend ers, process their release from correctional institutions, and evaluate their progress in becoming productive members of society. Recreation leaders organize and instruct of fenders in sports, games, arts, and crafts. Many related occupations are discussed else where in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements, training, and career opportunities for correc tion officers may be obtained from Federal and State civil service commissions, State departments of correction, or nearby correc tional institutions and facilities. Information on a career as a correction officer and other corrections careers, as well as information about schools that offer crimi nal justice education, financial assistance, and job listings, is available from: Contact, Inc., P.O. Box 81826, Lincoln, Neb. 68501. Additional information on careers in cor rections is also available from: The American Correctional Association, 4321 Hartwick Rd., College Park, Md. 20740. FBI Special Agents (D .O .T. 375.167-042) Nature of the Work Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) spe cial agents investigate violations of Federal laws in connection with bank robberies, kid nappings, white-collar crime, thefts of Gov ernment property, organized crime, espio nage, sabotage, and terrorism. The FBI, which is part of the U.S. Department of Justice, has jurisdiction over many different Federal investigative matters. Special agents, therefore, may be assigned to any type of case, although those with specialized training usually work on cases related to their back ground. Agents with an accounting back ground, for example, may investigate whitecollar crimes such as bank embezzlements or fraudulent bankruptcies and land deals. Because the FBI is a fact-gathering agen cy, its special agents function strictly as in vestigators, collecting evidence in cases in which the U.S. Government is or may be an interested party. In their casework, special agents conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of suspects, and partici pate in raids or arrests. Because the FBI’s work is highly confidential, special agents may not disclose any of the information gath ered in the course of their official duties to Newly appointed FBI agents are trained in the use of firearms. unauthorized persons, including members of their families. Frequently agents must testify in court about cases that they investigate. Although they work alone on most assign ments, agents communicate with their super visors by radio or telephone as the cir cumstances dictate. In performing potentially dangerous duties, such as arrests and raids, two agents or more work together. Working Conditions Although FBI special agents work out of clean, well-lighted offices, they spend a great deal of their time away from their desks conducting investigations. They may visit homes, offices, or industrial plants and inter view persons from all walks of life. Their work requires use of automobiles and fire arms and occasionally involves some risk of personal injury. Special agents are subject to call 24 hours a day and must be available for duty at all times. Their duties require some travel, and occasionally they may be transferred to an other location. Employment About 8,000 persons were special agents in 1980. Most agents were assigned to the FBI’s 59 field offices located throughout the Nation. They worked in cities where field office headquarters are located or in resident agencies (suboffices) in smaller cities within the field office jurisdiction. Some agents are assigned to the Bureau headquarters in Wash ington, D.C. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To be considered for appointment as an FBI special agent, an applicant usually must be a graduate of a State-accredited law school with at least 2 years of undergraduate college work; or a college graduate with a major in accounting or one of the physical sciences, a fluency in a foreign language, or with at least 3 years of full-time work experience. Applicants for the position of FBI special agent must be U.S. citizens, be at least 23 years old but less than 35 before they begin duty, and be willing to serve anywhere in the United States or Puerto Rico. They must be capable of strenuous physical exertion and have excellent hearing and vision, normal color perception, and no physical defects that would prevent their using firearms or partici pating in dangerous assignments. All appli cants must pass a rigid physical examination and fitness tests, as well as written and oral examinations testing their aptitude for meet ing the public and conducting investigations. All of the tests except the physical examina tions are given by the FBI at its facilities. Background and character investigations are made of all applicants. Appointments are made on a probationary basis and become permanent after 1 year of satisfactory service. Newly appointed special agents are given 15 weeks of training at the FBI Academy at the U.S. Marine Corps Base in Quantico, Va., before assignment to a field office. During this period, agents receive intensive training in defensive tactics and the use of firearms. In addition, they are thoroughly schooled in Federal criminal law and pro cedures, FBI rules and regulations, finger printing, and investigative work. Agents are then assigned to a field office, where they work closely with an experienced agent for about 2 weeks before handling investigations independently. FBI special agents who demonstrate the ability to assume more responsibility are pro moted to administrative and supervisory jobs. Service Occupations/283 Job Outlook The jurisdiction of the FBI has expanded greatly over the years. Although it is impos sible to forecast special agent personnel re quirements, employment may be expected to increase with growing FBI responsibilities. The FBI provides a career service and its rate of turnover is traditionally low. Never theless, the FBI is always interested in appli cations from qualified persons. Earnings The entrance salary for FBI special agents was $20,467 in early 1981. Special agents receive periodic within-grade salary raises if their work performance is satisfactory; they can advance in grade as they gain experi ence. Salaries of experienced agents at the journey grade started at $32,048; supervisory agents started at $37,871 a year. Agents frequently work longer than the customary 40-hour week and, under specified conditions, receive overtime pay up to $5,100 a year. Agents are required to retire at age 55 if they have served at least 20 years. Related Occupations FBI special agents conduct investigations and apprehend lawbreakers. Other related in vestigative and law enforcement occupations include: Detectives, private investigators, po lice officers, deputy sheriffs, Secret Service agents, Internal Revenue Service agents, Border Patrol agents, fire marshals, and fish and game wardens. Sources of Additional Information The Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Depart ment of Justice, Washington, D.C. 20535. Firefighters_____ (D.O.T. 373 and 452.364-014 and .687-014) Nature of the Work Every year, fires take thousands of lives and destroy property worth millions of dol lars. Firefighters help protect the public against this danger. This statement gives in formation only about paid career firefighters; it does not cover the many thousands of volunteer firefighters in communities across the country. During duty hours, firefighters must be prepared to respond to a fire and handle any emergency that arises. Because firefighting is dangerous and complicated, it requires orga nization and teamwork. At every fire, fire fighters perform specific duties assigned by an officer such as a lieutenant, captain, or chief. They may connect hose lines to hy drants, operate a pump, or position ladders. Their duties may change several times while the company is in action. They may rescue victims and administer emergency medical aid, ventilate smoke-filled areas, operate equipment, and salvage the contents of build ings. Some firefighters operate fire appara tus, ambulances, emergency rescue vehicles, and fireboats. Most fire departments also are responsible for fire prevention. They provide specially trained personnel to inspect public buildings for conditions that might cause a fire. They may check building plans, the number and working condition of fire escapes and fire doors, the storage of flammable materials, and other possible hazards. In addition, fire fighters educate the public about fire preven tion and safety measures. They frequently speak on this subject before school assem blies and civic groups, and, in some commu nities, they inspect private homes for fire hazards. Between alarms, they have practice drills and classroom training and clean and main tain equipment. Working Conditions Firefighters spend much of their time at fire stations which usually have facilities for dining and sleeping. When an alarm comes in, firefighters must respond, rapidly, regard less of the weather or hour. They may spend long periods outdoors at fires and other emer gencies in adverse weather. Firefighting is among the most hazardous occupations. It involves risk of death or in jury from sudden cave-ins of floors or top pling walls and from exposure to flames and smoke. Firefighters also may come in contact with poisonous, flammable, and explosive gases and chemicals. In some cities, firefighters are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In other cities, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. Although in many large cities, particularly in the East, firefighters work a 40-hour week, some firefighters average as many as 56 hours. In addition firefighters often work extra hours when bringing a fire under control. Fire lieutenants and fire cap tains work the same hours as the firefighters they supervise. Duty hours may include some time when firefighters are free to read, study, or pursue other personal interests. Employment Nearly 275,000 persons worked as fire fighters in 1980. More than 9 out of 10 worked in municipal fire departments. Some very large cities have several thousand fire fighters, while many small towns have only a few. Some firefighters work in fire depart ments on Federal and State installations, in cluding airports. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs may have to pass a written test, a medical examination, and tests of strength, physical stamina, and agility. These examinations are open to persons who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school education or the equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores have the best chances for appointment. Extra credit usually is given for military ser vice. Experience as a volunteer firefighter or in the Armed Forces also may improve an applicant’s chances for appointment. As a rule, beginners in large fire depart ments are trained for several weeks at the city’s fire school. Through classroom instruc tion and practical training, the recruits study firefighting techniques, fire prevention, local building codes, and emergency medical tech niques; also, they learn how to use axes, saws, chemical extinguishers, ladders, and other firefighting and rescue equipment. After completing this training, they are assigned to a fire company where they are evaluated dur ing a probationary period. A small but growing number of fire de partments have accredited apprenticeship pro grams lasting 3 to 4 years. These programs combine formal, technical instruction with on-the-job training under the supervision of experienced firefighters. Technical instruc tion covers subjects such as firefighting tech niques and equipment, chemical hazards as sociated with various combustible building materials, emergency medical techniques, and fire prevention and safety. Experienced firefighters often continue to study to improve their job performance and prepare for promotion examinations. To pro gress to higher level positions, firefighters must acquire expertise in firefighting, building construction, emergency medical techniques, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting procedures, and labor relations. Fire departments frequently conduct training pro grams, and many colleges and universities offer courses such as fire engineering and fire science that are helpful to firefighters. Among the personal qualities firefighters need are mental alertness, courage, mechani cal aptitude, endurance, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judgment are ex tremely important because firefighters often must make quick decisions in emergency sit uations. Because members of a crew eat, sleep, and work closely together under condi tions of stress and danger, they should be dependable and able to get along well with others in a group. Leadership qualities are assets for officers, who must establish and maintain discipline and efficiency as well as direct the activities of firefighters in their companies. Opportunities for promotion are good in most fire departments. As firefighters gain experience, they may advance to a higher rank. After 3 to 5 years of service, they may become eligible for promotion to the grade of lieutenant. The line of further promotion usu ally is to captain, then battalion chief, assis tant chief, deputy chief, and finally to chief. Advancement generally depends upon scores 284/Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Information on obtaining a job as a fire fighter is available from local civil service commission offices or fire departments. Information about a career as a firefighter may be obtained from: International Association of Fire Chiefs, 1329 18th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information about firefighter professional qualifications may be obtained from: National Fire Protection Association, march Park, Quincy, Mass. 02269. Battery- Additional information on the salaries and hours of work of firefighters in various cities is published annually by the International City Management Association in its Munici pal Yearbook, which is available in many libraries. Guards Firefighting requires organization and teamwork. (D .O .T . 372.267 through .367-010, .563, .567-010, .667-010 and -030 through -038, and 376.667-018.) on a written examination, performance on the job, and seniority. by postponing equipment purchases or the hiring of new firefighters. Job Outlook Earnings Employment of firefighters is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s to meet the growing need for fire protection. Employ ment should rise as new fire departments are formed and as others enlarge their fire pre vention sections. Much of the expected in crease will occur in smaller communities with expanding populations that replace vol unteer with career firefighters to better meet growing, increasingly complex fire protection needs. Additional firefighters also may be required as more cities shorten the workweek for firefighters. Besides job openings result ing from the increased demand for fire fighters, many other openings will become available each year due to the need to replace those who transfer from the occupation, re tire, or die. Firefighting attracts many people because the work is frequently exciting and challeng ing and affords an opportunity to perform a valuable public service. Consquently, the number of qualified applicants in most areas generally exceeds the number of job open ings, even though the written examination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. This situation is expected to per sist through the 1980’s. Opportunities should be best in smaller communities. Layoffs of firefighters are not common. Fire protection is an essential service, and citizens are likely to exert considerable pres sure on city officials to expand or at least preserve the present level of fire-protection coverage. Even when budget cuts do occur, local fire departments usually cut expenses In 1980, entrance salaries for beginning full-time firefighters averaged nearly $14,400 a year, ranging from about $13,100 to $16,100, depending on city size and region of the country. Maximum salaries averaged nearly $18,200 and varied from $16,400 to $20,500 annually. Earnings for firefighters are lowest in the South and highest in the West, and generally are higher in large cities than in small ones. Average earnings of all firefighters are about one and one-third times as much as the average of all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Practically all fire departments provide protective clothing (helmets, boots, and coats) and many also provide dress uniforms. Firefighters generally are covered by liberal pension plans that often provide retirement at half pay at age 50 after 25 years of service or at any age if disabled in the line of duty. About 8 out of 10 firefighters are members of the International Association of Fire fighters (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Firefighters work to prevent fires and to save lives and property when fires do occur. Related fire protection occupations include fire rangers, forest-fire fighters, and smoke jumpers who work to prevent and suppress forest fires; and fire-protection engineers who identify fire hazards in homes and work places and design prevention programs and automatic fire detection and extinguishing systems. Other occupations in which workers respond to emergencies include police offi cers and emergency medical technicians. Nature of the Work Guards patrol and inspect property to pro tect it against fire, theft, vandalism, and il legal entry. Their duties vary with the size, type, and location of their employer. In office buildings, banks, hospitals, and department stores, guards protect records, mer chandise, money, and equipment. In depart ment stores they often work with undercover detectives watching for theft by customers or store employees. At ports and railroads, guards protect mer chandise being shipped as well as property and equipment. They insure that nothing is stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires, prowlers, and trouble among work crews. Sometimes they direct traffic. Guards who work in public buildings, such as museums or art galleries, protect paint ings and exhibits. They also answer routine questions from visitors and sometimes guide traffic. In factories, laboratories, and military bases where valuable property or information must be protected, guards check the creden tials of persons and vehicles entering and leaving the premises. University, park, or recreation guards perform similar duties and also may issue parking permits and direct traffic. At social affairs, sports events, conven tions, and other public gatherings, guards maintain order, give information, and watch for persons who may cause trouble. In a large organization, a security officer often is in charge of the guard force; in a small organization, a single worker may be responsible for security. Patrolling usually is done on foot, but if the property is large, guards may make their rounds by car or motor scooter. Service Occupations/285 As they make their rounds, guards check all doors and windows, see that no unauthor ized persons remain after working hours, and insure that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprin kler systems, furnaces, and various electrical and plumbing systems are working properly. They sometimes set thermostats or turn on lights for janitorial workers. Guards usually are uniformed and often carry a nightstick and gun. They also may carry a flashlight, whistle, 2-way radio, and a watch clock—a device that indicates the time at which they reach various checkpoints. Correction officers, guards who work in prisons and other correctional institutions, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Guards work indoors and outdoors patrol ling buildings, industrial plants, and grounds. Indoors, they may be stationed at a guard desk to monitor electronic security and sur veillance devices or check the credentials of persons entering or leaving the premises. They also may be stationed at gate shelters or may patrol grounds in all weather. Since guards often work alone, no one is nearby to help if an accident or injury occurs. Some large firms, therefore, use a reporting service that enables guards to be in constant contact with a central station outside the plant. If they fail to transmit an expected signal, the central station investigates. Guard work is usually routine, but guards must be constantly alert for threats to themselves and to the property that they are protecting. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other employees and members of the public. Many guards work alone at night; the usu al shift lasts 8 hours. Some employers have three shifts where guards rotate to divide daytime, weekend, and holiday work equal ly. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular lunch break. Employment In 1980, almost 650,000 persons worked as guards. Industrial security firms and guard agencies employ about one-half of all guards. These organizations provide security services on contract, assigning their guards to build ings and other sites as needed. The other half are employed by banks; building man agement companies; hotels; retail stores; util ities; schools, colleges, and universities; manufacturers; and Federal, State, and local governments. Although guard jobs are found throughout the country, most are located in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer guards who are high school graduates. Applicants with less than a high school education also can qualify if they pass reading and writing tests and demonstrate competence in following written and oral instructions. Some jobs require a driver’s permit. Employers also seek people who have had experience in the military po lice or in State and local police departments. Most persons who enter guard jobs have pri or work experience, although it is usually unrelated. Some have retired from military careers or other protective services, and guard employment is a second career. Candidates for guard jobs in the Federal Government must have some experience as guards and pass a written examination. Armed forces experience also is an asset. For most Federal guard positions, applicants must qualify in the use of firearms. Some jobs require a driver’s permit. Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and also provide several weeks of on-the-job training. Guards may be taught to use firearms, to administer first aid, to operate alarm systems and electronic security equipment, and to spot and deal with security problems. Applicants are expected to have good char acter references, no police record, good health—especially in hearing and vision— and good personal habits such as neatness and dependability. They should be mentally alert, emotionally stable, and physically fit to cope with emergencies. Some employers re quire guards to meet height and weight speci fications or to be within a certain age range. Although guards in small companies re ceive periodic salary increases, advancement is likely to be limited. However, most large organizations use a military type of ranking that offers advancement in position and sal ary. Guard experience enables some persons to transfer to police jobs that offer higher pay and greater opportunities for advance ment. Guards with some college education may advance to jobs that involve administra tive duties or the prevention of espionage and sabotage. Job Outlook Employment of guards is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The level of business investment in plant and equipment—and se curity systems to protect them—has a major influence on how many guards will be re quired. Greater investment would cause greater growth in the number of guard jobs. Increased concern about crime and vandalism will also heighten the need for security in and around plants, stores, and recreation areas and is expected to cause growth of agency guard employment. Additional guards will be needed by banks, manufacturing plants, and Federal, State, and local governments to pro vide better security and monitor remote cam eras, alarm systems, and other electronic surveillance equipment. Many openings also will arise as guards retire, die, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Opportunities will be most plentiful for persons seeking work on night shifts. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with others. Guards employed by industrial security and guard agencies occasionally are laid off when the firm where they work does not renew its contract with their agency. Most are able to find employment with other agen cies, however. Guards employed directly by the firm at which they work are seldom laid off because a plant or factory must still be protected even when economic conditions force it to close temporarily. Earnings Guards working in 36 urban areas were esti mated to average $4.22 an hour in 1980, about two-thirds as much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Those working in the North Central States earned more than the average, while guards employed in the South earned somewhat less. Hourly wages of guards were estimated to average $7.04 in manufacturing; $7.27 in public utilities; $5.38 in banking, finance, insurance, and real estate; $5.19 in wholesale trade; $4.84 in retail trade; and $3.45 in the various service industries, includ ing security and guard agencies. Guards with specialized training or some supervisory re sponsibilities averaged $5.48 an hour, while those with less training and responsibility aver aged $3.99 an hour. Guards employed by in dustrial security and guard agencies generally started at the minimum wage, $3.35 an hour in 1981. Depending on their experience, newly hired guards in the Federal Government earned between $9,766 and $10,963 a year in early 1981. Guards employed by the Federal Government averaged $13,973 a year. These workers usually receive overtime pay as well as a wage differential for the second and third shifts. Many guards have paid vaca tions, sick leave, and insurance and pension plans. 286/Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Guards protect property, maintain securi ty, and enforce standards of conduct. Other related security and protective service occu pations include: Bailiffs, border guards, bouncers, correction officers, deputy sher iffs, fish and game wardens, house or store detectives, police officers, and private investigators. Sources of Additional Information Further information about work opportuni ties for guards is available from local em ployers and the nearest State employment service office. Police Officers (D .O .T . 375.133-010 through .137-018, .137-026 through .167-022, .167-030 through -038, .167-046, .263-010 and -014, .267, and .384; and 377 through .264 and .667-018) Nature of the Work The safety of our Nation’s cities and towns greatly depends on the work of local police officers and sheriffs’ deputies whose respon sibilities range from controlling traffic to pre venting and investigating crimes. Whether on or off duty, these officers are expected to exercise their authority whenever necessary. Police officers and sheriffs’ deputies who work in small communities and rural areas have many duties. In the course of a day’s work, they may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a housebreaking, and give first aid to an accident victim. In a large police department, by contrast, officers usu ally are assigned to a specific type of duty. Most officers are detailed either to patrol or to traffic duty; smaller numbers are assigned to special work such as accident prevention or operation of communications systems. Others work as detectives (plainclothes offi cers) assigned to criminal investigation; still others are experts in chemical and microscop ic analysis, firearms identification, and hand writing and fingerprint identification. In very large cities, a few officers may work with special units such as mounted and motorcycle police, harbor patrols, helicopter patrols, ca nine corps, mobile rescue teams, and youth aid services. Most new recruits begin on patrol duty, riding in a police vehicle or walking on “ foot” patrol. They may work alone with other officers in such varied areas as congest ed business districts or outlying residential neighborhood. In any case, new officers be come thoroughly familiar with conditions throughout their area and, while on patrol, remain alert for anything unusual. They note suspicious circumstances, such as open win dows or lights in vacant buildings, as well as hazards to public safety such as burned-out street lights or fallen trees. Officers enforce traffic regulations and also watch for stolen automobiles. At regular intervals, officers re port to police headquarters from call boxes, radios, or walkie-talkies. They prepare re ports about their activities and testify in court when arrests result in legal action. Working Conditions Police officers usually work 40 hours a week. Because police protection must be pro vided around the clock in all but the smallest communities, some officers work over week ends, on holidays, and at night. Police offi cers are subject to call any time their services are needed and may work overtime during emergencies. Police officers may have to work outdoors for long periods in all kinds of weather. The injury rate is higher than in many occupa tions and reflects the risks officers take in pursuing speeding motorists, capturing law breakers, and dealing with public disorder. Employment About 495,000 full-time officers worked for local police and sheriffs’ departments in 1980. The majority were employed by cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces. For ex ample, New York had about 24,000 police officers and Chicago nearly 13,000. Hun dreds of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancment Police officers must be able to give an accurate, detailed account. Local civil service regulations govern the appointment of police officers in practically all large cities and in many small ones. Can didates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 21 years of age, and must meet certain height, weight, and vision standards. Eligi bility for appointment depends on perform ance in competitive written examinations as well as on education and experience. Phys ical examinations often include tests of strength and agility. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, good judgment, and a sense of re sponsibility are especially important in police work, candidates are interviewed by a senior officer at police headquarters, and their char acter traits and background are investigated. In some police departments, candidates also may be interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psychologist, or be given a personality test. Although police officers work independently, they must perform their duties in accordance with laws and departmental rules. They should enjoy working with people and serv ing the public. In large police departments, where most jobs are found, applicants usually must have a high school education. A few cities require some college training and some hire law en forcement students as police interns. A few police departments accept applicants who Service Occupations/287 have less than a high school education as recruits, particularly if they have worked in a field related to law enforcement. More and more, police departments are encouraging applicants to take post-high school training in law enforcement. Many junior colleges, colleges, and universities of fer programs in law enforcement or adminis tration of justice. Other courses helpful in preparing for a police career include English, American history, public administration, business law, chemistry, and physics. Phys ical education and sports are especially help ful in developing the stamina and agility needed for police work. A knowledge of Spanish is an asset in areas with large Span ish-speaking populations. Some large cities hire high school gradu ates who are still in their teens as civilian police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attending classes and are appointed to the regular force at age 21 if qualified. Before their first assignments, officers usu ally go through a period of training. In small communities, recruits work for a short time with experienced officers. In large city police departments, they get more formal training that may last several weeks or a few months. This training includes classroom instruction in constitutional law and civil rights, State laws and local ordinances, and accident in vestigation. Recruits also receive training and supervised experience in patrol, traffic con trol, use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and handling emergencies. Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a specified length of service. In a large department, promotion may allow an officer to specialize in one type of police work such as plainclothes investigation, labo ratory analysis of evidence, traffic control, communications, or working with juveniles. Promotions to sergeant, lieutenant, and cap tain usually are made according to a candi date’s position on a promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examina tion and on-the-job performance. Many types of training help police officers improve their job performance and advance. Through training given at police department academies and colleges, officers keep abreast of crowd-control techniques, civil defense, legal developments that affect their work, and advances in law enforcement equipment. Many police departments pay all or part of the tuition for officers to work toward college associate and bachelor’s degrees in law en forcement, police science, administration of justice, or public administration. Job Outlook Employment of police officers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as the Na tion’s population and police protection needs increase. Employment growth will be tem pered by increased use of civilian police de partment employees in traffic control, park ing enforcement, administration, and other routine, nonhazardous areas of police work. The level of local government spending in fluences the employment of police officers. However, police officers who lose their jobs from budget cuts usually have little difficulty finding jobs with other police departments. Police work is attractive to many. The job frequendy is challenging and involves much responsibility. Furthermore, in some com munities police officers may retire with a pension to pursue a second career before age 50. Although written examinations and strict physical requirements always elimi nate many applicants, competition is expect ed to be keen for job openings through the 1980’s. The outlook should be good for per sons having some college training in law enforcement. Earnings In early 1980, entry level salaries for po lice officers employed in medium- and large sized cities averaged nearly $15,200 a year, although they varied widely from city to city. In some smaller communities, officers started at about $13,000 a year, while some major cities offered over $16,500 a year to new employees. Most officers receive regular sal ary increases during the first few years of employment until they reach a set maximum for their rank. Maximum earnings of nonsupervisory officers averaged $19,100 a year in early 1980, and exceeded $20,500 a year in some of the largest cities. Promotion to a higher rank brings a higher basic salary. Police departments usually provide officers with special allowances for uniforms and fur nish revolvers, night sticks, handcuffs, and other required equipment. Because police of ficers generally are covered by liberal pen sion plans, many retire at half pay after 20 or 25 years of service. Related Occupations Police officers maintain law and order in the Nation’s cities, towns, and rural areas. Other related law enforcement occupations include State police officers, FBI special agents, Internal Revenue Service agents, Se cret Service agents, Border Patrol agents, fire marshals, and fish and game wardens. Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from local civil service commissions or police departments. State Police Officers (D .O .T. 375.133-010; .137 except -018; .163; .167 through -022, -034, and -038; .263-010 and -018; .267 except -030; and .384) Nature of the Work The laws and regulations that govern the use of our Nation’s highways are designed to insure the safety of all citizens. State police officers (sometimes called State troopers or highway patrol officers) patrol our highways and enforce these laws and regulations. State police officers issue traffic tickets to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of an accident, they direct traffic, give first aid, call for emergency equipment including ambulances, and write reports which may be used to determine the cause of the accident. In addition, State police officers provide services to motorists on the highways. For example, they radio for road service for driv ers with mechanical trouble, direct tourists to their destination, or give information about lodging, restaurants, and tourist attractions. State police officers also provide traffic assistance and control during road repairs, fires, and other emergencies, as well as dur ing special occurrences such as parades and sports events. They sometimes check the weight of commercial vehicles, conduct driv er examinations, and give information on highway safety to the public. In addition to highway responsibilities, State police in the majority of States also enforce criminal laws. In communities and counties that do not have a local police force or a large sheriff’s department, the State po lice are the primary law enforcement agency, investigating crimes such as burglary or assult. They also may help city or county po lice catch lawbreakers and control civil disturbances. State highway patrols, howev er, normally are restricted to apprehending criminals on State highways, and to vehicle safety and traffic matters. Some officers work with special State po lice units that conduct criminal investigations and collect evidence at the scenes of crimes. Others instruct trainees in State police schools, pilot police aircraft, or specialize in fingerprint classification or chemical and mi croscopic analysis of criminal evidence. State police officers also write reports and maintain police records. Some officers, such as division or bureau chiefs are responsible for training or investigation and those who command police operations in an assigned area, have administrative and supervisory duties. Working Conditions Although the work of State police officers usually is routine, it sometimes is dangerous. They run the risk of an accident while pursu ing criminals or patrolling in bad weather. Officers also face the risk of injury while apprehending criminals or controlling disor ders. They often work alone when on patrol. In most States, officers work 40 hours a week. Although the workweek is longer in some States, the trend is toward a 40-hour week. Since police protection must be pro vided around the clock, some officers are on duty over weekends, on holidays, and at night. Police officers also are subject to emergency calls at any time. Employment About 55,000 State police officers were employed in 1980. The size of State police 288/Occupational Outlook Handbook High school and college courses in Eng lish, government, psychology, sociology, American history, business law, chemistry, and physics help in preparing for a police career. Physical education and sports are use ful for developing stamina and agility. Driver education courses and military police training also are helpful. Police officer recruits serve a probationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. After a specified length of time, officers be come eligible for promotion. Most States have merit promotion systems that require officers to pass a competitive examination to qualify for the next highest rank. The typical avenue of advancement is from private to corporal, to sergeant, to first sergeant, to lieutenant, and then to captain. In some States, recent high school gradu ates may enter State police work as paid civilian cadets. They perform nonenforce ment duties and attend classes on police work. Cadets who qualify may be appointed to the State police force at age 21. Job Outlook In addition to patrolling highways and investigating crimes, State police officers write reports and maintain records. forces varies considerably. The largest force (in California) has about 5,000 officers; the smallest (in North Dakota) has about 100. Thirteen States employed more than 1,000 officers. One State (Hawaii) does not main tain a police force. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement State civil service regulations govern the appointment of State police officers. Candi dates must be U.S. citizens. Other entry re quirements vary, but most States require that applicants have a high school education or an equivalent combination of education and ex perience and be at least 21 years old. Officers must pass a competitive examina tion and often must meet physical and per sonal qualifications. Physical requirements, strength and agility often are required. Be cause honesty and a sense of responsibility are important in police work, an applicant’s character and background are investigated. In all States, recruits enter a formal train ing program for several months. They re ceive classroom instruction in State laws and jurisdictions, and they study procedures for accident investigation, patrol, and traffic con trol. Recruits learn to handle firearms, de fend themselves from attack, handle an automobile at high speeds, and give first aid. Some experienced officers take advanced training in police science, administration, law enforcement, or criminology at junior col leges, colleges and universities, or special police institutions such as the National Acad emy of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In most States, the number of applicants generally exceeds the number of openings in this occupation, and this situation is expected to continue through the 1980’s. Opportunities are expected to be best for women and mem bers of minorities. State police employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most open ings will be created as officers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Although some State police will be needed in criminal investigation and other nonhigh way functions, the greatest demand will con tinue to be for highway patrol work. In everincreasing numbers, Americans have been using motor vehicles for transportation and recreation. This growth probably will contin ue, requiring additional officers to control traffic and maintain highway safety. Because law enforcement work is becom ing more complex, specialists will be needed in crime laboratories and electronic data pro cessing centers to develop administrative and criminal information systems. However, in many departments, these jobs will be filled by civilian employees rather than by uni formed officers. Layoffs of State police officers are rare. While their employment depends on the level of public funding, it is not particularly sensi tive to general downturns in the economy. If State police budgets are trimmed, any reduc tion in employment is usually handled through attrition. Earnings In 1980, beginning salaries for State police officers averaged about $14,000 a year. Offi cers generally receive regular salary increases, based on experience and performance, until a specified maximum is reached. Maximum sal- Service Occupations/289 aries averaged about $18,500 a year, but ranged to well over $20,000 a year in some States. Salaries are normally higher than average in the West and lower in the South. Starting salaries of State police sergeants averaged $16,500 a year in 1980; maximum salaries averaged $21,600. Starting salaries of lieutenants averaged $18,100 a year; maxi mum salaries, $23,800. State police agencies usually provide offi cers with uniforms, firearms, and other nec essary equipment, or give special allowances for their purchase. State police officers usu ally are covered by liberal pension plans. tives, FBI special agents, Secret Service agents, Internal Revenue Service agents, Border Patrol agents, fire marshals, and fish and game wardens. Related Occupations Sources of Additional Information State police officers patrol the Nation’s highways and enforce its laws, apprehending speeders and more dangerous lawbreakers. Related law enforcement occupations include local police officers, deputy sheriffs, detec Information about specific entrance re quirements may be obtained from State civil service commissions or State police headquarters, usually located in each State capital. Food and Beverage Preparation and Service Occupations This section of the Handbook includes workers who prepare and serve food and beverages for restaurants, hotels, clubs, bars, factories and school cafeterias, catering firms, and other establishments. They cook and serve food, mix and serve drinks, and do many other related tasks. Since so many of these jobs involve dealing with the public— tact, courtesy, and a pleasant personality are important. The work is often hectic, and the ability to maintain an even disposition and a sense of humor while working under pressure is necessary to do the job well. Physical stamina is also very important since most of these workers spend long periods of time on their feet and sometimes carry heavy loads of food and dishes. Food and beverage preparation and service workers make up one of the largest occupa tional groups in the Nation’s labor force. In 1980, about 6.2 million persons were em ployed in this field, more than three times as many as automobile and steel manufacturing combined. Waiters and waitresses constitute the largest single occupation, numbering over 1.7 million. The accompanying table indi cates estimated 1980 employment for occupa tions in this field. Job opportunities exist almost everywhere and for almost any interested person, includ ing those who have limited skills or little formal education. Skills usually are learned through on-the-job training. Many restaurants hire inexperienced persons as waiters’ assist ants, kitchen helpers, food counter workers, Table 1. Employment in selected food and beverage preparation and service occupations, 1980 Occupation Employment Waiter and waitress ........................ 1,711,000 Cook, except private household .. 1,122,000 Cook, short order and specialty fast foods ............................ 456,000 Cook, restaurant...................... 355,000 Cook, institutional ................. 311,000 Waiter’s assistant and kitchenhelper.............................................. 1,120,000 Kitchen helper ........................ 840,000 Waiter’s assistant .................. 280,000 Food preparation and service worker, fast food restaurant...................... 806,000 Bartender............................................ 382,000 Butcher and meat cutter.................. 190,000 Host/hostess, restaurant, lounge, or coffee shop ................................... 116,000 Pantry, sandwich, and coffee maker.............................................. 71,000 Baker, bread and pastry.................. 48,000 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 290 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis waiters and waitresses, or bartenders. Experi ence sometimes is necessary, however, to obtain one of these positions in a large res taurant or catering firm. Also, courses in cooking, catering, and bartending offered by public and private vocational schools can be helpful. Previous employment as a kitchen helper or assistant cook often is necessary to get a job as a cook. Experienced workers may advance to food service manager, maitre d ’hotel, head cook, or chef. Completion of a college program in hotel and restaurant ad ministration is valuable to those seeking top managerial positions. Starting pay for many of these jobs is very low. However, tips may add substantially to income. Employment of these workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Demand will increase as new restaurants, cafeterias, and bars open in response to population growth and increased spending for food and bever ages outside the home. Higher average in comes and more leisure time will enable people to dine out more often. Also, as more wives work, more families may find dining out a welcome convenience. In addition to growth in demand for these workers, thou sands of job openings will occur each year from high turnover, especially among stu dents working part time. Detailed discussions of the work, training, job outlook, and earnings of waiters’ assist ants and kitchen helpers, food counter work ers, waiters and waitresses, cooks and chefs, and bartenders are presented in the statements that follow. Bartenders (D .O .T . 312.474 and .477) Nature of the Work Screaming Zombies, Harvey Wallbangers, Golden Cadillacs, and Singapore Slings are just a few of the exotic cocktails embodied in the art of mixology, or bartending. Bartend ers make these concoctions by combining, in exact proportion, ingredients selected from what may seem a bewildering variety of liq uors, wines, and mixes. A well-stocked bar contains dozens of types and brands of liq uors and wines, plus soft drinks, fruits and fruit juices, cream, and soda and tonic water. In addition, bartenders serve beer and wine by themselves, and a wide variety of nonal coholic beverages. Bartenders take drink orders from waiters and waitresses serving customers seated in the restaurant or lounge, as well as from customers seated at the bar. Because some people like their cocktails made a certain way, bartenders often are asked to mix drinks to suit a customer’s taste. Most bartenders must know dozens of drink recipes and be able to mix drinks accurately by sight alone so they can serve drinks quickly, without wasting anything, even during the busiest periods. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders collect payment, operate the cash register, clean up after customers have left, and may also serve limited food items or snacks to customers seated at the bar. More operations, especially larger ones, are using equipment that mixes drinks auto matically. However, bartenders still must be efficient and knowledgeable to handle unusu al orders and to work when the automatic equipment is not functioning. Bartenders usually are responsible for or dering and maintaining an inventory of liq uor, mixes, and other bar supplies. They also arrange the bottles and glassware into attrac tive displays and often wash glassware. Some bartenders own a tavern or bar and, therefore, also must keep their own business records and hire, train, and direct staff. Working Conditions Many bartenders work more than 40 hours a week, and night and weekend work and split shifts are common. Better than average strength sometimes is necessary to lift heavy cases of liquors or mixes. Also, bartenders have to work quickly and under pressure in a popular bar during busy periods. For many bartenders, however, the op portunity for friendly conversation with cus tomers and the possibility of someday man aging or owning a bar or restaurant more than offset these disadvantages. For others, the opportunity to get part-time work is important. Employment Most of the 382,000 bartenders employed in 1980 worked in restaurants and bars; oth ers had jobs in hotels and private clubs. Almost 1 bartender in 10 was self-employed. Many people tend bar part time while work ing in other occupations or attending college. Service Occupations/291 to the job openings caused by growth in demand for bartenders, many openings will arise annually from the need to replace ex perienced bartenders who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Because many bartenders are students, or others who do not plan careers in this occupation, job turnover is relatively high. The demand for bartenders will increase as new restaurants, hotels, and bars open in response to population growth and as spend ing on food and beverages outside the home increases. Higher personal incomes and more leisure time will allow people to go out for dinner or cocktails more often, and to take more vacations. Also, with more women joining the work force, families may increas ingly find dining out a welcome convenience. Earnings Hourly earnings of bartenders ranged from S#:<S8 10 $7.48 in 1980, according to limited data from union contracts in the restaurant industry. Besides wages, bartenders may re ceive tips that substantially increase their earnings. Bartenders usually receive free meals at work and may be furnished bar jackets or complete uniforms. The principal union organizing bartenders is the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Em ployees International Union (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Many bartenders work in restaurants and hotels. Often they serve at banquets and private par ties which are held at restaurants, hotels, or even private homes. Seasonal employment is available in vaca tion resorts, and some bartenders migrate be tween summer and winter resorts rather than remain in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bartenders learn their trade on the job. Although preparing drinks at home can be good practice, it does not qualify a person to be a bartender. Besides knowing a variety of cocktail recipes, bartenders must know how to stock a bar properly and be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Persons who wish to become bartenders can get good experience by working as bar tender helpers, waiters’ assistants, or waiters or waitresses. By watching a bartender at work, they can learn how to mix drinks and do other bartending tasks. However, one must practice to become proficient. Many vocational and technical schools of fer short courses in bartending that include instruction on State and local laws and regu lations, cocktail recipes, attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Since they deal with the public, bartenders should have a pleasant personality and a neat and clean appearance. Physical stamina also is necessary, because they stand while work ing and may be required to lift heavy kegs of beer or cases of beverages. Generally, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, although some employers prefer those who are 25 or older. Some States re quire bartenders to have health certificates assuring that they are free of contagious diseases. In some instances, they must be bonded. Small restaurants, neighborhood bars, and resorts usually offer a beginner the best op portunities. After gaining experience, a bar tender may wish to work in a large restaurant or cocktail lounge where pay is higher and opportunities for promotion are greater. Al though opportunities for promotion in this field are limited, it is possible to advance to head bartender, wine steward, or beverage manager. Some bartenders open their own businesses. Job Outlook Employment of bartenders is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition Bartenders’ duties include taking orders, serving drinks, and collecting payment from customers. Other workers who serve custom ers in a similar way include short-order cooks, food counter workers, and waiters and waitresses. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and the State emloyment service. For a directory of colleges and other schools offering programs and courses in hospitality education, write to: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, Human Development Building, Room 118, University Park, Pa. 16802. Cooks and Chefs (D.O.T. 187.161-010, 313, and 315) Nature of the Work A reputation for serving fine food is an asset to any restaurant or hotel, whether it prides itself on “home cooking” or exotic foreign cuisine. Cooks and chefs are largely responsible for the reputation a restaurant acquires. Although the terms “chef” and “cook” are often used interchangeably, the professional chef generally is a far more skilled, trained, and experienced person. Many chefs have earned fame for both them selves and the restaurants and hotels where they work because of their skill in artfully preparing the traditional favorites and in cre- 292/Occupational Outlook Handbook ating new dishes and improving familiar ones. A cook’s duties depend partly on the size and kind of restaurant. Smaller restaurants usually feature a limited number of easy-toprepare, short-order specialties, and ready made desserts. Typically, one cook prepares all of the food with the help of a short-order cook and one or two kitchen helpers. Large eating places usually have more var ied menus and prepare, from start to finish, more of the food they serve. Kitchen staffs often include several cooks, sometimes called assistant or apprentice cooks, and many kitchen helpers. Each cook usually has a special assignment and often a special job title—pastry, fry, or sauce cook, for exam ple. Head cooks or chefs coordinate the work of the kitchen staff, and often direct certain kinds of food preparation. They decide the size of servings, sometimes plan menus, and buy food supplies. Working Conditions Many kitchens have modem equipment, convenient work areas, and air-conditioning, but others, particularly in older and smaller eating places, are frequently marginally equipped. Other variations in working condi tions depend on the type and quantity of food being prepared and the local laws governing food service operations. In most kitchens, however, cooks must stand most of the time, lift heavy pots.and kettles, and work near hot ovens and ranges. Hours in restaurants may include late evening, holiday, and weekend work, while hours in offices, factories, or other institutions may be more regular. There are a number of ways to prepare for a career as a chef. Cooks employed in public and private schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Job hazards include falls, cuts, and bums, but injuries are seldom serious. Employment About 1,100,000 cooks and chefs were employed in 1980. Most worked in restau rants and hotels, but many worked in schools, colleges, airports, and hospitals. Government agencies, factories, private clubs, and many other kinds of organizations also employed cooks and chefs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many cooks start work in an unskilled position such as kitchen helper and acquire their skills on the job; however, an increasing number are obtaining their training through high school, post-high school vocational pro grams, and community colleges. Cooks may also be trained in apprenticeship programs offered by professional associations and trade unions, or in a 3-year apprenticeship program administered by local offices of the American Culinary Federation in cooperation with local employers and junior colleges or vocational education institutions. In addition, some large hotels and restaurants operate their own training programs for new employees. Only a short period of training or experience is required to become an assistant or fry cook, but many years of training and experience are necessary to achieve the level of skill required of an executive chef or cook in a fine restau rant. Even though a high school diploma is not required for beginning jobs, it is recommended for those planning a career as a cook or chef. High school or vocational school courses in business arithmetic and business administra tion are particularly helpful. To get experience, high school students can work part time in fastfood or other restaurants. Persons who have had courses in commer cial food preparation will have an advantage when looking for jobs in large restaurants and hotels, where hiring standards often are high. Some vocational programs in high schools offer this kind of training to students. But usually these courses, ranging from a few months to 2 years or more and open in some cases only to high school graduates, are given by trade schools, vocational centers, junior colleges, professional associations, and trade unions. The Armed Forces also are a good source of training and experience. Although curricula may vary, students usually spend most of their time learning to prepare food through actual practice. They learn to bake, broil, and prepare food, and to use and care for kitchen equipment. Training programs often include courses in menu plan ning, determination of portion size, food cost control, purchasing food supplies in quantity, selection and storage of food, and use of leftovers. Students also learn hotel and res taurant sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Training in supervisory and Service Occupations/293 management skills sometimes is emphasized in courses offered by private vocational schools, professional associations, and uni versity programs. Many school districts, in cooperation with school food services divisions of State de partments of education, provide on-the-job training and sometimes summer workshops for cafeteria workers who wish to become cooks. Some junior colleges, State depart ments of education, and school associations also offer training programs. Cafeteria em ployees who have participated in these train ing programs often are selected for jobs as cooks. Persons who want to become cooks or chefs should be able to work as part of a team and to withstand the pressure and strain of working in close quarters during busy per iods. A keen sense of taste and smell, the physical stamina to stand for hours at a time, and personal cleanliness also are important qualifications. Most States require health cer tificates indicating that cooks and chefs are free from contagious diseases. Advancement opportunities for cooks are better than for most other food service occu pations. Many cooks acquire higher paying positions and new cooking skills by moving from one operation to another. Others gradu ally advance to chef positions or supervisory or management positions, particularly in ho tels, clubs, or the larger, more elegant restau rants. Some eventually go into business as caterers or restaurant owners; others may be come instructors in vocational programs in high schools, junior and community colleges, and other academic institutions. Job Outlook Employment of cooks and chefs is expect ed to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addi tion to an increase in demand for these work ers, thousands of job openings will arise annually from the need to replace exper ienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Small restaurants, school cafeterias, and other eating places with sim ple food preparation will provide the greatest number of starting jobs for cooks. The demand for cooks and chefs will in crease as the population grows and people dine out more. Higher personal incomes and more leisure time will allow people to go out for dinner more often and to take more vaca tions. Also, with more women joining the work force, families may increasingly find dining out a welcome convenience. Earnings In 1980, hourly pay rates ranged from $7.93 to $8.18 for chefs, from $4.89 to $7.28 for cooks of various types, and from $3.68 to $5.68 for assistant cooks, according to limited data from union contracts in sever al large metropolitan areas. Wages of cooks and chefs vary depending on the part of the country and the type of establishment in which they work. Wages generally are higher in the West and in large, well-known restaurants and hotels. Cooks and chefs in famous restaurants earn much more than the above rates, and several chefs with national reputations earn more than $40,000 a year. Employers generally provide free meals and uniforms. The principal union organizing cooks and chefs is the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Cooks and chefs may manage facilities ranging in size from a two-person sandwich shop to a large restaurant’s or hotel’s kitchen employing dozens of people. Other workers with similar management responsibilities in clude food service directors, executive house keepers, and pursers. In addition, cooks and chefs in expensive restaurants create and then display a product to its best advantage. Other workers similarly involved include artists, bakers, clothes designers, and decorators. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. General information about restaurant cooks and chefs is available from: National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606. For information on the American Culinary Federation’s apprenticeship program for cooks and chefs, write to: American Culinary Federation, P.O. Box 3466, St. Augustine, Fla. 32084. For a directory of colleges and other schools offering programs and courses in hospitality education, write to: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, Human Development Building, Room 118, University Park, Pa. 16802. dishes, in addition to filling customers’ plates with meats and side orders. Cafeterias usual ly employ central cashiers to take payments and make change. Counter workers also do odd jobs, such as cleaning kitchen equipment, sweeping and mopping floors, and carrying out trash. Working Conditions Since most counter workers are on duty less than 30 hours a week, some work only a few hours a day. Many others may work split breakfast-dinner shifts and have a few hours off in the middle of the day. This flexible schedule enables students to fit working hours around classes. Evening, weekend, and holiday work often is required. During busy periods, food counter workers must work quickly and effectively under pressure. The ability to function as a member of a team is important. Other job require ments include the ability to stand for long periods of time and to perform tasks within a restricted area. Unlike waiters and waitress es, food counter workers do not handle heavy trays, but are exposed to minor injuries from sharp implements or flatware, wet floors, or hot utensils or grease. Employment Counter workers serve customers in eating places that specialize in fast service and inex pensive food, such as hamburger and fried chicken carryouts, drugstore soda fountains, and school and public cafeterias. Based on a Bureau of the Census survey, an estimated 426,000 persons, most of whom worked part time, had food counter jobs in 1980. . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For counter jobs that require totaling bills Food Counter Workers___________ (D .O .T. 311.137-010, .477-014, .674-010, .677-014; 319.474.010) Nature of the Work Speed of service and accuracy in handling orders are the most important job skills for food counter workers. Typical duties include taking customers’ orders, serving food and beverages, making out checks, and taking payments. At drugstore fountains and in din ers, they also may cook, make sandwiches and cold drinks, and prepare sundaes and other ice cream dishes. In hamburger car ryouts, where food is prepared in an assem bly line manner, counter workers may take turns waiting on customers, making french fries, toasting buns, and doing other jobs. Counter workers in cafeterias supply serv ing lines with desserts, salads, and other Most food counter workers learn their skills on the job. 294/Occupational Outlook Handbook and making change, employers prefer to hire persons who are good in arithmetic and have attended high school, although a diploma usually is not necessary. Managers of fastfood restaurants often hire high school stu dents as part-time counter workers. Counter jobs in cafeterias have no specific educational requirements. Most counter workers learn their skills on the job by observing and working with more experienced workers. Some employers, in cluding most fast-food restaurants, use selfstudy instructional booklets and audiovisual aids to train new employees. Because counter workers deal with the public, a pleasant personality and neat and clean appearance are important. Good health and physical stamina also are needed to stand most of the time and work at a fast pace during busy periods. State laws often require counter workers to obtain health certi ficates to show that they are free of conta gious disease. Opportunities for advancement are limited in small eating places. Some counter workers move into higher paying jobs and learn new skills by transferring to a larger restaurant. Advancement can be to cashier, cook, waiter or waitress, counter or fountain supervisor, or, for counter workers in cafeterias, to line supervisor. Many large companies, such as the nationwide hamburger chains, operate formal management training programs, while others offer informal on-the-job training. Counter workers who are dependable and show leadership ability may qualify for these programs. Job Outlook Job openings for food counter workers are expected to be plentiful in the years ahead. Most openings will result from the need to replace workers who find jobs in other occu pations, retire, or die. Because many counter workers are students who work part time and leave the occupation after graduation, turn over is high. Employment of counter workers is expect ed to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, as population growth and rising personal incomes create more business for eating places. In addition, with more women joining the work force, families may increasingly find dining out a welcome convenience. Expansion of the res taurant industry, particularly the fast-food segment, will create many job openings. Thus, jobs should be relatively easy to find. Earnings Hourly rates for food counter workers ranged from $2.47 to $4.15 in 1980, based on limited data from union contracts that covered eating places in several large cities. However, some counter workers, such as those in drugstores and diners, receive tips, which can be greater than hourly wages. Tips usually average between 10 and 20 percent of patrons’ checks. Counter workers usually re ceive free meals at work and may be fur nished with uniforms. The principal union organizing food counter workers is the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Most food counter workers’ duties include taking food orders, serving food and bev erages, and collecting payments; often they are rushed to take care of customers. Other workers who have similar jobs include shortorder cooks, waiters and waitresses, and bartenders. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. For general information about food counter workers, write to: National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606. Meatcutters (D.O.T. 316) Nature of the Work Meatcutters prepare meat, fish, and poul try in supermarkets or wholesale food outlets. When the animal carcasses are shipped from a meatpacking plant or central distribution center, they are cut into quarters to facilitate handling. Meatcutters then divide the quar ters into primal cuts, such as rounds, loins, and ribs, with a band saw. They use knives and saws to separate these large cuts into serving-size portions, such as steaks, roasts, and chops. Boneless cuts are divided by knives, slicers, or power cutters while band saws are used on bony pieces. Meat trim mings are ground into hamburger. Meatcut ters also may prepare sausage and corned beef. In addition, meatcutters in retail foodstores may be required to stock meat display cases and assist customers. Working Conditions Meatcutters work in coldrooms designed to prevent meat from spoiling. The low tem perature, combined with the need to stand for long periods of time and lift heavy pieces of meat, demands physical strength and stam ina. Meatcutters also must be careful when working with sharp tools, especially those that are powered. Health and safety standards require clean and sanitary work areas. Employment About 190,000 persons worked as meat cutters in 1980. Most worked in retail foodstores; the rest worked in wholesale stores, restaurants, hotels, hospitals, and other insti tutions. Jobs are located in almost every city and town in the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most meatcutters acquire their skills on the job. Although many are informally trained, most learn through apprenticeship programs. A few meatcutters learn their skills by at tending private schools specializing in this trade. However, graduates of these schools often need additional training and experience to work as meatcutters. Generally, on-the-job trainees begin by do ing odd jobs, such as removing bones and fat from retail cuts. Under the guidance of skilled meatcutters, they learn about the proper use of tools and equipment and how to prepare various cuts. After demonstrating skill with tools, they learn to divide quarters into primal cuts and to divide primal cuts into retail and individual portion items. Trainees may learn how to cut and prepare fish and poultry, roll and tie roasts, prepare sausage, and cure meat. Later, they may learn mar keting operations such as inventory control, meat buying, and recordkeeping. Meatcutters who learn the trade through apprenticeship programs generally complete 2 years of supervised on-the-job training that may be supplemented by classroom work. At the end of the training period, apprentices are given a meatcutting test which is observed by their employer. In union shops, a union member also is present during the exam. Apprentices who pass the test qualify as meatcutters. Those who fail the exam may repeat it at a later time. In some areas, ap prentices may become meatcutters without completing the entire training program if they can pass the test. Most employers prefer applicants who have a high school diploma and the potential to develop into meat department managers. Other skills important in meat cutting are manual dexterity, good depth perception, col or discrimination, and good eye-hand coordi nation. A pleasant personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly are important qualifications when meatcutters wait on customers. Also, betterthan-average strength is needed to lift heavy pieces of meat. A health certificate may be required for employment. Meatcutters may progress to supervisory jobs, such as meat department managers in supermarkets. A few become meat buyers for wholesalers and supermarket chains. Some cutters become grocery store managers or open their own meat markets. Job Outlook The number of meatcutters is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Neverthe less, thousands of entry jobs will be available as experienced workers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment of meatcutters in food stores will be limited by central cutting—the prac tice of cutting and wrapping meat for several stores at one location. Central cutting, which Service Occupations/295 information on training and other aspects of the trade, contact: United Food and Commercial Workers Internation al Union, 1775 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Waiters and Waitresses_________ (D .O .T. 311.137-014 through -022; .477-018 through -038; and .674-018) Nature of the Work Whether they work in small lunchrooms or fashionable restaurants, all waiters and wait resses have jobs that are essentially the same. They take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, make out checks, and sometimes take payments. The manner in which waiters and waitresses go about their work may vary considerably, however. In diners, coffee shops, and other small restaurants, they are expected to provide fast, efficient service. In eating places where meals are served elabo rately and a great deal of emphasis is placed on the satisfaction and comfort of each guest, waiters and waitresses serve food at a more leisurely pace and offer more personal ser vice to their customers. For example, they may suggest wines and explain the prepara tion of items on the menu. Depending on the type of restaurant, waiters and waitresses may perform duties other than waiting on tables. These tasks may include setting up and clearing tables and carrying soiled tableware to the kitchen. Although very small restaurants usually combine waiting on tables with counter service or cashiering, larger or more formal restaurants frequently relieve their waiters and waitresses of these additional duties. Working Conditions Meatcutters must be careful when working with sharp tools. permits meatcutters to specialize in both a type of meat and a type of cut, increases efficiency. In addition, more central cutting is expected to be done in meatpacking plants, thus reducing the amount of meat cut-—and the need for meatcutters—in food stores. cutter’s wage and generally receive increases every 6 months. Many cutters are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. Related Occupations Earnings Hourly earnings of meatcutters averaged $10.14 in 1980, according to a survey of union wage rates for grocery store employees in cities of 100,000 inhabitants or more. Meatcutters working in cities with 500,000 inhabitants or more generally earned more than those in smaller cities. Among grocery store occupations, meatcutters have the high est wages. Beginning apprentices usually receive be tween 60 and 70 percent of the experienced Meatcutters must be able to do both skilled hand and machine work and have some knowledge of processes and techniques in volved in preparing food. Other occupations in food preparation which require similar skills are bakers, cooks, butchers of chicken and fish, and kitchen supervisors. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportunities can be obtained from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For Some waiters and waitresses work split shifts—that is, they work for several hours during the middle of the day, take a few hours off in the afternoon, and then return to their jobs for the evening hours. Most are expected to work on holidays and weekends. The wide range in dining hours creates a good opportunity for part-time work. Waiters and waitresses stand most of the time and often have to carry heavy trays of food. During dining hours, they may have to rush to serve several tables at once. The work is relatively safe, but they must be careful to avoid slips or falls and bums. Employment About 1,700,000 waiters and waitresses were employed in 1980. A large proportion worked part time (less than 35 hours a week). Most worked in restaurants; some worked in hotels, colleges, and factories that have restaurant facilities. Jobs are located throughout the country but are most plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. Vacation 296/Occupational Outlook Handbook restaurants. Those who seek jobs in expen sive restaurants may find keen competition for the jobs that become available. Earnings Hourly rates for waiters and waitresses (excluding tips) ranged from $2.04 to $3.64 in 1980, according to limited data from union contracts that covered eating and drinking places in several large cities. For many wait ers and waitresses, however, tips are greater than hourly wages. Tips generally average between 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks. Most waiters and waitresses receive meals at work, and many are furnished with uniforms. The principal union organizing waiters and waitresses is the Hotel Employees and Res taurant Employees International Union (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Many waiters and waitresses are students who work part time. resorts offer seasonal employment, and some waiters and waitresses alternate between summer and winter resorts instead of remain ing in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire applicants who have had at least 2 or 3 years of high school. A person may start as a waiter or waitress, or advance to that position after working as a waiter’s assistant, carhop, or food counter worker. Most waiters and wait resses pick up their skills on the job, learning to set tables, take orders from customers, and serve food in a courteous and efficient man ner. At least 3 months’ experience is pre ferred by larger restaurants and hotels. These larger operations also usually have higher educational standards. Some public and pri vate vocational schools, restaurant associ ations, and large restaurant chains provide classroom training in a generalized food ser vice curriculum. Other employers use selfinstruction programs to train new employees. In these programs, an employee learns food preparation and service skills by observing film strips and reading instructional booklets. Because people in this occupation are in close and constant contact with the public, a neat and clean appearance is important. Since waiters and waitresses must serve customers quickly and under pressure during busy per iods, an even disposition is also important. Physical stamina also is necessary, as waiters and waitresses are on their feet for hours at a time, lifting and carrying trays of food from kitchen to table. Waiters and waitresses also should be good at arithmetic and, in restau rants specializing in foreign foods where some customers may not speak English, knowledge of a foreign language is helpful. State laws often require waiters and waitress es to obtain health certificates showing that they are free of contagious diseases. Due to the small size of most food-serving establishments, opportunities for promotion in this specific area are limited. After gaining some experience, however, a waiter or wait ress may transfer to a larger restaurant where earnings and prospects for advancement are better. Successful waiters and waitresses are those who genuinely like people, offer good service, and possess the ability to sell and make people feel comfortable rather than just take orders and deliver food. Advancement can be to cashier or supervisory jobs, such as host or hostess, maitre d ’hotel, or dining room supervisor. Some supervisory workers advance to jobs as restaurant managers. Other workers whose jobs involve serving customers and helping them feel at ease and enjoy themselves include flight attendants, butlers, counter workers, hosts and hostesses, and bellhops. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. General information on waiter and waitress jobs is available from: National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606. Waiters’ Assistants and Kitchen Helpers (D .O .T. 311.677 except -014; 312.687-010; and 318.687-010) Job Outlook Nature of the Work Job openings are expected to be plentiful in the years ahead, mainly due to the need to replace the waiters and waitresses who find other jobs or who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. Turnover is particularly high among part-time workers. Many waiters and waitresses are students working part time who find other jobs after graduation. In addi tion to the job openings from turnover, many will result from growth in demand for these workers. Employment of waiters and waitresses is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, as population growth and rising personal in comes create more business for restaurants. Higher incomes and more leisure time will permit people to dine out more often. Also, with more women joining the work force, families may increasingly find dining out a welcome convenience. Beginners will find their best opportunities for employment in the thousands of informal Clean and attractive table settings are as important to a restaurant’s reputation as the quality of food it serves. An egg-stained fork, a soiled tablecloth, or an empty salt shaker can make a customer unhappy. Wait ers ’ assistants and kitchen helpers provide the quick hands and sharp eyes needed to prevent such problems. Assistants do many jobs that otherwise waiters and waitresses would have to do. They clear and reset tables, carry soiled dishes to the dishwashing area, bring in trays of food, and clean up spilled food and broken dishes. By taking care of these details, assist ants give waiters and waitresses more time to serve customers. In addition, they may assist bartenders by keeping the bar supplied with liquor, mixes, and ice; stocking refrigerators with beer and wine; and replacing empty beer kegs with full ones. They also keep the area behind the bar clean and remove empty bottles and trash. Service Occupations/297 Waiters’ assistants help waiters and wait resses in some restaurants by serving water and bread and butter to customers. In addi tion, when business is light, they do various jobs such as refilling salt and pepper shakers and cleaning coffee pots. In order to maintain an efficient and hy gienic kitchen, kitchen helpers clean food preparation and storage areas, sweep and scrub floors, remove garbage, and separate trash. Other kitchen duties may include mov ing supplies and equipment from storage to work areas, performing some easy food prep aration functions, and washing pots and pans used in cooking. They also furnish a support system for the dining room staff by scraping food from plates, stacking them in the dish washer, cleaning silver flatware, and remov ing water spots from glassware. good physical condition and have physical stamina because they stand most of the time, lift and carry trays, and work at a fast pace during busy periods. State laws often require them to obtain health certificates to show that they are free of contagious diseases. Because of their close contact with the public, assist ants should be neat in appearance, have good personal hygiene, and get along well with people. Promotions for waiters ’ assistants and kitch en helpers are limited. Assistants sometimes advance to positions as waiter or waitress, and kitchen helpers occasionally advance to cook’s helper or short-order cook. The ability to read, write, and do simple arithmetic is required for promotion. Opportunities for advancement generally are best in large restaurants and institutions. Working Conditions Job Outlook Most assistants and kitchen helpers work less than 30 hours a week. Some are on duty only a few hours a day during either the lunch or dinner period. Others work both periods but may take a few hours off in the middle of the day. Weekend and holiday work often is required. Job hazards include the possibility of falls, cuts, and bums, but injuries are seldom seri ous. The work is strenuous, however, since these workers have to lift heavy trays filled with dishes, and large pots and pans. Employment About 280,000 assistants and 840,000 kitchen helpers were employed in 1980. Most worked only part time. Most assistants and kitchen helpers work in restaurants, bars, and hotels. Kitchen help ers also work in schools, hospitals, and other institutional dining operations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school education is not needed to qualify for jobs as waiters’ assistants and kitchen helpers, and many employers will hire applicants who do not speak English. Assistants and kitchen helpers must be in Job openings for waiters’ assistants and kitchen helpers are expected to be plentiful in the years ahead. Many openings will re sult from the need to replace workers who find jobs in other occupations, retire, or die. Turnover is particularly high among parttime workers. Many assistants and kitchen helpers are students who work part time while attending school. Additional openings will result from an increase in demand for these workers. Em ployment of waiters’ assistants and kitchen helpers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as population growth, higher incomes, and more leisure time create more business for restaurants. With more women joining the work force, families may increasingly find dining out a welcome convenience. may receive a percentage of waiters’ and waitresses’ tips. Employers usually furnish uniforms and a free meal. The principal union organizing waiters’ as sistants and kitchen helpers is the Hotel Emplo y ees and R estau ran t E m ployees International Union (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Other jobs which require little formal edu cation but provide comfort and convenience to people are bell captains, building custo dians, waiters and waitresses, hospital attend ants, and porters. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. For general information about waiters’ as sistants and kitchen helpers, write to: National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606. Earnings Waiters’ assistants and kitchen helpers have relatively low earnings. Limited data from union contracts that cover restaurants and bars in several large cities indicate that hourly rates for waiters’ assistants ranged from $3.00 to $3.76 in 1980, while kitchen helpers earned from $3.35 to $4.90 an hour. In addition to wages, however, assistants Job openings for waiters assistants are plentiful. Health Service Occupations The workers described in this section of the Handbook assist health professionals such as physicians, dentists, optometrists, nurses, and therapists. They typically perform rou tine but essential tasks that involve a great deal of personal contact: Conversing with patients, making them comfortable, and set ting them at ease. Depending on their place of work, health service workers might make appointments, greet patients, keep records, set up equipment, deliver food trays, change bed linen, transport patients, help them do exercises, and escort those who cannot walk unassisted. Relatively little specialized training is re quired for most of these jobs, although some workers prepare by completing 1- or 2-year programs offered by community colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and trade schools. Employers generally provide all the necessary training right on the job. While high school graduates are preferred, employ ers do not always insist on a diploma. More important are the personal traits these jobs require: Dependability, common sense, emo tional stability, a cheerful disposition, and willingness to assume responsibility. A fair amount of physical effort is involved, and at times the work is strenuous and tiring. Nurses aides and orderlies make up the largest of these occupations; nearly 1.2 mil lion were employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and rehabilitation centers in 1980. Much of the workday is spent answering patients’ bell calls, delivering and collecting food trays, feeding patients, and relieving the nursing staff of other routine tasks. More than 82,000 psychiatric aides were employed in 1980. Most work in mental hospitals, where they help patients with bathing, dress ing, grooming, and meals. Ambulance driv ers and ambulance attendants also provide essential services. At least 275,000 persons were employed in medical or dental assisting occupations in 1980. Assistants usually work in the office of a practitioner, and the job involves a combination of office and patient-care duties. Optometric assistants, for example, give preliminary eye examinations and help patients do prescribed exercises. Approximately 140,000 dental as sistants, 90,000 medical assistants, and 18,000 optometric assistants were employed in 1980. Other assisting jobs include those of chiropractor assistant andpodiatric assistant. Therapists, like other health practitioners, often work with the support of assistants and aides. The different job titles reflect different levels of training and expertise. Assistants have more formal preparation than aides; many are graduates of 2-year associate de gree programs. About 11,500physical thera pist assistants and 8,500 occupational ther 298 apy assistants were employed in 1980. As sistants help the therapist test patients and administer treatments. Aides are less directly involved in diagnosis and treatment. Instead, they help patients dress and undress, organize and maintain the equipment, make appoint ments, and perform other clerical duties. Employment in these occupations is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. This reflects anticipated demand for health care services on the part of a growing and aging popula tion, and continued emphasis on using auxil iary personnel to extend the care delivered by highly trained practitioners. Most job open ings, however, will result from replacement needs, which will continue to be substantial. Turnover in these occupations tends to be very high, in part because entry requirements are minimal and pay scales are low. Job prospects differ among these health service occupations, however; see the Handbook statements that follow for information on the outlook in specific occupations. Dental Assistants (D .O .T . 079.371-010) Nature of the Work Dental assistants work with dentists as they examine and treat patients. The assistant makes the patients comfortable in the dental chair, prepares them for treatment, and obtains their dental records. The assistant hands the dentist the proper instruments and materials and keeps the patient’s mouth clear by using suction or other devices. Dental assistants prepare materi als for making impressions and restorations, and expose radiographs and process dental Xray film as directed by the dentist. They sterilize and disinfect instruments and equip ment; prepare tray set-ups for dental proce dures; provide post-operative instruction; and instruct patients in oral health practices. Dental assistants may perform a variety of laboratory, clinical, and office duties. Some assistants make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions taken by the dentist. In some States, assistants apply medications to the teeth and oral tissue, remove excess ce ment used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treatment. Some dental assistants manage the office and arrange and confirm appointments, receive patients, keep treat ment records, send bills, receive payments, and order dental supplies and materials. The work of the dental assistant should not be confused with that of the dental hygienist, who must be licensed to scale and polish the teeth. (See the statement on dental hygienists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. They must be careful in handling radiographic and other equipment. Dental assistants, like dentists, work in either a standing or sitting position. Their work area is near the dental chair, so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and medica tion, and hand them to the dentist when needed. They must be a dentist’s “third hand,” and therefore should exhibit some manual dexterity and be able to deal with people who may be under stress. Employment Nearly 140,000 persons worked as dental assistants in 1980; about 1 out of 10 worked part time. Most dental assistants work in private den tal offices, either for individual dentists or for groups of dentists. Many of the remain der work in dental schools, hospital dental departments, State and local public health departments, or private clinics. The Federal Government employs dental assistants in hos pitals and dental clinics of the Public Health Service, the Veterans Administration, and the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dental assistants learn their skills on the job. An increasing number, however, are trained in dental assisting programs offered by community and junior colleges, trade schools, and technical institutes. About 300 such programs were accredited by the Com mission on Dental Accreditation in 1980. More than three-fourths of the programs take 1 year to complete and lead to a certificate or diploma. Graduates of 2-year programs of fered in community and junior colleges earn an associate degree. The minimum require ment for any of these programs is a high school diploma or its equivalent. Some schools also require typing or a science course for admission. Some private vocation al schools offer 4- to 6-month courses in dental assisting, but these are not accredited by the dental profession. Those receiving dental assistant training in the Armed Forces usually qualify for civilian jobs as dental assistants. High school students interested in careers as dental assistants should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, typing, and office practices. Approved dental assisting curriculums in clude classroom, laboratory, and preclinical Service Occupations/299 instruction in dental assisting skills and relat ed theory. In addition, students gain practical experience in affiliated dental schools, local clinics, or selected dental offices. A correspondence course offered by the University of North Carolina School of Den tistry is among those programs accredited by the American Dental Association. This course is available for employed dental as sistants who are learning on the job or who otherwise are unable to participate in ac credited training programs on a full-time basis. The correspondence program is equiv alent to 1 academic year of study but gener ally requires about 2 years to complete. Graduates of accredited dental assistant programs who successfully complete an ex amination administered by the Dental Assist ing National Board, Inc. become Certified Dental Assistants. Certification is acknowl edgment of an assistant’s qualifications but is not generally required for employment. After working as dental assistants, some individuals seek to acquire skills and qualifi cations for practicing as dental hygienists. Prospective dental assistants who foresee this possibility should plan carefully, since credit earned in a dental assistant program often is not applicable toward requirements for a den tal hygiene certificate. Some dental assistants become sales representatives for firms that manufacture dental products. The field of dental assisting education offers opportunities in teaching and program administration. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for dental assis tants are expected to be excellent through the 1980’s. Part-time opportunities also will con tinue to be very favorable. Employment of dental assistants is expect ed to grow faster than the average for all occupations, largely because dental students are being taught to use assistants in their practice. The increase in population, a grow ing awareness of the importance of regular dental care, and the public’s increasing ability to pay for care also will contribute to the demand for dental assistants. Participation in dental prepayment plans, for example, brings dental services within the reach of many who could not afford them otherwise. In addition to job openings created by growth in the demand for dental services, many dental assistants will be required each year to replace those who leave the field. Earnings Salary depends largely on the duties and responsibilities attached to the particular job and geographic location. Dentists’ policies with respect to assistants’ salaries vary wide ly, but there is little evidence that individuals who have completed a formal training pro gram in dental assisting command higher pay. In 1980, most dental assistants working for dentists in private practice earned between $9,000 and $11,000 annually, based upon the limited information available. A few earned up to $15,000 or more a year depending upon the size of the office and the responsi bilities performed by these key personnel. In the Federal Government, experience and the amount and type of education deter mine entrance salaries. In 1981, a high school graduate who had 6 months of general experience started at nearly $9,800 a year; graduates of an ADA-approved 1-year train ing program who had an additional year of general experience could expect to start at nearly $11,000 a year. In general, exper ienced dental assistants working for the Fed eral Government in 1980 earned average annual salaries of about $11,800. Although the 40-hour workweek prevails for dental assistants, the schedule is likely to include work on Saturday. A 2- or 3-week paid vacation is common. Some dentists pro vide sick leave and other benefits. Dental assistants who work for the Federal Govern ment receive the same employee benefits as other Federal workers. Related Occupations Dental assistants perform a variety of duties that do not require the dentist’s professional knowledge and skill. Other workers who pro vide similar services under the supervision of a medical practitioner include medical assistants, chiropractor assistants, optometric assistants, podiatric assistants, and surgical technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, scholarships, accredited dental assistant pro grams, including the correspondence pro gram, and requirements for certification is available from: American Dental Assistants Association, 666 N. Lake Shore Dr., Suite 1130, Chicago, 111. 60611. Commission on Dental Accreditation, 211 E. Chi cago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 666 N. Lake Shore Dr., Suite 1136, Chicago, 111. 60611. Medical Assistants (D .O .T. 079.367-010) Nature of the Work Medical assistants help physicians examine and treat patients and perform most of the administrative tasks needed to keep an office running smoothly. The duties of medical assistants, who sometimes are called medical office assist ants, consist of clerical and clinical activi ties. The size of the office in which the medical assistant works determines the scope of the job: Those in small offices typically handle both clerical and clinical duties, 300/Occupational Outlook Handbook whereas in offices with a sizable staff, medi cal assistants usually specialize in either the “office” or “patient care” aspects of the job. Clinical duties most commonly include: Recording patients’ height, weight, tempera ture, and blood pressure; obtaining medical histories; performing simple laboratory tests; preparing patients for examination or treat ment; helping the physician examine patients; and cleaning and sterilizing instruments. Oth er clinical duties may be instructing patients about medication and self-treatment, and ap plying dressings. Medical assistants also may arrange instru ments and equipment in the examining room; check office and laboratory supplies; and maintain the waiting, consulting, and exami nation rooms in a neat and orderly condition. Medical assistants perform a variety of clerical jobs. They may answer the tele phone, greet patients and other callers, record and file patient data and medical records, fill out medical and insurance forms, handle cor respondence, schedule appointments, and ar range for hospital admission and laboratory services. Along with other office duties, they may transcribe dictation and handle the book keeping and billing. Medical secretaries and medical receptionists also perform clerical tasks in medical offices, but unlike medical assistants, they rarely have clinical duties. (See the statements on receptionists and on secretaries and stenographers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Medical assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Because they assist phy sicians with physical examinations, medical assistants must have some manual dexterity, and they must be able to deal with people who may be under stress. Employment About 90,000 persons worked as medical assistants in 1980. About 85 percent worked in the offices of physicians in private prac tice. Some worked in health maintenance organizations, clinics, nursing homes, and hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical assistants typically are trained on the job by the physicians who employ them. However, an increasing number have attend ed one of the formal training programs avail able in public or private vocational schools and in community or junior colleges. Appli cants for either on-the-job or formal training in medical assisting usually need a high school education or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, health, biology, typing, bookkeeping, and office prac tices are helpful. Most community college programs in medical assisting last 2 years and lead to an associate degree; the other programs take up to 1 year to complete and graduates receive a diploma. Graduates from all kinds of medical assisting programs totaled almost 20,000 in 1980. Not all sought work as medical assist ants after graduation, however. Every year, many graduates enter other fields of employ ment and some pursue training in nursing, medical technology, or other allied health fields. Two agencies are recognized by the U.S. Department of Education to accredit pro grams in medical assisting: The Committee on Allied Health Education and Accredita tion (CAHEA) and the Accrediting Bureau for Health Education Schools (ABHES). The 141 programs currently approved by CAHEA graduated about 5,100 students in 1980. The ABHES currently accredits 81 programs, and graduates numbered about 3,400 in 1980. The curriculum in these pro grams consists of courses in biology, anat omy and physiology, typing, transcription, accounting, records and recordkeeping, and medical terminology. Students also receive supervised clinical experience and learn labo ratory techniques, use of medical machines, administrative and clinical procedures, and office practices. The American Association of Medical As sistants (AAMA) awards the title of Certi fied Medical Assistant (CMA) to medical assistants who pass the required written ex amination. One may qualify to take the ex amination by: (1) Completing a CAHEAapproved program in medical assisting; (2) having a high school diploma or equivalent and showing evidence of 1 year’s experience as a medical assistant working under the su pervision of a physician; or (3) showing proof of 5 years’ experience as a medical assistant working for a physician. Certifi cation is not a license and is not required for AAMA membership; however, physi cians usually consider CMA’s to be highly qualified. Another distinction in this field is the title Registered Medical Assistant (RMA). The American Medical Technologists award the RMA to those who meet their qualifications and pass the qualifying examination. To take the RMA examination, a medical assistant must have completed high school or the equivalent and have completed an ABHESaccredited program, an associate degree pro gram, or, some other acceptable combination of education and experience as outlined in the American Medical Technologists test guidelines. The RMA is a recognition of competence. Advancement opportunities for medical as sistants are limited, although competent medical assistants with leadership abilities may rise to the position of office manager. As a rule, however, advancement to other health occupations requires additional formal training. A neat, well-groomed appearance and a courteous, pleasant manner are necessary traits for medical assistants, who have a great deal of contact with the public. Communica tion skills are especially important. Medical assistants must not only be good at putting patients at ease, but careful enough listeners to interpret a physician’s instructions correct ly the first time they are given. Conscien tiousness, a sense of responsibility, and respect for the confidential nature of medical information are all valuable qualities in a medical assistant. Clinical duties require a reasonable level of manual dexterity. Job Outlook Employment opportunities for medical as sistants, particularly for graduates of accred ited training programs, are expected to be excellent through the 1980’s. Employment of medical assistants is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations because of the projected rapid increase in the number of physicians in pa tient care. The growing complexity of medi cal services, combined with the increasing volume of paperwork, also will contribute to the demand for medical assistants. The need for more medical assistants also is related to the rising demand for medical care in general. This demand results from a growing population, an increasing number of older people (who generally require more medical attention), and the widespread ability of patients to purchase medical care because of coverage under private health insurance plans, Medicare, and Medicaid. In addition to openings resulting from in creased demand for medical assistants, many jobs will become available each year because of replacement needs, which are substantial. Earnings The earnings of medical assistants can vary widely. The assistant’s experience and the physician’s practice volume and geo graphic location all help to determine the level of pay. From the limited information available, inexperienced medical assistants generally start at the minimum wage, or about $125 to $150 a week and most medical assistants earn less than $10,000 a year. Although medical assistants usually work 40 hours per week, some work on Saturday may be required. Related Occupations Other health occupations that entail a com bination of clerical and clinical duties, and require only a limited amount of specialized training, include pharmacy helpers, dental as sistants, optometric assistants, podiatric as sistants, occupational therapy aides, and physical therapist aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, CAHEA-accredited educational programs in medical assisting, and requirements for the CMA is available from: The American Association of Medical Assistants, 1 East Wacker Dr., Suite 2110, Chicago, 111. 60601. Information about career opportunities and requirements to become an RMA are avail able from: Service Occupations/301 American Medical Technologists, Medical Assist ant Program, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, 111. 60068. For a list of ABHES-approved educational programs in medical assisting, write: Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, Ind. 46514. A list of accredited and nonaccredited postsecondary programs in medical assisting, arranged by State, may be found in Pro grams and Schools, A Supplement to the Directory of Postsecondary Schools with Oc cupational Programs, 1978, a publication of the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics. This publica tion and similar directories put out by com mercial publishers may be available in counseling centers or large public libraries. Occupational Therapy Assistants (D.O.T. 076.364-010) Nature of the Work Occupational therapy assistants do much of the routine work that a rehabilitation pro gram entails. Working under the supervision of occupational therapists, they are members of the health team in the rehabilitation of patients impaired by physical, mental, or de velopmental problems. (See the statement on occupational therapists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Occupational therapy assistants help occu pational therapists plan and carry out educa tional, vocational, and recreational activities aimed at helping patients regain the use of those capacities that remain after accident, disease, or deformity. They teach clients self-care skills such as dressing, eating, and shaving; work-related skills such as the use of power tools; and recreational and social activities such as games, dramatics, and gar dening. They also may teach creative skills such as woodworking, ceramics, and graphic arts. Since they work very closely with patients, occupational therapy assistants observe them and make reports to the occupational thera pist on the patients’ progress and develop ment. In addition, occupational therapy assistants perform many other tasks such as ordering, preparing, and laying out materials; helping to make splints, braces, and other assistive devices; and maintaining tools and equipment, such as woodworking, ceramics, and graphic arts tools. Assistants must be able to teach a broad range of skills because of the wide variety of patients. They may work either with groups or with individual patients. When treating patients with diseases, assistants usually work closely with occupational therapists. In other situations, such as organizing crafts projects for handicapped persons living in institutions, they may function independent ly, with only periodic consultation with professionals. Some small occupational therapy depart ments may consist only of a therapist and one other worker. In these cases, the assistant may assume some of the duties of an occupa tional therapist, within the limits of his or her training. Working Conditions Although occupational therapy assistants generally work a standard 40-hour week, they may occasionally have to work evenings and weekends. The areas where they work generally are well lighted and ventilated, al though noise levels often are high in areas where power tools are being used. Job duties can be physically tiring because assistants are on their feet much of the time and may have responsibility for cleaning equipment. Places of Employment An estimated 8,500 people worked as oc cupational therapy assistants in 1980. Most worked in hospitals or nursing homes; the remainder worked in a variety of facilities, including clinics, community mental health centers, vocational rehabilitation programs, schools for handicapped children and the mentally retarded, rehabilitation centers, and adult day care centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Two types of educational institutions train occupational therapy assistants: Community colleges and vocational and technical schools. In 1980, 47 schools offered educa tional programs approved by the American Occupational Therapy Association. Most of these are community college programs that last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Just one is a 1-year vocational or technical school program. In addition, the Armed Forces train occupational therapy assistants. Graduates of these programs who success fully complete the written national proficien cy examination are certified by the American Occupational Therapy Association and re ceive the title Certified Occupational Ther apy Assistant (COTA). In 1980, about 5,000 employed occupational therapy assistants were COTA’s. Approved programs combine classroom in struction with at least 2 months of supervised practical experience. Courses include the history and philosophy of occupational ther apy, occupational therapy theory and skills, anatomy and physiology of the human body, the effect of illness and injury on patients, and human development. Students also prac tice skills and crafts they later will teach to patients. Applicants for training programs must be high school graduates or the equivalent. Among the subjects recommended for high school students interested in the occupational therapy field are health, biology, typing, and the social sciences. Preference sometimes is given to applicants who have taken courses in science and crafts and have previous work experience in a health care setting. Occupational therapy assistants should like people, have good physical and mental health, and be able to establish and main tain effective interpersonal relationships. They also should have manual skills because they must teach clients how to use tools and materials. Occupational therapy assistants who work in large health facilities begin with routine tasks and may advance to more responsible ones as they gain experience. A COTA with Occupational therapy assistant helps patient do routine exercises to regain use of hand. 302/Occupational Outlook Handbook 4 years of approved work experience may take the examination to become a registered occupational therapist (OTR) without com pleting the remaining 2 years of study for a bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy. Those COTA’s considering this path of entry to the occupational therapy profession should contact the Director of Credentialing of the American Occupational Therapy Association to identify the types of experience required to qualify for the examination. Job Outlook Employment of occupational therapy assist ants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s in response to continued support for rehabilitation programs. Hospitals and nurs ing homes in particular will need additional occupational therapy assistants to meet the heightened demand for rehabilitation services on the part of a growing and aging popula tion. Furthermore, because turnover is rela tively high, many openings for assistants will arise because of replacement needs. Job opportunities for occupational therapy assistants who are graduates of approved pro grams are expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. Although enrollments in occupa tional therapy assistant training programs are rising, the supply of graduates is likely to fall short of requirements. Earnings In 1980, starting salaries for occupational therapy assistants generally ranged from about $11,000 to $13,000 a year. Experi enced assistants earned between $12,000 and $17,500 a year, according to the limited in formation available. Occupational therapy as sistants working for the Federal Government earned starting salaries of about $9,800 annu ally in 1980. The average salary paid occu pational therapy assistants with the Federal Government was about $14,200 a year. Related Occupations Occupational therapy assistants help ad minister occupational therapy programs under the supervision of an occupational therapist. Other workers with similar auxiliary duties include orthotic assistants, physical therapist assistants, and prosthetics assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities and programs offering training for occupa tional therapy assistants, contact: American Occupational Therapy Association, 1383 Piccard Dr., Rockville, Md. 20850. Those COTA’s interested in qualifying for the examination to become a registered occu pational therapist (OTR) through acquired work experience should contact the Director of Credentialing, American Occupational Therapy Association, at the above address. Employment Optometric Assistants (D .O .T. 079.364-014) Nature of the Work Optometric assistants, also known as paraoptometrics, perform a combination of clerical and patient care tasks, enabling optometrists to devote more time to their professional duties. The duties of an assistant vary from office to office, depending on the employing optom etrist’s style of practice. They may keep pa tients’ records, schedule appointments, and handle bookkeeping, correspondence, and fil ing. They may prepare patients for eye exami nations, take initial case histories, and record the results of optometrists’ examinations. Oth er duties are of a more technical nature. For instance, assistants may measure patients for correct and comfortable fit of glasses. They may suggest size and shape of eyeglass frames to complement the patient’s facial features, and may adjust finished eyeglasses by heating, shaping, and bending the plastic or metal frames. They also may assist the optometrist by teaching the patient how to wear and care for contact lenses. Optometric assistants may help patients with vision therapy activities to develop eye coordination, focusing, and other visual abili ties. In the laboratory, they may adjust con ventional glasses to assure proper fit, insert lenses in frames, repair frames, keep an in ventory of optometric materials, order sup plies, and clean and care for the instruments. In a large practice or a clinic, assistants are likely to specialize—in laboratory work, con tact lenses, visual training, chairside assist ance, or office administration. In a smaller practice, one assistant may perform all these duties. Different levels of paraoptometrics are be ginning to emerge. Workers known as opto metric technicians have more extensive training—and may assume more complex du ties—than optometric assistants. Technicians might measure the curvature of the cornea; test the patient’s ability to see numbers or letters at a specified distance; and record pressures or tensions within the eye. Working Conditions Optometric assistants and technicians work in clean, well-lighted, and pleasant surround ings. Although their work is not physically demanding, they must be on their feet part of the time. Attention to detail is necessary. Most optometric assistants work between 30 and 40 hours a week. In many practices, the assistant may work a few hours on Satur day, with a day off during the week. Some evening work may be required. According to the American Optometric Association, about 18,000 persons worked as optometric assistants or technicians in 1980; most were assistants. Most were employed by optometrists in private practice. Some, however, worked for health clinics, health maintenance organizations, and optical com panies. Others served as assistants to optom etrists in the Armed Forces. Some worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most of these workers are trained on the job. Training also can be acquired in 1- and 2-year programs offered by community col leges, technical institutes, and colleges of optometry. Optometric assisting is taught in 1-year courses; 10 schools offered this type of training in 1980. Optometric technicians undergo more extensive training, available in 17 schools in 1981 that offer 2-year courses leading to an associate degree. The Council on Optometric Education of the American Optometric Association accredits technician programs; currently 8 programs are accredit ed. In addition, the U.S. Air Force trains optometric specialists in an accelerated, 16week program. High school graduation or its equivalent, including courses in English, mathematics, and office procedures, is preferred for formal or on-the-job training. All formal programs offer specialized courses such as the anatomy and physiology of the human eye, vision training (the use of exercises to correct defec tive vision), and contact lens theory and practice. Programs also include secretarial and office procedures. Lectures and laborato ry work are supplemented by experience in optometric clinics and practices. Paraoptometric personnel with the proper combination of training and experience can take an exam to become registered with the National Paraoptometric Registry as Regis tered Optometric Assistants (Opt. A., R.) or Registered Optometric Technicians (Opt. T., R.), respectively. Manual dexterity and accuracy are require ments for persons planning to work in this field. The ability to follow routines and pro cedures is needed. Because of the person-toperson relationship between paraoptometrics and patients, a neat appearance, courtesy, and tact are important. Job Outlook Employment of optometric assistants and technicians is expected to grow faster than the average through the 1980’s, due to the rising demand for eye care services and more widespread use of auxiliary personnel by op tometrists. Demand for eye care is expected to increase due to population growth and to the rising proportion of older persons, that segment of the population requiring the most Service Occupations/303 pists to treat disabled persons so that they may lead useful and productive lives. Treat ment helps to restore physical functions and prevent permanent disability from injury or illness. Their patients include accident vic tims, handicapped children, and stroke vic tims. Physical therapy is also used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, cerebral pal sy, nerve injuries, amputations, fractures, and arthritis. (See the statement on physical therapists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Physical therapist assistants generally work with patients who have relatively stable con ditions. They use a variety of treatment tech niques, such as exercises; massage; heat, light, sound, water, electrical and infrared treatments; and hot or cold packs. Assistants instruct and help patients to learn or improve their ability to walk, climb, and move from one location to another and to acquire skills needed for daily living. They observe pa tients during treatment to gather information on their responses and progress and report findings to the physical therapist, either oral ly or in writing. They also instruct patients in the use and care of artificial limbs, braces, and other devices such as crutches, canes, walkers, and wheelchairs. Working Conditions Most optometric assistants are trained on the job. eye care. The number of support personnel employed by optometrists is rising because of the tendency on the part of younger, newly graduated optometrists to hire auxiliaries. This in turn reflects the current emphasis in colleges of optometry on encouraging the utilization of auxiliary personnel in optomet ric practice. In addition to job openings resulting from increased demand for these workers, many openings will occur because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other kinds of work, retire, or die. Turnover is relatively high. Employment opportunities for graduates of formal training programs should be excellent. Indeed, in communities where such programs have been established, persons without for mal training may face competition. Most job openings, however, will be filled by people without formal training. Employers generally hire high school graduates, and view favor ably previous work experience in an office or in another health-related occupation. Job seekers will continue to find many opportuni ties for part-time work, some of which will be in the evenings or on Saturdays. Earnings Earnings of paraoptometric personnel vary by geographic region, academic and technical qualifications, and the size and type of prac tice of the optometrists employing them. In 1980, beginning salaries for optometric as sistants generally were between $6,000 and $8,000 a year, while starting optometric tech nicians were paid starting salaries of between $7,000 and $14,000. Related Occupations Other workers who assist medical profes sionals are chiropractor assistants, dental as sistants, occupational therapy assistants, office nurses, orthopedic assistants, physical therapist assistants and aides, podiatric as sistants, and psychiatric aides. Sources of Additional Information Career information, a list of programs that offer training for optometric assistants and optometric technicians, and information on the National Paraoptometric Registry are available from: American Optometric Association, Paraoptometric Section, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, Mo. 63141. Physical Therapist Assistants__________ (D .O .T. 076.224-010) Nature of the Work Physical therapist assistants work under the supervision of qualified physical thera Physical therapist assistants may be reuired to work some evenings and weekends. Jjfcough they work in clean and pleasant surroundings, the woriccan be physically ex hausting. They are on their feet for hours at a time, and lift patients into and out of wheel chairs, position them on treatment tables, and help them stand or walk. In addition, they may have to move heavy equipment. Employment An estimated 11,500 persons worked as physical therapist assistants in 1980. Most worked in physical therapy departments of hospitals. Others worked in physicians’ or physical therapists’ offices, clinics, rehabili tation centers, nursing homes, and other long-term care facilities. Some community and government health agencies, schools for handicapped children, and facilities for the mentally retarded also employ physical thera pist assistants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for physical thera pist assistants are not uniform throughout the country. Physical therapist assistants are li censed in 24 States, where they must be graduates of an accredited 2-year associate degree program and may have to pass a writ ten licensure examination. There were 58 accredited programs to train physical therapist assistants in 1980. Most were in community colleges, and all led to an associate degree. Courses include history and philosophy of rehabilitation, human growth and development, anatomy, physiology, and psychology. Studies also cover physical therapist assistant procedures including mas- 304/Occupational Outlook Handbook to correspond to the undergraduate require ments of the bachelor’s degree program under consideration. Job Outlook Job prospects should be excellent for graduates of accredited training programs. The number of physical therapist assistants is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations as the demand for rehabilitation services continues to grow. Many new jobs for physical therapist assistants will be created as programs to aid disabled persons expand, and as long-term care facilities attempt to provide residents with more adequate therapy and rehabilitation services. The aging of the population will spur de mand for rehabilitation personnel in hospi tals, nursing homes, and home health agencies. The number of people who need therapy will increase sharply: Very rapid growth is projected for the population age 75 and above, an age group that suffers a rela tively high incidence of disabling accidents and illnesses. However, the degree to which population growth is translated into new jobs for physical therapist assistants will depend upon other factors as well, including the ex tent to which health care providers encourage this level of care for elderly patients, and the availability of funds to pay for it. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for these workers, openings will result from replacement needs, which are relatively high. Earnings Physical therapist assistants may work with very young patients. sage, therapeutic exercise, and heat and cold therapy. Supervised clinical experience also is a requirement of physical therapist as sistant programs. The Armed Forces operate schools to train physical therapist assistants, but this training does not satisfy academic requirements for State licensure and no de gree is awarded to graduates. High school courses helpful to physical therapist assistants are health, biology, social science, physical education, mathematics, and typing. Physical therapist assistants should be in good physical condition. They also need manual dexterity to adjust equipment, body coordination to assist patients, and an interest in assisting the physically handicapped. Emotional stability is important because as sistants must maintain a positive, bright out look while helping patients with very difficult handicaps. Patience and the ability to recog nize and appreciate slight improvements also are helpful. As physical therapist assistants gain experi ence, they may advance to more responsible duties with corresponding pay increases. Phys ical therapist assistants with an associate de gree from an accredited program sometimes advance to physical therapists by earning the bachelor’s degree in physical therapy. A stu dent thinking about this option should arrange his or her associate degree curriculum carefully Starting salaries for physical therapist as sistants averaged between $11,500 and $13,500 a year in 1980, according to the limited information available. Experienced assistants generally earned between $12,000 and $18,000 a year. Physical therapist assist ants working for the Veterans Administration (VA) earned starting salaries of about $9,800 a year in 1980, and the average salary paid physical therapist assistants with the VA was about $14,200 annually. Related Occupations Physical therapist assistants administer routine therapeutic exercises and treatment under the direction of a physical therapist. Other workers who assist health professionals include occupational therapy assistants, orthotic assistants, prosthetic assistants, medi cal assistants, dental assistants, and optometric assistants. Sources of Additional Information Information on a career as a physical therapist assistant and on programs that offer training is available from: American Physical Therapy Association, 1156 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Cleaning and Building Service Occupations Every public building and apartment house needs to be kept clean and in good condition for the comfort and safety of the people who work or live there. This work is done by persons in cleaning and building service occupations, who clean floors and windows in hospitals, change linens in hotels, repair broken faucets in apartments, operate elevators, or extermi nate insects and rodents in office buildings. Workers who have limited skills or little education can often find jobs in this field. Skills usually are learned on the job, but other training sometimes is available. Building cus todians, for example, may attend training programs offered by unions and government agencies. Maids and housekeepers may take homestudy or classroom courses in house keeping procedures offered by their employer, junior colleges, or technical institutes. Work ers who learn their jobs thoroughly and show that they can handle responsibility may ad vance to supervisory positions. Besides a knowledge of their job, these workers must be courteous, tactful, and neat if their job requires contact with the public. They should be able to follow instructions and work well on their own. Some of these workers perform monotonous and tiring tasks, such as scrubbing and waxing floors or making up beds, and must be able to tolerate the boredom of the job. Starting pay for most cleaning and building service workers is relatively low. Employment of these workers should in crease as additional hotels, office buildings, and other structures that require cleaning and maintenance are built. Job turnover is high in these occupations. Thus, besides jobs created by increased demand for cleaning and build ing services, many job openings will occur each year as workers transfer to other occu pations, leave their jobs for personal reasons, retire, or die. The following tabulation shows 1980 em ployment levels in various cleaning and building service occupations. Janitor and sexton................................ 2,751,000 Elevator operator.................................. 49,000 Exterminator.......................................... 26,000 Termite treater and helper.................. 9,000 This section of the Handbook describes one cleaning and building service occupation, hotel housekeepers and assistants. Hotel Housekeepers and Assistants (D.O.T. 321 and 323.137-010) Nature of the Work Hotel housekeeping is primarily administrative, but housekeepers sometimes have to do the cleaning themselves. A hotel or motel’s reputation depends on how well its staff and facilities serve its guests. Although some offer economical ac commodations and others stress luxurious sur roundings and attentive service, all hotel organizations are concerned with their guests ’ comfort. Hotel housekeepers are responsible for keeping hotels and motels clean and at tractive and providing guests with essential furnishings and supplies. It is their job to hire, train, schedule, and supervise the housekeep ing staff, including linen and laundry workers, and repairers. They also keep employee re cords and order supplies. About 18,000 per sons worked as hotel housekeepers in 1980. Housekeepers who work in small or middlesized establishments may not only supervise the housekeeping staff, but perform some of these duties themselves. In contrast, the work of housekeepers in large or luxury hotels is primarily administrative, and they are usually called executive or head housekeepers. 305 306/Occupational Outlook Handbook Besides supervising a staff that may number in the hundreds, executive housekeepers pre pare the budget for their departments; submit reports to the general manager on the condi tion of rooms, needed repairs, and suggested improvements; and purchase supplies and fur nishings. Executive housekeepers are assisted by floor housekeepers who supervise the cleaning and maintenance of one or several floors in the hotel, and assistant executive housekeepers who help with the administrative work. Some larger hotel and motel chains assign executive housekeepers to special jobs, such as reorganizing housekeeping procedures in an established hotel or setting up the house keeping department in a new motel. Working Conditions Since hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work are common. Hotel employees frequently must work on shifts. Housekeepers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, but they may be called for work at any time. Hotel housekeepers sometimes experience the pressures of coordinating a variety of functions. Dealing with irate patrons can also be stressful. Supervising the preparation of rooms for incoming guests around checkout time can be particularly hectic. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Housekeeping positions require little or no specialized educational training, but most employers prefer applicants who have a high school diploma. Likewise, experience or training in hotel housekeeping also is helpful in getting a job. Several colleges, junior colleges, and tech nical institutes offer instruction in hotel admin istration that includes courses in housekeeping; some of these courses are offered in summer or evening classes. Many schools have developed programs under the guidance and approval of the National Executive Housekeepers Associ ation, an organization that confers certified membership status upon those members who complete certain education and experience re quirements. In addition, the Educational Insti tute of the American Hotel and Motel Associ ation offers courses for either classroom or home study. Most helpful are courses on housekeeping; personnel management; budget preparation; recordkeeping; interior decora tion; safety practices; environmental controls; and the purchase, use, and care of different types of equipment and fabrics. While executive housekeepers should be good at planning and organizing, they also should be able to deal effectively with peo ple, especially the housekeeping personnel. Housekeepers also should be able to work independently, keep records, and analyze numbers. Although assistant housekeepers may be promoted to executive housekeepers after several years of experience, opportunities are limited because only one executive house keeper job is available in any hotel or motel. Those who have degrees or have taken courses in institutional housekeeping man agement may have the best advancement opportunities. Job Outlook Employment of hotel housekeepers is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as additional hotels and motels are built and chain and franchise operations spread. Many openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, die, or retire. Because established hotels usually fill va cancies by promoting assistant housekeepers to executive housekeepers, beginners will find their best job opportunities in newly built motels or hotels. Seasonal job opportu nities will be available in resort hotels and motels that are open only part of the year. Earnings Salaries of housekeepers depend on the location, size, and type of hotel in which they work. Large luxury hotels and those located in metropolitan areas generally pay their housekeepers more than hotels whose rooms and services are less expensive and those located in less populated areas. Executive housekeepers earned salaries ranging from about $7,500 to more than $40,000 in 1980, with an average salary of almost $20,000. Those who work the night shift usually receive additional compensation. In addition to their salaries, hotels sometimes furnish housekeepers and their families with lodging in the hotel, meals, parking facilities, laundry, and other services. Most hotel employees receive 5 to 10 paid holidays a year, paid vacations, sick leave, life insurance, medical benefits, and pension plans. Some hotels offer bonuses, educa tional assistance, and other benefits to their employees. Related Occupations Hotel housekeepers and assistants are not the only workers concerned with hiring, training, scheduling, and supervising workers when pleasing customers and providing ser vice are important. Other occupations involv ing similar responsibilities include apartment building superintendents, janitorial service operators, pursers, and supervisory mainte nance engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in housekeeping and a list of schools offering programs in institutional housekeeping management are available from: National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., Business and Professional Building, 414 Sec ond Ave., Gallipolis, Ohio 45631. Information on careers and scholarships in the lodging industry may be obtained from: The American Hotel and Motel Association, 888 7th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. / Personal Service Occupations Personal service workers perform a variety of tasks for other people. They cut hair, make airplane passengers comfortable, con duct tours, take theater tickets, check coats, carry baggage, care for children, and do household chores for people who cannot manage for themselves. Because the work involves doing things for others, the ability to deal effectively with all kinds of people is a “must.” A pleasant personality, tact, and a sense of humor are decided assets. Nearly 1.7 million persons were employed in personal service occupations in 1980. Cos metologists and child care workers (who su pervise children in nursery schools, play groups, and babysitters’ own homes) are by far the largest of these occupations, employ ing about a half a million people each in 1980. Employment estimates for selected personal service occupations are shown in the accompanying table. Table 1. Employment in selected personal ser vice occupations, 1980 Occupation Employment Cosmetologists and related workers........................................ Cosmetologist.......................... Shampooer .............................. Manicurist................................ Scalp treatmentoperator.......... Child care worker and attendant ...................................... Barber.............................................. Recreational facilityattendant . . . . Flight attendant .............................. Elevator operator............................ Usher, lobby attendant, and ticket taker.................................. Games and rides operator ............ Funeral attendant............................ Checkroom and locker room attendant ...................................... 513,000 466,000 21,000 16,000 10,000 4%,000 112,000 69,000 56,000 49,000 41,000 29,000 10,000 10,000 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Some personal service jobs require formal training that lasts from several weeks to a year or so. Flight attendants go to training schools run by the airlines themselves; bar bers and cosmetologists generally learn their trade in public or private vocational schools. Most other personal service workers, howev er, acquire their skills on the job. A high school diploma is necessary for some of these jobs. All employers stress the impor tance of such personal characteristics as poise, good grooming, and a pleasant dispo sition. Physical stamina is important, for much of the work involves being on one’s feet for long periods of time. Starting pay in many of these jobs is at or only slightly above the minimum wage. Often, however, workers also receive tips that add substantially to their income. Some workers—cosmetologists in particu lar—are employed on a commission basis. Many of these workers eventually open their own businesses. Indeed, the large proportion of people who work for themselves is a distinguishing char acteristic of the personal service occupations. In 1980, fully 35 percent of these workers were self-employed, compared to only 8 per cent of all workers. Running one’s own busi ness is especially prevalent among barbers (73 percent self-employed), cosmetologists (50 percent), and child care workers (41 per cent). People who aspire to work for them selves must not only be good enough at what they do to maintain a steady flow of custom ers, they also must have the drive and busi ness acumen to handle finances, suppliers, and staff. Employment in these occupations is ex pected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s, in response to the demand that will be generated by higher incomes, more multieamer fam ilies, and more elderly people. Demand for child care workers and welfare service aides is expected to be especially strong. Jobhold ing by mothers of preschool or school-aged children is expected to remain at very high levels through the 1980’s. (The proportion of children under 6 whose mothers were at work rose sharply in the 1970’s.) Jobholding by women stimulates a demand, not only for child care services, but for a host of other “ substitute homemaker” services including cleaning, shopping, and food preparation. Employment of welfare service aides, a cate gory that includes geriatric aides and home maker-home health aides, will rise in response to increased demand for community and in-home services for the elderly. While heightened demand for personal ser vice workers will create numerous job open ings during the 1980’s, even more openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave their jobs. Replacement needs are substantial in these occupations, for turnover tends to be high. For information on pros pects in particular occupations, see the Hand book statements that follow. Barbers (D.O.T. 330.371-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair. While many persons go to a barber for just a haircut, services such as hairstyling and per manents have become increasingly popular. Barbers trained in these areas are called “hairstylists” and work in styling salons, “unisex” salons, and some barbershops. They cut and style hair to suit each customer and may color or straighten hair and fit hair pieces. Most barbers offer hair and scalp treatments, shaves, and facial massages. By tradition, most customers are men. However, a small but growing number of barbers cut and style women’s hair. They usually work in unisex salons—shops that have male and female customers. Some States require a cosmetologist’s license as well as a barber’s license, however, to per manent wave or color women’s hair. As part of their responsibilities, barbers keep their scissors, combs, and other instru ments sterilized and in good condition. They clean their work areas and may sweep the shop as well. Some sell lotions, tonics, and other cosmetic supplies. Those who own or manage a shop have additional responsibil ities such as ordering supplies, paying bills, keeping records, and hiring employees. Working Conditions Barbers usually work in clean, pleasant surroundings, with good lighting and ventila tion. Good health and stamina are important because barbers must stand on their feet a great deal and work with both hands at shoul der level—a position that can be tiring. Most full-time barbers work more than 40 hours a week, and a workweek of over 50 hours is not uncommon. Although Saturdays and lunch hours are generally very busy, a barber may have some time off during slack periods. To assure an even workload, some barbers ask customers to make appointments. Employment Most of the 112,000 barbers in 1980 worked in barbershops. Some worked in uni sex salons, and a few worked in department stores, hotels, hospitals, and prisons. Three out of four barbers operated their own busi nesses. Few barbers work part time. Almost all cities and towns have barber shops, but employment is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. Hairstylists usually work in large cities where the great est demand for their services exists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require barbers to be licensed. The qualifications necessary to get a license vary from one State to another, however. Generally a person must be a graduate of a State-approved barber school and be at least 307 308/Occupational Outlook Handbook Barber school training usually takes 9 to 12 months. 16 (in some States 18) years old. In addition, States have varying education requirements— some require graduation from high school, while others have no requirement at all. Many States require a beginner to take an examination for an apprentice license, and serve 1 or 2 years as an apprentice before taking the examination required for a license as a registered barber. In the examinations, the applicant usually is required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform the basic services. Fees for these examinations range from $15 to $85. Because some States do not recognize training, apprenticeship work, or licenses ob tained in another State, persons who wish to become barbers should review the laws of the State in which they want to work before entering a barber school. Barber training is offered in about 360 schools; 3 out of 4 barber schools are private. Some public high schools offer barbering in their vocational programs. Barber school pro grams usually last 9 to 12 months. Students buy their own tools, which cost about $450. They study the basic services—haircutting, shaving, facial massaging, and hair and scalp treatments—and, under supervision, practice on customers in school “ clinics.” Most schools now teach unisex hairstyling and chemical styling as part of their regular cur riculum. Besides attending lectures on barber services and the use and care of instruments, students take courses in sanitation and hy giene, and leam how to recognize certain skin conditions. Instruction also is given in selling and general business practices. Ad vanced courses are available in some local ities for barbers who wish to update their skills or specialize in hairstyling, coloring, and the sale and service of hairpieces. Dealing with customers requires patience and a better than average disposition. In ad dition, good eye-hand coordination is re quired. Barbers also should have sound judg ment about what hair style is most flattering. Beginners usually get their first jobs through the barber school they attended. Some experienced barbers advance by be coming managers of large shops or by open ing their own shops. A few may teach at barber schools. Barbers who go into business for themselves must have the capital to buy or rent a shop and install equipment. New equipment for a one-chair shop averaged about $4,000 in 1980. Some shopowners buy used equipment and fixtures at reduced prices, however. Job Outlook The employment decline of the last decade is not expected to continue as population growth and the increasing popularity of hair styling offset the effect of the fashion for longer hair. The occupation is expected to grow through the 1980’s, but more slowly than the average for all occupations. Most job openings, therefore, will occur because of the need to replace barbers who transfer to other kinds of work, retire, or die. Replace ment needs in barbering are high, compared with many other occupations. The shift in consumer preferences from regular haircuts to more personalized and in tensive services has greatly affected the occu pation. Barbers who specialize in hairstyling have been much more successful than those who offer conventional services. This trend is expected to continue, and employment op portunities should be better for hairstylists than for other barbers. Earnings Barbers receive income from commissions or wages and tips. Most barbers who are not shopowners normally receive 60 to 70 per cent of the money they take in; a few are paid straight salaries. Most barbers and hairstylists in their first few years of employment earned between $12,000 and $17,000 a year in 1980, accord ing to limited information available. Many experienced barbers and hairstylists earned over $20,000 a year. Hairstylists usually earn more than barbers because the services they provide are more personalized and therefore more expensive. Earnings depend on the size and loca tion of the shop, customers’ tipping habits, competition from other barbershops, and the barber’s ability to attract and hold regular customers. Some barbers receive 1- or 2week paid vacations, insurance, and medical benefits. The principal union that organizes bar bers—both employees and shopowners—is the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. The principal associ ation that represents and organizes sho powners, managers, and employees is the Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity con sists of improving a patron’s personal appear ance include cosmetologists, electrologists, makeup artists, manicurists, scalp treatment operators, and shampooers. Sources of Additional Information Lists of barber schools, by State, are available from: National Association of Barber Schools, Inc., 304 South 11th St., Lincoln, Nebr. 68508. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Every State maintains information on State licensing requirements and approved barber schools. For details, contact the State board of barber examiners or the equivalent author ity at your State capital. Additional information on this occupation is available from: National Barber Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd., Bronx, N.Y. 10467. Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, 219 Greenwich Rd., P.O. Box 220782, Charlotte, N.C. 28222. Bellhops and Bell Captains_______ (D .O .T . 324 except .677-014) Nature of the Work Bellhops carry baggage for hotel and motel guests and escort them to their rooms on arrival. When showing new guests to their rooms, bellhops make sure everything in the room is in order and may offer informa tion about valet services, restaurant hours, Service Occupations/309 or other hotel services. Bellhops also run errands for guests and may relieve elevator operators or switchboard operators in smaller properties. Large and medium-sized hotels employ bell captains to supervise the service staff. They plan work assignments, record the hours each bellhop is on duty, and train new employees. Bell captains take care of any unusual requests guests may make and handle any complaints regarding the department. If a bellhop is unavailable, they sometimes help arriving or departing guests. In 1980, about 21,000 persons worked as bellhops or bell captains. A few hotels have large service depart ments and employ superintendents of service to supervise bell captains and bellhops, ele vator operators, doorkeepers, and washroom attendants. Working Conditions Since hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work is common. While bellhops work on shifts, fewer employees work the night shift than the day shifts. The job can sometimes be quite strenuous, as bellhops often must stand for long periods and carry heavy baggage. Also, bellhops must work quickly and under pressure when several patrons require service at once. The job can be particularly hectic around check out time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bellhops carry luggage to and from guests' rooms. A high school education is not essential for work as a bellhop, but it does increase the chances for promotion to a job as desk clerk or reservation clerk. Frequently, hotels pro mote elevator operators to bellhop positions. Because bellhops have frequent contact with guests, they must be neat, tactful, and courteous. A knowledge of the local area is an asset because guests often ask about local tourist attractions, restaurants, and transpor tation services. Bellhops can advance to bell captain and then to superintendent of service, but oppor tunities are limited. Earnings Job Outlook Employment of bellhops is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most open ings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, die, or retire. Although many motels now offer services similar to those of a hotel and employ bell hops, the growing popularity of economy motels that offer only basic services is ex pected to limit employment growth. New workers will have better opportunities in mo tels and small hotels because the large luxury hotels prefer to hire experienced workers. Seasonal job opportunities will be available in resort areas where hotels and motels are open only part of the year. Earnings of bellhops depend on the loca tion, size, and type of hotel in which they work. Large luxury hotels and those located in metropolitan and resort areas generally pay their employees more than less expensive hotels and those located in less populated areas. In 1980, bellhops earned from $3.24 to $5.99 per hour, according to a survey of metropolitan areas. Bellhops often receive tips that may add substantially to their in come. Those who work the night shift usual ly receive additional compensation. Most hotel employees receive 5 to 10 paid holidays a year, paid vacations, sick leave, life insurance, medical benefits, and pen sion plans. Some hotels offer bonuses, edu cational assistance, and other benefits to their employees. Many bellhops belong to the Hotel Em ployees and Restaurant Employees Interna tional Union. Related Occupations Bellhops and bell captains do most of their work in a fast-paced, hectic setting; usually in large hotels or resorts. Other workers who perform similar jobs are baggage porters, skycaps, and doorkeepers. Sources of Additional Information For information on job opportunities for bellhops, contact the personnel offices of ho tels in your area and the nearest office of the State employment service. Cosmetologists______ (D .O .T . 331.674-010; 332.271-010, -014, and -018; 339.371-014) Nature of the Work Hair has been a center of attention since people first began to care about their appear ance. Throughout history a great deal of ef fort has gone into acquiring a fashionable hairstyle or a perfectly trimmed beard. Al though styles change from year to year, the cosmetologist’s task remains the same—to help people look attractive. Cosmetologists, who also are called beau ty operators, hairstylists, or beauticians, shampoo, cut, and style hair, and advise pa trons on how to care for their hair. Frequent ly they straighten or permanent wave a patron’s hair to keep the style in shape. Cos metologists may also lighten or darken the color of the hair. Cosmetologists may give manicures, scalp and facial treatments; pro vide makeup analysis for women; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. Most cosmetologists make appointments and keep records of hair color formulas and 310/Occupational Outlook Handbook Hair stylists need a sense of artistry. permanent waves used by their regular pa trons. They also keep their work area clean and sanitize their hairdressing implements. Those who operate their own salons also have managerial duties which include hiring and supervising workers, keeping records, and ordering supplies. Working Conditions Cosmetologists generally work in clean, pleasant surroundings, with good lighting and comfortable temperatures. Their work can be arduous and physically demanding because they must be on their feet for hours at a time and work with their hands at shoulder level. Many full-time cosmetologists work more than 40 hours a week, including eve nings and Saturdays when beauty salons are busiest. Employment Most of the 513,000 cosmetologists em ployed in 1980 worked in beauty salons. Some worked in “unisex” salons, barber shops, or department stores, and a few were employed by hospitals and hotels. Many worked part time. Many cosmetologists oper ated their own businesses. All cities and towns have beauty salons, but employment is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. Those cosmetolo gists who set fashion trends with their hair styles usually work in New York City, Los Angeles, and other centers of fashion and the performing arts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although all States require cosmetologists to be licensed, the qualifications necessary to obtain a license vary. Generally, a person must have graduated from a State-licensed cosmetology school, pass a physical examina tion, and be at least 16 years old. In addition, States have varying education requirements— some have no requirement, while others re quire graduation from high school. In some States completion of an apprentice training pro gram can substitute for graduation from a cos metology school, but very few cosmetologists learn their skills in this way. Cosmetology instruction is offered in both public and private vocational schools, in ei ther daytime or evening classes. A daytime course usually takes 6 months to 1 year to complete; an evening course takes longer. Many public school programs include the academic subjects needed for a high school diploma and last 2 to 3 years. An apprentice ship program usually lasts 1 or 2 years. Both public and private programs include classroom study, demonstrations, and practi cal work. Most schools provide students with the necessary hairdressing implements, such as manicure implements, combs, scissors, ra zors, and hair rollers, and include their cost in the tuition fee. Sometimes students must purchase their own. A good set of imple ments costs between $50 and $100. Begin ning students work on mannequins or on each other. Once they have gained some experience, students practice on patrons in school “ clinics.” After graduating from a cosmetology pro gram, students take the State licensing ex amination. The examination consists of a written test and a practical test in which applicants demonstrate their ability to pro vide the required services. In some States, an oral examination is included and the appli cant is asked to explain the procedures he or she is following while Liking the practical test. In some States, a separate examination is given for persons who want only a mani curist’s license. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow a cosmetologist li censed in one State to work in another with out reexamination. Persons who want to become cosmetolo gists must have finger dexterity and a sense of form and artistry. They should enjoy deal ing with the public and be willing and able to follow patrons’ instructions. Because hair styles are constantly changing, cosmetolo gists must keep abreast of the latest fashions and beauty techniques. Business skills are important for those who plan to operate their own salons. Many schools help their students find jobs. During their first months on the job, new cosmetologists are given relatively simple tasks, such as giving manicures or shampoos, or are assigned to perform the simpler hair styling patterns. Once they have demonstrat ed their skills, they are gradually permitted to perform the more complicated tasks such as hair coloring and permanent waving. Advancement usually is in the form of higher earnings as cosmetologists gain exper ience and build a steady clientele, but many manage large salons or open their own after several years of experience. Some teach in cosmetology schools or use their knowledge and skill to demonstrate cosmetics in depart ment stores. Others become sales representa tives for cosmetics firms, or open businesses as beauty or fashion consultants. Some cos metologists work as examiners for State cos metology boards. Job Outlook Employment of cosmetologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s in response to population growth and the rising number of working women. Hairstyling for men also contributes to a demand for cosmetologists because many men go to unisex shops or beauty salons for styling services. In addition to the jobs created by increased demand for cosmetologists, many openings will occur be cause of replacement needs. Turnover is high in this occupation. Opportunities for parttime work will continue to be very good. Most people regard spending on grooming care as discretionary. During hard economic times, they tend to visit cosmetologists less frequently, which reduces cosmetologists’ earnings. Rarely, however, are cosmetolo gists laid off solely because of economic downturns. Earnings Cosmetologists receive income from com missions or wages, and from tips. Those who are not salon owners receive a percentage of the money they take in, usually 50 percent; a few are paid straight salaries. Weekly earnings (including tips) of begin ning cosmetologists generally ranged be tween $110 and $145 in 1980, according to limited information available. Experienced Service Occupations/311 cosmetologists usually earned between $250 and $350 a week. Earnings also depend on the size and loca tion of the salon, patrons’ tipping habits, competition from other beauty salons, and the individual cosmetologist’s ability to at tract and hold regular patrons. Large salons and department stores offer group life and health insurance and other benefit plans. Nearly all employers provide annual paid vacations of at least 1 week after a year’s service. The principal trade association which repre sents and organizes salon owners, managers, and employees is the National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists Association, Inc. The principal union which organizes cosmetolo gists—both employees and salon owners—is die United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. Other organizations in clude the Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America; the National Associ ation of Cosmetology Schools, Inc., which represents school owners and teachers; and the National Beauty Culturists’ League, repre senting black cosmetologists, teachers, man agers, and salon owners. Before each flight, attendants are briefed by the captain on expected weather condi tions, special passenger problems, and other matters. They see that the passenger cabin is in order. They check that supplies, such as food, beverages, blankets, and reading mate rial, are adequate, and that first aid kits and other emergency equipment are aboard. As passengers come aboard, attendants greet them, check their tickets, and assist them in storing coats and small pieces of luggage in the proper places. Before the plane takes off, attendants use the public address system to instruct passen gers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see that all passengers have their seat belts fastened. In the air, they answer questions about the flight, distribute maga zines and pillows, and help care for small children, elderly persons, and handicapped persons. They give first aid to ill passengers. Attendants also serve cocktails and other re freshments. On many flights, they heat and distribute precooked meals. After the plane has landed, the flight attendant assists pas sengers as they leave the plane. They then prepare reports on medications given to pas sengers, lost and found articles, and cabin equipment conditions. Some flight attendants straighten up the plane’s cabin. One of the most important functions of attendants is to assist passengers in' the rare event of an emergency. This may range from a disabled engine, where passengers must be reassured, to an emergency landing, where attendants open doors and inflate emergency slides to evacuate the plane. Working Conditions Since airlines operate around the clock 365 Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity con sists of helping patrons improve their person al appearance include barbers, electrologists, makeup artists, and health club managers. Sources of Additional Information A list of licensed training schools and li censing requirements can be obtained from State boards of cosmetology or from: National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences, 1990 M St. NW., Suite 650, Washington, D.C. 20036. Additional information about careers in cosmetology and State licensing requirements is available from: National Beauty Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd., Bronx, N.Y. 10467. National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists Associ ation, 3510 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo. 63103. For general information about the occupa tion, contact: Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, 219 Greenwich Rd., P.O. Box 220782, Charolotte, N.C. 28222. National Association of Cosmetology Schools, 1990 M St. NW., Suite 650, Washington, D.C. 20036. Flight Attendants (D .O .T. 352.367-010) Nature of the Work Flight attendants (also called stewardesses and stewards) are aboard almost all passenger planes to help make the passengers’ flight safe, comfortable, and enjoyable. Flight attendants have to serve people graciously but quickly. 312/Occupational Outlook Handbook days a year, attendants may work at night, on holidays, and on weekends. They usually fly 75 to 85 hours a month, but they may work up to 50 hours a month on the ground to prepare planes for flight. As a result of vari ations in scheduling and limitations on flying time, many attendants have 15 days or more off each month. Attendants may be away from their home bases at least one-third of the time. During this period, the airlines pro vide hotel accommodations and an allowance for meal expenses. Flight attendants have the opportunity to meet interesting people and see new places. The combination of free time and discount air fares provides substantial opportunity for travel. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. Many short flights require speedy service if all passengers are to be served. A rough flight can make drinks and meals diffi cult to serve. Attendants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient regardless of how tired they are or how demanding passengers may be. Employment About 56,000 flight attendants were em ployed in 1980. The airlines employed the vast majority of all flight attendants, most of whom were stationed in major cities at the airlines’ main bases. A small number of flight attendants worked for large companies that use their own aircraft for business and other purposes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The airlines place great emphasis on hiring poised, tactful, and resourceful people. In particular, applicants should be able to talk comfortably with strangers. Applicants usual ly must be at least 19 years old, but some airlines have higher minimum age require ments. Flight attendants must have excellent health, good vision, and the ability to speak clearly. Applicants must be high school graduates. Those having several years of college or ex perience in dealing with the public are pre ferred. Flight attendants for international airlines generally must speak an appropriate foreign language fluently. Most large airlines require that newly hired flight attendants complete 4 to 6 weeks of intensive training in their own schools. The few airlines that do not operate schools gen erally send new employees to the school of another airline. Transportation to the training centers and an allowance for board, room, and school supplies may be provided. Train ees learn how to react to emergencies, in cluding instruction on evacuating an airplane, operating an oxygen system, and giving first aid. Attendants also are taught flight regula tions and duties, and company operations and policies. Trainees receive instruction on per sonal grooming and weight control. Addi tional courses in passport and customs regulations are given to trainees for the inter national routes. Towards the end of their training, students go on practice flights. After completing training, flight attendants are assigned to one of their airline’s main bases. New attendants are placed in “reserve status’’ and either fill in on extra flights or replace attendants who are sick or on vaca tion. Reserve attendants on duty must be available on short notice. Attendants usually remain on reserve for at least 1 year; at some cities it may take as long as 5 years to advance from reserve status. Advancement takes longer today than in the past because experienced attendants are remaining in this career for more years than they used to. Attendants who no longer are on reserve bid for regular assignments. Because these as signments are based on seniority, usually only the most experienced attendants get their choice of base and flights. Opportunities for advancement to other jobs are limited. However, some attendants may advance to flight service instructor, cus tomer service director, instructor, recruiting representative, or various other administra tive positions. Job Outlook Employment of flight attendants is expect ed to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to growth in demand for these workers, openings will occur because of the need to replace experienced attendants who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Growth in population and income is expect ed to increase the number of airline passen gers. Airlines usually enlarge their capacity by increasing the number and size of planes in operation. Since Federal Aviation Adminis tration safety rules require 1 attendant for every 50 seats, more flight attendants will be needed. Employment of flight attendants is sensi tive to cyclical swings in the economy. Many flight attendants are laid off during recessions when the demand for air travel declines. Un til demand increases, few new attendants are hired. Because the job is attractive and offers a chance to travel, many people are interested in becoming flight attendants. Also, as more career-minded people enter this occupation, job turnover is declining. As a result, appli cants can expect keen competition for the available jobs because the number of appli cants is expected to greatly exceed the num ber of openings. Applicants with at least 2 years of college and experience in dealing with the public have the best chance of being hired. Earnings Annual earnings of all flight attendants who worked for the airlines averaged about $19,000 in 1980. According to a number of union contracts, salaries of most beginning flight attendants on domestic flights ranged from about $775 to $900 a month, while those on international flights earned from about $950 to $1,050. In addition, flight attendants and their immediate families are entitled to reduced fares on their own and most airlines. Most flight attendants are members of ei ther the Transport Workers Union of Amer ica or the Association of Flight Attendants. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people and require the ability to be pleasant even under trying circumstances include tour guide, gate agent, host or hostess, waiter or waitress, and camp counselor. Sources of Additional Information For further information, request Flight At tendants, publication GA-300-127, (enclose a self-addressed mailing label) from: U.S. Government Printing Office, Library and Statutory Distribution Service, 5208 Eisen hower Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22304. Information about job opportunities in a particular airline and the qualifications re quired may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Address es of companies are available from: Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Agricultural and Forestry Occupations The workers described in this section of the Handbook are involved in the develop ment, production, and distribution of basic products that meet our country’s needs for food, clothing, and shelter. Agricultural workers raise crops and livestock that provide food as well as material for clothing. Forest ry workers harvest trees that provide lumber for housing and other buildings as well as material for a variety of paper products. Pro ducing these goods requires many different kinds of workers, ranging from scientists who develop high-yield seeds and fertilizers to the farmers, ranchers, and timbercutters who harvest the crops. The accompanying tabulation shows 1980 employment for se lected agricultural and forestry occupations. Although farm output has been increasing, employment of farm workers has continued to decline Index 1960=100 150 125 100 75 50 1960 Fanner........................................................ 1,447,000 Farm laborer ........................................... 1,175,000 Gardener, groundskeeper ...................... 650,000 Animal caretaker..................................... 94,000 Timbercutting and logging worker . . . 75,000 Farm manager ......................................... 37,000 Farm supervisor....................................... 30,000 Training requirements vary widely. Farm laborers in general can learn their jobs in a few hours. Because of the complexity of modem agriculture and forestry, however, many jobs in these fields require some tech nical training. Forestry technicians, for ex ample, need 1 or 2 years of specialized, postsecondary training. College training is required for many agriculture and forestry engineering, research, and administrative jobs, and is becoming increasingly important for farm operators. The occupational statements in this chapter describe in detail the work, training, and job outlook for forestry technicians and for farm and non-farm agricultural workers. Agricultural Occupations (D .O .T. 180, 40 exc. 406, 41 exc. 419, and 42) For decades, the word agriculture has re ferred to agricultural production or farming. Today, this word encompasses more than just farm production; it also extends to many activi ties off the farm—food and fiber processing, marketing, and distribution; farm implement production and sales; and feed and fertilizer manufacturing. This section discusses occupa tions in basic farm production and also offfarm occupations utilizing agricultural knowl edge and skills. 1965 1970 1975 1980 ’ Includes self-employed and unpaid family workers Sources: Bureau of Labor Statistics and U.S. Department of Agriculture Farm Occupations American farm workers are the most pro ductive agricultural workers in the world. They produce enough food and fiber to meet the needs of our Nation and to export vast quantities to countries around the world. Farm operators. Farm operators may be farmers (owners or renters) or farm manag ers. The specific tasks of a farm operator are determined by the type of farm, but, in gen eral, the operator is responsible for planning, tilling, planting, fertilizing, cultivating, and harvesting crops. After harvesting, operators make sure that crops are packaged, loaded, and delivered promptly to market. Those who raise livestock must feed and care for their animals and keep bams, pens, and other farm buildings clean. Farm operators perform tasks, ranging from setting up and operating machinery to erecting fences and sheds. The size of the farm often determines which of these tasks operators will handle themselves. Operators of large farms have employees do much of the physical work that small-farm operators do themselves. Although employ ment on most farms is limited to the farm operator and one or two family workers or hired employees, large farms often have 100 full-time workers or more. Some of these are in nonfarm occupations, such as truckdrivers, sales representatives, and clerks. In addition to the physical work, farm op erators also must make the management deci sions required for modem farming. They must determine the best time to seed, fertil ize, cultivate, and harvest. They must care fully plan the combination of crops they grow so that, if the price of one crop goes down, they will have sufficient income from another to make up for it. Also, prices of crops and livestock change from one month to another, and farm operators who plan ahead may be able to store their crops or keep their livestock to take advantage of bet ter prices later in the year. Farm operators must secure loans from credit agencies to finance the purchase of machinery, fertilizer, livestock, and feed. They also keep financial records of the farm operation and train and supervise workers in the use of equipment and performance of farm chores. Farm laborers. Farm laborers, both hired farm workers and members of farm families, perform many of the tasks of modem farm ing. On a farm with diversified agriculture, for example, laborers care for livestock and crops as well as maintain structures and equipment. Livestock generally require a great deal of attention on a day-to-day basis. Farm work ers must mix feed and additives and fill feed and water troughs. They clean bams and animal pens; check livestock regularly for signs of disease or infection; and often vacci nate livestock, such as cattle and poultry, against diseases or spray them with insecti cides to protect against harmful parasites. Also, laborers on dairy farms must clean and milk cows twice a day. In contrast, laborers on crop farms have duties that vary with the seasons. Before seeding, they must prepare the soil by plow ing, harrowing, and fertilizing. Once the crops are partially grown, workers cultivate 313 314/Occupational Outlook Handbook are employed in specialized jobs, farm super visors are needed to coordinate work activi ties. They schedule the work of crews and may hire additional workers, especially dur ing the harvesting season. Farm supervisors also teach new employees how to use ma chinery and tools and keep records of pro duction and crop conditions. (For additional information on these workers see the chapter on blue-collar worker supervisors elsewhere in the Handbook.) Off-Farm Occupations In addition to those who grow crops and raise livestock, modem agriculture also in volves millions of workers who are not di rectly involved in farming. The number and variety of off-farm jobs have increased as the business and technical aspects of farming have become more complex. Off-farm agri cultural jobs involve many activities: Re search, education, management and adminis tration, production services, sales, and food and fiber processing. Modern poultry farms use automatic feeding and watering systems. fields to loosen soil and reduce the number of weeds. Often, crops are sprayed to control weeds, harmful insects, and fungi. Farm workers also assist in harvesting, storing, packing, and transporting crops. Many of the tasks performed by farm workers require machinery, such as milking machines, hay balers, and cotton-pickers. In addition to setting up and operating machin ery, farm workers maintain and clean it and may do necessary minor repairs. Also, they maintain and repair farm structures, including bams, fences, and irrigation systems. Farm workers generally perform some, or all, of these duties regardless of farm loca tion or what crops are grown. However, many types of crops require special attention. For example, a laborer working in an orchard may have to transplant seedlings, prune fruit trees, thin immature fruit to improve quality, and prop up overloaded branches. Other farm laborers may perform special ized duties depending on the location of the farm. In areas where rain is insufficient, farm workers water crops by controlling the flow of water from irrigation ditches. They also operate portable sprinkling systems that pump water through pipes spread on the ground and move the pipes from one area to another. Farms producing fruits or vegetables often need a large number of workers to harvest their crops. On these farms, laborers have more specialized duties. For instance, some laborers pick the produce, others sort it, and others package it for market. Other laborers may spend most of their time operating a particular piece of machinery. Still others may be full-time maintenance workers. Farm supervisors. When many workers Research. Many scientists and technicians conduct research vital to increasing farm pro duction. Agronomists, for example, conduct experiments in crop problems and develop new methods of growing crops. Animal sci entists conduct research into breeding, feed ing, and marketing farm animals and develop improved methods of housing, sanitation, and parasite and disease control. Agricultural engineers apply engineering principles to farming. They design machinery that enables farmers to increase their production. Some work for electric utility companies, develop ing efficient methods of utilizing electric power on farms and in food processing. Still others are employed by the Federal Govern ment in soil and water management. Persons with technical skills related to ag riculture also assist agricultural and biologi cal research scientists. Biological technicians work primarily in laboratories in which bio logical scientists are engaged in crop research and development. Agricultural technicians generally work in experimental areas, such as fields, greenhouses, or bams where they as sist agricultural scientists in experiments con ducted under actual growing conditions. Research technicians may perform a vari ety of duties. For example, they generally are responsible for preparing animals, in sects, plants, soils, and food samples for tests. Other responsibilities include setting up and adjusting instruments and equipment, conducting experiments, and tabulating and recording data. Additional duties, such as caring for laboratory animals, may be part of the job. Education. Agricultural education is an im portant and growing area of employment in the field of agriculture. Because of constant technological innovations in production pro cesses, teachers are a vital link between agri cultural researchers and future farmers. Agricultural and Forestry Occupations/315 Vocational education teachers instruct secon dary school and adult education classes in farm management; agricultural production; agricultural supplies and services; operation, maintenance, and repair of farm equipment; processing of farm products; and ornamental horticulture. Several 2- and 4-year colleges and universities in every State now offer de gree programs in the agricultural sciences. Cooperative Extension Services workers do educational work in areas such as agricul tural production, community development, natural resource conservation, and home eco nomics and may conduct agricultural educa tional programs through youth groups such as the 4-H Clubs. Agricultural communications workers keep farmers and others concerned with agricultur al production abreast of current developments in farm research and technology. Crop re porters and market news reporters are em ployed by the U.S. Department of Agricul ture in field offices throughout the United States. Crop reporters gather information on crop production throughout the growing sea son. Market news reporters collect informa tion on the movement of produce from farm to market. Agricultural journalists, such as reporters and editors, collect farm news and data for publication in farm journals, magazines, bul letins, and for broadcast. Agricultural jour nalists also are employed as farm directors for radio and television broadcast stations in farming areas to report on prices, sales, crop conditions, and other agricultural information of importance to farm residents. Still others are employed in communications departments of agribusiness firms to develop advertise ments and public relations bulletins. Management and Administration. Many workers in managerial and administrative oc cupations must have a knowledge of agricul ture. Agricultural accountants prepare and analyze financial reports for farmers and farm supply businesses such as dairy equipment stores and farm machinery stores. Agricultur al financial experts work closely with farmers in making loans and ensuring borrowed mon ey is put to constructive use. Agricultural marketing specialists survey wholesalers, re tailers, and consumers; analyze data on pro ducts and sales; and prepare sales forecasts that food businesses use to make decisions relating to product design and advertising. Agricultural economists provide information about production, financing, and pricing to farmers, food processors and distributors, and government agencies. Production services. As farms become larg er and farming more complex, farmers in creasingly rely on off-farm workers for livestock and crop services. Veterinarians, for example, provide health care services to livestock. They administer tests for animal diseases, conduct programs for disease eradi cation, and conduct research to develop vac cines for disease control. On small farms, family members do much of the work. Other service workers contract with farm ers to do basic animal care chores. Cow testers employed by dairy herd improvement associations travel from farm to farm to test the milk from each cow in a herd for acidity and butterfat content. Sheep shearers contract to shear the wool from flocks of sheep. Poul try hatcheries employ several types of animal caretakers to vaccinate poultry, place eggs on trays in incubators, and care for baby chicks being used in experimental tests. In addition to workers who supply animal services, others provide custom or general crop services. For example, agricultural pilots and their assistants mix agricultural chemicals and apply them to fields from the air. Also, some airplane mechanics are employed to repair and maintain agricultural aircraft. Sales and service. Most types of farming require the use of large amounts of machin ery, equipment, and other farm supplies such as chemicals and pesticides. As a result, there are many jobs for workers who sell, maintain, and explain how to use machinery and supplies. Farm equipment sales workers must know the needs of farmers in their area and stock the latest equipment and machinery to meet those needs. Farm equipment me chanics service and repair machinery. Agri cultural chemical sales workers sell pesti cides, herbicides, and fertilizers and help farmers use them effectively. Food processing. Many workers are needed to prepare food for consumption. Meat and poultry inspectors, for example, are em ployed by the U.S. Department of Agricul ture and by many State departments of agri culture. Working under the supervision of 316/Occupational Outlook Handbook al occupations vary greatly. Workers in re search, education, administrative, and sales occupations generally work in a pleasant envi ronment and have fairly regular hours. Others, however, may have to work in uncomfortable surroundings. For example, veterinarians sometimes work outdoors in bad weather. Meat cutters work in coldrooms designed to keep meat from spoiling. Some workers, such as agricultural pilots and farm equipment mechan ics, work extra hours during planting and harvest periods. Employment Scientific research is the foundation of increased agricultural production. a veterinarian, they inspect meat and poultry slaughtering, processing, and packaging op erations to insure that proper sanitation is maintained throughout all phases of process ing. They also inspect meat additives and make sure that processed meats are labeled correctly. Agricultural commodity graders inspect samples of agricultural products to determine their quality and grade, and then issue grad ing certificates. They generally specialize in one particular commodity, such as eggs, vegetables, fresh fruits, dairy products, or grain. Working Conditions Many types of farming are seasonal in nature. Although many workers on crop farms work from sunup to sundown during the planting and harvesting seasons, they of ten work on the farm only 6 to 7 months a year, and many have second jobs off the farm. On farms that raise animals for meat or dairy products, the work that goes on con stantly throughout the year. Because animals must be fed and watered every day and cows must be milked twice daily, operators of these farms rarely get the chance to be away. Farm work can be extremely hazardous; each year, many farm workers are injured by planting and harvesting machinery. Also, farm workers are subject to illnesses and diseases from handling and breathing danger ous pesticides and chemicals and from hand ling crops that have been sprayed with insecticides. Working conditions in off-farm agricultur In 1980, there were about 1,447,000 farm ers, 37,000 farm managers, and 1,205,000 farm laborers and supervisors. The topography of the land and the climate of an area generally determine the type of farming that is done. For example, wheat, com, and other grains are most efficiently grown on large, flat farms on which large and sophisticated machinery can best be used. Thus, these crops are ideal for the plains of Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Illi nois. Dairy herds are best suited for the areas of good pastureland, such as Wisconsin, Minnesota, and New York. Crops that re quire longer growing seasons, such as cotton, tobacco, and peanuts, are grown chiefly in the South. Most of the country’s fruits and vegetables come from California, Texas, and Florida. Raising fruits and vegetables, which must be picked and packaged by hand, generally requires a large number of employees during the harvesting season, and many hired labor ers work on these farms on a seasonal basis. Many farm laborers and supervisors are em ployed in California, Texas, and Florida. Much of the work on farms that produce animals and dairy products must be done daily throughout the year. These farms often rely on the farm operator and several family members to do most of the work. Unpaid family workers and farm operators also pro vide most of the labor on farms that produce crops, such as wheat, com, or cotton, that can be machine harvested and packaged with out damage. Therefore, only a small number of hired farm workers and almost no supervi sors are employed in the regions that produce these farm products. Off farm workers who need a background in agriculture are employed in almost all in dustries. However, jobs are concentrated in manufacturing, trade, agricultural services, and government. Food manufacturers, for ex ample, employ agricultural scientists and technicians, agricultural marketing special ists, agricultural economists, farm product buyers and shippers, inspectors, graders, millers, and meat cutters and butchers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Growing up on a family farm and partici pating in farming programs for young people, such as the Future Farmers of America or the Agricultural and Forestry Occupations/317 4-H Clubs, is still an important source of training for prospective farmers. However, because of the scientific and business com plexities of modem farming and the need to keep up with advances in farming methods, an increasing number of young people who live on farms find it desirable to attend a 2or 4- year college of agriculture. A degree in agriculture is essential for persons who wish to become farmers or farm managers but who have not had the advantage of living or work ing on a farm. Most colleges of agriculture offer major programs of study in areas such as dairy science, agricultural economics and business, horticulture, crop and fruit science, soil sci ences, and animal sciences. Also, colleges usually offer special programs of study con cerning products important to the area in which they are located, such as animal sci ence programs at colleges in the Western and Plains States. Many farm laborers can learn their jobs in a matter of hours on the farm and require little or no outside training. Some farm labor ers perform specialized jobs, such as machine operator, for which experience is desirable. Farm operators should be willing to try new processes and adapt to constantly chang ing technologies to produce their crops or raise their livestock more efficiently. Opera tors also must have enough technical knowl edge of crops and growing conditions and plant and animal diseases to be able to make decisions that insure the sucessful operation of their farms. They also must have the man agerial skills necessary to organize and oper ate a business. Mechanical aptitude and the ability to work with tools of all kinds also are valuable skills for the operator of a small farm who often must maintain and repair machinery or farm structures. A basic knowl edge of accounting and bookkeeping can be helpful in keeping financial records, and a knowledge of credit sources is essential. Farm laborers should be in excellent phys ical condition. They must perform work that is physically demanding such as lifting and carrying hay bales and restraining animals. Opportunities for advancement for farm laborers are limited; however, they may ad vance to farm labor supervisors, and a few may have the opportunity to become working farm managers, or to one day own their own farms. Off-farm occupations requiring a back ground in agriculture vary greatly in knowl edge and skill requirements, from professions requiring college training to jobs that may be learned in a few days or by merely growing up on a farm and observing the tasks being performed. The minimum requirement for administra tive, engineering, and scientific jobs is a bachelor’s degree with an appropriate major. Four-year degree programs are offered in general agriculture, agronomy, soil science, animal sciences, agricultural economics, ag ricultural business, horticulture, food sci ence, agriculture education, and agriculture Agricultural accountants and bankers help farmers with financial planning. Many farmworkers, like these students, work on the farm only part time. engineering. Graduate programs leading to master’s and doctoral degrees also are avail able in many of the same fields. Many sales, technical, and service occupa tions can be learned by completing programs at technical schools or junior colleges. Pro grams are available in agricultural produc tion, agricultural supply service, agricultural mechanics, and other specialties. Length of training varies by subject, from a few weeks to 2 years. Job Outlook Opportunities for employment will vary among off-farm occupations, although job prospects generally will be better than for farm occupations. Demand for food and fiber will increase greatly as the world population grows. Meeting this growing demand will require the development and use of more productive farming methods, new farm ma chinery, and hybrid crops. The food process ing and distribution systems also will grow to accomodate increased farm production. The number of farmers is expected to de cline as farms become more expensive to buy and operate. Both the average size of farms and the price of farmland have increased greatly in recent years, adding considerably to the cost of buying a farm. Operating 318/Occupational Outlook Handbook Crop production accounts for about three-fifths of all agricultural employment Employment, 1980 (percent distribution) 1 Information Office or Office of Higher Education, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. The Department also will answer phone requests; dial 202-447-2791. National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges, 1 Dupont Circle, Suite 710, Washington, D.C. 20036. National 4-H Council, 7100 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20015. For information about farm financing, con tact: Farm Credit Administration, Washington, D.C. 20578. Forestry Technicians (D .O .T . 452 and 459.387) Nature of the Work 1Wage and salary workers only Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics costs—livestock, feed, seed, fertilizer, ma chinery, and fuel—also have risen substan tially, making large farms more economical than small ones. The trend toward fewer and larger farms is expected to continue, reducing the number of jobs for farm operators. Employment of farm laborers is expected to decline as the number of farms declines and as machinery replaces much of the work that laborers now do. As farms become larg er, the additional use of more and larger machinery makes it unnecessary to hire more farm laborers. profit in one year may show a loss in the following year. Farm laborers are generally among the lowest paid workers; in 1980, average hourly earnings of all hired farm workers were only $3.66. In comparison, average hourly earn ings of all production workers in private nonagricultural industries were $6.66 in the same year. Average wage rates for hired farm workers ranged from $3.25 an hour for live stock workers to $5.59 an hour for farm labor supervisors. In general, workers paid on a piece-rate basis earned more than those who received a straight hourly wage. In addi tion to their wages, some hired farm workers receive room and board allowances; how ever, almost no farm workers receive paid vacations, sick leave, or health benefits. Many farm laborers, especially those in California, are represented by the United Farmworkers Union (UFW); others are rep resented by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers. Many farmers are members of local and regional cooperatives that enable them to reduce the cost of their supplies and to mar ket their products. Earnings in off-farm agricultural occupa tions vary greatly. Workers in agricultural businesses generally earn as much as workers with similar skills in nonagricultural industries. More detailed information about the work, working conditions, training requirements, job outlook, and earnings of many of the off-farm occupations discussed in this section can be found elsewhere in the Handbook. Earnings Sources of Additional Information Earnings of farm operators vary greatly from year to year and by type and size of farm. Prices of many farm products fluctuate greatly depending on weather conditions that determine the amount and quality of products that are produced. A farm that shows a large For general information about farming and other agricultural occupations, contact: The high cost of buying and operating a farm has made it very difficult for people who do not belong to farm families to become farmers. However, people who want to become farmers may be able to start out as assistant managers or hired hands, thereby gaining experience and the opportunity to rent land and equipment from the landowner. In several years, they may be able to raise enough capital and have enough experience to obtain a loan and buy a small farm. Even if the beginning farmer rents rather than purchases land and buildings, financing is generally necessary to acquire livestock, seed, feed, fertilizer, and machinery, and to pay living expenses. As farming becomes more complex, the demand for farm managers with specialized skills and knowledge will increase. The need for farm managers also may increase because people who inherit farms often do not want to work the land themselves. They may have farm managers to do the farmwork or to supervise tenant farmers. American Farm Bureau Federation, 225 Touky Ave., Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Future Fanners of America, P.O. Box 15160, Alexandria, Va. 22309. Forestry technicians, sometimes called for estry aides in entry level positions, assist foresters in the care and management of for est lands and their resources. Their duties are varied and include many forest protection, improvement, and production responsibil ities. For example, in timber production, they may help estimate present and potential yield in a certain area. If new roads are needed to make the timber accessible for cutting and removal, technicians may super vise the surveying and road building crews. After the timber has been cut, they measure the logs to determine how much lumber they will yield and may assist in the sale of the timber. Technicians work on many forest improve ment projects. They inspect trees for disease and other problems, and record their find ings. On watershed projects, they work to prevent flood damage and soil erosion and seek ways to preserve the quality of water in the forest. Forestry technicians also help to prevent and control fires. They give fire prevention information to people using the forest and lead firefighting crews if a fire occurs. After fires are extinguished, they take inventory of burned areas and supervise the planting of new trees and shrubs to restore the forest. Recreational use of forests has increased greatly. Technicians maintain forest areas for hunting, camping, hiking, and other recrea tional activities. They also explain forest reg ulations and policies to visitors and enforce these rules. Working Conditions Forestry technicians do almost all of their work outdoors. They may have to work in all kinds of weather, and sometimes must work in remote areas for extended periods of time. In emergencies, such as when fighting fires or controlling floods, forestry technicians may have to work as many hours as they are physically able. Much of the work is seasonal. The weather, for example, may make road building and other activities impossible during the winter Service Occupations/319 m onths in certain areas o f the cou n try. F ire fig h tin g jo b s u su a lly are lim ited to the su m m er and fa ll fire sea so n s. T h e w ork can b e both p h y sica lly and m en tally d em an d in g. In add ition to the hazards o f w eath er, forestry tech n ician s m ust con ten d w ith sn a k es, m o sq u ito es, and other dangers and an n o y a n ces. Employment A n estim a ted 1 5 ,0 0 0 person s w ork ed year round as forestry tech n ician s in 19 8 0 . N early the sa m e num ber fo u n d tem porary em p lo y m ent— prim arily w ith Federal and State g o v e r n m e n ts— d u rin g the su m m er or in the spring and fa ll fire sea so n s. O v er h a lf the year-round total w ork ed in private ind ustry, m a in ly for lo g g in g , lum ber, and paper co m p a n ies. M in in g , o il, and rail road c o m p a n ie s e m p lo y e d so m e fo restry tech n icia n s o n reforestation projects; tree nurseries e m p lo y ed others. T h e Federal G o v ern m en t e m p lo y ed abou t 4 ,0 0 0 fu ll-tim e for estry tech n icia n s in 1 9 8 0 , prim arily in the F orest S erv ice o f the U .S . D epartm ent o f A gricu ltu re, w h ile m any others w ork ed for State govern m en ts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st perso n s q u a lify for b eg in n in g jo b s as forestry tech n icia n s b y c o m p letin g a sp ec ia l ize d cou rse o f stu dy in a 1- or 2 -year p o s tse c ondary sc h o o l or through w ork e x p erien ce on firefigh tin g c re w s, in tree nu rseries, or in recreation w ork. B e ca u se o f k een jo b co m p etitio n at the present tim e, opp ortu nities for em p lo y m en t are better for perso n s w h o h a v e p o stse co n dary sc h o o l training. T h e S o c iety o f A m eri can F oresters r eco g n ized 53 o f about 8 0 tech n ica l in stitu tes, ju n ior or com m u n ity c o l le g e s , and u n iv ersities w h ich offered forestry tech n icia n training in 1 980. M o st forestry tech n ician sc h o o ls require general ed u cation co u rses su ch as m athem at ic s and E n g lish , forestry-related cou rses in clu d in g b io lo g y and b o tan y, and sp ec ia liz ed forest te ch n o lo g y co u rses su ch as land sur v e y in g , tree id en tifica tion , aerial photograph interpretation, and tim ber h arvestin g. M o st sc h o o ls a lso p rovid e practical ex p erien ce w orking in a forest. E nth usiasm for ou td oor w ork , p h ysical stam in a, and the ab ility to carry o u t tasks w ith and w ith ou t direct su p ervision are e sse n tial for su cc e ss in this field . T ech n ician s sh ou ld b e ab le to w ork w ith su rvey c re w s, users o f forest lan d s, forest o w n ers, and for esters. T h ey m ust ex p ress th e m se lv es clearly w h en talking w ith others and w h en m aking written reports. Forestry tech n ician s g en erally b eg in w ork as trainees or in rela tiv ely routine p o sitio n s under the direct su p ervision o f an ex p eri en c ed tech n ician or forester. A s tech n ician s ga in e x p e rien ce , they are g iv e n m ore resp on sib ility , and often m o v e into su p ervisory p o sitio n s. S o m e tech n ician s obtain b a c h e lo r ’s d egrees in forestry and are prom oted to the forester le v e l. Job Outlook G row th in em p lo y m en t o f forestry tech n i cia n s is e x p ected to be about as fast as the a v e r a g e for a ll o c c u p a tio n s th ro u g h th e 198 0 ’s. Private industry sh ou ld con tin u e to provid e a h ig h proportion o f th ese jo b s. E nvironm ental co n cern , a risin g dem and for forest p rod u cts, and in creased u se o f te ch n o lo g y in the forest industry are exp ected to stim ulate the n eed for m ore tech n ician s each year. In creasin gly, tech n ician s w ill take on m an y o f the m ore routine jo b s d on e by foresters. D esp ite this e x p ected g row th , k een c o m p e tition for jo b s is anticip ated . C urrently, the num ber o f p erson s seek in g e m p lo y m en t as forestry tech n ician s greatly e x c e e d s the jo b s a v a ila b le. U n le ss the num ber o f graduates o f forestry tech n ician sc h o o ls d eclin es substan tia lly in the future, co m p etitio n for jo b s is e x p ected to p ersist. A p p lican ts w h o h ave had sp ec ia liz ed forestry tech n ician training and so m e practical ex p erien ce sh ould h ave the b est opp ortu nities for em p loym en t. Earnings Starting salaries o f forestry tech n ician s ranged from $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 to $ 1 2 ,0 0 0 a year in 1 9 8 0 , accord in g to the lim ited data availab le; Many forestry technicians are employed only during forest-fire seasons. exp erien ced forestry tech n icia n s averaged abou t $ 1 6 ,0 0 0 . In the Federal G overn m en t, forestry tech n icia n s u su ally started at $ 1 0 ,9 6 3 a year in early 1981. Related Occupations F o restry te c h n ic ia n s w o rk m o s tly o u t d o o rs, u su ally in a natural settin g. O ther w orkers w h o h a v e a sim ilar jo b en viron m en t in clu d e farm w ork ers, fish e r s, lo g g er s, sh ell fish b ed w orkers, and trappers. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about a career in the Federal G overn m en t as a forestry tech n icia n is a v a il ab le from: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 2417, Washington, D.C. 20013. F or a list o f sc h o o ls r eco g n ized by the S o c iety o f A m erican F oresters o fferin g train ing in the fie ld , w rite to: Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Washington, D.C. 20014. Mechanics and Repairers In our te ch n o lo g ic a lly ad van ced s o c ie ty , m ach in es o f o n e typ e or another tou ch alm ost all a sp ects o f our liv e s . Industrial m achinery p rod u ces our g o o d s . T ransportation eq u ip m ent carries both g o o d s and p eo p le anyw here in the w o rld . T ele p h o n e s and other co m m u n i ca tio n eq u ip m en t c o n v e y in form ation q u ick ly and e ffic ie n tly . A p p lia n ces m ake our h o u se h o ld ch ores ea sier. M ech a n ics and repairers m aintain and repair th ese and the m any other ty p es o f m a ch in es w e rely on. O ne-fourth o f all m ech a n ics and repairers w ork o n m otor v e h icle s in occu p a tio n s su ch as a u to m o b ile m ech a n ic, truck or bus m e ch a n ic, and a u to m ob ile b o d y repairer. T he rem aining three fourths w ork on a variety o f m ach in es in o ccu p ation s su ch as app lian ce repairer, com puter serv ice tech n icia n , te le p h on e repairer, lo ck sm ith , and pian o re p a irer. T h e a c c o m p a n y in g ta b le p r e se n ts 1 9 8 0 e m p lo y m en t estim a tes for se lec ted o c cu p a tio n s in this group. Table 1. Employment in selected mechanic and repairer occupations, 1980 Occupation Employment Automotive mechanic ...................... 846,000 Maintenance mechanic .................... 348,000 Telephone installer and repairer .. 248,000 Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanic...... 179,000 Diesel mechanic..................... 174,000 Electric power line installer and repairer ........................................... 172,000 Auto body repairer .......................... 153,000 Aircraft mechanic ............................ 109,000 Engineering equipment mechanic . 92,000 Millwright................................ 91,000 Radio and television repairer . . . . 83,000 Data processing machine mechanic 83,000 Gas and electric appliance repairer 60,000 Office machine and cash register servicer................................ 55,000 Oiler .................................................... 41,000 Instrument repairer................ 38,000 Railroad car repairer............ 30,000 Coin machine servicer .................... 27,000 Farm equipment m echanic.............. 25,000 Electric motor repairer........ 20,000 a p p lia n ces, farm im p lem en ts, and other m e ch an ical eq u ip m en t. A b ou t o n e -se v en th w ork in sh op s that service m ach in es o f all ty p es. M o st o f the rem ain in g m ech a n ics and repair ers w ork for transportation, co n stru ction , and p u blic u tilities c o m p a n ie s, and all le v e ls o f govern m en t. T raining for m ost m ech an ic and repairer o ccu p ation s requires both c la ssro o m instruc tion in m ach in e operation and practice in repair w ork . M ech a n ics g e t this training through h igh sc h o o l and p o stsecon d ary pro gram s and on -th e-job training. For a lm o st all the m ech an ic and repairer o ccu p a tio n s, e m p lo y ers prefer h igh sc h o o l graduates. C ou rses in sh op m ath , blueprint read in g, d raftin g, w o o d w o r k in g , m etalw ork in g , and ele ctr o n ic s g iv e students b a sic m e ch an ical k n o w led g e and sk ills. T rain in g in sp e c ific areas— ap p lian ce re pair, a u tom ob ile m ain ten an ce and repair, te le v isio n repair— is ava ila b le through h igh sc h o o ls , private v o cation al sc h o o ls , c o m m u nity c o lle g e s , corresp on d en ce sc h o o ls , and the A rm ed F orces. T h ese v o ca tio n a l pro gram s in clu d e instruction in m ach in e op er a tio n a n d e x p e r ie n c e w ith a c tu a l or d em onstration m ach in ery. A lth o u g h c o m p le tion o f su ch training d o e s n ot assure a jo b , e m p lo y ers in creasin gly prefer to hire p eo p le w ith so m e training or e x p erien ce. N e w m ech a n ics and repairers u su ally re c e iv e o n -th e-job training from their e m p loyer. T h is training m ay in v o lv e cla ssro o m instruction and p ractice w ork w ith d e m o n stration m a c h in e s. H o w e v er , it freq u en tly c o n sists o n ly o f su p erv isio n b y an ex p eri e n c ed w orker. T o k eep up w ith im p ro v ed te c h n o lo g y , m ech a n ics and repairers m u st co n tin u e their training through out their careers. T h ey study the repair b o o k s and tech n ica l m an u als that a c c o m p a n y n e w e q u ip m e n t, a n d a tten d c la s se s run by eq u ip m en t m anufacturers. P h y sica l req uirem en ts for w o rk in this field vary grea tly . For e x a m p le , telep h o n e lin ew ork ers m ust be strong and a g ile to lift h ea v y eq u ip m en t and w ork in aw k w ard p o s i tio n s. W atch repairers n eed g o o d v isio n and e x c e lle n t fin g e r d ex terity . For o ccu p a tio n s in w h ich the repairer d ea ls w ith c u sto m ers, the ab ility to w ork w ith p e o p le is im portant. For m o st m ech an ic o c cu p a tio n s, a d v a n cem en t is lim ited to su p ervisory p o sitio n s. S o m e o f th ese o c cu p a tio n s, h o w e v e r , o ffe r g o o d o p p ortu n ities for self-em p lo y m e n t. E m p lo y m en t o f m ech a n ics and repairers as a w h o le is e x p e cte d to in crea se abou t as fast as the a verage for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. C on tribu tin g to the g r o w in g n eed for m ech a n ics and repairers w ill b e the in creased u se o f h o u se h o ld a p p lia n ces, a u to m o b iles, co m p u ters, and c o m p le x industrial m ach in ery. In ad d ition to jo b s created b y g row th in d em and for m ain ten an ce and repair w o rk m any th o u san d s o f o p e n in g s w ill arise in this rela tiv ely large- occu p a tio n a l ca teg o ry as e x p erien ced w orkers transfer to oth er fie ld s , retire, or d ie . The unemployment rate for mechanics and repairers is much lower than the rate for blue-collar workers as a whole Percent unemployed SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. M ech a n ics and repairers w ork in all in d u s tries in the e c o n o m y . A lm o st o n e-fifth work in m anufacturing in d u stries— the m ajority in plants that produ ce durable g o o d s su ch as s te e l, a u to m o b ile s, and aircraft. A n oth er on efifth w ork in retail trade— m ain ly in firm s that sell and serv ice a u to m o b ile s, h o u seh old http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 320 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1970 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 1975 1980 Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Mechanics and Repairers V e h ic le and m o b ile eq u ip m en t m ech an ics an d rep a irers m a in ta in and rep air a u to m o b ile s , m o to rc y c le s, trucks, b u se s, b oats, and airp la n es, as w e ll as con stru ction , lo g g in g , railroad and farm eq u ip m en t. M ech a n ica l aptitude and m anual sk ills are essen tia l to v e h ic le and m o b ile equip m ent m ech a n ics and repairers. T h ey a lso n eed read in g and w ritin g sk ills in order to c o n su lt repair and tech n ica l m an u als, read work orders, and w rite parts lists and descrip tion s o f th e w ork th ey perform . T h ey m ust be ab le to w ork e ffic ie n tly and w ith p recision sin c e their earn in gs o ften d epend on h o w rapidly they can correctly perform m ainte n an ce or repairs. T h ey m ust a lso b e capa b le o f h an dling h ea v y or u n w ield y parts or co m p o n en ts. E m p lo y e r s u s u a lly p r e fer to hire h ig h sc h o o l graduates, but freq uently hire th ose w ith ou t h ig h sc h o o l d ip lo m as i f th ey can read and w rite a d eq u ately. M ost m ech an ics and repairers acquire their sk ills o n the jo b fo l lo w in g the instructions o f ex p erien ced w ork e rs, read in g repair m an u als, and so lv in g p rob lem s o n their o w n . Form al m ech an ic training acquired in h igh sc h o o l, vocation al or tech n ica l sc h o o l, or in the A rm ed F orces is an a sset to p erson s entering m ech an ic and repairer careers. T h is se c tio n d escrib es se v e n m otor v e h icle m ech a n ic and repairer occu pations: A irplane m e ch a n ics, a u to m o b ile b od y repairers, auto m o b ile m ech a n ics, b o a t-en g in e m ech a n ics, farm eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics, m o to rcy cle m e c h a n ic s, and truck and bus m ech a n ics. O ther m ech a n ic and repairer careers are d escrib ed in su b seq u en t se c tio n s. Aircraft Mechanics (D.O.T. 621.281-014) Nature of the Work M o st travelers hardly think tw ic e about fly in g thou san ds o f fe et a b o v e th e ground. T h e c o n fid e n c e th ey h ave in aircraft is a tribute to the m ech a n ics w h o m aintain them . T o k eep aircraft in top operatin g co n d itio n , m ech a n ics perform sch ed u led m ain ten an ce, m ake repairs, and co m p lete in sp ectio n s re quired by the Federal A v ia tio n A d m in istra tion (F A A ) . M any m ech a n ics sp ec ia liz e in sch ed u led m a in ten an ce. F o llo w in g a sch ed u le that is b a sed o n the num ber o f hours flo w n , c a le n dar d a y s, or a com b in ation o f th ese factors, m ech a n ics in sp ect the e n g in e s, land in g gear, in stru m en ts, and oth er parts o f the aircraft and d o the n ecessary m ain ten an ce. F or e x a m p le , th ey m ay e x a m in e an e n g in e through sp ec ia lly d esig n ed op en in g s w h ile w orking from ladders or sc a ffo ld s, or u se h oists or lifts to rem o v e the entire en g in e from the craft. A fter taking the e n g in e apart, m ech an ic s m ay u se se n sitiv e instrum ents to m easure parts for w ear, and u se X -ray and m agn etic in sp ectio n eq u ip m en t to c h e ck for in v isib le crack s. W orn or d e fe c tiv e parts are rep laced . T h ey a lso m ay repair sh eet-m etal su rfaces, m easure the ten sio n o f control c a b les, or ch eck for rust, d istortion , and cracks in the f u s e la g e an d w in g s . M e c h a n ic s te s t th e eq u ip m en t to m ak e sure the repairs w ere m ad e properly. M ech a n ics sp ec ia liz in g in repair w ork u se the p ilo t ’s d escrip tion o f a problem to find and fix fau lty eq u ip m en t. F or e x a m p le , dur in g a p refligh t c h e ck , a p ilo t m ay d isco v er that the aircraft’s g a s g a u g e d o e s n ot w ork. T o so lv e the p rob lem , m ech a n ics m ay ch eck the electrical co n n e c tio n s, rep lace the g a u g e , or u se electrica l test eq u ip m en t to m ak e sure n o w ires are broken or sh orted. T h ey w ork as fa st as safety perm its so that the aircraft can b e put back in to se r v ic e q u ick ly . M ech a n ics m ay w ork on o n e or m any d if ferent typ es o f aircraft, su ch as je ts , p rop el ler-d riven airp lan es, and h elico p ters, or for e ffic ie n c y , m ay sp ec ia liz e in o n e se c tio n o f a particular typ e o f aircraft, su ch as the en g in e or electrical sy stem . M ech a n ics e m p lo y ed b y co m p an ies that o w n their o w n aircraft u su ally m u st h an d le all repair and m ain ten an ce w ork. In sm a ll, in d ep en d en t repair sh o p s, m ech an ic s u su ally in sp ect and repair m any d ifferent typ es o f aircraft. Working Conditions M ech a n ics u su ally w ork in hangars or in other in d oor areas. H o w e v er , i f the hangars are fu ll or if repairs m ust b e m ade q u ick ly , th ey m ay w ork ou td oors, so m etim es in un p leasan t w eather. T h is occu rs m ost often to airline m ech a n ics w h o w ork at airports b e c a u se , to sa v e tim e, m inor repairs and preflig h t c h e ck s often are m ade at the term inal. M ech an ics o ften w ork under th e pressure o f tim e to m aintain flig h t sch ed u les or, in g e n eral av ia tio n , to k eep from in co n v en ien cin g cu stom ers. A t the sa m e tim e, m ech an ics m ust m aintain safety standards. F req u en tly, m ech a n ics m ust lift or p u ll as m u ch as 5 0 p ou n d s. T h ey often stan d , lie , or k n eel in aw k w ard p o sitio n s and o c ca sio n a lly m ust w ork in p recariou s p o sitio n s on sc a f fo ld s or ladd ers. N o is e and vibration are co m m o n w h en testin g e n g in e s. A ircraft m e ch an ics gen era lly w ork 4 0 hours a w e e k on 8-h ou r sh ifts around th e c lo c k . Employment A b ou t 1 0 9 ,0 0 0 aircraft m ech a n ics w ere e m p lo y ed in 1980, in clu d in g abou t 1 6 ,0 0 0 w h o w ork ed in aircraft a ssem b ly firm s. O ver 4 0 percen t w ork ed for airlines and about 25 p ercent w ork ed for the Federal G overnm ent. M o st o f the rest w ere gen eral avia tio n m e c h a n ic s, the m ajority o f w h o m w ork ed for in d ep en d en t repair sh o p s or co m p a n ies that operate their o w n p lan es to transport e x e c u tiv es and cargo. M o st airline m ech a n ics w ork near large c ities at the a ir lin e s’ m ain sto p s. M any em p lo y e e s o f the Federal G overn m en t are c iv il ians e m p lo y ed b y the m ilitary and w ork at m ilitary aviation in stallation s. O thers w ork for the F A A , m any in the headquarters at O k lah om a C ity. M ech a n ics for ind ep en dent repair sh op s w ork at airports in ev ery part o f the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement T h e m ajority o f m ech a n ics w h o w ork on civ ilia n aircraft are lic e n se d by the F A A as “ airfram e m e c h a n ic s ,’ ’ “ p o w eip la n t m ech a n i c s , ” or “ aircraft in sp e c to r s.” A irfram e m e ch a n ics are q u a lified to w ork on the fu se la g e , w in g s , land in g gear, and other structural parts o f the p lan e; p ow erp lan t m ech a n ics are q u a lified o n ly for w ork o n the e n g in e . C o m b in ation airfram e-an d-pow erplant m ech a n ics can w ork o n any part o f th e p la n e , and th o se w ith an in sp ec to r ’s lic e n se can certify in sp ec tion w ork co m p lete d b y other m ech a n ics. U n lic e n s e d m e c h a n ic s are su p e r v ise d b y th o se w ith lic e n se s. T h e F A A requires at least 18 m onth s o f w ork ex p e rien ce for an airfram e or p ow erp lan t lic e n se . For a co m b in ed lic e n s e , at lea st 3 0 m on th s o f e x p erien ce w orking w ith both e n g in e s and airfram es are required. T o ob tain an in sp ec to r ’s lic e n s e , a m ech a n ic m ust h a v e h eld an airfram e-an d-pow erplant lic e n se for at lea st 3 years. A p p lica n ts fo r all lic e n se s a lso m u st p ass w ritten and oral tests and dem onstrate that th ey can d o th e w ork au th orized b y the lic e n se . A lth o u g h a fe w p e o p le b e c o m e m ech a n ics through on -th e-job train in g, m o st learn their jo b in the A rm ed F orces or in trade sc h o o ls certified b y the F A A . C ou rses in th ese trade sc h o o ls last from 18 m on th s to 2 years and p rovid e training w ith the to o ls and eq u ip m en t u sed o n the jo b . For an F A A lic e n s e , attend an ce at su ch sc h o o ls m ay substitute for w ork e x p e rien ce . H o w e v er , th ese sc h o o ls d o not guarantee jo b s or F A A lic e n se s. 321 322/Occupational Outlook Handbook W ith ad d ition al b u sin e ss train in g, so m e m ay op en their o w n repair sh o p s. Job Outlook T h e n u m ber o f aircraft m ech a n ics is e x p e c ted to in crease abou t as fast as the aver ag e for all occu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. In ad d ition to jo b s resu ltin g from g row th in d em an d for th ese w ork ers, m any o p en in g s w ill arise from the n eed to rep lace m ech a n ics w h o transfer to other fie ld s o f w o rk , retire, or d ie . H o w e v e r , jo b op p ortu n ities in gen eral a v ia tio n , airlin e c o m p a n ie s, and the Federal G overn m en t w ill d iffer. Job op p ortu n ities in gen era l avia tio n are e x p e cte d to b e g o o d , particularly fo r q u ali fie d m ech a n ics w h o are w illin g to relo ca te. T h e nu m ber o f private aircraft as w e ll as the nu m ber u sed b y co m p a n ies fo r e x ec u tiv e transportation is e x p e cte d to g ro w rapidly. S in ce w a g e s in sm all co m p a n ies freq uently are lo w , there is le s s co m p etitio n for th ese jo b s than in the a irlin es. A ls o , so m e jo b s w ill b e c o m e a v a ila b le as ex p e rien ce d m ech a n ics le a v e for better p a y in g jo b s w ith airlines or large private co m p a n ies. In contrast w ith gen era l a v ia tio n , c o m p e tition for airlin e jo b s w ill b e k een b e ca u se the h ig h w a g e s attract m ore q u a lified ap p li cants than there are jo b s a v a ila b le. A g ro w in g p o p u la tio n and r is in g in c o m e s are e x p e cte d to in crease the dem and fo r airline transportation. L ittle c h a n g e in the n u m ber o f m ech a n ics e m p lo y ed by the Federal G ov ern m en t is e x p e c te d . O p p o r tu n itie s w ill flu c tu a te w ith ch a n g es in d e fe n se sp en d in g . D e c lin e s in air travel during r ecessio n s fo r c e a ir lin e s to cu rta il th e n u m b er o f flig h ts. F ew er flig h ts m ean less aircraft m ain ten an ce and co n seq u en tly la y o ffs for aircraft m ech a n ics. Earnings Jet engine mechanics help make air travel safe. S o m e aircraft m ech a n ics in the A rm ed F orces acquire e n o u g h gen eral e x p erien ce to sa tisfy the w ork ex p e rien ce req uirem en ts for the F A A lic e n se . W ith add ition al stu dy they m ay p ass the lic e n sin g e x a m . G en era lly , h o w ev e r, jo b s in the m ilitary serv ices are to o sp ec ia liz ed to p ro v id e the broad e x p erien ce required by the F A A . M ost h a v e to c o m p lete the entire training program at a trade sc h o o l, although a fe w r ec e iv e so m e credit for the m aterial th ey learned in the se r v ic e. M ilitary e x p erien ce is an a sset w h en seek in g e m p lo y m en t, h o w ev er; e m p lo y ers co n sid er trade sc h o o l graduates w h o h a v e this e x p erien ce to b e the m ost d esirab le ap p lican ts. A h igh sc h o o l d ip lo m a or its eq u ivalen t is n ecessa ry fo r a ll p ro sp ectiv e aircraft m ech an ic s . C ou rses in m a th em atics, p h y sic s , ch em istry, and m ech a n ical draw ing are h elp fu l b e c a u se k n o w led g e o f the p rin cip les in v o lv ed i the operation o f an aircraft o ften is n e c e s in s sary to m ake repairs. A ircraft m ech a n ics m ust d o careful and t thorough w ork and have the strength to lift I h ea v y parts and to o ls. A g ility is im portant f for the reaching and clim b in g n ecessa ry for t the jo b . A ircraft m ech a n ics m ust not be a afraid o f h eigh ts sin ce th ey w ork on the top c o f w in g s and fu sela g e s on large je t p la n es. i A s n e w and m ore c o m p lex airplanes are d e s sig n e d , m ech a n ics m ust update their sk ills. A s aircraft m ech an ics gain e x p e rien ce , t th ey a d van ce to m ore resp o n sib le jo b s . O p p portun ities are b est for th o se w h o h a v e an a airfram e-an d-pow erplant lic e n s e , as w e ll as a an aircraft in sp ec to r ’s lic e n se . A m ech an ic r m ay ad van ce to head m ech an ic (or crew c h ie f), to in sp ecto r, to h ead in sp ecto r, and to sh op su p ervisor. In the a irlin es, a fe w super s \ viso rs m ay ad van ce to e x e c u tiv e p o sitio n s. In 1 9 8 0 , annual earn in gs o f aircraft m e c h a n ic s w h o w o r k e d o n je ts a v e r a g e d $ 1 9 ,9 0 0 , accord in g to an A m erica n M a n a g e m en t A s s o c ia tio n s ’ su rv ey . M ech a n ics w h o w o rk ed on other aircraft avera g ed $ 1 8 ,3 0 0 a year. C h ie f m ech a n ics w h o w ork ed o n jets a v e r a g e d $ 2 3 ,9 0 0 a n n u a lly , w h ile th o s e w ork in g on oth er aircraft av era g ed $ 2 3 ,0 0 0 . B eg in n in g m ech a n ics u su a lly earn ed b etw een $ 1 5 ,0 0 0 and $ 1 6 ,0 0 0 a y ear. A irlin e m e c h a n ics and their im m ed ia te fa m ilie s rec eiv e red u ced fare transportation w ith their o w n and m ost other airlin es. M ech a n ics e m p lo y e d b y m o st m ajor air lin es are c o v er ed b y u n ion a g reem en ts. T heir earn in gs g e n era lly are h igh er than m ech a n ics w ork in g for other em p lo y er s. T h e principal u n io n s in this field are th e International A s s o c ia tio n o f M a c h in is ts and A e r o s p a c e W ork ers, and the T ransport W orkers U n io n o f A m erica . S o m e m ech a n ics are rep resented b y the International B roth erh ood o f T ea m sters, C h au ffeu rs, W areh o u sem en and H elp ers o f A m erica . Mechanics and Repairers/323 Related Occupations S o m e other o ccu p a tio n s that in v o lv e sim ilar m ech a n ica l and e lectrica l w ork are au tom otiveb o d y repairers, auto m o b ile m ech a n ics, electri cia n s, elev a to r repairers, and telep h on e m ain ten an ce m ech a n ics. Sources of Additional Information For general inform ation about aircraft m e c h a n ic s, w rite to: Aviation Maintenance Foundation, P.O. Box 739, Basin, Wyo. 82410. For further in form ation , request Aviation pu b lication G A -3 0 0 -1 3 3 , (en c lo s e a self-a d d ressed m a ilin g lab el) from: Maintenance, U.S. Government Printing Office, Library and Statutory Distribution Service, 5208 Eisenhower Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22304. Inform ation about jo b s in a particular air lin e m ay be obtained by w riting to the per so n n el m anager o f the co m p a n y . For ad d resses o f airline co m p a n ies, w rite to: Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For inform ation on jo b s in a particular area, con tact em p lo y ers at lo ca l airports or lo ca l o ffic e s o f the State em p lo y m en t serv ice. Automobile Body Repairers (D .O .T. 620.684-034, 807.281-010, .381-010, and .684-010) d am aged area w h ile ham m erin g the o p p osite sid e . T h ey rem o v e very sm all pits and d im p le s w ith p ick ham m ers and p u n ch es. B o d y repairers a lso repair or rep lace the plastic b od y parts in crea sin g ly b ein g u sed on n ew er m o d el a u to m o b iles. T h ey rem o v e the d am aged p a n els, and determ in e the ty p e o f p lastic from w h ich they are m ad e. W ith m ost typ es th ey can app ly heat u sin g a h ot air w eld in g gun or im m ersion in h ot w ater, and press the so ften ed pan el back into its original sh ape by hand. T h ey rep lace parts m ade o f plastic w h ich are m ore d ifficu lt to repair. B o d y repairers u se plastic or sold er to fill sm all dents w h ich can n ot be w ork ed ou t o f the p lastic or m etal p an el. O n m etal p a n els, they then file or grind the hardened fille r to the original sh ape and san d it to prepare it for pain tin g. In m any sh o p s, au tom ob ile painters d o the p ain tin g. (T h e se w orkers are d iscu ssed e ls e w h e r e in the Handbook.) In sm a lle r sh op s w orkers often d o both bod y repairing and pain tin g. S o m e b o d y repairers a lso re p la ce safety g la ss. A fe w sp ec ia liz e in repair ing fib erg la ss b o d ies. B o d y repair w ork has variety and ch a l len g e — each d am aged v e h ic le presents a d if fe re n t p r o b le m . R ep airers m u st d e v e lo p appropriate m eth od s for ea ch jo b , u sin g their broad k n o w led g e o f a u tom ob ile con stru ction and repair tech n iq u es. B o d y repairers u su ally w ork b y th e m se lv es w ith o n ly general d irection s from su p ervi sors. In so m e sh o p s, th ey m ay b e a ssisted by h elpers or app rentices. In large sh o p s, bod y repairers m ay sp ec ia liz e in o n e ty p e o f re pair, su ch as fram e straightening or d oor and fen d er repairing. Nature of the Work T hou san ds o f m otor v e h ic le s are d am aged in traffic accid en ts ev ery d ay. A lth ou gh som e are w reck ed , m o st can be m ade to lo o k and drive lik e n e w . A u to m o b ile b od y repairers straighten b en t fram es, rem o v e d en ts, and rep lace cru m pled parts that are b ey o n d re pair. U s u a lly , they can fix all typ es o f v e h i c le s , but m o st repairers w ork on cars and sm a ll trucks. A fe w w ork on large trucks, b u se s, or tractor trailers. W hen a d am aged v e h ic le is brought into the sh o p , b o d y repairers gen erally receive instructions from their su p ervisors, w h o have determ ined w h ich parts are to be restored or rep laced and h o w m u ch tim e the jo b sh ould take. A u to m o b ile b o d y repairers use sp ecia l m a ch in es to restore d a m aged fram es and bod y sectio n s to their origin al sh ape and location . T h ey chain or cla m p the fram es and sectio n s to align m en t m ach in es that u su ally u se h y draulic pressure to alig n the dam aged m etal. B o d y repairers rem o v e bad ly d am aged s e c tion s o f bo d y p a n els w ith a p n eu m atic m etal cutting gun or a cety len e torch and w e ld in n ew sectio n s to rep lace them . R epairers push o u t less seriou s dents w ith a hydraulic ja ck or hand prying bar, or k n ock them out w ith h a n d to o ls or p n eu m a tic h a m m ers. T h e y sm o o th ou t sm all d en ts and creases b y h o ld in g a sm all anvil a gain st o n e sid e o f the Working Conditions A u to m o b ile b od y repairers w ork ind oors in bod y sh op s w h ich are n o isy b ecau se o f the b an gin g o f ham m ers again st m etal and the w h ir o f p o w er to o ls. M o st sh o p s are w ell v en tila ted , but often th ey are du sty and sm ell o f paint. B o d y repairers often w ork in a w k ward or cram ped p o sitio n s, and m uch o f their w ork is strenuous and dirty. H azards in clu d e cu ts from sharp m etal e d g e s , b u m s from torch es and heated m etal, and injuries from p ow er to o ls. Employment M ore than 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 person s w ork ed as au tom ob ile b od y repairers in 1 9 8 0 . M ost w ork ed for sh op s that sp ec ia liz ed in bod y repairs and pain tin g, and for auto m o b ile and truck d ealers. O thers w ork ed for o rgan iza tio n s that m aintain their o w n m otor v e h ic le s, su ch as trucking co m p an ies and b u slin es. A fe w w ork ed for m otor v e h ic le m anufacturers. N early 1 au tom ob ile b od y repairer ou t o f 4 w as s e lf em p lo y ed ; m ost o f th ese operated their o w n sh op . A u to m o b ile b od y repairers w ork in ev ery sectio n o f the country. Jobs are distributed in abou t the sam e w ay as the pop u la tio n . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M ost au tom ob ile b od y repairers learn the trade on the jo b . T h ey u su ally start as h elpers and p ick up sk ills from ex p erien ced w orkers. H elp ers b eg in b y a ssistin g b od y repairers in tasks su ch as rem ovin g d am aged parts and in stallin g repaired parts. T h ey learn to re m o v e sm all dents and to m ake other m inor repairs. T h ey then progress to m ore d ifficu lt task s su ch as straightening fram es. G en erally 3 to 4 years o f on -th e-job training are n eed ed to b e c o m e sk illed in all a sp ects o f b o d y re pair. M o st training authorities reco m m en d a 3- or 4 -year form al app renticeship program as the b est w a y to learn the trade, but rela Auto body repairers fill small dents with plastic or solder and then sand the surface. 324/Occupational Outlook Handbook tiv e ly fe w o f th ese program s are availab le. A p p r e n tic e sh ip in c lu d e s b o th o n -th e -jo b training and c la ssro o m instruction. A p pren tice s sp en d m o st o f their tim e learning o n the jo b , but th ey a lso attend c la s se s in related su b jects su ch as m a th em atics, jo b safety pro c ed u res, and b u sin ess m an agem en t. P e r so n s w h o w a n t to learn th is trade sh o u ld b e in g o o d p h y sica l co n d ition and k n o w h o w to u se to o ls. C ou rses in auto m o b ile b o d y repair o ffered b y high sc h o o ls, v o ca tio n a l sc h o o ls , and private trade sc h o o ls pro v id e h elp fu l e x p e rien ce , as d o co u rses in a u to m o b ile m ech a n ics. A lth o u g h co m p letio n o f h ig h sc h o o l g en era lly is n ot a req uirem en t, m any e m p lo y ers prefer to hire h igh sc h o o l graduates. V olun tary certifica tion b y the N ation al In stitute for A u to m o tiv e S e r v ic e E x c ellen ce is rec o g n ize d as a standard o f a ch iev em en t for a u to m o b ile bo d y repairers. T o b e cer tifie d , a bod y repairer m u st p ass a w ritten e x a m in a tion and m u st h a v e at lea st 2 years ex p eri e n c e in the trade. C o m p letio n o f a h igh sc h o o l, v o ca tio n a l sc h o o l, or trade sc h o o l program in a u to m o b ile b od y repair m ay be substitu ted for 1 year o f w ork e x p erien ce. A u to m o b ile b o d y repairers m ust retake the ex a m in a tio n at lea st ev er y 5 years to con tin u e to b e certified . A u to m o b ile b o d y repairers m ust bu y their o w n to o ls , but em p lo y ers so m e tim e s furnish p o w er to o ls. T rain ees gen era lly accu m u late to o ls as they g ain e x p e r ie n c e , and m any w orkers h a v e hundreds o f dollars in v ested in to o ls. A n e x p erien ced a u to m o b ile b od y repairer w ith su p ervisory ab ility m ay ad van ce to shop su p ervisor. M an y w orkers o p en their ow n b o d y repair sh o p s. A fe w b e c o m e autom ob ile d am a g e appraisers for insu ran ce co m p a n ies. fe w er n e w w ork ers. T h u s, person s se e k in g to enter this occu p a tio n m ay fa ce increased co m p etitio n for jo b s during rec essio n s. Earnings B o d y repairers e m p lo y e d b y autom ob ile d ealers in 23 large c itie s had estim ated aver ag e hou rly earn in gs o f about $ 1 0 .9 0 in 1 9 8 0 , about on e and tw o-th ird s tim es the average for all n on su p ervisory w ork ers in private in du stry, e x ce p t farm in g. H elp ers and trainees u su ally earn from 3 0 to 6 0 percen t o f the earn in gs o f sk illed w orkers. M an y b od y repairers e m p lo y ed by auto m o b ile dealers and repair sh op s are p aid a c o m m is sio n , u su ally about h a lf o f the labor c o st ch arged to the cu stom er. U n d er this m eth o d , earn in gs d ep en d on the am oun t o f w ork a ssig n ed to the repairer and h o w fa st it is co m p lete d . E m p loyers freq u en tly guarantee c o m m issio n e d w orkers a m in im u m w e e k ly salary. H elp ers and train ees u su ally r ec eiv e an hou rly rate until they are sk illed e n o u g h to w ork on c o m m issio n . B o d y repairers w h o w ork for trucking c o m p a n ie s, b u slin e s, and other o rgan ization s that m aintain their o w n v e h ic le s u su ally r ec eiv e an hourly w a g e . M ost b o d y repairers w ork 4 0 to 4 8 hours a w e e k . M any a u tom ob ile bod y repairers are m e m bers o f u n io n s, in clu d in g the International A sso c ia tio n o f M ach in ists and A erosp ace W orkers; the International U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp a ce and A gricu ltu ral Im p le m e n t W ork ers o f A m e ric a ; th e S h e e t M etal W o rk ers’ International A sso cia tio n ; and the International B rotherh ood o f T ea m sters, C h au ffeu rs, W areh ou sem en and H elp ers o f A m erica (In d .). M o st b o d y repairers w h o are un ion m em b ers w ork for large au to m o b ile d ealers, trucking c o m p a n ie s, and b u s lin es. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f a u to m o b ile bod y repairers is e x p ected to in crea se abou t as fast as the a v e r a g e fo r a ll o c c u p a tio n s th rou gh the 1 9 8 0 ’s, as the n u m ber o f m otor v e h icle s d a m aged in traffic g r o w s. A c cid en ts are e x p ected to in crease as the num ber o f m otor v e h ic le s g r o w s, alth ou gh better h ig h w a y s, driver training c o u r se s, and im p roved bu m p ers and sa fety features on n e w v e h ic le s m ay slo w the rate o f in crease. In add ition to n ew jo b s arisin g from in creased d em an d for repairers, m an y o p en in g s are e x p e cte d ea ch year as e x p erien ced repair ers retire, transfer to other occu p a tio n s or d ie. T h e a u to m o tiv e repair b u sin ess is n ot very se n sitiv e to ch a n g es in e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s, and ex p erien ced b o d y repairers are rarely laid o ff. M ajor b o d y d am age m u st be repaired if an a u to m o b ile is to b e restored to safe operat in g co n d itio n . H o w e v er , repair o f m inor dents and cru m p led fen d ers can o ften b e d e ferred sh o u ld fa m ily b u d gets b e strained dur in g a r ec essio n . A s a resu lt, the autom otive b o d y repair b u sin ess m ay su ffer a sm all d e c lin e during an e c o n o m ic d o w n sw in g . W hen b u sin ess d o e s d e c lin e , m ost e m p lo y ers hire National Institute for Automotive Service Excel lence, 1825 K St. N .W ., Washington, D .C . 20006. Related Occupations R epairin g d am aged m otor v e h ic le s often in v o lv e s w ork in g on their m ech a n ica l c o m p o nents as w e ll as their b o d ies. A u to m o b ile b od y repairers o ften w ork c lo s e ly w ith the fo llo w in g related occu p ation s: A u to m o b ile repair serv ice estim ators, m e ch a n ics, painters and bod y cu sto m iz er s, and truck and bus m ech a n ics. Sources of Additional Information M ore d etails abou t w ork op p ortu n ities m ay b e ob tain ed from a u to m o b ile b o d y repair sh op s and a u tom ob ile dealers; lo ca ls o f the u n ion s p rev io u sly m en tion ed ; or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t se r v ic e. T he State em p lo y m en t serv ice a lso is a sou rce o f in form ation about app ren ticesh ip and other training program s. For general in form ation abou t the w ork o f a u tom ob ile b o d y repair w ork ers and appren tice sh ip train in g, w rite to: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Industrial Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126. Automobile Mechanics_________ (D .O .T . 619.380-018; 620-261-010 and -012; .281-010, -026, -034, -038, -046, -062, -066, and -070; .364-010; .381-010 and-022; .584-010; .664-014; .682-010; .684-014 through -026; 706.381-046; 721.281-010; 806.684-118; 807.664-010; 825.281-022 and .381-014 Nature of the Work A n y o n e w h o s e c a r h as b r o k e n d o w n k n o w s the im portance o f the a u to m o b ile m e c h a n ic ’s jo b . T h e ab ility to m ak e a q u ick and accu rate d ia g n o sis, o n e o f th e m e c h a n ic ’s m o st v alu ab le s k ills, requires g o o d reason in g ab ility and a th orou gh k n o w led g e o f auto m o b ile s. In fa ct, m an y m ech a n ics co n sid er d ia g n o sin g “ hard to f in d ’’ trou b les o n e o f their m o st c h a lle n g in g and sa tisfy in g d u ties. W h en m ech a n ica l or electrica l trou b les o c cu r, m e ch a n ics first g e t a d escrip tio n o f the sy m p to m s from the o w n er or, i f th ey w ork in a d ea lersh ip , the repair serv ice estim a to r w h o w rote th e repair order. T h e m ech a n ic m ay h a v e to test d rive the car or u se testin g eq u ip m en t, su ch as m otor a n a ly zers, spark plu g testers, or c o m p r essio n g a u g e s, to lo ca te the p rob lem . O n ce the ca u se o f the prob lem is fo u n d , m ech a n ics m ake adju stm ents or re pairs. I f a part is d a m aged or w orn b ey o n d repair, or can n ot b e fix e d at a rea so n a b le c o s t, th ey rep lace it. A u to m o b ile m ech a n ics use a variety o f to o ls in th eir w ork . T h ey u se p o w er to o ls su ch as pn eu m atic w ren ch es to r em o v e b olts q u ick ly; m ach in e to o ls su ch as lath es and grin d in g m a ch in es to reb uild brakes and other parts; w e ld in g and fla m e cu ttin g eq u ip m en t to r em o v e and repair ex h a u st sy stem s and other parts; ja c k s and h o ists to lift cars and e n g in e s; and c o m m o n h an d to o ls su ch as screw d rivers, p liers, and w ren ch es to w ork o n sm a ll parts an d g e t at h a rd -to -rea ch p la c es. M o st a u to m o b ile m ech a n ics perform a v a riety o f repairs; others s p e c ia liz e . For e x a m p le , automatic transmission mechanics w ork on gea r train s, c o u p lin g s , h yd rau lic p u m p s, and other parts o f au tom atic tra n sm issio n s. B e ca u se th e se are c o m p le x m e ch a n ism s, their repair req uires con sid era b le e x p e rien ce and train in g, in clu d in g a k n o w led g e o f hydrau lic s . Tune-up mechanics adjust the ig n itio n tim in g and v a lv e s , and adju st o r rep lace spark p lu g s, distributor p o in ts, and other parts to en su re e ffic ie n t e n g in e p erform an ce. T h ey o ften u se sc ien tific test eq u ip m en t to h elp th em adjust and lo ca te m a lfu n ctio n s in fu e l, ig n itio n , and e m is sio n s con trol sy stem s. Automobile air-conditioning mechanics in stall air-con d ition ers and se r v ic e co m p o n en ts su ch as co m p ressors and c o n d en sers. Frontend mechanics a lig n and b ala n ce w h e e ls and Mechanics and Repairers/325 repair steerin g m ech a n ism s and su sp en sion sy stem s. T h ey freq uently u se sp ecia l align m en t eq u ip m en t and w h eel-b a la n cin g m ach in es. Brake repairers adjust brakes, rep lace brake lin in g s, repair hyd rau lic c y lin d ers, and m ake other repairs o n brake sy stem s. S o m e m ech an ic s sp ec ia liz e in both brake and front-end w ork. Automobile-radiator mechanics clean radi ators w ith ca u stic so lu tio n s, lo ca te and solder le a k s, and in stall n e w radiator co res. T h ey a lso m ay repair heaters and air-con d ition ers, and so ld er lea k s in g a so lin e tanks. Automobile electricians repair and over h a u l e le c tr ic a l s y s te m s and c o m p o n e n ts . T h ey m ay u se e lectricia n s han dtools to repair or rep lace d e fe ctiv e w irin g and rebuild e le c trical u n its, su ch as starters and generators. T o loca te electrica l sy stem m alfu n ction s, they often use a m m eters, oh m m eters, and voltm eters. T o preven t b reak d ow n s, m ech an ics ch eck parts and adjust, repair, or rep lace them b e fore they g o bad. M ech an ics u su ally fo llo w a c h e ck list to be sure they ex a m in e all im por tant parts, su ch as b e lts, h o s e s , steering s y s te m s , spark p lu g s, brake sy ste m s, carburetor, w h eel bea rin g s, and other p oten tially trouble so m e item s. Working Conditions G en era lly , m ech a n ics w ork in d oors. M od e m a u to m o b ile repair sh op s are w e ll ven tilat e d , lig h ted , and h ea ted , but old er sh op s m ay not b e. M ech a n ics freq uently w ork w ith dirty and g reasy parts, and in aw k w ard p o sitio n s. T h ey o ften m ust lift h eavy parts and to o ls. M in or cu ts and bruises are c o m m o n , but seriou s a ccid en ts m ay b e a v oid ed w h en the sh o p is kept clean and orderly and safety p ractices are ob serv ed . Employment M ore than 8 4 5 ,0 0 0 p erson s w ork ed as a u tom ob ile m ech a n ics in 198 0 . M ost w orked for au tom ob ile d ea lers, au tom ob ile repair sh o p s, g a so lin e serv ice sta tio n s, and depart m ent stores that have au tom ob ile service fa c ilitie s. O thers w ere e m p lo y ed by F ed eral, S tate, and lo ca l g o v ern m en ts, taxicab and auto m o b ile lea sin g c o m p a n ie s, and other or g a n iza tio n s that repair their o w n a u tom ob iles. A u to m o b ile m anufacturers em p lo y so m e m e ch a n ics to adjust and repair cars at the en d o f a ssem b ly lin es. M o st a u to m o b ile m ech a n ics w ork in sh op s that em p lo y from 1 to 5 m ech a n ics, but som e o f the largest sh o p s e m p lo y m ore than 100. G en era lly , auto m o b ile d ealer sh op s em p lo y m ore m ech a n ics than in d ep en d en t sh op s. A u to m o b ile m ech a n ics w ork in ev ery s e c tion o f the cou n try. G eo g ra p h ica lly , em p lo y m en t is distributed about the sam e as the p op u la tio n . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st au to m o b ile m ech a n ics learn the trade o n the jo b . B eg in n ers u su ally start as h elp ers, lubrication w o rk ers, or g a so lin e station atten Automobile mechanics frequently work with dirty, greasy parts. dan ts, and gradually acquire sk ills by w ork in g w ith ex p erien ced m ech a n ics. A lth ou gh a b egin n er can m ake sim p le repairs after a fe w m o n th s’ e x p e rien ce , it u su ally takes 1 to 2 years o f ex p erien ce to b e c o m e a serv ice m e ch an ic and m ake the m ore d ifficu lt typ es o f routine serv ice and repairs. A n add ition al 1 to 2 years are u sually required to reach the jou rn ey lev e l and b e c o m e fam iliar w ith all typ es o f repairs. A n add ition al year or tw o is n ecessa ry to learn a d ifficu lt sp ec ia lty , su ch as autom atic tran sm ission repair. In contrast, radiator m ech a n ics and brake sp ec ia lists, w h o d o n ot n eed an all-roun d k n o w led g e o f auto m o b ile repair, m ay learn their jo b s in about 2 years. M o st training authorities recom m en d a 3or 4-y ea r form al app renticeship program . A p p ren ticesh ip program s are o ffered through m any auto dealers and ind ep en dent repair sh o p s. T yp ical 4-y ea r app renticeship pro gram s c o n sist o f about 8 ,0 0 0 hours o f sh op training to obtain practical ex p erien ce w ork in g on brakes, c h a ss is , tran sm issio n s, e n g in e s, electrical sy ste m s, exh au st em issio n co n tro ls, and other co m p o n en ts. Program s u su ally require that at least 5 7 6 o f th ese hours c o n sist o f form al instruction about th ese su b jects and to p ics su ch as m otor the ory, use o f blueprints and sh o p m an u als, and safety. For entry jo b s , em p lo y ers lo o k for p eo p le w ith m ech an ical aptitude and a k n o w led g e o f a u to m o b iles. E xp erien ce w orking on cars in the A rm ed F orces or as a h ob b y is valuab le. C o m p letion o f h igh sc h o o l is a lso an ad van tage in ob tain in g an entry jo b . C ou rses in a u to m o b ile rep air o ffe r e d b y m a n y h ig h sc h o o ls, v o cation al sc h o o ls, com m u n ity and ju n ior c o lle g e s , and private trade sc h o o ls are 326/Occupational Outlook Handbook h e lp fu l, particularly i f o n e a lso has w ork e x p e rien ce related to a u tom otive se r v ic e. C ou rses in p h y sic s , ch em istry and m athem at ic s can h e lp a person better understand h o w an a u to m o b ile opera tes. M ech a n ics u su a lly bu y their h an d tools and b eg in n ers are e x p e cte d to accu m u late to o ls as th ey g ain ex p e rien ce . M any e x p erien ced m e ch a n ics h a v e hundreds o f dollars in v ested in to o ls. E m p lo y ers furnish p o w er to o ls , en g in e a n a ly zers, and other test eq u ip m en t. E m p lo y ers so m e tim e s sen d exp erien ced m ech a n ics to fa ctory training cen ters to learn to repair n e w m o d e ls or to r ec e iv e sp ecia l training in a u tom atic tran sm ission or air-con d itio n in g repair. A u to m o b ile dealers m ay a lso sen d p ro m isin g b egin n ers to factorysp o n so red m ech a n ic training program s. F ac tory rep resen tatives c o m e to m any sh o p s to co n d u ct short training s e ss io n s. M ech an ics a lso m ust read serv ice and repair m anu als to keep abreast o f n e w te ch n o lo g y . V olun tary certifica tion b y the N ation al In stitute for A u to m o tiv e S e r v ic e E x c e lle n c e is w id e ly rec o g n ize d as a standard o f a c h iev e m ent for a u to m o b ile m ech a n ics. M ech an ics are certified in o n e or m ore o f e ig h t d ifferent se r v ic e a reas, su ch as tu n e-u p s, brake and front en d w o rk , or electrical sy stem repair. G en eral a u to m o b ile m ech a n ics are certified in all e ig h t d ifferen t areas. F or certification in ea ch area, m ech a n ics m ust h a v e at least 2 years o f e x p e rien ce and p ass a w ritten e x a m i nation; co m p letio n o f an a u to m o b ile m ech an ic program in h ig h sc h o o l, v o ca tio n a l or trade s c h o o l, or co m m u n ity or ju n ior c o lle g e m ay b e su b stitu ted fo r 1 year o f e x p erien ce. C ertified m ech a n ics m u st retake the ex a m in a tion at lea st ev ery 5 years. E x p erien ced m ech a n ics w h o h ave lead er sh ip ab ility m ay ad v an ce to sh op su p ervisor or serv ice m anager. M ech a n ics w h o w ork w e ll w ith cu sto m ers m ay b e c o m e a u tom o b ile repair serv ice estim ators. A b ou t 1 out o f 6 a u to m o b ile m ech a n ics is se lf-em p lo y e d in h is or her o w n repair sh op or service station. e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s h a v e little e ffe c t on the a u to m o b ile repair b u sin e ss. D u ring a d o w n turn, h o w e v e r , so m e e m p lo y ers m ay b e m ore reluctant to hire in ex p erien ced w orkers. Earnings H ig h ly sk illed jou rn ey a u to m o b ile m e ch a n ics e m p lo y ed b y a u tom ob ile d ealers in 2 4 c ities had estim ated average hou rly earn in g s o f $ 9 .7 8 in 1 9 8 0 , about o n e and on eh a lf tim es the average for all n on su p ervisory w orkers in private in d u stry, e x ce p t farm in g. S k ille d s e r v ic e m e c h a n ic s h ad e stim a te d average hou rly earn in gs o f $ 7 .1 6 and lub rica tors averaged an estim ated $ 6 .4 1 an hour in 19 8 0 . M any e x p erien ced m ech a n ics e m p lo y ed b y a u tom ob ile d ealers and in d ep en d en t re pair sh op s r ec e iv e a c o m m is sio n related to the labor c o st charged to the cu stom er. U n der this m eth o d , w e e k ly earn in gs d ep en d on the am oun t o f w ork c o m p leted b y the m e c h a n ic . E m p lo y e r s fr e q u e n tly g u a ra n tee c o m m issio n e d m ech a n ics a m in im u m w e e k ly salary. M o st m ech a n ics w ork b e tw e en 4 0 and 48 hours a w e e k , but m any w ork e v e n lon ger hours during b u sy p erio d s. S o m e m ech a n ics are m em b ers o f labor un io n s. T h e u n ion s in clu d e the International A sso c ia tio n o f M ach in ists and A ero sp a ce W orkers; the International U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A e ro sp a ce and A gricu ltu ral Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica; the S h ee t M et al W o rk ers’ International A sso cia tio n ; and the International B rotherh ood o f T ea m sters, C h au ffeu rs, W areh ou sem en and H elpers o f A m erica (In d .). Related Occupations O ther w orkers w h o repair and service m otor v e h ic le s in clu d e a u to m o b ile b od y re p airers, c u sto m iz er s, p ain ters, and repair se r v ic e estim ators as w e ll as truck and bus m ech a n ics. Job Outlook Sources of Additional Information Job opp ortu nities for a u to m o b ile m ech an ic s w ill b e p len tifu l in the years ahead. R e p la c e m e n t n e e d s are h ig h in th is la rg e o ccu p a tio n . T h ou sa n d s o f jo b o p en in g s w ill arise ea ch year as e x p erien ced m ech an ics re tire, d ie , or ch a n g e jo b s . A d d ition al op en in g s w ill o ccu r as em p lo y m en t g r o w s. E m p lo y m en t o f a u to m o b ile m ech an ics is e x p e cte d to in crease faster than the average for a ll o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. T he num ber o f m ech a n ics is e x p e cte d to increase b e ca u se ex p a n sio n o f the drivin g a g e p op u la tion and risin g co n su m er p u rchasin g p ow er w ill in crea se the num ber o f a u tom ob iles on the road. E m p lo y m en t a lso is e x p ected to g ro w b e ca u se m ore a u to m o b iles w ill h ave p o llu tio n con trol and safety d e v ic e s , a ir-con d itio n in g , and other featu res that require m ain ten an ce. M o st p erso n s w h o enter the occu p ation m ay e x p e c t stead y w ork b eca u se ch a n ges in For m ore d etails about w ork op p ortu n ities, con tact lo ca l a u to m o b ile d ealers and repair sh op s; lo ca ls o f the u n ion s p rev io u sly m en tioned; or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e. T h e State e m p lo y m en t serv ice a lso m ay h ave in form ation abou t ap p ren ticesh ip and other training program s. For gen eral in form ation abou t the w ork o f a u to m o b ile m e c h a n ic s and a p p r e n tic e s h ip train in g, w rite to: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Industrial Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126. National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102 In form ation on h o w to b e c o m e a certified a u tom ob ile m ech an ic is ava ila b le from : National Institute for Automotive Service Excel lence, 1825 K St. NW „ Washington, D.C. 20006. Farm Equipment Mechanics______ (D .O .T . 624.281, .361-014, .381, and .684) Nature of the Work M an y years a g o farm ers p la n ted , cu lti v a ted , and harvested their crop s u sin g o n ly h a n d to o ls and sim p le , an im al-d raw n eq u ip m en t. F e w repairs w ere req u ired , and i f a stray rock or stum p brok e a p lo w b la d e, the m etal p ie c e s c o u ld b e jo in e d to g eth er b y the lo ca l b la ck sm ith . E v en w h en tractors b egan to rep lace an im als as the prim e so u rce o f p o w er , the early m o d e ls w ere n o t v ery c o m p lica ted and m o st farm ers did their o w n re pair w ork . B u t in th e la st quarter cen tu ry , farm eq u ip m en t has g r o w n e n o rm o u sly in s iz e , c o m p le x ity , and variety. M an y farm s h a v e both d ie se l and g a so lin e tractors, so m e eq u ip p ed w ith 3 0 0 -h o r se p o w er e n g in e s. H arvestin g c o m b in e s, hay b alers, c o m p ick ers, crop d ryers, and elev a to rs a lso are c o m m o n . In to d a y ’s w orld o f la r g e -sc a le , m ech a n ized agricu ltu re, fe w if any typ es o f farm in g can b e d o n e e c o n o m ic a lly w ith o u t sp ec ia liz ed m a ch in es. A s farm m ach in ery g rew m ore c o m p le x , it b e c a m e im portant for the se lle rs o f farm eq u ip m en t to b e ab le to se r v ic e and repair the m a ch in es th ey so ld . A lm o st ev er y d ealer e m p lo y s farm eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics to d o this w ork and to m aintain and repair the sm a ller la w n and garden tractors d ealers se ll to su b urban h o m e o w n er s. In a d d itio n , so m e m ech a n ics w h o w ork for d ealers and eq u ip m en t w h o lesa lers a s se m b le n e w im p lem en ts and m ach in ery and so m e tim e s d o b o d y w o rk , repairing d ented or to m sh ee t m etal on the tractors or other m a ch in ery. M ec h a n ic s sp en d m u ch o f their tim e re p airin g and adju sting m a lfu n ctio n in g eq u ip m en t that has b e e n brough t to the sh o p . B ut during p lan tin g and h a rv estin g , th ey m ay travel to the farm to m ak e em er g en cy repairs on eq u ip m en t so that critical farm in g oper ation s are n ot un d u ly d ela y ed . M ec h a n ic s a lso perform p rev en tiv e m ain ten a n ce. P er io d ica lly , th ey te st, adju st, and c le a n parts and tune e n g in e s. In large sh o p s, m ech a n ics m ay s p e c ia liz e in certain ty p es o f w o rk , su ch as g a so lin e or d ie se l e n g in e o v er haul or clu tch and tran sm issio n repair. O thers s p e c ia liz e in repairing the air-co n d itio n in g un its o ften in clu d ed in the ca b s o f co m b in es and large tractors, or in repairing certain ty p es o f eq u ip m en t su ch as h ay b alers. S o m e m ech a n ics a lso repair p lu m b in g , electrica l, irrigation , and other eq u ip m en t o n farm s. M ech a n ics u se m any b a sic h a n d tools in c lu d in g w r e n c h e s , p lie r s , h a m m e r s , and screw d rivers. T h ey a lso m ay u se p recisio n eq u ip m en t su ch as m icrom eters and torque w ren ch es and c o m p lex testin g eq u ip m en t, su ch as d y n am om eters to m easu re en g in e Mechanics and Repairers/327 p erform an ce, or co m p ressio n testers to fin d w orn p isto n rin gs or lea k in g cy lin d er v a lv es. T h ey m ay u se w eld in g eq u ip m en t or p ow er to o ls to repair broken parts. Working Conditions G e n e r a lly , farm e q u ip m e n t m e c h a n ic s w ork in d o o rs. M o d em farm eq u ip m en t repair sh o p s are w e ll v en tila ted , lig h ted , and heat e d , but o ld er sh o p s m ay n ot o ffer th ese ad v a n ta g es. D u ring plan tin g and harvesting se a so n s, m ech a n ics o ften m ake em erg en cy repairs in the field . T o d o s o , m ech an ics m ay ha v e to travel m any m ile s and w ork in all ty p es o f w eath er. Farm eq u ip m en t m ech an ics c o m e in co n ta ct w ith g rea se, g a so lin e , rust, and dirt, and there is d an ger o f injury w h en th ey repair h ea v y parts supported o n ja ck s or b y h o ists. Care m ust a lso b e u sed to a void en g in e b u m s and cu ts from sharp e d g e s o f m ach in ery. Employment M o st o f the nearly 2 5 ,0 0 0 farm eq u ip m ent m ech a n ics e m p lo y ed in 1 9 8 0 w orked in serv ice departm ents o f farm equip m ent d ea lers. O thers w o rk ed in in d ep en d en t re pair sh o p s, in sh o p s o n large farm s, and in s e r v ic e d ep a rtm en ts o f farm e q u ip m e n t w h o lesa lers and m anufacturers. M ost farm eq u ip m en t repair sh o p s em p lo y fe w er than fiv e m e ch a n ics, although a g ro w in g num ber o f d ealersh ip s e m p lo y m ore than ten . A sm a ll proportion o f farm eq u ip m en t m e ch a n ics are se lf-em p lo y e d . B e ca u se so m e typ e o f farm in g is d o n e in nearly ev ery area o f the U n ited S ta tes, farm eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics are e m p lo y ed through o u t the country. E m p lo y m en t is concen trated in sm all c ities and to w n s, m ak in g this an attractive career c h o ic e for p e o p le w h o d o n ot w ish to liv e the fast-p aced life o f an urban en viron m en t. H o w e v er , m any m ech an ics w ork in the rural frin ges o f m etropolitan areas, so farm eq u ip m en t m ech an ics w h o prefer the c o n v e n ien ce s o f city life n eed not liv e in rural areas. prior e x p e rien ce . A t lea st 2 years o f on -th ejo b training u su ally are n ecessary b efore a m ech an ic can d o m o st typ es o f repair w ork , and add ition al training and e x p erien ce are required for h ig h ly sp ec ia liz ed repair and overh aul jo b s. M any farm eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics enter this o ccu p ation from a related o ccu p ation . For in sta n ce, they m ay gain ex p erien ce as farm ers and farm laborers, or as h ea v y equip m ent m e ch a n ics, auto m ech a n ics, or air-con d ition in g m ech a n ics. P eo p le w h o enter from relat ed o ccu p a tio n s a lso m ay start as h elp ers, but th ey m ay n ot require a lo n g period o f on -th ejo b training. W ith the d ev elo p m en t o f m ore c o m p lex farm im p lem en ts, tech n ical training has b e c o m e m ore im portant. A gro w in g num ber o f large em p lo y ers prefer applicants w h o h a v e c o m p leted 1 or 2 years o f vocation al training in agricultural m ech a n ics, in clu d in g e lectro n ics. A fe w farm eq u ip m en t m ech an ics learn the trade b y co m p letin g an app renticeship pro gram , w h ich lasts from 3 to 4 years and in clu d es on -th e-job as w e ll as cla ssro o m training in all p h ases o f farm eq u ip m en t re pair and m ain ten an ce. A p p lican ts for th ese p ro g ra m s u s u a lly are c h o s e n fro m sh o p h elp ers. S o m e farm e q u ip m e n t m e c h a n ic s and train ees r ec eiv e refresher training in short term program s co n d u cted b y farm eq u ip m en t m anufacturers. T h ese program s u su ally last several d a y s. A co m p an y serv ice representa tiv e ex p la in s the d esig n and fu n ction o f eq u ip m en t and teach es m aintenance and re pair o n n e w m o d els o f farm eq u ip m en t. In add ition , so m e d ealers m ay sen d e m p lo y ee s to lo ca l vocation al sc h o o ls that teach sp ecial w e ek lo n g c la s se s in su bjects su ch as air-con d itio n in g repair or h yd rau lics. P erson s con sid erin g a career in this field sh ou ld h a v e the m anual d exterity need ed to han d le to o ls and eq u ip m en t. O cc a sio n a lly , strength is required to lift, m o v e , or h old in p la ce h eavy parts. D iffic u lt repair jo b s m ay require p ro b lem -so lv in g a b ilities, so ex p eri e n c e d m ech a n ics sh ou ld be ab le to w ork in d ep en d en tly w ith m in im u m su p erv isio n . Farm eq u ip m en t m ech an ics m ay advan ce to sh op su p ervisor or m anager o f a farm eq u ip m en t d ealersh ip . S o m e m ech a n ics open their o w n repair sh op s. A fe w farm eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics earn 2-y ea r a sso cia te degrees in agricultural m ech an ics and a d van ce to serv ice rep resentatives for farm equ ip m en t m anufacturers. Job Outlook E m p loym en t o f farm eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics is e x p ected to in crease about as fast as the a v e ra g e fo r a ll o c c u p a tio n s th ro u g h the 1 9 8 0 ’s. In add ition to jo b s created from in creased d em an d , m an y o p en in g s w ill arise e a ch year a s ex p erien ced m ech a n ics transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . O pportu n ities w ill be b est for app licants w h o have liv e d or w ork ed o n farm s and k n o w h o w to operate farm m achinery and m ake m inor repairs. T h e d ev elo p m en t o f m ore tech n ica lly ad van ced farm eq u ip m en t, requiring greater m ain ten an ce, w ill in crease the dem an d for m ech a n ics. For in sta n ce, m any n ew er trac tors h a v e m uch larger e n g in e s, and feature ad van ced tran sm ission s w ith as m any as 2 4 sp eed s. M ore c o m p lex electrical sy stem s a lso are u sed to operate the great variety o f g a u g e s and w arning d e v ice s n o w u sed to alert the operator to prob lem s su ch as brake w ear, lo w o il pressure in the tra n sm issio n , or in su ffic ien t c o o la n t in the radiator. A d v a n ces su ch as th ese and air-con d ition ed c a b s, w h ich Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement E m p lo y ers prefer a p p lican ts w h o h a v e an aptitude for m ech a n ica l w ork . A farm b a ck ground is an advan tage sin c e g ro w in g up on a farm u su ally p rovid es e x p erien ce in b asic farm eq u ip m en t repairs. E m p loyers a lso pre fer h ig h sc h o o l graduates, but so m e w ill hire app licants w h o h a v e le s s ed u cation . In gen er a l, e m p lo y ers stress p reviou s e x p erien ce or training in d ie se l and g a so lin e e n g in e s, the m aintenance and repair o f h yd rau lics, and w e ld in g — su b jects that m ay b e learned in m any h ig h sc h o o ls and v o cation al sc h o o ls. S o m e em p lo y ers a lso m ay require m ech an ics to b e ab le to read circu it diagram s and b lu e prints in order to m ak e c o m p lex repairs to electrica l and other sy stem s. M o st farm eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics are hired as trainees and learn the trade o n the jo b by a ssistin g q u a lified m ech a n ics. T h e len gth o f training v a ries w ith the h e lp e r ’s aptitude and During planting and harvesting seasons, equipment is repaired while still in the field. 328/Occupational Outlook Handbook h a v e im p ro v ed the co m fo rt o f the operator, h a v e m ade it m ore d ifficu lt for farm ers to d o their o w n repairs. T h u s farm ers w ill h a v e to rely m ore on sk illed m ech a n ics in the future. In add ition to the d ev e lo p m en t o f larger and m ore c o m p lex farm m a ch in ery, sa les o f sm a ller la w n and garden eq u ip m en t have in crea sed v a stly o v er the past d ecad e and are e x p ected to co n tin u e to d o so . M o st o f the large m anufacturers o f farm eq u ip m en t n ow o ffer a lin e o f th ese sm aller tractors and sell them through their esta b lish ed d ealersh ip s. M ore m ech a n ics w ill be n eed ed to service this eq u ip m en t. A s w ith m o st agricultural o ccu p a tio n s, the dem an d for farm eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics is h ig h est during p lan tin g and h arvestin g se a so n s. D uring th ese b u sy p erio d s, m ech an ics o ften w ork 6 or 7 d ays a w e e k , 10 to 12 hours d a ily . In w in ter m on th s h o w ev e r, m e ch a n ics m ay w ork le s s than 4 0 hours a w e ek and so m e m ay b e laid o ff. Earnings Farm eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics e m p lo y ed by dealersh ip s had average hou rly w a g e s rang in g from abou t $ 6 to o v er $11 in 19 8 0 , acco rd in g to the lim ited in form ation av a il a b le. T h e h ig h est salaries w ere paid to w orkers w ith the m o st e x p erien ce and to th o se p erform in g the m ost co m p lica ted re pairs. In add itio n , h igh er salaries w ere paid in the h e a v ily agricultural reg io n s w h ere co m p etitio n is g reatest for the m ore h ig h ly sk illed m ech a n ics. M o st farm eq u ip m en t m e c h a n ic s a lso h a v e th e o p p o rtu n ity to w ork o v ertim e during the plan tin g and har v e stin g se a so n s, for w h ich they are paid tim e and o n e-h a lf. V ery fe w farm eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics b e lo n g to labor u n io n s, but th ose w h o d o are m em b ers o f the International A sso c ia tio n o f M ach in ists and A ero sp a ce W orkers; the Inter national U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp a c e , and A gricu ltu ral Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica; and the International B rotherh ood o f T ea m sters, C h a u ffeu rs, W areh ou sem en and H elp ers o f A m erica (In d .). Related Occupations O ther craft w orkers w h o w ork on large m achinery and w h o se jo b s o ften are in sm all to w n s and other n on m etrop olitan areas in clu d e a u to m o b ile m e ch a n ics, d ie se l m ech an i c s , tr u c k m e c h a n i c s , a n d c o n s t r u c t io n eq u ip m en t m ech a n ics. Sources of Additional Information D eta ils about w ork opp ortu nities m ay be ob ta in ed from lo ca l farm eq u ip m en t dealers and lo ca l o ffic e s o f the State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e. For general in form ation about the o c cu p a tio n , w rite to: National Farm and Power Equipment Dealers As sociation, 10877 Watson Road, St. Louis, Mo. 63127. Truck Mechanics and Bus Mechanics (D .O .T . 619.380-018; 620.261-010 and -012; .281-010, -026, -030, -034, 038, -046, 062, -066, and -070; .364-010; .381-010, -018, and -022; .584-010; .664-014; .682-010; .684-014, -018, and -022; 625.261-010; .281-tHO, -014, and -022; .361-010; .684-010; 706.381- 046; 721.281-010 and -026; 806.684-118; 807.381- 022; and 825.281-022) Nature of the Work C om m ercial v e h ic le s serve an im portant fu n ction in the N a tio n ’s e c o n o m y . H ea v y trucks are u sed by ind ustries su ch as m in in g and con stru ction to carry ore and b u ild in g m aterials, and by com m ercia l trucking lin es for gen eral freigh t h au lin g. S m a ll trucks are u sed for lo ca l h a u lin g. B u ses are u sed for both lo ca l and transcontinental transportation, as w e ll as for sh ip p in g so m e g o o d s . Truck and bus m ech a n ics k eep th ese v e h ic le s in g o o d operatin g co n d itio n . Truck and bus m ech a n ics w ork o n both d ie se l and g a so lin e e n g in e s. D ie se l e n g in e s are fou n d m ostly in h ea v y trucks and b u se s, alth ou gh g ro w in g num bers o f ligh ter trucks, b u se s, and e v e n cars are b ein g b u ilt w ith d ie se ls b eca u se o f their durability and greater fu el e ffic ie n c y . M ech a n ics w h o w ork for organ ization s that m aintain their o w n v e h ic le s m ay sp en d m uch tim e d oin g p reven tive m ain ten an ce to assure safe op eration , p reven t w ear and d am ag e to parts, and red uce c o stly b reak d ow n s. D u ring a m ain ten an ce c h e ck , they u su ally fo llo w a regular ch e ck list that in clu d es the in sp ectio n o f brake sy s te m s , steering m ech a n ism s , w h ee l b earin gs, and other im portant parts. T h ey u su ally can repair or adjust a part that is not w ork in g properly. Parts that cainnot b e fix e d are rep laced . In m any sh op s m ech a n ics d o all k in d s o f repair w ork . For e x a m p le , they m ay w ork on a v e h ic le ’s electrical sy stem o n e d ay and do m ajor e n g in e repair the n ex t. In so m e large sh o p s, h o w e v e r , m ech a n ics sp ec ia liz e in on e or tw o ty p es o f w ork . For e x a m p le , on e m ech an ic m ay sp ec ia liz e in m ajor e n g in e re pair, another in tran sm ission w o rk , another in e lectrica l sy s te m s , and yet another in su sp en sio n or brake sy stem s. T ruck and b u s m ech a n ics u se a variety o f to o ls in their w ork . T h ey u se p ow er to o ls su ch as p n eu m atic w ren ch es to re m o v e b o lts q u ick ly; m ach in e to o ls su ch as lath es and grin d in g m a ch in es to rebuild brakes and other parts; w eld in g and fla m e cu ttin g eq u ip m en t to r em o v e and repair e x h a u st s y s te m s and o th e r parts; c o m m o n h an d tools su ch as screw d rivers, p liers, and w ren ch es to w ork on sm all parts and g e t at hard-to-reach p laces; and ja c k s and h o ists to lift and m o v e large parts. Truck and bus m ech a n ics a lso u se a variety o f testin g eq u ip m en t. For e x a m p le , w h en w ork in g on electrical s y s te m s , they m ay u se o h m m eters, am m eters, and voltm eters; to lo ca te e n g in e m a lfu n ctio n s, th ey o ften u se ta ch o m eters and d y n am om eters. F or h ea v y w o rk , su ch as rem o v in g e n g in es and tra n sm issio n s, tw o m ech a n ics m ay w ork as a tea m , or a m ech a n ic m ay b e a ssisted b y an app rentice or h elp er. M ech a n ics g en era lly g et their assig n m en ts from sh op su p ervisors or se r v ic e m anagers w h o m ay c h e ck the m ech a n ic s ’ w ork or a ssist in d ia g n o sin g p rob lem s. Working Conditions T ruck and b u s m ech a n ics u su a lly w ork in d o o r s , a lth o u g h th e y m a y o c c a s io n a lly w ork or m ake repairs o n the road. T h ey are su b ject to the u su al sh op hazards su ch as cuts and b ru ises. M ech a n ics han d le g rea sy and dirty parts and m ay stand or lie in aw kw ard or cram p ed p o sitio n s to repair v e h ic le s. W ork areas u su a lly are w e ll lig h ted , h ea ted , and v e n tila te d , an d m a n y e m p lo y e r s p r o v id e lo ck er room s and sh o w e r fa c ilitie s. Employment A n estim a ted 1 7 5 ,0 0 0 truck and bu s m e c h a n ics w ere e m p lo y ed in 1 9 8 0 . M o st truck m ech a n ics w ork ed for firm s that o w n e d flee ts o f trucks, in clu d in g trucking co m p a n ies and b u sin e sses that haul their o w n produ cts, su ch as d airies and b ak eries. O thers w o rk ed for truck d ea lers, truck m anu factu rers, truck re pair sh o p s, firm s that rent or le a s e trucks, and F ed eral, S tate, and lo ca l g o v ern m en ts. M o st b u s m ech a n ics w o rk ed for lo c a l tran sit co m p a n ies and intercity b u slin e s. O thers m ain tain ed sc h o o l b u ses for p u b lic and pri vate sc h o o ls and co m p a n ie s that operate s c h o o l b u s e s u n d er c o n tr a c t. S o m e a lso w ork ed for bu s m anu factu rers. Truck and bu s m ech a n ics are e m p lo y ed in ev ery se c tio n o f the co u n try , bu t m o st w ork in large to w n s and c itie s w h ere trucking c o m p a n ies, b u slin e s, and oth er fle e t o w n ers h a v e large repair sh op s. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st truck or b u s m ech a n ics learn their sk ills on the jo b . B eg in n ers u su a lly d o tasks su ch as c le a n in g parts, fu e lin g , lu b ricatin g, and drivin g v e h ic le s in and ou t o f the sh o p . A s b egin n ers g ain e x p e rien ce and as v a ca n c ie s b e c o m e a v a ila b le , th ey u su a lly are pro m o ted to m e c h a n ic s ’ h elp ers. In so m e sh o p s, b e g in n e r s — e s p e c ia lly th o s e h a v in g a u to m o b ile repair e x p e rien ce — start as m e c h a n ic s’ h elp ers. M o st h elp ers can m ak e m in or repairs after a fe w m o n th s’ e x p e rien ce and a d v a n ce to in crea sin g ly d ifficu lt jo b s as th ey p rove their a b ility . G en era lly , at lea st 3 to 4 y ears o f on th e-job e x p e rien ce are n ecessa ry to q u a lify as an all-roun d truck or b u s m ech a n ic. A d d i tio n a l training m ay b e n ecessa ry fo r m ech a n ic s w h o w ish to sp e c ia liz e in d ie se l e n g in e s. M o st training auth orities reco m m en d a for m al 4 -y e a r ap p ren ticesh ip as the b est w a y to learn th ese trades. T y p ica l app ren ticesh ip program s for truck and b u s m ech a n ics c o n sist o f ap p roxim ately 8 ,0 0 0 hours o f practical Mechanics and Repairers/329 e x p erien ce w ork in g o n tra n sm ission s, e n g in e s , and oth er co m p o n en ts and at lea st 5 7 6 hours o f form al instruction to learn blueprint rea d in g , m ath em a tics, e n g in e th eory, and sa fety . F req u en tly, th ese program s in clu d e training in b oth d ie se l and g a so lin e en g in e repair. F or entry jo b s , e m p lo y ers gen era lly lo o k for ap p lican ts w h o h a v e m ech an ical aptitude and are at lea st 18 y ears o f a g e and in g o o d p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n . C o m p le tio n o f h ig h sc h o o l a lso is an advan tage in gettin g an entry jo b . A State ch a u ffeu r’s lic e n se is n eed e d fo r test d riv in g trucks or b u ses o n p u b lic roads. H ig h s c h o o l, v o ca tio n al s c h o o l, or private trade sc h o o l c o u rses in a u to m o b ile and d ie se l repair are v a lu a b le. S c ie n c e and m ath em atics h elp a m ech a n ic understand h o w trucks and b u ses operate. P ractical e x p erien ce in auto m o b ile repair in a g a so lin e serv ice station or the A rm ed F orces or from a h ob b y a lso is v alu ab le. M o st m ech a n ics m u st b u y their o w n handto o ls. E x p erien ced m ech a n ics o ften h ave hundreds o f dollars in v ested in to o ls. E m p lo y ers so m e tim e s sen d ex p erien ced m ech a n ics to sp ecia l training c la sse s con d u ct ed b y truck, b u s, d ie se l e n g in e , and parts m anufacturers. H ere m ech a n ics learn to re pair the latest eq u ip m en t or r ec eiv e sp ecia l training in su b jects su ch as d ia g n o sin g en g in e m a lfu n ctio n s. M ech a n ics a lso m u st read ser v ic e and repair m anu als to k eep abreast o f en g in eerin g ch a n g es. V oluntary certifica tio n b y the N ation al In stitute for A u to m o tiv e S e r v ic e E x c e lle n c e is rec o g n ize d as a standard o f a ch iev em en t for truck m ech a n ics. M ech a n ics m ay b e certified as gen6ral h ea v y duty truck m ech an ics or m ay b e certified in o n e or m ore o f s ix differ en t areas o f h ea v y duty truck repair: B rak es, g a so lin e e n g in e s, d ie se l e n g in e s, drive train, electrica l sy ste m s, and su sp en sio n and steer in g . A gen eral h ea v y duty truck m ech an ic m ust m eet the req uirem en ts for certification in eith er g a so lin e or d ie se l e n g in e s and the other fou r areas. F or certification in each area, m ech a n ics m ust p a ss a w ritten ex a m in a tion and h a v e at lea st 2 years o f ex p erien ce. H ig h sc h o o l, v o ca tio n a l or trade sc h o o l, or co m m u n ity or ju n io r c o lle g e training in g a so lin e or d ie se l e n g in e repair m ay su bstitu te for up to 1 year o f e x p e rien ce . C ertified m ech an ics m ust retake the tests at least every 5 years. E xp erien ced m ech a n ics w h o h a v e lead er sh ip ab ility m ay ad v a n ce to sh op su p ervisors or serv ice m anagers. T ruck m ech an ics w h o h a v e sa le s ab ility so m etim es b e c o m e truck sa le s rep resen tatives. S o m e m ech a n ics op en their o w n g a so lin e se r v ic e stations or repair sh o p s. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f truck m ech a n ics is e x p e c t e d to in crease about as fa st as the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s as freight Bus mechanic inspects the brake system during a maintenance check. tran sp o rta tio n b y tru ck in c r e a s e s . M o re trucks w ill b e n eed ed for both lo ca l and intercity h au lin g d u e to the in creased produ c tion o f g o o d s . In add ition , m any op en in gs w ill arise to rep lace truck m ech an ics w h o transfer to other o c cu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . B u s m ech an ic e m p lo y m en t is ex p e cte d to in crease about as fast as the average for all o ccu p ation s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s as the num ber o f b u se s o n the N a tio n ’s roads in creases. M ore b u ses w ill be n eed ed for lo ca l travel d u e to im p roved m ass transit sy stem s. Inter city b u s travel, on the other han d, is e x p ected to in crease s lo w ly . M o st jo b o p en in g s w ill result from the n eed to rep lace bu s m ech an ics w h o transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s, retire, or sit U n ion ; the International U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp a ce and A gricultural Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica; the Transport W orkers U n io n o f A m erica; the S h eet M etal W o rk ers’ International A sso cia tio n ; and the In tern a tio n a l B r o th e rh o o d o f T e a m ste r s, C h au ffers, W areh ou sem en and H elp ers o f A m erica (In d .). Related Occupations T ruck and bus m ech an ics repair trucks and b u se s and k eep them in g o o d w orking order. R elated m otor v e h ic le serv ice occu p a tio n s in clu d e au tom ob ile b od y repairers, cu sto m ize rs, m ech a n ics, p ain ters, and repair serv ice estim ators. d ie. Earnings T ruck and b u s m ech a n ics e m p lo y ed by trucking c o m p a n ie s, b u slin e s, and other firm s that m aintain their o w n v e h ic le s had estim at ed average hou rly earn in gs o f $ 9 .7 2 in 19 8 0 , abou t o n e and o n e -h a lf tim es the average earn in gs o f all n on su p ervisory w orkers in private in d u stry, e x ce p t farm in g. B eg in n in g app rentices u su ally earn o n eh a lf the rate o f sk illed w orkers and rec eiv e in creases abou t every 6 m onth s until they c o m p lete their app renticeship and reach the rate o f sk illed m ech a n ics. M o st m ech a n ics w ork b etw een 4 0 and 48 hours per w e e k . T h o se e m p lo y ed by truck and b u s firm s w h ic h p rovid e serv ice around the c lo c k m ay w ork e v e n in g s, n ig h ts, and w e ek en d s. T h ey u su ally r ec eiv e a h igh er rate o f pay for this w ork. M any truck and bu s m ech an ics are m em bers o f labor u n io n s, in clu d in g the Interna t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f M a c h in is t s an d A ero sp a ce W orkers; the A m algam ated Tran Sources of Additional Informaiton M ore d etails about w ork opp ortu nities for truck or b u s m ech an ics m ay be o b tain ed from lo ca l em p lo y ers su ch as trucking co m p a n ies, truck d ea lers, or bus lin es; lo ca ls o f u n ions p rev io u sly m entioned; or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t se r v ic e. L o ca l State e m p lo y m en t serv ice o ffic e s a lso m ay have in form ation about app renticeships and other training program s. For general in form ation abou t the w ork o f truck m ech a n ics and app ren ticesh ip training, w rite to: American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. International Association of Machinists and Aero space Workers, Apprenticeship Department, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Inform ation o n h ow to b e c o m e a certified h ea v y duty truck m ech an ic is av a ila b le from : National Institute for Automative Service Excel lence, 1825 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Electrical and Electronic Equipment Repairers T h e so p h istica ted te c h n o lo g y that m arks ou r so c iety rev o lv es la rgely around electrical an d e le c tr o n ic e q u ip m e n t. E le c tr ic a l and electro n ic eq u ip m en t repairers in sta ll, m ain tain , and repair this eq u ip m en t. M any o f th em d eal w ith the h ig h ly c o m p lex co m m u n i ca tio n s and data tran sm ission eq u ip m en t that, w ith in a very short tim e, has brough t c o m puters into ev ery d a y u se in facto ries, h o sp i ta ls, sc h o o ls , sto res, tick et o f f ic e s , and m any other p la ces. M ech a n ica l aptitude and a k n o w led g e o f electrica l theory are esse n tia l in th ese o c cu p a tio n s. For m any o f th em , so m e k n o w led g e o f ad v a n ced electro n ic theory and sk ill in the u se o f electro n ic testin g eq u ip m en t are a lso n ecessa ry . A t the entry le v e l, repairers m ay n eed o n ly a h igh sc h o o l d ip lo m a. T h ey acquire sp ec ific jo b sk ills through o n -th e-job train in g, a for m al a p p ren ticesh ip , or an e m p lo y e r ’s training program . For m any o f th ese jo b s , h o w ev e r, em p lo y ers require form al training in electro n ic s , w h ich m ay b e ob tain ed in A rm ed F orces sc h o o ls , v o ca tio n a l-tech n ica l in stitu tes, c o m m un ity c o lle g e s , or private trade sc h o o ls. C on tin uing ed u ca tion is im portant in this rap id ly ch an g in g fie ld , and m any electron ic eq u ip m en t repairers p erio d ica lly attend c o m p a n y -sp o n so red training se ss io n s to learn about n e w tech n o lo g ica l a d van ces and to sharpen their repair sk ills. T h is se c tio n o f the Handbook d escrib es nin e repair occu p a tion s: A p p lia n ce repairers, central o ffic e craft o c cu p a tio n s, central o ffic e eq u ip m en t in sta llers, com p u ter serv ice tech n ic ia n s, electric sig n repairers, lin e installers and ca b le sp lic er s, m ain ten an ce e lectricia n s, telep h o n e and P B X in stallers and repairers, and te le v isio n and radio serv ice tech n ician s. Appliance Repairers (D .O .T . 637.261-018, 723.381, .584-010, 827.261, .464-010, .584-010, and .661-010) A p p lia n ce repairers u su ally sp ec ia liz e in serv icin g eith er portable app lian ces su ch as toasters and vacu u m clean ers or m ajor a p p li an ces su ch as refrigerators, fr eezers, w a sh e rs, and dryers. R epairers in large sh op s gen era lly are m ore sp ec ia liz ed than th o se in sm all sh op s. P o rta b le a p p lia n c e s are w o r k e d o n in sh o p s. M ajor ap p lian ces u su a lly are repaired in c u sto m e r s’ h o m es b y ap p lian ce repairers w h o carry their to o ls and a num ber o f c o m m o n ly u sed parts w ith th em in a truck. T o d eterm in e w h y an ap p lian ce is not w ork in g p rop erly, repairers operate it to d e tect unusual n o is e s , o v erh ea tin g , or e x c e s s vibration . T h ey lo o k for co m m o n sou rces o f trou b le, su ch as faulty e lectrica l c o n n e c tio n s, and co n su lt se r v ic e m anu als and trouble sh o o tin g g u id e s. T h ey m ay d isa sse m b le the ap p lian ce to e x a m in e its parts. T o ch e ck electric sy s te m s , repairers fo llo w w irin g dia gram s and u se testin g d e v ic e s , su ch as am m eters, v o ltm eters, and w attm eters. A fter lo catin g the trou b le, the repairer m ak es the n ecessa ry repairs or rep lacem en ts accord in g to the type o f ap p lian ce and d e fe ct in v o lv ed . T o fix a portable ap p lian ce su ch as a toaster, the repairer m ay replace a d e fe ctiv e h eatin g elem en t. T o fix a m ajor ap p lian ce su ch as a w ash er, the repairer m ay rep lace w orn b earin gs, tran sm ission b e lts, or gears. T o r em o v e o ld parts and install n e w o n e s, repairers u se co m m o n h a n d to o ls, in clu d in g screw d rivers, so ld erin g iro n s, f ile s , p lier s, and sp ecia l to o ls d esig n ed for particular ap p lia n c es. R epairers operate the app lian ce after c o m p letin g a repair to ch e ck their w ork. R epairers m ay an sw er c u sto m e r s’ q u es tion s and com p lain ts abou t ap p lian ces and freq u en tly a d v ise cu stom ers abou t the care and u se o f the ap p lia n ce. For e x a m p le, th ey m ay sh o w the o w n ers h o w to load a u to m a tic w a s h in g m a c h in e s or arran ge d ish es in d ish w ash ers. A p p lia n ce repairers m ay estim ate and c o l lec t the c o st o f repairs. T h ey a lso k eep re cord s o f parts u sed and hours w ork ed on each jo b . Nature of the Work Working Conditions M o st h o u seh o ld ch ores su ch as c o o k in g and clea n in g u sed to b e p erform ed by hand and o ften in v o lv ed a great d eal o f tim e and p h y sica l effo rt. T o d a y , a variety o f laborsav in g a p p lian ces m ak e m any h o u seh o ld jo b s m uch sim p ler to d o. M icro w a v e o v e n s co o k m ea ls in m in u tes. W ash ers and dryers clean clo th es w ith little p h y sica l effort. In d eed , the num ber o f h o u seh o ld jo b s m ach in es can d o is a lm o st lim itless. E ven sim p le tasks su ch as c o o k in g a ham burger or op en in g a can are d o n e w ith app lia n ces m ade sp e c ific a lly for th o se p u rp o ses. S erv icin g th ese m ach in es is the jo b o f the ap p lian ce repairer. R epair sh o p s g en era lly are q u iet, w e ll lig h ted , and ad eq u ately v en tila ted . W orking c o n d itio n s o u tsid e th e sh o p vary. F or e x a m p le , repairers so m e tim e s w ork in narrow sp a ces and u n com fortab le p o sitio n s am id st dirt and du st. T h o se w h o repair ap p lian ces in h o m es m ay sp en d several hours a day d rivin g. A lth ou gh the w ork g en era lly is sa fe , re pairers cou ld h a v e an accid en t w h ile han d lin g electrical parts and liftin g and m o v in g large a p p lian ces. In ex p erien ced w orkers are sh o w n h o w to u se to o ls s a fe ly and h o w to av o id electric sh ock . http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 330 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A p p lia n c e repairers u su a lly w o rk w ith lit tle or no d irect su p erv isio n . T h is featu re o f the jo b ap p eals to m an y p e o p le . Employment A b o u t 7 7 ,0 0 0 p e o p le w ere e m p lo y e d as a p p lian ce repairers in 1 9 8 0 , m an y in in d e p en d en t a p p lian ce stores and repair sh o p s. O thers w ork ed for se r v ic e cen ters operated b y a p p lia n c e m a n u fa ctu re rs, d ep a rtm en t sto r es, w h o le sa le rs, and g a s and e lectric u til ity c o m p a n ie s. A p p lia n c e repairers are e m p lo y ed in a l m o st ev ery co m m u n ity , but are concen trated in the m ore h ig h ly p op u la ted areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A p p lia n c e repairers learn their trade o n the jo b . M an y repairers h a v e c o m p lete d form al training in a p p lian ce repair and related su b j e c t s in h ig h s c h o o l s , p r iv a te v o c a tio n a l s c h o o ls , and c o m m u n ity c o lle g e s . T h e p ro gram s in th ese s c h o o ls p ro v id e th e b ack ground in e lectrica l and m ech a n ica l repair that is n e e d e d to en ter this o c cu p a tio n . H o w e v e r , graduates u su a lly n eed a d d ition al train in g from their e m p lo y er. T h e ty p e o f training p ro v id ed b y e m p lo y ers varies a m on g c o m p a n ie s. In sh o p s that f i x p o r ta b le a p p lia n c e s , n e w e m p lo y e e s w ork o n a sin g le ty p e o f a p p lia n ce, su ch as v a cu u m cle a n e rs, un til th ey m aster its re pair. T rain ees then m o v e o n to w o rk o n a d ifferen t typ e o f ap p lian ce; this p ro cess co n tin u es u n til th ey can repair a v a riety o f a p p lia n ces. In c o m p a n ies that repair m ajor a p p lia n ce s, b egin n ers m ay b e trained b y e x p erien ced repairers during h o u se c a lls. In oth er c a s e s , th ey are taught w h ile w ork in g in th e sh op reb u ild in g u sed parts su ch as w a sh in g m ach in e tra n sm issio n s. U p to 3 years o f o n -th e-jo b training m ay b e n eed ed to b e c o m e sk illed in all a sp ects o f repairing so m e o f th e m ore c o m p le x a p p lia n ces. S o m e large c o m p a n ies su ch as ap p lia n ce m anu factu rers and departm en t store ch ain s h a v e form al training p rogram s, w h ich in clu d e h o m e stu d y cou rses and sh o p c la s s e s , w h ere train ees w ork w ith d em on stration a p p lian ces and other training eq u ip m en t. M an y repairers r ec e iv e su p p lem en ta l in stru ction through sem in ars that are co n d u cted p e r io d ic a lly b y a p p lia n c e m a n u fa ctu re rs. T h e se sem in ars u su a lly la st 1 or 2 w e ek s and d eal w ith the repair o f o n e o f th e m anufactur e r ’s a p p lia n ces. T o b e c o m e fa m ilia r w ith n ew ap p lian ces and the proper w a y s to repair th e m , e x p e rien ce d repairers attend training c la s se s or stu dy se r v ic e m an u als. P erson s w h o w an t to b e c o m e ap p lia n ce repairers g e n e ra lly m ust h a v e a h ig h sc h o o l d ip lo m a . C ou rses in ele ctr o n ic s are esse n tia l Mechanics and Repairers/331 c o m p a n ie s’ central o ffic e s . M o st sp ec ia liz e in o n e o f three areas: Fram e w irin g , central o ffic e repair, or trouble lo ca tin g . In sm all telep h o n e c o m p a n ie s, central o ffic e craft w orkers m u st perform all o f th ese jo b s. Appliance repairers often work in customers’ homes. b eca u se m o st repairs in v o lv e w ork w ith e le c trical eq u ip m en t. M ech a n ical aptitude is also d esirab le. A p p lia n ce repairers w h o w ork in c u sto m e rs’ h o m es m ust b e cou rteou s and tactful. A p p lia n ce repairers in large sh op s or ser v ic e cen ters m ay b e prom oted to su p ervisor, assistant serv ice m anager, or serv ice m an ager. A fe w m ay a d van ce to m anagerial p o s t tio n s su ch as region al serv ice m anager or parts m anager for app lian ce m anufacturers. P referen ce is g iv e n to th ose w h o sh ow ability to g et a lo n g w ith cow ork ers and cu stom ers. E x p erien ced repairers w h o h ave su fficien t funds m ay o p en their o w n ap p lian ce stores or repair sh o p s. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f a p p lian ce repairers is e x p ected to g ro w about as fast as the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. In add ition to the jo b s created b y in creased d e m and for a p p lian ce repairers, m any op en in g s w ill arise ea ch year from the n eed to replace ex p erien ced repairers w h o transfer to other o c cu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie. T h e num ber o f a p p lian ces in u se is e x p e c t ed to in crease very rapidly as the num ber o f h o u seh o ld s g ro w s and n e w and im p roved ap p lia n ces are introduced. W h ile m o d e m ap p li a n ces g en era lly require le s s serv ice than older m o d e ls, m aintaining the large num ber o f ap p lia n ces w ill generate dem an d for q u alified repairers. B e ca u se electron ic parts are in crea sin g ly u sed in m o d e m ap p lia n ces, repair ers w ith a strong backgroun d in electro n ics sh o u ld h a v e the b est jo b prosp ects. P eo p le w h o enter the o ccu p ation sh ou ld h a v e stead y w ork b eca u se the dem an d for a p p lian ce repair se r v ic es co n tin u es during e co n o m ic dow ntu rn s. Earnings H ourly earn in gs o f exp erien ced app lian ce repairers ranged from about $ 1 0 to $ 1 2 in 1 9 8 0 , b ased o n the lim ited data availab le. T h e starting rate for in ex p erien ced trainees w as about $ 5 an hour. T h e variations in w a g e s r eflect d ifferen ces in rep airers’ sk ill and e x p e rien ce , g eograp h ic lo ca tio n , and the typ e o f eq u ip m en t serviced . S o m e app lian ce repairers b elo n g to the Inter national B rotherh ood o f E lectrical W orkers. Related Occupations O ther w orkers w h o serv ice electrical and electro n ic eq u ip m en t in clu d e air-con d ition in g m e ch a n ics, b o w lin g -p in -m a ch in e m ech a n ics, b u sin ess m ach in e repairers, electric sig n re pairers, electron ic organ tech n icia n s, te le v i sio n and radio repairers, and v en d in g m achine m ech a n ics. Sources of Additional Information For further inform ation about jo b s in the ap p lian ce service H eld, con tact lo ca l app li an ce repair sh o p s, ap p lian ce dealers and util ity c o m p a n ie s, or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t serv ice. In form ation about training program s or w ork opp ortu nities a lso is availab le from: Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. Central Office Craft Occupations (D .O .T . 722.281-010, 822.261-010, .281-014 and -034, .361-026 and -030, and .684-010) Nature of the Work Central o ffic e craft w orkers m aintain and repair the c o m p lex eq u ip m en t in telep h on e Frame wirers, so m etim es referred to as fram e w ork ers, co n n e c t and d isco n n ect w ires that run from telep h on e lin es and ca b les to eq u ip m en t in central o ffic e s . T h is equip m ent c o n sists o f a fram e h avin g m any term inal lu g s m ou n ted o n it, each o f w h ic h is a ssig n ed a sp ec ific telep h o n e num ber. It a lso contains o n e pair o f w ires for e a ch telep h o n e that is c o n n ected to that central o ffic e . T o co n n ect a n e w te le p h o n e , the fram e w irer so ld ers the cu sto m e r ’s pair o f w ires to a set o f term inal lu g s. T o d isco n n ect a telep h o n e, a fram e w irer m elts the sold er and rem o v es the w ires from the term inal. Fram e w irers o c ca sio n a lly ch a n g e a c u sto m e r ’s p h o n e num ber b y reco n n ectin g the cu sto m e r ’s pair o f w ires to a d ifferen t set o f term inal lu g s. T o g a in ex p eri e n c e , fram e w irers gen era lly w ork o n resi d ential telep h on e se r v ic e. L ater, they m ay w ork o n m ore c o m p lex sp ecia l se r v ic e s , su ch as circuitry for large b u sin e ss sy s te m s , c iv il d e fe n se w arning siren s, or burglar alarm s. Central office repairers m a in ta in th e sw itch in g eq u ip m en t that au tom atically c o n n ects lin es w h en cu stom ers dial num bers. E lectrom ech an ical sw itch in g sy stem s c o n tain m o v in g parts that m ust b e clea n ed and o ile d p erio d ica lly . A ls o , electro n ic sw itch in g circu its m u st b e c h e ck ed o c ca sio n a lly for breakages. W h en cu stom ers report trouble w ith their te le p h o n e s, trouble locators w ork at sp ecial sw itch b oard s— so m etim es ca lled testboards— to fin d the sou rce o f the p rob lem . T o d o th is, th ey com m u n icate w ith telep h o n e installers and repairers as they attem pt to co n n ect a portable telep h on e through the c u sto m e r ’s serv ice lin e to the central o ffic e . T h e trouble sh ooter loca tes the problem b y h a v in g the telep h on e repairer co n n e c t the portable p h o n e at variou s p la ces on the c u sto m e r ’s lin e until a co n n ectio n can b e m ad e to the central o f fic e . For a p roblem at the central o f f ic e , the trouble locator repeats this procedure w ith a central o ffic e repairer. In add ition , trouble locators test n e w eq u ip m en t to m ake sure in stallation s are m ade correctly. T h ey a lso w ork w ith other e m p lo y e e s, su ch as central o ffic e repairers and ca b le sp lic er s, w h o h elp find the ca u se o f trouble and m ak e repairs. In add ition to th ese three principal o ccu p a tio n s, there are several sm aller craft jo b s in central o ffic e s . Instrument repairers, so m e tim es referred to as sh op repairers, u se handto o ls and p o w er to o ls to repair, test, and m o d ify telep h o n e eq u ip m en t, su ch as te le p h o n e s, teletyp ew riters, and sw itch b oard s. Transmission testers test and operate te le p h on e eq u ip m en t in central o ffic e s that serv i c e l i n e s b e t w e e n c o m m u n i t i e s . Office electricians m ake operatin g adju stm ents in subm arine ca b le repeater and term inal cir cu its and apparatus, as w e ll as rearrange ca b le c o n n ectio n s to m aintain the co n tin u ity o f 332/Occupational Outlook Handbook te le co m m u n ica tio n s eq u ip m en t m anufacturers o ften train central o ffic e craft w ork ers to u se, m ain tain , and repair eq u ip m en t that th ey sell to te le p h o n e c o m p a n ie s. S o m e v o ca tio n a l s c h o o ls , particularly in rural areas serv ed by s m a ll, in d e p e n d e n t t e le p h o n e c o m p a n ie s , train p erson s in terested in b e c o m in g central o f f ic e craft w ork ers. S o m e tim es cla ssro o m s are su p p lied w ith eq u ip m en t sim ila r to that w h ich the train ee w ill be u sin g o n the jo b . T rain ees for central o f f ic e craft jo b s g e n erally b eg in as fram e w irers. T h is is an entry jo b , and there are n o set ed u cation al req u irem en ts. A lth o u g h lo ca l hirin g prac tice s v ary, m an y co m p a n ies d o n ot require a h ig h sc h o o l d ip lo m a . T h e a b ility to read and understand co m p a n y m anu als and w ork orders is im portant, h o w ev e r. N e w w orkers r ec e iv e c la ssr o o m in stru ction and on -th e-jo b training that lasts abou t 6 m o n th s. T h ey g ain practical e x p e rien ce b y o b serv in g and h elp in g e x p e rien ce d fram e w irers under the d irection o f su p ervisors. A fter 1 or 2 years o f sa tisfactory p erform a n ce, fram e w irers m ay be se le c te d to train for a m ore sk illed telep h o n e craft, su ch as central o ffic e re pairer or te le p h o n e installer-repairer. As part of their normal routine, central office repairers check the switching equipment. se r v ic e. U sin g electrica l m eters and handt o o ls , submarine cable equipment technicians repair, adju st, and m aintain the m ach in es and eq u ip m en t u sed in su bm arin e-cab le o ffic e s or stations to con trol ca b le traffic. Working Conditions B e ca u se the telep h on e industry g iv e s c o n tinuou s serv ice to its c u sto m ers, central o ffic e s operate 2 4 hours a d a y , 7 days a w e ek . M any central o ffic e craft w ork ers, th erefore, have w ork sch ed u les that in clu d e sh ifts, w e ek en d s, and h o lid a y s. W h ere sh ift w ork is required, the a ssig n m en ts are m ade on the b asis o f sen iority. T o c o p e w ith any em er g en cy that m ay arise, central o ffic e craft w ork ers, lik e other te le p h on e co m p a n y e m p lo y e e s , are su bject to 2 4 hour c a ll— that is , su b ject to b ein g ca lled to w ork at a m o m e n t’s n o tic e. Central o ffic e craft w orkers g en era lly w ork in c le a n , w e ll-lig h te d , air-co n d itio n ed su rroun dings. D ep en d in g on the jo b , they m ay h ave to stand for lo n g per io d s, clim b lad d ers, and d o so m e reach in g, sto o p in g , and lig h t liftin g . B e ca u se old er c e n tral o ffic e eq u ip m en t co n tin u ally produ ces so u n d s, th ese w orkers m ust learn to “ b lo ck o u t ” n o ise . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement P referen ce in fillin g central o ffic e craft jo b s gen erally is g iv e n to e m p lo y e e s already w ith the telep h o n e c o m p a n y , su ch as opera tors, clerical w ork ers, or lin e in stallers. O c c a sio n a lly , train ees are h ired from o u tsid e the co m p a n y . Employment B eca u se telep h on e w ires are u su ally c o lo r c o d e d , p erson s w h o are co n sid erin g careers in central o ffic e crafts sh ou ld n ot b e c o lo r b lin d . P h ysical strength and a g ility are n eed ed for carrying eq u ip m en t and clim b in g and w ork in g from lad d ers, and p h y sica l e x a m in a tion s gen era lly are required. In add ition to m anual d exterity (to work w ith sm all to o ls), app licants sh ould have the an alytical sk ills and ju d gm en t to reso lv e m ech an ical d ifficu l ties. S e lf-d isc ip lin e is n eed ed to fo llo w d e tailed instructions w ithou t c lo s e su p erv isio n . P r o s p e c tiv e cen tra l o f f i c e craft w o rk ers sh ou ld be ab le to w ork as part o f a team , sin c e coop eration w ith others o ften is e s s e n tial in so lv in g c o m p lex p rob lem s. A b asic k n o w led g e o f electricity and ele ctr o n ic s and telep h o n e training in the A rm ed F orces are h elp fu l. E x p erien ce in data sy stem s tech n o l o g y or com p u ter m ain ten an ce is va lu a b le for w ork w ith electro n ic sw itc h in g sy stem s. T elep h o n e co m p a n ies em p lo y ed alm ost 8 5 ,0 0 0 central o ffic e craft w orkers in 1980. O n ly a sm a ll p ercen tage w ork ed part tim e. T elep h o n e co m p a n ies g iv e cla ssr o o m in struction and o n -th e-job training to n e w c e n tral o f f i c e cra ft e m p lo y e e s . In a d d itio n , Certain central o ffic e repair jo b s so m e tim es are fille d b y in ex p erien ced entry w ork e r s , b u t p r e v io u s e le c tr ic a l o r e le c tr o n ic e x p e rien ce is preferred. O ften , train ees c o m e fr o m th e ran k s o f th e c o m p a n y ’s fra m e w irers, te le p h o n e in staller-rep airers, or lin e installer-repairers. D e p e n d in g u p on the c o m p le x ity o f the eq u ip m en t to b e m ain tain ed , c o m p a n ie s p rovid e up to 7 m on th s o f c la s s room in stru ction , fo llo w e d b y a len g th y p eri o d o f o n -th e-jo b train in g. W orkers return to the cla ssr o o m from tim e to tim e to learn repair o f n e w ty p es o f eq u ip m en t, w h ic h m ay in clu d e e le c t r o n ic , sw itc h in g sy s te m s , data tra n sm ission eq u ip m en t, and p ictu rep h o n es. T h e se w ork ers have a n u m ber o f op p ortu n i ties for a d v a n cem en t, so m e o f w h ic h in v o lv e further tech n ica l train in g. T h ey m ay b e pro m o ted to jo b s as trouble lo ca to rs, en g in eerin g assista n ts, m icro w a v e m ain tain ers, picturetele p h o n e rep airers, data instrum ent repair e rs, or su p ervisors. (W ork in v o lv in g radio or m icr o w a v e tra n sm ission requires a seco n d c la s s rad iotelep h on e lic e n s e .) O ther p o s sib ili ties are p rom otion in to sa les or p erson n el w ork . T rou b le lo ca to r is n ot an entry j o b , but is o p e n to p erson s already e m p lo y ed in the te le p h o n e c o m p a n y . R elated e x p e rien ce or train in g is required and m ay b e o b tain ed as a central o f f ic e repairer or as a telep h o n e in staller-repairer. A broad k n o w le d g e o f the variou s telep h o n e crafts p ro v id es the b e st back grou n d for the w ork . A n ex p erien ced w ork er m ay b e prom oted to su p erv iso r, and b e sid e s coord in atin g the a c tiv ities o f a group o f trouble lo ca to rs, k e e p su p erv iso rs o f ca b le and oth er c rew s in form ed o f repairs that need to b e m ad e. P rom otion a lso is p o s sib le to en g in e er in g assistan t or to sa les or p erson n el w ork. T e le p h o n e co m p a n ie s g iv e central o ffic e craft e m p lo y e e s co n tin u ed train in g through Mechanics and Repairers/333 ou t their careers to k eep them abreast o f the latest d ev elo p m en ts. A s n e w ty p es o f eq u ip m ent and to o ls and n e w m aintenance m eth o d s are introd u ced , e m p lo y e e s are sen t to sc h o o ls to learn abou t them . W hen travel is required fo r training p u rp oses, the com p an y p a y s the e x p e n se s. C o lle g e s, u n iversities, private firm s, and State telep h on e a ss o c i ations a lso o ffer short training cou rses. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f central o ffic e craft w orkers w ill b e su b ject to co n flic tin g trends during the 1 9 8 0 ’s. A s the p o p u lation g r o w s, b e c o m es m ore m o b ile, and is o ffered a w ider array o f teleco m m u n ica tio n s se r v ic es, d e m an d sh o u ld r is e fo r th e in sta lla tio n o f sw itch in g and tran sm ission eq u ip m en t in c e n tral o f f i c e s . H o w e v e r , e le c tr o m e c h a n ic a l sw itc h in g sy stem s are b e in g rep laced w ith electro n ic sw itch in g sy stem s that require c o n sid erab ly fe w er in sta llers, du e to sm aller size and in crea sed prefabrication . M oreover, the n e w , electro n ica lly eq u ip p ed central o ffic e s u se so p h istica ted , se lf-d ia g n o sin g test eq u ip m ent that requires fe w e r repair and m ain te nan ce p erson n el. O v era ll, em p lo y m en t o f central o ffic e craft w orkers o v er the n ex t d ecad e is ex p e cte d to sh o w little ch a n g e and m ay d e c lin e . A n y decrea sed labor requirem ents in the central o ffic e crafts are n ot lik ely to result in la y o ffs, h o w ev er. L abor-m anagem en t coop eration in m in im izin g the adverse e ffe c ts o f te ch n o lo g i cal ch a n g e is w e ll esta b lish ed in the te le p h on e industry. T h e p lan n ed u se o f attrition is a m ajor tech n iq u e for red ucin g em p lo y m ent. In ad d ition , u n n eed ed w orkers are b e ing retrained and transferred to other jo b s or lo ca litie s. A lth o u g h the num ber o f central o ffic e craft w orkers m ig h t drop through the 1 9 8 0 ’s , so m e jo b o p en in g s w ill arise ev ery year as ex p eri en c ed w o ik ers transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . A s n oted a b o v e , op en in g s for central o ffic e craft w orkers gen erally are fille d b y the ad van cem en t o f other w orkers already em p lo y ed by telep h o n e co m p an ies. Earnings W a g e rates for central o ffic e craft w orkers vary greatly across the country; lo ca l c o m p an ies can su p p ly sp ec ific in form ation . Earn in g s in crea se co n sid era b ly w ith len gth o f serv ice; it n orm ally takes 4 or 5 years to reach the top o f the p ay sc a le. In 19 8 0 , the average hou rly w a g e for fram e w irers w as $ 8 .8 0 ; for central o ffic e repairers, $ 1 0 .6 5 ; and for trouble lo ca to rs, $ 1 0 .7 4 . N o n su p ervisory w orkers in a ll private in d u stries, e x cep t farm in g, averaged $ 6 .6 6 an hour in 1980. M o st central o ffic e craft w orkers are m em bers o f the C om m u n ication s W orkers o f A m erica , the International B rotherh ood o f E lectrical W orkers, or the T eleco m m u n ica tion s International U n io n . For th ese w ork ers, u n ion contracts d eterm ine w a g e rates, w a g e in crea ses, and the tim e n eed ed to advan ce from o n e step to the n ex t. C ontracts also require extra p ay for w ork b ey o n d the norm al 8 hours a d ay or 5 d a y s a w e e k , and for all w ork on S u n d ays and h o lid a y s. A d d ition al pay for n igh tw ork is p rovid ed for in m ost con tracts. P aid v acation s are granted b ased o n tim e in se r v ic e. G en era lly , contracts pro v id e for a 1 -w eek vacation b eg in n in g w ith 6 m onth s o f service; 2 -w e e k s for 1 to 6 years; 3 -w e ek s for 7 to 14 years; 4 -w e ek s for 15 to 2 4 years; and 5 -w e ek s for 25 years and over. D ep en d in g o n lo c a lity , h o lid a y s range from 9 to 11 days a year. O ther contract p rovision s in clu d e d ie fo llo w in g ; P aid sick lea v e; group lif e , m e d ica l, and dental insurance; sick n ess and a ccid en t ben efits; retirem ent and d isab il ity p en sion s; a sa v in g s plan; and an e m p lo y ee stock ow n ersh ip plan. Related Occupations O ther w orkers w h o h ave the sk ills n eed ed to d o tech n ica l, m anual w ork w ith to o ls and m ach in es in clu d e a u to m o b ile m e ch a n ics, b io m ed ical eq u ip m en t tech n icia n s, carpenters, c e m e n t m a s o n s , e le c tr ic ia n s , m a c h in ists, p lu m b ers, sou n d tech n icia n s, toolm ak ers, and w eld ers. Sources of Additional Information For m ore d etails about em p lo y m en t op p or tu n ities, con tact you r lo c a l telep h on e c o m p an y or u n io n s th at r ep re se n t te le p h o n e w orkers. For general in form ation on central o ffic e craft jo b s , w rite to: International Brotherhood of Electrical Woikers, 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Telecommunications International Union, P.O. Box 5462, Hamden, Conn. 06518. For gen eral in form ation o n the in d ep en dent (n o n -B ell) telep h o n e industry and career op p ortu n ities, req uest c o p ie s o f “ In depend en t P h o n e fa c ts” and “ Is It for Y ou ? A C areer in the In depend en t T elep h o n e In d u stry” from: United States Independent Telephone Association, 1801 K St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. Central Office Equipment Installers (D .O .T . 822.361-014) Nature of the Work Central o ffic e eq u ip m en t installers set up the c o m p lex sw itch in g and d ialin g equip m ent u sed in central o ffic e s o f telep h on e co m p an ie s . T h ey install eq u ip m en t in n ew central o ffic e s , add eq u ip m en t in an exp an d in g o f f ic e , or rep lace outd ated eq u ip m en t. Installers fo llo w b lu ep rin ts, d iagram s, and flo o r plan s to p o sitio n and w ire eq u ip m en t. T h ey often u se h oists to lift h eavy item s and h a n d to o ls, su ch as screw d rivers or sold erin g g u n s, to co n n ect eq u ip m en t o n c e it is in p la c e. R ecen tly d e v e lo p ed electron ic eq u ip m en t so m etim es c o m es in p reassem b led c o m pon en ts and often requires o n ly sim p le p lu g in co n n e c tio n s. A fter the n e w eq u ip m en t has b een put in p la c e, in stallers co n n ect the o u tg o in g and in co m in g telep h on e trunk lin es, consu ltin g diagram s to ensu re that co n n ectio n s are m ade correctly. O n ce th is is c o m p lete d , installers then test th e sy s te m , u sin g com m u n ica tio n testin g eq u ip m en t, su ch as p u lsin g test se ts, o s c illo s c o p e s , and voltm eters, to m easure the strength and c o n siste n c y o f the current flo w . I f the sy stem is n ot fu n ction in g properly, installers m ust d eterm ine the ca u se o f the d ifficu lty and correct the m alfu n ctio n . Working Conditions Central o ffic e eq u ip m en t installers often w ork in b u ild in gs under con stru ction . T h ey h a v e to lift and carry h ea v y to o ls, clim b ladd ers, and d o a lo t o f sto o p in g , cro u ch in g , and reach in g. T h ey fa c e certain hazards, su ch as fa lls from lad d ers, injuries from fa ll in g o b je c ts, and cu ts and b u m s from to o ls. Employment A n estim ated 2 5 ,0 0 0 in stallers w ere e m p lo y e d in 1 9 8 0 . M o st w ork ed for m an u fac turers o f central o ffic e eq u ip m en t. O thers w ork ed d irectly for telep h o n e co m p a n ies or for private contractors w h o sp ec ia liz e in la rg e-sca le in stallation s. M o st central o ffic e eq u ip m en t installers w ork in m etropolitan areas, w h ere large central o ffic e s are fo u n d . H undreds o f in stallers m ay b e required to w ork o n large jo b s su ch as a lo n g -d ista n ce toll cen ter in a b ig c ity . O ther installers are assig n ed areas that in clu d e several S tates, and , th erefore, m ust travel freq uently to sm all to w n s w ith in their area. In stallin g eq u ip m en t in sm all c o m m u n itie s o fte n req u ires o n ly tw o o r three installers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In d ivid u als co n sid erin g careers as central o ffic e eq u ip m en t in stallers sh ou ld h a v e m an ual d exterity, g o o d e y e s ig h t, an d , b eca u se telep h o n e w ires are g en erally co lo r c o d e d , sh ou ld n ot b e co lo r-b lin d . T h ey sh ou ld be ab le to w ork w ith oth ers, for team w ork o ften is essen tia l to s o lv e a c o m p lex problem . A l th ou gh m anufacturers gen era lly p rovid e all the n ecessary training for this jo b , form al training and ex p erien ce in m ech a n ica l, e le c trical, and electron ic areas are h elp fu l. Fa m iliarity w ith com p u ter op eration s and repair a lso is ad van tageou s. N e w e m p lo y e e s attend c la s se s the first fe w w e ek s to learn b a sic installation and then b eg in o n -th e-job training. O ften trainees w ill b e transported to the plant w h ere the eq u ip m ent is m anufactured to r ec eiv e training. E xp erien ced w orkers m ay q u a lify as sk illed in stallers. A d d ition al cou rses are g iv e n from tim e to tim e to im p rove s k ills, to teach n ew in stallation tech n iq u es, and to k eep up w ith te ch n o lo g ic a l ch a n g es in eq u ip m en t. Installers m ust b e trained to install n ew eq u ip m en t. 334/Occupational Outlook Handbook In stallers w h o h ave m anagerial ab ility can a d van ce to su p ervisory p o sitio n s. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f central o ffic e eq u ip m en t installers is e x p ected to d e c lin e through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. H o w e v er , so m e o p e n in g s w ill arise ea ch year to rep lace exp erien ced installers w h o transfer to other w ork , retire, or d ie. T he introduction o f rem ote sw itch in g s y s tem s and the co n so lid a tio n o f sm aller e lectro m ech a n ica l o ffic e s into larger electro n ic on es are e x p e cte d to slo w the rate o f con stru ction o f n ew central o ffic e s during the n ext d e c a d e . A lth o u g h o b s o le t e m an u al an d d ia l sw itch in g eq u ip m en t w ill b e rep laced w ith m ore e ffic ie n t electro n ic an alog and digital sw itc h in g sy ste m s, this n ew eq u ip m en t is m anu factu red in co m p o n en ts and m od u les that greatly red uce the tim e n eed ed for test in g and in stallation . T h is greater e ffic ie n c y sh ou ld o ffse t the dem an d from n ew con stru c tion and c o n v ersio n o f ex istin g eq u ip m en t and red uce em p lo y m en t through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. E m p loym en t m ay flu ctu ate from year to year b eca u se in v estm en t in central o ffic e eq u ip m en t is su b ject to ch a n g es in b u sin ess c o n d itio n s and a v a ila b ility o f fu n d s. T h u s, w h en the e c o n o m y is p rosp erin g, in stallation s and m od ern ization o f central o ffic e s m ay o c cur at an ab ov e-a v era g e p ace. C o n v er se ly , w h en the e co n o m y slo w s d o w n , this activity m ay be red uced . Earnings T h e earn in gs o f central o ffic e eq u ip m en t in stallers vary b y e m p lo y er , g eo g ra p h ic lo c a tio n , and e x p e rien ce . P ay rates fo r m o st in stallers in 1 9 8 0 ranged from a starting rate o f $ 5 .1 5 per hour to a top rate o f $ 1 2 .3 7 . U n io n contracts c o v er in g in stallers p ro v id ed for p er io d ic w a g e in c re a se s, w ith 5 years g en era lly n eed ed to reach the h ig h est le v e l. T ravel and e x p e n se a llo w a n c e s a lso w ere p ro v id ed . T he average earn in gs o f ex p e rien ce d central o f f ic e eq u ip m en t in stallers are a b o v e the aver a g e for all n o n su p ervisory w orkers in private in d u stry, e x c e p t farm in g. T h e C o m m u n ica tio n s W orkers o f A m erica u n ion rep resents m o st central o ffic e eq u ip m en t in stallers, in clu d in g all th o se w ith the B e ll S y s tem . T h e International B roth erh ood o f E lectri cal W orkers rep resents so m e in stallers e m p lo y e d by variou s telep h o n e c o m p a n ie s, b y m an u facturers su p p ly in g the in d ep en d en t se g m en t o f the telep h o n e in d u stry, and b y large in stallation contractors. For th ese w o rk ers, u n ion contracts d eterm in e w a g e rates, w a g e in c re a se s, and the tim e n eed ed to a d van ce from o n e step to the n ex t. C ontracts a lso require extra p ay for w ork b ey o n d the norm al 8 hours a day or 5 da y s a w e e k , and for all w ork o n S u n d a y s and h o li d a y s. A d d ition al p ay for n ig h tw o rk is p rovid ed for in m ost con tra cts. P aid v a ca tio n s are granted b ased on tim e in se r v ic e. G en er a lly , contracts p rovid e for a 1 -w eek v a ca tio n b eg in n in g w ith 6 m onth s o f serv ice; 2 w e e k s for 1 to 6 years; 3 w e ek s for 7 to 14 years; 4 w e e k s fo r 15 to 2 4 years; and 5 w e e k s for 25 years and o v er. D e p en d in g o n lo c a lity , h o lid a y s range from 9 to 11 days a year. O ther contract p r o v isio n s in clu d in g the fo llo w in g : P aid sic k lea v e; group lif e , m ed i c a l, and d ental insu ran ce; sic k n e ss and a ccid en t b en efits; retirem en t and d isa b ility p en sio n s; a sa v in g s plan; and an e m p lo y e e sto ck o w n ersh ip plan . Related Occupations W orkers in other o ccu p a tio n s fo r w h ich training is n eed ed to d o te ch n ica l, m anual w ork w ith to o ls and m a ch in es in clu d e auto m o b ile m e c h a n ic s , b io m e d ic a l e q u ip m e n t te ch n icia n s, carp en ters, c em en t m a so n s, e le c trician s, m a c h in ists, p lu m b ers, so u n d tech n i c ia n s, to o lm a k ers, and w eld ers. Sources of Additional Information For m ore d eta ils ab ou t e m p lo y m en t op p or tu n ities, co n tact you r lo ca l telep h o n e c o m p a n y or u n io n s th at r e p r e se n t te le p h o n e w ork ers. For gen eral in fo rm a tio n , w rite to: International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Telecommunications International Union, P.O. Box 5462, Hamden, Conn. 06518. For g en eral in form ation o n the in d ep en d en t (n o n -B e ll) telep h o n e industry and career o p p ortu n ities, req u est c o p ie s o f “ In depend en t P h o n e fa c ts” and “ Is It for Y o u ? A Career in the In d ep en d en t T e le p h o n e In d u stry ” from: The work of central office equipment installers requires close attention to detail. United States Independent Telephone Association, 1801 K St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. Mechanics and Repairers/335 Computer Service Technicians_____ (D .O .T. 828.261-014 and .281-010) Nature of the Work C om p uter sy stem s play a vital role in our liv e s. T h ey h elp u s m ake telep h o n e c a lls, r ec eiv e p a y ch eck s o n tim e, and reserve tick ets fo r tra v el, h o te ls, and entertainm ent. In b u sin e ss and in d u stry, com puter sy stem s per form co u n tle ss ta sk s— from m aintaining b u si n ess records to con tro llin g m anufacturing p r o cesses. A com p u ter sy stem co n sists o f a central p ro cessin g unit and additional eq u ip m en t su ch as rem ote term inals and h ig h -sp eed printers. K eep in g this intricate eq u ip m en t in g o o d w ork in g order is the jo b o f the com p u t er serv ice tech n ician . A t r eg u la r in te r v a ls , c o m p u te r se r v ic e tech n icia n s (o ften ca lle d field en g in eers or cu sto m er e n g in eers) serv ice m a ch in es or s y s tem s to k eep them operating e ffic ie n tly . T h ey rou tin ely adjust, o il, and cle a n m ech an ical and electro m ech a n ica l parts. T h ey a lso ch eck electro n ic eq u ip m en t for lo o s e co n n ectio n s and d e fe ctiv e co m p o n en ts or circu its. W hen com puter eq u ip m en t breaks d o w n , tech n icia n s m ust q u ick ly fin d the ca u se o f the failu re and m ake repairs. D eterm in in g w h ere in the sy stem the m a lfu n ction has occu rred is the m o st d ifficu lt part o f the te c h n ic ia n ’s jo b , and requires a lo g ic a l, an alytical m ind as w e ll as tech n ica l k n o w led g e. A s com puter sy stem s h a v e g ro w n m ore c o m p le x and net w ork s o f m inicom p uters (m in i’s) h a v e d e v e l o p e d , the p otential for m alfu n ction s a lso has grow n . B reak d ow n s can o ccu r in the central proc e ssin g unit itse lf, in o n e o f the peripheral m a ch in es, su ch as a reader or a printer, in the rem ote m in i’s that are co n n ected to the c e n tral un it, or in the ca b les or d atacom m u n ications h o ok u p s that co n n e c t th ese m a ch in es. T o lo ca te d ie ca u se o f electro n ic failu res, tech n icia n s u se sev era l k in ds o f to o ls , in clu d in g v o ltm e te r s , o h m m e te r s, an d o s c i ll o sc o p e s. T h ey run sp ecia l d ia g n o stic program s that h elp p in p oin t certain m a lfu n ction s. A l thou gh it m ay take sev eral hours to lo ca te a p rob lem , fix in g the eq u ip m en t m ay take ju st a fe w m in u tes. T o rep lace a fau lty circu it board, so ld er a broken c o n n e c tio n , or repair a M echan ical part, tech n ician s u se a variety o f h a n d to o ls, in clu d in g n e e d le-n o se d p liers, w irestripp ers, and so ld erin g eq u ip m en t. T h e e m p lo y er su p p lies to o ls and test eq u ip m en t, but tech n icia n s are resp on sib le for k eep in g them in g o o d w ork in g order. C om puter tech n icia n s often h elp install n ew eq u ip m en t. T h ey lay c a b le s , h o o k up e le c tr ic a l c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n m a c h in e s , th orou gh ly test the n ew eq u ip m en t, and cor rect any p rob lem s b efo re the cu stom er u ses the m ach in e. S o m e tech n icia n s sp ec ia liz e in m aintaining a particular com p u ter m o d el or sy s te m , or in d o in g a certain typ e o f repair. F or e x a m p le, so m e tech n ician s are exp erts in correcting p rob lem s cau sed b y errors in the c o m p u ter’s internal p rogram m in g. B e sid e s k n o w in g h o w to u se sp ecia lized to o ls and test eq u ip m en t, com p u ter tech n ician s m ust b e fam iliar w ith tech n ical and repair m anu als for e a ch p ie c e o f eq u ip m en t. T h ey a lso m ust k eep up w ith the tech n ical inform a tion and rev ised m ain ten an ce p roced ures is su ed p erio d ica lly b y com p u ter m anufacturers. T ech n icia n s k eep a record o f preven tive m ain ten an ce and repairs o n ea ch m ach in e th ey se r v ic e. In ad d ition , th ey fill ou t tim e and e x p e n se reports, k eep parts in v en tories, and order parts. A lth o u g h tech n ician s sp en d m o st o f their tim e w ork in g on m a ch in es, th ey w ork w ith p eo p le a lso . T h ey listen to c u sto m e rs’ c o m p lain ts, an sw er q u estio n s, and so m etim es o ffer tech n ical a d v ice on w a y s to k eep eq u ip m en t in g o o d co n d itio n . E xp erien ced tech n ician s often h elp train n ew tech n ician s an d s o m e tim e s h a v e lim ite d su p e rv iso r y d u ties. Working Conditions C o m p u te r i n s t a l l a t io n s g e n e r a l l y ru n around the c lo c k and w ork in g tim e lo st b e ca u se o f a breakdow n can b e very ex p e n siv e . F or th is reason , tech n ician s m ust be ava ila b le to m ake e m erg en cy repairs at any tim e, day or n igh t. A lth ou gh the norm al w o rk w eek is 4 0 h ou rs, o v ertim e is c o m m o n p la ce. T h e m eth od o f assig n in g ov er tim e varies by em p lo y er. S o m e tech n ician s are o n ca ll 2 4 hours a d ay. O thers w ork rotating sh ifts— days o n e w e e k , n igh ts the n ext. For m o st tech n icia n s, travel is local; they u su a lly are not aw ay from h om e overn igh t. E m p loyers p ay for travel, in clu d in g reim bu rsem ent for job -related u ses o f the tech n i c ia n ’s car, a s w ell as w ork-related education e x p e n se s. A lth ou gh so m e b en d in g and liftin g are n ecessa ry , the jo b is n ot stren uou s. W ork hazards are lim ited m ain ly to m inor b u m s and electric sh o ck , but th ese can b e a v o id e d if safety p ractices are fo llo w e d . Employment In 1 9 8 0 , abou t 8 3 ,0 0 0 p erson s w ork ed as com p u ter serv ice tech n ician s. M o st w ere em p lo y ed b y firm s that provid e m aintenance se r v ic es for a fe e and b y m anufacturers o f com p u ter eq u ip m en t. A sm all num ber w ere e m p lo y e d d ir e c tly b y o r g a n iz a tio n s that h ave large com puter in stallatio n s. C om puter tech n ician s g en era lly w ork out o f region al o ffic e s loca ted in large c itie s , w h ere com puter eq u ip m en t is con cen trated . M ost are a ssig n ed to several c lie n ts, d e p en d in g on the te ch n icia n ’s sp ecia lty and the typ e o f eq u ip m en t the user h a s. W ork ers w ith several accou n ts m ust travel from p la ce to p la c e to m aintain th ese sy stem s and to m ake e m erg en cy repairs. In so m e c a s e s , m ore than o n e tech n icia n w ill share an accou n t and serv ice d ifferen t parts o f a sy stem . In other c a s e s , an ex p erien ced tech n ician m ay b e assig n ed to w ork fu ll tim e at a c lie n t’s in stallation in order to m aintain all p h ases o f that op eration . T ech n icia n s w h o w ork for a n ation w id e organization m u st so m etim es transfer to another city ojr State. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st em p lo y ers require app licants for tech n ician trainee jo b s to h a v e 1 to 2 y e a r s’ p o st-h ig h sc h o o l training in b asic electro n ics or electrica l en g in eerin g . T h is training m ay Locating the problem often is more difficult than making the repair. 336/Occupational Outlook Handbook b e from a p u b lic or private vocation al sc h o o l, a c o lle g e , or a ju n io r c o lle g e . B asic electro n ics training o ffered by the A rm ed F orces is e x c e lle n t preparation for tech n ician train ees. A h igh sc h o o l stu dent interested in b e c o m in g a com p u ter serv ice tech n ician sh ou ld take co u rses in m ath em atics and p h y sics. H igh sc h o o l co u rses in e lectro n ics and com p u ter program m in g a lso are h elp fu l. H o b b ies that in v o lv e e le ctr o n ic s, su ch as operatin g ham radios or b u ild in g stereo eq u ip m en t, a lso pro v id e valu a b le e x p erien ce. B e sid e s tech n ica l train in g, app licants for trainee jo b s m ust h ave g o o d v isio n and nor m al co lo r p ercep tion to w ork w ith sm all parts and co lo r -co d ed w irin g. N orm al hearin g is n eed ed sin c e so m e b reak d ow n s are d iagn osed b y sou nd . B e ca u se tech n ician s u su a lly han dle jo b s a lo n e , th ey m ust h ave the in itiative to w ork w ith ou t c lo s e su p ervision . A ls o im por tant are a p leasan t p erson ality and neat ap p earan ce, sin c e the w ork in v o lv e s frequent con tact w ith cu sto m ers. P atien ce is an a sset, b eca u se so m e m a lfu n ction s occu r in freq u en t ly and are very d ifficu lt to pin p oin t. In so m e c o m p a n ie s, app licants m ust p ass a p h ysical ex a m in a tio n . A secu rity clearan ce m ay b e required in c a se s w h ere tech n icia n s regularly serv ice m a ch in es lo cated in restricted b u ild in g s, su ch as Federal G overn m en t in stalla tio n s e n g a g ed in c la s sifie d a ctiv ities. T rain ees u su a lly attend com p a n y training cen ters for 3 to 6 m on th s to learn e le m e n tary com puter th eo ry, com p u ter m ath, and circu itry theory and to further their study o f e le ctr o n ic s. C la ssro om w ork is a ccom p an ied b y practical training in op eratin g com puter eq u ip m en t, d o in g b asic m a in ten an ce, and u sin g test eq u ip m en t to lo ca te m a lfu n ction s. In addition to form al in stru ction , trainees m ust c o m p lete 6 m onth s to 2 years o f o n th e-job train in g. A t first, th ey w ork c lo s e ly w ith ex p erien ced tech n icia n s, learning to m aintain card read ers, printers, and other m ach in es that are rela tiv ely sim p le , but that h a v e the b a sic m ech an ical and electro n ic features o f a large com p u ter sy stem . A s tr a in ee s g a in e x p e r ie n c e , th e y w o rk on m ore c o m p lex eq u ip m en t. B eca u se m anu factu rers co n tin u ally red e sig n eq u ip m en t and d e v e lo p n e w u ses for co m p u ters, ex p erien ced tech n icia n s freq uent ly m ust attend training se ss io n s to keep up w ith th ese ch a n g es and to broaden their te ch nical sk ills. M any tech n icia n s take advan ced training to sp ec ia liz e in a particular com puter sy stem or typ e o f repair. Instruction a lso m ay in clu d e p rogram m in g, sy stem s a n a ly sis, and other su b jects that im p rove the te c h n ic ia n ’s general k n o w led g e o f the com p u ter field . E xp erien ced tech n icia n s w ith advan ced training m ay b e c o m e sp ec ia lists or “ trou b le sh o o te r s” w h o h elp tech n ician s throughout their territory d ia g n o se d ifficu lt p rob lem s. T h ey a lso m ay w ork w ith en g in eers in d e sig n in g eq u ip m en t and d e v e lo p in g m aintenance proced ures. T ech n icia n s w ith lead ersh ip ab ility m ay b e c o m e su p erv isors or serv ice m anagers. M o st com p u ter eq u ip m en t operates on the sam e b asic p rin cip les, but m a ch in es b u ilt b y d ifferen t co m p a n ies m ay be u n iq u e in d esig n and con stru ction . For this rea so n , tech n ician s m ay find it d ifficu lt to transfer b etw een c o m p a n ie s that m a in ta in d iffe r e n t bran d s o f eq u ip m en t. H o w e v er , b e ca u se o f the p ressin g n eed for ex p erien ced tech n icia n s, m any o p portun ities e x ist for w e ll-q u a lifie d w orkers to transfer to other firm s that han dle the sam e typ e o f com p u ter hardw are. Training and e x p erien ce in com p u ter m a in ten an ce m ay a lso h elp q u a lify a tech n ician for a jo b in eq u ip m en t sa le s, program m in g, or m an agem en t. (S e e the statem en ts o n pro gram m ers and m an u factu rers’ salesw ork ers e lsew h e re in the Handbook.) Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f com p u ter tech n icia n s is e x p e cte d to gro w m uch faster than the aver ag e for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. A s the N a tio n ’s e c o n o m y e x p a n d s, m ore com p u ter eq u ip m en t w ill b e u sed and m any m ore tech n ician s w ill b e n eed ed to install and m aintain it. B u s in e ss, go v ern m en t, and other organ ization s w ill b u y , le a s e , or rent ad d i tion al eq u ip m en t to m anage vast am oun ts o f in fo r m a tio n , c o n tr o l m a n u fa ctu rin g p r o c e s s e s , and aid in sc ien tific research . T he d ev e lo p m en t o f new u ses for com p u ters in fie ld s su ch as ed u ca tio n , m e d icin e , and traf fic con trol a lso w ill spur dem and . T he very strong d em an d for com puter tech n icia n s is related to the g ro w in g num ber o f com p u ters in operation and the g eograp h ic distribution o f th ese com p u ters. C on tin u ed red u ction s in the s iz e and c o st o f com puter hardw are w ill bring the com p u ter w ith in reach o f a rapidly in creasin g nu m ber o f sm all o rgan ization s. A s m ore and m ore o f th ese sm all sy stem s are in sta lled , the am ou n t o f tim e tech n icia n s m ust sp en d travelin g b e tw e en clien ts w ill in crease. E m p loym en t o f com p u ter serv ice tech n i cian s is m u ch le s s lik e ly to b e a ffected by dow n tu rn s in b u sin ess a ctiv ity than is the c a se in other fie ld s . B eca u se com p u ter o p er ations are rarely curtailed during e co n o m ic slu m p s, em p lo y m en t o f com puter serv ice tech n icia n s sh ou ld rem ain rela tiv ely stab le. Earnings E arnings o f com p u ter serv ice tech n ician train ees w ere abou t $ 2 7 0 a w e ek in 1 9 8 0 , accord in g to the lim ited in form ation a v a il ab le. F u lly trained w orkers earn ed about $ 3 8 5 a w e e k , w h ile sen io r lev e l tech n ician s w ith several y e a r s ’ e x p erien ce earned b e tw e en $ 4 3 0 and $ 5 7 5 a w eek . Related Occupations W orkers in other occu p a tio n s w h o repair and m aintain the circu its and m ech an ical parts o f electro n ic eq u ip m en t in clu d e a p p li an ce repairers, a u tom otive ele ctr icia n s, b u si n e s s m a c h in e r ep a ir er s, e le c tr o n ic o rg a n tech n icia n s, instrum ent repairers, radio re pairers, radar m e ch a n ics, and te le v is io n ser v ic e tech n ician s. Sources of Additional Information For gen eral in form ation o n careers in c o m puter m a in te n a n c e , co n tact the p erso n n el d e p a rtm en t o f c o m p u te r m a n u fa ctu re rs and com p u ter m ain ten a n ce firm s in you r area. T h e S tate departm en t o f ed u ca tio n in you r S tate cap ital can furnish in form ation about ap p roved tech n ica l in stitu tes, ju n io r c o lle g e s , and other in stitu tion s o fferin g p ostseco n d a ry training in b a sic e le ctr o n ic s. A d d itio n a l in form ation about th ese sc h o o ls is a v a ila b le from : U.S. Office of Education, Division of Vocational/ Technical Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturer’s Association, 1828 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. T h e State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e o ffic e in you r area m a y a lso b e ab le to p ro v id e in fo r m ation abou t lo c a l jo b op p ortu n ities. Electric Sign Repairers_______ (D .O .T . 824.281-018, .683-010 and .684-010) Nature of the Work A c o m m o n form o f ad v ertisin g fo r m any b u sin e sses and produ cts is the e le ctr ic sig n . E lectric sig n repairers m aintain and repair n eon and illu m in a ted p la stic sig n s s o that th e y retain their “ e y e a p p e a l” and attract m a x im u m atten tion. W h en a sig n requires se r v ic e , a repairer d rives to its lo ca tio n in a truck, carrying to o ls and a n u m ber o f rep la cem en t parts. R epair e r s ’ trucks are eq u ip p ed w ith ladd ers and b o o m cran es for w ork o n tall sig n s or th ose p laced h igh a b o v e the grou n d . C o m m o n sou rces o f sig n trou b le, su ch as b u rn ed -out b u lb s, are e a sy to fix . H o w e v e r , in so m e c a s e s , the p rob lem m ay not be o b v io u s and repairers m a y u se e lectro n ic test eq u ip m en t to determ in e the ca u se o f a b reak d ow n . A l th ou gh sim p le repairs su ch as rep la cin g b u lb s or transform ers are m ad e at th e site , m ajor repairs o f fau lty parts, su ch as broken n eo n tu b in g , are m ad e in sig n sh o p s. R epairers in sp ect s ig n s p erio d ica lly and d o p rev en tiv e m a in ten an ce to lo ca te and correct d e fe c ts b e fo r e b r e a k d o w n s o c c u r . T h e y c h e c k sig n s and rem o v e debris su ch as b ir d s’ n ests and accu m u lated w ater. T h e y tig h ten or w eld parts that h a v e b een lo o se n e d by w ind s; repaint b e a m s, c o lu m n s, and other fram e w ork; and m ay repaint p ortion s o f n eo n tub in g to m a k e t h e s i g n m o r e r e a d a b le . R epairers c h e c k , adju st, and lub ricate m o tors, g ears, b ea rin g s, and other parts o f re v o lv in g sig n s. D u rin g period s w ith fe w se r v ic e c a lls , re pairers w h o w ork for sig n m anu factu ring c o m p a n ie s m ay h elp a ssem b le s ig n s . S o m e repairers a lso in stall sig n s. Q u ite o fte n , w ork ers in large sig n co m p a n ies sp e c ia liz e in a particular p h ase o f sig n Mechanics and Repairers/337 repair. T h e se sp ecia lists inclu de: sign electri cians, neon tube benders, sign sheet metal workers, and plastics fabricators. R epairers u se c o m m o n h an d tools and p o w er to o ls , su ch as screw d rivers, p liers, sa w s, d rills, and electric testin g d e v ic e s su ch as am m eters and voltm eters to locate and fix m a lfu n ctio n in g electric parts. W h en rep lacing bu rned-out parts, su ch as lam p s or flashers in illu m in ated p la stic s ig n s , repairers m ay refer to w irin g diagram s and charts. R epairers u su a lly m u st fill o u t reports n ot in g the d a te, p la c e , and nature o f serv ice c a lls. T h ey a lso m ay estim ate the c o st o f serv ice c a lls and se ll m ain ten an ce contracts to sig n ow n ers. Working Conditions B eca u se m o st sig n s are o u t-o f-d o o rs, re pairers are e x p o se d to all k in d s o f w eather. T h ey so m etim es m ake em ergen cy repairs at n ig h t, o n w e ek en d s, and o n h o lid a y s. T h ey m ay sp en d m uch tim e travelin g to the site o f a serv ice c a ll. In so m e large c itie s , repairers patrol areas at n ig h t to lo ca te and fix im prop erly operatin g sig n s. T h e w ork can b e dan g e ro u s; h a za rd s in c lu d e e le c tr ic s h o c k s , b u m s, and fa lls from h igh p la c es. T raining program s em p h a sizin g sa fety and eq u ip m en t that a llo w s e a sy a c ce ss to sig n s— su ch as b ask ets o n boom tru ck s— h a v e red u ced the freq u en cy o f a ccid en ts. Employment A n estim a ted 1 6 ,0 0 0 p erson s w ork ed as electric sig n repairers in 1 9 8 0 , prim arily in sm a ll sh o p s that c u sto m b u ild , in sta ll, and serv ice electric sig n s and ad vertisin g d is p la y s. S o m e repairers w orked for m anu fac turing firm s that m ake but d o not service sig n s; others w o rk ed for serv ice firm s that sp ecia lize in in stallation and m ain ten an ce. E lectric sig n repairers w ork throughout the cou n try. H o w e v er , e m p lo y m en t is c o n c en trated in large c itie s and in p o p u lou s S tates, w h ere large num bers o f electric sig n s are u sed . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st electric sig n repairers learn the trade in form ally o n the jo b . In itia lly , they w ork in the sh o p and le a m su ch task s as cu ttin g and a ssem b lin g m etal and plastic s ig n s , m oun tin g n eo n tu b in g , w irin g s ig n s , and in stallin g electric parts. A fter th ey h ave m astered sig n co n stru ctio n , train ees a ccom p an y ex p erien ced repairers on serv ice c a lls to le a m repair and m ain ten an ce tech n iq u es. A t lea st 4 years o f o n -th e-jo b training and e x p erien ce are re quired to b e c o m e a fu lly q u a lified repairer. S o m e p e o p le le a m the trade through sign repairer or electricia n app renticeship pro gram s con d u cted b y u n ion lo c a ls and sig n m anu factu ring sh o p s. A p p ren ticesh ip s u su al ly last 4 y ea rs, em p h a size on -th e-job train in g , and in clu d e cla ssro o m instruction in su b jects su ch as the theory o f electricity and There is much call in the sign industry for neon tube repair. b lu ep rin t r e a d in g . A p p r e n tic e s g e n e r a lly m ust b e at lea st 18 years o ld w ith a high sc h o o l d ip lo m a . U n io n s and the N ation al E lectric S ig n A sso c ia tio n are tryin g to in crease the num ber o f app renticeship pro gram s, so the a v a ilab ility o f th is ty p e o f training sh ou ld in crease in the future. E m p loyers prefer to hire h igh sc h o o l or v o cation al sc h o o l graduates, although m any repairers h a v e le s s ed u cation . C ou rses in m ath em atics, sc ie n c e , e le ctr o n ic s, and b lu e print read in g are h elp fu l to yo u n g p eo p le w h o are interested in learning this trade. R epairers n eed g o o d c o lo r v isio n b ecau se electric w ires are freq uently id en tified by c o l or. T h ey a lso n eed m anual dexterity to han dle to o ls and p h y sica l strength to lift transform ers and other h e a v y eq u ip m en t. B eca u se m u ch o f their w ork is d on e on ladders or from the bask ets o f b oo m tru ck s, repairers can n o t be afraid o f h eigh ts. A ll electric sign repairers m ust b e fam iliar w ith the N ation al E lectric C o d es. M any c itie s require repairers to obtain a lic e n se by p a s s in g an e x a m in a tio n in lo c a l e le c tr ic c o d e s , and in electric th eory and app lication . H ig h ly sk illed repairers m ay b e c o m e su pervisors. A fter g a in in g e x p erien ce in serv ic in g sig n s and d ealin g w ith cu sto m ers, so m e repairers b e c o m e sig n sa le s rep resentatives. T h o se w ith su ffic ien t fu n d s m ay a lso o p en their o w n sig n m anu factu ring or repair sh o p s. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f electric sig n repairers is e x p e cte d to in crease as fa st as the average for all o ccu p ation s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s , as the num ber o f sig n s and ad vertisin g d isp la y s c o n 338/Occupational Outlook Handbook tin u es to g ro w . M ore sig n s w ill b e n eed ed as n e w b u sin e sse s o p en and o ld b u sin e sses ex p a n d and m o d ern ize. S ig n s already in u se w ill co n tin u e to require serv ice b eca u se w ell-m a in ta in ed sig n s are g o o d for b u sin ess. A ls o , m any State and lo ca l g o vern m en ts re quire o w n ers to k eep sig n s and advertisin g d isp la y s attractive. In add ition to n e w jo b s created by g row th in dem an d for sign re pairers, so m e o p en in g s w ill arise as ex p eri e n c ed w orkers transfer to other o c cu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie. T h e sig n and a d vertisin g d isp lay industry is se n sitiv e to dow ntu rn s in the e c o n o m y . H o w e v er , w h en orders for n e w sig n s d eclin e during recessio n a ry p erio d s, sig n co m p an ies n orm ally in ten sify efforts to obtain m ain te nan ce w ork and therefore u su a lly a v o id m ajor la y o ffs. Earnings E arnings o f electric sig n repairers com pare favorab ly w ith th o se o f other sk illed w orkers. T h e hou rly w a g e rate o f e x p erien ced repair ers w a s about $ 1 0 .0 0 in 1 9 8 0 , b ased on a su rvey o f u n ion w a g e s and frin ge b en efits th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y . A p p r e n tic e rates ranged from $ 4 .0 0 to $ 9 .5 0 an hour. M o st electric sig n repairers w ork an 8-hour d a y , 5 d a y s a w e e k , and r ec e iv e prem iu m pay for o v ertim e. T h ey m ay r ec eiv e extra p ay for w o rk in g at h eigh ts ov er 3 0 feet. M an y electric sign repairers b e lo n g to on e th e f o llo w in g u n io n s: T h e In tern a tio n a l B rotherh ood o f E lectrical W ork ers, the S h eet M etal W orkers International A s so c ia tio n , and the International B roth erh ood o f Painters and A llie d T rades. Related Occupations E lectric sig n repairers h a v e a k n o w led g e o f electric theory and electric c o d e s and are sk illed in the u se o f h a n d tools and electric testin g eq u ip m en t. W orkers in other o ccu p a tio n s that require sim ilar k n o w led g e and sk ills in clu d e a u to m o tiv e e le ctr icia n s, cash register servicers, co in -m a ch in e serv icers and repairers, co n v ey o r m ain ten an ce m e ch a n ics, electrical app lian ce repairers, furnace repairers, h o u seh o ld ap p li ance in sta llers, laundry m ach in e m ech a n ics, aircraft a ccesso ry m e ch a n ics, and autom atic pin setter m ech a n ics. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation on e m p lo y m en t op p ortu ni ties in your co m m u n ity , con tact lo ca l sign m anufacturing sh o p s, the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e , or lo ca ls o f the u n ion s p rev io u sly m en tion ed . G eneral in form ation on jo b opp ortu nities and the nature o f the w ork is ava ila b le from: National Electric Sign Association, 1st American Bank Building, 700 Princess St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Line Installers and Cable Splicers______ (D .O .T . 821.261-014 and .361-010, 822.361-010 and .381-014, 829.361-010 and -014 and .667-010) Nature of the Work T he vast netw ork o f w ires and c a b les that co n n ect telep h o n e central o ffic e s to ea ch o th er and to c u sto m e r s’ tele p h o n e s and sw itc h boards is con stru cted and m ain tain ed by lin e in stallers and ca b le sp licers and their h elp ers. T o con stru ct n ew telep h on e lin e s , line in stallers, so m e tim e s ca lled ou tsid e plant te ch n ician s or con stru ction lin e w ork ers, p lace w ires and ca b les that lead from the central o ffic e to c u sto m e rs’ p rem ises. T h ey use p o w er-d riven eq u ip m en t to d ig h o le s and set in telep h o n e p o le s that support ca b les. L ine in stallers clim b the p o le s or use truck-m oun ted bu ck ets (aerial w ork p latform s) to attach the c a b le s , u su ally lea v in g the en d s free for cab le sp licers to co n n e c t later. In c itie s w h ere te le p h on e lin es are b e lo w the streets, installers p la ce ca b les in underground co n d u its. O n con stru ction jo b s , in stallers w ork in c re w s o f tw o person s or m ore. A su pervisor m ay d i rect the w ork o f several c rew s. W hen w ires or c a b les break or a p o le is k n o ck ed d o w n , lin e installers often are ca lled upon to m ake em er g en cy repairs. T h e se re pairs are m ost c o m m o n in parts o f the c o u n try that h a v e h u rr ica n es, to r n a d o e s, and h ea v y sn o w fa lls. T h e lin ecrew su p ervisor k eep s in radio con tact w ith the central o ffic e , w h ich d irects the crew to prob lem lo ca tio n s on the lin es. S o m e in stallers p erio d ica lly in sp ect se c tio n s o f lin es in rural areas and m ake m inor repairs. A fter lin e installers p la c e c a b les on p o le s or in underground co n d u its, cable splicers, so m etim es called cab le sp licin g tech n icia n s, g e n e r a lly c o m p le te th e lin e c o n n e c t io n s . S p licers w ork on p o le s , on aerial ladders and p latform s, in m a n h o le s, or in b asem en ts o f la rg e b u ild in g s . T h e y c o n n e c t in d iv id u a l w ires w ith in the ca b le and rearrange w ires w h en lin es h a v e to be c h a n g ed . A t each s p lic e , they p lace in su lation o v er the sp liced co n d u ctor, and seal the sp lic e w ith a lead s le e v e or c o v e r the sp lic e w ith so m e other typ e o f p rotective c o v er in g . T h ey fill the c a b le sh e a th in g o n c ritic a l tr a n sm iss io n routes w ith co m p ressed air so that leak s in the sh eath in g can be m on itored and repaired. S p licers a lso install term inal b o x e s that co n n e c t c u sto m e rs’ telep h o n es to o u tsid e ca b le s. A n in n ovation in telep h o n e co n n e c tin g , th ese term inal b o x e s are o ften p laced in the b asem en ts o f apartm ent b u ild in gs or other b u ild in g s con tain in g m an y telep h on e c u sto m ers. W hen a telep h o n e in staller w ish e s to co n n ect or d isco n n ect a c u sto m e r ’s te le p h o n e , it can be d on e q u ick ly at the term inal b o x . S p licers m ay a lso m aintain and repair c a b le s, alth ou gh in m any p la ces this is d on e by a separate group o f w orkers ca lled ca b le repair tech n icia n s. P reven tive m aintenance w ork is e x tre m ely im portant, b eca u se a sin g le d e fe ct in a ca b le m ay se r io u sly interrupt serv ice. M an y trou b le sp ots are lo ca ted through air pressure or electrica l tests. Working Conditions L in e in stallers and ca b le sp licers u su a lly w ork ou td oors. T h ey m u st d o a lo t o f c lim b in g and liftin g , and often w ork in sto o p ed and cram p ed p o sitio n s underground. T h ey fa c e certain hazards su ch as fa lls and electric sh o c k s, but th ese h a v e b een greatly reduced b y sa fety p recau tion s d e v e lo p ed o v er the years. L ik e all telep h o n e co m p a n y em p lo y e e s , lin e in stallers and ca b le sp licers are su b je c t to 24-h ou r c a ll. For e x a m p le , w h en se v e r e w e a th e r d a m a g e s te le p h o n e l in e s , th ese w orkers m ay b e ca lled u p on to w ork lo n g and irregular hours to restore se r v ic e. A t tim es th ey m ay travel to distan t lo c a tio n s— and o c c a s io n a lly stay for a p eriod o f tim e— to h elp restore d a m a g ed fa c ilitie s or b u ild n e w o n e s. Employment T e le p h o n e c o m p a n ie s e m p lo y e d a b o u t 7 0 ,0 0 0 o f th ese w ork ers in 1 9 8 0 , in clu d in g about 3 3 ,0 0 0 lin e in stallers and 3 7 ,0 0 0 ca b le sp licers. N ea rly all w ere e m p lo y ed fu ll tim e. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement L in e in staller is an entry le v e l jo b . L ocal hiring p o lic ie s vary, and so m e em p lo y er s no lo n g e r require a h igh sc h o o l d ip lo m a . H igh sc h o o l co u rses are v a lu a b le , h o w ev e r, for d e v e lo p in g the read in g and arithm etic sk ills esse n tia l for u n derstand in g co m p a n y m anu als and w ork orders. A p p lica n ts are tested for m ech a n ica l aptitude and m ust h a v e a d riv er’s lic e n se to drive c o m p a n y v e h ic le s to w ork site s. K n o w le d g e o f the b a sic p rin cip les o f electricity and training in in sta llin g telep h o n e sy stem s w ith the A rm ed F o rces m ay be h elp fu l. P h y sica l e x a m in a tio n s are g iv e n , sin ce lin e and cab le w ork is stren u o u s, and ap p li cants m u st b e unafraid o f h e ig h ts. T h e ab ility to d istin gu ish c o lo r s is n ecessa ry b eca u se w ires u su ally are co d e d by co lo r. M o tiv a tio n , se lf-d isc ip lin e , and the ab ility to w ork in a team are n eed ed to im p lem en t w ork instruc tio n s and sa fety p roced u res. T rain in g program s for lin e installers and ca b le sp licers in clu d e cla ssr o o m instruction as w e ll as o n -th e-jo b training. C la ssro o m s are eq u ip p ed w ith actual telep h o n e appara tu s, su ch as p o le s, ca b le-su p p o rtin g cla m p s, and other fixtu res to sim u la te w ork in g c o n d itio n s as c lo s e l y as p o s s ib le . T r a in ee s learn to clim b p o le s w h ile k eep in g their hands free to w ork . For e x a m p le , in o n e cla ssro o m e x e r c ise , th ey p lay catch w ith a bask etb all w h ile on the p o le s. T rain ees a lso are taught sa fe w ork in g practices to a v o id fa lls and con tact w ith p o w er w ires. C la ss room train in g, w h ich a lso in clu d es instruc tion in electrica l c o d e s , b lu ep rint read in g, and b eg in n in g e lectrica l th eo ry , is fo llo w e d b y o n -th e -jo b tr a in in g . T r a in e e s are a s- Mechanics and Repairers/339 sig n ed to a crew to w o rk w ith ex p erien ced lin e installers under a lin e su pervisor. C ab le sp licers o ften c o m e from the ranks o f lin e installer-repairers. A p p lican ts take a test fo r m ech a n ica l aptitude and m u st h a v e a d riv er’s lic e n se . M an y telep h o n e com p an ies p ro v id e 4 to 6 w e ek s o f c la sse s at a training sc h o o l eq u ip p ed w ith standard m a n h o les, ca b le s , and other eq u ip m en t on w h ich trainees practice; afterw ards, training con tin u es on the jo b for abou t 2 years. In add ition to the training b y telep h on e c o m p a n ie s, lin e and ca b le w orkers m ay at tend a training sc h o o l p rovid ed b y m anu fac turers w h o s e ll ca b le in stallation equ ip m en t to telep h o n e co m p a n ies. A t other tim es, m anufacturers sen d instructors to the jo b site. S o m e sm a ll, in d ep en d en t telep h o n e c o m p a n ies, particularly th o se in rural areas, d o not h a v e adequate fa c ilitie s to train their e m p lo y e e s . T h erefo re, th ey m ay rely on lo ca l v o ca tio n a l and tech n ica l sc h o o ls to p rovid e cla ssro o m training to craft e m p lo y ee s. L in e in stallers and ca b le sp licers con tin u e to r ec eiv e training through out their careers, to q u a lify for m ore d ifficu lt assign m en ts and to k eep up w ith tech n o lo g ic a l ch a n ges. T h ey m ay r ec eiv e this con tin u in g ed u cation n ot ju st fro m telep h o n e c o m p a n ie s, but a lso from short co u rses in c o lle g e s , u n iv ersities, private firm s, and state telep h o n e a sso ciation s. F or lin e in sta llers, ad v a n cem en t m ay c o m e about through prom otion to a m ore h ig h ly sk illed telep h o n e craft jo b su ch as cab le sp lic er , telep h o n e in staller or repairer, or central o ffic e repairer. P rom otion to a super v iso ry p o sitio n a lso is p o s sib le . L in e su pervi sors m an age the w ork o f th e crew and m ust b e a b le to dem onstrate and ex p la in sk ills to n e w w orkers. C ab le sp licers m ay transfer to other te le p h o n e craft jo b s , su ch as central o ffic e eq u ip m ent installer or P B X in staller, or m ay m o v e in to other kin ds o f w o rk , su ch as sa le s. Pro m o tio n a lso is p o ssib le to crew su p ervisor or instructor o f n e w e m p lo y e e s. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f lin e in stallers and cab le sp licers is e x p e cte d to sh o w little ch an ge through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. M ech an ical im p rove m en ts, su ch as p lo w s that can d ig a tren ch , lay ca b le, and c o v er it in a sin g le op eration , h a v e elim in a ted m u ch o f th e h eavier p h y sica l w ork o f th e lin ecrew s and h a v e cau sed reduc tions- in crew s iz e . A ls o , satellites and other electro n ic d e v ic e s su ch as m icro w a v e s y s tem s are e x p e cte d to carry an in creasin g v o l u m e o f telep h o n e tra ffic, thus red ucin g the em p h a sis o n ca b le in sta llation . N e w k in ds o f sp lic e s and the telep h o n e sp lic in g van that u ses a self-co n ta in ed e n g in e to heat and v e n tilate m a n h o les and d rive p o w er to o ls and eq u ip m en t w ill con tin u e to im p rove the e f fi c ie n c y o f ca b le sp lic er s, thus lim itin g the n eed for add ition al w o rk ers. T h e p o sitio n o f h elp er to ca b le sp licers and lin e in stallers is b e in g ph a sed o u t. T hu s there w ill b e fe w o p en in g s in this area. Line installers and cable splicers need to be safety conscious. N e v e r th e le s s, so m e e m p lo y m en t grow th m ay o ccu r d u e to the n eed to m od ern ize old ca b les or rep lace th em w ith n e w w aterp roof o n e s. In a d d ition , so m e jo b o p e n in g s w ill o ccu r as e x p erien ced w orkers transfer to oth er o c cu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie. A lth o u g h te ch n o lo g ic a l a d van ces h ave re d u ced lab or req uirem en ts in th ese and other telep h o n e crafts, la y o ffs are rare. U n n eed ed w orkers u su a lly are g iv e n a ch o ice: T h ey can transfer to other g eograp h ic areas w h ere th ey are n e e d e d , or b e retrained and p laced in another jo b . T elep h o n e co m p a n ies lay o f f w orkers o n ly as a last resort and h ave d o h e s o in freq u en tly in recen t years. T h e p o lic y o f p referen ce for co m p an y e m p lo y ee s m ay h o w ev e r lim it the num ber o f jo b o p e n in g s ava ila b le to others o v er the co m in g d ecad e. Earnings P ay rates for lin e in stallers and ca b le sp lic ers vary greatly across the country; sp ec ific in form ation m ay b e ob tain ed from lo ca l te le p h o n e co m p a n ies. E arnings a lso d ep en d on len gth o f se r v ic e. It g en erally takes 5 years to g o from the b ottom to the top o f th e pay sc a le . In 1 9 8 0 , average hou rly pay fo r lin e in sta lle r s w a s $ 9 .3 0 ; fo r c a b le s p lic e r s , $ 1 0 .2 8 ; an d fo r c a b le s p li c e r s ’ h e lp e r s , $ 7 .3 8 . B y co m p a riso n , n on su p erv iso ry w ork ers in all private in d u stry, e x ce p t farm in g, averaged $ 6 .6 6 an hour. M o st lin e installers and ca b le sp licers b e lo n g to u n io n s, p rin cip ally the. C o m m u n ica tio n s W orkers o f A m erica , the International B rotherh ood o f E lectrical W orkers, and the T e le c o m m u n ic a tio n s In ter n a tio n a l U n io n . F or th ese w ork ers, u n ion contracts set w a g e 340/Occupational Outlook Handbook rates, w a g e in crea ses, and the tim e n eed ed to a d van ce from o n e step to the n ext. T h ese contracts require extra p ay for w ork b eyon d the norm al 8 hou rs a day or 5 days a w e e k , and fo r all w ork on Su nd ays and h o lid a y s. M o st contracts p rovid e for add ition al p ay for nigh tw ork . T im e in serv ice d eterm in es the len gth o f paid v a ca tio n s. In gen era l, contracts p rovid e for a 1 -w eek vacation b eg in n in g w ith 6 m onth s o f service; 2 -w e e k s for 1 to 6 years; 3 -w e e k s for 7 to 14 years; 4 -w e e k s for 15 to 2 4 years; and 5 -w e e k s for 25 years and o v er. D ep en d in g o n the lo ca lity there are 9 to 11 h o lid a y s a year. O ther p ro v isio n s in c o n tracts in clu d e the fo llo w in g : Paid sick leave; group lif e , m ed ica l, and dental insurance; sick n ess and accid en t b en efits; retirem ent and d isa b ility p en sio n s; a sa v in g s plan; and an e m p lo y ee sto ck o w n ersh ip plan. Related Occupations W orkers in other sk illed crafts and trades w h o d o m anual w ork w ith to o ls and m a ch in es in clu d e a u tom ob ile m e ch a n ics, b io m ed ica l eq u ip m en t tech n icia n s, carpenters, c e m e n t m a s o n s , e le c t r ic ia n s , m a c h in is ts , p lu m b ers, sound tech n icia n s, toolm ak ers, and w eld ers. the electricia n is e m p lo y ed . E lectrician s w h o w ork in large factories m ay repair particular item s su ch as m otors and w eld in g m ach in es. T h o se in o ffic e b u ild in g s and sm all plants u su ally fix all kinds o f electrica l eq u ip m en t. R egard less o f lo ca tio n , e lectricia n s sp en d m uch o f their tim e d o in g p reven tive m ain te n an ce— p eriod ic in sp ectio n o f eq u ip m en t to lo ca te and correct d e fe cts b efore breakdow ns occu r. W hen trouble o c cu rs, they m ust fin d the cau se and m ake repairs q u ick ly to preven t c o stly production lo s s e s . T h ey m ay a d vise m an agem en t w h eth er con tin u ed operation o f eq u ip m en t w ou ld b e hazardous. M ain ten ance electrician s m ake repairs by rep lacin g item s su ch as a lam p, so c k e t, le n s, fu s e , sw itc h , or w ire. W hen rep lacin g a w ire, they first m ake sure the p ow er is o ff. W ork ers then pull the o ld w ire from the con d u it (a pip e or tube) and pull the n ew w ire through to rep lace the o ld . O n ce the n e w w ire is co n n e c ted , they test to m ake sure the circu it is c o m p lete and fu n ction in g properly. M ain ten ance electrician s so m e tim e s work from b lu ep rints, w irin g d iagram s, or other sp ec ific a tio n s. T h ey u se m eters and other testin g d e v ic e s to lo ca te fau lty eq u ip m en t. T o m ake repairs they u se p liers, screw d rivers, w irecu tters, d rills, and other to o ls. Sources of Additional Information For m ore d etails abou t e m p lo y m en t opp or tu n ities, con tact the telep h on e co m p an y in your com m u n ity or lo ca l o ffic e s o f the un io n s that represent telep h o n e w orkers. For general inform ation on lin e in staller and ca b le sp licer jo b s , w rite to: Working Conditions D u ring a sin g le d a y , an electrician m ay repair eq u ip m en t both in a c le a n , a ir-co n d i tio n ed o ffic e and on a fa ctory flo o r, sur round ed b y the n o is e , o il, and grea se o f m ach in ery. E lectrician s o ften c lim b ladders or w ork o n sc a ffo ld s in aw k w ard or cram p ed p o sitio n s. B e c a u s e m a in te n a n c e e le c tr ic ia n s w o r k near h ig h -v o lta g e industrial eq u ip m en t, they m u st b e alert and accu rate. Errors in w irin g in stallation s co u ld en d an ger both the electri cian and oth er e m p lo y e e s. S a fe ty p rin cip les, w h ich are a part o f all electricia n training p rogram s, h a v e red u ced the freq u en cy o f a c cid en ts. E lectrician s are taught to u se protec tiv e eq u ip m en t and c lo th in g , to resp ect the d estru ctive p oten tial o f e le c tr ic ity , and to fig h t sm all electrical fires. Employment A b ou t 2 7 0 ,0 0 0 m ain ten a n ce electricia n s w ere e m p lo y ed in 1 9 8 0 . A b o u t h a lf o f them w ork ed in m anu factu ring ind ustries; large nu m bers w ork ed in plants that m ake auto m o b ile s , sh ip s, m a ch in ery , c h e m ic a ls , and iron and s te e l. M an y m ain ten an ce electri cia n s a lso w ere e m p lo y ed by p u b lic u tilities, m in e s, railroads, and F ed era l, S tate, and lo ca l g o v ern m en ts. S o m e w ere se lf-em p lo y e d contractors. L ik e the gen eral p o p u la tio n , m ain ten an ce electricia n s are concen trated in in d u strialized and urban areas. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20005. Telecommunications International Union, P.O. Box 5462, Hamden, Conn. 06518. For general inform ation o n the in d ep en dent (n o n -B ell) telep h on e industry and career opp ortu nities in it, req uest c o p ies o f “ In de pend en t P h o n e fa c ts” and “ Is It for Y ou ? A Career in the In depend en t T elep h o n e Indus try ” from: United States Independent Telephone Association, 1801 K St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. Maintenance Electricians________ (D.O.T. 729.381-018; 820.261, .381-010; 821.381-014; 822.261-010, -018; 824.281-010, .381-010, .681-010; 825.281 except -038, .381; 828.381-010; 829.281-014, .361-010, and -014; 952.381-010; and 962.381-014) Nature of the Work M ain ten ance e lectricia n s k eep ligh tin g sy s tem s, transform ers, gen erators, and other electrica l eq u ip m en t in g o o d w ork in g order. T h ey a lso m ay install n ew electrical eq u ip m ent. (C on stru ctio n ele ctr ica n s, w h o a ssem b le , in sta ll, and w ire electrical sy s te m s , are d isc u sse d elsew h e re in the Handbook.) D u ties vary g reatly, d ep en d in g on w h ere Maintenance electricians spend much of their time testing equipment. Mechanics and Repairers/341 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M ain ten an ce e lectricia n s m ay learn their trade o n th e jo b or through form al appren ticesh ip program s. A rela tiv ely sm a ll num ber learn the trade in the A rm ed F o rces. T raining auth orities g en era lly a g ree that app renticeship g iv e s train ees m ore thorough k n o w led g e o f the trade and im p ro v ed jo b op p ortu n ities during their w ork in g life . B e ca u se the training is c o m p reh en siv e, p eo p le w h o c o m p lete appren ticesh ip program s m ay q u a lify eith er as m ain te nan ce o r co n stru ction electricia n s. A p pren tice sh ip u su a lly la sts 4 y ea rs, and c o n sists o f o n -th e-jo b training and related c la ssro o m in struction in su b jects su ch as m ath em atics, electrica l and electro n ic th eory, and blueprint read in g. T rain in g m ay in clu d e m otor repair, w ire sp lic in g , in stallation and repair o f e le c tronic con tro ls and circu its, and w e ld in g and brazing. S o m e p e o p le learn the trade in form ally on the jo b b y serv in g as help ers to sk illed m ain ten an ce e lectricia n s. H elp ers b egin b y d oin g sim p le jo b s su ch as rep lacin g fu ses or reset ting sw itc h e s an d , w ith e x p e rien ce , advan ce to m ore co m p lica ted jo b s su ch as sp licin g and co n n ectin g w ires. T h ey e v en tu a lly g et en o u g h ex p e rien ce to q u a lify as electricia n s. T h is m eth od o f learning the trade, h o w ev e r, m ay take co n sid era b ly lo n g er than 4 years. P erson s interested in b e c o m in g m ain te nan ce electricia n s can ob tain a g o o d b ack ground b y taking h ig h sc h o o l or vocation al sc h o o l co u rses in e le ctr icity , e le ctr o n ic s, al g eb ra, m ech a n ica l d ra w in g, sh o p , and s c i e n c e . T o q u a lify fo r an a p p re n tic esh ip p rogram , an app licant m u st b e at lea st 18 years o ld and u su ally m ust b e a h igh sc h o o l or v o ca tio n a l sc h o o l graduate w ith 1 year o f algebra. A lth o u g h p h y sica l strength is n ot e sse n tia l, m anual d ex terity , a g ility , and g o o d health are im portant. G o o d c o lo r v isio n is n ecessary b eca u se electrica l w ires freq u en tly are id en ti fied by co lo r. A ll m ain ten an ce electricia n s sh ou ld be fa m iliar w ith the N a tio n a l E lectric C od e and lo ca l electric and b u ild in g c o d e s. M an y lo c a lities require m ain ten an ce electricia n s to b e lic e n se d . E lectricia n s can g e t a lic e n se b y p a ssin g an ex a m in a tio n that tests their k n o w l e d g e o f electrica l theory and its ap p lication . S o m e m ain ten an ce electricia n s b e c o m e su perv iso rs. O cc a sio n a lly , they ad van ce to jo b s su ch as plant electrica l su perintend en t or plan t m ain ten an ce superintend en t. S o m e start their o w n contracting b u sin e ss e s , w h ich re qu ires a lic e n se in m any areas. Job Outlook E m p loy m en t o f m aintenance e lectricia n s is e x p e cte d to in crease about as fa st as the a v e r a g e fo r a ll o c c u p a tio n s th rou gh the 1 9 8 0 ’s. A s the e co n o m y g r o w s, m ore electri cia n s w ill b e n eed ed to m aintain electrical sy stem s u sed b y industry. In add ition to n ew jo b s created b y the in creased n eed for th ese w o rk ers, m any o p en in g s w ill arise eagh year to rep lace e x p erien ced electrician s w h o lea v e the o c cu p a tio n , retire, or d ie. E m p lo y m en t o f m aintenance electrician s is le s s se n sitiv e to ups and d o w n s in the e c o n o m y than em p lo y m en t o f con stru ction electri cia n s. H o w e v er , so m e m ain ten an ce electri cia n s m ay b e laid o f f during r ec essio n s, par ticu larly e lectricia n s w ork in g in the auto m o b ile , ste e l, and other in d u stries that are se n sitiv e to c y c lic a l sw in g s in the e c o n o m y . W h en con stru ction a ctivity is d ep ressed , b egin n ers m ay fa ce s t if f co m p etition for job o p en in g s b ecau se so m e u n em p lo y ed c o n struction e lectricia n s ap p ly for th ese o p e n in g s. O pp ortun ities m ay b e m ore favorab le in the Sou th and W est than in other region s o f the N ation . Earnings In 1 9 8 0 , b a sed o n a su rvey o f m etropolitan a r ea s, m a in te n a n c e e le c tr ic ia n s a v e ra g e d $ 1 0 .1 8 an hou r, com p ared w ith $ 6 .6 6 an hour for all n on su p ervisory and production w orkers in private ind ustry, e x ce p t farm in g. E arnings o f m ain ten an ce e lectricia n s varied b y lo ca tio n , w ith th e lo w e st w a g e s in the N orth east and Sou th and the h ig h est w a g e s in the M id w e st and W est. A p p ren tices start at about 4 0 or 5 0 p ercent o f the sk illed e le ctr icia n ’s hou rly p ay rate and gen era lly r ec eiv e in creases ev ery 6 m onth s. A m o n g u n io n s o r g a n iz in g m a in te n a n c e electricia n s are the International B rotherhood o f E lectrical W orkers; the International U n ion o f E lectrica l, R ad io and M ach in e W orkers; the International A sso c ia tio n o f M ach in ists and A ero sp a ce W orkers; the International U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp a ce and A g ricu l tural Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica (In d .); and the U n ited Steelw ork ers o f A m erica. Related Occupations M ain ten an ce e lectricia n s co m b in e m anual sk ill and a k n o w led g e o f electricity to c le a n , repair, and rep lace electrical d e v ic e s. O ther w orkers w h o h ave sim ilar sk ills are air-con d i tio n in g in stallers, con stru ction electricia n s, electrical app lian ce repairers, electro n ics m e c h a n ic s, elev a to r con stru ctors, and lin e and ca b le installers. Sources of Additional Information In form ation about ap p ren ticesh ip s or other w ork opp ortu nities in d ie trade is availab le from lo ca l firm s that e m p lo y m aintenance ele ctr icia n s, and from lo ca l u n ion -m an age m en t app renticeship co m m itte es. In add ition , the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t ser v ic e m ay p rovid e inform ation about training op p ortu n ities. S o m e State e m p lo y m en t ser v ic e o ffic e s screen app licants and g iv e apti tude tests. F or gen eral in form ation about the w ork o f e lectricia n s, contact: International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. National Electrical Contractors Association, 7315 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20814. National Association of Lighting Maintenance Contractors, 313 Price Place, Suite 110, Madison, Wis. 53705. Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., 1101 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, D.C. 20036. National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Com mittee for the Electrical Industry, 9700-E George Palmer Hwy., Lanham, Md. 20706. Telephone and PBX Installers and Repairers__________ (D .O .T . 822.261-022, .281-018 and -022, and .381-018) Nature of the Work T elep h o n e and P B X installers and repair ers are craft w orkers w h o in sta ll, se r v ic e, and repair telep h on es and sw itch b oard sy stem s o n c u sto m e r s’ property. S o m e tim es referred to as se r v ic es and sy stem s tech n icia n s, they g en erally travel to c u sto m e r s’ h o m es and o f fic e s in v e h ic le s eq u ip p ed w ith telep h o n e to o ls and su p p lies. W h en cu stom ers m o v e or req u est n e w ty p es o f s e r v ic e , installers relo cate telep h on es or m ak e ch a n g es o n ex istin g eq u ip m en t. For e x a m p le, th ey m ay install a sw itch b oard in an o ffic e , or ch a n g e a tw o party lin e to a sin gle-p arty lin e in a resi d e n c e . In stallers a lso m ay fill a c u sto m e r ’s req uest to add an e x ten sio n in another ro o m , or to rep lace an old telep h on e w ith a n e w m o d el. Telephone installers, so m etim es ca lled sta tion in stallers, in stall and rem ove telep h o n es in h o m es and b u sin ess p la c es. T h ey co n n ect telep h o n es to ou tsid e serv ice w ires and so m e tim es m ust c lim b p o le s to m ake th ese c o n n e c tio n s. O cc a sio n a lly , e sp e c ia lly in apartm ent b u ild in g s, the serv ice w ires or term inals are in the b a sem en t o f the b u ild in g. In m any large b u ild in g c o m p le x e s, th ese w ires or term inals are located in w ire c lo s e ts . PBX installers sp ec ia liz e in m ore co m p lex telep h o n e sy stem in stallation s. T h ey co n n ect w ires from term inals to sw itchb oard s and m ake tests to c h e ck their in stallation s. S o m e P B X installers a lso se t up eq u ip m en t for m o b ile r a d io te le p h o n e s , d ata p r o c e s s in g eq u ip m en t, and telep h on e sw itchb oard sy s tem s for radio and te le v is io n broadcasts that r ec eiv e p h on e c a lls from the aud ien ce. Telephone repairers, a ssisted by trouble locators in the central o f f ic e , lo ca te trouble on c u sto m e rs’ eq u ip m en t. A repairer fin d s the sou rce o f the p rob lem b y co n n ectin g a test se t to the c u sto m e r ’s telep h o n e lin e and then testin g in con ju n ction w ith the trouble locator in the central o ffic e . PBX repairers, w ith the a ssista n ce o f trouble lo ca to rs, locate trouble o n cu sto m e r s ’ P B X , C E N T R E X , or other telep h o n e sy stem s and m ak e the n ecessa ry repairs. T h ey a lso m aintain asso cia ted equ ip m en t su ch as b atteries, r ela y s, and pow erplants. 342/Occupational Outlook Handbook Som e PBX repairers m aintain and repair eq u ip m en t for radio and te le v is io n broad c a sts, m o b ile ra d iotelep h on es, and data proc e ssin g eq u ip m en t. Working Conditions T elep h o n e and P B X in stallers and repair ers w ork in m any k in ds o f p la c e s , both in d oors and ou td o o rs, and in all kinds o f w eather. T h eir w ork in v o lv e s liftin g , c lim b in g , r e a c h in g , s to o p in g , c r o u c h in g , and cra w lin g . B e ca u se telep h on e serv ice m ust be m aintained at all tim e s , th ese w orkers are su b ject to 24 -h o u r c a ll, as are all telep h on e com p a n y e m p lo y e e s. T h ey m ay b e ca lle d in to w ork w h en break d ow n s occu r in lin es or eq u ip m en t. Employment A lm o st 1 3 0 ,0 0 0 telep h o n e and P B X in stallers and repairers w ere e m p lo y ed in 1980. T h e vast m ajority w ork ed fu ll tim e. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A p p lican ts for the jo b o f telep h o n e in sta ll er or repairer m ust h a v e the ab ility to learn a craft, and m ay have to take a m ech an ical aptitude test. W orkers in th ese jo b s m ust be adept at h an d lin g sm all to o ls, su ch as pliers and screw d rivers, and k n ow h o w to read blu ep rints and interpret w ork orders. L ocal hiring practices vary, but m any e m p lo y ers no lon g er require a h igh sc h o o l d ip lo m a for te le p h on e craft jo b s . H o w e v er , app licants m ust be ab le to read and understand com p an y m anu als and d irection s for telep h on e in stalla tion and repair. T r a in ee s u s u a lly are c h o s e n fr o m the ranks o f telep h on e co m p a n y e m p lo y e e s su ch as op erators, clerical w o rk ers, and lin e in stallers. A b a sic k n o w le d g e o f electricity and e le c tr o n ic s, and telep h o n e training in the A rm ed F o rc es, are a ssets in b ein g ac cep ted for training. In a d d itio n , app licants m u st h a v e g o o d e y e s ig h t and the ab ility to d istin g u ish c o lo r s. P h y sica l ex a m in a tio n s are req uired b e c a u se the w ork m ay in v o lv e stren uou s a ctiv ity su ch as clim b in g p o le s. P ractical p r o b le m -so lv in g ab ility is e s s e n tia l, as in all repair jo b s . B e ca u se th ese w orkers d eal w ith the p u b lic, a p leasan t and p atient d isp o sitio n is an advan tage. T e le p h o n e installer-repairer train ees re c e iv e c la ssr o o m instruction in su b jects su ch as electrica l and e lectro n ic th eo ry . P ractical instruction is p rovid ed in training fa cilities eq u ip p ed w ith telep h o n e p o le s , lin e s and ca b le s , term inal b o x e s , and oth er eq u ip m en t. T h ere, in a sim u lated w ork en v iro n m en t, train ees p ractice in stallin g telep h o n es and co n n e c tin g w ires ju st as th ey w o u ld o n the jo b . A fter a m onth o f cla ssr o o m train in g, n e w e m p lo y e e s are a ssig n ed to a ssist ex p eri e n c ed w orkers b efore g o in g ou t a lo n e to in stall te le p h o n e s. B e ca u se m an y sm a ll, ind ep en d en t te le p h on e c o m p a n ie s, e sp e c ia lly in rural areas, d o n ot h a v e training fa c ilitie s , they use v o c a tion al and tech n ica l sc h o o ls in th ese areas to train te le p h o n e in stallers and repairers. If travel is required during training— to a re g io n a l tr a in in g s c h o o l, fo r e x a m p le — the c o m p a n y p a y s the c o st. T h e jo b s o f P B X in staller or repairer re quire p rev io u s training and e x p e rien ce in the in stallation o f c o m m u n ica tio n eq u ip m en t. T h ese are n ot entry le v e l jo b s . O ften , the n ecessa ry e x p e rien ce is o b tain ed as an in sta ller -re p a ir er o f te le p h o n e s in p riv a te h o m e s. T h e n e w P B X in sta ller u su a lly b e g in s b y w ork in g w ith b a sic P B X eq u ip m en t and gradually learn s, through cla ssr o o m and o n -th e-jo b train in g, to install in crea sin g ly c o m p le x apparatus. Further a d v a n cem en t to P B X repairer requires m ore e x p e rien ce , o n th e-job train in g, and cla ssr o o m train in g. T e le p h o n e craft w orkers r ec e iv e training through out their careers to q u a lify for m ore r e s p o n s ib le a s s ig n m e n ts an d to k e e p up w ith te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s. C ou rses are o f fe r e d b y c o l l e g e s , u n iv e r s it ie s , p riv a te firm s, and State telep h o n e a sso cia tio n s, as w e ll as b y the telep h o n e c o m p a n ies th em s e lv e s . W ith further train in g, telep h o n e in staller-repairers can a d v a n ce to su p ervisor, to sa le s and cu stom er se r v ic e jo b s or, w ith ad d ition al stu d y o f e le c tr o n ic s, to m ore ad v a n ced tech n ica l jo b s su ch as co m m u n ica tio n s eq u ip m en t tech n icia n . Job Outlook After putting in a telephone, the installer tests it to be sure that it works properly. E m p lo y m en t o f telep h o n e installers and re pairers is e x p e cte d to in crea se about as fast as the a verage for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. H o w e v e r , m o st jo b o p e n in g s w ill arise from the n eed to rep la ce w orkers w h o transfer to other o c cu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . T h e se o p e n in g s u su ally are fille d by w orkers in oth er telep h o n e jo b s , su ch as operators, Mechanics and Repairers/343 serv ice rep resen tatives, clerk s, or drivers, but so m e sh ou ld b e availa b le to n ew e m p lo y ee s. E m p lo y m en t w ill in crease du e to the g ro w ing dem and for telep h o n es and P B X and C E N T R E X sy stem s, a lev e l o f dem and that is e x p e cte d to o u tw eig h the e ffe c t o f tech n o lo g ic a l ad v a n ce. E m p lo y m en t is ex p ected to in crease m o st rapidly in the S o u th w est and other areas w h ere the pop u lation is grow in g rapidly. C om m u n ities near m ilitary b ases or c o lle g e s , w h ere there is substantial m o v e m ent in and o u t, w ill con tin u e to provide rela tiv ely strong dem and for telep h on e instal lation s and rem o v a ls. T e ch n o lo g ic a l im p rovem en ts w ill n on eth e le s s con tin u e to lim it e m p lo y m en t grow th for telep h o n e craftw orkers during the 1 9 8 0 ’s. T elep h o n e installation and repair are b e c o m ing less labor in ten siv e as a result o f ch an ges su ch as w irin g b u ild in g s for telep h on e service during con stru ction so that, later o n , the c u s tom er m ay se lec t a telep h o n e, take it h o m e , and p lu g it in — e ffe c tiv e ly elim in atin g the fu n ctio n s o f the installer. T h e m odular a s sem b ly o f te le p h o n e s, w h ere com p on en ts plu g in and o u t, is red ucin g the tim e and sk ills need ed for repair. to o ls and m ach in es in clu d e autom ob ile m e c h a n ic s, b io m ed ica l eq u ip m en t tech n icia n s, carp en ters, c em en t m a so n s, e lectricia n s, m a c h in ists, p lu m b ers, sou n d tech n icia n s, toolm akers, and w eld ers. Sources of Additional Information For m ore d etails abou t e m p lo y m en t opp or tu n ities, con tact the telep h on e co m p an y in your com m u n ity or lo ca l o ffic e s o f the un io n s that represent telep h on e w orkers. For general inform ation on telep h on e and P B X installer and repairer jo b s , w rite to: International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Telecommunications International Union, P.O. Box 5462, Hamden, Conn. 06518. For general in form ation on the in d ep en dent (n o n -B ell) telep h on e industry and career opp ortu nities in it, req uest c o p ies o f “ In de p end en t P h o n e fa c ts” and “ Is It for Y ou ? A Career in the In depend en t T elep h o n e In du s tr y ” from: United States Independent Telephone Association, 1801 K St. NW., Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. Related Occupations O ther sk illed w orkers w h o se jo b s require m anual d exterity and tech n ical k n o w led g e o f Working Conditions S erv ice tech n ician s w ork in sh o p s or c u s to m er s’ h o m es and w ork in g co n d itio n s gen er a lly are g o o d . T h ey u su ally w ork a lo n e and r ec eiv e little su p ervision . T ech n icia n s w h o serv ice te le v isio n sets in h o m es m ay d o c o n siderable d rivin g. H azards in the trade in clu d e electrical sh ock and strains from liftin g and carrying. S erv ice tech n ician s g en erally w ork 4 0 -4 4 hours per w e e k , u su ally in 5 or 5 1/2 d ays. Employment Earnings Pay sca les vary greatly across the country; sp e c ific inform ation m ay b e ob tain ed from lo ca l telep h o n e co m p a n ies. E arnings a lso d e pend o n len gth o f se r v ic e. G en era lly , it takes 4 or 5 years to p rogress from the b egin n in g rate to the top o f the pay sc a le. In 19 8 0 , average hourly pay for telep h on e and P B X installers and repairers w as $ 9 .9 0 . B y c o m p arison , average hourly earn in gs for non su p ervisory w orkers in all private ind ustries, e x ce p t farm in g, w ere $ 6 .6 6 . M o st telep h o n e and P B X installers and repairers b elo n g to u n io n s, p rin cip ally the C o m m u n ication s W orkers o f A m erica, the I n te r n a tio n a l B r o t h e r h o o d o f E le c t r ic a l W orkers, and the T eleco m m u n ica tio n s Inter national U n io n . U n io n contracts govern w a g e rates, w a g e in crea ses, and the tim e n eed ed to progress from o n e grade to the next. C on tracts stipu late extra p ay for w ork perform ed b ey o n d the norm al 8 hours a day or 5 days a w e e k , as w e ll as for that perform ed on h o li d ays and S u n d ays. M ost contracts provide a pay differential for nigh tw ork . Paid vacation s are granted a ccord in g to len gth o f serv ice. N o rm a lly , contracts p rovid e for a 1-w eek v acation b eg in n in g w ith 6 m onth s o f service; 2 w e ek s for 1 to 6 years; 3 w e ek s for 7 to 14 years; 4 w e ek s for 15 to 2 4 years; and 5 w e ek s for 25 years and o v er. D ep en d in g on the lo ca lity , h o lid a y s range from 9 to 11 d ays a year. O ther b en efits in clu d e the fo llo w in g : Paid sick lea v e; group life , m e d ica l, and dental insurance; sic k n e ss and accid en t b en e fits; retirem ent and d isa b ility p en sion s; a sa v in g s plan; and an e m p lo y ee stock ow n ersh ip plan. tech n icia n s rep lace faulty parts or m ake ad ju stm en ts, su ch as fo c u sin g and co n v erg in g the picture or correctin g the co lo r b alan ce o f a te le v isio n set. In their w ork , tech n ician s u se p liers, sold erin g iron s, w ire cu tters, and other h an d tools. T ech n icia n s w h o m ake c u s tom er serv ice c a lls carry solid -sta te c o m p o n en ts, m o d u le s, and other parts that can be e a sily rep laced in the c u sto m e r ’s h o m e. S e lf-em p lo y e d serv ice tech n icia n s have m anagerial resp o n sib ilities in add ition to their regular d u ties. T h ey h a v e to order equip m ent and su p p lies, k eep record s, and su p ervise other tech n ician s. Television and Radio Service Technicians (D .O .T. 720.281) Nature of the Work T e le v isio n and radio service tech n ician s repair a large and g row in g num ber o f h om e electro n ic produ cts, o f w h ich te le v isio n sets and radios are the m ost nu m erous. Stereo co m p o n en ts, tape record ers, v id e o g a m e s and d isk p la y ers, h o m e security sy stem s, c lo s e d circu it te le v is io n s, and e v e n electron ic organs are repaired b y th ese tech n ician s. S o m e ser v ic e tech n ician s sp ecia lize in repairing on e kind o f eq u ip m en t— for e x a m p le, te le v isio n sets or car radios. O thers repair several ty p e s— te le v isio n se ts, v id e o tape m a ch in es, in tercom s, and p u blic address sy stem s. E lectron ic eq u ip m en t m ay operate u n satis factorily for m any reason s, su ch as d e fe ctiv e parts, fau lty circu its, or p oor con n ectio n s. S erv ice tech n ician s m ust ch eck and evalu ate each p o ssib le cau se o f trouble. T h ey b egin b y d etectin g co m m o n c a u ses su ch as lo o se c o n n ectio n s or d e fe ctiv e com p o n en ts. T alk in g to custom ers m ay h elp tech n ician s id en ti fy the problem . W hen routine c h eck s d o n ot locate the trou b le, tech n ician s refer to w irin g diagram s and serv ice m anuals that sh ow con n ectio n s and provid e inform ation on h ow to locate p rob lem s. U sin g test eq u ip m en t, su ch as voltm eters, o sc illo s c o p e s , sign al generators, and freq u en cy cou n ters, they ch eck circu its. For e x a m p le, th ey m ay m easure v o lta g es or w a v e form s in the circu its o f a te le v isio n set for unusual or irregular m easurem ents that ind icate the faulty parts. T o m ake repairs, A b ou t 8 3 ,0 0 0 p eo p le w ork ed as radio and te le v isio n service tech n ician s in 1 9 8 0 . M ore than one-third w ere se lf-e m p lo y e d , a larger proportion than in m o st sk illed trades. M ost serv ice tech n icia n s, eith er se lf-em p lo y e d or w orking for oth ers, w ork ed in te le v isio n re pair sh op s and stores that se ll and serv ice te le v isio n sets, rad ios, and other electro n ic products. T e le v isio n and radio serv ice tech n ician s w ork in alm ost every city . G eo g ra p h ica lly , em p lo y m en t is distributed in m uch the sam e w ay as the N a tio n ’s p op u lation . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement T raining in electro n ics gen era lly is re qu ired to g e t an entry lev e l jo b as a telev isio n and radio serv ice tech n ician . H ig h sc h o o ls, private vocation al sc h o o ls, and ju n ior c o l le g e s o ffer training in te le v isio n and radio repair. Program s in th ese sc h o o ls in clu d e su b jects su ch as m ath em atics, p h y sic s , sch e m atic read in g, e lectricity , and han ds-on w ork w ith te le v isio n s e ts, rad ios, and other eq u ip m ent. T h e training lasts from 1 to 2 years. T h e m ilitary serv ices o ffer training and w ork e x p erien ce that are very u sefu l in c iv il ian electro n ics w ork . H o w e v er , additional training in te le v isio n electro n ics m ay b e re quired b y em p lo y ers. A fe w te le v isio n and radio serv ice tech n i cia n s c o m p lete 3- or 4-y ea r form al appren ticesh ip program s. N e w tech n ician s u su ally b egin by w orking in the sh op or in the field under the su p ervi sio n o f an ex p erien ced w orker. Large repair stores m ay p rovid e in -h o u se training c o m b in ed w ith h o m e study to fam ilia rize n ew w orkers w ith particular brands and m o d els o f eq u ip m en t. 344/Occupational Outlook Handbook serv ice m anager. T ech n icia n s w h o h ave su f ficien t fun ds m ay o p en their o w n serv ice sh o p s. S o m e tech n ician s obtain jo b s as e le c tronics “ tr o u b lesh o o ters” in m anufacturing industries or g o vern m en t a g e n c ie s. T h o se p lan n in g to g o into b u sin ess for th e m se lv es sh ou ld take so m e b u sin ess ad m in istration c o u r se s, particularly accou n tin g and con su m er relation s. T h o se interested in ad va n cin g to p o sitio n s su ch as e lectro n ics tech n ician can im p rove their op p ortu n ities by taking co u rses in au tom atic co n tro ls, e le c tronic en g in e er in g , te le v is io n en g in e er in g , and m ath em atics. Job Outlook Service technicians must check and evaluate every possible cause of trouble. T ech n icia n s m ust k eep abreast o f ch a n ges in te ch n o lo g y . M anufacturers, e m p lo y er s, and trade a sso cia tio n s co n d u ct training se m i nars to tea ch tech n icia n s serv icin g m eth od s for n e w m o d e ls or produ cts. T ech n icia n s a lso k eep up w ith d ev elo p m en ts b y stu d yin g m an u fa ctu rers’ se r v ic e m an u als and tech n ical m a g a zin es. T e le v isio n and radio serv ice tech n ician s m ust b e ab le to m anipu late sm all parts and to o ls, and m ust h ave g o o d e y e-h a n d co o rd i n a tio n , norm al h earin g, and g o o d e y esig h t and c o lo r percep tion . C ou rtesy and tact are esse n tia l in d ea lin g w ith cu stom ers. S o m e S tates require radio and te le v isio n tech n icia n s to be lic e n se d . T o ob tain a li c e n s e , a p p lican ts m u st p ass an exam in ation d e sig n e d to test their k n o w led g e o f electron ic circu its and co m p o n en ts and their sk ill in the u se o f testin g eq u ip m en t. S erv ice tech n ician s w h o w ork in large re pair sh o p s m ay b e p rom oted to su pervisor or E m p lo y m en t o f te le v is io n and radio ser v ic e tech n icia n s is e x p e cte d to in crease faster than the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. In add ition to jo b s created by in creased dem an d for te ch n icia n s, op en in g s w ill result e a ch year from the n eed to rep lace ex p e rien ce d w orkers w h o ch a n g e o c cu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . E m p lo y m en t o f se r v ic e tech n icia n s is e x p ected to in crease in resp o n se to the g ro w in g num ber o f te le v is io n s e ts, v id e o g a m e s and d isk p la y ers, rad ios, p h on ograp h s, tape record e rs, and oth er h o m e entertainm ent produ cts, alth ou gh im p rovem en ts in te ch n o lo g y w ill re d u ce se r v ic e req uirem en ts for th ese produ cts. R isin g p op u lation and p erson al in c o m es w ill contrib ute to this grow th . G reater u se o f e le c tronic produ cts for p u rp oses other than enter tainm ent a lso is e x p e cte d . For e x a m p le , c lo s e d circu it te le v is io n is b ein g u sed in crea sin g ly to m onitor p rod u ction p r o c esses in m anu factu ring p lan ts, to p rotect b u ild in g s, and to bring ed u ca tion al program s into c la ssr o o m s. P eo p le w h o enter the occu p a tio n sh ou ld en jo y stead y w ork b e ca u se the d em an d for te le v is io n and radio repair se r v ic es con tin u es during e c o n o m ic dow ntu rn s. Earnings E arnings o f te le v is io n and radio serv ice tech n icia n s ranged from abou t $ 2 3 0 to $ 4 0 0 a w e e k in 1 9 8 0 , b ased on the lim ited in form a tion a v a ila b le. T h e w id e variations in w a g e rates reflect d iffe re n c es in sk ill le v e ls , ty p es o f e m p lo y e r s, and geo g ra p h ic lo ca tio n s. A fe w se r v ic e tech n icia n s are m em b ers o f labor u n io n s. M o st o f th ese b e lo n g to the Inter n ation al B roth erh ood o f E lectrica l W orkers. Related Occupations O ther o ccu p a tio n s in w h ich w orkers repair e lectro n ic eq u ip m en t in clu d e a p p lia n ce re p airers, b u sin e ss m a ch in e repairers, com puter se r v ic e te ch n icia n s, e le ctr o n ic s m e ch a n ics, and e lectro n ic organ tech n icia n s. Sources of Additional Information For m ore in form ation abou t jo b s in this fie ld , co n ta ct lo ca l sh o p s and stores that se r v ic e te le v is io n sets and radios and other e lectro n ic eq u ip m en t. T e ch n ica l and v o c a tion al sc h o o ls that o ffe r c o u rses in te le v i sio n and radio repair or e le ctr o n ic s m ay p ro vid e inform ation ab ou t train in g. In addi tio n , lo c a ls o f th e International B rotherh ood o f E lectrical W orkers and th e lo ca l o ffic e o f th e S tate e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e m ay h a v e in form ation abou t p rogram s that p rovid e train in g op p ortu n ities. In form ation abou t the w ork o f te le v is io n and radio se r v ic e tech n icia n s is a v a ila b le from : National Association of Television and Electronic Servicers of America, 5930 S. Pulaski St., Chica go, 111. 60629. Electronics Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. National Electronic Service Dealers Association and the International Society of Certified Electron ic Technicians, 2708 West Berry, Fort Worth, Tex. 76109. Other Mechanics and Repairers Air-Conditioning, Refrigeration, and Heating Mechanics (D .O .T . 637.261-010, -014, -018, -026, and .381-010, -014; 827.361-014 and .464-010; 862.281-018, .361-010; and 869. 281-010) Nature of the Work P eo p le a lw a y s h a v e so u gh t w a y s to m ake their en viron m en t m ore com fortab le. T od ay a ir-con d ition in g and h eating sy stem s control the tem perature, h u m id ity, and e v en the c le a n lin e ss o f the air in h o m e s, o ffic e s , fa c to ries, and sc h o o ls. In ad d ition , refrigeration sy stem s m ake it p o ssib le to sa fe ly store fo o d , d ru gs, and other p erish ab le item s. A ir-co n d i tio n in g , h ea tin g , and refrigeration m ech an ics are sk illed w orkers w h o in stall, m aintain, and repair su ch sy stem s. A ir-co n d itio n in g , h ea tin g , or refrigeration requires m ore than a sin g le m ach in e. In c e n tral a ir-con d ition in g sy ste m s, for e x a m p le, fa n s, co m p resso rs, co n d en sers, and evap ora tors c o o l and d eh u m id ify the air. M etal ducts or sp ecia l p ip in g distribute the treated air throughout the b u ild in g . M ech a n ics m ust be a b le to w ork w ith the co m p lete sy stem — the d u cts and p ip es as w e ll as all the m achinery. M ech a n ics m ay sp ec ia liz e in installation or in se r v ic e — m aintenance and repair. S o m e w ork o n ly w ith certain eq u ip m en t, su ch as g as furnaces or com m ercia l refrigerators. H o w e v er, m ech an ics m ay d o both installation and serv ice and w ork w ith c o o lin g , h eatin g, and refrigeration eq u ip m en t. T h e fo llo w in g are so m e sp ec ific jo b s in this field . Air-conditioning and refrigeration me chanics ( D . O . T . 6 3 7 .2 6 1 - 0 1 0 ,- 0 1 4 ,- 0 2 6 ; .3 8 1 -0 1 0 and -0 1 4 ; and 8 2 7 .3 6 1 -0 1 4 and .4 6 4 -0 1 0 ) install and serv ice central air-con d itio n in g sy stem s and a variety o f refrigera tio n e q u ip m e n t. F or a ir -c o n d itio n in g or refrigeration sy ste m s, m ech an ics fo llo w b lu e prints, d esig n sp ec ific a tio n s, and m anufactur e r s ’ r e c o m m e n d e d p r o c ed u r es to in sta ll m o to r s , c o m p r e s s o r s , c o n d e n s in g u n its , evaporators, and other co m p o n en ts. T h ey co n n ect this eq u ip m en t to the duct w ork, refrigerant lin e s , and electrical p ow er sou rce. A fter m aking the c o n n e c tio n s, they charge the sy stem w ith refrigerant i f n ecessary and ch e ck it for proper operation . W hen a ir-con d ition in g and refrigeration eq u ip m en t breaks d o w n , m ech an ics d ia g n o se the ca u se and m ake repairs. T o fin d d efects th ey test parts su ch as co m p ressors, rela y s, and therm ostats. D u ring the w in ter, air-con d itio n in g m ech a n ics in sp ect the sy stem s and d o required m ain ten a n ce, su ch as overh au lin g co m p resso rs. S o m e a ir-con d ition in g and re Air-conditioning mechanics adjust cooling systems to cut down energy use. frigeration sy stem s. m ech an ics a lso serv ice heating co o k in g sto v e s, clo th es dryers, h ot water h eaters, and outd oor ligh ts and g rills. ( D .O .T . 8 6 2 .3 6 1 -0 1 0 and 8 6 9 .2 8 1 -0 1 0 ) , a lso ca lled h eating eq u ip m ent in stallers, fo llo w blueprints or other sp ecifica tio n s to install o il, g a s, e le ctr ic, so lid -fu e l, and m u lti-fu el h eating sy stem s. A fter setting the furnace in p la c e, they install fu el su p p ly lin e s , air d u cts, p u m p s, and other c o m p o n en ts. T h ey then co n n ect electrical w irin g and con trols, and ch eck the unit for proper operation. A ir-co n d itio n in g , refrigeration , and heating m ech a n ics u se a variety o f to o ls in clu d in g h am m ers, w ren ch es, m etal sn ip s, electric d rills, p ip e cutters and b en d ers, and a cety len e to rch es, to w ork w ith refrigerant lin es and ab d u c ts. T h ey u se v o lt-o h m m eters, m a n om eters, and other testin g d e v ic e s to ch e ck electrica l circu its, burners, and other com p o n en ts. Furnace installers Oil burner mechanics ( D .O .T . 8 6 2 .2 8 1 0 1 8 ) k eep o il-fu e le d h eating sy stem s in g o o d operatin g co n d itio n . D u ring the fall and w in ter, w h en the sy stem is n eed ed m o st, they serv ice and adjust o il burners. I f a sy stem is n ot operating properly, m ech a n ics ch e ck the therm ostat, burner n o z z le s, co n tro ls, and oth er parts to locate the prob lem . T h e m ech anic corrects the prob lem b y adjusting or rep lac in g parts. D u ring the su m m er, m ech an ics do m ain ten an ce w ork , su ch as rep lacin g oil and air filters and v acu u m -clean in g v e n ts, d u cts, and other parts o f the h eating sy stem that accu m u late so o t and ash . Gas burner mechanics ( D .O .T . 6 3 7 .2 6 1 0 1 8 ), a lso ca lled g as app lian ce servicers, h ave du ties sim ilar to th ose o f oil burner m ech a n ics. D uring the w in ter, they locate m alfu n ction s in g a s-fu ele d heating system s and m ake n ecessary repairs and adjustm ents. D u ring the su m m er th ey in sp ect and clean the h eatin g sy stem to prepare it for the heat in g s e a s o n . S o m e m e c h a n ic s a lso rep air C o o lin g and heating sy stem s so m etim es are in stalled or repaired by other craft w orkers. For e x a m p le, o n a large air-con d ition in g in stallation jo b , e sp e c ia lly w h ere w orkers are co v ered b y u n ion con tracts, du ct w ork m ight be d on e by sh eet-m etal w orkers; electrical w ork by electrician s; and installation o f p ip in g , co n d en sers, and other co m p o n en ts by pip efitters. R o o m air-con d ition ers and h o u se h old refrigerators are serv iced b y app lian ce repairers. A d d ition al inform ation abou t these o c c u p a t i o n s a p p e a r s e ls e w h e r e in th e Handbook. Working Conditions M ech an ics w ork in h o m e s, o ffic e b u ild in g s , factories— an yw h ere there is clim ate control eq u ip m en t. T h ey carry their to o ls and so m e spare parts to the jo b sites in trucks that often are eq u ip p ed w ith tw o -w a y radios. For m ajor repairs m ech an ics transport broken m a ch in ery or parts to the repair sh op . M ech a n ics m ay w ork ou tsid e in c o ld or hot w eather or in b u ild in gs w h ich are un com fortab le b ecau se the air-con d ition in g or 345 346/Occupational Outlook Handbook h eating eq u ip m en t is broken. M ech a n ics o f ten w ork in aw k w ard or cram ped p o sition s and so m e tim e s are required to w ork in high p la c es. O ther hazards in this trade in clu d e electrica l sh o ck , torch b u m s, m u scle strains, and o th e r in ju r ies fro m h a n d lin g h e a v y eq u ip m en t. Employment A p p ro x im a tely 1 7 9 ,0 0 0 p erson s w ork ed as a ir-co n d itio n in g , refrigeration , and h eating m ech a n ics in 1 9 8 0 . C o o lin g and h eating c o n tractors e m p lo y ed m o st air-con d ition in g and refrigeration m ech an ics and furnace in stall ers. F uel o il dealers e m p lo y ed m o st oil burner m e ch a n ics, and g as u tility c o m p a n ie s, m o st g a s burner m ech a n ics. M ech a n ics a lso w ork for fo o d sto re c h a in s, sc h o o l sy stem s, m anufacturers, and other organ ization s that operate large a ir-co n d itio n in g , refrigeration , or h eating sy stem s. A p p roxim ately 1 ou t o f 6 m ech a n ics is se lf-em p lo y e d . A ir-co n d itio n in g and refrigeration m ech an ic s , g a s burner m ech a n ics, and furnace in stallers w ork in all parts o f the country. G en era lly , the geograp h ic distribution o f th ese w orkers is sim ilar to that o f the p op u la tio n . O il burner m ech a n ics are concen trated in the northeastern States w h ere o il is a m ajor h eating fu el. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st a ir-co n d itio n in g , refrigeration , and h eatin g m ech a n ics start as help ers and a c quire their sk ills by w ork in g for several years w ith ex p erien ced m ech a n ics. N e w w orkers u su a lly b eg in by assistin g ex p erien ced m e ch a n ics and d o in g sim p le jo b s. T h ey m ay carry m a terials, in su late refrigerant lin e s , or clea n fu rn aces. In tim e, they d o m ore d iffi cu lt jo b s , su ch as cu ttin g and sold erin g pip es and sh eet m etal and ch eck in g electrical cir cu its. In 4 to 5 years n ew m ech a n ics are cap ab le o f d o in g all ty p es o f repairs and in stallation s. M a n y h ig h s c h o o ls , p riv a te v o c a tio n a l sc h o o ls, and ju n ior c o lle g e s offer program s in a ir-co n d itio n in g, h ea tin g , and refrigera tion . Stu dents study air-co n d itio n in g , h eat in g , and refrigeration theory and the d esign and con stru ction o f the eq u ip m en t. T h ey also learn the b a sics o f in stallation , m ain ten an ce, and repair. A lth o u gh co m p letio n o f su ch a program d o e s n ot assure a jo b , em p loyers m ay prefer to hire graduates o f th ese pro gram s b eca u se they require less on-th e-job training. A p p ren ticesh ip program s are run by un ions and air-co n d itio n in g and h eatin g contractors. In add ition to o n -th e-job train in g, apprentices rec eiv e 144 hours o f cla ssro o m instruction ea ch year in related su b jects, su ch as the use and care o f to o ls, safety p ractices, blueprint read in g, and air-con d ition in g theory. A p p li cants for app renticeships m ust have a high sc h o o l d ip lo m a and p ass a m ech an ical apti tude test. A p p ren ticesh ip s last 4 years. W h en hiring h elp ers, em p lo y ers prefer h igh sc h o o l graduates w ith m ech an ical apti tude w h o h ave had cou rses in m ath em atics, m ech an ical d raw in g, e le ctr icity , p h y sic s , and blu ep rint read in g. G o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n a lso is n ecessary b e ca u se w orkers so m etim es h ave to lift and m o v e h ea v y eq u ip m en t. T o k eep up w ith ch a n g es in te ch n o lo g y and to exp an d their sk ills, e x p erien ced m e ch a n ics m ay take cou rses offered b y a ss o c i a tio n s su ch as th e R e fr ig e r a tio n S e r v ic e E n gin eers S o c ie ty , the P etroleum M arketing E d u cation F ou n d ation , and the A ir-C o n d i tion in g Contractors o f A m erica. M ech a n ics can ad van ce to p o sitio n s as su p ervisors. T h o se w ith su ffic ien t m o n ey and m anagerial sk ill can op en their o w n contract ing b u sin e sses. Job Outlook E m p loym en t o f a ir-co n d itio n in g , refrigera tio n , and h eatin g m ech a n ics is e x p e cte d to in crease about as fast as the average for all occu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. M any o p e n in g s w ill occu r as ex p e rien ce d m ech an ics transfer to other field s o f w ork , retire, or d ie. E m p lo y m en t o f air-co n d itio n in g , h eatin g, and refrigeration m ech a n ics w ill in crease as m ore h o m es and co m m erica l and industrial b u ild in gs are con stru cted . In stallation s o f n ew en e rg y -sa v in g h eating and air-con d ition ing sy stem s in e x istin g h o m e s and b u ild in gs a lso w ill in crease em p lo y m en t o f m ech a n ics. B eca u se th ese trades have attracted m any p e o p le , b eg in n in g m ech a n ics m ay face c o m petition for jo b s as h elp ers or ap p ren tices. G raduates o f training program s that em p h a siz e han ds-on ex p erien ce w ill h ave an ad van tage in gettin g a jo b . E m p lo y m en t o f air-co n d itio n in g , h eatin g, and refrigeration m ech a n ics u su a lly is not se n sitiv e to d ow ntu rn s in the e c o n o m y b e cau se m aintenance o f e x istin g sy stem s and installation o f n e w , m ore e ffic ie n t eq u ip m en t in e x istin g b u ild in gs m ak e up a large part o f their w ork. B e ca u se p eo p le and b u sin e sses dep en d o n their air-co n d itio n in g , h eatin g, and refrigeration sy s te m s , the n eed for m e c h a n ics to d o m ain ten an ce w ork is strong e v en during e co n o m ic dow ntu rn s. Earnings H ourly rates for e x p erien ced air-con d ition in g , refrigeration , and h eatin g m ech an ics w ork in g under u n ion con tracts ranged from $ 1 2 to $ 1 5 in 1980. In com p a riso n , prod u c tion and non su p ervisory w orkers in private ind ustry, e x ce p t farm in g, averaged $ 6 .6 6 an hour. A p p ren tices r ec eiv e a p ercen tage o f the w a g e paid e x p erien ced w ork ers, abou t 4 0 percent at the b egin n in g o f their training and abou t 85 p ercent during the fourth year. M e ch an ics w h o w ork ed on both air-con d ition in g and h eatin g eq u ip m en t freq uently had h igh er rates o f pay than th o se w h o w ork ed on o n ly on e type o f eq u ip m en t. M ech a n ics u su ally w ork a 4 0 -h ou r w e ek . H o w e v er , during season al peaks th ey o ften w ork overtim e or irregular hours. M ost e m p loyers try to p rovid e a fu ll w o rk w eek the year round, but they m ay tem porarily reduce hours or lay o f f so m e m ech an ics w h en se a son al p eak s en d . E m p lo y m en t in m o st sh o p s that se r v ic e both a ir-con d itio n in g and h eating eq u ip m en t is fairly sta b le through out the year. S o m e m e c h a n ic s are m e m b er s o f th e U n ited A sso c ia tio n o f Journ eym en and A p p ren tices o f the P lu m b in g and P ip efittin g Industry or th e S h ee t M etal W orkers Inter n ational A s so c ia tio n . Related Occupations A ir -co n d itio n in g , h ea tin g , and refrigera tion m ech a n ics w ork w ith sh eet m etal and p ip in g , and repair m ach in ery , su ch as ele ctr i ca l m o to rs, co m p r esso rs, and burners. O ther w orkers w h o h a v e sim ila r sk ills are b o iler m ak ers, electrica l ap p lian ce se r v ic er s, electri c ia n s, p ip efitters, p lu m b ers, and sh eet m etal w orkers. Sources of Additional Information For m ore inform ation about e m p lo y m en t and training op p ortu n ities in this trade, c o n tact lo ca l a ir-con d ition in g refrigeration , and h eatin g contractors; a lo ca l o f the u n ion pre v io u sly m en tion ed ; a lo ca l jo in t u n io n -m a n a gem en t ap p ren ticesh ip co m m ittee; or the nearest o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t ser v ic e or State ap p ren ticesh ip a g e n c y . For p am p h lets on career op p ortu n ities and train in g, w rite to: Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 1815 N. Fort Myer Dr., Arlington, Va. 22209. (The Institute prefers not to receive individual requests for large quantities of pamphlets.) Air-Conditioning Contractors of America, 1228 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. For inform ation abou t training in o il h eat in g sy s te m s , w rite to: Petroleum Marketing Education Foundation, P. O. Box 11187, Columbia, S.C. 29211. Business Machine Repairers (D .O .T . 633, 706.381-010 and -030) Nature of the Work B u sin e ss m ach in e repairers m aintain and repair the m a ch in es that are u sed to pro cess p a p erw o rk in b u s in e s s a n d g o v e r n m e n t. T h ese m a ch in es in clu d e ty p ew riters, adding and calcu la tin g m a c h in e s, ca sh reg isters, d ic tating m a c h in e s, p osta g e m eters, and d u p li catin g and c o p y in g eq u ip m en t. (C om p u ter se r v ic e te ch n icia n s, w h o w ork o n data p roc e ssin g eq u ip m en t, are d isc u sse d in a separate statem en t e lsew h e re in the Handbook.) B u sin e ss m ach in e repairers (o ften ca lled field e n g in eers or cu sto m er e n g in eers) m ake regu lar v isits for p rev en tiv e m ain ten a n ce to the o ffic e s and stores o f cu sto m ers in their a ssig n ed area. T h e freq u en cy o f th e se serv ice c a lls d ep en d s u p on the typ e o f eq u ip m en t b ein g se r v ic ed . For e x a m p le , an electric typ ew riter m ay require p rev en tiv e m ainte- Mechanics and Repairers/347 nan ce o n ly three or four tim es a year, w h ile a c o m p lex co p ier probably w o u ld require m ore frequent atten tion. D u ring th ese c a lls , the en g in eer in sp ects the m ach in e for unusual w ear and rep laces any w orn or broken parts. T hen the m ach in e is clea n ed , o ile d , and ad ju sted to ensu re peak operatin g e ffic ie n c y and to preven t future b reak d ow n s. T h e en gin eer a lso m ay a d v ise m ach in e operators h ow to u se the eq u ip m en t m ore effic ie n tly and h ow to sp ot a p roblem in its early stages. D esp ite frequent m ain ten an ce, b u sin ess m ach in es d o o c ca sio n a lly m alfu n ction . W hen n o tified o f a b rea k d o w n , a field en gin eer prom ptly g o e s to the c u sto m e r ’s p la ce o f b u sin e ss, e x a m in es the m a ch in e, and deter m in es the ca u se o f the m alfu ction . O n ce the prob lem has b een iso la ted , repairs can be m ade. M in or repairs g en erally can b e m ade o n the spot; m ore seriou s repairs, h o w ev e r, m ay require that a co m p on en t or the entire m achine b e taken to the repair sh op. B u sin e ss m ach in e repairers gen erally sp e c ia liz e in o n e typ e o f m ach in e. T h o se e m p lo y e d b y m a n u fa ctu rin g c o m p a n ie s or dealers u su ally are fa m iliar o n ly w ith the brand p rodu ced or so ld b y their em p loyer. R epairers w h o w ork for sm all ind ep en dent repair sh o p s m u st b e ab le to w ork on eq u ip m en t from several d ifferen t m anufacturers. R epairers u se co m m o n h an d tools, su ch as screw d riv ers, p liers, and w ren ch es, as w e ll as other to o ls e sp e c ia lly d esig n ed to fit cer tain kin ds o f b u sin ess m a ch in es. In ad d ition , th ey u se m eters and other ty p es o f test eq u ip m ent to c h e ck for m alfu n ction s in electron ic circu its. Working Conditions S erv icin g b u sin ess m ach in es is clean er and le s s stren uou s than the w ork in m o st other m ech a n ica l trades. R epairers gen erally w ear b u sin ess c lo th es and d o m o st o f their w ork in the cu sto m e r ’s o ffic e . W orkers travel a great deal b eca u se they u su a lly v isit a num ber o f custom ers each w orkd ay. T h ey g en erally u se their o w n cars and are reim bursed o n a m ilea g e b a sis. Injur ies are u n co m m o n . Employment A b o u t 5 5 ,0 0 0 p eo p le w ork ed as b u sin ess m ach in e repairers in 1 9 8 0 . M o st w ork ed on ty p ew riters, ca lcu la to rs, add ing m ach in es, c o p iers, and d u p licators. O thers serviced p r o o f m ach in es in b a n k s, acco u n tin g -b o o k k eep in g m a ch in es, ca sh registers, and p ost a ge and m a ilin g eq u ip m en t. A sm all num ber repaired d ictatin g m a ch in es. A b o u t 8 o f 10 repairers w ork for b u sin ess m ach in e m anufacturers; for firm s that pro v id e m aintenance serv ices to b u sin esses; or for repair sh o p s. T h e rem ainder w ork for org a n iza tio n s large en o u g h to em p lo y their o w n sta ff o f fu ll-tim e repairers. B u sin e ss m ach in e repairers w ork through ou t the country. E v en relatively sm all c o m m u n ities u su ally h a v e at least on e or tw o repair sh o p s. M ost repairers, h o w ev e r, w ork in large c ities. Business machine repair is cleaner and lighter than the work in most mechanical trades. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement T h e am oun t o f form al ed u cation required for entry jo b s as b u sin ess m achine repairers varies. S o m e em p lo y ers hire applicants w ith a h igh sc h o o l ed u ca tio n , w h ile m any others require at least 1 year o f tech n ical training in b asic electricity or e lectro n ics. E m p loyers agree that electro n ics training receiv ed in the A rm ed F orces is valu ab le. A p p lican ts for entry jo b s m ay have to pass te sts that m ea su re m e c h a n ic a l a p titu d e, k n o w led g e o f electricity or e le ctr o n ic s, m an ual d exterity, and general in te llig en ce . G ood e y e s ig h t, in clu d in g co lo r v isio n , is n eed ed to in sp ect and w ork on sm a ll, d elicate parts. P erson s con sid erin g this typ e o f w ork sh ould h ave g o o d hearing to d etect m alfu n ction s re vea led by sou nd . E m p loyers seek app licants w h o have a p leasan t, coop erative m anner. B e ca u se m ost m ach in e serv icin g is d on e in c u sto m e rs’ o f fic e s , the ab ility to w ork w ith ou t interrupting the o ffic e routine is very im portant. A neat appearance and ab ility to co m m u n icate e f fe c tiv ely are essen tial. B u sin e ss m ach in e repairers m ust b e h on est and trustw orthy b ecau se th ey so m etim es are ex p o se d to large su m s o f m o n ey and other valu ab les in banks and o ffic e s . S o m e e m p loyers require that they b e b on d ed . T hey m ust w ork w ith ou t direct su p ervision and m u st b e ab le to set up m aintenance sch ed u les for their c u sto m e rs’ eq u ip m en t and arrange their o w n sch ed u les so that they can m eet serv ice d ead lin es and a lso handle em ergen cy repairs. T rain ees w h o w ork in a m anu factu rer’s branch o ffic e or for a franchised d ealer u su a lly attend a sc h o o l sp onsored by the m anu fa ctu rer. T r a in in g p rogram s at co m p a n y sc h o o ls u su ally last several w e ek s to several m on th s, d ep en d in g on the typ e o f m achine the repairer w ill se r v ic e. T rain ees then re c e iv e from 1 to 3 years o f practical ex p er ien ce and on -th e-job training b efore they b e c o m e fu lly q u a lifie d rep airers. T h e se w orkers gen erally learn to service o n ly the c o m p a n y ’s lin e o f equ ip m en t. In depend en t repair sh op s u su ally offer le s s form al training con sistin g o f a selfstudy cou rse plu s on -th e-job instruction the su p ervision o f an ex p erien ced repairer. B e ca u se sm all repair sh o p s u su ally d o not sp e c ia lize in the m ore sop h isticated ty p es o f eq u ip m en t, their repairers are e x p ected to be fam iliar w ith the m ore co m m o n m a ch in es produced by m any m anufacturers. For e x a m p le, b u sin ess m achine repairers in sm all sh op s sh ou ld b e able to repair several d ifferen t m akes o f typ ew riters, adding m a c h in e s, and calcu lators. B u sin e ss m ach in e repairers freq uently at tend training sem inars sp on sored b y equ ip m en t m anufacturers for sp ecial instruction in n ew b u sin ess m ach in es. T h ey a lso are en cou raged to broaden their tech n ical k n o w led g e during non w ork in g hou rs. M any co m p a n ies pay the repairer’s tuition for w ork-related cou rses in c o lle g e and tech n ical sc h o o ls. B eca u se o f their fam iliarity w ith eq u ip m en t, b u sin ess m ach in e repairers are par ticu larly w e ll q u alified to advan ce to sales jo b s as m an u factu rers’ sa les w orkers. R e pairers w h o sh o w m an agem en t ab ilities a lso m ay b e c o m e service m anagers or su p ervi sors. E xp erien ced repairers so m etim es open their o w n repair shops; th ose w h o w ork in m an u factu rers’ branch o ffic e s m ay b e co m e in d ep en d en t d ealers or buy sa les franchises from the com p an y. 348/Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f b u sin ess m ach in e repairers is e x p ected to g ro w m u ch faster than the a v e ra g e fo r a ll o c c u p a tio n s th ro u g h th e 1 9 8 0 ’s , as b u sin ess and g o vern m en t buy m ore m ach in es to han dle a gro w in g vo lu m e o f pap erw ork. In add ition to the jo b s that w ill be created by in creased d em an d , m any o p e n in g s w ill arise ea ch year as e x p erien ced re pairers transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie. E m p lo y m en t op p ortu n ities for q u alified b egin n ers are ex p e cte d to b e e x c e lle n t. In recen t y ea rs, m any tech n ica l ch a n g es have occu rred in b u sin ess m a ch in es. E lectron ic c a lc u la tin g m a c h in e s h a v e r e p la c e d m e ch an ical m o d e ls, for e x a m p le , and electro n ic ca sh registers are rep lacin g m ech an ical registers. B e ca u se o f the greater use o f su ch eq u ip m en t, op p ortu n ities w ill be par ticu larly fav o ra b le for repairers w h o have training in electro n ics. B u sin e ss m ach in e repairers h ave steadier e m p lo y m en t than m any other sk illed w ork ers. O ffic e m ach in es m ust be m aintained e v e n w h en b u sin ess sla c k e n s, sin ce records m ust b e k ep t, co rresp on d en ce p r o c essed , and statistical reports prepared. Earnings In 1 9 8 0 , train ees started at about $ 1 8 0 a w e e k , a ccord in g to the lim ited inform ation a v a ila b le. E ven during train in g, salaries often are in crea sed as w orkers ad van ce to m ore co m p lica ted a ssig n m en ts. P eo p le w h o have p rev io u s electro n ics training in the A rm ed F orces or c iv ilia n tech n ical sc h o o ls gen erally rec eiv e so m ew h a t h igh er b egin n in g w a g e s than high sc h o o l gradutates. E x p erien ced repairers earn ed from $ 2 0 0 to $ 2 5 0 a w e e k , w h ile h ig h ly sk illed sp ecia lists earned from $ 3 0 0 to $ 3 5 0 . R epairers w h o can w ork on m ore than on e typ e o f e q u ip m ent n orm ally earn su bstantially m ore than th o se w h o are fa m iliar w ith o n ly o n e type o f m ach in e. In m any areas, earn in gs for b u sin ess m a ch in e repairers are com p arab le to th ose o f com puter serv ice tech n ician s w ith sim ilar sk ills, r esp o n sib ilitie s, and ex p e rien ce . (S e e the statem en t o n com puter se v ic e tech n icia n s, a c lo s e ly related o c cu p a tio n , elsew h e re in the Handbook.) Related Occupations O ther w orkers w h o serv ice co m p licated electro n ic and m ech an ical eq u ip m en t in clu d e ap p lian ce repairers, autom otive electricia n s, com puter serv ice tech n icia n s, electron ic or gan tech n icia n s, instrum ent repairers, radio repairers, radar m e ch a n ics, and te le v isio n serv ice tech n icia n s. Sources of Additional Information For m ore d etails about jo b op p ortu n ities, co n ta ct lo ca l firm s that se ll and service b u si n ess m a ch in es and the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t se r v ic e. T h e State depart m ent o f ed u ca tio n in you r State capital can furnish in form ation about app roved tech n ical in stitu tes, ju n ior c o lle g e s , and other in stitu tion s o fferin g p ostsecon d ary training in b a sic e le c t r o n ic s . A d d itio n a l in fo r m a tio n ab o u t th ese sc h o o ls is availab le from: from o n e sid e to p u ll the car up w ard, it a lso u n w in d s th e ca b le on the other sid e for the co u n terw eig h t to d e sc e n d . A s the w e ig h t d e sc e n d s , it h elp s to p u ll the car s w iftly and sm o o th ly upw ard. U.S. Office of Education, Division of Vocational/ Technical Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturer’s Association, 1828 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. S o m e ele v a to r cars are raised and lo w ered by a hyd rau lic pu m p rather than a ca b le and w in c h . T h e car sits o n top o f a lo n g h yd rau lic cy lin d er that is d riven b y the hyd rau lic p u m p . In stead o f p u llin g the car up w ard, the cy lin d er p u sh es the elev a to r car from underneath. Elevator Constructors_____ (D .O .T. 825.281-030, .361-010, and .664-010) Nature of the Work E levator con stru ctors, a lso ca lled elev a to r m e ch a n ics, a ssem b le and in stall elev a to rs, esca la to rs, and sim ilar eq u ip m en t. In n ew b u ild in g s, th ey install eq u ip m en t during c o n struction. In old er b u ild in g s, th ey rep lace earlier in stallation s w ith n e w eq u ip m en t. O n ce the eq u ip m en t is in se r v ic e , th ey m ain tain and repair it. S m a ll crew s o f sk illed elev a to r constructors and their h elp ers u su ally d o in stallation and repair w ork. W hen in stallin g a n e w ele v a to r, m ech an ics m ust prepare the elev a to r sh aft— a vertical o p en in g u su ally e n c lo s e d by m ason ry or c o n crete w a lls that p a sse s through the flo o rs o f the bu ild in g. W orking on sc a ffo ld in g , crew s b olt or w e ld ste el T -se c tio n s, ca lle d gu id e rails, to the inner w a lls o f the sh aft. R ails act as runners to g u id e the elev a to r up and d o w n the shaft. T o install e lectrica l w ires and co n tro ls, m ech an ics run sp ecia l m etal tu b in g ca lle d con d u it alon g the s h a ft’s w a lls from flo o r to floor. W orkers then pull p la stic-co v ered e le c trical w ires through the co n d u it. T h ey install all electrica l com p o n en ts and related d e v ic e s — u su ally at each flo o r and at the m ain control pan el in the m ach in e room . N e x t, m ech a n ics a ssem b le the ste el fram e o f the elev a to r car at the b ottom o f the shaft. T h e fram e parts are b o lted or w e ld e d to g e th er. G uide rollers or gu id e sh o e s are attached to the car fram e and set into the gu id e rails o f the elev a to r shaft. T h e sh o es and rollers g lid e a lon g the m ach in ed su rfaces o f the g u id e rails to m in im iz e the lateral m otion o f the car as it travels through the sh aft. W orkers then install the c a r ’s p latform , w a lls, and d oors. M ech a n ics a lso install the outer d oors and d oor fram es at the elev a to r entrances on each floor. In m ost m o d e m ele v a to rs, the outer d oors are o p en ed and c lo s e d by the d oors o f the elev a to r car. F or c a b le e le v a t o r s , w o r k e rs in sta ll a w in ch . T h is g ia n t, ele ctr ica lly p o w ered sp o o l sim u lta n eo u sly w in d s and u n w in d s a h eavy steel cab le that c o n n ects the elev a to r car at o n e end to its co u n terw eigh t at the other. A s a result, the car and its co u n terw eigh t m o v e in op p o site direction s to a ssist in each o th e r ’s m o v em en t. W h ile the h o ist w in d s the cab le E levator con stru ctors e m p lo y sim ila r e le c trical and m ech a n ica l sk ills w h en con stru ct in g e sca la to rs. T h ese e le ctr ica lly p o w ered stairs rotate around h u g e o v a l tracks that run from flo o r to flo o r. U n lik e e lev a to rs, w h ich run accord in g to sp e c ific sig n a ls , e s calators run c o n tin u o u sly . C o n se q u en tly , e s c a la t o r s r e q u ir e f e w e r e l e c t r i c a l r e la y sy ste m s. In add ition , m u ch o f the esca la to r arrives at the jo b site a ssem b le d . F or e x a m p le , the esca la to r tru ss, the ste el fram ew ork that su pp orts the track and ste p s, is u su ally a ssem b led b y the m anufacturer. In ad d ition to e le v a to rs and esca la to rs, con stru ctors in stall oth er d e v ic e s su ch as d u m b w aiters and m aterial lifts , w h ic h are sim ilar to elev a to r in d e sig n , and p o w ered w a lk w a y s, w h ich m ore c lo s e ly resem b le esca la to rs. E levator con stru ctors u su a lly sp e c ia liz e in co n stru ctio n , m a in ten an ce, or repair w ork. M ain ten an ce and repair w ork ers n eed m ore k n o w led g e o f ele ctr icity and e le ctr o n ic s than con stru ction crew s b e ca u se a large part o f m ain ten an ce and repair w ork is tro u b lesh o o tin g . M ain ten an ce m e ch a n ics, u n lik e co n stru c tion and repair w o rk ers, are o n their o w n m o st o f the day and ty p ic a lly serv ice the sam e elev a to rs from w e e k to w e e k . M o st o f their w ork is p rev en tiv e m a in ten a n ce— o ilin g and greasin g m o v in g parts, testin g eq u ip m en t w ith m eters and g a u g e s, and rep la cin g w orn parts. B e ca u se th ey g en era lly are ca lle d w h en a c lie n t ’s elev a to r m a lfu n ctio n s, th ey a lso p ro v id e so m e repair se r v ic es. W h en repairs require m ore p erso n n el or m ore tim e and to o ls than the m aintenance m ech a n ic can p ro v id e, the repair crew u su a l ly se r v ic es the elev a to r. For e x a m p le , d am a g ed freigh t elev a to r d oors are a typ ical p rob lem for repair c re w s. R ep airin g and set tin g d oors b ack on their tracks m ay take sev era l hours and require a w e ld in g m a ch in e, cu ttin g to rch es, and r ig g in g eq u ip m en t— to o ls the m ain ten an ce m ech a n ic w o u ld not n orm ally carry. T h e repair crew m ay a lso rep lace any d a m aged ele ctr ica l parts, adjust d oors so that th ey c lo s e p rop erly, a n d , fin a l ly , test the elev a to r to insu re it is running correctly. R epair c rew s a lso d o m ajor m o d ern ization and alteration w o rk su ch as r em o v in g and rep lacin g e lectrica l m o to rs, hydraulic p u m p s, and con trol p a n els. Working Conditions E levator con stru ctio n , m a in ten a n ce, and repair in v o lv e liftin g and carrying h eavy Mechanics and Repairers/349 eq u ip m en t and parts. W orkers are ex p o se d to the dan gers o f fa lls and electrical sh o ck s. M a in ten a n c e an d rep a ir m e c h a n ic s o fte n w ork ov ertim e w h en repairing essen tia l e le vator eq u ip m en t. T h ey are at tim es on 24hour c a ll. T h is v a ries, h o w ev e r, b ased on the am oun t o f w o rk , the num ber o f availab le m ech a n ics, and co m p an y p o licy . Employment M o st o f the estim ated 1 7 ,5 0 0 elev a to r c o n structors in 1 9 8 0 w ere e m p lo y ed b y elevator m anufacturers to d o in stallation , alteration, m a in ten an ce, and repair w ork. S o m e w ere e m p lo y ed b y sm a ll, lo ca l contractors w h o sp ec ia liz e in elev a to r m aintenance and repair. S till others w ork ed for govern m en t a g en cies or b u sin ess esta b lish m en ts that d o their o w n elev a to r m aintenance and repair. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A lm o st all elev a to r constructors learn their trade in training program s adm inistered by jo in t co m m ittees o f lo ca ls o f the International U n io n o f E levator C on structors, elevator m anufacturers, and lo ca l elev a to r contractors. T h ese program s co m b in e on -th e-job training w ith cla ssro o m instruction in electron ic the o r y , m ath em a tics, a p p lication s o f p h y sic s, and sa fety tech n iq u es. M o st train ees, or h elp e rs, b eg in in the con stru ction industry and are a ssig n ed in itia lly to ex p erien ced elevator m ech a n ics. B eg in n in g tasks in clu d e carrying m aterials and to o ls, b o ltin g rails to w a lls, and a ssem b lin g elev a to r cars. E v en tu ally, th n iq u es. M o st tra in ees, or h elp ers, b eg in in the con stru ction industry and are a ssign ed initia lly to ex p erien ced elevator m ech an ics. B eg in n in g task s in clu d e carrying m aterials and to o ls, b oltin g rails to w a lls, and a ssem b lin g elev a to r cars. E v en tu a lly , tasks b e c o m e m ore c o m p lex and require greater k n o w led g e and sk ill. For e x a m p le, electrical w irin g re quires a k n o w led g e o f lo ca l and national electrica l c o d e s and o f electro n ic theory. Lat er o n , h elp ers test and adjust elevators for op tim u m perform ance. G en era lly , adv a n cem en t d ep en d s u p on the tra in ee’s ab ility and le v e l o f e x p e rien ce . T he avera g e trainee u su a lly q u a lifies as a helper after 6 m onth s o f e x p erien ce and u su ally b e c o m es a fu lly q u a lified elev a to r constructor w ith in 4 yea rs. S o m e States and c ities require elev a to r constructors to p ass a lic e n sin g e x am in ation . M any m ech a n ics d oin g m ainte nan ce and repair w ork con tin u e to receiv e training from their em p lo y ers to k eep up w ith the rapid p a ce o f en g in eerin g d ev elo p m en ts in the industry. A p p lica n ts for trainee p o sitio n s m ust b e at least 18 years o ld and h a ve a h igh sc h o o l or v o ca tio n a l sc h o o l education; cou rses in e le c tricity , m a th em a tics, and p h y sics can p rovid e a u sefu l background. A p p lican ts a lso m ust p a ss an aptitude test b efo re training b e g in s. G o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n and a h igh d egree o f m ech a n ica l aptitude are im portant. S o m e constructors a d van ce to jo b s as su p erv iso rs or elev a to r in sp ectors. A relatively Elevator mechanic completes preventive maintenance by tightening a bolt. sm all num ber g o into the elev a to r contracting b u sin ess. Job Outlook E m p loym en t in this sm all o ccu p ation is e x p ected to in crease about as fast as the a v e r a g e fo r a ll o c c u p a tio n s th rou gh the 1 9 8 0 ’s. G row th in the num ber o f h igh -rise apartm ent and co m m ercia l b u ild in gs in m etroplitan areas w ill create jo b o p e n in g s, as w ill the n eed to rep lace e x p erien ced w orkers w h o lea v e the trade, retire, or d ie . T h e rela tiv e ly sm all s iz e o f the o ccu p ation w ill lim it the num ber o f jo b o p e n in g s. O pportunities for elev a to r m ech a n ics in con stru ction m ay flu ctu ate from year to year as e co n o m ic con d itio n s ch a n g e. H igh interest rates u su a lly d iscou rage b u ild in g a c tivity and w ill lim it the num ber o f jo b o p en in g s for ex p erien ced w orkers as w e ll as for train ees. E co n o m ic dow nturns gen erally d o n ot a ffect m ain ten an ce and repair m e ch a n ics b eca u se ele v a to rs, esca la to rs, and other liftin g d e v ic e s are critical to b u si n e sses and other estab lish m en ts. E le v a to r c o n str u c to rs u s u a lly w o rk in d o ors, so they se ld o m lo se w ork b eca u se o f bad w eather. Earnings In 1 9 8 0 , u n ion elev a to r constructors in m etropolitan areas had estim ated average w a g e s o f $ 1 3 .1 1 an hou r, or tw ic e the aver a g e w a g e p aid to p rodu ction and n on su perviso r y w o rk ers in p r iv a te in d u str y , e x c e p t farm in g. H ourly w a g e rates for h elpers start at abou t 5 0 p ercent o f the rate paid to ex p eri e n c ed elev a to r m ech a n ics and reach 7 0 per cen t at the en d o f the 6-m on th probation period . In m o st areas o f the co u n try, con stru ction , m ain ten an ce, and repair w orkers earn the sam e hou rly w a g e . In N e w Y ork C ity , h o w ev e r, con stru ction w orkers earn a h igh er hou rly w a g e than oth er elev a to r m ech a n ics. M o st elev a to r constructors are m em b ers o f the International U n io n o f E levator C onstructors. Related Occupations E levator constructors c o m b in e electrica l and m ech an ical sk ills w ith con stru ction sk ills su ch as w e ld in g , r ig g in g , m easu rin g, and blu ep rint read in g. O ther o ccu p atio n s that e m p lo y m any o f th ese sk ills are electricia n s, industrial m achinery repairers, and structural iron w orkers. Sources of Additional Information For further d etails about w ork opportuni ties as a h elp er in this trade, con tact elev a to r m anufacturers, elev a to r repair and m ainte n an ce contractors, or a lo ca l o f the Interna tion al U n io n o f E levator C onstructors. In ad d ition , the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State em p lo y - 350/Occupational Outlook Handbook m ent se r v ic e m ay h ave in form ation about op p ortu n ities in this trade. Industrial Machinery Repairers__________ (D .O .T .) 620.281-050, -058, .381-014; 622-381-030; 626; 628.261-010, 281-010, .381-010, .382-010, .484-010, .684-108, -026, -030, -034; 629.280-020; 630.281-038; 631.261-014, -018; 683.684-010, .685-014; and 685.360-010 Nature of the Work W hen a m ach in e breaks d o w n in a plant or fa cto ry , not o n ly is the m ach in e id le , but raw m aterials and hum an resou rces are w asted . It is the industrial m achinery rep airer’s jo b to p reven t th ese c o stly b reak d ow n s and to m ake repairs as q u ick ly as p o ssib le . Industrial m achinery repairers— often ca lled m ain ten an ce m ech a n ics— sp en d m u ch tim e d o in g p reven tive m ain ten an ce. T h is in clu d es k eep in g m ach in es w e ll o ile d and g rea sed , and p erio d ica lly cle a n in g parts. T h e repairer regu larly in sp ects m achinery and c h e ck s perfor m an ce. T o o ls su ch as m icrom eters, ca lip ers, and depth g a u g e s are u sed to m easure and align all parts. For e x a m p le , tread les on se w in g m a ch in es in the apparel industry m ay n eed adjust m en t, and gears and b earin gs m ay h a v e to be a lig n ed . B y k eep in g c o m p lete and up -to-date record s, m ech a n ics try to anticip ate trouble and serv ice the m achinery b efore the fa c to r y ’s pro d u ction is interrupted. W hen repairs b eco m e n ec essa ry , the m ain te nan ce m ech an ic m ust first lo ca te the sp e c ific ca u se o f the prob lem . T h is ch a llen g e requires k n o w led g e rein forced b y e x p e rien ce . For e x a m p le , after hearin g a vibration from a m a c h in e , the m ech a n ic m ust d e c id e w h eth er it is d u e to w orn b e lts, w e a k m otor b ea rin g s, or any num ber o f oth er p o s sib ilitie s . A fter correctly d ia g n o sin g the p ro b lem , the m ain ten an ce m ech an ic d isa sse m b les the e q u ip m en t, and then repairs or rep la ces the n e c e s sary parts. A w id e range o f to o ls m ay b e u sed . For e x a m p le , repairers m ay u se a screw d river and w ren ch to adjust an e n g in e , or a h o ist to lift a printing press o f f the grou n d . T h e m e c h a n ic ’s to o ls o ften in clu d e electro n ic testin g eq u ip m en t. R epairers u se ca ta lo g s to order rep la ce m ents for broken or d e fe c tiv e parts. W hen parts are n ot read ily a v a ila b le , or w h en a m a c h in e m u st b e q u ick ly returned to pro d u ctio n , repairers m ay sk etch a part that can b e fabricat e d by the p la n t’s m a ch in e sh o p . R epairers often fo llo w blu ep rints and e n g in eerin g sp e c ific a tio n s in m ain tain in g and fix in g eq u ip m en t. T he repairer r ea ssem b les and tests ea ch p ie c e o f eq u ip m en t after it has b een serv iced , for o n c e it is back in op era tio n , the m a ch in e is e x p e cte d to w ork as i f it w ere n e w . M an y o f the industrial m ach in ery rep airer’s d u ties often are p erform ed b y m illw rig h ts. (S e e the statem en t o n m illw rig h ts e lsew h e re in the Handbook.) Working Conditions R epairers m ay w ork in sto o p ed or cram ped p o s itio n s, to reach the u n dersid e o f a generator, for e x a m p le. T h ey also m ay w o rk fro m the top o f ladd ers w h en repairing a large m a ch in e. T h e se w orkers are su b ject to c o m m o n sh op injuries su ch as cuts and b ru ises. In ad d ition to their 9 -to -5 w ork sc h e d u le , industrial m a ch in ery repairers m ay b e ca lled to the plan t at n igh t or on w e ek en d s for e m er g en cy repairs. Employment Industrial m ach in ery repairers w ork in al m o st ev ery industry in w h ic h a great d ea l o f m a c h in e r y is u s e d . O v e r o n e - h a lf o f th e 5 0 7 ,0 0 0 repairers e m p lo y ed in 1 9 8 0 w o rk ed in m anu factu ring in d u stries, prim arily in m ach in e sh o p s , printing p lan ts, o il refin eries, garm ent sh o p s, au tom ob ile and aircraft c o m p a n ie s, and fo o d p ro cessin g plan ts. B e ca u se industrial m ach in ery repairers w ork in a w id e variety o f p lan ts, th ey are em p lo y ed in ev ery se c tio n o f the cou n try. E m p lo y m en t is con cen trated , h o w ev e r, in h e a v ily industrial ize d areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement G raduation from h igh sc h o o l is preferred, but not a lw a y s req uired, for entry into this o c cu p a tio n . H igh sc h o o l co u rses in m ech a n i ca l d raw in g, m a th em atics, b lu ep rint read in g, and p h y sics are u sefu l for th o se in terested in en terin g this trade. Regular maintenance can prevent a costly breakdown of industrial machinery. M ost w orkers w h o b e c o m e industrial m a ch in ery repairers start as h elp ers and p ick up the sk ills o f the trade in fo rm a lly . S o m e learn the trade through ap p ren ticesh ip program s Mechanics and Repairers/351 sp o n so red b y the U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp a ce and A gricultural Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica and the International U n io n o f E lectrica l, R ad io and M ach in e W orkers. T h is training u su a lly lasts 4 years and c o n sists o f on -th e-jo b training and related c la s s room instruction in su b jects su ch as sh op m ath em a tics, blueprint read in g, w e ld in g , and sa fety . M ech a n ica l aptitude and m anual d exterity are im portant q u a lifica tion s for w orkers in this trade. G o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n and a g il ity are a lso n ecessa ry b e ca u se repairers so m e tim es have to lift h ea v y o b jects or clim b to rea ch e q u ip m e n t lo c a te d h ig h a b o v e the floor. E xam in ation s m ay be adm inistered peri o d ic a lly to determ ine the repairer’s ab ility to m aintain m ore ad van ced m ach in ery. S om e repairers are prom oted to m ach in ists or toola n d -d ie m akers or b e c o m e m aster m ech a n ics. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f industrial m achinery re pairers is e x p ected to increase about as fast as the a verage for all o ccu p ation s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s as m anufacturers in v est in m ore ind us trial m ach in ery. A ls o , as m achinery b e c o m es m ore c o m p le x , repair w ork and p reven tive m aintenance w ill b e c o m e m ore tim e co n su m in g . B e sid e s jo b s that w ill b e created from in creased dem and for industrial m achinery repairers, m any o p en in g s w ill result each year from the n eed to rep lace repairers w h o transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie. Industrial m achinery repairers are not u su a lly a ffected b y sea so n a l ch an ges in produ c tion . D u ring sla ck p erio d s, w h en so m e plant w orkers are laid o f f , repairers often are re tained to d o m ajor overh aul jo b s. Earnings A cco rd in g to the a v a ilab le data, industrial m a c h in e ry rep a irers had a v e r a g e h o u rly w a g e s o f $ 9 .5 3 in 1 98 0 — abou t one-third h igh er than the a v erage for all non su p erviso r y w o rk ers in p riv a te in d u str y , e x c e p t farm in g. A v era g e hou rly earn in gs o f industri al m achinery repairers in 12 areas that repre sen t variou s reg io n s o f the country are sh ow n in table 1. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of industrial machinery repairers in selected areas, 1980 Area Hourly rate Indianapolis.................................... $11.60 Detroit........................................... 10.98 Baltimore....................................... 10.85 Chicago......................................... 10.11 Houston......................................... 9.97 New Orleans ................................ 9.51 St. Louis ..................................... 9.44 Cincinnati..................................... 9.38 Minneapolis-St. Paul .................... 9.33 New York .................................... 8.32 Worcester, Mass ........................... 7.70 Greenville-Spartanburg, S.C........... 6.48 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. L abor u n ion s to w h ich m o st industrial m a ch in ery repairers b elo n g in clu d e the U n ited S teelw ork ers o f A m erica; the International U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp a ce and A gricu ltu ral Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica; the International A sso c ia tio n o f M ach in ists and A ero sp a ce W orkers; and the Internation al U n io n o f E lectrica l, R ad io and M ach in e W orkers. Related Occupations O ther occu p a tio n s w h ich in v o lv e repairing m achinery in clu d e aircraft m ech a n ics, auto m o b ile m e ch a n ics, b o w lin g -p in -m a ch in e m e c h a n ic s, m a ch in ists, m illw rig h ts, to o l-an d -d ie m ak ers, and ven d in g m ach in e m ech a n ics. Sources of Additional Information In form ation about e m p lo y m en t and ap p ren ticesh ip opp ortu nities in this field m ay b e availab le from lo ca l o ffic e s o f the State e m p l o y m e n t s e r v ic e o r th e f o l l o w i n g organizations: International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. MBwvights (D .O .T. 638.261-014, .281-018 and -022) Nature of the Work W ith the co m in g o f the Industrial R e v o lu tio n , m a ch in es and factories rep laced m any handcrafts. T h e tex tile industry in E ngland w as o n e o f the first to u se m achinery to m ass prod u ce its g o o d s . T h e w orkers w h o p lan ned and b u ilt the tex tile m ills, and set up the eq u ip m en t that w a s n eed ed , w ere ca lled m ill w righ ts. T h e o ccu p ation gradually exp an d ed to other fa ctories, and today the m illw righ t installs and d ism an tles m achinery and h eavy eq u ip m en t u sed in a lm o st ev ery industry, from fo o d p ro cessin g to c o a l m in in g. T h e m illw r ig h t ’s r e s p o n s ib ilitie s b e g in w h en m achinery arrives at the jo b site. T he n e w eq u ip m en t m ust b e un packed and un lo a d ed , in sp ected for d am aged and m issin g parts, and then m o v e d into p o sitio n . T o lift and m o v e ligh t m ach in ery, m illw righ ts m ay u se riggin g and h o istin g d e v ic e s su ch as p u l le y s and c a b les. M o v in g m achinery so m e tim es requires the a ssistan ce o f a hydraulic lift-truck operator. In c a se s w h ere m achinery and parts are to o h ea v y for h an d tools and lifttrucks, m illw righ ts m ust w ork w ith a crane operator, sig n a llin g the operator w h ile the crane carries the m achinery to its n ew site. B eca u se m illw righ ts o ften c h o o se the d e v ic e s for m o v in g m ach in ery, they m ust k n ow the load-bearin g properties o f rop es, ca b les, h o ists, and cran es. For e x a m p le, w h en in stallin g a n e w o v e n in a fo o d p rocessin g p lan t, a m illw righ t sets up steel ca b les and a sm all h o ist to m o v e the o v e n from the truck on w h ich it arrived to the c o n v e y o r that w ill carry it in to the plant. T h e o v e n is then lifte d , w ith other h oistin g d e v ic e s and per hap s the aid o f a crow b ar for lev e ra g e , on to a d o lly and taken to the fou n d ation for proper p o sitio n in g . N e w m achinery so m etim es requires a n ew fou n d ation . S in ce they eith er p erson ally pre pare or su p ervise the con stru ction o f the fou n d ation , m illw righ ts m ust k n o w h o w to read blueprints and w ork w ith b u ild in g m ate rials su ch as con crete, w o o d , and steel. In a ssem b lin g m ach in ery, m illw rig h ts fit b earin gs, align gears and w h e e ls, attach m o to rs, and con n ect b elts accord in g to the m an u factu rer’s blueprints and d raw in g s. P recisio n le v e lin g and align m en t are im portant in the a ssem b ly process; m illw righ ts m u st ha v e g o o d m athem atical sk ills so that th ey can m easure a n g le s, m aterial th ic k n e ss, and sm all d istan ces w ith to o ls su ch as sq uares, ca lip ers, and m icrom eters. In so m e c a se s, particularly w h e n lin in g up c o n v e y o r m a c h in e ry or track s, a m illw righ t m ay u se laser eq u ip m en t to “ s h o o t” a straight lin e o v er lo n g d ista n ces. M illw righ ts a lso u se hand and p o w er to o ls, cutting to rch es, w e ld in g m a ch in es, and so l dering gu n s. S o m e m illw righ ts u se lathes to grind or turn parts to sp ecifica tio n s. M illw righ ts m ay a lso d ism an tle m achinery or reroute c o n v ey o rs and tracks. T h is is m ore co m m o n am on g m anufacturing firm s w here eq u ip m en t is o fte n rep laced or m o v ed to m ake better u se o f factory sp a ce. A m illw r ig h t k often called a “jack o f all trad es” b ecau se o f the variety o f sk ills the jo b en ta ils. In addition to in stallin g and d ism aatitflg m ach in ery, m any m illw rights |i^£i£r and m aintain eq u ip m en t. T h is in clu d es p reven tive m ain ten an ce, su ch as o il in g and grea sin g , and fix in g or rep lacing w orn parts. (F o r further inform ation o n m a ch in ery m aintenance o ccu p a tio n s, se e the statem en t o n industrial m achinery repairers elsew h e re in the Handbook .) M illw righ ts e m p lo y ed b y contract in stalla tion and con stru ction co m p a n ies d o a variety o f in stallation w ork . T h o se e m p lo y ed in fa c tories u su ally install o n ly the particular typ es o f m achinery u sed b y their em p lo y ers. Working Conditions M illw righ ts e m p lo y ed by factories ordi narily w ork year round. T h o se e m p lo y ed by con stru ction com p an ies and co m p a n ies that m anufacture and install m achinery m ay e x p erien ce p eriod s o f u n em p loym en t; h o w ev er, they u su ally are co m p en sated w ith a h igh er hou rly w a g e rate. T h ese m illw rig h ts m ay travel lo n g d istan ces ev ery d ay to and from the jo b site. M illw righ ts are su b ject to usual sh op haz ards su ch as cuts and b ru ises. T h ey a lso fa ce injury from fa llin g objects or m achinery that is b ein g m o v e d , and from fa lls w h en c lim b in g up w a lk w a y s and platform s to install eq u ip m en t. T h ese dangers can b e reduced by the u se o f p rotective d e v ic e s su ch as safety b elts and h ats, h o w ev er. 352/Occupational Outlook Handbook can require a co n sid era b le am ou n t o f liftin g and c lim b in g . Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f m illw rig h ts is ex p e cte d to in crease abou t as fast as the avera g e for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. E m p lo y m en t w ill in crease as n e w plan ts are b u ilt, as e x is t in g plant la y o u ts are im p ro v ed , and as in crea sin g ly c o m p le x m ach in ery is in stalled and m ain tain ed . B e sid e s jo b o p e n in g s created b y in crea sed d em an d for m illw r ig h ts, m any o p e n in g s w ill arise an n u ally as ex p erien ced m illw rig h ts transfer to other o c cu p a tio n s, re tire, or d ie . E m p lo y m en t o f m illw rig h ts is so m ew h a t se n sitiv e to c h a n g es in e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s. In the con stru ction in d u stry, fo r e x a m p le, e m p lo y m en t flu ctu ates w ith the le v e l o f c o m m e r c ia l an d in d u str ia l b u ild in g a c tiv ity . W h en in terest rates are h ig h and con stru ction a ctiv ity fa lls , jo b s are scarce and ex p erien ced m illw rig h ts m ay fa ce la y o ffs or a sh ortened w o r k w ee k . T h ey are a lso su bject to season al la y o ffs ca u sed b y s n o w , rain , and other bad w eath er c o n d itio n s. M illw rig h ts w h o w o rk in m anu factu ring p lan ts, h o w e v e r , u su a lly h ave m ore stab le e m p lo y m en t. T h ey are n ot su b je c t to sea so n a l la y o ffs b e ca u se th ey g en era l ly w o r k in d o o r s . D u rin g p o o r e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s , jo b see k e rs m ay fin d fe w er op p or tu n ities b e c a u se e m p lo y er s are n o t in stallin g n e w eq u ip m en t. U n lik e m illw rig h ts in c o n stru ction , fe w m illw rig h ts in m anu factu ring are laid o f f w h en h ig h interest rates d isco u r a g e the pu rch ase o f n e w eq u ip m en t. E x istin g m ach in ery still n eed s to b e m ain tain ed and repaired. Earnings Routine maintenance is just one of the duties of this “jack of all trades” . Employment M o st o f the 9 1 ,0 0 0 m illw rig h ts e m p lo y ed in 1 9 8 0 w o rk ed for m anu factu ring c o m p a n ies; the m ajority w ere in transportation eq u ip m en t, m eta l, pap er, lu m b er, and c h e m i ca l produ cts in d u stries. O thers w ork ed for contractors in the con stru ction industry. M a c h in e r y m a n u fa ctu rers e m p lo y e d a sm a ll num ber to install eq u ip m en t in c u sto m e rs’ plan ts. M illw rig h ts w ork in ev ery State. H o w e v er, em p lo y m en t is con cen trated in h ea v ily in d u strialized areas su ch as D etroit, P itts bu rgh , C le v ela n d , B u ffa lo , and the C h ica g o G ary area. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st m illw rig h ts start as h elp ers to sk illed w orkers and learn the trade in form ally on the jo b . T h is p ro cess can take from 6 to 8 years. O thers learn through 4 -y e a r form al appren tice sh ip program s that co m b in e on-th e-job training w ith c la ssro o m in stru ction . A p p ren tice sh ip program s in clu d e training in d ism a n t l i n g , m o v i n g , e r e c t i n g , a n d r e p a ir in g m ach in ery. A p p ren tices a lso m ay w ork w ith con crete and r ec eiv e instruction in related sk ills su ch as carp en try, w e ld in g , and sh eetm etal w ork . C la ssro o m instruction is g iv e n in sh o p m a th em atics, b lu ep rint read in g, hydrau lic s , e le ctr icity , and saifety. A p p lican ts for app rentice or h elp er jo b s m u st be at lea st 17 years o ld . M o st e m p lo y ers prefer ap p lican ts w ith a h ig h sc h o o l d ip lo m a or its eq u iv a len t. C ou rses in s c ie n c e , m ath e m a tic s, m ech an ical d ra w in g , and m a ch in e sh o p practice are u sefu l. B e ca u se m illw righ ts o ften take apart co m p lic a ted m ach in ery , m e ch an ical aptitude is im portant. Strength and a g ility a lso are im portant, b e ca u se th e w ork A v era g e hou rly earn in g s o f m illw rig h ts in m etrop olitan areas w ere $ 1 0 .7 6 in 1 9 8 0 — abou t 5 0 p ercen t h igh er than the a verage w a g e for all n o n su p erviso ry w ork ers in pri vate in d u stry, e x c e p t farm in g . E arn in gs for m illw rig h ts in 10 areas that rep resent variou s r eg io n s o f the country appear in table 1. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of millwrights in selected areas, 1980 Area Hourly rate Indianapolis.................................. $11.65 Detroit......................................... 11.27 Atlanta......................................... 10.84 Chicago........................................ 10.77 Houston........................................ 10.55 Baltimore...................................... 10.23 St. Louis...................................... 10.09 Cincinnati .................................... 9.77 Minneapolis-St. Paul.................... 9.57 Boston......................................... 7.72 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. M an y m illw rig h ts b e lo n g to labor u n io n s, am o n g w h ich are the International A s s o c i ation o f M ach in ists and A e ro sp a c e W orkers; U n ited B roth erh ood o f C arpenters and Join e rs o f A m e r ic a ; U n ite d S te e lw o r k e r s o f Mechanics and Repairers/353 A m erica; International U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile, A ero sp a ce and A gricultural Im p le m en t W orkers o f A m erica; U n ited Paperw orkers International U n ion ; the International U n io n o f E lectrical, R ad io and M ach in e W orkers; and the International B rotherh ood o f F irem en and O ilers. Related Occupations T o set up m achinery for use in a plant, m illw rig h ts m ust k n ow h ow to use h oistin g d e v ic e s, and h o w to a ssem b le , d isa ssem b le, and in so m e c a ses repair m ach in ery. O ther w orkers w ith sim ilar jo b du ties are industrial m achinery repairers, iron w orkers, m achine a ssem b lers, and m aintenance m ech an ics. Sources of Additional Information For further inform ation on apprenticeship p rogram s, w rite to the A p p ren ticesh ip C ou n c il o f your S ta te ’s labor departm ent, lo ca l o ffic e s o f your State em p loym en t se r v ic e, lo ca l firm s that e m p lo y m illw rig h ts, or the A sso c ia te d G eneral C ontractors o f A m erica, 1957 E St. N W ., W ash in gton , D .C . 2 0 0 0 6 . ste e l, iron , iv o ry , and fe lt parts in its w orks. ( D .O .T . 7 3 0 .2 8 1 -0 3 8 ) lo cate and correct th ese p rob lem s. T ech n ician s so m ew h a t a lik e, th ey w ork d ifferen tly , and fe w tuners and repairers w ork o n both instru m en ts. M oreover, p eo p le w h o serv ice organs a lso tune pian os. T o g e t an id ea o f w h at is w ron g w ith the p ia n o , tech n ician s talk to the cu stom er. T h ey a lso m ay p lay the instrum ent or partially d is m antle it to in sp ect the parts. W hen tech n i c ia n s d is c o v e r th e p r o b le m , th ey m ak e repairs or adju stm ents. T h ey m ay realign ham m ers that d o n ot strike the strings proper ly . T h ey m ay rep lace w orn fe lt or broken strin gs. T h ey m ay rebuild or rep lace the w o o d en sou n d in g board that a m p lifies the str in g ’s vibration s. S o m etim es tech n ician s c o m p lete ly rebuild p ian os. T o d ism an tle and repair p ia n o s, tech n ician s u se co m m o n handto o ls as w e ll as sp ecial o n e s, su ch as regulat in g , rep in n in g, and restringing to o ls. A lth ou gh organs and p ian os m ay lo o k sp ec ia liz e in eith er p ip e or electro n ic organs. Piano technicians Pipe-organ repairers ( D .O .T . 7 3 0 .3 6 1 0 1 4 ) tu n e, repair, and install organs that m ake m u sic by forcin g air through o n e o f tw o kinds o f p ip es— flu e p ip es or reed p ip es. T h e flu e p ip e sou nd s w h en a current o f air strikes a m etal lip in the sid e o f the p ip e. T he reed p ip e sou n d s w h en a current o f air v i brates a brass reed in sid e the p ip e. T o tune an organ, repairers first m atch the pitch o f the “ A ” p ip es w ith that o f a tuning fork. T he pitch o f other p ip es is set b y c o m paring it w ith that o f the “ A ” p ip es. T o tune a flu e p ip e, the tech n ician m o v e s the m etal slid e that in creases or d ecreases the p ip e ’s “ sp eak in g le n g th .” T o tune a reed p ip e, the tech n ician alters the len gth o f the brass reed Piano and Organ Tuners and Repairers__________ (D.O.T. 730.281-038, .361-010, -014, and 828.261-010) Nature of the Work W hether they are u sed to perform the c la s sic s or contem porary rock , p ian os and organs are sou rces o f entertainm ent and recreation for m illio n s o f p e o p le . M ain tain in g the in strum ents so they perform properly is the job o f piano and organ tuners and repairers. T here are four d ifferen t kin ds o f pian o and organ tuners and repairers: P ian o tuners, p i ano tech icia n s, p ip e-organ repairers, and electron ic-organ tech n ician s. Piano tuners ( D .O .T . 7 3 0 .3 6 1 -0 1 0 ) adjust piano strings so that they w ill be in proper p itch. W hen a pian o k ey is struck, a feltco v ered w o o d en ham m er strikes o n e or m ore strin g s, ca u sin g them to vibrate. T h e num ber o f tim es a string vibrates in a seco n d is called its p itch. For the pian o to sound right, all its strings m ust be set at their proper pitch. Tuners b eg in by adjusting the pitch o f the “ A ” or “ C ” string. Striking the k e y , the tuner com p a res the strin g ’s pitch to that o f a tuning fork. U sin g a tuning ham m er (a lso called a tuning lev er or w ren ch ), the tuner turns a steel pin to tighten or lo o se n the string until its pitch m atch es that o f the tuning fork. The pitch o f all the other strings is set in relation to the “ A ” or “ C ” string. T he standard 88k ey pian o has about 2 3 0 strings and can be tuned in about an hour and a half. T he sou n d o f the pian o a lso can be a ffect ed by problem s in the thou san ds o f w o o d en , Piano tuning requires manual dexterity as well as a good ear for pitch. 354/Occupational Outlook Handbook in sid e the p ip e. A d ay or m ore m ay be n eed ed to fin ish o n e o f th ese jo b s , b ecau se m ost organs ha v e hundreds o f p ip es. L ik e pian o tech n icia n s, p ip e-organ repair ers m ust lo ca te and correct prob lem s in the o r g a n ’s co m p o n en ts that a ffect its sou nd . T h is m ay in v o lv e rep la cin g w orn parts o f the p ip es, the c o n s o le , or other co m p o n en ts. R e pairers a lso d o m ain ten an ce w ork , su ch as clea n in g the p ip es, o n a regular sch ed u le. O cc a sio n a lly , p ip e-organ repairers a ssem b le organs o n site in ch u rch es and aud ito riu m s. T h ey fo llo w the d e sig n e r ’s blueprints and use a variety o f hand and p ow er to o ls to install and co n n ect the air c h e st, b lo w e r s, air d u cts, p ip es, and other co m p o n en ts. T ech n i cia n s m ay w ork in team s or b e a ssisted by h elp ers. A jo b m ay take several w e ek s or e v en m o n th s, d ep en d in g on the siz e o f the organ. Electronic-organ technicians ( D . O . T . 8 2 8 .2 6 1 -0 1 0 ) h a v e very d ifferen t d u ties from p ip e-organ repairers, b e ca u se the sou n d o f electro n ic organ s is sy n th esized by electron ic generators and com puter circu its. M ost e le c tronic organs d o not require tu n in g. T h o se that d o are fairly sim p le to tun e. H o w e v er , th ese organs m ay break d o w n du e to faulty circu its, dirty co n ta cts, and other p rob lem s. T o lo ca te the ca u se o f a b reak d ow n , tech n icia n s first ch eck for c o m m o n sou rces o f trouble su ch as lo o se co n n e c tio n s. W hen rou tine c h e ck s d o not w o rk , tech n icia n s refer to w irin g diagram s and serv ice m anu als that sh o w co n n e c tio n s w ith in org a n s, p rovid e ad ju stm en t in form ation , and d escrib e ca u ses o f trouble. C ircuits that m igh t ca u se the prob lem are c h e ck ed w ith electro n ic m eters. For e x a m p le, tech n icia n s c h e ck v o lta g es until an unusual or irregular m easu re sh o w s up the part o f the circuitry ca u sin g trouble. W hen the ca u se o f the p rob lem is fo u n d , tech n i cia n s m ake repairs. O ften this is d o n e by rep lacin g fau lty parts su ch as circu it boards. In th eir w o r k , te c h n ic ia n s u s e so ld e r in g iro n s, w ire cutters, and other h an d tools. Working Conditions T he w ork o f tuners and repairers is rela tiv ely sa fe , although th ey m ay su ffer sm all cuts and b ruises w h en m ak in g repairs. E le c trical sh ock is a m inor hazard for electro n icorgan tech n icia n s. W ork is perform ed in sh o p s, h o m e s, and p u blic b u ild in g s, su ch as churches and sc h o o ls, w h ere w ork in g c o n d i tion s u su a lly are g o o d . Employment A b o u t 1 2 ,0 0 0 p erson s w ork ed as pian o and organ tuners and repairers in 1980; m ost w orked on p ia n o s. A b ou t tw o-th irds o f the total w ork ed in repair sh op s; m any are se lfe m p lo y ed . M ost o f the rest w ork ed in m u sic stores or for pian o and organ m anufacturers. P ian o and organ tuners and repairers are e m p lo y ed m o stly in c ities and States that have large p o p u la tio n s. In to w n s too sm all to o ffer en o u g h w ork electron ic-organ ser v ice m ay be d on e by te le v is io n and radio repairers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement P ian o tuners and tech n icia n s and p ip e-or gan repairers gen era lly learn their trade on the jo b . S o m e m u sic stores, large repair sh o p s, and se lf-e m p lo y e d tech n icia n s hire in ex p erien ced p eo p le as train ees. T rain ees do general clean u p w o rk , h elp m o v e and install in str u m e n ts, and d o o th e r ro u tin e ta sk s. T rain ees tune and repair instrum ents under the su p ervision o f ex p erien ced w orkers. U su a lly 4 to 5 years o f training and practice w ork are n eed ed to b eco m e a co m p eten t pian o tech n ician or p ip e-organ repairer. A sm all num ber o f tech n ical sc h o o ls and c o lle g e s o ffer cou rses in pian o te ch n o lo g y that last 6 m on th s to 2 years. H o m e study (corresp on d en ce sc h o o l) cou rses in pian o te ch n o lo g y a lso are ava ila b le. T h ese cou rses em p h a size practice tuning and pian o repair. G raduates o f th ese cou rses gen erally are e n cou raged to refin e their sk ills b y w ork in g for a tim e w ith an e x p erien ced tuner or tech n i cian . E m p loyers g en erally prefer to hire w orkers w ith som e k n o w led g e o f the trade. Form al training or w ork e x p erien ce in e le c tron ics is n eed ed to learn electro n ic organ repair. T rain in g in ele ctr o n ic s is availab le from private vocation al sc h o o ls , com m u n ity c o lle g e s , so m e high s c h o o ls , and the A rm ed F o rces. P eo p le w ith ele ctr o n ic s training u su al ly learn to repair organs on the jo b w ork in g in m u sic stores or in repair sh o p s. T ech n icia n s w h o are e m p lo y ed by m u sic stores can attend c la sse s run b y organ m anufacturers to provid e in form ation on serv icin g their instrum ents. E m p loyers prefer h igh sc h o o l graduates for b eg in n in g jo b s in pian o or organ serv icin g . M u sic cou rses h elp d e v e lo p the stu d en t’s ear for tonal q u ality. C ou rses in w ood w o rk in g a lso are u sefu l b eca u se m any o f the m o v in g parts in p ian os and pip e organs are m ad e o f w ood. P eo p le interested in a career in th ese field s sh ou ld have g o o d h earin g, m ech an ical apti tu d e, stam in a, and m anual d exterity. B eca u se w ork freq uently is d on e in the c u sto m e r ’s h o m e , a neat appearance and a p leasan t, c o op erative m anner also are im portant. A b ility to play the instrum ent h elp s but is not e s s e n tial as a q u alification . P ian o and organ tuners and repairers keep up w ith n ew d e v e lo p m en ts in their field s by stu d yin g trade m a g a zin es and m an u factu rers’ se r v ic e m a n u a ls. T h e P ia n o T e c h n ic ia n s G u ild h elp s its m em b ers im p rove their sk ills through training program s con d u cted at lo ca l chapter m eetin g s and at region al and national sem in ars. G u ild m em b ers a lso can take a series o f tests to earn the title R egistered T u n er-T ech n icia n . T h e title is an a c k n o w l ed g m en t o f the te c h n ic ia n ’s sk ills. T uners and repairers w h o w ork for large dealers or repair sh o p s can ad van ce to super visory p o sitio n s. M ost p eo p le in this field , h o w ev e r, g o into b u sin ess for th e m se lv es. O p en in g a repair b u sin ess is fairly e a sy b e ca u se on ly a sm all in v estm en t in to o ls is required. B asic pian o or p ip e-organ to o ls cost o n ly a fe w hundred d ollars; to o ls and test eq u ip m en t for e lectro n ic organs m ay c o st about a th ou san d d ollars. H o w e v e r , the tun in g and repair b u sin e ss is very co m p etitiv e. P eo p le w ith ou t adequ ate training o ften fa il to attract en o u g h cu stom ers to stay in b u sin ess. S e lf-e m p lo y e d tuners and repairers operate ou t o f their o w n h o m es and u se eith er a car or a sm all truck for serv ice c a lls. T h ey a lso m ay w ork anoth er jo b until their c lie n tele is large en o u g h to support a repair b u sin ess. Job Outlook L ittle or no c h a n g e in em p lo y m en t o f p i ano and organ tuners and repairers is e x p e c t ed through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. Job o p e n in g s w ill b e c o m e ava ila b le each year as ex p erien ced w orkers retire, d ie , or transfer to other o c c u p a tio n s. H o w e v e r , this is a very sm a ll o c c u p a tio n , and the nu m ber o f jo b o p e n in g s w ill b e fe w . M illio n s o f p ian os and organs already are in u se and the num ber w ill in crease as the p op u lation g ro w s and as p eo p le g e t m ore leisu re tim e. T h e large num ber o f instru m en ts in u se w ill assu re a d em an d for tuning and repair w ork . H o w e v e r , op p ortu n ities for untrained w orkers in th ese o ccu p a tio n s are fe w . M o st m u sic store o w n ers and se lf-e m p lo y e d tuners and repairers are reluctant to train person s w h o d o n ot h ave at lea st a b asic un derstand in g o f p ian o and organ tun in g and repair. T rain in g su ch p e o p le requires tim e that co u ld b e m ore p rofitab ly sp en t d o in g tu n in g or repair w ork . In d ivid u als w ith so m e fam iliarity o f the trade m ay fin d it ea sier to g e t a trainee jo b . B e ca u se pian o and organ tun in g and repair are a luxu ry for m ost co n su m er s, th ese o c c u p ation s are se n sitiv e to the d ow ntu rn s in the e c o n o m y . D u ring poor e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s, tuners and repairers m ay lo se in c o m e b eca u se their cu stom ers put o f f tu n in g and repairing in stru m en ts. P eo p le w ish in g to enter the trade u su a lly fin d m u sic store o w n ers and s e lf-e m p lo y e d tuners and tech n icia n s e sp e c ia lly reluctant to hire train ees w h en b u sin ess is s lo w . Earnings E x p erien ced w orkers earned from $ 5 to $ 1 0 an hour in 1 9 8 0 , accord in g to the lim ited in form ation a v a ila b le. W a g e s vary w ith the sk ill o f w ork ers and the area o f the country. W a g e rates for h elp ers ranged from $3 to $5 an hour. S o m e help ers r ec eiv e n o pay; they w ork for the training. S e lf-e m p lo y e d tuners and repairers earned from $ 1 2 ,0 0 0 to $ 1 4 ,0 0 0 a year in 1 980. E arnings o f the s e lf-e m p lo y e d d ep en d on the siz e o f the c o m m u n ity , their ab ility to attract an d k e e p c u s to m e r s , th eir o p e r a tin g e x p e n s e s , and the am oun t o f co m p etitio n from other tuners and repairers. D u ring fall and w in ter, p e o p le sp en d m ore tim e ind oors p la y in g their p ia n o s or organs. C o n se q u en tly , m any tuners and repairers w ork m ore than 4 0 hours a w e ek at that tim e. S e lf-e m p lo y e d tuners and repairers freq uently w ork e v e n in g s and w e ek en d s to su it their cu stom ers. Mechanics and Repairers/355 Related Occupations T here are alm o st as m any d ifferen t m u si cal-instru m en t repairers as there are d ifferent m u sical instrum ents. O ther occu p a tio n s in this trade are a ccord ion repairer, fretted-instrum ent repairer, harpsichord repairer, v io lin repairer, w ind -in strum ent repairer, accord ion tuner, percu ssion -in stru m en t repairer, p ercu s sio n tuner, and b o w repairer. Sources of Additional Information D eta ils about jo b opp ortu nities m ay be a v a ila b le from lo ca l pian o and organ dealers and repair sh o p s. For general inform ation about pian o tech n icia n s and a list o f sc h o o ls o fferin g co u rses in pian o tech n o lo g y , write to: Piano Technicians Guild, 113 Dexter Ave. N., Seattle, Wash. 98109. Pinsetter Mechanics (D.O.T. 638.261-022) Nature of the Work A n im portant p ie c e o f m achinery in the m o d e m b o w lin g cen ter is the autom atic pinsetter. It returns the ball to the b o w ler, clears the fa llen p in s from the lan e, and resets pin s for the n ex t ball. W hen this co m p lex m a ch in e fa ils to w ork properly, the g am e is held up and the b o w lin g cen ter ’s cu stom ers are in c o n v en ien ced . K eep in g pin setters running properly is the jo b o f pin setter m ech a n ics. P in setters have m any electrical and m e ch an ical parts that require regular serv ice to operate co rrectly. P insetters m ust b e clea n ed , gears and other m o v in g parts m ust b e lubri ca ted , and m otors m ust be adjusted. M e c h a n ic s p erfo rm th e se jo b s a c c o r d in g to a sch ed u le reco m m en d ed b y the p in setter’s m anufacturer. T h ey also in sp ect the m a ch in es for fau lty parts and w irin g that m ay ca u se break d ow n s. W hen a pin setter m a lfu n ctio n s, m ech an ics m ust fin d the ca u se o f the trouble and m ake repairs. T o lo ca te the p rob lem , m ech an ics m ay refer to tro u b lesh ootin g m anu als and diagram s o f electrica l circu its. O ften they can fin d the trouble rely in g o n ly on the k n o w l e d g e o f the m achine that they have gain ed through e x p erien ce. T o fix the pin setter, m e ch a n ics repair, rep la ce, or adjust broken m e ch an ical or electrical parts, su ch as gears, bea rin g s, and m otors. M ech a n ics u se m any d ifferen t ty p es o f to o ls, su ch as w ren ch es, screw d rivers, s o l dering iron s, portable h o ists, and lubricating eq u ip m en t, to repair and service the parts. T h e y o c c a s io n a lly u se o h m m e te r s, v o lt m eters, and other d e v ic e s to test electrical circu its, r ela y s, transform ers, and m otors. M ech a n ics o ften su p ervise o n e or m ore assistant m ech a n ics or pin ch asers. M ech an ics train th ese w orkers to correct m inor prob lem s, su ch as ja m m ed pins and b a lls, by Pinsetter mechanics must have a working knowledge of electricity and electronics. exp la in in g h o w the m ach in e operates and b y dem onstrating h o w to m ake repairs. A ssistan t m ech an ics or the p in ch asers m aintain the p in setters w h en the m ech an ic is o f f du ty. In so m e b o w lin g cen ters, m ech an ics per form other m ain ten an ce, su ch as co n d ition in g la n es, clea n in g and m aintaining p in s, and repairing seats and tab les. M ech a n ics d o so m e clerical w ork , m aintaining an inventory o f parts. T h ey a lso m ay k eep records o f pin setter m a lfu n ction s and estim ate m ain te nan ce c o sts. w ork area u su ally is w e ll lig h ted and w e ll ven tilated but quite n o isy w h en the m ach in es are operatin g. W hen m aking repairs and ad j u s tm e n ts , m e c h a n ic s fr e q u e n tly h a v e to clim b and b alan ce o n the w ork platform o f the pin setter and to sto o p , k n ee l, cro u ch , and craw l around the m a ch in es. T h o se w h o in stall and serv ice m ach in es for m anufacturers m u st travel to the variou s b o w lin g cen ters in their area. T h e jo b g en erally is n ot dan gerous but w orkers are su b ject to co m m o n sh op h a z ards, su ch as c u ts, fa lls , b ru ises, and ele ctr i cal sh ock . Working Conditions M ech an ics freq uently w ork in the lo n g , relatively narrow corridor at the en d o f b o w l in g lan es w h ere the autom atic pin setters are lo cated . In m any b o w lin g cen ters there also is a larger w ork room w here m ech an ics d o repairs and keep su p p lies and to o ls. T he Employment A b ou t 6 ,5 0 0 pin setter m ech a n ics w ere e m p lo y e d in 1980. A lm o st all w orked in b o w l in g cen ters. A sm all num ber w ere em p lo y ed b y m anufacturers o f autom atic pinsetters to install m ach in es and service th o se in b o w l 356/Occupational Outlook Handbook ing cen ters that did not e m p lo y fu ll-tim e m ech a n ics. P in setter m ech a n ics are e m p lo y ed in every S tate, but em p lo y m en t is concen trated in h ea v ily p op u lated a reas, w h ere there are m any b o w lin g cen ters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement G en era lly , there are no ed u cation or e x p e rience req uirem en ts for a jo b as a pin setter m ech a n ic. S o m e e m p lo y er s, h o w ev e r, prefer to hire app licants w h o are h igh sc h o o l gradu ates and w h o have c o m p leted cou rses in e le c tricity , m ach in e repair, blu ep rint read in g, and sh op m ath. E m p lo y ers a lso prefer applicants w h o h a v e ex p e rien ce repairing so m e type o f m ach in ery. P in setter m ech a n ics u su ally b egin w ork as a ssistan t m ech a n ics and train on the jo b . T rain ees learn abou t the p in sette r ’s operation and m aintenane by o b serv in g head m ech an ics and w orking o n the m a ch in es under their su p erv isio n . T rain ees are taught h o w to lubri cate and clea n pin setters and to perform other p rev en tiv e m ain ten an ce. T rain ees a lso learn to d ia g n o se and repair variou s kinds o f m a ch in e b reak d ow n s. U s u a lly , 1 to 2 years o f o n -th e-jo b training and e x p erien ce are n eed ed to acquire m e c h a n ic s’ sk ills. S o m e m ech a n ic train ees are sent to train in g co u rses co n d u cted by pin setter m an u fac turers. T h ese are o p en o n ly to m ech an ics w h o w ork at a b o w lin g cen ter, h o w ev e r. T he b o w lin g cen ter u su ally pays the tu ition . T he m a n u factu rers’ c o u r se s, w h ich last 2 to 4 w e e k s, in clu d e c la ssro o m lectu res and sh o p w o r k w ith d e m o n s tr a tio n m a c h in e s. T rain ees stu dy the structure and operation o f m a ch in es m ade b y the firm operatin g the sc h o o l and learn to lo ca te typ ical sou rces o f trouble. T h ey learn to perform p reven tive m ain ten an ce, to read w irin g d iagram s, and to use the to o ls o f the trade. P eo p le w h o w an t to b e c o m e a b o w lin g p in -m a ch in e m ech a n ic sh ou ld h ave m ech an i ca l ab ility and lik e to w ork w ith their hands. T h ey a lso sh o u ld h a v e g o o d e y e s ig h t (in clu d ing norm al co lo r v isio n ), g o o d eye-h a n d c o o rd in ation , and a verage p h y sica l strength. A d v a n cem en t op p ortu n ities for pin setter m ech a n ics are lim ited . M ech a n ics w h o w ork for large esta b lish m en ts su ch as b o w lin g c e n ter ch ain s or for pin setter m anufacturers m ay a d v a n ce to m ain ten an ce su p ervisor. S o m e m e c h a n ic s b e c o m e a ss is ta n t m a n a g ers or m anagers o f b o w lin g estab lish m en ts. Job Outlook L ittle or n o ch a n g e is e x p e cte d in e m p lo y m ent o f pin setter m ech a n ics through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. T h e dem and for b o w lin g fa c ilitie s is lik ely to g ro w as the p op u lation in creases. H o w e v er , the g row th in th ese fa c ilitie s w ill b e slo w e d b y the h igh c o sts a sso cia ted w ith the co n stru ction o f n ew b o w lin g cen ters. M o st jo b o p e n in g s w ill arise from the need to rep lace e x p erien ced m ech a n ics w h o retire, d ie , or lea v e the o ccu p a tio n for other rea so n s. B e ca u se this o ccu p a tio n is very sm all, o n ly a lim ited nu m ber o f jo b s w ill b e co m e ava ila b le. P in setter m ech a n ics g en erally d o not lo se their jo b s during a r ec essio n . A lth ou gh b o w l ing cen ters m ay lo se so m e b u sin ess during hard tim es, m ech a n ics still are n eed ed to m aintain and repair the eq u ip m en t. In add i tio n , em p lo y ers gen erally are reluctant to lay o f f sk illed m e ch a n ics, b eca u se they m ay get jo b s in other b o w lin g cen ters. Earnings H ourly earn in gs in 1980 for m ech an ic train ees up to m e ch a n ics, accord in g to the tion ava ila b le. W a g es vary and w ith the e x p erien ce o f ranged from $ 4 $ 1 0 .5 0 for head lim ited in form a greatly by area the m ech a n ic. Related Occupations T h e sm ooth op eration o f a b o w lin g cen ter d ep en d s on the ab ility o f the p in setter m e ch an ic to k eep both the electrica l and the m ech an ical parts o f the pin setter operatin g n orm ally. O ther m ech a n ics w h o n eed k n o w l e d g e o f both e lectrica l and m ech an ical repair w ork in clu d e bakery m ach in e m ech a n ics, lau n d ry m a c h in e m e c h a n ic s , m a in te n a n c e m e ch a n ics, se w in g -m a c h in e m ech a n ics, and v en d in g -m a ch in e m ech a n ics. Sources of Additional Information P eo p le w h o w ant further in form ation about w ork opp ortu nities in this o ccu p ation sh ould con tact b o w lin g cen ters in their area or the lo ca l b o w lin g p rop rietors’ a sso cia tio n . T he lo ca l o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t serv ice is another sou rce o f in form ation about e m p lo y m en t and training op p ortu n ities. Vending Machine Mechanics (D .O .T . 639.281-014) Nature of the Work V en d in g m a ch in es h a v e b e c o m e a fam iliar part o f ev eryd ay life . In p la c es o f recreation, w o rk , and ed u ca tio n , v en d in g m ach in es pro vid e all ty p es o f refresh m en ts, from a p iece o f can d y to a co m p lete m eal. V en d in g m a ch in e m ech a n ics k eep th ese m ach in es in g o o d w ork in g order. B efo re n ew m ach in es are p la ced on lo ca tion for u se, m ech an ics m ak e sure th ey op er ate correctly. W hen ch e ck in g co m p lica ted electrica l and electro n ic m a ch in es, su ch as b evera g e d isp en sers, they m ake sure that the m ach in es m ix drinks properly and that refrig erating and h eatin g units w ork correctly. O n the rela tiv ely sim p le gravity-op erated m a c h in e s, m ech a n ics ch eck h a n d les, sp rin gs, p lu n gers, and m erch an d ise ch u tes. T h ey a lso test c o in and ch an g e-m a k in g m ech a n ism s. W h en in stallin g m a ch in es on lo ca tio n , m e ch a n ics m ake the n ecessa ry w ater and ele ctr i cal co n n ectio n s and rech eck the m ach in es for proper operation . I f a m ach in e breaks d o w n , m ech a n ics m ust d eterm in e the ca u se o f the trouble. T h ey first in sp ect the m ach in e for o b v io u s p ro b lem s, su ch as lo o s e electrical w ir es, m a lfu n ctio n s o f the c o in m e ch a n ism , and lea k s. I f the p rob lem can n ot b e read ily lo ca te d , th ey m ay refer to tro u b lesh ootin g m anu als and w irin g diagram s and u se testin g d e v ic e s su ch as electrica l circu it testers to fin d d e fe ctiv e parts. M ec h a n ic s m ay repair fau lty parts at the site . H o w e v e r , th ey often in sta ll rep la ce m en ts and take broken parts to th e co m p a n y sh op for repair. P rev en tiv e m ain ten an ce— a v o id in g trouble b efo re it starts— is another m ajor part o f the jo b . For e x a m p le , m ech a n ics p erio d ica lly clea n electrica l con tact p o in ts, lubricate m e ch an ical parts, and adjust m a ch in es to per form properly. In repair and m ain ten an ce w o rk , m ech a n ics u se p ip e cu tters, sold erin g iro n s, w ren ch es, screw d rivers, h am m ers, and other h a n d to o ls. In the repair sh o p , th ey m ay u se p o w er to o ls, su ch as grin d in g w h e e ls , sa w s, and drills. B e ca u se ven d in g m ach in es d isp en se fo o d , m ech a n ics m u st k n ow State p u b lic health and san itation standards as w e ll as th o se esta b lish e d under lo ca l p lu m b in g c o d e s. T h ey a lso m ust k n o w and fo llo w safety p ro ced u res, e s p e c ia lly w h en liftin g h ea v y o b jects and w ork in g w ith electricity and g a s. M ech a n ics m ust d o so m e clerica l w o rk , su ch as filin g rep orts, preparing repair c o st e stim a te s, and ordering parts. T h o se e m p lo y e d by sm all op eratin g c o m p a n ies m ay serv ice as w e ll as repair m a ch in es. T h ese co m b in a tio n “ m ech an ic-rou tew o rk ers ” sto ck m a c h in e s, c o lle c t m o n e y , fill c o in and cur ren cy ch a n g ers, and k eep d a ily records o f m erch an d ise distribu ted. Working Conditions S o m e m ech a n ics w ork in co m p a n y repair sh o p s, others w ork in the fie ld , but m any do b oth . T h o se w h o w ork in the field drive a serv ice truck b etw een lo ca tio n s. S in ce v e n d in g m ach in es can b e operated around the c lo c k , m ech a n ics so m e tim e s w ork at n igh t and o n w e ek en d s and h o lid a y s. V en d in g m ach in e repair sh o p s g en era lly are q u iet, w e ll lig h ted , and h a v e adequate w ork sp a ce. H o w e v e r , w h en serv icin g m a ch in es on lo c a tio n , m ech a n ics m ay w ork in cram ped quarters, su ch as p a s sa g e w a y s, w h ere p e d e s trian traffic is h e a v y . R epair w ork is rela tiv ely sa fe , alth ou gh m ech a n ics are su b ject to h a z ards su ch as electrica l sh o ck s and cu ts from sharp to o ls and m etal ob jects. Employment In 1 9 8 0 , about 1 3 ,5 0 0 m ech a n ics m a in tain ed and repaired ab ou t 5 m illio n ven d in g m a ch in es. M ost m ech a n ics w ork fo r v en d in g c o m p a n ie s that sell fo o d and other item s through m a ch in es. S o m e w ork fo r so ft drink b ottlin g co m p a n ies that h a v e their o w n c o in operated m a ch in es. O ther m e ch a n ics, w h o are e m p lo y e d as instructors b y m a ch in e m an- Mechanics and Repairers/357 ufacturers, teach v en d in g co m p an y m ech an ics to repair n e w m a ch in es. A lth o u g h m e ch a n ics are e m p lo y ed through out the cou n try, m o st are lo ca ted in areas w ith large p o p u la tio n s w h er e th ere are m a n y v e n d in g m a ch in es. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement P erson s o ften enter th is trade as general sh o p h elpers o r route drivers. M o st n ew w ork ers learn the trade inform ally o n the jo b b y o b ser v in g , w ork in g w ith , and receiv in g in str u c tio n fro m e x p e r ie n c e d m e c h a n ic s . T rain ees u su ally start o u t b y d o in g sim p le jo b s su ch as c le a n in g , p ain tin g, or refurbish in g m a ch in es. F rom th ere, th ey learn to re b u ild m ach in es— rem o v in g d e fe ctiv e parts, rep airing, a d ju stin g, and testin g the m a ch in e s. N e x t, th ey acco m p a n y an ex p eri en ced m ech an ic o n serv ice c a lls , and then g o o u t o n their o w n . T h ey c a ll upon the exp er tise o f other m ech a n ics, w h en n ecessa ry . A t th is p oin t th ey h a v e co m p lete d their on -th ejo b tr a in in g . T h is p r o c e s s ta k e s fro m 6 m onth s to 3 y ea rs, d ep en d in g o n the in d iv id u a l’s a b ilitie s, p rev io u s ed u ca tio n , and the q u ality o f instruction. M an y b egin n ers are h igh sc h o o l gradu a te s , b u t e m p lo y e r s m a y n o t req u ire a d ip lo m a . H ig h sc h o o l or vocation al sc h o o l co u rses in e le ctr icity , refrigeration , and m a c h in e repair h elp b eg in n ers to q u a lify for entry jo b s. T here are abou t 10 h igh sc h o o ls and ju n io r c o lle g e s in the country offerin g 1- to 2 -y ea r training program s for ven d in g m ach in e m ech a n ics. T h e N a tio n a l A u tom atic M erch and isin g A sso cia tio n has esta b lish ed an app renticeship program to h elp em p lo y ers train n e w w ork ers. A p p ren tices are guaranteed period s o f training in variou s sk ills. T h e program a lso c a lls for 144 hours o f related instruction each year in su b jects su ch as b a sic electricity , blueprint read in g, cu stom er rela tio n s, and sa fety . Apprenticeships last 3 years. T he N A M A program in clu d es certification o f m ech a n ics u p on c o m p letio n o f their on -th ejo b train in g, and p a ssin g perform ance and w ritten tests. T o learn abou t n ew m a ch in es, m ech an ics s o m e tim e s a tten d m a n u fa ctu re r-sp o n so r ed training se ss io n s in repair sh o p s, or in m anu fa ctu rers’ se r v ic e fa c ilitie s. E m p loyers u su al ly pay w a g e s and e x p e n se s during th ese se s s io n s , w h ich m ay la st from a fe w d a y s to several w e ek s. S o m e em p lo y ers en co u rage both train ees and e x p erien ced m ech a n ics to take ev en in g co u rses in su b jects related to v en d in g m a c h in e operation and repair— for e x a m p le , ba sic electricity and refrigeration . E m p loyers o ften pay fo r at lea st part o f the tuition and b o o k e x p e n se s for th ese co u rses. E m p lo y ers require ap p lican ts for m ech an ic jo b s to dem onstrate m ech an ical a b ility , eith er through their w ork e x p erien ce or b y scorin g w e ll o n m ech a n ica l aptitude tests. S in ce m e ch a n ics are e x p o se d to thou san ds o f dollars in m erchan dise and c a sh , em p lo y ers prefer Vending machine mechanics often start as shop helpers and learn on the job. app licants w h o h ave a record o f h o n esty and resp ect for the la w . T h e ab ility to d eal tact fu lly w ith p eo p le a lso is im portant. A c o m m ercial d river’s lic e n se and a g o o d drivin g record are essen tia l for m ost v en d in g m e ch an ic jo b s . S k illed m ech an ics m ay be p rom oted to su p ervisory jo b s . S o m e op en their o w n ven d in g c o m p a n ies. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f v en d in g m ach in e m ech an ics is e x p ected to g ro w m ore slo w ly than the average for all occu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. M ore ven d in g m ach in es w ill b e in stalled as d em an d for fast fo o d se r v ic e g ro w s and as m ore industrial plan ts, h o sp ita ls, and stores m o v e to suburban areas w h ere res taurants are n ot a lw a y s c lo s e b y . In add i tio n , ven d in g c o m p a n ies w ill in crease the variety o f products so ld through the m a ch in e s. G row th in the num ber o f ven d in g m a ch in es w ill create m ore jo b s for m ech an ic s . Job o p en in g s a lso w ill arise as exp eri en c ed m ech an ics retire, d ie , or transfer to other occu p a tio n s. P erson s w ith training or p reviou s ex p eri e n c e in ven d in g m ach in e repair sh ould b e ab le to fin d jo b s e a sily . P erson s w ith so m e b ackgroun d in e lectro n ics sh ou ld h a v e e x c e l len t jo b p rosp ects, as m ore electro n ic c o m p o nents are u sed in ven d in g m a ch in es. Job prosp ects for w orkers w ith ou t ex p erien ce or vocation a l training o ften d ep en d o n lo ca l e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s. F or e x a m p le, if ven d in g co m p an y operators n eed m ore m ech a n ics and can n ot fin d trained or ex p erien ced o n e s, they are lik ely to p rom ote q u alified route drivers or hire in ex p erien ced p e o p le w h o h ave a c quired m ech an ical aptitude b y taking high sc h o o l c o u rses in sh op and electricity . D u ring e co n o m ic d ow n tu rn s, em p lo y ers are u n lik ely to lay o f f ex p erien ced m ech an ics b e ca u se o f con cern that they w o u ld n ot be availab le for rehire w h en b u sin ess im p ro v es. Earnings W a g e rates for v en d in g m ach in e m ech a n ic s ranged from $3 to $ 1 2 an hour in 1 9 8 0 . A p p ren tices start at 5 0 percen t o f the rate paid ex p erien ced m ech an ics and rec eiv e in c rea ses ev ery 6 m onth s. M o st v en d in g m ach in e m ech a n ics w ork 8 hours a d a y , 5 days a w e e k , and receiv e prem ium p ay for overtim e. S o m e u n ion c o n tracts stipu late h igh er p ay for nigh tw ork and for em erg en cy repair jo b s on w eek en d s and h o lid a y s. M any ven d in g m ach in e m ech a n ics em p lo y e d b y large c o m p a n ies are m em b ers o f the International B rotherh ood o f T eam sters, C h au ffeu rs, W areh ou sem en and H elpers o f A m erica. Related Occupations O ther w orkers w h o repair eq u ip m en t w ith electrical and m ech an ical co m p o n en ts in c lu d e b o w lin g -p in -m a ch in e m e ch a n ics, e le c trical-ap p lian ce serv icers, laundry m ach in e m e ch a n ics, m ain ten an ce m e ch a n ics, b u sin ess m a c h in e rep a ir er s, an d s e w in g m a c h in e m ech a n ics. Sources of Additional Information Further inform ation on jo b opportu nities can b e ob tain ed from lo ca l v en d in g m achine firm s and lo ca l o ffic e s o f the State em p lo y m en t or app renticeh sip se r v ic e. For general in form ation on ven d in g m ach in e m ech a n ics, as w e ll as a list o f sc h o o ls offerin g cou rses in v en d in g m ach in e m ech a n ics, w rite to: National Automatic Merchandising Association, 7 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, 1 1 60603. 1. 358/Occupational Outlook Handbook Watch Repairers (D .O .T. 715.281-010, -014) Nature of the Work W hether they u se a grandp arent’s pendant or p o ck et m o d e l, or a m u ltifu n ction d ig ita l, p eo p le dep en d o n w a tch es to k eep on sc h e d u le. K eep in g th ese tim ek eep in g d e v ic e s oper ating properly is the jo b o f w atch repairers. T h e se w orkers c le a n , repair, and adjust the m any ty p es o f w a tch es and c lo c k s n o w in u se. M any w a tch es operate m ech an ically; a m ainspring su p p lies the p o w er and w h ee ls and gears regu late the m o v em en t o f the han ds. W hen a m ech a n ica l w atch is not w ork in g p rop erly, repairers u se tw e ez e rs, screw d rivers, and other to o ls to r em o v e the w atch m o v em en t— the m ain sp rin g, w h e e ls, and gears— from the c a se . R epairers clean the m o v em en t in an ultrasonic clean er. I f the w atch still d o e s not w ork , they ca refu lly d is a s s e m b le th e m o v e m e n t to fin d b r o k e n , w orn , or im properly adju sted parts. W hen w ork in g w ith th ese sm a ll parts, w atch repair ers w ear m a g n ify in g g la sse s and so m etim es m icr o sc o p e s. T h ey m ay rep lace the m ain spring and other parts o f the w in d in g m ech a n ism , adjust or rep lace im properly fitted w h e e ls and gea rs, or rep lace broken parts. R epairers then in sp ect and ch e ck all the parts as they rea ssem b le the m o v e m e n t. W h en the m o v em en t is r ea ssem b led , repairers test the w a tc h ’s accu racy w ith a tim in g m ach in e. O ver the past tw o d e c a d e s, several types o f electro n ic w a tch es h ave b een m arketed. B atteries su p p ly the p o w er , and tu n in g fo rk s, quartz c ry sta ls, and m icro p rocesso rs regu late th e tim e . S o m e e le c tr o n ic w a tc h e s h a v e h an d s, g e a rs, and w h e e ls b u t, o th ers, su ch as d ig ita ls, h a v e n o m o v in g parts. T o repair e lectro n ic w a tc h e s, repairers c h e c k circu its w ith electrica l test eq u ip m en t. T h e m eters sh o w w h ich parts o f the w atch are m a lfu n c tio n in g and h a v e to be rep laced . R epairers a lso rep lace batteries. W atch repairers w h o o w n je w e lr y stores m ay repair je w e lr y and se ll w a tc h e s, je w e lr y , silv erw a re, and other item s. T h ey a lso m ay hire and su p erv ise sa le sc le rk s, other w atch rep airers, and je w ele rs; arrange w in d o w d is p lays; pu rchase g o o d s to b e sold ; and per form oth er m anagerial d u ties. Working Conditions T h e w ork o f w atch repairers in v o lv e s little p h y sica l ex ertio n and g e n era lly is perform ed in c o m fo rta b le su rroun dings. H o w e v er , the p atien ce and con cen tration required to w ork w ith sm all parts can ca u se stress. W atch repairers h ave m ore freed o m than oth er w ork ers in d eterm in in g their w ork se t tin g and hou rs. S o m e w atch rep airers, for e x a m p le , w ork part tim e o u t o f their h o m e s. Employment A b ou t 1 2 ,0 0 0 person s w ork ed as w atch repairers in 1 9 8 0 . A b ou t tw o -fifth s w ere se lfe m p lo y e d . M o st w atch repairers w ork ed in je w e lr y stores or repair sh o p s , w h ic h are lo ca ted through out the cou n try. A sm all n u m b er h ad j o b s in f a c to r ie s th at m ak e w a tc h e s, c lo c k s , or oth er p r e cisio n tim in g in stru m en ts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st p e o p le learn the trade in w a tch repair sc h o o ls. T here are n o ed u catio n a l req uire m en ts for entrance into w atch repair s c h o o ls, a lth o u g h m o s t stu d e n ts are h ig h s c h o o l grad u ates. S o m e sc h o o ls test a stu d e n t’s m e ch a n ical aptitude and m anual d ex terity . M ost sc h o o ls charge tuition and require stu dents to furnish their o w n h a n d to o ls. C ou rses last from 1 to 3 years for fu ll-tim e stu dents. S tu d en ts learn to use and care for the w atch rep airer’s to o ls and m a c h in e s, m ak e and ad j u s t in d iv id u a l p a rts, tak e apart an d r e a ssem b le variou s k in ds o f w a tch es and c lo c k s and d ia g n o se and s o lv e repair p rob lem s. S o m e s c h o o ls o ffer cou rses in repairing u n usual ty p es o f tim e p ie c e s, su ch as ch ro n o graphs and antique w a tc h e s. G raduates o ften fin d it a d van tageou s to w ork w ith an ex p e ri e n c ed w atch repairer for severa l y ears to im p rove their sk ills and k n o w le d g e o f b u sin ess op eration s. Many watch repairers have their own business. W atch repair a lso can be learned through o n -th e-jo b arrangem ents w ith ex p erien ced w ork ers. H o w e v e r , fe w sh op or store ow n ers hire in ex p erien ced w o rk ers, b e c a u se o f the tim e req uired for su p erv isio n . T h is typ e o f training is le s s structured than cla ssr o o m in- Mechanics and Repairers/359 struction. T rain ees learn b y ob serv in g ex p eri en ced repairers and b y p erform ing sim p le and then m ore c o m p lex repairs. T he fo llo w in g S tates require w atch repair ers to obtain a licen se: In diana, Io w a , K en tu ck y , L o u isia n a , M ic h ig a n , M in n esota, and N orth D ak ota. T o obtain a lic e n se , repairers m ust p ass an ex a m in ation d esig n ed to test their sk ill w ith to o ls and their k n o w led g e o f w atch construction and repair. W atch repairers in all States can d em on strate their co m p e te n c e b y p assin g certifica tion ex a m in a tio n s g iv e n b y the A m erican W atchm akers In stitute. T ests are g iv en for the titles: C ertified W atchm aker, C ertified E lectro n ic W atch S p ec ia lists, C ertified M as ter W atchm aker, C ertified C lock m ak er, and C ertified M aster C lock m ak er. A n nu al v o lu n tary ex a m in a tio n s co v erin g n e w p h ases o f w a tch m ak in g a lso are o ffered . A p erson plan n in g a career as a w atch repairer m u st b e w illin g to sit for lo n g peri o d s and w ork w ith a m in im u m o f su p ervi sio n . T h e p recise and d elicate nature o f the w ork requires patien ce and con cen tration . B eca u se a w atch is sim p ly a sm all m ach in e, m ech a n ica l aptitude is e sse n tia l. G o o d depth p erception and e y e-h a n d coord in ation are n ecessa ry in w ork in g w ith the tin y parts. W atch repairers w h o h ave su ffic ien t e x p e rien ce and fun ds m ay op en their o w n repair sh o p s. W atch repairers a lso m ay op en theno w n je w elr y sto res, w h ere th ey can increase their in c o m e b y se llin g w atch es and other m erch an d ise in add ition to repairing w a tch es. Jew elry stores require a m u ch greater fin an cia l in v estm en t than repair sh o p s, b eca u se an in ven tory o f e x p e n siv e m erchan dise m ust b e obtained. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f w atch repairers is exp ected to in crease m ore s lo w ly than the average for all o ccu p ation s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. H o w ev er, d u e to the n eed to rep lace ex p erien ced repair ers w h o retire, d ie , or lea v e the occu p ation for other rea so n s, jo b opp ortu nities sh ou ld be very g o o d for trained w atch repairers. M ore w a tch es w ill b e so ld as p op ulation and in c o m es r ise, but m any w ill c o st little m ore to rep lace than to repair. C on seq u en tly , e m p lo y m en t o f repairers is n ot e x p ected to keep p ace w ith sa les o f w a tch es. H o w e v er , so m any w atch es are in u se that the n eed for w atch repairers sh ou ld rem ain strong. In re cen t yea rs, jo b o p en in g s have e x c e e d e d the nu m ber o f trained w orkers entering the o c c u p ation . I f this gap co n tin u e s, trained w orkers sh ou ld fin d jo b s read ily availab le. O pportuni ties are e x p ected to b e particularly g o o d for w orkers w h o can repair the in creasin gly p op ular electron ic w atch es. Earnings B a sed on the lim ited inform ation availab le, w atch repairers in entry jo b s g en erally earned from abou t $ 1 5 0 to $ 2 5 0 a w e ek in 1 9 8 0 . E x p erien ced w atch repairers w orking in retail stores and repair sh op s earned from $ 2 5 0 to $ 5 0 0 a w e e k . S o m e w atch repairers m ay be paid a c o m m issio n b ased on the num ber o f w atch es repaired. O thers rent sp a ce in a je w elry store, set up a repair departm ent, and sp lit the profits w ith the store o w n er. W atch repairers w h o are paid a c o m m issio n or w h o o w n their o w n b u sin e sses can earn co n sid er ably m ore than th ose w ork in g for a salary. Related Occupations W atch repairers d o detailed w ork w ith sm all parts. O ther w orkers that n eed sim ilar m anual sk ill in clu d e en gravers, g u n sm ith s, hand carvers, hand pain ters, je w e le r s , m od el m akers, and taxiderm ists. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation abou t training cou rses and w atch repairing as a career, contact: American Watchmakers Institute, 3700 Harrison Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio 45211. For inform ation abou t jo b opp ortu nities in retail stores, contact: Jewelers of America, Inc., Time-Life Building, 1271 Avenue of the Americas, Suite 650, New York, N.Y. 10020. Further in form ation about w ork opportuni ties or training in this trade a lso is a vailab le from lo ca l o ffic e s o f the State em p lo y m en t se r v ic e. Construction and Extractive Occupations C on struction and ex tractive w orkers m ake up tw o o f the m o st im portant grou p s o f o c c u pa tio n s in the N a tio n ’s lab or fo rce. C on struc tion w orkers b u ild the h o u se s that sh elter the po p u la tio n and con stru ct the factories in w h ich the N a tio n ’s g o o d s are p rod u ced . E x tractive w orkers m in e the fu e ls and raw m a terials n eed ed in all in d u stries. C on stru ction , m in in g , and o il and gas d rillin g are c o m p lex op eration s that require w orkers w ith m any k in ds o f sk ills. C on struc tion and ex tractive w orkers a cco m p lish their task s u sin g to o ls, m a ch in ery, and m aterials that freq u en tly are p ecu liar to their o ccu p a Oil and gas drilling and special trade contractors account for more than half of all workers in mining and construction Employment, 1980 (millions) Mining ° Metal mining Coal mining Oil and gas drilling Nonmetallic mining Construction General building contractors General contractors, except building Special trade contractors Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 360 5 10 1.5 2.0 tio n . B rick m a so n s w ork w ith m ortar, tro w e ls , and brick . B lasters shatter o res and ston e w ith e x p lo s iv e s . A lth o u g h con stru ctio n and e x tra ctiv e w ork ers u se la b orsa v in g m ach in ery and to o ls , th e w ork in m o st o f th ese o ccu p a tio n s is p h y sic a lly d em an d in g . W orkers in the con stru ctio n and extra ctiv e o c c u p a tio n s u s u a lly a c q u ir e th e ir s k ills through o n -th e-jo b train in g. A lth o u g h m any em p lo y er s p refer to hire h ig h sc h o o l gradu a te s, p h y sica l stren gth , sta m in a , and m e ch a n ical aptitud e o ften are as im portant as an a p p lic a n t’s le v e l o f ed u ca tio n . N e w w ork ers learn by d o in g th e jo b u n der the su per v isio n o f e x p e rien ce d w ork ers. F or so m e o c cu p a tio n s, n e w w ork ers a lso r ec e iv e c la s s room in stru ction in related to p ic s. E lectri c ia n s, for e x a m p le , learn electrica l th eo ry , m a th em a tics, and b lu ep rint rea d in g , and co a l m in ers take sa fety c la s s e s . T h e ty p e and len gth o f train in g vary a m o n g th e o c cu p a tio n s. U n io n -m a n a g em en t con tracts freq u en t ly s e t th e r u les g o v e r n in g o p p o r tu n itie s for training and entry in to th e con stru c tion and extra ctiv e o c cu p a tio n s. M a n y c o n stru ction w ork ers, for e x a m p le , learn their trades through ap p ren ticesh ip s a d m in istered b y u n io n -m a n a g em en t co m m itte es. T h e occu p a tio n a l statem en ts in this chapter d escrib e in detail the w o rk , train in g, and jo b o u tlo o k for 16 con stru ction and ex tra ctiv e o ccu p a tio n s. Construction Occupations C on struction craft w orkers represent the largest group o f sk illed w orkers in the N a tio n ’s labor fo rce. T h e con stru ction trades o ffer e sp e c ia lly g o o d opp ortu nities for you n g p eo p le w h o are n ot plan n in g to g o to c o l le g e , but w h o are w illin g to sp en d several years learning a sk illed occu p a tio n . C on struction w orkers can fin d jo b opportu nities in all parts o f the country. T h eir hou rly w a g e rates g en era lly are m u ch h igh er than th o se o f m o st other m anual w orkers. C on struction trade w orkers w ith b u sin ess ability have greater opp ortu nities to op en their o w n b u sin esses than w orkers in m ost other sk illed o ccu p a tio n s. What are the Construction Trades? W orkers in the con stru ction trades b u ild , repair, and m od ern ize h o m es and all kin ds o f b u ild in g s. T h ey a lso w ork on a variety o f other projects in clu d in g airports, m ass trans portation sy s te m s , and recreation fa c ilitie s. C on struction w ork m ay be d iv id ed into three categories: Structural, fin ish in g , and m ech a n ica l. In g en era l, each construction w orker fa lls in o n e o f th ese categories: Struc tural workers: B rick layer, carpenter, cem en t m a so n , iron w ork er, operatin g en g in eer (c o n struction m achinery operator), sto n em a so n , and boilerm aker. Finishing workers: F loor co v erin g in staller, g la zie r, in su lation w orker, lather, pain ter, paperhanger, plasterer, ro o f er, and terrazzo w orker. Mechanical workers: C on struction electricia n , elev a to r constructor, p ip efitter, plu m b er, sh eet-m etal w orker, and m illw righ t. M o st con stru ction trades are d escrib ed in d iv id u a lly later in this se c tio n . B oilerm akers and m illw rig h ts are d escrib ed e lsew h ere in the Handbook. Working Conditions C on struction w o rk freq u en tly requires pro lo n g e d sta n d in g , b e n d in g , s to o p in g , and w o rk in g in cram ped quarters. E xp osu re to w eather is co m m o n sin c e m uch o f the w ork is d o n e outd oors or in partially en c lo sed structures. M any p eo p le prefer con stru ction w ork b eca u se it perm its them to b e outd oors. C on struction w orkers m ay n eed to w ork w ith sharp to o ls , a m id st a clutter o f m ateri a ls. In ad d itio n , th ey o ften stand on tem p o rary sc a ffo ld in g . A s a resu lt, they are m ore prone to injuries than w orkers in other jo b s . In d eed , the con stru ction industry has the h ig h est injury and illn e ss rate o f all ind us tries. H o w e v er , em p lo y ers in creasin gly are em p h a sizin g sa fe w ork in g co n d ition s and stressing sa fe w ork hab its— p ractices that re d u ce the risk o f injuries. “ Hard h a t s ,” ste el toed sh o e s , safety b e lts, and nets are so m e o f the d e v ic e s that h elp red u ce risk. Employment A b ou t 4 m illio n person s w ork ed in c o n struction trades in 19 8 0 . T h e accom p an yin g table sh o w s e m p lo y m en t in so m e o f the larg e st con stru ction occu p a tio n s. Table 1. Employment in selected construction oc cupations, 1980 Occupation Employment Carpenter....................................... 970,000 Electrician (construction and 560,000 maintenance).............................. Plumber and pipefitter.................... 407,000 Painter, construction and maintenance .............................. 382,000 Brickmason................................... 146,000 Concrete and terrazzo finisher......... 113,000 Roofer.......................................... 113,000 Drywall installer and finisher ......... 84,000 Drywall applicator .................. 52,000 Taper..................................... 32,000 Structural steel worker................... 75,000 Carpet cutter and layer .................. 53,000 Asbestos and insulation worker....... 45,000 Reinforcing ironworker .................. 34,000 Glazier (construction)..................... 14,000 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics M o st con stru ction w orkers are e m p lo y ed by contractors in the con stru ction industry. T h e vast m ajority o f construction contractors are sm all— g en erally e m p lo y in g fe w er than 10 p e o p le . A fe w large contractors, h o w ev e r, e m p lo y th ou san d s. L arge num bers o f c o n struction trade w orkers are e m p lo y ed in other in d u stries, su ch as m in in g and m anufactur in g , m ain ly to d o m ain ten an ce and repair w ork . C h em ical m anufacturers, for e x a m p le, need plum bers and pip efitters to m aintain the c o m p lex p ip e netw ork s in their p rocessin g plan ts. G overn m en t a g e n c ie s e m p lo y c o n struction trade w orkers to m aintain h ig h w a y s, b u ild in g s, and sanitation sy stem s. A b ou t 1 ou t o f 5 con stru ction craft w ork ers is s e lf - e m p lo y e d an d co n tra cts w ith h om eo w n ers and b u sin e sses for sm all jo b s. S e lf-em p lo y m e n t is m ost co m m o n in paper h an gin g, pain tin g, and flo o r co v erin g w ork , but it a lso is fou n d in other trades. Part-tim e w ork ers, w h o m ake up a s ig n ifi cant part o f the con stru ction w ork fo r ce , a c cou n t for about 1 ou t o f ev ery 6 w orkers, accord in g to lim ited inform ation . E m p loym en t in the con stru ction trades is distributed geog ra p h ica lly in m uch the sam e w a y as the N a tio n ’s p op u lation . T h u s, c o n struction w orkers are concen trated in ind us trialized and h ig h ly pop ulated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st training authorities recom m en d for m al apprenticeship training as the b e st w a y to acquire the all-round sk ills o f the construc tion trades. A p p ren ticesh ip is a prescribed period o f on -th e-job train in g, su p p lem en ted b y related cla ssro o m instruction that is d e sig n ed to fam iliarize app rentices w ith the m a terials, to o ls, and p rin cip les o f their trade. Form al app renticeship agreem en ts are reg is tered w ith a State app renticeship a g en cy or the U .S . D epartm ent o f L ab o r’s B ureau o f A p p ren ticesh ip and T raining. A lth ou gh app renticeship p rovid es the m ost thorough train in g, m any p eo p le acquire c o n struction sk ills in form ally b y w ork in g as la borers and help ers and ob servin g ex p erien ced craft w orkers. S o m e acquire sk ills b y attend ing vocation al or trade sc h o o ls or b y taking corresp on d en ce sc h o o l co u rses. A p p ren tices gen erally m ust b e at lea st 18 years o ld and in g o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n . A h igh sc h o o l or vo ca tio n a l sc h o o l ed u cation or its eq u iv a len t, in clu d in g cou rses in m ath em a tics and m ech an ical d raw in g, is desir ab le. C ou rses in con stru ction trades, su ch as carpentry and e le ctr icity , a lso are reco m m en d ed . O ften , applicants are g iv en tests to d eterm ine their aptitudes. T h e form al app renticeship agreem en t g e n erally c a lls for 3 to 4 years o f o n -th e-job training and 144 hours or m ore o f related cla ssroom instruction each year. O n the jo b , m ost instruction is g iv e n b y a particular craft w orker to w h o m the apprentice is a ssig n ed . C lassroom instruction varies am on g c o n struction trades, but u su ally in clu d es cou rses su ch as history o f the trade, ch aracteristics o f m aterials, sh op m ath em atics, and b a sic c o n struction p rin cip les. In m ost co m m u n ities, app renticeship pro gram s are su p ervised b y jo in t app renticeship com m ittees co m p o se d o f lo ca l em p lo y ers and lo ca l u n ion rep resen tatives. T h e co m m ittee determ in es the n eed for app rentices in the com m u n ity and esta b lish es m in im u m stand ards o f ed u ca tio n , e x p e rien ce , and training. W h en ever an em p lo y er can n ot p rovid e a ll round instruction or rela tiv ely con tin u ou s e m p lo y m en t, the co m m ittee transfers the ap prentice to another em p lo y er. W here sp ec ia l ization by contractors is e x te n siv e — for in sta n ce, in electrical w ork— cu stom arily the co m m ittee rotates app rentices a m on g several contractors at intervals o f abou t 6 m onth s. In areas w h ere th ese c o m m ittees h ave not b een esta b lish ed , the app renticeship a g ree m en t is s o le ly b etw een the apprentice and the em p lo y er or em p lo y er group. M an y p eo p le h ave r eceiv ed valu ab le training under th ese p rogram s, but they h ave so m e d isad van tages. N o co m m ittee is availab le to su p ervise the training offered and settle d ifferen ces over the term s and co n d itio n s o f training. W hat the apprentice learns d ep en d s largely on the 361 362/Occupational Outlook Handbook employer’s business prospects and policies. If the employer lacks continuous work or does only a restricted type of work, the apprentice may find it difficult to develop all-round skills. In many localities, craft workers—most commonly electricians and plumbers—are re quired to have a license. To qualify for these licenses, they must pass an examination to demonstrate a broad knowledge of the job and of State and local regulations. Since construction requires a team effort, the ability to work well with supervisors, peers, and subordinates is vital. Manual dex terity is necessary to work quickly and accu rately with trowels, hammers, chisels, saws, drills, and other tools and machinery. The ability to solve mechanical and structural problems is important to many highly skilled construction workers. With guidelines from an architect, for example, a plumber might have to plan the layout of a plumbing system or a particular room to make the best use of limited materials and space. Precision, an eye for detail, the ability to picture objects from blueprints, and color discrimination also are vital in many construction trades. Construction craft workers may advance in a number of ways. Many become supervi sors. In most localities, small jobs are run by ‘working supervisors” who work along with members of their crews. On larger jobs, the supervisors do only supervisory work. Craft workers also can become estimators for con tractors. In these jobs, they estimate material requirements and labor costs to enable the contractor to bid on a particular project. Some craft workers advance to jobs as super intendents on large projects. Others become instructors in trade and vocational schools or sales representatives for building supply com panies. A large number of craft workers have become contractors in the homebuilding field. Starting a small contract construction bus iness is easier than starting a small business in any other industries. Only a moderate fi nancial investment usually is needed to con duct a substantial business from one’s home. However, the field is very competitive, and the rate of business failure is high among small contractors. Job Outlook Employment in the construction trades is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to jobs arising from growth in construction, many job openings will result each year from the need to re place experienced workers who retire, die, or leave their jobs for other reasons. How ever, since construction is sensitive to changes in the Nation’s economy, employ ment may fluctuate from year to year. Contruction trade workers can experience periods of unemployment during downturns in construction activity. Over the long run, construction activity is expected to grow substantially. The anticipat ed increases in population and households are expected to create pressure for new housing. Migration to the South and West may create particularly strong pressure in those regions for housing as well as hospitals, schools, recreation facilities, and other structures. Among other factors that will stimulate con traction activity are higher levels of personal income and a rise in spending for new indus trial plants and equipment. Additional money will be spent to build and renovate mass transit systems and to develop and construct powerplants. Also, there will be a growing demand for alteration and modernization of existing structures, as well as for mainte nance and repair on highway systems, dams, bridges, and similar projects. The increase in employment is not expect ed to be as great as the expansion in con struction activity. Continued technological developments in construction methods, tools The unemployment rate in construction generally is more than twice that in all industries combined Percent unemployed1 Unem ploym ent rates for wage and salary workers Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics and equipment, and materials will raise out put per worker. One important development is the growing use of prefabricated units at the job site. For example, preassembled out side walls and partitions can be lifted into place in one operation. The rates of employment growth will dif fer among the various construction trades. Growth is expected to be relatively fast for bricklayers and cement masons, and relative ly slow for painters and paperhangers. Earnings According to a 1980 survey of cities with at least 100,000 inhabitants, the average hourly union wage rate for all construction trades was $12.21. The hourly wage rate for all nonsupervisory and production workers in private industry, except farming, averaged $6.66. Wage rates for apprentices and other trainees usually start at 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers and increase at 6-month to 1-year intervals until the full rates are achieved upon the completion of training. The accompanying table shows union hourly averages for selected construction trades in 1980. Table 2. Average hourly union wage rates for selected construction occupations, 1980 Occupation Hourly rate Pipefitter................................................ Electrician.............................................. Elevator constructor............................. Structural ironworker.......................... Bricklayer.............................................. Asbestos worker ................................. Carpenter................................................ Cement fin ish er................................... Roofer, composition .......................... Painter..................................................... Roofer, slate and t i l e ........................ $13.54 13.46 13.06 12.73 12.64 12.59 12.42 12.16 12.08 12.00 11.70 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Wage rates generally were highest in the West and lowest in the South. Except for a few trades, such as electricians, elevator con structors, and plumbers and pipefitters, year ly earnings for experienced workers and their apprentices generally are lower than hourly rates would indicate because poor weather and fluctuations in construction activity may adversely affect the number of hours they can work a year. Traditionally, winter is the slack period for construction activity, particularly in colder regions. Some workers, such as laborers and roofers, may not work for several months. However, not only cold but also rain may slow—even stop—work on a construction project. Also, because construction trades de pend on one another—particularly on large projects—work delays or strikes in one trade can delay or stop the work of another. The accompanying chart shows that the unem ployment rate in the construction industry is about twice that in the Nation as a whole. A large proportion of construction workers Construction and Extractive Occupations/363 are m em b ers o f trade u n ion s a ffiliated w ith the B u ild in g and C on struction T rades D e partm ent o f the A F L -C I O . Sources of Additional Information In form ation about opp ortu nities for ap p ren ticesh ip or other training can b e obtained from lo ca l con stru ction firm s and em p lo y er a sso cia tio n s, the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m e n t s e r v ic e or S ta te a p p re n tic esh ip a g e n c y , or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the B ureau o f A p p ren ticesh ip and T rain in g, U .S . D epart m ent o f Labor. M any app renticeship pro g r a m s a re s u p e r v i s e d b y lo c a l u n io n m a n agem en t c o m m ittees. In th ese in stan ces, an apprentice app licant m ay app ly directly to the coord in ator o f the co m m ittee. For add ition al in form ation on jo b s in the con stru ction trades, contact: AFL-CIO, Building and Construction Trades De partment, 815 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. National Association of Home Builders, 15th and M Sts. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. For the nam es o f labor organ ization s and trade a sso cia tio n s co n cern ed w ith sp ec ific tr a d e s, s e e th e d is c u s s io n s o f in d iv id u a l b u ild in g trades that fo llo w . B rick layers are a ssisted by h od carriers, or h elp ers, w h o su p p ly bricks and other m aterials, m ix m ortar, and set up and m o v e sc a ffo ld in g . (S e e the statem en t on con stru c tion laborers that appears e lsew h ere in the Handbook.) S to n em a so n s o ften w ork from a set o f d raw in gs in w h ich each ston e has been num bered for id en tification . H elpers m ay locate and bring the prenum bered ston es to the m a so n s. A derrick operator u sin g a h o ist m ay be n eed ed to lift large p ie ce s into p lace. W hen b u ild in g a ston e w a ll, m ason s set the first layer o f ston es in to a sh a llo w b ed o f m ortar. T h ey align the ston es w ith p lu m b lin es and le v e ls , and tap them into p o sition w ith a w o o d m allet. M ason s b u ild the w all by alter nating layers o f m ortar and ston e. A s the w ork p ro g resses, th ey use a p oin ted m etal tool to sm ooth the mortar to an attractive fin ish and fill the jo in ts b etw een sto n es. T o hold ston es in p la c e , ston em ason s so m etim es w e ld or bolt p ie ce s o f m etal w ith in the w a ll. A fter p o sitio n ing the ro ck s, they co v er the m etal w ith m ortar. F in a lly , m ason s w ash the ston e to rem o v e dirt and dry mortar. W hen setting ston e flo o rs, m ason s trow el a thin layer o f mortar over the su rface. T h ey then han dset the ston e in the mortar and lea v e the surface o f the ston e ex p o se d . T o fin ish , w orkers trow el the jo in ts and w ash the sto n e. T o m ake variou s sh apes and s iz e s , m ason s u se a sp ecia l ham m er to cut ea ch ston e along the grain. V alu ab le p ie ce s often are cut w ith a saw that has a sp ecia l blad e. S etting m arble is very m uch lik e setting sto n e. For floors and for w a lls w h ere the h old in g strength o f m ortar alon e is su fficien t, m ason s o ften han dset ea ch m arble p ie c e into the m ortar and lea v e the fa ce o f the m arble e x p o se d . For h eavy p ie c e s, w orkers em p lo y a h o ist to lift and p o sitio n the m arble. T o secure h eavy p ie ce s on w a lls, m aso n s use b olts in add ition to m ortar. O n ce the m arble p ie ce s are p o sitio n ed and secu red , w orkers m ortar and trow el the jo in ts and clea n the m a rb le’s su rface. In add ition to con stru ction , ston em a so n s d o repair w ork. T h ey fill and co v er h o les and cracks in m arble w ith mortar prepared and fin ish ed to lo o k lik e the m arble. T h ey also p o lish and rep lace m arble. M a so n s u se a sp ecia l saw to cut large p ie ce s o f m etal. B rick layers and ston em ason s prim arily u se h an d tools— in clu d in g tr o w els, brick and ston e ham m ers, w o o d en or rubber m a llets, and c h is e ls . For ex a ctin g cuts o f brick , sto n e, or m arble, they use h igh -p ow ered electric sa w s eq u ip p ed w ith sp ecial cu ttin g b lad es. Working Conditions B ricklayers and ston em ason s u su ally w ork ou td oors. T h ey stand, k n ee l, or stoop for Bricklayers and Stonemasons______ (D .O .T. 861.361-010, -014, .381-010, -014, -018, -022, -026, -030, -038, -042, .684-010, and -014) Nature of the Work B r ic k la y e r s and sto n e m a s o n s w o r k in c lo s e ly related trades, each produ cin g attrac t iv e , d u ra b le s u r fa c e s . B r ic k la y e r s b u ild w a lls, partitions, firep la ces, and other struc tures w ith brick , cin der b lo c k , and other m a son ry m aterials. T h ey a lso install firebrick lin in g s in industrial furnaces. S to n em a so n s bu ild ston e w a lls as w e ll as set ston e exteriors and flo o rs. T h ey w ork w ith tw o typ es o f sto n e— natural cu t, su ch as m arble, gran ite, and lim esto n e; and artificial sto n e m ade from c em e n t, m arble c h ip s, or other m ason ry m aterials. B eca u se ston e is e x p e n s iv e , sto n e m a s o n s w o rk m o s tly on h ig h -c o st b u ild in g s, su ch as o ffic e s , h o tels, and ch u rch es. In p u ttin g up a w a ll, b r ick la y e r s u se p lu m b lin es and a le v e l to bu ild the co m er s. T h ey then stretch a lin e from c o m er to co m er to g u id e ea ch course or layer o f brick . B rick layers spread a bed o f m ortar (cem en t m ix ture) w ith a trow el (a flat m etal to o l), p lace the brick o n the m ortar b ed , and then tap it into p la c e. A s blueprints sp e c ify , th ey cut brick s w ith a ham m er and c h ise l to fit around w in d o w s , d o o rs, and other o p e n in g s. Mortar jo in ts are fin ish ed w ith join tin g to o ls to lea v e a neat and un iform appearance. B ricklayers a lso m ay u se steel supports at w in d o w and d o o r o p en in g s. After several months of carrying materials and mixing mortar, apprentices learn to align and lay brick. 364/Occupational Outlook Handbook lo n g perio d s and m ay h ave to lift h eavy m aterials to co m p lete a jo b . T h ey a lso are su b ject to injuries from to o ls and fa lls from sc a ffo ld s. D esp ite the p h y sica l dem and s and general hazards o f co n stru ction , h o w ev e r, th ese w orkers are le s s lik e ly to be injured than other con stru ction w ork ers. Employment A b o u t 1 6 3 ,0 0 0 brick layers and sto n em a so n s w ere e m p lo y ed in 1980; the vast m ajor ity w ere b rick layers. W orkers in th ese crafts w ere e m p lo y ed prim arily b y sp ecia l trade, b u ild in g , or gen eral contractors. A relatively sm a ll num ber o f brick layers w ork for g o v e rn m ent a g e n c ie s or b u sin e sses that d o their o w n co n stru ction and alteration. W orkers in th ese trades are e m p lo y ed through out the co u n try , bu t, lik e the general p o p u la tio n , are con cen trated in m etropolitan areas. In c ities that are too sm all to have a dem an d for fu ll-tim e sto n em a so n s, brick lay ers w ill in stall ston e or m arble as a sid e lin e. A b o u t 1 ou t o f 4 brick layers and sto n em a son s is se lf-em p lo y e d . M any o f the s e lf-e m p lo y e d sp ec ia liz e in contracting on sm all jo b s su ch as p a tio s, w a lk s, and firep la ces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st brick layers and so m e ston em ason s p ick up their sk ills in fo rm ally b y w ork in g as help ers or hod carriers and by o b servin g and learning from e x p erien ced w orkers. T he re m ainder learn their sk ills through app rentice sh ip , w h ich g en era lly p rovid es the m ost thorough training. In d ivid u als w h o learn the trade in form ally u su a lly b e c o m e brick layers. T h ey start by carrying m aterials, m o v in g s c a ffo ld s, and m ix in g m ortar. H o w e v er , it takes several m onth s to a year b efore th ey are taught to spread m ortar and lay brick . D u ring this peri o d , they a lso learn abou t b u ild in g co d e s and reg u la tio n s, inform ation w h ich later w ill h elp them se le c t the m aterial and tech n iq u es to do a jo b correctly . T h ey b eg in w ith sim p le pat terns and progress to m ore c o m p lex d e sig n s. L earning to set ston e or m arble m igh t take several years. A p p ren ticesh ip s for brick layers and sto n e m a so n s u su a lly are sp on sored b y lo ca l c o n tr a c to r s o r b y l o c a l u n io n - m a n a g e m e n t c o m m ittees. T h e ap p ren ticesh ip program re qu ires 3 years o f o n -th e-job training in add i tion to 144 hours o f c la ssro o m instruction ea ch year in su b jects su ch as blueprint read in g, m ath em a tics, lay o u t w o rk , and sk etch in g . A p p ren tices learn the gen eral ap p lication s o f b rick , sto n e, and m arble. A p p ren tices start b y carrying m aterials and m ix in g m ortar. W ithin 2 or 3 m on th s, they learn to a lig n , la y , and clean brick. A p pren tice s ev en tu a lly learn to w ork w ith ston e and m arble. A fter a p p ren ticesh ip , they u su ally sp ec ia liz e in o n e o f the tw o trades. A p p lica n ts for ap p ren ticesh ip s m ust b e at lea st 17 years o ld . A p p ren tice and helper app licants sh o u ld b e in g o o d p h y sica l c o n d i tio n . A h ig h sc h o o l or vo ca tio n a l sc h o o l ed u cation is p referab le, as are cou rses in m ath e m a tic s, m ech an ical d ra w in g , and sh op . E xp erien ced w orkers can ad van ce to su p ervisory p o sitio n s or b e c o m e estim ators. T h ey a lso can o p en contracting b u sin e sses o f their o w n . Job Outlook E m p loym en t o f brick layers is e x p e cte d to grow faster than the average for all o ccu p a tion s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. A lth o u g h a large num ber o f jo b o p e n in g s w ill result from grow th in the dem an d for th ese w ork ers, m any other o p e n in g s w ill arise as ex p eri e n c ed b rick layers retire, d ie , or le a v e the occu p a tio n for other reason s. A s pop u lation and b u sin ess grow th create a n eed for n ew h o m e s, fa cto ries, o f f ic e s , and other structures, the d em an d for brick layers w ill gro w . S tim u latin g this grow th w ill be the in creasin g u se o f brick for d ecorative w ork on b u ild in g fronts and in lo b b ies and fo y e rs. T h e use o f b rick , particularly for interior load -b earin g w a lls and prefabricated brick p a n els, is g r o w in g and w ill add to o v erall e m p lo y m en t n eed s. E m p loym en t o f sto n em a so n s is e x p e cte d to grow m ore slo w ly than the average for all occu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. S to n e and m arble h ave lo st so m e popularity as b u ild in g m aterials b e ca u se they h a v e b e c o m e m uch m ore e x p e n siv e than m aterials su ch as c o n crete. N e v er th e less, a sm a ll num ber o f jo b s w ill b e c o m e a v a ila b le, p rin cip ally to rep lace sto n em a so n s w h o retire, d ie , or le a v e the o ccu p ation . E m p loym en t o f brick layers and sto n em a so n s, lik e that o f m any con stru ction o c cu p a tio n s, is se n sitiv e to ch a n g es in the e c o n o m y , particularly ch a n ges in the le v e l o f con stru c tion for h o m e s, facto ries, and other b u ild in g s. W orkers in th ese trades can e x p erien ce p eriod s o f u n em p lo y m en t, particularly w h en the lev e l o f con stru ction activity drops. Earnings A cco rd in g to a 1980 su rvey o f c itie s w ith at least 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 in h abitants, average hou rly u n ion w a g e rates w ere $ 1 2 .6 4 for brick layers and $ 1 2 .3 1 for sto n em a so n s W a g e rates g e n erally w ere h ig h est in the W est and lo w e st in the S ou th . L im ited in form ation in d icates that n on u n ion rates for ex p e rien ce d w orkers w ere le s s than u n ion rates, g en erally ranging from $8 to $ 1 2 per hou r, d ep en d in g on the lo ca le . H o w e v er , yearly earn in gs for w orkers in th ese trades gen era lly are lo w e r than hou rly rates w o u ld in d icate b e ca u se p oor w eather and flu c tu ation s in con stru ction a ctiv ity ad v ersely af fe ct the annual num ber o f hours they can w ork . T h e average w a g e for all n on su p ervisory and p rodu ction w orkers in private in d u s try, e x ce p t farm in g, w as $ 6 .6 6 an hour. In ea ch trade, app rentices or h elp ers start at abou t 5 0 percen t o f the w a g e rate paid to ex p erien ced w orkers. T h e rate in creases as th ey gain e x p erien ce. A large num ber o f brick layers and sto n e m ason s are m em b ers o f the International U n io n o f B rick layers and A llie d C raftsm en. Related Occupations B rick layers and sto n em a so n s co m b in e a thorough k n o w led g e o f b rick , sto n e, and m arble w ith m anual sk ill to erect very attrac tiv e y e t h ig h ly durable structures. O ther o c cu p ation s in v o lv in g sim ilar sk ills in clu d e c em e n t m a so n s, p lasterers, terrazzo w o rk ers, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information F or d eta ils abou t app ren ticesh ip s or other w ork op p ortu n ities in th ese trades, co n tact lo ca l b rick la y in g , sto n em a so n ry , or m arble settin g contractors; a lo ca l o f the u n io n listed ab o v e; a lo c a l jo in t u n ion -m a n a g em en t ap p ren ticesh ip com m ittee; or the nearest o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t serv ice or State ap p ren ticesh ip a g e n c y . F or g en eral inform ation abou t the w ork o f eith er b rick layers or sto n em a so n s, contact: International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Apprenticeship Trust, 815 15th St. NW „ Washington, D.C. 20005. In form ation abou t the w ork o f brick layers a lso m ay b e ob tain ed from: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Brick Institute of America, 1750 Old Meadow Rd., McLean, Va. 22101. Carpenters_________ (D .O .T . 860.281-010 through 860.381-054, 860.381-066 through 860.664-014, 860.681-010 through 860.684-014, 863.684-010, 869.361-018, .381-010, and -034) Nature of the Work A lm o st all con stru ction projects e m p lo y carp en ters, the largest group o f b u ild in g trade w ork ers. C arpenters perform a variety o f jo b s . In h o m e b u ild in g , for e x a m p le , carp en ters b u ild the h o u se fram ew o rk , erect the w a lls and r o o f, and in stall d o o r s, w in d o w s , flo o rin g , c a b in e ts, w o o d p a n elin g and m o ld in g , and c e ilin g tile s. O ther con stru ctio n jo b s d o n e b y carp en ters in clu d e b u ild in g w o o d en form s and ch u tes for pou rin g c o n c re te, erectin g sc a ffo ld in g , and b u ild in g w o o d en b rid g es, p iers, trestles, tun nel su p p orts, tem porary sh el ters, and co ffe r d a m s. T h e d u ties o f carp en ters vary b y ty p e o f con stru ctio n , ty p e o f c o m p a n y , sk ill o f the carp en ter, and s iz e o f the c o m m u n ity . A carpenter e m p lo y e d b y a sp ecia l trade c o n tractor, for e x a m p le , m ay sp e c ia liz e in la y in g h ard w ood flo o r s , w h ile o n e w h o is em p lo y ed b y a gen eral b u ild in g contractor m ay b u ild w a ll fra m es, put in in su la tio n , and install p a n elin g . A lth o u g h e a ch carpentry task is so m ew h a t d ifferen t, m o st ta sk s in v o lv e the fo llo w in g step s. W ork in g from b lu ep rin ts, in stru ction s from su p ervisors, or b o th , carpenters first d o the la y o u t— m easu rin g and m arking the b u ild in g m aterials. L o ca l b u ild in g c o d e s o ften dictate w h ere certain m aterials can and ca n n o t be Construction and Extractive Occupations/365 u sed . C arpenters h a v e to k n ow th ese require m en ts. C arpenters cu t and shape m aterials, su ch as w o o d , p la stic, fib erg la ss, and dryw all w ith hand and p o w er to o ls , su ch as c h ise ls , p la n es, sa w s, and d rills. Carpenters then jo in the m aterials w ith n a ils, sc r ew s, or g lu e . T h ey c h e ck the accu racy o f their w ork w ith le v e ls , rulers, and fram in g squares. T o c o m p lete a task , carpenters m ay w ork in team s or be a ssisted b y a h elp er. In all a ssig n m en ts, carpenters m ust w ork q u ick ly and e c o n o m ic a lly . T akin g to o m uch tim e can d ela y other steps in the con stru c tio n . W astin g m aterial can cut the e m p lo y e r s’ profit. A sm a ll proportion o f carpenters are e m p lo y e d o u tsid e the con stru ction industry in in stallation and m aintenance w ork . For e x a m p le, sc h o o l districts em p lo y carpenters to rep lace g la ss, c eilin g tile s, and d o o rs, and to repair d e sk s, ca b in ets, and other furniture. In fa cto ries, carpenters m ay install m achinery. Working Conditions A s in other b u ild in g trades, the w ork is a ctiv e and so m etim es stren uou s. P rolon ged stan d in g, c lim b in g , and squatting often are n ecessa ry . Carpenters risk injury from slip s or fa lls , from con tact w ith sharp or rough m aterials, and from the use o f sharp to o ls and p o w er eq u ip m en t. M any carpenters w ork outd oors. S o m e carpenters ch a n g e em p lo y ers each tim e they fin ish a con stru ction jo b . O thers alternate b etw een w ork in g for a contractor and w o rk in g for th em selv es o n sm all jo b s. Employment In 1 9 8 0 , about 9 7 0 ,0 0 0 carpenters w ere e m p lo y ed . N early 1 ou t o f 3 w as se lf-e m p lo y e d . M o st carpenters w ork for contractors and w h o construct, rem od el, or repair b u ild in g s and other structures. S o m e d o construc tion and m aintenance fo r govern m en t a g e n c ie s, u tility c o m p a n ie s, and m anufacturing firm s. B eca u se o f their versatility, carpenters are m uch less concen trated geo g ra p h ica lly than any other construction occu p ation . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M ost training auth orities recom m en d the co m p letio n o f an app renticeship as the best w a y to learn carpentry. A large num ber o f w orkers in this trade, h o w ev e r, acquire their sk ills in form ally (for e x a m p le , b y w ork in g as carp en ters’ h elp ers). A p p ren ticesh ip program s are adm inistered b y lo ca l chapters o f A sso c ia te d B uilders and C on tractors, I n c ., and by lo ca l jo in t u n ion m a n agem en t co m m ittees o f the U n ited B roth erh ood o f Carpenters and Join ers, and the A sso c ia te d G eneral C ontractors, or the N a tional A sso c ia tio n o f H om e B u ild ers. T he program s c o n sist o f 4 years o f on-th e-job training and a m in im u m o f 144 hours o f related cla ssro o m instruction each year, h o w e v e r , the the len gth o f the program varies w ith the a p p ren tice’s sk ill. A p p ren ticesh ip Carpentry is the largest of the building trades. app licants g en erally m ust b e 17 years o ld and m eet lo ca l req uirem en ts. For e x a m p le, so m e lo ca ls g iv e tests d e sig n e d to m easure an ap p lica n t’s aptitude for carpentry. O n the jo b , app rentices learn elem en tary structural d e sig n and b e c o m e fam iliar w ith c o m m o n carpentry jo b s su ch as form b u ild in g , rough fram in g, and ou tsid e and in sid e fin ish in g . T h ey a lso learn to u se the to o ls, m a ch in es, eq u ip m en t, and m aterials o f the trade. A p p ren tices receiv e cla ssroom instruc tion in sa fe ty , first a id , blueprint reading and freehand sk etch in g , b asic m ath em atics, and d ifferen t carpentry tech n iq u es. B oth in the cla ssro o m and on the jo b , they learn the relation sh ip b etw een carpentry and the other b u ild in g trades. Inform al on -th e-job training u su ally is less thorough than an app renticeship. T h e degree o f training and su p ervision o ften d ep en d s on the siz e o f the e m p lo y in g firm . A sm all contractor w h o sp ec ia liz es in h om eb u ild in g m ay provid e training in o n ly o n e area— rough fram in g, for ex a m p le. In contrast, a large gen eral contractor m ay p rovid e training in several carpentry sk ills. A h igh sc h o o l or vo ca tio n a l sc h o o l ed u ca tion is d esirab le, in clu d in g cou rses in carpen try, sh o p , m ech an ical d raw in g , and general m ath em atics. M anual d ex terity , g o o d p h y s ica l c o n d itio n , and a g o o d sen se o f b alan ce are im portant. T he ab ility to so lv e arithm etic p rob lem s q u ick ly and accu rately and to w ork c lo s e ly w ith others is h elp fu l. Carpenters m ay ad van ce to su pervisors or general con stru ction su p ervisors. Carpenters u su ally h ave greater opp ortu nities than m ost other con stru ction w orkers to b e c o m e general con stru ction su p ervisors b eca u se th ey learn m ore about the entire con stru ction p ro cess in 366/Occupational Outlook Handbook their w ork . C arpenters w ith su fficien t m on ey and m anagerial sk ill can b e c o m e ind ep en dent contractors. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f carpenters is e x p ected to in crease about as fast as the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. B e ca u se o f the large num ber o f p e o p le e m p lo y ed in this fie ld , rep lacem en t n eed s are h igh . Job o p e n in g s that result from the n eed to rep lace carpenters w h o transfer to other o ccu p ation s retire, or d ie w ill e x c e e d the num ber o f o p e n in g s created b y grow th . In the lo n g run con stru ction a ctivity sh ou ld in crease in resp o n se to in creasin g dem and for n ew h o u sin g and industrial plan ts, and as e x istin g industrial plants are ren ovated to m ake th em m ore p rod u ctive and en ergy e ffic ie n t. A lth o u g h the em p lo y m en t ou tlo o k for car penters is e x p ected to b e g o o d o v er the lon g run, the num ber o f jo b o p e n in g s m ay fluctuate greatly from year to y ear. B u ild in g activity d ep en d s on m any fa ctors— interest rates, av a il ab ility o f m ortgage fu n d s, g o vern m en t sp en d in g , and b u sin ess in v estm en t— that vary w ith the state o f the e c o n o m y . D u ring e co n o m ic do w n tu rn s, jo b o p e n in g s for carpenters are re d u ced b e ca u se co n stru ction gen era lly fa lls. C arpenters w ith all-roun d sk ills w ill h a v e bet ter op p ortu n ities than th o se w h o can o n ly do rela tiv ely sim p le , routine typ es o f carpentry. Job opp ortu nities for carpenters a lso vary by g eog ra p h ic area. T he le v e l o f con stru ction a ctiv ity fo llo w s the m o v e m e n t o f p eo p le and b u sin e sses a m on g S tates and lo ca l areas and reflects d iffe re n c es in lo ca l e c o n o m ic c o n d i tio n s. T h erefo re, the nu m ber o f jo b opp ortu n ities in a g iv e n year m ay fluctuate w id e ly from area to area. Earnings A cco rd in g to a su rvey o f u n ion w a g e rates in m etropolitan areas, con stru ction carpenters averaged $ 1 2 .4 2 an hour in 198 0 . In c o m p arison , the a verage hou rly rate for produ c tion and non su p erv iso ry w orkers in private ind ustry, e x ce p t farm ing w a s $ 6 .6 6 . A nnual earn in g s, h o w ev e r, m ay b e lo w e r than hourly rates w o u ld in d ica te, b eca u se carpenters lo se w ork tim e du e to poor w eath er and o c ca sio n a l in a v a ila b ility o f jo b s . M ain ten an ce carpenters w h o g en era lly have m ore stead y e m p lo y m en t, averaged $ 9 .3 4 an hour in 1 9 8 0 , a c co rd in g to a su rvey o f se lec ted m etropolitan areas. A p p ren tices u su ally start at about 5 0 per cen t o f the rate paid to ex p erien ced carpen ters and rec eiv e an in crease o f about 5 per cen t ev ery 6 m onth s. A large proportion o f carpenters are m em bers o f the U n ited B rotherh ood o f Carpenters and Joiners o f A m erica. Related Occupations C arpenters are h ig h ly sk illed w orkers w h o sp ec ia liz e in co n stru ction and repair w ork w ith w o o d an d sim ila r m a te r ia ls . O th er sk illed con stru ction occu p a tio n s are brick lay ers, cem en t m a so n s, ele ctr icia n s, p ip efitters, plasterers, p lu m b ers, sto n em a so n s, and terrazzo w orkers. straight 1- b y 4 -in c h p ie c e o f w o o d w ith sm o o th , rou n d ed e d g e s and a h an d le) w ith sw e e p in g m o tio n s o v e r the su rface o f the c o n c re te, fo rcin g h ea v y p articles under and sm o o th in g the top . Sources of Additional Information A fter d arb yin g, m a so n s w a it un til p articles in the co n c re te settle to the b ottom and e x c e s s w ater w ork s its w a y to the su rface. W h en the e x c e s s w ater evap o ra tes and the con crete is firm but w o rk a b le, m a so n s c o m p lete their w ork . F in ish ers first press an ed g er g en tly b e tw e en the form s and the con crete and g u id e it c a refu lly a lo n g the e d g e and the su rfa ce. T h is p rod u ces slig h tly round ed e d g e s and h e lp s preven t ch ip p in g or cra ck in g . For in form ation abou t carpentry appren ticesh ip s or other w ork opp ortu n ities in this trade, con tact lo ca l carpentry con tractors, a lo ca l o f the u n ion m en tion ed a b o v e , a lo ca l jo in t u n ion-con tractor ap p ren ticesh ip c o m m it te e , or the nearest o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t serv ice or State ap p ren ticesh ip a g en cy . For general inform ation abou t this trade, contact: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. National Association of Home Builders, Manpow er Development and Training Department, 15th and M St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20005. Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 444 N. Capitol St. NW., Suite 409, Washington, D.C. 20001. Cement Masons and Terrazzo Workers (D .O .T . 8 4 4 .3 6 4 -0 1 0 , -014, 861.381-046, and -050) 46 1 -0 1 0 , .684-010, Nature of the Work C em en t m ason s p lace and fin ish con crete for m any typ es o f con stru ction p rojects. T he projects range from sm all jo b s , su ch as p atios and flo o rs, to h u ge d am s or m iles o f con crete h ig h w a y . O n sm all p rojects, a m a so n , a ssist ed by o n e or tw o lab orers, m ay d o all o f the m ason ry w ork; on large p ro jects, a crew o f several m ason s and m any laborers m ay be e m p lo y ed . A m o n g other task s, c em en t m a so n s m ay c o lo r con crete su rfa ces, e x p o se a g gregate in w a lls and sid e w a lk s, or fabricate con crete b ea m s, c o lu m n s, and p an els. T errazzo w orkers create attractive w a lk w a y s , flo o rs, p a tio s, and p an els b y ex p o sin g m arble ch ip s and other fin e aggregates on the su rface o f fin ish ed con crete. H o w e v e r , m uch o f the prelim inary w ork o f terrazzo w orkers is sim ilar to that o f c em en t m ason s. In preparing a site for p lacin g co n c re te, c em en t m ason s m ake sure the form s for m o ld in g the con crete are set for the d esired pitch and depth and are p roperly alig n ed . M ason s d irect the p lacin g o f the co n crete and su p ervise laborers w h o u se sh o v e ls or sp ecia l rakes to p lace and spread the con crete. M a so n s then gu id e a “ stra ig h ted g e” (a lo n g , straight p ie c e o f w o o d or m etal) back and forth across the top o f the form s to le v e l the fresh ly poured co n crete and to sh o w lo w sp o ts, w h ere con crete is added and lev e led again. Im m ed iately after le v e lin g the con crete, m ason s ca refu lly press a “ d arb y ” (a lo n g , For jo in ts , fin ish ers u se a flat to o l that has a sm o o th rid ge protruding from the cen ter. A t sp e c ifie d sp a cin g s, w orkers m ak e jo in ts or g r o o v es that h elp con trol crack in g o n the su rface. N e x t, fin ish ers rub a floa t— a sm a ll and sm o o th , rectangu lar p ie c e o f w o o d — o v er the en tire su rfa ce, c a refu lly a v o id in g e d g e s and jo in ts. F lo a tin g e m b e d s the h ea v ier m aterial d eep er in to the c o n c re te, rem o v es m o st im p e r fec tio n s, and brin gs the lig h ter m aterial— san d and c em e n t— to the su rface. A s the fin al ste p , m a so n s sw e e p the m ortar w ith a tro w el (a fla t, m etal to o l) b ack and forth o v e r the su rface to create a sm o o th fin ish . O n large jo b s , tro w els p o w ered by g a so lin e or e le ctr icity are u sed . M ason s a lso p rod u ce other fin ish e s. For a co a rse, n on sk id fin ish , m a so n s brush the sur fa ce w ith a b room or stiff bristled brush. For a p e b b le-lik e fin ish , th ey e m b ed gra v el ch ip s into the su rfa c e, le a v in g the to p s o f the ch ip s e x p o se d . For a n eat ap p earan ce, th ey w a sh any e x c e s s c em e n t from the e x p o se d ch ip s w ith a m ild acid so lu tio n . F or c o lo r , they sp rin k le on a d y e w h ich th ey brush into the su rface. For c o n crete su rfaces that w ill rem ain e x p o sed after form s are stripped, su ch as c o l u m n s, c e ilin g s , and w a ll p a n els, c em en t m a so n s lo ca te and correct any d e fe c ts. F irst, th ey c h ise l a w a y h igh sp ots and lo o s e c o n crete and sm o o th th em ou t w ith a rubbing brick . T h ey then fill the d e fe cts w ith a rich c em e n t m ixture and eith er flo a t or trow el a sm o o th , u n iform fin ish . S o m e c em e n t m a so n s sp ec ia liz e in la y in g a m astic co a t (a fin e asphalt m ixture) o v er c o n c re te, particularly in b u ild in g s w h ere so u n d -in su lated or acid -resistan t flo o rs are sp e c ifie d . C em en t m ason s m u st k n o w their m ateri als and b e fam iliar w ith vario u s c h em ica l ad d itiv es w h ich sp eed or slo w the settin g tim e. T h e e ffe c ts o f h ea t, c o ld , and w in d on the drying tim e o f c em e n t m u st a lso be con sid ered . A ttr a c tiv e , m a r b le -c h ip p e d te rr a zz o re qu ires three layers o f m aterials. F irst, either c em e n t m a so n s or terrazzo w ork ers b u ild a so lid , le v e l con crete fou n d atio n that is 3 to 4 in ch es d eep . A fter the form s are r em o v ed from the fou n d a tio n , w ork ers ap p ly a 1-inch d eep m ix - Construction and Extractive Occupations/367 ture o f san dy co n crete. W hen th is layer b e c o m es ta ck y , terrazzo w orkers partially e m b ed m etal d iv id in g strips into the con crete w h erever there is to b e a jo in t or ch a n g e o f co lo r in the terrazzo. B efore this layer d ries, w orkers m ake sure the top s o f the ferrule strips are le v e l w ith o n e another b e ca u se they are to b e c o m e a netw ork o f rigid d ivid ers for the terrazzo p a n els, a llo w in g for d e sig n and co lo r variation b etw een p a n els. T h ey a lso h elp p reven t cracks from d e v e lo p in g in the fin ish ed terrazzo. F o r th e fin a l la y e r , te rr a zz o w o rk ers b len d a fin e co n crete m ixture w h ich m ay b e co lo r d y ed . T h ey pour this m ixture into each o f the p a n els, then hand trow el each pan el until le v e l w ith the top s o f the ferrule strips. W h ile the m ixture is w e t, w orkers to ss m arble ch ip s o f variou s c o lo rs into ea ch o f the p a n els. T o c o m p lete ly em b ed the m arble ch ip s, w orkers roll a lig h tw eig h t roller o v er the entire surface. W h en th e terra zzo is th o r o u g h ly d r y , w orkers grind it w ith a terrazzo grinder (so m ew h a t lik e a d isk -ty p e flo o r p o lish er, o n ly m uch h ea v ier). T h e su rface is ground until e v en w ith the top o f the ferrule strips. Pits and h o le s are fille d and steel trow eled for a sm o o th , le v e l su rface. T errazzo w orkers cle a n , p o lish , and seal the dry su rface for a rich , lustrous fin ish . Working Conditions M aso n or terrazzo w ork so m e tim e s is fastpaced and stren uou s. S in ce m o st fin ish in g is d o n e at ground le v e l, w orkers m ust sto o p , b en d , and k n eel. S o m e jo b s are outdoors; h o w ev e r, w ork g en era lly is halted during rain or freezin g w eather. T o av o id c h em ica l b u m s from uncured co n crete and bad k n ees from frequent k n ee lin g , m any w orkers w ear k n ee pad s. S o m e w orkers a lso prefer w ater-repel len t b o o ts. Employment A b o u t 1 1 3 ,0 0 0 cem en t m a so n s and terrazzo w orkers w ere e m p lo y ed in 1980; terrazzo w orkers con stitu te a v ery sm all proportion o f this group. C em en t m a so n s w ork for general contractors w h o con stru ct p rojects su ch as h ig h w a y s or large b u ild in g s, and for contrac tors w h o d o o n ly con crete w ork. S o m e m ason s install resilien t flo o rs for sp ecia lty flo o r c o n tractors. A sm all num ber o f m a so n s are e m p lo y e d b y m u n icip al p u b lic w ork s depart m en ts, p u b lic u tilitie s, and m anufacturing firm s that d o their o w n con stru ction w ork. M o st terrazzo w orkers w ork for sp ecial trade contractors w h o install d ecorative flo o rs and w a ll pa n els. A b o u t 1 out o f 10 cem en t m ason s and terrazzo w orkers is se lf-e m p lo y e d , a sm aller proportion than in other b u ild in g trades. M o st se lf-em p lo y e d m ason s sp ec ia liz e in sm a ll jo b s , su ch as d r iv ew a y s, sid e w a lk s, and patios; m o st terrazzo w ork ers, in flo o rs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement C em en t m a so n s and terrazzo w orkers learn their trade either through on -th e-job training Teamwork is essential when working with freshly poured concrete. as h elp ers or through 2- or 3-year app rentice sh ip program s. M an y m ason s first gain e x p erien ce as con stru ction laborers. O n -th e-job training program s c o n sist o f in form al instruction from ex p erien ced w orkers in w h ich help ers learn to u se the to o ls, eq u ip m en t, m a c h in e s, and m aterials o f the trade. T h e y b e g in w ith s im p le ta s k s , su ch as sp reading and u sin g a straightedge on fresh ly p la ced co n crete. A s th ey ad van ce, a ssig n m en ts b e c o m e m ore c o m p le x , and helpers u su ally can d o fin ish in g w ork w ith in a year. T w o - and three-year app renticeship pro gram s, u su a lly jo in tly sp on sored b y lo ca l un io n s an d c o n tr a c to r s, p r o v id e o n -th e -jo b training in add ition to 144 hours o f cla ssroom instruction ea ch year. A w ritten test and a p h y sica l exam m ay b e required in certain areas. In the cla ssr o o m , app rentices learn ap p lied m ath em atics and safety. T hree-year app rentices r ec eiv e sp ecia l instruction in la y ou t w ork and estim atin g c o sts. W h en hiring h elp ers and ap p ren tices, e m p lo y ers prefer h igh sc h o o l graduates w h o are at lea st 18 years o ld , in g o o d p h ysical c o n d i tio n , and lic e n se d to d rive. T h e ab ility to g et alon g w ith others a lso is im portant b ecau se c em en t m ason s freq uently w ork in groups. H ig h sc h o o l co u rses in sh op m ath em atics and blueprint read in g or m ech an ical draw ing pro v id e a h elp fu l backgroun d. Entry into app renticeships and other train in g program s for th ese w orkers is e x p ected to b e easier than entry into program s for other con stru ction occu p a tio n s. E xp erien ced cem en t m a so n s or terrazzo w orkers m ay ad van ce to su p ervisors or c o n tract estim ators, or m ay open con crete c o n tracting b u sin e sses. Job Outlook E m p lo ym en t o f c em en t m ason s and terraz z o w orkers is e x p ected to grow faster than the average for all occu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. A s the pop u lation and the e c o n o m y g ro w , m ore m ason s w ill b e n eed ed to h elp bu ild apartm ents, o ffic e s , industrial b u ild in g s, and other structures. T h e greater u se o f co n crete as a b u ild in g m aterial— particularly in n on residential construction— a lso w ill add to the d e m and for th ese w orkers. P restressed co n crete c o lu m n s, for e x a m p le, are in crea sin g ly rep lac in g steel co lu m n s in large b u ild in g s. B esid es jo b o p en in gs created b y increased d em an d for th ese w ork ers, m an y o p en in g s w ill arise as ex p erien ced m ason s retire, d ie , or lea v e the occu p ation for other reason s. E m p loym en t o f c em e n t m aso n s and terraz z o w ork ers, lik e that o f m any con stru ction o ccu p a tio n s, is se n sitiv e to ups and d o w n s in the e c o n o m y . W orkers in th ese trades can ex p erien ce period s o f u n em p lo y m en t, par ticu larly w h en d ie le v e l o f non residential b u ild in g fa lls. O n the other han d, tem porary shortages o f th ese w orkers m ay o ccu r in so m e areas during p eak periods o f b u ild in g a ctivity. Earnings A cco rd in g to a su rvey o f u n ion w a g e rates in c ities w ith at least 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 inhabitants in 1 9 8 0 , cem en t fin ish ers averaged $ 1 2 .1 6 an hour; m o sa ic and terrazzo w orkers averaged $ 1 1 .9 0 an hour. W a g e rates w ere gen era lly h ig h est in the W est and lo w e st in the Sou th. In 1 9 8 0 , the average w a g e for all non su p ervisory and prod u ction w orkers in private ind us try, e x ce p t farm in g, w a s $ 6 .6 6 an hour. U n io n m a so n s g en erally h av e h igh er w a g e rates than n on u n ion m ason s. A p p ren tices u su ally start at 5 0 to 6 0 percent o f the rate paid to ex p erien ced cem en t m a so n s or terraz z o w orkers. 368/Occupational Outlook Handbook A n n u al earn in gs fo r cem en t m a so n s, terra zzo w o rk ers, and a p p ren tices g en erally are lo w e r than hou rly rates w o u ld in d icate b e ca u se the annual num ber o f hours th ey w ork can b e a d v ersely a ffected b y poor w eather and flu ctu a tio n s in con stru ction a ctiv ity . C em en t m a so n s u su ally r ec eiv e prem iu m pay for hours w o rk ed in e x c e s s o f the regu larly sch ed u led w orkd ay or w o rk w eek . T h ey o ften w ork o v ertim e, b eca u se o n c e con crete has b een p ou red , the jo b m ust b e com p leted . A large proportion o f c em en t m ason s and terrazzo w orkers b e lo n g eith er to the O pera tiv e P la sterers’ and C em en t M a s o n s ’ Interna tional A sso c ia tio n o f the U n ited States and C an ada, or to the International U n io n o f B rick layers and A llie d C raftsm en. Related Occupations C em en t m a so n s and terrazzo w orkers c o m b in e sk ill w ith k n o w led g e o f b u ild in g m ateri als to con stru ct b u ild in g s, h ig h w a y s, and o th er structures. O ther occu p a tio n s in v o lv in g sim ilar sk ills and k n o w led g e in clu d e brick la y ers, form b u ild ers, m arb lesetters, iron w o rk ers, sto n em a so n s, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information For in form ation abou t ap p ren ticesh ip s and w ork op p o rtu n ities, co n tact lo ca l cem en t fin ish in g contractors; lo ca ls o f u n ion s p rev io u sly m entioned; a lo ca l jo in t u n ion -m an agem en t ap p ren ticesh ip co m m ittee; or the nearest o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t serv ice or app ren ticesh ip agency. For gen eral in form ation abou t cem en t m a so n s and terrazzo w o rk ers, contact: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW „ Washington, D.C. 20006. International Masonry Apprenticeship Trust, 815 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association, 900 Spring St., Silver Spring, Md. 20910. Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ Interna tional Association of the United States and Can ada, 1125 17th St. NW „ Washington, D.C. 20036. Portland Cement Association, Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, 111. 60076. Prestressed Concrete Institute, 201 N. Wells St., Chicago, 111. 60606. Drywall Installers and Finishers_______ (D .O .T . 842.381-010, .664-010, and .681-010; and 869.684-050) Nature of the Work D e v e lo p e d as a su bstitu te for w e t plaster, d ryw all co n sists o f a thin w all o f plaster sa n d w ich ed b etw een tw o p ie c e s o f h eavy pa per. It is u sed tod ay for w a lls and c e ilin g s o f m o st n e w h o m es b e c a u se it sa v e s both tim e and m o n ey com p ared to traditional con stru c tion u sin g plaster. T w o n ew occu p a tio n s h ave em erged from the w id esp read u se o f this con stru ction m ate rial: D ry w a ll in stallers and d ryw all fin ish ers. In stallers fasten d ryw all p an els to the fram e w ork in sid e h o u ses and other b u ild in g s. F in ishers d o tou ch u p w ork to g et the p an els in sh ape for p ain tin g. B e ca u se d ryw all p a n els are m anufactured in standard s iz e s — for e x a m p le , 4 fe et b y 12 fe et— in stallers m ust m easure and cut so m e p ie ce s to fit in sm all sp a ce s, su ch as ab o v e and b e lo w w in d o w s . T h ey a lso saw h o le s in p an els for electric o u tle ts, airc o n d itio n in g u n its , an d p lu m b in g . A fte r m ak in g th ese alteration s, in stallers app ly g lu e to the w o o d en fram ew ork , press the p an els again st it, and nail them d o w n . In so m e areas, in stallers h o ist large c e ilin g p an els in p la ce w ith a sh eet rock lift. A helper u su a lly assists an in staller in han d lin g large, cu m b erso m e p a n els. S o m e in sta lle r s s p e c ia liz e in h a n g in g d ryw all p an els on m etal fram ew ork in o f fic e s , sc h o o ls , and other large b u ild in g s. F o l lo w in g p lan s that in d icate the lo ca tio n o f room s and h a llw a y s, th ey sa w to siz e and b olt togeth er m etal rods and ch an n els to m a k e f lo o r - t o - c e ilin g fr a m e s. T h e y u se screw s to attach the d ryw all p a n els. W orkers a lso erect su sp en d ed c e ilin g s . T h ey hang m etal bands from w ires that are em b ed d ed in th e c o n c r e te c e ilin g . In sta lle r s c r is s c r o s s bands across the room to form rectangular sp a ces for c eilin g p an els. A fter in stallin g the d ry w a ll, fin ish ers fill jo in ts b etw een p an els with a q u ick -d ryin g p aste. U sin g the w id e , flat tip o f a sp ecia l tr o w el, and brushlike strok es, th ey spread the paste into and a lon g e a ch sid e o f the jo in t. B efo re the paste d ries, w orkers u se tro w els to press a perforated paper tape into the paste and to scrape aw ay e x c e s s p aste. O n large co m m ercia l p rojects, fin ish ers m ay u se au to m atic taping to o ls to ap p ly the paste and tape in o n e step . W h en the first ap p lication o f paste is d ry, fin ish ers ap p ly another to fill any d ep ressio n s and to m ake a sm ooth sur fa c e . S o m e fin ish ers app ly textured su rfaces to w a lls and c e ilin g s w ith tr o w els, b ru sh es, or spray g u n s. N a il and screw h ead s a lso are co v ered w ith this co m p o u n d . San d in g m ak es patched areas as sm ooth as the rest o f the w a ll su rface. F in ish ers a lso repair n ick s and cracks cau sed b y the in stallation o f a ir-con d i tio n in g v en ts and other fixtu res. S o m e fin ish ers sp ec ia liz e in san d in g, tap in g, or repair w ork. Working Conditions A s in other con stru ction trad es, dryw all w ork so m e tim e s is stren u ou s. In stallers and fin ish ers sp en d m ost o f the day o n their fe e t, eith er stan d in g, b e n d in g , sto o p in g , or squat tin g. In stallers h a v e to lift and m an eu ver h ea v y p an els. H azards in clu d e the p o ssib ility o f fa lls from ladders and injuries from p ow er to o ls. B eca u se san d in g paste to a sm ooth fin ish m ay create a great d eal o f d u st, so m e fin ish ers w ear m ask s for p rotection . Employment A b ou t 8 4 ,0 0 0 p erson s w ork ed as d ryw all in stallers and fin ish ers in 1980. M o st w ork ed for contractors w h o s p e c ia liz e in d ry w a ll in stallation ; oth ers w ork ed for contractors w h o d o all k in d s o f con stru ction . In sta lle r s an d fin is h e r s are e m p lo y e d through out the country but are concen trated in urban areas. In m an y sm all to w n s, carp en ters in stall d ryw all and painters fin ish it. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st d ryw all in stallers and fin ish ers start as help ers and learn m o st o f their sk ills on the jo b . In staller h elp ers start b y carrying m aterials, h o ld in g p a n e ls, and cle a n in g up d eb ris. W ith in a fe w w e e k s , th ey learn to m easu re, cu t, and in stall p a n els. E v en tu a lly , th ey b e c o m e ex p e rien ce d in stallers. F in ish er h elp ers b e g in b y tap in g jo in ts and to u ch in g up n ail h o le s and scra tch es. T h ey so o n learn to install c o m e r guards and to c o n c e a l o p e n in g s around p ip es. N ea r the en d o f their train in g, b oth in staller help ers and fin ish er h elp ers learn to estim a te c o sts o f in sta llin g and fin ish in g d ryw a ll. S o m e in stallers learn their trade in an ap p ren ticesh ip program . T h e U n ited Brother h o o d o f C arpenters and Join ers o f A m erica , A F L -C I O , in coo p era tio n w ith lo ca l con trac tors, ad m in isters an ap p ren ticesh ip program in ca rp en try th at in c lu d e s in str u c tio n in d ryw all in stallation . In a d d itio n , lo ca l a ffili ates o f the A s so c ia te d B u ild ers and C on trac tors, In c. (A B C ) co n d u ct a sim ila r training program for n on u n ion w ork ers. B o th 4 -y ea r program s c o m b in e c la ssr o o m instruction w ith on -th e-jo b train in g. T h e International B roth erh ood o f P ainters and A llie d T rades c o n d u cts a 2 -y e a r ap p ren ticesh ip program for fin ish ers. E m p lo y ers prefer h ig h sc h o o l graduates w h o are in g o o d p h y sica l c o n d itio n , but th ey freq u en tly hire ap p lican ts w ith le s s ed u ca tio n . H ig h sc h o o l or trade sc h o o l co u rses in carpentry p ro vid e a h elp fu l back grou n d for d ry w a ll w ork . In stallers m u st b e g o o d at sim p le arith m etic. A fter q u a lify in g as an in sta ller or fin ish er, a p erson w h o has lead ersh ip ab ility m ay b e c o m e a su p ervisor w ith in a fe w yea rs. S o m e w ork ers start their o w n d ryw all contracting b u sin e ss e s . Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f d ryw all w orkers is e x p e c t ed to g ro w faster than the a v era g e fo r all o ccu p a tio n s through th e 1 9 8 0 ’s as d ryw all c o n tin u es to rep lace p laster as a b u ild in g m aterial. B e sid e s w ork ers hired to fill o p e n in g s arisin g from in creased d em a n d , m any w ill b e n eed ed to rep lace th o se w h o take jo b s in other o c cu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . E m p lo y m en t op p ortu n ities m ay be m ore favorab le in co m m erica l con stru cto n than in resid en tial co n stru ctio n , w h ic h is u su a lly m ore se n s itiv e to in terest rates. D ry w a ll in stallation and fin ish in g is in d oor w ork . U n lik e so m e oth er con stru ctio n trades, Construction and Extractive Occupations/369 th ese w orkers seld o m lo se w ork tim e b ecau se o f adverse w eather co n d itio n s. M o st jo b o p en in g s w ill b e in m etropolitan areas. B u ild in g contractors in sm all c ities m ay not h a v e en o u g h b u sin ess to hire fu ll tim e dry w a ll w orkers. Earnings A cco rd in g to lim ited in form ation , dry w all installers and fin ish ers in 1 9 8 0 averaged abou t $ 1 2 an hour, nearly tw ic e the hourly average fo r non su p ervisory and production w orkers in private industry, e x ce p t farm in g. T rain ees start at about h a lf the rate paid to ex p erien ced w orkers. S o m e contractors p ay installers and fin ish ers according to the am oun t o f w ork they c o m p lete— for e x a m p le, from 5 to 6 cen ts for each square fo o t o f p an el in stalled . In a d ay, the average d ryw all w orker in stalls 35 to 4 0 p a n els, each 4 fe et by 12 feet. A 4 0 -h ou r w e ek is standard for installers and fin ish ers, but they so m etim es w ork lo n g er. T h o se w h o are paid hou rly rates receiv e prem ium pay for o v ertim e. S o m e installers are m em b ers o f the U n ited B rotherh ood o f Carpenters and Joiners o f A m erica , and so m e fin ish ers are m em b ers o f the International B rotherh ood o f Painters and A llie d T rades. Sources of Additional Information For d etails abou t jo b q u a lifica tio n s and training program s, w rite to: Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 444 N. Capitol St. NW., Suite 409, Washington, D.C. 20001 . National Joint Painting, Decorating, and Drywall Apprenticeship and Training Committee, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Related Occupations D ryw all installers and fin ish ers com b in e strength and dexterity w ith a cap acity for p recisio n and accu racy to m ake m aterials fit accord in g to a set plan . O ther occu p ation s that require sim ilar ab ilities in clu d e insu lation w ork ers, flo o r co v erin g in stallers, and form bu ild ers. Electricians (Construction)______ (D .O .T . 821.261-014, .361-018, -030, -038, .684-014; 824.261-010, -014, .281-014, .681-010; 825.281-030, -034; 829.281-010, -014, .361-010, -014) Nature of the Work H eatin g, lig h tin g , p o w er , air-co n d itio n in g , an d r e fr ig e r a tio n c o m p o n e n ts a ll o p era te through electrical sy stem s that are a ssem b led , in stalled , and w ired b y con stru ction electri cia n s. T h ese w orkers a lso install electrical m ach in ery, electron ic eq u ip m en t and c o n trols, and sign al and co m m u n ica tio n s sy s te m s. (M ain ten an ce electricia n s, w h o u sually m aintain the electrical sy stem s in stalled by con stru ction e lectricia n s, are d isc u sse d e ls e w h ere in the Handbook.) C on struction electrician s fo llo w blueprints and sp ecifica tio n s for m ost in stallation s. T o install w irin g in factories and o ffic e s , they m ay b en d , fit, and fasten con d u it (p ip e or tub in g) in sid e partition s, w a lls, or other c o n cea led areas. W orkers a lso fasten to th e w a ll sm all m etal b o x e s that w ill h o u se electrical d e v ic e s su ch as sw itc h e s. T o co m p lete circu its b etw een o u tlets and sw itc h e s, th ey then pu ll in su lated w ires or c a b le s th ro u g h th e c o n d u it. T h e y w o rk carefu lly to a v o id dam agin g any w ires or c a b le s . In lig h te r c o n s tr u c tio n , su ch as h o u s in g , p la s tic -c o v e r e d w ire u s u a lly is u sed rather than con d u it. In any c a se , e le c tricians co n n e c t the w irin g to circu it break e r s , tr a n sfo r m er s, or o th er c o m p o n e n ts . W ires are jo in e d b y tw istin g en d s togeth er w ith pliers and co v erin g the en d s w ith sp e c ia l p la stic c o n n e c to r s . W h en a d d itio n a l strength is d esired , they m ay u se an electric “ sold erin g g u n ’ ’ to m elt m etal o n to the tw isted w ir es, then c o v er them w ith dur a b le, electrica l tape. W hen the w irin g is fin ish ed , they test the circu its for proper co n n e c tio n s. For sa fe ty , e lectricia n s fo llo w N ational E lectrical C od e sp ecifica tio n s and procedures an d , in add ition , m ust c o m p ly w ith require m ents o f S tate, c o u n ty , and m u n icip al electri cal c o d e s. Specially designed stilts enable this finisher to reach joints between sections of drywall. E lectrician s gen erally furnish their o w n to o ls , in clu d in g screw d rivers, p liers, k n iv es, and h a ck sa w s. E m p loyers furnish h eavier to o ls , su ch as pip e threaders, con d u it bend ers, and m ost test m eters and p o w er to o ls. 370/Occupational Outlook Handbook ough knowledge of the craft. Familiarity with the National Electric Code and with local electric and building codes is important. Experienced construction electricians can advance to supervisors, superintendents, or contract estimators for contractors on con struction jobs. Many electricians start their own contracting businesses. In many areas, a contractor must have an electrical contractor’s license. Job Outlook Electricians install wiring while a building is under construction. Working Conditions Construction electricians are not required to have great physical strength, but they fre quently must stand for long periods and work in cramped quarters. Because much of their work is indoors, electricians are less exposed to unfavorable weather than are most other construction workers. They risk electrical shocks, falls from ladders and scaffolds, and blows from falling objects. However, safety practices have reduced the injury rate. Employment Over 290,000 construction electricians were employed in 1980. Most worked for electrical contractors; others were self-em ployed contractors. Like the general popula tion, construction electricians are concentrated in industrialized and urban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend the completion of a 4-year apprenticeship pro gram as the best way to learn the electrical trade. Compared to most other construction trades, electricians have a higher percentage of apprentice-trained workers. Although many people leam the trade informally by working for several years as electricians’ helpers, this method of training is declining in relative importance. Many helpers gain additional knowledge through trade school or correspondence courses, or through special training in the Armed Forces. Apprenticeship programs are sponsored through and supervised by local union-man agement committees or by company manage ment committees. Although the programs are separate, the content, training, and method of instruction are nearly identical. These pro grams provide 144 hours of classroom instruc tion each year in addition to comprehensive on-the-job training. In the classroom, appren tices leam blueprint reading, electrical theory, electronics, mathematics, and safety and firstaid practices. On the job, under the supervi sion of experienced electricians, apprentices must demonstrate mastery of electrical princi ples. At first, apprentices drill holes, set an chors, and set up conduit. Later, they mea sure, bend, and install conduit, as well as install, connect, and test wiring. They also leam to set up and draw diagrams for entire electrical systems. Beginners who are not apprentices can pick up the trade informally in a variety of ways. For example, some begin work in manufacturing plants by piecing together electrical components. Others start in mainte nance where they leam about circuit break ers, fuses, switches, and other electrical devices. Later, they broaden their knowledge by working as helpers for experienced electri cians. While learning to install conduit, con nect wires, and test circuits, helpers are also taught safety practices. All applicants should be in good health and have at least average physical strength. Also important are agility and dexterity. Good color vision is important because workers frequently must identify electrical wires by color. Applicants for apprentice positions must be at least 18 years old and usually must be a high school or voca tional school graduate with 1 year of alge bra. Courses in electricity, electronics, me chanical drawing, science, and shop provide a good background. To obtain a license, necessary for employ ment in some localities, an electrician must pass an examination which requires a thor Employment of construction electricians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. As population and the economy grow, more electricians will be needed to install electrical fixtures and wiring in new and renovated homes, offices, and other buildings. In addition to jobs created by in creased demand for electrical work, many openings will arise as experienced electri cians leave the occupation, retire, or die. Although employment in this field is ex pected to grow over the long run, it may fluctuate from year to year due to ups and downs in construction activity. Some electri cians may be laid off when the level of construction declines. When construction jobs are not available, however, some workers may transfer to jobs as maintenance electricians in industries that are less sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy than the construction industry. Job opportunities may be more favorable in the South and West than in other regions of the Nation. Graduates of apprenticeship programs should have the best prospects for employment. Earnings According to a survey of union wage rates in cities with 100,000 or more people, elec tricians averaged $13.46 an hour in 1980, compared with $6.66 an hour for all produc tion and nonsupervisoury workers in private industry, except farming. Wage rates were generally higher in the West and lower in the South. Because the seasonal nature of con struction affects electricians less than workers in most building trades, annual earnings also tend to be higher. Apprentice wage rates start at from 40 to 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced electricians and increase periodically. A large proportion of construction electri cians are members of the International Broth erhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations To install electrical systems, construction electricians combine manual skill and a knowl edge of electrical materials and concepts. Oth er occupations involving similar skills include air-conditioning mechanics, cable installers and repairers, electronics mechanics, elevator constructors, and maintenance electricians. Construction and Extractive Occupations/371 Sources of Additional Information For details about electrician apprentice ships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local electrical contractors; a local chapter of the Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc.; a local chapter of the Na tional Electrical Contractors Association; a local union of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; a local union-manage ment apprenticeship committee; or the near est office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. Some local em ployment service offices screen applicants and give aptitude tests. For general information about the work of electricians, contact: Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., 1101 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, D.C. 20036. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. National Association of Lighting Maintenance Contractors, 313 Price Place, Suite 110, Madison, Wis. 53705. National Electrical Contractors Association, 7315 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20814. National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Com mittee for the Electrical Industry, 9700-E George Palmer Hwy., Lanham, Md. 20706. Floor Covering Installers_____ ers, often assisted by apprentices or helpers, cut, fit, and glue the flooring into place. Square tile is hand-set and tapped into place with a mallet. Sheet flooring is laid out and rolled with a roller in a fashion similar to that of rolling out pie dough. The flooring must be carefully cut, particularly at door open ings, along irregular wall surfaces, and around fixtures, such as columns or pipes. Installers also must take special care in cut ting out and arranging decorative designs. After the flooring is in place, they may run a roller over it to insure good adhesion. Carpet installers, like installers of resilient coverings, first inspect the floor to determine its condition. Then they plan the layout after allowing for expected traffic patterns and, if necessary, for seams so that best appearance and long wear will be obtained. For wall-to-wall carpet, installers lay and tack an underlay—a foam rubber pad 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick that is cut slightly smaller than the entire floor. Next, they roll out, measure, mark, and cut the carpet, allowing for 3 to 4 inches of extra carpet on each side. This provides some leeway for mistakes. Workers then lay the carpet and stretch it to fit evenly against the floor and snugly against each wall and door threshold. With the carpet stretched, the excess around the perimeter is cut to fit the room precisely. To hold the carpet in place, workers either tack or tape each edge of the carpet to the floor. Because carpet comes in standard 12-foot widths, wall-to-wall installations in large rooms must be joined at the seams. To join carpet, installers either hand-sew seams with a large needle and special thread or heat-tape seams with a hot, flat iron to melt the plastic surface of a foilbacked tape placed beneath the joined sec tions of carpet. Sections of carpet placed edge-to-edge are pressed to the surface of the melted plastic to force it into the car pet’s backing. When cooled, the hardened plastic joins the sections. For precut, edge-bound carpet, installers simply lay a foam rubber pad on the floor and roll the carpet over the slightly smaller pad. To hold the pad and carpet in place, installers may apply tape that has adhesive on both sides to the bottom edges of the carpet. Working Conditions Installers work under nearly ideal condi tions compared with other construction work ers. Because floor coverings are finished products designed almost exclusively for in terior use and display, work areas usually are clean, safe, and comfortable. Installers generally work regular daytime hours. Particular circumstances, however, such as installing a floor in a store or office, may require work during evenings and weekends. On the job, installers kneel, reach, stoop, (D .O .T. 864.381-010 and .481-010) Nature of the Work Floor covering installers (also called floor covering mechanics) install and replace car pet or resilient floor covering materials such as tile, linoleum, and vinyl sheets. These workers install coverings over floors made of wood, concrete, or other materials. They generally specialize in either carpet or resil ient floor covering installation, although some do both. Before putting down resilient covering, such as vinyl tile, installers first inspect the floor to be sure that it is firm, dry, smooth, and free of dust or dirt. Some floors have to be prepared for covering. For example, in stallers may sand a rough or painted floor and fill cracks and indentations. An extreme ly uneven floor may be resurfaced with wood or other materials. On newly poured concrete floors or floors laid over dirt, installers test for moisture. If too much moisture is present, they may sug gest postponing installation of floor covering or recommend a covering technique suited to the floor’s condition. Resilient-flooring installers measure and mark off the floor according to a plan. The plan may be architectural drawings that specify every detail of the covering design, or a simple, verbal description by the cus tomer. When the plan is completed, install Flooring must be cut carefully along irregular wall surfaces and doorways. 372/Occupational Outlook Handbook stretch, and frequently lift heavy loads, such as a roll of carpet, activities that re quire strength and stamina. They also must drill, cut, hammer, and use hot irons. De spite continual movement and frequent use of hand and power tools, installers experi ence fewer injuries than most other con struction workers. Employment An estimated 106,000 floor covering in stallers were employed in 1980, according to a Bureau of the Census survey. About threefourths worked primarily with carpet, and the remainder with resilient flooring. Most installers worked for flooring con tractors. Many others worked for retailers of floor covering and home alteration and repair contractors. Over one-third of floor covering installers were self-employed, a higher pro portion than the average for all construction occupations. Installers are employed throughout the Na tion, but are concentrated in urban areas that have high levels of construction activity. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The vast majority of floor covering install ers learn their trade informally on the job by working as helpers to experienced installers. Others learn through formal apprenticeship programs, which include on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction. Informal training programs usually are sponsored by individual contractors and gen erally take about 1-1/2 to 2 years. Helpers begin with simple assignments. Helpers on resilient flooring jobs carry materials and tools, prepare floors for the tile, and help with its installation. Carpet helpers install tackless stripping and padding, and help stretch newly installed carpet. With experi ence, helpers in either trade take on more difficult assignments, such as measuring, cut ting, and fitting the materials to be installed. Apprenticeship programs and some con tractor-sponsored programs provide compre hensive training that covers both carpet and resilient flooring work. Floor covering installers occasionally at tend manufacturers’ schools to learn about new kinds of flooring. Applicants for helper or apprentice jobs should be at least 16 years old, have manual dexterity, and be mechanically inclined. Since trainees often are required to drive company vehicles, employers prefer individ uals who are licensed to drive and who have good driving records. Employers also want individuals who will be courteous and tactful in their dealings with customers. A high school education also is preferred, though not necessary. Courses in general mathematics and shop may provide a helpful background. Floor covering installers may advance to supervisors or installation managers for large floor laying firms. Some installers become salespersons or estimators. Installers also may go into business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of floor covering installers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to job openings resulting from growth in demand for floor covering install ers, many openings will arise as experienced installers transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Employment of floor covering install ers is expected to increase mainly because of the expected expansion in construction and the more widespread use of resilient floor coverings and carpeting. Because many new buildings have plywood rather than hardwood floors, wall-to-wall carpet or resilient floors will be a necessity. Carpet and resilient flooring also will continue to be used exten sively in renovation work. Moreover, versa tile materials and colorful patterns will contribute to the growing demand for floor coverings. Most job opportunities will be for carpet installers and workers who can install both carpet and resilient flooring. Since only about one-fourth of floor covering installers work primarily with resilient flooring, fewer op portunities will arise in this field. Earnings Experienced floor covering installers earned around $10 per hour in 1980, accord ing to the limited information available. Starting wage rates for apprentices and other trainees usually are about half of the experi enced worker’s rate. Most installers are paid by the hour. In some shops, part of the pay may be in bo nuses. In others, installers receive a monthly salary or are paid according to the amount of work they do. Some floor covering installers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, or the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Floor covering installers skillfully combine strength and stamina with an eye for accura cy and an appreciation for detail to produce attractively finished floors. Other occupa tions involving different products but which require similar skills include appliance repair ers, blasters, house repairers, lathers, meat cutters, painters, riveters, and roofers. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local flooring contrac tors or retailers; locals of the unions pre viously mentioned; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the State employment service. For general information about the work of floor covering installers, contact: Carpet and Rug Institute, P.O. Box 2048, Dalton, Ga. 30720. Glaziers (D .O .T . 865.381-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Glass serves many uses in modem build ings. Insulating glass keeps in warmed or cooled air; tempered and wire glass makes doors and windows more secure; and large glass panels give skyscrapers a distinctive look while reducing the need for artificial lighting. Glaziers install all types and sizes of building glass. For some jobs, the glass is precut and ready to install. For other jobs, the glazier must cut the glass before it can be installed. To prepare the glass for cutting, glaziers rest it either on edge on a rack or A-frame or flat against a cutting table. They then mea sure and mark the glass to fit the opening. Glaziers cut glass with a special tool that has a very hard metal wheel about 1/6 inch in diameter. Using a “ straightedge” as a guide, the glazier presses the cutter’s wheel firmly on the glass, guiding and rolling it carefully to make a score just below the surface. To help the cutting tool move smoothly across the glass, workers brush a thin layer of kero sene along the line of the intended cut or dip the cutting tool in kerosene. Immediately after cutting, the glazier presses on the short end to break the glass cleanly along the cut. Glaziers may use a crane or hoist with suction cups attached to lift a large, heavy piece of glass. In all cases, however, to prevent shattering, glaziers use their hands to guide and position the glass precisely in its frame. Glaziers secure glass in an opening with materials such as rubber gaskets, putty, metal clips, and metal or wood molding. When using a rubber gasket—a thick molded rubber half tube with a split running its length—to secure glass. They first position the gasket around the perimeter within the opening, then set the glass into the split side of the gasket, causing it to clamp to the edges and hold the glass firmly in place. When using putty, workers first spread it neatly against and around the edges of the molding on the inside of the opening. Next, they install the glass. With it pressed against the putty on the inside molding, workers screw or nail outside molding that loosely holds the glass in place. To hold it firmly, they pack the space between the molding and the glass with putty and then trim any excess putty with a putty knife. When metal clips and molding are used to secure glass, glaziers first secure the mold ing, then force springlike metal clips between the glass and the molding. The clips exert pressure and keep the glass firmly in place. Glaziers also install glass doors, mirrors, and glass for table tops and display cases. They may mount steel and aluminum sashes or frames and attach locks and hinges to glass doors. Construction and Extractive Occupations/373 In addition to handtools such as glasscutters and putty knives, glaziers use power tools, such as hoists, saws, drills, cutters, and grinders. They also use many types of sealants, mastics—a pastelike cement—and rubber moldings. Working Conditions When installing large pieces of glass, gla ziers work in teams. They may travel for a day or two to job sites in areas where few people, if any, are equipped and qualified to install glass in commercial buildings such as stores. Glaziers may work outdoors in uncomfort able weather. Sometime they work on scaf folds at great heights. In addition, the job requires a considerable amount of bending, stooping, lifting, and standing. Glaziers may be injured by broken glass or cutting tools, falls from scaffolds, or from lifting glass. Employment About 14,000 persons worked as construc tion glaziers in 1980. Most worked for glaz ing contractors engaged in new construction, alteration, and repair. Others worked for government agencies or businesses that do their own construction. Glaziers work throughout the country, but jobs are concen trated in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training authorities recommend that gla ziers learn the trade through a 3-year appren ticeship program. However, most glaziers learn the trade informally on the job by as sisting experienced workers. Apprenticeship programs, which are ad ministered by local union-management com mittees, consist of on-the-job training as well as 144 hours of classroom and/or home study instruction each year. On the job, apprentices leam to use the tools and equipment of the trade; handle, measure, cut, and install glass and metal framing; cut and fit moldings; and install and balance glass doors. In the classroom, they are taught basic mathematics, blueprint read ing and sketching, general construction tech niques, safety practices, and first aid. Glaziers who leam this trade through in formal on-the-job training usually start by carrying glass and cleaning up debris in glass shops. They often practice their cutting tech niques on discarded glass. Eventually, help ers assist experienced workers on a simple installation job. Learning the trade this way may not provide training as complete as an apprenticeship and may take considerably longer. Local union-management committees de termine how apprentices are recruited and selected. Applicants for apprenticeships gen erally must be in good physical condition and at least 17 years old. In some areas appli cants must take mechanical aptitude tests. Persons applying for helper positions will find that employers prefer high school or Glaziers sometimes work on high scaffolds. vocational school graduates. Courses in gen eral mathematics, blueprint reading or me chanical drawing, general construction, and shop provide a helpful background. For most glaziers, advancement consists of increases in pay; some may advance to super visory jobs. Job Outlook Employment of construction glaziers is ex pected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Besides jobs created by increased demand for gla ziers, openings will arise as experienced gla ziers transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. However, because this occupation is fairly small, only a limited number of open ings will become available. Employment op portunities should be greatest in metropolitan areas, where most glazing contractors are located. Over the long run, population and business growth will create a rising demand for new residential and commercial buildings, such as apartments, offices, and stores. Since glass will continue to be popular in building de sign, the demand for glaziers to install and replace glass also will grow. The number of job openings may fluctuate from year to year because employment in this trade is sensitive to changes in economic conditions. Some glaziers may experience periods of unemployment because of down turns in construction activity. However, most glaziers work on commercial construction projects that are less sensitive to economic downturns than residental construction. Gla ziers can improve their chances of avoiding layoffs by learning to use a variety of tools 374/Occupational Outlook Handbook and materials because employers try to keep their most skilled workers even during busi ness slumps. People wishing to enter glazing apprentice ships may face competition for positions. High wages and good training attract many people to these programs. Earnings In 1980, union construction glaziers in metropolitan areas had estimated average wages of $11.91 an hour. In comparison the average hourly wage for production or nonsupervisory workers in private industries, ex cept farming, was $6.66. Apprentice wage rates usually start at 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced glaziers and increase ev ery 6 months. During the final year of their training, apprentices receive 90 percent of the journey worker’s rate. Yearly earnings of gla ziers and apprentices, however, generally are slightly lower than hourly rates would indi cate because the annual number of hours they work can be adversely affected by poor weather and fluctuations in construction ac tivity. Union glaziers also received health insurance, pensions, and paid vacation and holidays. Many glaziers employed in construction are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations can be minimized by insulation. Installing insulating material is the responsibility of insulation workers. Insulation workers—sometimes called ap plicators—may paste, staple, wire, tape, or spray insulation to an appropriate surface. When covering a steam pipe, for example, insulation workers measure and cut a tube of insulation to the necessary length, stretch it open along a cut that runs the length of the tube, and then slip it over the pipe. To secure the insulation, they wrap and fasten wire bands around it, tape it, or wrap a cover of tar paper, cloth, or canvas over it and then sew or staple the cover in place. Sometimes insulation workers must weld sheet metal around insulated pipes to waterproof the insu lation. Care is required to cover joints com pletely. When covering a wall or other flat surface, workers may use a hose to spray foam insula tion onto a wire mesh. The wire mesh pro vides a rough surface to which the foam can cling and adds strength to the finished wall. If desired, workers apply a final coat for a finished appearance. In attics, which do not require either wire mesh for adhesion or a final coat for appear ance, applicators use a compressor to blow in the insulation. Blowing in insulation is much faster and has become more popular in the housing industry. One worker feeds the ma chine with shredded fiberglass insulation or rock wool, and the compressor forces this insulation through a hose. Another worker sprays the insulation from the compressor hose into the attic or between the interior and exterior walls until the required amount is installed. Insulation workers use common handtools— trowels, brushes, scissors, sewing equipment, and stapling guns. Powersaws, as well as handtools, are used to cut and fit insulating materi als. Welding machines are often used to join sheet metal or secure clamps. Compressors for blowing or for spraying insulation are also used. Some insulation workers are responsible for cleaning these machines and keeping them in good working condition. Working Conditions Insulation workers generally work indoors amid the clutter of construction. They spend most of the workday on their feet, either standing, bending, stooping, or squatting. Sometimes they work from ladders or in tight spaces. However, the work is not strenuous; it requires more coordination than strength. Insulation work is often dusty and dirty. The dust from insulation material can irritate the eyes, skin, and respiratory system. Tearing out asbestos—at one time the most common form of insulation but rarely used today—can be very dangerous. To protect themselves from the hazards of dust from asbestos and other insulating materials, workers wear fil- Glaziers use their knowledge of construc tion materials and techniques to install glass. Other construction workers whose jobs also involve skilled, custom work are bricklayers, dry-wall applicators, floor layers, painters, paperhangers, stucco masons, terrazzo work ers, and tile setters. Sources of Additional Information For more information about glazier ap prenticeships or work opportunities, contact local glazing or general contractors; a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-man agement apprenticeship agency; or the near est office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of glaziers, contact: International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Insulation Workers (D.O.T. 863.364-010, .381-010 and -014, .664-010, and .685-010) Nature of the Work Properly insulated homes and buildings re duce fuel costs by preventing excessive loss of cool air on warm days and hot air on cold days. Meat storage rooms, steam pipes, and boilers are other examples where the wasteful transfer of heat to or from the space inside Installing insulation requires more coordination than strength. Construction and Extractive Occupations/375 tering m ask s and p ro tective clo th in g . T h ey try to k eep w ork areas as w e ll ven tilated as p o ssib le . Employment M o st o f the 4 5 ,0 0 0 in su lation w orkers e m p lo y e d in 1 9 8 0 w ork ed for insu lation contrac tors. O thers altered and m aintained in su lation sy stem s in ch em ica l fa cto ries, petroleum re fin e ries, p o w erp la n ts, and sim ilar structures that h a v e e x te n siv e in stallation s for p o w er, h ea tin g , and c o o lin g . V ery fe w in su lation w orkers are se lf-em p lo y e d . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In su lation w orkers learn their trade through o n -th e-jo b training or a form al 4 -y ea r appren tice sh ip program ; b oth o f th ese m eth od s o f training stress co n servation and sa fety . A trainee in an inform al on -th e-job program , u su a lly p rov id ed by and paid for b y an in su lation contractor, is a ssig n ed to an ex p eri e n c ed in su la tio n w orker for instruction and su p erv isio n . A trainee b e g in s w ith sim p le ta sk s, su ch as b lo w in g in su lation , su p p lyin g in su la tio n to e x p erien ced w ork ers, or h old in g the m aterial w h ile it is fasten ed in p la ce. O n -th e-jo b training can take from 1 to 2 y ea rs, d ep en d in g o n w h ere the trainee w ork s. L earn in g h o m e insu la tion gen era lly requires le s s training than m ain ten an ce and con stru c tio n w ork in industrial p lan ts. W ith ex p eri e n c e , the trainee r ec eiv e s le s s su p erv isio n , m ore resp o n sib ility , and h igh er p ay. T rain ees w h o r ec eiv e inform al instruction u su a lly learn to sp ec ia liz e in o n ly three or four ty p es o f in sta lla tio n . In contrast, train ees in app ren ticesh ip program s rec eiv e in-depth in struction in alm o st all p h ases o f in su lation . A p p ren ticesh ip program s are p rovid ed by a jo in t c o m m ittee o f lo ca l in su lation contractors and the lo ca l u n ion o f in su lation app licators. State and lo ca l chapters o f the A sso c ia te d B u ild ers and C ontractors, In c. con d u ct sim ilar training program s for n on u n ion e m p lo y e e s. B oth program s c o n sist o f o n -th e-job training as w e ll as cla ssr o o m in stru ction , and trainees m u st p a ss practical and w ritten tests to d em o n strate a k n o w led g e o f the trade. F or entry jo b s , in su lation contractors pre fer h igh sc h o o l graduates w h o are in g o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n and lic e n se d to d rive. H ig h sc h o o l co u rses in blu ep rint read in g, sh o p m ath, sh eet m etal la y o u t, and general co n stru ction pro v id e a h elp fu l backgroun d. A p p lica n ts se e k in g 4 -y e a r app ren ticesh ip p o sitio n s m ust h a v e a h igh sc h o o l d ip lom a or its e q u iv a len t, and b e at least 18 years old . S k illed in su la tio n w orkers m ay ad van ce to su p erv iso r, sh o p su p erin ten d en t, or in su lation contract estim ator. M an y in su lation w orkers are m em b ers o f the International A sso c ia tio n o f H eat and Frost In su lators and A sb e sto s W orkers. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f in su lation w orkers is e x p ected to g ro w faster than the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s as m ore n ew h o m es and b u sin e sses are in su lated . In su la tion for b o ilers and p ip es in n e w factories and p o w er plants a lso w ill stim ulate e m p lo y m en t g ro w th . M o reo v er, o ld b u ild in gs that n eed extra in su lation to sa v e fu e l w ill add to em p lo y m en t req uirem en ts. In add ition to jo b s created b y in creased dem an d for in su lation w ork , o p e n in g s w ill arise as w orkers transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . In su lation w orkers in the con stru ction in d u s try m ay ex p erien ce period s o f u n em p loym en t. B u ild in g a c t iv it y , p a rticu la rly r es id e n tia l b u ild in g a ctiv ity , slo w s d o w n during period s o f risin g interest rates. W orkers m ain tain in g and repairing in su la tion sy stem s in industrial plan ts w ill ex p e ri e n c e m ore stab le em p lo y m en t than th o se in con stru cton b eca u se m ain ten an ce and repairs m ust b e d o n e regard less o f the state o f the econ om y. U n lik e other con stru ction o c cu p a tio n s, in su lation w orkers u su ally d o not lo s e w ork tim e w h en w eath er con d itio n s are p oor. M ost in su laton is ap p lied after the sh ell and r o o f o f the b u ild in g are constructed . E m p lo y m en t op p ortu n ities w ill be b est in m etropolitan areas, w h ere m ost in su lation c o n tr a cto r s are lo c a te d . In sm a ll to w n s m uch o f the in su lation w ork is d on e by p erson s in other trades, su ch as h eating and a ir-con d ition in g in stallers, carp en ters, and dry w a ll in stallers. Earnings U n io n insu lation w orkers in m etropolitan areas had estim ated average w a g e s o f $ 1 2 .5 6 an hour in 1 9 8 0 , or abou t tw ic e the hou rly rate p aid to n on su p ervisory and production w orkers in private in d u stry, e x ce p t farm in g. H ou rly w a g e s for w orkers in the S ou th east, fo r n o n u n io n w o r k e r s , an d fo r f u ll-tim e w orkers m aintaining in su lation sy stem s in in dustrial plants m ay b e $ 2 to $3 le s s than the average. A p p ren tice w a g e rates start at about h a lf the rate paid to e x p erien ced w orkers and in crease p eriod ically. Related Occupations In su lation w orkers c o m b in e a k n o w led g e o f insu latin g m aterials w ith their sk ills o f ap p lication to p rovid e e ffe c tiv e barriers to h eat, m oistu re, and sou n d . O ther o ccu p ation s in v o lv in g sim ilar sk ills in clu d e air-con d ition in g in stallers, carpet la y er s, dry w a ll ap p lica tors, flo o r la y ers, lath ers, and roofers. Sources of Additional Information For in form ation abou t in su lation w o r k e rs’ training program s or oth er w ork opp ortu nities in this trade, con tact a lo ca l in su lation c o n tractor; a lo ca l o f the International A s s o c i a tio n o f H ea t an d F rost In su la to rs and A sb e sto s W orkers; a State or lo ca l chapter o f the A sso c ia te d B u ild ers and C ontractors, In c.; the n earest o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e or State app ren ticesh ip a g e n c y , or: National Insulation Contractors Association, 1120 19th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20035. Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 444 N. Capitol St. NW., Suite 409, Washington, D.C. 20001. Ironworkers________ (D .O .T . 801.361-014, -018 and .684-026; 921.260-010; 869.683-014) Nature of the Work Ironw orkers erect the ste el fram ew ork o f b u ild in g s, b rid g es, and other structures. In add ition , ironw orkers install ste el stairs or add w in d o w guards to b u ild in g s, and d o re pair w ork , su ch as rep lacin g m etal bridge parts. Four related jo b s m ake up the iron w orker occu pation: Structural steel erectin g , rein forcin g m etalw ork , r ig g in g , and orna m ental iron w ork a ssem b lin g . Ironw orkers o f ten are sk illed in all fou r jo b s . H ig h -rise b u ild in g s, b rid g es, and p o w er tran sm ission tow ers h a v e fram es m ade o f ste el c o lu m n s, b e a m s, and gird ers. Structural steel workers erect th ese ste el fram es and a ssem b le th e cranes and derricks that m o v e structural ste e l, rein forcin g bars, bu ck ets o f c o n crete, and other m aterials around the c o n struction site. T h e h o istin g eq u ip m en t arrives at the con stru ction site in se c tio n s, w h ere it is lifte d in to p o sitio n b y a m o b ile cran e. Struc tural steel w orkers then co n n ect the sectio n s and se t up the cab les that d o the h o istin g . W ork in g from blueprints or instructions from su p ervisors, structural steel w orkers erect fram ew ork s b y co n n ectin g steel c o l u m n s, b e a m s, and girders. T h e steel is d e liv ered to the con stru ction site ready fo r a ssem b ly — cut to the proper s iz e w ith h o le s d rilled in the en d s for b olts or rivets. N u m b ers that are w ritten o n the ste el in d icate w h ere a p ie ce fits in the fram ew ork . Structural steel w ork ers u n load and stack the ste el so it can be h oisted e a sily w h en a p ie c e is n eed ed . T o h o ist the ste e l, the w orkers attach ca b le s from the crane or derrick. O n e w orker d irects the h o istin g eq u ip m en t operator w ith hand sig n a ls. A n other w orker ho ld s a rope that is attached to the p ie c e o f ste el to p reven t it from sw in g in g On the h oistin g ca b le. T h e ste el is h o isted to the d esired p o sitio n in the fram ew ork , w h ere severa l w orkers are w a itin g . T h e se w orkers m ay b e h ig h o f f the ground . A s the ste el o n the h o istin g ca b le is lo w e re d , the w orkers p o sitio n it u sin g c ro w bars, ja c k s, and h an d tools. W orkers u se drift p in s or the han d le o f a spud w ren ch— a lo n g w ren ch w ith a p oin ted han d le— to alig n the h o le s in the p ie c e o f ste el w ith the h o le s in the fram ew ork . T hen th ey b o lt the p ie c e in p la ce tem p orarily. B e fo re the ste el p ie c e can b e perm anently fix e d to the fram ew ork , the w orkers m ust m ake sure it is v ertica lly and h orizon tally straight. T h ey ch e ck the alig n m en t w ith p lu m b bob s and le v e ls . W h en the p ie c e is properly se t, the w orkers b o lt, w e ld , or rivet it p erm an en tly in p la c e. 376/Occupational Outlook Handbook hook or bolt one or more cables to both the hoisting equipment and the item to be moved. Workers then direct the load into position by giving hand signals and other directions to the hoisting machine operator. Ornamental ironworkers install metal stair ways, catwalks, floor gratings, ladders, metal cabinets, and window frames. They also in stall lampposts, fences, and decorative iron work. In addition, they bolt or weld prefabricated aluminum, brass, and bronze frames and panels to buildings. Most of the ornamental metal is cut and shaped away from the construction site, so ornamental ironworkers spend most of their time fitting, aligning, and assembling. On the job, workers make sure ornamental pieces fit correctly and hold firmly. Workers hack saw oversized pieces to size and sometimes drill holes. For secure connections, they rivet or weld the metals. Working Conditions Most ironworkers work outside a great deal of the time, in all kinds of weather. However, those who must work at great heights do not work when it is wet or ex tremely windy. Ironworkers may be injured in falls. How ever, they use safety devices such as nets, safety belts, and scaffolding to reduce the number and severity of injuries. Ironwork can involve considerable travel, because the amount of work available locally may be insufficent to keep crews continually employed. Employment Working with large steel columns requires strength and agility. Reinforced concrete—concrete containing steel bars or mesh—is an important material in buildings, bridges, and other structures. The steel gives the concrete additional strength. Reinforcing metal workers set the bars in the wooden forms that hold concrete as it hardens. Blueprints show the location, size, and number of reinforcing bars to be used in the structure. The bars are delivered to the con struction site already cut to the proper lengths. Bars of the same size are bundled together and tagged, so workers can easily find the size they need. Following blueprints or instructions from their supervisors, reinforcing metal workers position the bars in the forms. They fasten the bars together by wrapping wire around them with pliers. When reinforcing floors, workers place concrete blocks or bent pieces of metal under the reinforcing bars to hold them off the ground. Reinforcing metal workers sometime must cut the bars with hacksaws and acetylene torches, or weld bars together with arc-welding equipment. Some concrete is reinforced with a coarse mesh made of welded wire. When using mesh, workers measure the surface to be covered, cut and bend the mesh to the desired shape, and place it over the area to be reinforced. While a concrete crew pours the slab, work ers use hooked rods to position the wire mesh in the freshly poured mixture. At construction sites it is often necessary to move heavy materials other than structural steel. Riggers assemble the rigging—cables, pulleys, hooks—to move materials safely. They study the size, shape, and weight and select points of attachment that will provide a safe and secure hold on the load. Next, they About 116,000 ironworkers were em ployed in 1980. Most of these workers are employed by general contractors, steel erec tion contractors, or ornamental iron contrac tors. Some are employed by large steel companies or their subsidiaries engaged in the construction of bridges, dams, and large buildings. Some work for government agen cies, public utilities, or large industrial firms that do their own construction work. Very few are self-employed. Ironworkers are employed in all parts of the country, but most work in metropolitan areas where most commercial and industrial construction takes place. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities recommend the completion of an apprenticeship as the best way to learn these trades. However, a large number of ironworkers learn informally on the job. Apprenticeship programs are administered by joint union-management committees made up of locals of the International Association of Bridge, Structural, and Ornamental Iron workers and local chapters of contractors’ associations. The apprenticeship consists of Construction and Extractive Occupations/377 3 y ears o f on -th e-jo b training and a m in im u m o f 1 4 4 hou rs a year o f c la ssro o m instruction. In th e cla ssr o o m , app rentices study the b a sic s o f structural ere ctin g , rig g in g , rein fo r cin g , and ornam ental a ssem b lin g , as w e ll as blueprint rea d in g , the care and sa fe u se o f to o ls and m aterials, and m ath em atics for la y ou t w o rk . O n the jo b , app rentices g e t ex p eri e n c e in all a sp ects o f the trades, su ch as u n load in g and storing m aterials at the jo b site , rig g in g m aterials for m o v em en t b y crane or derrick , co n n ectin g structural ste e l, and w e ld in g . Ironw orkers w h o learn the trades in form al ly g en era lly d o n ot r ec e iv e cla ssro o m train in g , alth ou gh so m e large contractors h ave e x te n siv e training p rogram s. N on -ap p ren tice train ees r ec eiv e o n -th e-job training that is sim ila r to the training o f ap p ren tices, but th ey are n ot guaranteed e x p e rien ce in all a s p ects o f the trades. A p p lica n ts for iron w orkers jo b s gen erally m ust b e at lea st 18 years o ld . A h ig h sc h o o l d ip lo m a m ay b e preferred b y em p lo y ers and is required b y lo ca l a p p ren ticesh ip c o m m it te e s. C ou rses in gen eral m a th em atics, m e ch a n ica l d ra w in g , and sh o p p rovid e a h elp fu l b ackgroun d. S in ce m aterials u sed in iron w ork in g trades are h ea v y and b u lk y , iron w orkers m ust be in g o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n . A g ility and a g o o d se n se o f b a la n ce a lso are required in order to w ork at great h eig h ts o n narrow b eam s and gird ers. A d v a n c e m e n t o p p o r t u n it ie s f o r i r o n w o r k e rs are lim ite d . E x p e r ie n c e d ir o n w orkers can b e c o m e su p ervisors. Ironw ork o ffer s rela tiv ely fe w opp ortu n ities for se lfem p lo y m en t b eca u se the w ork requires m ore eq u ip m en t and w orkers than other ty p es o f co n tra ctin g , su ch as p lu m b in g and carpentry. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f iron w orkers is e x p e cte d to in crea se about as fast as the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s to m e et risin g d em an d fo r o ffic e and industrial b u ild in g s, p o w er tran sm issio n to w e rs, and h ig h w a y and b ridge m a in ten a n ce— ty p es o f con stru ction that require e x te n siv e u se o f structural steel and rein fo rced co n crete. B e sid e s jo b s result in g from g row th in d em an d for th ese w ork ers, m an y o p e n in g s w ill resu lt from the n eed to r e p la c e e x p e r ie n c e d iro n w o r k e rs w h o transfer to oth er field s o f w ork , retire, or d ie. T h e num ber o f jo b o p e n in g s w ill fluctuate fro m yea r to yea r as e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s ch a n g e . C on stru ction activ ity is se n sitiv e to ch a n g es in the le v e l o f interest rates, the am ou n t o f b u sin ess in v estm en t, and the le v e l o f g o v ern m en t sp en d in g . W h en th ese co n d i tio n s are u n fa v o ra b le, the le v e l o f con stru c tio n g en era lly fa lls , red u cin g jo b o p e n in g s for iron w orkers. Job op p ortu n ities fo r iron w orkers a lso vary b y g eo g ra p h ic area. T h e le v e l o f con stru ction a ctiv ity reflects d iffe re n c es in lo ca l e co n o m ic co n d itio n s. T h erefo re, the nu m ber o f jo b o p portun ities in a g iv e n year m ay vary w id e ly from area to area. Job o p e n in g s for iron w orkers u su ally are m ore abundant during the early spring w h en the w eath er w arm s up and the le v e l o f c o n struction activity in crea ses. M an y p e o p le are attracted to ironw orker app ren ticesh ip program s b y the h ig h w a g e s and th e opp ortu nity for all-roun d train in g, thereb y ca u sin g s tiff co m p etitio n for a v a il ab le p o sitio n s. Earnings T h e average hou rly rates for structural and rein forcin g ironw orkers in large m etropolitan areas w ere $ 1 2 .7 3 and $ 1 2 .5 5 , r esp e ctiv ely , in 198 0 — abou t tw ic e the average w a g e o f non su p ervisory and prod u ction w orkers in private in d u stry, e x ce p t farm in g. A p p ren tices start at 6 0 to 7 0 percen t o f the hou rly rate paid to e x p erien ced w orkers. D u ring appren t ic e s h ip , th e y r e c e iv e in c r e a se s e v e r y 6 m on th s. A n n u al earn in gs for iron w orkers, h o w ev e r, are gen era lly lo w e r than hou rly w a g e s w o u ld in d icate b e ca u se the num ber o f hou rs th ey w ork in a year can b e ad versely affected b y p o o r w eather and la y o ffs b etw een jo b s . M an y w ork ers in th ese trades are m em b ers o f the International A sso c ia tio n o f B rid g e, Structural, and O rnam ental Iron W orkers. Related Occupations Ironw orkers p lay an essen tia l role in erect in g b u ild in g s, b rid g es, p o w er lin e s , and other structures. O ther occu p a tio n s im portant in th ese typ es o f con stru ction are form b u ild ers, layou t w ork ers, operatin g en g in e er s, rough carp en ters, and w eld er fitters. Sources of Additional Information For m ore in form ation o n app renticeships or other w ork op p ortu n ities, con tact lo ca l gen eral contractors; a lo ca l o f the Internation al A sso c ia tio n o f B rid g e, Structural, and Or n am ental Iron W orkers; a lo ca l jo in t u n ion m an agem en t ap p ren ticesh ip com m ittee; or the nearest o ffic e o f th e State em p lo y m en t se r v ic e or app ren ticesh ip a g en cy . For gen eral in form ation about iron w orkers, contact: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Associated Builders and Contractors, 444 North Capitol St., Suite 409, Washington, D.C. 20001. Painters and Paperhangers______ (D .O .T . 84 0 .3 8 1 -0 1 0 , -0 1 4 , -018, and .681-010; 841.381-010; and 845.681-010) Nature of the Work P aint and w a ll c o v er in g s m ak e room s m ore attractive and co m fo rta b le. In ad d ition , paints and sim ilar m aterials protect ou tsid e w a lls from w ear ca u sed b y the w eather. Painters ap p ly p ain t, varn ish , and other fin ish es to b u ild in g s and other structures. (Inform ation about prod u ction painters and auto m o b ile painters can b e fou n d e lsew h e re in the Hand book.) Paperhangers c o v e r w a lls and c e ilin g s o f room s w ith d ecorative w a llp a p er, fabric, v in y l, or other w a ll c o v er in g s. A lth o u g h so m e p e o p le d o b oth ty p es o f w o rk , painting and pap erhan ging are separate sk illed trades. P ainters prepare the su rface to b e co v ered so that the n e w paint w ill adhere properly. T h ey u se a variety o f m eth od s to r em o v e old paint. T h ey m ay lo o se n the pain t w ith c h e m i c a ls or sp ecia l eq u ip m en t su ch as “ ir o n s” that heat the p ain t ca u sin g it to crack. T h ey then r em o v e the lo o se n e d p ain t w ith sandpaper or w ir e b r u s h e s. W h en d e a lin g w ith la rg e am oun ts o f lo o s e , flak in g p ain t, th ey clea n the su rface b y b lastin g it w ith h ig h pressure w ater h o s e s . Painters a lso rem o v e g r ea se, fill nail h o le s and crack s, sandpaper rough sp o ts, and brush o f f du st. W hen p ain tin g n ew sur fa c e s, th ey c o v e r th em w ith a prim er or or sealer to m ake a su itab le su rface for the fin ish coat. P ainters u se b ru sh es, ro llers, and spray gu n s to ap p ly paint th o ro u g h ly , u n ifo rm ly , and rapidly to su rfaces su ch as w o o d , c o n crete, m etal, m ason ry, p la stic, or dry w a ll. B ru sh es are u sed on trim and o n hard-toreach areas. R o llers and spray g u n s are u sed o n e v e n su rfaces su ch as w a lls and c e ilin g s. B oth rollers and spray gu n s p erm it faster p ain tin g than bru sh es. Spray gu n s a lso are u sed o n su rfaces that are d ifficu lt to paint w ith a brush, su ch as cin d er b lo c k and m etal fe n c in g . P ainters m ix paints and m atch c o lo r s, u s in g a k n o w led g e o f pain t co m p o sitio n and c o lo r harm ony. T h ey a lso k n o w the charac teristics o f c o m m o n typ es o f paints and fin ish e s from the standpoints o f du rab ility, ea se o f h a n d lin g, and ap p lication . W h en w ork in g on tall b u ild in g s and sim i lar structures, painters erect sc a ffo ld in g , in c lu d in g “ sw in g s ta g e s ” (sc a ffo ld s su sp en d ed b y rop es or cab les attached to r o o f h o o k s) and “ b osu n c h a ir s” (a d e v ic e so m ew h a t lik e a c h ild ’s sw in g ). A lth o u g h their m aterials d iffer, paperh an gers and painters u se sim ilar tech n iq u es. T h e first step in p ap erh an gin g, as in p ain t in g , is to prepare the su rface to b e c o v ered . T o d o th is, paperhangers ap p ly “ s iz in g ,” a m aterial that se a ls the su rface and en a b les the paper to stick better. In red ecoratin g, they m a y h a v e to rem o v e o ld paper b y w ettin g it w ith w ater-soak ed sp o n g e s or— i f there are m any layers— b y stea m in g . F req u en tly , it is n ecessa ry for paperhangers to patch h o les w ith plaster. A fter ca refu lly p o sitio n in g the patterns to m atch at the c e ilin g and b aseb oard , paperh an gers m easu re the area to b e co v ered and cu t a len gth o f w allp ap er from the roll. T h ey then ap p ly p aste to d ie strip o f pap er, p la ce it o n the w a ll, and sm ooth it b y hand or w ith a brush. T h ey cut and fit e d g e s at the c eilin g and b a se, and sm ooth sea m s b etw een strips 378/Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement tractors in the construction industry has been significantly lower than the average for con struction as a whole. Painting and paperhanging are learned through apprenticeship or informal, on-the-job instruction. Most training authorities recom mend completion of a formal apprenticeship as the best way to become a painter or paperhanger. The apprenticeship agreement guaran tees the apprentice a set period of training in each skill of the trade. However, apprentice ship opportunities are severely limited, and many new workers begin as helpers to experi enced painters. Few opportunities for informal training exist for paperhanger trainees because there are very few paperhangers and most work alone. As a result, a larger proportion of paperhangers than painters are trained through apprenticeship. The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers consists of 3 years of on-the-job training, in addition to 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. Apprentices receive instruction in subjects such as color harmony, use of tools, surface preparation, blueprint reading, paint mixing and match ing, wood finishing, and safety. They also learn the relationship between painting and paperhanging and the work performed by the other building trades. On-the-job instruction, whether as an ap prentice or as a helper, covers similar skills. Under the direction of experienced painters, trainees carry supplies, erect scaffolds, and do other simple tasks while they learn about the different kinds of paint and painting equipment. Within a short time, trainees learn to prepare surfaces for painting and paperhanging, to mix paints, and to apply paint and paper efficiently. Near the end of their training, they may learn decorating con cepts, color coordination, and cost-estimating techniques. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs generally must be at least 16 years old and in good physical condition. A high school or vocational school education may be preferred by employers and required by local appren ticeship committees. Applicants should have manual dexterity and a good color sense. Painters and paperhangers may advance to supervisory jobs with painting and decorating contractors. A sizable number establish their own painting and decorating businesses. Employment Job Outlook Painters often have their own contracting business. with a roller or other special tool. They in spect the paper for air bubbles and other imperfections in the work. Air bubbles are removed by smoothing the paper strip toward the outer edges. When working with wall coverings other than paper, such as fabric or vinyl, paperhangers follow the same general procedure. Working Conditions Painters and paperhangers must stand for long periods. Their jobs also require a con siderable amount of climbing and bending. A painter must have strong arms because much of the work is done with arms raised over head. Painters and paperhangers risk injury from slips or falls off ladders and scaffolds. However, the injury rate for employees of painting, paperhanging, and decorating con About 382,000 painters and 21,000 paperhangers were employed in 1980. Many worked for contractors engaged in new con struction, repair, alteration, or remodeling work. Organizations that own or manage large buildings such as hotels, offices, fac tories, and schools also employ maintenance painters. A high proportion of workers in these trades are in business for themselves. Almost one-third of the painters and three-fourths of the paperhangers are self-employed. About one-fifth of all building trades workers are self-employed. Applicants for jobs as painters can expect a large number of job opportunities through the 1980’s because replacement needs are high in this large occupation. Opportunities for paperchangers will be significantly fewer because the occupation is relatively small. Employment of both painters and paperhangers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Business growth will create a demand for new buildings and industrial structures. More painters will be needed to paint these new buildings and structures and to repaint older buildings. The continued popularity of Construction and Extractive Occupations/379 w allp ap er and other w a ll co v er in g s w ill in crease the dem an d for paperhangers as the num ber o f b u ild in g s in u se con tin u es to rise. R ep la cem en t n eed s w ill accou n t for m ost o f the jo b o p e n in g s for painters and paperhan gers. E ach year thou san d s o f jo b s w ill b e c o m e a v a ila b le as painters retire, d ie , stop w ork in g for other rea so n s, or transfer to o th er o ccu p a tio n s. M any p e o p le w ork as pain t ers for a short tim e and than lea v e the labor fo rce or transfer to oth er ty p es o f w ork thus creatin g m any jo b o p e n in g s. B e ca u se there are rela tiv ely fe w pap erhan gers, the num ber o f rep la cem en t o p e n in g s in that trade is lo w . S o m e painters and paperhangers m ay e x p erien ce p eriod s o f u n em p lo y m en t b eca u se o f dow ntu rn s in con stru ction a ctiv ity . H o w e v er , rep ain tin g and repapering provid e m any jo b s for painters and pap erhan gers e v e n w h en o v era ll con stru ctio n a ctivity d e c lin e s. M ost painters and paperhangers w ork o n industrial and co m m ercia l co n stru ction projects that are le s s se n sitiv e to e c o n o m ic dow ntu rn s than resid en tial con stru ctio n . P ainters and paperch an gers ca n im p rove their ch a n ces o f av o id in g la y o ffs b y learning to u se a variety o f to o ls , p a in ts, and w a ll c o v e r in g s, b eca u se e m p lo y ers try to k e e p their m o st sk illed w orkers e v e n during b u sin e ss slu m p s. P e o p le w is h in g to en te r p a in tin g and p a p er h a n g in g a p p r e n tic e s h ip s m a y fa c e co m p etitio n fo r p o sitio n s. H igh w a g e s and g o o d training attract m an y p eo p le to th ese program s. c lu d e stu cco m a so n s, p lasterers, and cem en t m a so n s. Sources of Additional Information For d etails abou t p ain tin g and paperhang in g ap p ren ticesh ip s or other w ork opp ortu ni ties in th ese trad es, con tact lo ca l pain tin g and d ecoratin g contractors; a lo ca l o f the Interna tion al B roth erh ood o f P ainters and A llie d Trades; a lo ca l jo in t u n ion -m an agem en t ap p ren ticesh ip co m m ittee; or the nearest o ffic e o f the State app renticeship a g en cy or State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e. T o fin d o u t w h o ad m in isters the app ren ticesh ip program in your area, contact: International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Painting and Decorating Contractors Association of America, 7223 Lee Hwy., Falls Church, Va. 22046. For gen eral in form ation abou t the w ork o f painters and pap erhan gers, contact: National Joint Painting, Decorating, and Drywall Finishing Apprenticeship and Training Committee, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Suite 110, Washing ton, D.C. 20006. Associated Builders and Contractors, 444 N. Cap itol St., Suite 409, Washington, D.C. 20001. Plasterers_________ (D .O .T . 842.361-018, -022, and -026, and .381-014) Earnings H ou rly rates for u n ion painters and paperh an gers in the con stru ction industry averaged about $ 1 2 in 1 9 8 0 , accord in g to a su rvey o f large m etropolitan areas. In com p a riso n , the a verage rate fo r non su p ervisory or p rodu ction w orkers in private ind ustry, e x ce p t farm in g, w as $ 6 .6 6 an hour. T h e hou rly rate for m ain ten a n ce painters w a s about $ 9 in 1 9 8 0 . A n nual in co m e for so m e con stru ction pain ters, particularly th o se o n o u tsid e jo b s , m ay n ot b e as h igh as hou rly rates w o u ld in d icate b e ca u se so m e w o rk tim e is lo st du e to bad w eath er and o c ca sio n a l u n em p loym en t b e tw een jo b s . H ourly w a g e rates for app rentices u su ally start at 5 0 percen t o f the rate p aid to e x p e ri e n c ed w orkers and in crease ev ery 6 m onth s until the fu ll rate o f pay is reach ed at the c o m p letio n o f a p p ren ticesh ip . A large proportion o f painters and paperhangers are m em b ers o f the International B rotherh ood o f Painters and A llie d T rades. A fe w are m em b ers o f other u n ion s. Related Occupations P ainters u se pa in ts, varn ish es, and lacquers to d ecorate and protect w o o d , m eta l, and other su rfa ces. O ther o ccu p a tio n s in w h ich w orkers app ly paints and sim ilar fin ish es in clu d e spray pain ters, shipyard pain ters, m etal sp rayers, un dercoaters, and transportation eq u ip m en t painters. P aperhangers d ecorate w a lls w ith pap er, v in y l, and fabrics; related occu p a tio n s in Nature of the Work Plasterers fin ish interior w a lls and c e ilin g s w ith m an y ty p es o f plaster m aterials that form fire-resistan t and rela tiv ely sou n d p roof su rfaces and th ey ap p ly durable c em en t p la s ters, e p o x y fin ish e s, and stu cco to exterior su rfaces. T h ey a lso cast ornam ental d esig n s in plaster. T o interior su rfaces su ch as cin der b lo ck and g y p su m lath, plasterers app ly tw o coats o f plaster. T he first or “ b r o w n ” coat is a h e a v y , b row n m ixture; the se c o n d or “ fin is h ” coat is a th in , p asty plaster. W hen the fo u n dation co n sists o f m etal lath (a su pp ortive w ire m e sh ), plasterers first app ly a prepara tory co a t to the lath. W h e n a p p ly in g th is p r e p a r a to r y or “ scra tch ” c o a t, plasterers eith er spray or use a trow el (a fla t, 4 -in c h b y 10-in ch m etal plate w ith a h an d le) in w a v e lik e m otion s to spread a th ick , gritty plaster in to and ov er the m etal lath. B efo re the plaster o n the lath dries, w orkers scratch its already u n even surface w ith a rakelike to o l, p rodu cin g rid ges so the b row n coat w ill c lin g tig h tly . For the b row n co a t— w h eth er ap p lied to a scratch co a t, cin d er b lo c k , or gy p su m lath— w orkers prepare a th ick but sm ooth plaster. W orkers eith er spray or trow el this m ixture o n to the su rfa ce, p u sh in g plaster into cracks and h o le s and then sm o o th in g the plaster to an e v e n , le v e l su rface for fin ish in g . For the fin ish c o a t, plasterers prepare a thin plaster o f very fin e gran u les. T h ey u su a lly w ork this m ixture very q u ick ly o n to the brow n co a t u sin g a tr o w el, brush, and w ater. T h is m ixtu re, w h ich hardens very q u ick ly , p rod u ces a very th in , sm ooth fin ish . Plasterers create d ecorativ e su rfaces as w e ll. For e x a m p le, w h ile the fin a l co a t is still m o ist, th ey p ress firm ly a gain st the sur fa c e w ith a brush and u se a circular hand m otion to create d ecorative sw irls. S o m e tim es plasterers prepare d ryw all for p ain tin g. T h ey p oin t and tape the jo in ts b e tw e en the d ryw all sh eets and app ly a thin plaster co a t o v er the entire su rface o f the d ryw all. F or exterior w o rk , plasterers u su ally apply a gritty m ixture o f w h ite cem en t and sand— stu cc o — o v er c em en t, c o n crete, and m a so n ry. S o m etim es stu cco is app lied directly to a w ire lath scratch coat. A s an alternative, they em b ed m arble or gravel ch ip s abou t ha lfw a y in to a extra h ea v y m ixture o f plaster to a c h iev e a un iform , p eb b le-lik e su rface as an outer coat. S o m e plasters app ly insu latio n sy stem s to the exteriors o f n e w and o ld b u ild in g s. T h ey c o v er the outer w a ll w ith in su la tio n board and fib erglass cloth and then trow el o n a layer o f prim us cem en t. T h ey m ay ap p ly an add ition al coat o f plaster m aterial for a d e c o rative fin ish . Plasterers so m etim es d o c o m p lex d ecora tiv e and ornam ental w ork that requires m uch m ore sk ill than other p lasterin g and provides an opp ortu nity for an in d ivid u al to b e cre a tive. For e x a m p le , th ey m ay m o ld intricate d e sig n s for the w a lls and c e ilin g s o f p u b lic b u ild in g s. T o m ake th ese d e sig n s from an arch itect’s blu ep rint, plasterers pour a sp ecia l plaster in to a m o ld , and a llo w tim e for dry in g . W h en th ese are dry, w orkers rem o v e the m o ld ed plaster and p aste it to the d esired su rface. Plasterers u se m any sp ecia l to o ls. T h ey h old the plaster m ixture o n a h aw k (a ligh t m etal plate w ith han dle) and ap p ly the w et m ixture w ith a trow el. S m o o th in g and fin ish in g are d o n e w ith straigh ted g es, b e v e le d g e s, rod s, flo a ts, and other h an d to o ls. T h ey also m ay u se spray m ach in es to ap p ly plaster on both b a se and fin ish coats. Working Conditions Plasterers w ork o u tsid e w h en ap p lyin g stu cco but m o st jo b s are in d oors. S o m etim es plasterers w ork on sc a ffo ld s high a b o v e the ground to fin ish w a lls and c e ilin g s. P lasterin g is p h y sica lly d em an d in g— re quiring co n sid erab le stan d in g , sto o p in g , lift in g , and reach in g overh ead . Employment P lasterers— w h o num bered about 2 4 ,0 0 0 in 198 0 — w ork m o stly on n ew con stru ction and alteration w o rk , particularly w h ere sp ecia l ar chitectural and ligh tin g e ffe c ts are part o f the jo b . S o m e plasterers repair and ren ovate older b u ild in g s. M an y plasterers are e m p lo y ed in F lorid a, C aliforn ia, and the S o u th w est, w h ere stu cco w ork is very popular. 380/Occupational Outlook Handbook ca u se m u ch o f this w ork is in d o o rs. W hen a p p lyin g fin ish es to exterior su rfaces h o w e v er, plasterers m ay lo s e w ork tim e b eca u se so m e m aterials can n ot b e ap p lied in rain or sn o w or w h en tem peratures are very c o ld . Earnings Plasterers must work quickly, applying and smoothing the plaster before it hardens. M o st plasterers w ork for in d ep en d en t c o n tractors. A b o u t 1 ou t o f ev ery 4 plasterers is se lf-em p lo y e d . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st tra in in g a u th o rities r e c o m m e n d co m p letio n o f an app renticeship as the best w a y to learn p lasterin g. H o w e v er , m any p eo p le learn the trade b y w ork in g as h elp e rs, o b serv in g and b ein g taught b y ex p er ien ced plasterers. A p p ren ticesh ip program s, sp on sored b y lo ca l jo in t co m m ittees o f contractors and un io n s, gen era lly c o n sist o f 4 years o f on -th ejo b train in g, in add ition to at lea st 144 hours annually o f cla ssro o m instruction in drafting, blueprint read in g, and m athem atics for layou t w ork. In dividuals w h o sh o w excep tio n a l abil ity m ay co m p lete the program s in le s s tim e. L o ca l chapters o f the A sso c ia te d B u ild ers and C ontractors, In c. co n d u ct sim ilar training program s for non un ion w orkers. In c la s s, app rentices start w ith a history o f the trade and the industry. T h ey a lso learn about the u ses o f plaster, c o s ts , and m any other su b jects. O n the jo b , th ey learn about lath b a ses, plaster m ix e s , m eth od s o f plaster in g , blueprint read in g, and sa fety. E xp eri en c ed plasterers direct and h elp app rentices. S o m e app renticeship program s a llo w in d iv id uals to obtain training in related occu p ation s su ch as cem en t m ason ry and b rick layin g. T h o se w h o learn the trade in form ally as h elpers u su a lly start b y carrying m aterials, settin g up s c a ffo ld s, and m ix in g plaster. In a short tim e, they learn— through trial and er ror— to app ly the scratch and brow n coats. L earning to ap p ly the fin ish coat takes c o n sid erab ly lo n g er. A p p lica n ts for app rentice or helper jo b s g en era lly m ust b e at least 17 years o ld , b e in g o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n , and have m anual d exterity. A p p lican ts w h o h ave a h igh sc h o o l or v o cation al sc h o o l ed u cation are preferred. C ou rses in gen eral m athem at ic s , m ech an ical d raw in g, and sh op p rovid e a u sefu l backgroun d. Plasterers m ay ad van ce to su p ervisors, su p erin ten d en ts, or estim ators for plasterih g contractors, or m ay b e c o m e se lf-em p lo y e d . Job Outlook E m p loym en t o f plasterers is e x p e cte d to in crease m ore slo w ly than the average for all o ccu p ation s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. M o st job o p en in g s w ill result from the n eed to rep lace w orkers w h o transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . T hrough out m u ch o f the 1 9 6 0 ’s and early 1 9 7 0 ’s , em p lo y m en t o f plasterers d eclin ed stea d ily as m ore bu ild ers sw itch ed to dry w a ll con stru ction , w h ich sa v e s both tim e and m o n e y . T h is d e c lin e has halted in recen t y ears, h o w ev e r, and e m p lo y m en t o f plasterers is e x p ected to reb ound so m ew h a t as a result o f in creased em p h a sis on savin g en erg y . In su lating sy stem s that u se in su lation board and tro w elled fin ish es have produ ced so m e resu rgen ce in dem and for plasterers b y co m m ercia l and m u ltifam ily h o m e bu ild ers. In ad d ition , plasterers w ill be n eed ed to ren o v a te plaster w ork in old er structures and create sp ecia l architectural sh ap es su ch as curved su rfaces, w h ich are n ot practical for dry w all m aterials. B eca u se m ost plasterers w ork in con stru c tio n , em p lo y m en t prosp ects m ay fluctuate from year to year du e to ch an gin g e co n o m ic co n d itio n s. H igh interest rates, w h ich g en er a lly d isco u rage b u ild in g a c tiv ity , m ay result in exp erien ced plasterers as w e ll as appren tice s and h elpers b e in g laid o f f or h avin g lim ited jo b o p e n in g s. A d v erse w eath er con d itio n s a ffect plaster in g le s s than other con stru ction trades b e U n io n w a g e s for plasterers in m etropolitan areas averaged an estim a ted $ 1 2 an hour in 1 9 8 0 , or abou t tw ic e the avera g e w a g e o f all n on su p ervisory w orkers in private ind ustry, e x c e p t fa r m in g . N o n u n io n w o rk ers and w orkers in sm all c ities and rural co m m u n ities gen era lly earn le s s . A p p ren tice w a g e rates start at ab ou t h a lf the rate p aid to ex p erien ced plasterers and in crease 10 percen t ev er y 6 m on th s. H o w e v e r , y early earn in gs for p la s terers and app ren tices are g en era lly lo w er than h ou rly rates w o u ld in d ica te b eca u se poor w eath er and flu ctu ation s in co n stru ction can ad v ersely a ffec t the annual num ber o f hours th ey w ork. A large proportion o f plasterers are m em bers o f u n io n s. T h e y are rep resen ted b y e i ther the O p erative P la sterers’ and C em en t M a s o n s ’ In ter n a tio n a l A s s o c ia t io n o f th e U n ited States and C an ada, or the B rick layers and A llie d C raftsm en International U n io n . Related Occupations O ther con stru ction o ccu p a tio n s in w h ich w orkers u se a tro w el as the prim ary to o l in clu d e c em e n t m a so n s, b rick la y ers, sto n e m a so n s, and tilesetters. Sources of Additional Information F or in form ation abou t ap p ren ticesh ip s or other w ork op p ortu n ities, co n ta ct lo ca l p la s tering contractors; lo ca ls o f th e u n io n s pre v io u s ly m e n tio n e d ; a lo c a l jo in t u n io n m a n a g e m e n t a p p r e n tic e s h ip c o m m itte e ; a sta te or lo c a l c h a p te r o f th e A s s o c ia t e d B u ild ers and C on tractors, In c.; or the nearest o ffic e o f the State app ren ticesh ip a g e n c y or the State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e. F or g en eral inform ation abou t the w o rk o f p lasterers, contact: Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen International Union, 815 I5th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Operative Plasterers ’ and Cement Masons ’ Interna tional Association of the United States and Can ada, 1125 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Associated Builders and Contractors Inc., 444 N. Capitol St. NW., Suite 409, Washington, D.C. 20001. Plumbers and Pipefitters (D .O .T . 862.261-010, .281-010 and -014, .361-014 and -018, and .381-014, -018, -022, -026, -030, and -034, .681-010, .682-010, and .684-026 and -034) Nature of the Work B y sim p ly turning on a fa u c e t, a person a ctivates a lo n g , c o m p le x sy stem o f p ip es. Construction and Extractive Occupations/381 S m a ll cop p er or p la stic pip es co n n ect the fa u cet to the b u ild in g ’s m ain water p ip es. T h ese p ip es in turn are c o n n ected to the cast iron o r con crete p ip es o f the m u n icip al w ater sy stem that run underground for m iles to a w ater treatm ent plant. Larger p ip es co n n ect the plan t to a river, reservoir, or other water sou rce. O ther p ip e sy stem s d isp o se o f w a ste, figh t fire s, and transport w ater and steam for c o o l in g and h eatin g. P ip e sy stem s in pow erplants p lay an essen tia l ro le in p rodu cin g electricity b y carrying the steam that p o w ers h u ge tur b in es. P ip es a lso are u sed in m anufacturing plants to m o v e m aterial through the produc tio n p ro cess. P lu m bers and p ip efitters in stall and m ain tain the variou s p ip e sy stem s u sed in h om es and b u sin e sses. A lth o u g h p lu m b in g and p ip e fittin g are so m etim es con sid ered a sin g le trade, w orkers m ay sp ec ia liz e in eith er craft. P lu m bers b u ild and repair the w ater, w aste d isp o sa l, and gas sy stem s in h o m es and other b u ild in g s. T h ey a lso in stall p lu m b in g fix tures— bathtubs, sin k s, and to ile ts— and ap p lia n c e s su c h as d is h w a s h e r s . P ip efitter s b u ild and repair both h igh and lo w pressure p ip e u sed in m anu factu rin g, gen eration o f e le ctr icity , and transportation. T h ey m ay sp e c ia liz e further, acco rd in g to the typ e o f pip e sy stem w ith w h ich th ey w ork . S team fitters, for e x a m p le , install p ip e sy stem s that m o v e liq u id s o r g a se s under h igh pressu re. Sprinklerfitters install au tom atic fire control sprin kler sy stem s in b u ild in g s. B e ca u se the p u rp o se, s iz e , and operation o f p ip e sy stem s d iffer, the m aterials and c o n struction tech n iq u es u sed b y plum bers and p ip efitters vary by co n stru ction p roject. W a ter sy stem s in h o m e s, for e x a m p le, u se c o p per, p la stic , and g a lv a n ized ste el p ip e that can be han dled and in stalled b y on e or tw o w ork ers. M u n icip al se w a g e sy stem s, o n the other h an d, are m ade o f large cla y p ip e. In stallation requires several p ip efitters. D e sp ite th ese d iffe re n c es, all plu m b ers and p ip efitters m ust b e a b le to fo llo w b u ild in g p lan s and instructions from su p ervisors, lay ou t the jo b , and w ork e ffic ie n tly w ith the m aterials and to o ls o f the trade. T h e fo llo w in g e x a m p le illusrates h o w plu m b ers use th ese sk ills to in stall p ip in g in a h o u se. W ork in g from blueprints or sh op draw in gs that sh o w the p lan ned lo cation o f p ip es, p lu m b in g fix tu res, and a p p lia n ces, plum bers lay out the jo b to fit the p ip in g into the structure o f the h o u se w ith the least w a ste o f m aterial and w ith ou t d am agin g the structure. T h ey m easure and m ark areas w h ere p ip e w ill be in sta lled and c o n n ected . T h ey a lso ch eck for o b stru ction s su ch as electrical w ir in g , and plan h o w to in stall p ip e around the p rob lem . T o in stall the p ip in g , plu m b ers m ay saw h o le s in w a lls, c e ilin g s , and floor. T h ey m ay han g steel supports from c e ilin g s that w ill h o ld the p ip e in p la c e. T o a ssem b le the s y s te m , plu m b ers cut and bend len gth s o f pip e u sin g sa w s, p ip e cu tters, and p ip e b en d in g m a ch in es. T h ey co n n ect len gth s o f p ip e w ith fittin gs; the m eth od d ep en d s on the ty p e o f p ip e u sed . F or cop p er p ip e, plu m b ers slid e fittin g s o v er the en d o f the p ip e and solder the fittin g in p la ce w ith a torch . For steel p ip e, plu m b ers thread the en d w ith a pip e threading m ach in e and screw the p ip e into the fittin g. W hen the p ip in g is in p la c e, plum bers install the fixtu res and app lian ces and c o n n ect the sy stem to the ou tsid e w ater and se w e r lin es. U sin g pressure g a u g e s, they c h e ck the sy stem to insure that the plu m b ing w ork s properly. Working Conditions P lu m b in g and p ip efittin g w ork is dem and in g . W orkers d o a lot o f h ea v y liftin g and m u st stand for lo n g p erio d s, P lu m bers and pip efitters w ork both in d oors and o u tsid e in all typ es o f w eather. T h ey o ften w ork in cram p ed and dirty p la ces. T h ey can b e in jured b y fa lls from lad d ers, cuts from sharp t o o ls , and b u m s from hot p ip es. Employment M o st p lu m b ers and p ip efitters— w h o n u m bered abou t 4 0 7 ,0 0 0 in 1 9 8 0 — w ork for m e ch a n ical and p lu m b in g contractors en g a g ed in n ew con stru ction or repair, alteration , or m od ern ization w ork . A b o u t 1 ou t o f 10 plu m b ers and p ip efitters is se lf-em p lo y e d . S o m e plu m b ers install and m aintain p ip e s y s tem s for g o vern m en t a g e n c ie s and p u b lic u til itie s, and so m e w ork o n the con stru ction o f sh ip s and aircraft. O thers d o m aintenance w ork in industrial and co m m ercia l b u ild in gs. P ip efitters, in particular, are e m p lo y ed as m a in te n a n c e p e r so n n e l in th e p e tr o le u m , c h e m ic a l, an d fo o d - p r o c e s s in g in d u str ies w h ere m anufacturing op eration s require the m o v in g o f liq u id s and g a se s through p ip es. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A p p ren ticesh ip is the b est w a y for p lu m b ers or p ip efitters to learn all a sp ects o f th ese trades. A large num ber o f p e o p le , h o w ev e r, learn p lu m b in g and p ip efittin g b y w ork in g for several years as h elp ers to ex p erien ced plu m b ers and p ip efitters. A p p ren ticesh ip program s for plu m b ers and pip efitters are adm inistered by lo ca l u n ion m an agem en t c o m m ittees o f the U n ited A s s o cia tio n o f Journeym en and A p p ren tices o f the P lu m b in g and P ip efittin g Industry and the M e c h a n ic a l C o n tr a c to r s A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m erica , In c. or the N ation al A sso c ia tio n o f P lu m b in g -H ea tin g -C o o lin g Contractors and b y lo ca l chapters o f the A sso c ia te d B uilders and C ontractors and the N ation al A sso cia tio n o f P lu m b in g -H ea tin g -C o o lin g C ontractors. A p p ren ticesh ip s c o n sist o f 4 years o f on -th ejo b train in g, in add ition to at least 2 1 6 hours ann ually o f related c la ssro o m instruction. C lassroom su b jects in clu d e drafting and b lu e print read in g, m ath em atics ap p lied p h y sics and ch em istry , sa fe ty , and lo ca l plu m b ing c o d e s and regu lation s. O n the jo b , app rentices first learn b asic sk ills su ch as h o w to id en tify grades and On-the-job experience is an essential part of the plumber’s training. ty p es o f p ip e, h o w to u se the to o ls o f the trade, and h o w to u n load m aterials sa fe ly . A s app rentices gain e x p e rien ce , th ey learn h ow to w ork w ith variou s ty p es o f p ip e and h o w to install d ifferen t p ip in g sy stem s and p lu m b in g fixtu res. P eo p le learning the trade as h elp ers a c quire their sk ills b y ob serv in g and a ssistin g e x p erien ced plu m b ers and p ip efitters. T h ese w orkers m ay n ot learn to w ork w ith as w id e a variety o f m aterials and p ip in g sy stem s as app rentices. A p p lican ts for apprentice or helper jo b s g en erally m u st b e at lea st 18 y ears o ld and in g o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n . E m p lo y ers prefer h igh sc h o o l graduates. C ou rses in sh o p , p lu m b in g , g e n e r a l m a th e m a tic s , d r a ftin g , blueprint read in g, and p h y sics are h elp fu l. A p p lican ts m ay b e g iv e n tests to determ ine w h eth er they h ave the m ech a n ica l aptitude required in th ese trades. M o st com m u n ities require plu m b ers to be lic e n se d . T o obtain a lic e n s e , w orkers m ust p ass a sp ecia l ex a m in ation to dem onstrate k n o w led g e o f the trade and o f lo ca l p lu m b in g c o d e s. S o m e plu m b ers and pip efitters m ay b e c o m e su p ervisors for m ech an ica l and p lu m b in g contractors. O thers g o into b u sin ess for th e m se lv es. A s they exp an d their a c tiv ities, they m ay e m p lo y other w orkers and b e c o m e contractors. Job Outlook E m p loym en t o f p lu m b ers and p ip efitters is e x p e cte d to gro w abou t as fa st as the average for all o ccu p ation s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s as overall con stru ction a ctivity ex p a n d s. B e sid e s the jo b s created b y in creased dem an d for p lu m b ers and p ip efitters, m any o p en in g s w ill o ccu r each year from the n eed to rep lace e x p erien ced w orkers w h o retire, d ie , or stop w ork in g for other reason s. 382/Occupational Outlook Handbook C on struction o f o il refin eries, ch em ical p lan ts, p o w erp la n ts, p ip elin es, o ffic e b u ild in g s, fa cto ries, and other projects that h ave large, c o m p lex pip e sy stem s is ex p e cte d to spur the dem and for p ip efitters. R esid en tial construction is e x p e cte d to contribute to e m p lo y m en t o f plu m b ers. H o m e b u ild in g , h o w e v er, d eclin es w h en interest rates are h ig h , so the num ber o f jo b s o p en in g s in resid en tial con stru ction m ay fluctuate from year to year. A lth o u g h so m e plu m b ers and pipefitters m ay fa ce period s o f u n em p lo y m en t w h en con stru ction a ctiv ity d e c lin e s, e m p lo y m en t o f th ese w orkers g en era lly is le s s se n sitiv e to ch a n g es in eco n o m ic con d itio n s than m any other con stru ction trades. M ain ten ance o f e x istin g p ip in g sy stem s p ro vid es jo b s for m any plu m b ers and pip efitters e v e n w h en con stru c tion activ ity d e c lin e s. P eo p le w ish in g to enter plu m b ing and p ip efittin g ap p ren ticesh ip s are lik ely to face co m p etitio n . H igh w a g e s and all-roun d train ing opp ortu nities attract m any p eo p le to th ese program s. Earnings A cco rd in g to a su rvey o f large m etrop oli tan areas, hou rly w a g e rates for u n ion p lu m b ers and pip efitters in con stru ction in 1980 averaged $ 1 2 .9 8 and $ 1 3 .5 4 , r esp ectiv ely . M ain ten ance pip efitters averaged $ 1 0 .5 3 an hour in m etropolitan areas. In com p arison , the average w a g e for n on su p ervisory and pro du ction w orkers in private ind ustry, e x ce p t farm in g, w a s $ 6 .6 6 . A p p ren tice w a g e rates start at 4 0 to 5 0 percent o f the rate paid to ex p erien ced plu m b ers or pip efitters and in crease ev ery 6 m onth s. M any plu m b ers and p ip efitters are m em bers o f the U n ited A sso c ia tio n o f Journey m en and A p p ren tices o f the P lu m b in g and P ip e F itting Industry o f the U n ited States and C anada. S o m e plu m b ers and pip efitters w h o are contractors are m em b ers o f the N ation al A sso c ia tio n o f P lu m b in g -H ea tin g -C o o lin g Contractors. Related Occupations O ther o ccu p a tio n s in w h ich w orkers install and repair m ech a n ica l sy stem s in b u ild in gs are b oilerm ak ers, e lectricia n s, elev a to r con stru c tors, en viron m en tal con trol sy stem installers and serv icers, h ot air furnace installers and repairers, m illw rig h ts, o il burner servicers and in sta llers, and sh eet-m etal w orkers. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation about app renticeships or w ork opportu nities in p lu m b in g and p ip efit tin g , contact lo ca l p lu m b in g , h eatin g, and airco n d itio n in g contractors a lo ca l chapter o f the M ech a n ica l C ontractors A sso cia tio n ; a lo ca l o f the un ion m en tio n ed a b ove; a lo ca l jo in t unionm a n agem en t apprenticeh ip com m ittee; or the nearest o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t service or State app renticeship a g en cy . For general inform ation about the w ork o f p lu m b ers, pip efitters, and sprinklerfitters, contact: National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cool ing Contractors, 1016 20th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Associated Builders and Contractors, 444 N. Cap itol St., Suite 409, Washington, D.C. 20001. National Automatic Sprinkler and Fire Control Association, P.O. Box 719, Mt. Kisco, N.Y. 10549. Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 5530 Wisconsin Ave., Suite 750, Washington, D.C. 20015. Roofers___________ (D .O .T. 866.3814)10, 866.381-014, and 866.684-010) Nature of the Work A leak y r o o f can result in d am age to c e il in g s, w a lls, and fu rn ish in gs. T o k eep out w ater, roofers install and repair variou s kin ds o f ro o fin g m aterials su ch as tar and g ravel, rubber, slate sh in g les, and tile s. R ero o fin g — in stallin g n ew roofs on ex istin g b u ild in g s— accou n ts for about 80 percent o f all roofin g w ork . R o ofers a lso m ay w aterp roof w a lls and flo o rs. There are tw o typ es o f r o o fs, flat and p itch ed (slan ted ). M ost com m ercial and in d u stria l b u ild in g s h a v e fla t r o o fs . M o st h o u se s have p itch ed ro o fs. R o ofers m ay w ork w ith both ty p e s, alth ou gh m any roofin g contractors sp ec ia liz e in resid en tial in stalla tion and repair. A r o o fe r ’s w ork varies w ith the ty p e o f r o o f and ro ofin g in v o lv ed . M o st flat roofs are c o v ered w ith several layers o f m aterials. R o o fers first put a layer o f insu lation on the r o o f d eck . T h ey then spread a coat o f hot b itum en over the r o o f ’s in su lation . N e x t they lay ro ofin g felt (fabric saturated in b itu m en ) o v er the entire su rface. T h e roofers then app ly hot bitum en from a b u ck et, usin g a m op to spread it o v er and under the fe lt. T h is sea ls the sea m s and m ak es the su rface w atertight. R o o fers repeat th ese step s to b u ild up the d esired num ber o f layers (ca lled p lie s ), en d in g w ith a th ick la y er o f bitum en o v er the su rface. T h e top layer is so m etim es g la zed to m ake a sm o o th fin ish ed coat or gravel is em b ed d ed w h ile it is still hot. S o m e flat ro o fs are co v ered w ith a sin g le p ly sy stem o ften m ade o f w aterp roof rubber. R o o fers roll the rubber o v er the r o o f ’s in su la tio n , and sea l the sea m s. T h ey stick it in p la ce w ith an ad h esiv e and a dry b allast o f b lo c k s or ston e. M o st h ou se roofs are c o v ered w ith asphalt, tile , sla te, or w o o d en sh in g les. W hen ap p ly ing asphalt sh in g les, roofers first la y , cu t, and tack 3 -fo o t strips o f roofin g fe lt len gth w ise ov er the entire ro o f. T h en , starting from the b ottom e d g e , they nail overlap p in g row s o f asphalt sh in g les to the roof. W orkers m ea sure and cut the felt and sh in g les to fit around c o m e r s, p ip es, and c h im n e y s. W her ev er tw o r o o f su rfaces in tersect or sh in g les tou ch a p ip e or c h im n e y , roofers c em en t or n ail flash in g (strips o f felt or m etal) o v er the jo in ts to m ak e th em w atertigh t. F in a lly , ro o f ers c o v er e x p o se d nailh ead s w ith c em en t to p reven t rust and w ater lea k a g e. Sla te sh in g les and tile s are in stalled in a sim ila r m anner. S o m e roofers a lso w aterp ro o f and dam pp r o o f m ason ry and co n crete w a lls and flo o rs. T o prepare su rfaces for w aterp ro o fin g , they ham m er and c h ise l a w a y rough sp ots or re m o v e th e m w ith a r u b b in g b r ick b e fo r e brushing on a c o a t o f liq u id w aterp roofin g c o m p o u n d . T h ey a lso m ay pain t or spray su rfaces w ith a w aterp roofin g m aterial or nail w a te r p r o o fin g fa b ric to su r fa c e s . W h en d am p p ro o fin g , th ey u su a lly spray a co atin g o f tar on interior or exterior su rfaces. Working Conditions R o o fe r s ’ w ork is stren u ou s. It in v o lv e s a lo t o f h e a v y liftin g , as w e ll as c lim b in g , b en d in g , and sq uatting. R o o fers risk injuries from slip s or fa lls from sc a ffo ld s, ladd ers, or r o o fs, and b u m s from h ot b itu m en . In fa ct, the accid en t rate in the ro ofin g industry is the h ig h est in all con stru ction . R o o fers w ork o u t d oors in all ty p es o f w eath er, particularly w h en m ak in g repairs. R o o fs are ex trem ely h ot during the su m m er. Employment A b ou t 1 1 3 ,0 0 0 roofers w ere e m p lo y ed in 19 8 0 . M o st w ork ed for ro o fin g contrac tors on con stru ction or repair jo b s . S o m e w o r k e d fo r b u s in e s s e s and g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c ie s that d o their o w n co n stru ction and repair w ork . A b ou t 3 ou t o f ev ery 10 ro o f ers is se lf-e m p lo y e d . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement T h e m ajority o f roofers acquire their sk ills in form ally b y w ork in g as help ers for ex p eri e n c ed roo fers. H o w e v e r , so m e train through 3 -y ea r ap p ren ticesh ip program s adm inistered b y lo ca l u n io n -m a n a g em en t c o m m ittees. H elp ers learn the trade o n the jo b . T h ey start by carryin g eq u ip m en t and m aterial and erectin g s c a ffo ld s. W ith in 2 or 3 m onth s they are taught to m easu re, cu t, and fit ro o fin g m aterials su ch as fe lt. S o o n , th ey are able to lay asphalt sh in g les. It can take 5 years or m ore to g et e x p e rien ce in stallin g all ty p es o f ro ofin g m aterials, b e c a u se so m e m aterials are n ot u sed freq u en tly. T h e ap p ren ticesh ip program g en era lly c o n sists o f a m in im u m o f 1 ,4 0 0 hours o f on -th ejo b training an n u ally, in ad d ition to 144 hours o f cla ssr o o m instruction in su bjects su ch as to o ls and their u s e , arith m etic, and sa fety . O n -th e-job training for app rentices is sim ilar to that for h elp ers, e x ce p t that the app ren ticesh ip is m ore structured. A p p ren tice s a lso learn to d a m p p roof and w aterp roof w a lls. G o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n and a g o o d sen se o f b alan ce are e sse n tia l. A h ig h sc h o o l e d u ca tion or its eq u iv a len t is h e lp fu l, as are c o u rses in m ech an ical d raw in g and b a sic m ath em atics. A p p lican ts for app renticeship program s m u st b e at lea st 18 years o ld . Construction and Extractive Occupations/383 For in form ation about the w ork o f ro ofers, contact: National Roofing Contractors Association, 1515 N. Harlem Ave., Oak Park, 111. 60302. Sheet-Metal Workers (D .O .T . 619.260-008, -010 and 804.281-010, -014) Nature of the Work Roofers often work with hot, sticky substances such as tar. R o o fers m ay a d van ce to su p ervisor for a ro o fin g contractor; so m e b e c o m e contractors th e m se lv es. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f ro ofers is e x p e cte d to in crease as fa st as the a verage for all o ccu p a tion s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. T h e n eed to replace e x p erien ced roofers w h o transfer to other o c cu p a tio n s, retire, d ie , or stop w ork in g for other rea so n s w ill result in m any jo b o p e n in g s. Jobs sh o u ld b e e a siest to fin d during spring and su m m er w h en m o st ro ofin g is d o n e. B u ild in g s n eed n e w ro o fs about ev er y 10 years. A s the num ber o f b u ild in g s in use g r o w s, m ore ro ofers w ill b e n eed ed to d o the add ition al reroofin g w ork. R o o fin g is le s s se n sitiv e to gen eral e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s than other con stru ction o c cu p a tio n s. B e ca u se reroofin g accou n ts for m o st o f the r o o fe r ’s w o rk , em p lo y m en t o p portun ities are n ot tied to the le v e l o f n e w co n stru ctio n , w h ic h tends to fall during e c o n o m ic dow ntu rn s. percen t o f the sk illed r o o fe r ’s p ay rate and r ec eiv e in creases ev er y 6 m on th s. Y early earn in gs for roofers and ap p ren tices, h o w e v er, g en erally are lo w e r than hou rly rates w o u ld in d icate b e ca u se the annual num ber o f hours they w ork can b e ad versely affected by p oor w eath er and flu ctu ation s in con stru ction a ctiv ity . M an y roofers are m em b ers o f the U n ited U n io n o f R o o fe rs, W aterp roofers and A llie d W orkers. Related Occupations R o o fers c o v e r and w aterp roof roofs u sin g asp halt sh in g le s , b itu m en and g ra v el, or other m aterials. W orkers in other o ccu p ation s a lso c o v er su rfaces w ith sp ecia l m aterials for pro tectio n and d ecoration . T h ese o ccu p ation s in c lu d e a c o u s tic a l c a r p e n te r s, c o m p o s itio n w eatherboard a p p liers, d ry-w all applicators and fin ish ers, flo o r co v er in g in stallers, g la z ie rs, sid in g ap p licators, terrazzo w ork ers, and tile setters. S h e e t-m e ta l w o rk ers m a k e , in s ta ll, and m aintain a variety o f sh eet-m eta l products for h o m e s, and co m m ercial and industrial b u ild in g s. T h e se products in clu d e d u cts for airc o n d itio n in g , h ea tin g , and ven tila tin g sy stem s, cou n ter to p s, r o o fs, sid in g , rain g u tters, sk y lig h ts, outd oor sig n s , and air v en ts. S o m e w orkers sp ec ia liz e in fab ricatio n , in stallation , or m aintenance; but m o st d o all three jo b s. S h eet-m etal w orkers fabricate m any pro d u cts at a sh o p aw ay from the con stru ction site . W orking from blueprints or instructions from su p erv iso rs, th ey m easu re, cu t, b en d , sh ap e, and fasten p ie c e s o f sh eet m etal to m ak e du ct w o rk , cou n ter to p s, and other cu sto m produ cts. W orkers u se tapes and rul ers for m easuring sh eet m etal and la y in g out the w ork; hand sh ears, hack sa w s, and p o w er sa w s for cutting; and sp ecia lly d esig n ed , h ea v y steel p resses and shears for cu ttin g, b en d in g , and sh ap in g. T h ey fa sten the seam s and jo in ts togeth er w ith b o lts, c em en t, riv ets, so ld er, or by w e ld in g . A t the con stru ction s ite , sh eet-m eta l w ork ers a ssem b le and install p ie ce s fabricated at the sh o p . W orkers a lso u se h am m ers, sh ears, and drills to m ake parts b y hand at the w ork site and to alter parts m ade in the sh op . W orkers install d u cts, p ip es, and tub es b y jo in in g th em en d to en d and ha n g in g them w ith m etal han gers secu red to a c e ilin g or a w a ll. T o h o ld the p ie c e s tog eth er, w orkers m ay b o lt, w e ld , rivet, g lu e , or so ld er or use sp ec ia lly form ed sh eet m etal. M o ld ed and p ressed sh eet m eta ls, su ch as ro o fin g and sid in g , u su a lly are m easured and cu t o n the jo b . A fter secu rin g the first panel in p la c e , w orkers in terlock and fa sten the g r o o v ed e d g e o f the n ext pan el into the g r o o v ed e d g e o f the first. T h ey nail or w eld the free e d g e o f the pan el to the structure. T h is tw o -step p rocess is rep eated for e a ch add ition al p an el. F in a lly , at jo in ts, a lo n g co r n ers, and around w in d o w s and d o o rs, w ork ers fasten m a ch in e-m ad e m o ld in g for a n eat, fin ish ed e ffe c t. S o m e sh eet-m etal w orkers sp ec ia liz e in te stin g , b a la n cin g , and adjusting ex istin g airco n d itio n in g and ven tilation sy stem s to m ake sure th ey are fu n ction in g properly. Sources of Additional Information Earnings U n io n roofers in m etropolitan areas had estim a ted a verage w a g e s o f $ 1 2 .0 8 an hour in 1 9 8 0 . In co m p a riso n , the average hourly rate paid to n o n su p ervisory or produ ction w orkers in private ind ustry, e x ce p t farm in g, w a s $ 6 .6 6 . A p p ren tices u su ally start at 55 For inform ation about ro ofin g apprentice sh ip s or w ork op p ortu n ities in this trade, con tact lo ca l ro o fin g contractors; a lo ca l o f the u n ion p rev io u sly m en tion ed ; a lo ca l jo in t u n ion -m an agem en t app renticeship com m ittee; or the nearest o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t serv ice or State app renticeship a g en cy . Working Conditions S h eet-m etal w orkers d o con sid era b le b en d in g , liftin g , stan d in g, and squatting in c lo s e q u arters or in a w k w a rd p o s it io n s . T h e y so m e tim e s w ork h igh ab o v e ground . T h ey a lso m ay g e t cu ts and b u m s from m aterials and to o ls. U n lik e m an y con stru ction w ork- 384/Occupational Outlook Handbook learn the m ath em atics n eed ed for lay o u t w ork . O n the jo b , ap p ren tices u se the to o ls , m a c h in e s , e q u ip m e n t, an d m a ter ia ls o f th e trade. T h ey learn to m easu re, cu t, b en d , fa b ricate, and install sh eet m etal. T h ey b eg in w ith du ct w ork and grad u ally a d van ce to m ore d ifficu lt jo b s , su ch as m a k in g c o m p lex d u cts, fittin g s, and d eco ra tiv e p ie c e s. T o ward the en d o f their train in g, th ey use m a te rials su ch as p la stics and a co u stica l tile , w h ich m ay b e su bstitu ted for m etal o n so m e jo b s . In the c la ssr o o m , ap p ren tices learn draft in g , b lu ep rint read in g, trigon om etry and g e om etry a p p licab le to la you t w o rk , w e ld in g , and the p rin cip les o f h ea tin g , air-co n d itio n in g , and v e n tila tin g s y s t e m s . S a fe ty is stressed through out the program . In ad d ition , app ren tices learn the relatio n sh ip b etw een s h e e t-m e ta l w o r k an d o th e r c o n str u c tio n w ork . W orkers w h o p ick up the trade in form ally u su a lly b e g in b y carryin g m etal and clea n in g up debris in a m etal sh o p . W h ile th ere, they learn abou t m aterials and to o ls and their u ses. T h e n , as em p lo y er s p erm it, h elpers learn to set sw itc h e s and operate lev e rs on m a ch in es that ben d or cu t m etal. In tim e, h elp ers le a v e the sh op and g o o u t o n the jo b to learn in stallation . A p p lica n ts for jo b s as app ren tices or h elp ers sh ou ld b e in g o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n and h a v e m ech a n ica l aptitud e. L o ca l ap p ren tice sh ip c o m m itte es and em p lo y er s m ay require a h igh sc h o o l or vo ca tio n a l sc h o o l ed u ca tio n . C ou rses in trigon om etry, g e o m etr y , m ech a n i cal d ra w in g , and sh o p p ro v id e a h elp fu l backgroun d for learn in g the trade. S h eet-m eta l w ork ers in con stru ctio n m ay a d van ce to su p ervisory jo b s or m ay g o into the con tractin g b u sin e ss. S in ce a sh eet-m eta l contractor must have a shop with equipment to fabricate prod u cts, this ty p e o f contracting b u sin ess is m ore e x p e n siv e to start than other ty p es o f con stru ction con tractin g. Many sheet-metal workers fabricate materials in shops off the construction site. ers, sh eet-m eta l w orkers g en erally d o not lo se w ork tim e b eca u se o f bad w eather sin ce m ost w ork is d o n e in d oors. Employment S h eet-m eta l w orkers in the con stru ction in dustry— w h o num bered about 1 0 8 ,0 0 0 in 19 8 0— are e m p lo y ed m ain ly by r o o fin g , sh eetm etal, and a ir-con d ition in g and h eating c o n tractors and b y general contractors en g a g ed in resid en tial, industrial, and com m ercial b u ild in g . S o m e sh eet-m etal w orkers are e m p lo y e d by gov ern m en t a g e n c ie s or b u sin esses that d o their o w n con stru ction and alteration w ork . V ery fe w are se lf-em p lo y e d . S h eetm etal w orkers are e m p lo y ed throughout the cou n try, but jo b s are concen trated in m etro politan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement U n lik e m any other con stru ction w ork ers, the vast m ajority o f sh eet-m etal w orkers learn their trade through ap p ren ticesh ip . O n ly a very sm all proportion acquire their sk ills in form ally on the jo b . T he app ren ticesh ip program u su ally c o n sists o f 4 years o f on -th e-job train in g, and related c la ssro o m instruction. T h e program s are adm inistered b y jo in t c o m m ittees o f lo c a ls o f the S h eet M etal W o rk ers’ Interna tional A sso c ia tio n and lo ca l chapters o f the S h eet M etal and A ir-C o n d itio n in g C on trac to r s’ A s so c ia tio n , or b y lo ca l chapters o f the A sso c ia te d B uilders and C ontractors. T h e app renticeship agreem en t guarantees a w ork er on -th e-job e x p erien ce in all a sp ects o f the trade. A p p ren ticesh ip a lso is the b est w a y to Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f sh eet-m eta l w orkers in con stru ction is e x p e cte d to in crea se about as fa s t a s th e a v e r a g e fo r a ll o c c u p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. In ad d ition to jo b s cre ated b y in creased d em an d for sh eet-m eta l w ork ers, m an y o p e n in g s w ill arise as ex p e ri e n c e d w orkers le a v e the o c cu p a tio n , retire, or d ie. M ore sh eet-m eta l w orkers w ill b e n eed ed to in stall a ir-con d ition in g and h eating du ct w ork and other sh eet-m eta l produ cts in n ew h o u se s, sto r es, o f f ic e s , and oth er b u ild in g s. A gro w in g d em an d for n e w , m ore en erg y e ffic ie n t a ir-con d ition in g and hea tin g sy stem s in e x istin g b u ild in g s w ill b o o st e m p lo y m en t op p ortu n ities for sh eet-m eta l w ork ers. In stal lation o f solar heatin g eq u ip m en t a lso w ill result in m ore jo b op p ortu n ities. A lth o u g h em p lo y m en t o f sh eet-m eta l w ork ers is e x p e cte d to in crease o v e r the lo n g run, jo b o p e n in g s m ay flu ctu ate so m ew h a t from year to year d u e to c h a n g e in e c o n o m ic c o n d i Construction and Extractive Occupations/385 tio n s. H o w e v er , e m p lo y m en t o f sh eet-m etal w orkers is le s s se n sitiv e than em p lo y m en t o f other co n stru ction w orkers to d e c lin e s in new con stru ctio n . M ain ten an ce o f e x is tin g sh eetm etal eq u ip m en t— w h ich is le s s se n sitiv e to e c o n o m ic flu ctu ation s than n ew con stru c tio n — m ak es up a large part o f the w ork don e b y sh eet-m eta l w orkers. In stallation s o f n ew air-co n d itio n in g and h eatin g sy stem s a lso co n tin u e during con stru ction slu m p s as in d i vid u a ls and b u sin e sses seek m ore en ergye ffic ie n t eq u ip m en t to cut u tility b ills. P eo p le w ish in g to enter sh eet-m etal ap pren ticesh ip s w ill fa ce k een co m p etition for p o sitio n s b eca u se h ig h w a g e s and g o o d train ing attract m any p e o p le. Earnings H ourly rates for u n ion sh eet-m etal w ork ers in large m etropolitan areas averaged $ 1 3 .0 7 in 1 9 8 0 . T h is w as about tw ic e the avera g e for n o n su p ervisory w orkers in pri vate ind ustry, e x c e p t farm in g. S h eet-m etal app ren tices g en era lly start at 4 5 percen t o f the rate paid to e x p erien ced w orkers and m ay earn pay raises ev ery 6 m onth s during their app renticeship. A large proportion o f sh eet-m etal w orkers are m em b ers o f the S h eet M etal W o rk ers’ International A sso c ia tio n . Related Occupations O ther o ccu p a tio n s in w h ich w orkers lay o u t and fabricate m etal products in clu d e b en ch d ie m akers, la you t w ork ers, m ach in is ts , m etal fabricators, m etal patternm akers, sh ip fitters, and to o l-a n d -d ie m akers. Sources of Additional Information F or m ore in form ation abou t app rentice sh ip s or other w o rk op p ortu n ities, con tact lo ca l sh eet-m eta l contractors or h eatin g, re frig era tio n , and air-co n d ition in g contractors; a lo ca l o f the u n io n m en tion ed ab ove; a lo ca l jo in t u n io n -m a n a g em en t app renticeship c o m m ittee; or the nearest o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e or a p p ren ticesh ip a g en cy . T o se t tile , w h ich ranges in s iz e from 1/2 inch to 6 in ch es sq uare, w orkers u se eith er c em e n t or m astic (a very stick y p a ste). W hen u sin g c em e n t, tilesetters first m ust tack a support o f screen -lik e m esh to the flo o r, w a ll, or c e ilin g . T h ey u se a trow el to m ix and spread a coarse c em en t on to the screen and a rak e-lik e d e v ic e to scratch the su rface o f the w e t cem en t. A fter the c em en t has d ried , w ork ers trow el on a richer co a t o f cem en t w h ich they w ork back and forth in sw ee p in g m otion s un til it is sm o o th and e v en . T o set tile in m a stic, tilesetters n eed a flat, so lid su rface su ch as dry w a ll, c o n crete, or w o o d . T h ey use a to o th -ed g ed m etal trow el to spread the m astic and m ak e tiny su ction rid ges to h elp h old tile s in p la ce. S in ce tile varies in c o lo r , sh ap e, and s iz e , w orkers so m e tim e s prearrange tile s o n a dry flo o r accord in g to a sp ec ifie d d e sig n . T h is a llo w s w orkers to e x a m in e the pattern and m ak e any n ecessary ch a n g es. W hether or not tile s are prearranged, tile setters p lace each tile on to the cem en t or m astic. S o m e tiles are cu t w ith a m ach in e saw or a sp ec ia l cutting to o l to fit in to cor ners and around p ip e s, tu b s, and w a sh ba sin s. O n c e p la ced , tilesetters g en tly tap the tile su rface w ith a sm a ll b lo ck o f w o o d s o all rest e v e n ly and fla tly . W hen the c em en t or m astic has “ s e t , ” tile setters u se a rubber trow el to c o v er the tile and jo in ts w ith grout— a very fin e cem en t. T h ey then scrape the su rface w ith a rubbere d g e d e v ic e c a lle d a sq u e eg e e to force grout from the fa c e o f the tile into jo in ts and re m o v e any e x c e s s . B e fo re the grout d ries, w o rk ers w a s h th e su rfa c e w ith a d am p sp o n g e . Working Conditions T ilesetters w ork in d oors and are not e x p o sed to the w eath er. S in ce m ost o f the c o n struction has b een c o m p lete d , (he w ork area is rela tiv ely clea n and un cluttered. M u ch o f the w orkd ay is sp en t b en d in g , k n ee lin g , sto o p in g , and reach in g, activ ities that require endu ran ce but n ot e x cep tio n a l strength. T o a v o id sore k n ees or bad k n e e s, so m e w orkers w ear k n ee p ad s. O th erw ise, ty p ica l con stru c tion w ork c lo th es are w orn. A lth ou gh w orkers are su b ject to cu ts from to o ls or m aterials, fa lls from lad d ers, and strained m u s c le s, the occu p a tio n is n ot c o n sid ered as hazardous as so m e other con stru c tion occu p a tio n s. Employment T ilesetters— w h o nu m bered abou t 2 0 ,0 0 0 in 198 0 — are e m p lo y ed m ain ly in non residential con stru ction , su ch as sc h o o ls, h o sp i ta ls, and p u b lic and co m m ercia l b u ild in g s. A b ou t 1 o u t o f 4 tilesetters is se lf-em p lo y e d . T ilesetters are e m p lo y ed throughout the country but are fou n d largely in urban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st training auth orities reco m m en d c o m p letion o f a 3 -y ea r app ren ticesh ip program w h ich g en erally co n sists o f o n -th e-jo b train in g and related c la ssro o m instruction in sub je c ts su ch as blueprint read in g, la y o u t, and b a sic m ath em atics. A p p ren tices b eg in b y learning the nam es o f to o ls and h o w to u se th em . W ithin a short tim e th ey are taught to m ix and ap p ly cem en t and then to ap p ly m astic. Later, they learn to cu t and install tile. A su b sta n tia l p ro p o rtio n o f t ile s e tte r s , h o w ev e r, acquire sk ills in form ally b y w ork in g as h elp ers to e x p erien ced w orkers. T h ey start by carrying su p p lie s, cle a n in g w ork areas, and w a sh in g fin ish ed tile . D ep en d in g on the em p lo y er , a h elp er m ay learn to F or gen eral in form ation abou t sh eet-m etal w o rk ers, contact: Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association, Inc., 8224 Old Courthouse Rd., Vienna, Va. 22180. Associated Builders and Contractors, 444 N. Cap itol St., Suite 409, Washington, D.C. 20001. Tilesetters________ (D .O .T . 861.381-054, -058, -062, and .684-018) Nature of the Work In ancien t E g y p t and R o m e , tile w as u sed fo r the d esig n and co n stru ction o f m o sa ic s— an art form u sin g sm a ll, d ecorative ceram ic sq uares. T o d a y , in a fash ion sim ilar to that o f the an cien t artists, tilesetters app ly tile to flo o r s , w a lls, and c e ilin g s. Continued preference for tile in home construction will sustain demand for tilesetters. 386/Occupational Outlook Handbook spread c em en t or m a stic. E v en tu a lly , a h elp er is taught to cut and set tile. W h en hiring app rentices or h elp ers, em p lo y ers u su a lly prefer h igh sc h o o l or v o ca tional sc h o o l graduates w h o have had cou rses in general m ath em atics, m ech an ical d raw in g, and sh op . G o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n , m anual d ex terity , and a g o o d se n se o f c o lo r harm ony a lso are im portant a ssets. A p p ren ticesh ip p rogram s, w h ile o ften reco m m en d ed , m ay be m ore d ifficu lt to enter than other form s o f training. In so m e lo c a le s , a w ritten test and a p h y sica l ex a m in a tio n are required. S k illed tilesetters m ay b e c o m e su p ervisors or start their o w n contracting b u sin e sses. ued p referen ce for tile in k itch en s and bath room s and an e x p ected in crease in the u se o f tile in h a llw a y s and recreation areas o f h om es and other b u ild in g s— particularly in warm er reg io n s o f the country— w ill spur em p lo y m en t in this trade. E m p loym en t o f tilesetters, lik e that o f m any con stru ction o ccu p a tio n s, is sen sitiv e to c h a n g e s in th e e c o n o m y , p a rticu la rly ch a n g es in the le v e l o f h o u sin g con stru ction . W orkers in this trade can ex p erien ce period s o f u n em p lo y m en t, particularly w h en h om eb u ild in g a ctivity is d o w n . O n the other han d, tem porary sh ortages o f tilesetters m ay occu r in so m e areas during peak period s o f b u ild in g a ctivity. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f tilesetters is e x p ected to in crease faster than the average for all o c c u p ation s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. A lth o u g h grow th in dem and for th ese w orkers w ill provid e so m e n e w jo b op p o rtu n ities, m o st w ill result from the n eed to rep lace tilesetters w h o re tire, d ie , or lea v e the occu p a tio n for other reason s. B e ca u se tilesettin g is a sm all o c c u p a tio n , h o w ev e r, there w ill be rela tiv ely fe w jo b o p en in g s ann ually. P op u lation and b u sin ess grow th are e x p ected to ca u se an in crease in the con stru c tion o f h o u se s and other b u ild in g s, and thus in crease the dem and for tilesetters. C on tin Earnings A cco rd in g to a su rvey o f u n ion w a g e s in c ities w ith at least 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 inhabitants in 1 9 8 0 , hou rly rates for tile layers averaged $ 1 2 .2 5 , com pared w ith an average hou rly rate o f $ 6 .6 6 for all non su p ervisory and pro du ction w orkers in private ind ustry, e x cep t farm in g. W age rates w ere g en erally h igh est in the W est and lo w e st in the S ou th . H ourly w a g e rates for app rentices start at about 5 0 to 6 0 percent o f the rate paid to ex p erien ced w orkers and in crease p erio d ica lly . T he principal u n ion s o rgan izin g w orkers in this trade are the International U n io n o f B rick layers and A llie d C raftsm en; and the T ile , M arb le, and T errazzo F in ish ers and S h op m en International U n io n . Related Occupations T ilesetters u se their k n o w led g e o f to o ls and m aterials alo n g w ith sk ill and d exterity to p rod u ce attractive, durable su rfa ces. O ther w orkers requiring sim ilar a b ilities in clu d e b rick layers, c em e n t m a so n s, m arblesetters, sto n em a so n s, stu cco m a so n s, and terrazzo w orkers. Sources of Additional Information For d etails about app renticeship or other w ork op p ortu n ities in th is trade, co n ta ct lo ca l tilesettin g contractors; lo ca ls o f the u n ions p rev io u sly m en tion ed ; or the nearest o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t se r v ic e or State ap p ren ticesh ip a g en cy . For gen eral in form ation abou t the w ork o f tilesetters, contact: International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Apprenticeship Trust, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Tile, Marble, and Terrazzo Finishers and Shop men International Union, Suite 116, 801 N. Pitt St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Extractive Occupations T he m in in g and p etroleu m d rilling in d u s tries p rovid e m o st o f our N a tio n ’s fu els and raw m aterials. O il and gas d rilling su pp ly fu el for transportation, m anu factu ring, and h o m e h e a tin g . M e ta llic m in in g p r o d u ce s iron , co p p er, and silv er for m anufacturing. Q uarrying furnish es lim esto n e and gravel for b u ild in g . A n d n o n m eta llic m in in g p rovid es c o a l for generating electricity . T h e w orkers w h o drill for o il and g a s , and m in e m etallic and n o n m eta llic ores co m p rise the extractive o ccu p a tio n s. T he fo llo w in g tabulation pre sen ts 19 8 0 e m p lo y m en t for a variety o f th ese o ccu p a tio n s. Roustabout .............................................. Rotary drill operator.............................. Petroleum and gas derrick operator . . . Roof bolter.............................................. Oil well service operator...................... Mill and grinder operator .................... Continuous mining machine operator .. 80,000 23,000 17,000 13,000 12,000 12,000 8,500 W orkers u se m any k in ds o f d rilling eq u ip m en t for exp lo ra tio n and for produ ction o f o il, g a s, and o res. M a ch in e drillers set up and operate m o b ile drillin g m ach in es that bore h o le s for e x p lo siv e ch arges. In a process ca lled se ism ic p ro sp ectin g , su ch charges are u sed to lo ca te o il and g as d ep o sits. Rotary drillers su p ervise the crew and operate the m ach in ery that drill o il or g as w e lls . “ R ou g h n e c k s ” perform m o st o f the m anual w ork in th ese drillin g o p era tio n s, su ch as guid in g p ip e to and from the w e ll o p en in g . C lean -ou t drillers operate a truck-m oun ted h o ist eq u ip p ed w ith a derrick to clea n ou t and prepare o ld oil w e lls for n ew p rod u ction . O il and g as are not the o n ly m aterials produ ced by d rillin g , h o w e v er. A u g er m ach in e operators run a drilling m ach in e that bores c o a l ou t o f seam s lyin g near the su rface. L ik e drillin g eq u ip m en t, e x p lo siv e s have sev era l u ses in drillin g and m in in g . S am p le taker operators u se e x p lo siv e s to obtain sa m p les o f the rock s in the sid e w a lls o f oil w e lls . O il w e ll perforator operators ex p lo d e ch arges in o il and g a s w e lls to break b lo ck a g e s ca u sed by drill p ip es, c a sin g s, and ro ck s. B lasters u se e x p lo siv e s in quarries to separate sto n e from quarry w a lls. In open pit cop p er m in e s, tier and detonator w orkers fracture the earth and rock ab ove sea m s o f ore w ith e x p lo siv e s . W orkers extract ore from m in es u sin g sp e c ia lize d m ach in ery. S o m e m ach in es cut m a terial directly from the m ine w a lls. S h ale planer operators w ork a track -m ou nted m a ch in e that cuts sh a le from the m in e w a ll and lo a d s the sh a le o n to a c o n v e y o r b elt. S o m e m ach in es perform o n ly o n e step o f the m in in g p ro cess. Cutter operators run m ach in es that cu t a ch an n el under a coal seam . W hen e x p lo siv e ch arges shatter the c o a l, it falls into the ch an n el and is rem o v ed b y load in g m ach in es. D rillin g and m in in g require m any support serv ices at the w e ll or m ine site. S h aft m e c h a n ics m aintain the eq u ip m en t that m o v e s w ork ers and m achinery d o w n undergroundm in e sh afts. R o o f b olters operate m ach in es that in stall r o o f supports in underground m in e s. S a fety lam p k eep ers repair the electric lam p s u sed b y underground m iners. W ithout th ese se r v ic e s , d rillin g and m in in g co u ld not p roceed e ffic ie n tly and sa fe ly . W orkers in extractive o ccu p ation s u su ally learn their sk ills o n the jo b . N e w w orkers are hired from the area around the w e lls and m in es. P h ysical stren gth, stam in a, and m e ch an ical aptitude often are the m o st im portant traits sou gh t by e m p lo y ers. A fter r ec eiv in g sa fety train in g, n e w w ork ers are a ssig n ed to laborer jo b s around the w e ll or m in e. O pportun ities for training and prom otion u su ally are b a sed o n sen iority and ab ility to d o h igh er le v e l w ork . In m any c a se s, u n ion -m an agem en t agreem en ts set the ru les g o v e r n in g tra in in g an d p r o m o tio n . W orkers learn b y d oin g the jo b under the su p ervision o f e x p erien ced w orkers. A d v a n cem en t op p ortu n ities for extractive w orkers are lim ited . S o m e w orkers b e co m e su pervisors; h o w ev e r, ad d ition al ed u cation is n eed ed to ad van ce to h igh er su p ervisory or m an agem en t jo b s. M ore in form ation on the w ork , training, and jo b opp ortu nities for c o a l m in in g m a ch in ery op eratives appears in the fo llo w in g statem en t. and co n tin u ou s m in in g m ach in es that ca n rip 12 ton s o f co a l from an underground sea m in a m in u te. O perating th ese m a ch in es sa fely and e ffic ie n tly is the w ork o f c o a l m in in g m ach in e operators. T here are several ty p es o f m in in g m a ch in ery operators. T h eir d u ties vary b y the typ e o f m in e and the m ach in ery they operate. C oal is m in ed from the su rface or under ground , d ep en d in g on the depth and location o f the c o a l seam and the g e o lo g ic a l form ation around it. T h e fo llo w in g sectio n describ es the w ork o f m in in g m achinery operators at b oth surface and underground m in es. Surface mines. Su rface m in in g requires re m o v in g the earth ab o v e the c o a l sea m (o v er burden) and then d ig g in g o u t the co a l. Bulldozer operators ( D . O . T . 8 5 0 .6 8 3 0 1 0 ) rem o v e trees, ro ck s, s o il, and other ob stru ction s from the m in in g area. Machine drillers ( D .O .T . 9 3 0 .3 8 2 -0 1 0 ) then set up drillin g m ach in es to bore h o le s at p oin ts in the overb urden se lec ted b y the blaster. W h ile d rillin g , operators m ust av o id b in ding and stop p in g the drill. D rill operators m ay re p la ce broken parts, ch a n g e drill b its, and lubricate the eq u ip m en t. A fter the n ecessary h o le s h a v e b een drilled in t h e o v e r b u r d e n , blasters ( D . O . T . 9 3 1 .2 6 1 -0 1 0 ) set e x p lo siv e ch arges in them . B lasters stu d y th e rock form ation to deter m in e w h ere e x p lo siv e s sh ou ld b e lo ca ted and h o w m u ch sh ou ld be u sed . A fter the charges are se t, b lasters d eton ate them and fracture the overb urden. Nature of the Work Stripping-shovel operators ( D . O . T . 8 5 0 . 6 6 3 - 0 2 6 ) a n d dragline operators ( D .O .T . 8 5 0 .6 8 3 -0 1 8 ) con trol the sh o v els and d raglin es that r em o v e the broken o v er burden to e x p o se the c o a l. B u lld o zer opera tors p u sh rock and dirt w ith in reach o f the sh o v e ls and sc o o p s. W h en the overburden is rem o v e d , opera tors running sm aller sh o v e ls rem o v e the co a l seam and lo a d it into trucks. A fter the co a l is m in ed , sh o v el and b u lld ozer operators re p la ce the overb u rd en , so the land can b e reclaim ed . C oal has p la y ed a vital ro le in the industri al d ev elo p m en t o f the U n ited S tates. C oal w a s the prim ary sou rce o f the N a tio n ’s ener g y through the first quarter o f this cen tury, w h en it su p p lied 6 0 percen t o f the c o u n tr y ’s en ergy n eed s. For the n ex t 5 0 yea rs, u se o f c o a l fe ll as it w as rep laced by o il and natural g as that w ere ch eap er, ea sier to h an d le, and clean er to u se. T h e rapidly risin g p rice and uncertain su p p ly o f o il have resu lted in the r e e m e r g e n c e o f c o a l as a m ajor e n e r g y sou rce. C oal is extracted w ith c o m p lex and ex p en s iv e m ach in ery, su ch as p o w er sh o v e ls that can r em o v e 3 ,5 0 0 ton s o f earth in an hour Underground mining. U n dergroun d m in es are u sed to reach c o a l that lie s d eep b e lo w the su rface. A series o f en tries are con stru ct ed so that w orkers and eq u ip m en t can reach the c o a l. T hree m in in g m eth od s are used to extract the coal: C on tin u ou s, lo n g w a ll, and c o n v en tio n a l. Continuous mining a ccou n ts for m o st o f the c o a l p rod u ced underground. T h e heart o f the sy stem is the con tin u o u s m in in g m a ch in e, an e le ctr ic, h yd rau lically operated m ach in e that m in es and load s c o a l in o n e step . H y draulic lifts o n the front o f the m ach in e su p port and sp in cutting w h ee ls that rip c o a l Coal Mining Operatives________ (D .O .T. 850.638-018, .663-026, .683-010, and -030; 859.683-010 and -014; 921.663-050; 930.382-010, .482-010, .665-.010, .666-014, .683-010, and -014; 931.261-010; and 932.683-014) 387 388/Occupational Outlook Handbook from the sea m . M ech a n ical arm s at the base o f the m ach in e gather the co a l from the tun n el flo o r o n to a co n v e y o r. T h is belt m o v e s the c o a l to a shuttle car or another c o n v e y o r b elt for transportation out o f the m in e. Continuous mining machine operators ( D .O .T . 9 3 0 .6 8 3 -0 1 0 ) con trol this very pro d u ctiv e and co m p lex m ach in e. O perators sit or lie in a cab at the rear o f the m ach in e. T h ey m o v e the m ach in e to the m in in g area and m anipu late lev ers that p o sitio n the cu t ting w h ee ls a gain st the c o a l. O perators and their h elp ers m ay lubricate and adjust the m achine and ch a n g e cutting teeth. Long wall mining is sim ilar to con tin u ou s m ining in that the c o a l is cut and load ed in o n e operation . T h e c o a l is cu t from o n e w all that m ay be 3 0 0 to o v er 7 0 0 feet lo n g . T he m in in g m achinery runs the len gth o f this w a ll. A p lo w b lad e or cutting w h ee l m o v in g alon g the w a ll shears the c o a l from the seam and au tom atically lo a d s it on to a co n v e y o r b elt. T h e c o n v e y o r carries the co a l to other co n v e y o r b elts or rail cars for transportation out o f the m in e. S teel c a n o p ies support the r o o f a b o v e the w ork area. Longwall mining machinery operators ( D .O .T . 9 3 0 .6 6 5 -0 1 0 ) ad van ce the cutting d e v ic e a cross the co a l seam by m anual or rem ote con trol. W hen u sin g rem ote con trol, they o b serv e ligh ts and g a u g es on the c o n trol pan el that sig n a l p rob lem s w ith the m a ch in ery. O perators a lso listen for unusual sou nd s that ind icate p rob lem s in the cutting and loa d in g p ro cess. A s the w a ll in front o f the m achine is cut a w a y , the operator and helpers m o v e the m achinery and r o o f su p ports forw ard. T h e r o o f b eh in d the supports then c a v e s in. L o n g w a ll m achinery opera tors a lso direct toilers ( D .O .T . 9 3 0 .6 6 6 0 1 4 ), w h o h elp run the m ach in ery. T ailers adjust the depth o f the cutting to o l and s ig nal the operator w h en it is properly p o s i tio n e d , h elp p o sitio n the r o o f su pp orts, and perform routine m ain ten an ce and m inor re pairs on the eq u ip m en t. Conventional mining d iffers from co n tin u o u s and lo n g w a ll m in in g b ecau se m in in g and load in g are d o n e in separate step s. T h e coal is b lasted from the seam and then p ick ed up for lo a d in g . C on ven tion al m in in g a lso re qu ires the m ost w ork ers o f the three under ground m eth od s. Cutter operators ( D .O .T . 9 3 0 .6 8 3 -0 1 4 ) run self-p ro p elled m ach in es eq u ip p ed w ith a cutter 6 to 15 fe et lo n g . O perators drive th ese m ach in es to the c o a l fa ce and sa w a ch an n el alo n g the bottom and sid e s o f the c o a l to r eliev e pressure gen erated b y the b last. Drill ing machine operators ( D .O .T . 9 3 0 .4 8 2 0 1 0 ) control m o b ile drillin g m ach in es that bore h o le s into the c o a l. B lasters then set ch arges into the h o le s and detonate them to shatter the c o a l. A fter the b last, loading ma chine operators ( D .O .T . 9 3 2 .6 8 3 -0 1 4 ) drive electric load in g m ach in es to the broken co a l. O perators w ork lev ers that control the m e ch an ical arm s that sc o o p up the c o a l. L oad ing operators then au tom atically c o n v e y the c o a l on to shuttle cars or co n v e y o rs for trans portation out o f the m in e. Working Conditions C oal m in in g m ach in e operators w ork un der unusual and so m etim es harsh co n d ition s. A t su rface m in e s, operators w ork ou tsid e and m ay be e x p o se d to bad w eather. A t under ground m in e s, operators w ork in tun nels that m ay b e cram p ed , dark, d u sty , w e t, and c o ld . A t tim es, several in ch es o f w ater m ay b e on the tunnel floor. In both su rface and under ground m in e s, operators are e x p o se d to lou d n o ise from m ach in ery. A n d , alth ou gh m uch o f the w ork is d on e by m a ch in es, the m in e op era to r’s jo b is p h y sica lly dem a n d in g and dirty. S in c e th e p a s s a g e o f th e C o a l M in e H ealth and S a fe ty A c t in 1 9 6 9 , the c o a l industry h as taken m an y step s to im p rove v e n tila tio n an d lig h tin g in u n d erg ro u n d m in es and to elim in a te sa fe ty hazards. N e v erth eless, m in in g m ach in e o p era tiv es m ust con stan tly b e o n guard again st hazards. In both su rface and underground m in e s, opera tors m a y b e in ju red or k ille d in a c c i d en ts in v o lv in g m in in g m ach in ery . In un dergrou nd m in e s, operators fa c e the addi tion al hazards o f r o o f fa lls or c a v e -in s , a ccu m u lation o f p o iso n o u s and e x p lo siv e g a s e s , and ex p o su re to c o a l d u st. W orkers e x p o se d to c o a l dust o v e r a p eriod o f years m ay d e v e lo p p n eu m o co n io sis (b la ck lu n g ), a d isa b lin g and so m e tim e s fatal d ise a se . Employment In 1 9 8 0 , 5 8 ,0 0 0 m in in g m a ch in e opera tiv e s w ork ed in the c o a l ind ustry. T h e distri b u tion o f e m p lo y m en t is p resen ted in the fo llo w in g tabulation: Percent Total........................................... 100.0 Heavy-equipment operator.......................... Continuous mining machine operator........ Machine driller............................................ Blaster.......................................................... Loading machine operator.......................... Cutting machine operator .......................... Crane, derrick, and hoist operator ............ Longwall miner operator helper ................ Longwall miner operator............................ 55.8 14.2 8.0 6.2 6.1 3.4 3.1 2.6 .6 C oal is m in ed in 2 6 S ta tes. H o w e v er , e m p lo y m en t is concen trated in the A p p alach ian area that in clu d es W est V ir g in ia , K en tu ck y, P en n sy lv a n ia , and V irgin ia. L arge num bers o f co a l m iners also w ork in O h io , Illin o is, A la b a m a , and W y o m in g . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement C o a l m in in g o p eratives learn their sk ills on the jo b under the su p erv isio n o f ex p erien ced w ork ers. Fed eral la w s require that all m in e w orkers r ec e iv e sa fety and health training b efo re th ey b e g in w ork in the m in e and annu al r etr a in in g . U n io n c o n tr a cts a n d so m e S tates a lso require p reserv ice training and annual retraining in su b jects su ch as first aid and health and sa fety regu latio n s. M in ers m u st b e at lea st 18 years o ld . B e ca u se the w ork is stren u ou s, they m ust b e in g o o d p h y sica l co n d itio n . A h igh sc h o o l d i p lo m a is not required. Miner transports coal in a shuttle car from the mine face. N e w , in ex p erien ced m in e w o rk ers, ca lled “ red h a t s ,” start as train ees and b e c o m e g e n eral laborers after the in itial training period . T h ey perform routine tasks su ch as sh o v elin g c o a l on to c o n v e y o r b e lts. A s n e w m iners gain e x p e rien ce , they w ork as help ers to e x p erien ced m ach in e operators and learn the sk ills n eed ed to operate the m ach in ery. In Construction and Extractive Occupations/389 u n ion m in e s, w h en a v a ca n cy occu rs in a m a ch in e operator jo b , an an n ou n cem en t is p o sted and a ll q u a lified w orkers m ay app ly for the jo b . T h e w orker w ith the m o st sen ior ity g en era lly g e ts the p o sitio n . A d v a n cem en t op p ortu n ities for co a l m in in g op era tiv es are lim ited . S o m e b e c o m e su pervisors; h o w ev e r, add ition al training is n eed ed to a d v a n ce to h igh er su p ervisory or m an a g em en t jo b s. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f c o a l m in in g op eratives is e x p e cte d to in crea se m uch faster than the a v e r a g e fo r a ll o c c u p a tio n s th ro u g h the 1 9 8 0 ’s in order to m eet the risin g d em an d for c o a l. In add ition to the grow th in d em an d for th ese w o rk ers, m any o p e n in g s w ill o ccu r e a ch year from the n eed to rep lace w orkers w h o lea v e the o ccu p a tio n , retire, or d ie. P rod uction o f co a l is e x p e cte d to in crease greatly o v er the n ex t d eca d e as the N ation se e k s alternative so u rces o f en ergy to im port e d o il. E lectric u tilities are the prim ary users o f co a l; as the p rice o f o il in creases relative to the price o f c o a l, m ore u tilities w ill sw itch to c o a l to fu e l their p ow erp lan ts. M ore co a l a lso w ill b e n eed ed as m anu factu ring in d u s tries sw itch to c o a l-fired b oilers and as the sy n th etic fu el in d u stries, w h ich use c o a l to produ ce o il and g a s, are d e v e lo p ed . In add i tion to d o m estic d em an d , coal exports are e x p ected to rise as cou n tries around the w orld strive to red u ce their d ep en d en ce on o il. T h e e m p lo y m en t o u tlo o k for ind ividu al operator o ccu p a tio n s w ill d ep en d o n the typ es o f n e w m in es o p en ed and the m in in g m eth o d s and m ach in ery u sed . T h e in creased u se o f su rface m in in g w ill in crease the dem an d fo r b u lld o zer operators, d raglin e operators, and p o w er sh o v e l operators. In underground m in e s, the d em a n d for con tin u ou s m in in g m ach in e operators and lo n g w a ll m iner op era tors sh o u ld in crea se. C o a l is a m ajor resource in the production o f g o o d s su ch as ste el and cem en t. B eca u se the d em an d for th ese g o o d s is se n sitiv e to ch a n g es in the lev e l o f e co n o m ic a c tiv ity , the dem an d for co a l m ay d e c lin e during e c o n o m ic dow n tu rn s. M in ers m ay lo se their jo b s w h en the d em an d for c o a l drops. Earnings A v era g e hou rly earn in gs for produ ction w orkers in co a l m in in g are h igh er than for the m in in g industry as a w h o le , and su bstan tia lly h igh er than the average for all produ c tio n w o r k e rs in p riv a te in d u str y , e x c e p t fa r m in g . In 1 9 8 0 , c o a l m in e rs a v e r a g e d $ 1 0 .8 3 per hou r, com p ared to $ 9 .1 8 for all m iners and $ 6 .6 6 for w orkers in private in dustry. W a g e rates for m in in g m achinery Hydraulic jacks support the roof as the coal is sheared from the face of a seam. op eratives are p resented in table 1. O pera tiv e s w h o w ork the e v en in g sh ift r ec eiv e an add ition al $ .2 0 , an hour and th ose w h o w ork th e n igh t sh ift r ec eiv e an additional $ .3 0 an hour. Table 1. Average hourly earnings in selected occupations in the bituminous coal industry, 1980 Occupation Hourly rate1 Power shovel operator............................ Longwall miner operator........................ Continuous mining machine operator . . . Continuous mining machine helper........ Loading machine operator...................... Cutting machine operator ...................... Cutting machine operator helper............ $10.66 10.64 10.57 10.27 10.18 10.16 10.11 Bulldozer operator ..................................... 10.03 Blaster...................................................... Machine driller........................................ 9.91 9.80 ‘Excludes overtime and incentive pay. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. V irtu ally all co a l m iners g e t 10 h o lid a y s a year. M in ers w h o w ork in m in es co v ered b y a contract b etw een the B itu m in ou s C oal O p erators A s so c ia tio n and the U n ited M in e W orkers r ec eiv e 14 days o f paid vacation a year. A fter w ork in g 6 y ears, th ese m iners gain 1 extra vacation d ay each year up to a m axim u m o f 13 extra d ays. M in ers gen erally m ust take their v a cation during 1 o f 3 regular vacation p eriod s. A fter 1 year on the jo b , h o w ev e r, m iners r ec eiv e 5 p erso n a l/sick and 4 floatin g vacation days that d o n ot h a v e to b e taken during th ese p eriod s. M in ers not co v ered b y the B C O A -U M W contract g en er a lly r ec eiv e 2 w e ek s o f paid v acation after 1 year o f em p lo y m en t. M o st c o a l m iners r ec eiv e health and life insu ran ce and p en sio n b en efits. H ealth insu r a n ce u su a lly in clu d es h osp ita liza tio n , sur g e ry , c o n v a lesce n t care, reh abilitation ser v ic e s , and m aternity b en efits. T h e se b en efits a lso exten d to the m in e r ’s d ep en d en ts. T he siz e o f a m in e r ’s p en sio n d ep en d s o n the a g e at retirem ent and the num ber o f years o f serv ice. T he U n ited M in e W orkers o f A m erica n e g o tia tes the contracts that co v er m o st c o a l m in ers. T h e Sou thern L abor U n io n , the P ro g r essiv e M in e W ork ers, the International U n io n o f O perating E n gin eers, and in d ep en d en t sin g le-firm u n ion s a lso h a v e contracts w ith m in e operators. Related Occupations M an y other w orkers are n eed ed to run sa fe and e ffic ie n t c o a l m in e s. T h ese o ccu p a tio n s in clu d e h o ist operators, m ain ten an ce electri c ia n s, m ain ten an ce m e ch a n ics, rock dust sp rayers, r o o f b o lters, safety en g in e er s, s e c tion su p ervisors, sh uttle car operators, strip p in g sh o v el o ile r s, and truckdrivers. Sources of Additional Information For d etails about jo b opp ortu nities in m in in g , con tact in d ivid u al c o a l c o m p a n ie s. G en eral in form ation on m in in g o ccu p a tio n s is ava ila b le from: United Mine Workers of America, 900 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. National Coal Association, 1130 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Production Occupations C ars, g a so lin e , n ew sp ap ers, e y e g la ss e s , d iam ond rin g s, g u id ed m issiles and m ost o th er products h ave at least o n e thing in c o m m o n — they are m ade b y p rodu ction w orkers. M o st p rodu ction w orkers are fou n d in m anu facturing pla n ts, but others w ork in settin gs as d ifferen t as sh o e repair sh o p s , m o v ie the aters, je w elr y sto res, and m eat m arkets. T here are thou san ds o f p rodu ction o ccu p a tio n s. In m a n y , w orkers d o o n ly on e task in a p ro cess that m ass produ ces a sin g le product. A len s inserter, for e x a m p le , fits len ses into e y e g la ss fram es. In other p rodu ction jo b s , w orkers d o a variety o f task s to produ ce m any d ifferen t g o o d s. Instrum ent m akers, for e x a m p le, b u ild p recise m easuring and regu lating d e v ic e s , co m p letin g all o f the step s that are required to fin ish the d e v ic e s. S o m e w orkers perform sim p le , rep etitive operations o n large m ach in e to o ls w h ile others— j e w e l e rs, for e x a m p le — u se hand to o ls to d o d e li ca te w ork. N o t all p rodu ction w orkers turn ou t produ cts, h o w ev e r. S o m e operate c o m p le x sy stem s o f b o iler s, gen erators, p u m p s, and v a lv es that produ ce clean w ater or ener gyT ra in in g r eq u irem en ts fo r p r o d u ctio n w orkers vary w id e ly . S o m e w orkers w h o do rep etitive tasks can learn their jo b in a fe w d a y s. O ther jo b s require years o f ex p erien ce. M any production w orkers lea m their sk ills through a pp renticeship program s that c o m b in e cla ssro o m instruction w ith on-th e-job training. O thers rec eiv e training in p u b lic and private v o ca tio n a l sc h o o ls and in the A rm ed F o rces. T he occu p a tio n a l statem en ts in this chapter d escrib e in detail the w ork , train in g, and job o u tlo ok for 3 2 produ ction occu p a tio n s. Blue-Collar Worker Supervisors________ Nature of the Work In any org a n iza tio n , so m e o n e has to be b o ss. For the m illio n s o f w orkers w h o a s sem b le te le v isio n s e ts, serv ice a u to m o b iles, lay b rick s, unload sh ip s, or perform any o f thou san ds o f other a c tiv ities, a b lu eco lla r w orker su p ervisor is the b o ss. T h ese su pervisors direct the a ctivities o f other e m p lo y e e s and freq uently ensu re that m il lio n s o f dollars w orth o f eq u ip m en t and m aterials are used properly and e ffic ie n tly . W h ile b lu e-co lla r w orker su pervisors are m o st co m m o n ly k n o w n as forem en or fore w o m e n , th ey a lso h a v e m any other titles. In the te x tile ind ustry, th ey are referred to as seco n d hands; o n sh ip s, th ey are k n ow n as b o atsw ain s; and in the con stru ction in http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 390 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis d u str y , th e y are o fte n c a lle d stra w b o sses, or gan g lead ers. overseers, A lth ou gh titles m ay d iffer, the jo b o f all b lu e-co lla r w orker su p ervisors is sim ilar. T h ey tell other e m p lo y e e s w h at w ork has to b e d on e and m ake sure the w ork is d on e correctly. For e x a m p le , load in g su p ervisors at truck term inals a ssig n w orkers to load tru ck s, and then ch e ck that the m aterial is load ed correctly and that each truck is fu lly u sed . T h ey m ay mark freigh t b ills and record the load and w e ig h t o f e a ch truck. In m any in d u stries, su p ervisors a lso direct all or part o f a production p r o c ess. M in e car d isp atch ers, for e x a m p le , control the traffic o f n ew c o a l through underground m in es. B eca u se they are resp o n sib le for the output o f other w ork ers, su p ervisors m ake w ork sch ed u les and k eep prod u ction and e m p lo y ee record s. T h ey plan e m p lo y e e s ’ a ctiv ities and m ust a llo w for u n foreseen p rob lem s su ch as absent w orkers and m ach in e b reak d ow n s. S u pervisors teach e m p lo y e e s sa fe w ork prac tices and en fo rce safety ru les and regu lation s. T h ey also m ay dem onstrate tim esa v in g or lab or-savin g tech n iq u es to w orkers and train n ew e m p lo y ee s. In add ition to their other d u tie s, b lu e-co lla r w orker su p ervisors tell their subordinates about co m p an y plan s and p o licie s; recom m end g o o d perform ers for w a g e in crea ses, aw ards, or p rom otion s; and d eal w ith poor p erfo rm ers b y retra in in g th em in p rop er m eth od s, by issu in g w a rn in gs, or b y recom m en d in g that they be d isc ip lin ed or fired. In co m p an ies w h ere e m p lo y e e s b elo n g to labor u n io n s, su p ervisors m eet w ith u n ion repre sen tatives to d iscu ss w ork p rob lem s and g riev a n ces. T h ey m ust k n ow the p rovision s o f lab or-m an agem en t contracts and run their operation s accord in g to th ese agreem en ts. Working Conditions A lth ou gh w ork in g c o n d itio n s vary from industry to ind ustry, m o st b lu e-co lla r w orker su p ervisors w ork in a norm al sh op e n v iro n m ent. T h ey m ay b e o n their fe et m u ch o f the tim e o v e rsee in g the w ork o f subordinates and m ay be su b jected to the n o ise and grim e o f m achinery. S in ce th ese su p ervisors are resp o n sib le for the w ork o f other b lu e-co lla r w ork ers, they m ay w ork lo n ger hours in order to b e o n the jo b b efore other w orkers arrive and after they lea v e . F irst-lin e su p ervisors so m etim es are caught in the m id d le b etw een the w ork fo rce and m an agem en t. N e w su p ervisors w h o are hired from ou tsid e the firm a lso m ay fa c e initial h o stility from w orkers w h o fe e l they sh ould h ave b een prom oted to the jo b . T h e se p o ten tial prob lem s are o ffs e t b y the satisfaction that b lu e-c o lla r w ork er su p ervisors m ay fin d in h a v in g m ore ch a lle n g in g and p restig io u s jo b s than m o st b lu e-co lla r w orkers. Employment A b o u t 1 ,3 0 0 ,0 0 0 b lu e-co lla r w orker super viso rs w ere e m p lo y ed in 1980. A lth o u g h they w ork ed for a lm o st all b u sin e sses and g o v ern m en t a g e n c ie s, o v er h a lf o f them w ork ed in m an u factu rin g, su p ervisin g the prod u ction o f cars, w a sh in g m a c h in e s, and th ou san d s o f other p rod u cts. M o st o f the rest w ork ed in the con stru ction in d u stry, in w h o le sa le and retail trade, in p u b lic u tilitie s, and transporta tio n . E m p lo y m en t is distribu ted in m u ch the sam e w a y as p o p u la tio n , and jo b s are located in all c itie s and to w n s. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement W h e n c h o o s in g s u p e r v is o r s , e m p lo y e r s g en era lly lo o k for e x p e rien ce , sk ill, and lea d ersh ip q u a lities. E m p lo y ers p la c e em p h asis on the ab ility to m o tiv a te e m p lo y e e s , m ain tain h igh m o ra le, com m an d resp ect, and g et a lo n g w ith p e o p le . C o m p le tio n o f h ig h sc h o o l o ften is the m in im u m ed u ca tio n a l re q u irem en t, and 1 or 2 years o f c o lle g e or tech n ica l sc h o o l can be very h elp fu l to w ork ers w h o w an t to b e c o m e su p erv iso rs. M o st su p ervisors rise through the ranks— that is, th ey are prom oted from jo b s w h ere they operated a m a ch in e, w o rk ed o n an a s se m b ly lin e , or at a con stru ctio n craft. T h is w ork e x p e rien ce g iv e s th em the a d van tage o f k n o w in g h o w jo b s sh ou ld b e d o n e and w hat p rob lem s m ay arise. It a lso p ro v id es them w ith in sig h t in to m an agem en t p o lic ie s and e m p lo y e e attitudes tow ard s th ese p o lic ie s. S u p ervisors are so m e tim e s form er u n io n rep resen tatives w h o are fam iliar w ith g riev a n ce proced ures and u n ion con tracts. T o su p p le m en t th is w ork e x p e rien ce , m any co m p a n ies h ave training program s to h elp d e v e lo p su pervisory sk ills. A lth o u g h fe w b lu e-co lla r w ork er su p erv i sors are c o lle g e grad u ates, a g ro w in g num ber o f e m p lo y er s are hiring train ees w ith a c o l le g e or tech n ica l sc h o o l back grou n d . T h is practice is m o st p revalen t in industries w ith h ig h ly tech n ica l prod u ction p r o c e s se s , su ch as the aero sp a ce, o il, and ele ctr o n ic s in d u s tr ie s. E m p lo y e r s g e n e r a lly p r e fer b a c k ground s in b u sin ess ad m in istration , industrial rela tio n s, m a th em atics, e n g in e er in g , or sc i e n c e . T h e train ees u n d ergo o n -th e-jo b train in g until th ey are ab le to accep t su p ervisory r esp o n sib ilities. O utstan d in g su p ervisors, particularly th ose w ith a c o lle g e ed u ca tio n , m ay m o v e up to h ig h er m an agem en t p o sitio n s. In m an u fa c tu rin g, for e x a m p le , th ey m ay ad v a n ce to Production Occupations/391 jo b s su ch as ager. S o m e con stru ction s k ills th e y th e m se lv es. departm ent head and plant m an su p erv iso rs, particularly in the in d u stry, u se the e x p erien ce and g a in to g o in to b u s in e s s fo r Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f b lu e-co lla r w orker super v iso rs is ex p e cte d to in crease about as fast as the avera g e for a ll o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. In ad d itio n , m an y jo b o p en in g s w ill arise as ex p erien ced su p ervisors transfer to other o c cu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie. T heir salaries gen era lly are d eterm ined by the w a g e rates o f the h ig h est paid w orkers they su p erv ise. F or e x a m p le , so m e com p an ies k eep w a g e s o f su p ervisors about 10 to 30 percen t h igh er than th o se o f their su bordi n ates. S o m e su p ervisors r ec eiv e overtim e p ay. serv ice w orkers. S o m e o f th ese are retail store or retail departm ent m anagers; bank o ffice rs and head tellers; hotel m anagers, h o u sek eep ers, and assistants; postm asters an d lin e su p e rv iso r s; h ea d c o o k s ; h ead nurses; and su rveyors. Sources of Additional Information Related Occupations M any other w orkers h a v e su p ervisory d u tie s , in clu d in g th o se w h o su p ervise p rofes sio n a l and tech n ica l, sa le s, c le ric a l, and A b ib liograp h y o f career literature o n m an ag em en t occu p a tio n s is a vaila b le from: American Management Associations, 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. R isin g in c o m es w ill stim u late dem an d for g o o d s su ch as h o u se s, air c o n d itio n ers, T V s e ts, and cars. A s a resu lt, m ore b lu e-co lla r w orkers w ill b e n eed ed to prod u ce th ese ite m s , and m ore su p ervisors w ill b e n eed ed to d irect their a c tiv ities. A lth o u g h m o st o f th ese su p ervisors w ill co n tin u e to w ork in m an u factu rin g, a large part o f the in crease in jo b s w ill b e in n on m anu factu ring in d u stries, e sp e c ia lly in the trade and se r v ic e sectors. B e ca u se b lu e-co lla r w orker su p ervisors are so im portant to the su c c e ssfu l operation o f a firm , th ey are o ften protected from la y o ffs during r ec essio n . S u p ervisors in the con stru c tion ind ustry, h o w e v e r , m ay e x p erien ce peri o d ic la y o f f s , w h e n in te r e st ra tes c a u se con stru ction a ctiv ity to d e c lin e . Earnings In 1 9 8 0 , avera g e annual earn in gs o f b lu eco lla r w orker su p ervisors w h o w orked full tim e w ere about $ 2 1 ,0 0 0 , ap p roxim ately on e and o n e -h a lf tim es the average for all non su perv iso ry w orkers in private ind ustry, e x ce p t fa rm in g . S u p erv iso rs u su ally are salaried. Blue-collar worker supervisors enforce safety regulations on the job site. Precision Production Occupations T he w orkers d iscu ssed in this sectio n o f the Handbook produce g o o d s that require a h igh d egree o f p recisio n and m ust m eet rigid qu ality standards. In add ition , m any o f th ese w orkers m ust interpret very detailed instruc tio n s and sp ec ific a tio n s. T o o l m ak ers, for e x a m p le, produ ce to o ls su ch as g u id es for drill p resses that m ust be m ade to precise sp ec ific a tio n s b eca u se they are u sed to m ake h u n d red s o r e v e n th o u sa n d s o f id e n tic a l parts. In order to d o the jo b correctly, the to o l m aker m ust b e a b le to read and fo llo w ex a ctly the blueprints p rovid ed b y the tool d esig n er. T able 1 presents 1 9 8 0 e m p lo y m en t for s e lected p recisio n produ ction occu p a tio n s. Table 1. Employment in selected precision production occupations, 1980 Occupation Employment Machinists........................................ Machinist ................................ Layout marker, metal ............ Tool-and-die maker ........................ Compositor and typesetter.............. Cabinetmaker ................................ Tailor................................................ Photoengraver and lithographer . . . . Dental laboratory technician .......... Boilermaker...................................... Metal molder .................................. Furniture upholsterer ...................... Jeweler and silversmith .................. Wood machinist .............................. Furniture finisher ............................ Shipfitter.......................................... Patternmaker.................................... Shoe repairer.................................... Watchmaker .................................... Lens grinder.................................... Coremaker........................................ 303,000 282,000 21,000 166,000 128,000 71,000 63,000 55,000 53,000 44,000 40,000 35,000 28,000 26,000 22,000 17,000 17,000 16,000 12,000 11,000 9,000 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. T here are no u n iversal training require m ents for th ese w ork ers. M ost p recisio n pro d u ction jo b s can b e learned in form ally— starting as a h elp er and o b servin g ex p eri en ced w orkers. S o m e co m p a n ies offer inh o u se training program s on sp ec ific areas o f the w ork . T he preferred training for m any o f the m ore h ig h ly tech n ical occu p a tio n s— m a ch in ists, to o l-a n d -d ie m akers, and lith ogra p h ers, for ex a m p le— is co m p letio n o f a form al app renticeship program . T h ese program s, w h ich u su ally last from 3 to 5 years, c o m bin e c la ssro o m instruction w ith on -th e-job training. Job p r o sp e c ts fo r p r e c is io n p r o d u ctio n w orkers vary w id e ly . S e e the Handbook state m ents that fo llo w for in form ation on the job o u tlo o k in sp ec ific o ccu p a tio n s. 392 All-Round Machinists_________ (D .O .T. 600.260-018, -022, -026, -030, -034, -038, -042;.281-010,-018, -022; .381-018; and 714.281-018) Nature of the Work A ll-rou n d m ach in ists are sk illed m etalw ork ers w h o can turn a b lo c k o f m etal into an intricate part, su ch as a gear or p isto n , that m eets p recise sp ec ific a tio n s. T h ey k n ow h o w to set up and operate m o st typ es o f m ach in e to o ls u sed to m ake m etal parts for aircraft, cars, m a ch in es, and other eq u ip m en t. T h ey a lso k n o w the w ork in g properties o f m etals su ch as ste el, cast iron , alu m in u m , and brass u sed to m ake th ese parts. U sin g this k n o w l e d g e o f m etals plus their sk ill w ith m ach in e t o o ls , produ ction m ach in ists plan and carry ou t the op eration s n eed ed to m ake a m ach in ed product. B efo re th ey b eg in w ork on a part, m ach in ists u su ally co n su lt blueprints or written sp ec i fica tio n s. T h ey se lec t to o ls and m aterials for the jo b and plan the cu ttin g and fin ish in g op eration s. T o m ake a rifle barrel, for e x a m p le , th ey m igh t u se a llo y ste el for the w orkp ie c e and a boring m ach in e to cut o u t the rifle bore. A fter se lec tin g a w o rk p iece and the appropriate m a ch in e, th ey determ in e d im en sion s o f w ork and m ach in in g com p u tation s. For e x a m p le, they m ust k n o w w h ere to bore the h o le in the w o r k p ie c e, h o w fast th ey can fe ed the m etal w o rk p iece into the m ach in e, and w h ich c o o lin g o ils k eep m etal from o v er h eatin g. T h ey u se p recisio n in stru m en ts, su ch as m icrom eters, to ch e ck their w ork to th ou sandths or e v en ten -th ou san d th s o f an in ch . A fter c o m p letin g m ach in in g op eration s, they m ay sm ooth rough m etal e d g e s b efo re a ssem b lin g the fin ish ed parts. L ike p rodu ction m ach in ists, all-roun d m a ch in ists in m aintenance sh op s h ave a broad k n o w led g e o f m eta ls, m a ch in es, and m a ch in in g op eration s. T h ese w orkers repair or m ake n ew parts for m ach in ery. T h ey a lso adjust and test th ese parts. Working Conditions T h e w ork environ m en t for m ach in ists has im p roved con sid erab ly in recen t years. M o st m ach in e sh op s are c le a n , w e ll lig h ted , and w e ll ven tilated M any m o d em sh o p s are airco n d itio n ed . N o is e le v e ls a lso have b een re d u ced w ith the introduction o f better d e sig n e d m ach in e to o ls. In sh op s w h ere n o ise still is a p rob lem , w orkers m ust w ear earm u ffs or ear p lu g s to protect their hearing. W ork in g around h ig h -sp e ed m a ch in e to o ls, h o w e v e r , can still presen t certain dan gers. B e ca u se fly in g p ie c e s o f h ot m etal can ca u se b u m s and cu ts, m ach in ists m ust w ea r safety g la sse s w ith sid e sh ie ld s and other p rotective d e v ic e s . L o o se or b illo w y c lo th in g , lo n g hair, and rin gs or other je w e lr y are prohib ited. Employment A b ou t 3 0 3 ,0 0 0 p erson s w o rk ed as m a ch in ists in 1 9 8 0 . A lm o st ev ery fa ctory that u ses substantial am oun ts o f m ach in ery e m p lo y s all-rou n d m ach in ists to m aintain its m ech a n i cal eq u ip m en t. In so m e fa c to r ies, m ach in ists m ake large q u an tities o f id en tical parts su ch as a u tom ob ile a x le sh afts in p rodu ction d e partm en ts. In oth ers, th ey m ake lim ited nu m bers o f varied products su ch as m issile m otor c a se s in m ach in e sh o p s. M o st all-roun d m a ch in ists w o rk in the fo llo w in g industries: M ach in ery , in clu d in g electrical; transportation equip m ent; fabricat e d m e ta l p ro d u cts; an d p rim a ry m e ta ls . O ther in d u stries e m p lo y in g substantial n u m b ers o f t h e s e w o r k e rs are th e r a ilro a d , c h e m ic a l, fo o d p r o c essin g , and te x tile in d u stries. T h e Federal G o vern m en t a lso e m p lo y s all-rou n d m ach in ists in N a v y yards and oth er in stallation s. A lth o u g h m ach in ists w ork in all parts o f the cou n try, jo b s are m o st p len tifu l in areas w h ere m any factories are loca ted . A m o n g the lea d in g areas o f e m p lo y m en t are L o s A n g e le s , C h ic a g o , N e w Y o rk , P h ila d elp h ia , B o s ton , San F ra n cisco , and H ou sto n . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A 4 -y e a r form al ap p ren ticesh ip is the b est w a y to learn the m a ch in ist trade, but so m e c o m p a n ies h a v e shorter training program s for sin g le-p u rp o se m a ch in es. M any m ach in ists d o learn this trade on the j o b , h o w ev er. P erson s in terested in b e c o m in g m ach in ists sh o u ld b e m ech a n ica lly in clin ed to u se the to o ls and m ach in es required to b u ild c o m p lex m ech a n ism s. T h ey a lso sh o u ld b e tem pera m en tally su ited to d o h ig h ly accurate w ork that requires con cen tration as w e ll as p h y sica l effort. P ro sp ective m a ch in ists sh o u ld be able to w ork in d ep en d en tly. A lth o u g h the w ork so m e tim e s is ted iou s and rep etitio u s, a ll round m ach in ists freq u en tly h a v e the sa tisfa c tion o f se e in g the fin al results o f their w ork . T h ey a lso often are ab le to sw itch from m ak ing on e product to another; as a resu lt, vari ety is a m ajor featu re o f all-rou n d m ach in ists ’ w ork . A h igh sc h o o l or v o ca tio n a l sc h o o l ed u c a tio n , in clu d in g m a th em a tics, p h y sic s , or m ach in e sh op train in g, is d esira b le. S o m e co m p a n ie s require e x p erien ced m ach in ists to Production Occupations/393 take add ition al co u rses in m ath em atics and ele ctr o n ic s at co m p a n y e x p e n se to w ork w ith n ew er m eta lw o rk in g te c h n o lo g ie s, su ch as nu m erically co n tro lled m ach in e to o ls. In a d d itio n , eq u ip m en t bu ild ers g en erally pro v id e training in the ele ctr ica l, h yd rau lic, and m ech a n ica l a sp ects o f m a ch in e-an d -con trol sy stem s. T y p ic a l m a c h in ist a p p re n tic e p rogram s c o n sist o f a p p roxim ately 8 ,0 0 0 hou rs o f sh op training and abou t 5 7 0 hou rs o f related c la s s ro o m in stru ction . In sh o p train in g, appren tic e s learn c h ip p in g , filin g , hand tapp in g, d o w e l fittin g , riv e tin g , and the operation o f v ariou s m a ch in e to o ls. In the cla ssr o o m , they stu d y blueprint rea d in g , m ech a n ica l d raw in g, sh op m ath em a tics, and sh op p ractices. M any all-roun d m ach in ists b e c o m e super v iso r s. O thers take add ition al training and b e c o m e to o l-a n d -d ie or instrum ent m akers. S k illed m ach in ists m ay o p en their o w n sh op s o r a d van ce in to other tech n ical jo b s in m a c h in e p rogram m in g and to o lin g . Job Outlook T h e num ber o f all-rou n d m ach in ists is e x p ected to in crease about as fast as the aver a g e for a ll o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. G row th in the dem an d for m ach in ed m etal parts w ill ca u se m o st o f the in crease. In ad d itio n , m an y o p e n in g s w ill arise from the n eed to rep la ce e x p erien ced m ach in ists w h o transfer to other fie ld s o f w ork , retire, or d ie. A s po p u la tio n and in c o m es r ise, so w ill the dem an d for m ach in ed g o o d s , su ch as a u to m o b ile s, h o u seh o ld a p p lia n ces, and in dustrial p rod u cts. H o w e v er , tech n o lo g ica l d ev elo p m en ts that in crease the p rodu ctivity o f m a ch in ists are e x p e cte d to k eep em p lo y m ent from risin g as fast as the dem and for m ach in ed g o o d s . C h ie f am o n g th ese te ch n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s is the use o f n u m erically con trolled m ach in e to o ls. T h ese m a ch in es, w h ich use com p u ters to con trol v ariou s m ach in in g oper a tio n s, sig n ifica n tly red u ce the tim e for m a ch in in g o p eration s. M u ch o f the em p lo y m en t grow th w ill o c cur in the m ain ten an ce sh op s o f m anufactur in g plan ts as ind ustries co n tin u e to u se a greater v o lu m e o f c o m p lex m achinery and eq u ip m en t. M ore sk illed m aintenance m a ch in ists w ill b e n eed ed to preven t c o stly b reak d ow n s in h ig h ly m ech a n ized p lan ts. O f ten the break d ow n o f ju st o n e m ach in e can stop an entire produ ction lin e for hours. E m p lo y m en t o f m ach in ists is rela tiv ely in se n sitiv e to the b u sin ess c y c le . Instead o f b ein g stim ulated by d em an d for co n su m er g o o d s , em p lo y m en t o f produ ction m ach in ists is tied to the d ev elo p m en t o f n ew industrial m ach in ery. E v en w h en dem and for a particu lar co n su m er durable g o o d is d o w n — au to m o b ile s , fo r e x a m p le — m ach in ists are n eed ed to retool in order to m ake n e w product lin es. E m p lo y m en t o f m ach in ists in v o lv ed in plant m ain ten an ce a lso is in se n sitiv e to e c o n o m ic dow ntu rn s. P roper m ain ten an ce and repair o f c o stly eq u ip m en t rem ain vital c o n cern s e v e n w h en prod u ction le v e ls fall. Machinists are highly skilled workers. Earnings Related Occupations T h e earn in gs o f m ach in ists com pare favor ably w ith th ose o f other sk illed w orkers. M a ch in ists e m p lo y ed in m etropolitan areas had estim ated average hou rly earn in gs o f $ 9 .6 3 in 1 9 8 0 . A v era g e hou rly rates in 10 o f the areas su rv ey ed , se lec ted to sh o w h o w rates d iffer in variou s parts o f the cou n try, appear in the a c c o m p a n y in g ta b le . B e c a u s e m a c h in is t s ’ w ork is n ot se a so n a l, earn in gs are relatively stab le year round. M any a lso r ec eiv e num er ou s op p ortu n ities for o v ertim e w ork. O ccu p ation s m ost c lo s e ly related to all round m a ch in ists are, o f c o u rse, the other m ach in in g occu p a tio n s. T h ese in clu d e to o lan d -d ie m ak ers, m ach in e to o l operators, m a c h in e to o l setup w ork ers, and instrum ent m akers. O ther occu p a tio n s that require p reci sio n and sk ill in w orking w ith m etal in clu d e arc cu tters, b lack sm ith s, g u n sm ith s, lo ck sm ith s, m etal patternm akers, and w eld ers. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation on career opp ortu nities in the m ach in e to o l ind ustry, contact: Table 1. Average hourly earnings of all-round machinists in selected areas, 1980 Area Hourly rate Milwaukee ........................................ Detroit................................................ San Francisco-Oakland.................... Baltimore............................................ New Orleans...................................... Houston.............................................. Chicago.............................................. New York.......................................... Atlanta................................................ Minneapolis-St. Paul........................ Boston................................................ Jackson, Miss...................................... $11.11 11.00 10.88 10.86 10.57 10.46 10.02 9.83 9.71 9.65 8.65 7.29 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. M any m ach in ists are m em b ers o f u n io n s, in clu d in g the International A sso c ia tio n o f M ach in ists and A erosp ace W orkers; the Inter national U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp ace and A gricu ltu ral Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica; the International U n io n o f E lectri c a l, R ad io and M ach in e W orkers; the Interna tional B rotherh ood o f E lectrical W orkers; and the U n ited S teelw ork ers o f A m erica. The National Machine Tool Builders Association, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. In form ation on app renticeship train in g, in c lu d in g recom m en d ed app ren ticesh ip stand ards for to o l-a n d -d ie m akers certified b y the U .S . D epartm en t o f L ab or’s B ureau o f A p p ren ticesh ip and T rain in g can be obtained from: The National Tool, Die and Precision Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Washington, D.C. 20022. For in form ation on app renticeship training in the C h ica g o area, contact: The Tool and Die Institute, 777 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. M an y lo c a l o ffic e s o f State em p lo y m en t se r v ic es provid e free aptitude testin g to per so n s in terested in b e c o m in g all-roun d m a ch in ists or to o l-a n d -d ie m akers. In add itio n , the State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e refers app licants for apprentice program s to e m p lo y ers. In m any co m m u n ities, lab or-m an agem en t app rentice sh ip c o m m itte es accep t ap p lication s for ap p ren ticesh ip . A p p ren ticesh ip in form ation a lso m ay be ob tain ed from the fo llo w in g u n ion s (w h ich h ave lo ca l o ffic e s in m any c itie s). 394/Occupational Outlook Handbook United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jeffer son Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Automobile Repair Service Estimators (D .O .T. 620.261-014 and 018) Nature of the Work A u to m o b ile repair serv ice estim ators are the lin k b etw een cu sto m ers and m ech an ics in m any a u to m o b ile d ealersh ip s and in som e large in d ep en d en t g a rages. W h en cu stom ers bring their ca rs, v a n s, or lig h t trucks into the serv ice departm ent, serv ice estim ators (so m e tim es ca lled serv ice a d visors or w riters) find ou t w h at w ork n eed s to b e d on e and arrange for m ech a n ics to d o it. For routine m ain ten an ce, serv ice estim a tors m ake ou t a repair order listin g the c u s to m e r ’s nam e and add ress, m ak e and year o f the v e h ic le , m ile a g e , and the w ork to be d o n e. I f a factory warranty c o v ers the re pairs, the serv ice estim ator a lso records the en g in e and b o d y n u m b ers, and date o f pur ch a se. W hen cu stom ers o ffer o n ly a sk etch y d e scrip tion o f the m ech an ical p rob lem , the ser v ic e estim ator m ust q u estion the cu stom er and in sp ect or test drive the car, va n , or p icku p to d ia g n o se the trouble. T h e estim ator then prepares a repair order that d escrib es the p roblem and its p o ssib le cau se. S erv ice estim ators tell the cu stom er w hat repairs are n eed ed , their app roxim ate c o st, and h o w lo n g the w ork w ill tak e. S in ce this can n ot alw a y s b e d on e until m ech a n ics h ave in sp ected the v e h ic le s, estim ators m ay p h on e later to g iv e cu stom ers this in form ation and to ask p erm ission to do the w ork . S o m etim es cu stom ers are reluctant to auth orize ex p en siv e repairs e v en if th ey are n ecessa ry , so serv ice estim ators m ay describ e h ow the w ork w ill im p rove perform an ce and safety or preven t m ore seriou s trouble. In large d ealersh ip s and sh o p s, au tom ob ile repair serv ice estim ators g iv e repair orders to the sh op d isp atch er w h o figu res the c o st o f parts and labor and a ssig n s w ork to m ech an ics. In sm aller sh o p s, h o w e v e r , estim ators perform th ese d u ties. S erv ice estim ators a lso an sw er m e c h a n ic s’ q u estio n s about repair or ders and often test drive v e h ic le s after repairs h a v e b een m ade to b e sure th ey are operating properly. W h en the cu stom er returns for the v e h ic le , the serv ice estim ator an sw ers any q u estion s about the repairs and settles com p lain ts about their c o st or q u ality. I f the sh op has m ad e an error on the b ill or fa iled to p rovid e sa tisfa c tory se r v ic e, the serv ice estim ator m ay adjust the b ill, w ith p erm ission from the serv ice m anager. Working Conditions M ost a u tom ob ile repair serv ice estim ators w ork 4 0 to 4 8 hours a w e ek . T h ey are b u s iest, and often rush ed , in the early m orning w h en m o st cu stom ers bring in their v e h ic le s , and in the- late afternoon w h en th ey return to p ick them up. O cc a sio n a lly , serv ice estim a tors m ust deal w ith irate cu stom ers. A lth o u g h serv ice estim ators m u st stand m ost o f the d a y , their jo b is not p h y sica lly stren uou s. O cc a sio n a lly , th ey m ust w ork o u t sid e in bad w eath er. G en era lly , h o w ev e r, they w ork in c le a n , w e ll-lig h te d , and w e llheated sh op s. Employment A b o u t 1 1 ,4 0 0 p erson s w o rk ed as auto m o b ile repair se r v ic e estim a to rs in 1 9 8 0 . M o st w ork ed for large a u to m o b ile dealers; so m e w o rk ed for large ind ep en d en t auto m o b ile repair sh o p s. R epair sh o p s w ith fe w er than 2 0 e m p lo y e e s u su a lly d o n ot em p lo y se r v ic e ad v iso rs. M o st ad viso rs are e m p lo y ed in m etrop olitan areas, w h ere larger d ea ler sh ip s are loca ted . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A u to m o b ile rep air s e r v ic e e stim a to r s learn o n the jo b under the g u id a n ce o f e x p erien ced se r v ic e estim ators and the serv ice m a n a g e r . In m a n y s e r v ic e d e p a r tm en ts, train ees b e g in b y h elp in g the sh o p d isp a tch er route w ork to m e ch a n ics, co m p u te repair c o s ts , and estim a te the tim e required for d iffe r e n t rep a ir s. B e g in n e r s u s u a lly g a in en o u g h k n o w le d g e and e x p e rien ce in 1 t o . 2 years to han d le m ost repair estim a tin g jo b s. In ad d ition to o n -th e-job train in g, so m e e s tim ators attend training program s con d u cted b y a u to m o b ile m anu factu rers. W h en hiring p erson s for jo b s as serv ice estim ator train ees, e m p lo y ers prefer h ig h sc h o o l graduates w h o are at lea st 21 years o f a ge and w h o h a v e had e x p e rien ce in m otor v e h ic le repair or a u to m o tiv e training in high s c h o o l, v o c a tio n a l or trade s c h o o l, or c o m m u nity or ju n ior c o lle g e . C ou rses in co m m ercia l arith m etic, sa le s, p u b lic sp ea k in g , and E n g lis h are h elp fu l. O ften e m p lo y ers fill th ese jo b s b y prom otin g m ech a n ic train ees or partscoun ter-w ork er train ees. S o m e firm s prefer to hire ex p e rien ce d a u to m o b ile m ech a n ics. B e ca u se m o st cu stom ers d ea l so le ly w ith the se r v ic e estim ator, e m p lo y ers se e k p erson s w h o can w in cu stom er c o n fid e n c e and bu ild repeat b u sin e ss. For this r ea so n , applicants sh ou ld b e n eat, co u rteo u s, ev en -tem p ered , atten tive listen er s, and g o o d co n v ersa tio n a l ists. S erv ice estim ators w ith su p ervisory ab ility m ay ad van ce to sh op su p erv iso rs or to ser v ic e m an agers. S o m e o p en their o w n auto m o tiv e rep air sh o p s or g a s o lin e se r v ic e station s. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t in this sm a ll o ccu p a tio n is e x p e cte d to in crease faster than the average for all occu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s as the nu m ber o f a u to m o b iles o n the road g r o w s. In add ition to jo b o p e n in g s arisin g from grow th in dem an d for th ese w o rk ers, o p e n in g s w ill arise to rep lace ex p e rien ce d serv ice e stim a tors w h o retire, d ie , or le a v e the o ccu p a tio n for oth er rea so n s. E m p lo y m en t o f serv ice estim ators flu ctu ates rela tiv ely little w ith sw in g s in the e c o n o m y . M o st a u to m o b ile repairs can n ot b e d eferred w h en b u d gets are strained during a r e c e ssio n . E v en routine m ain ten an ce can o n ly b e d e la y ed at the risk o f accid en t or d am age that w ill later require repair. In ad d ition , during d o w n s w in g s p e o p le are m ore lik ely to repair o ld er v e h icle s Production Occupations/395 than to take o n the m uch greater fin an cial b u rd en o f b u y in g a n e w e r c a r, v a n , or p ick u p . Earnings S e r v ic e e stim a to r s e m p lo y e d b y a u to m o b ile dealers in 23 large c ities had estim at e d avera g e earn in gs o f $ 8 .4 3 an hour in 1 9 8 0 , m ore than 25 p ecen t h igh er than the avera g e for all non su p ervisory w orkers in private ind ustry, e x c e p t farm in g. M any ser v ic e estim a to rs are paid a salary plu s a c o m m issio n , that is , a p ercen tage o f the c o st o f repairs or a c ce sso r ies their cu stom ers p ay for. O thers are paid a straight c o m m issio n . S o m e serv ice estim ators b e lo n g to the In ternational A sso c ia tio n o f M ach in ists and A e ro sp a ce W orkers; the S h eet M etal W o rk ers’ International A sso cia tio n ; or the International B roth erh ood o f T ea m sters, C h au ffeu rs, W are h o u sem en and H elp ers o f A m erica (In d .). Related Occupations W orkers in other o ccu p a tio n s a lso d ia g n o se p rob lem s w ith eq u ip m en t, m aterials, or produ cts. E x a m p les are airplane in sp ectors, b rid ge in sp ecto rs, electrica l in sp ecto rs, e le v a tor ex a m in ers and adju sters, lo g sca lers, rail road-car in sp ecto rs, w ater-q uality testers, and w a y in sp ecto rs. Sources of Additional Information D eta ils o n em p lo y m en t op p ortu n ities m ay be o b tain ed from lo ca l a u tom ob ile dealers or repair sh ops; lo ca ls o f the u n ion s p rev io u sly m entioned; or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t se r v ic e. For gen eral in form ation abou t the w ork o f a u to m o b ile repair serv ice estim ators, w rite to: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. m etal p lates and tu b es u sed to m ak e the variou s parts o f a b o iler, v a t, or tank. M ark in gs m u st b e p lan n ed and m easured ca re fu lly , a llo w in g for the curvature and th ick n ess o f the m etal. B e ca u se errors in siz e or sh ap e m ay b e d ifficu lt or im p o ssib le to correct after the m etal is cu t, layou t w o rk ers u se in str u m e n ts , su ch as c o m p a s se s, protractors, g a u g e s, and sc a le s , to m ake p recise m easu rem en ts. A fter other sh op w orkers cut and sh ape the m e ta l to s p e c if ic a t io n s , fitters ( D . O . T . 8 0 5 .3 6 1 -0 1 4 ) u se b olts or tem porary w e ld s, ca lled ta c k w e ld s, to h old the parts in place w h ile they ch eck to se e that parts lin e up accord in g to the blu ep rints. Fitters u se grind ers or cutting torch es to rem o v e e x c e s s m et a l, and w e ld in g m ach in es to fill in sm all g a p s. A n ew p ie c e m ay h ave to b e cut for large g ap s. S m a ll b oilers m ay be assem b led at the plant w h ere th ey are m ade; h o w ev e r, o n c e the p ie ce s for a larger b o iler or tank have b een cut o u t and c h eck ed for proper fit, they are transported to the sh op or c o n struction site for in stallation . T h ere, boiler makers ( D .O .T . 8 0 5 .2 6 1 -0 1 0 ,- 0 1 4 ,.3 6 1 - 0 1 0 ) a ssem b le and erect the v e s s e ls u sin g riggin g eq u ip m en t su ch as h o ists and ja c k s to lift h ea v y m etal parts in to p la c e, and then w eld or rivet the parts togeth er. B eca u se in stalla tion w ork m ust m eet statutory safety stan dards, b oilers are ca refu lly tested for leak s and other d e fe cts. C on struction b oilerm ak ers a lso install au x iliary eq u ip m en t on b oilers and other v e s s e ls . For e x a m p le , th ey in stall vapor barriers on o p en -top o il, g a s , and ch e m ic a l storage tanks to preven t fu m es from p ollu tin g the air, and air p o llu tio n control eq u ip m en t, su ch as pre cip itators and sm o k e scrubb ers, in electric plants that b u m h igh -su lfu r co a l. B oilerm ak ers a lso m aintain and m ake re pairs so that b oilers rem ain sa fe and in g o o d w ork in g co n d itio n . For e x a m p le, w h en b o il ers o c ca sio n a lly d e v e lo p le a k s, b oilerm akers m ay d ism an tle the b o iler , patch w eak sp ots w ith m etal sto c k , rep lace d e fe ctiv e se c tio n s, or strengthen jo in ts. Boilermaking Occupations________ (D .O .T . 805.261-010,-014, .361-010, -014, .381-010 and 809.281-010) Nature of the Work B o ile r s, v a ts, and oth er large v e sse ls that h o ld liq u id s and g a se s are esse n tia l to m any in d u stries. B o ile r s, for e x a m p le , su p p ly the stea m that d rives the h u ge turbines in electric u tility plants and sh ip s. T ank s and vats are u sed to p ro cess and store c h e m ic a ls , o il, b eer, and hundreds o f other produ cts. L ayout w ork ers and fitters h elp m ake the parts for th ese v e s s e ls , and b oilerm ak ers a ssem b le th em . Layout workers ( D . O .T . 8 0 9 .2 8 1 -0 1 0 ) fo llo w blueprints and tem p lates in m arking o f f lin e s , cu rv es, h o le s, and d im en sio n s on Working Conditions W h en la y in g ou t, fittin g , a ssem b lin g , or repairing b o iler s, w orkers often u se p oten tial ly dan gerous eq u ip m en t, su ch as acety len e to r ch es an d p o w e r g r in d e r s , an d h a n d le h e a v y m a te r ia ls . W ork m ay b e d o n e in cram p ed quarters in sid e b o iler s, va ts, or tan k s, w h ich are often dam p and p oorly v e n tilated . B e ca u se w orkers o c c a s io n a lly w ork at great h eigh ts on top o f large v e s s e ls , b oiler m ak in g o ccu p ation s are m ore hazardous than m any other m etalw ork in g o ccu p a tio n s. T o red u ce the ch an ce o f in ju ries, m any w orkers w ear p rotective eq u ip m en t, su ch as safety h a rn esses, safety g la s s e s , and m etal h elm ets. Employment A b ou t 4 4 ,0 0 0 b oilerm ak ers, layou t w ork ers, and fitters w ere e m p lo y ed in 198 0 . A b ou t 4 o f ev ery 10 w orked in the con stru c tion ind ustry, m ain ly to a ssem b le and erect b oilers and other pressure v e s s e ls . M any b o ile r m a k e r s a ls o w e r e e m p lo y e d in the m ain ten an ce and repair departm ents o f iron and steel plan ts, p etroleu m refin eries, rail road s, sh ip yard s, and electric pow erplants. L arge num bers a lso w ork ed for b o iler repair firm s and in F ederal G overn m en t in stalla tio n s, p rin cip ally in N a v y ship yard s and F ed eral p ow erp lan ts. L ayou t w orkers and fitters w ork ed m ain ly in plants that m ak e fire-tub e an d w a te r-tu b e b o ile r s , h ea t e x c h a n g e r s , h ea v y tank s, and sim ilar products. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A lth ou gh m any p e o p le h ave b e c o m e b o il erm akers b y w ork in g for severa l years as h elp ers to ex p erien ced b oilerm ak ers, m o st training auth orities agree that a form al ap p ren ticesh ip is the b e st w a y to learn this trade. A p p ren ticesh ip program s u su ally c o n sist o f 4 years o f on -th e-job train in g, su p p le m en ted b y abou t 150 hours o f cla ssro o m instruction ea ch year in su b jects su ch as b lu e print read in g, sh op m ath em atics, and w e ld in g . A p p ren tices often h ave to travel i f w ork is n ot ava ila b le in their lo ca lity . I f they are laid o f f , their app renticeship w ill take lo n g er than 4 calend ar years to com p lete. M o st la you t w orkers and fitters as h elp ers and learn the craft b y w ith ex p erien ced e m p lo y e e s. It takes at lea st 2 years to b e c o m e sk illed la you t w orker or fitter. are hired w orking g en erally a h ig h ly W hen hiring app rentices or h elp ers, e m p lo y e r s p r e fer h ig h s c h o o l or v o c a tio n a l sc h o o l graduates. C ou rses in sh o p , m ath e m a tic s, blueprint read in g, w e ld in g , and m a c h in e m e ta lw o r k in g p r o v id e a u s e fu l backgroun d for all b oilerm ak in g jo b s. M ost firm s require applicants to p ass a p h y sica l exam in ation b eca u se g o o d health and the ca p acity to d o h ea v y w ork are n ecessa ry in th ese jo b s . M ech an ical aptitude and the m an ual d exterity n eed ed to h an d le to o ls a lso are im portant q u a lification s. L ayou t w orkers and fitters m ay b e c o m e b oilerm ak ers or ad van ce to sh op su p ervisors. B oilerm ak ers w h o b e c o m e sk illed in the practical and tech n ical a sp ects o f the trade m a y a d v a n c e to boilermaking supervisor ( D .O .T . 8 0 5 .1 3 1 -0 1 0 ). A fe w g o into b u si n e ss for th e m se lv es. Job Outlook E m p loym en t in boilerm ak in g occu p a tio n s is e x p ected to in crease about as fast as the a v e r a g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s th ro u g h the 1 9 8 0 ’s. In ad d ition to the jo b s generated b y in creased d em an d , other o p en in g s w ill arise e a ch year as ex p erien ced w orkers transfer to other field s o f w ork , retire, or d ie. T he con stru ction o f m any n e w electric p ow erp lan ts w ill create a n eed for additional b oilers and w ill ca u se em p lo y m en t o f b o iler m ak ers, la y o u t w ork ers, and fitters to in crea se. T h e exp a n sio n o f other ind ustries that u se b oiler p rod u cts, su ch as the c h em ica l and 396/Occupational Outlook Handbook petroleum refin in g in d u stries, w ill further in crea se the dem an d for th ese w orkers. D esp ite the ex p ected overall in crease in e m p lo y m en t, m o st o f the industries that pur ch a se b o ilers are se n sitiv e to e co n o m ic co n d i tio n s. T h erefo re, during e co n o m ic dow nturns so m e b o ilerm ak ers, fitters, and layou t w ork ers m ay be laid o ff, and so m e m ay have to m o v e from o n e area o f the country to another to find em p lo y m en t. Earnings A cco rd in g to a national su rvey o f workers in the construction ind ustry, u n ion w a g e rates for boilerm akers averaged $ 1 3 .5 0 an hour in 1 9 8 0 . A n n u a l e a rn in g s for b o iler m a k e rs w orking in the b u ild in g trades gen erally are lo w e r than hou rly rates w o u ld in d icate b e ca u se poor w eather con d itio n s and flu ctu ation s in con stru ction a ctivity m ay ad versely a ffect the num ber o f hours they can w ork. C om parable w a g e data w ere not availab le fo r b o iler m a k e rs e m p lo y e d in in d u stria l plan ts. H o w e v er , hou rly w a g e rates for m any un ion b oilerm ak ers, layout: w orkers, and fit ters e m p lo y ed in fabricated plate w ork and in the petroleum and sh ip b u ild in g industries ranged from about $7 to $ 1 4 in 1980. M ost b oilerm ak in g w orkers b elo n g to la bor u n ion s. T he principal un ion is the Inter national B rotherh ood o f B oilerm ak ers, Iron S h ip b u ild e r s, B la c k s m ith s , F o rg ers and H elp ers. O ther w orkers are m em b ers o f the Industrial U n ion o f M arine and S h ip b u ild in g W orkers o f A m erica; the O il, C h em ical and A to m ic W orkers International U n ion ; and the U n ited S teelw ork ers o f A m erica. Related Occupations W orkers in a num ber o f other o ccu p a tio n s a ssem b le , in sta ll, or repair m etal eq u ip m en t or m a ch in es. T h ese o ccu p a tio n s in clu d e as se m b le rs, b la ck sm ith s, instrum ent m akers, iron w ork ers, m a c h in ists, m illw rig h ts, pat tern m ak ers, p lu m b ers, setu p w o rk ers, sh eetm eta l w o r k e r s , t o o l-a n d -d ie m a k e r s, and w eld ers. Sources of Additional Information For further in form ation regarding b o iler m ak in g ap p ren ticesh ip s or other training o p p ortu n ities, co n tact lo ca l o ffic e s o f the u n ion s p r e v io u s ly m e n tio n e d , lo c a l c o n str u c tio n co m p a n ie s and b o iler m anu factu rers, or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e. Bookbinders and Bindery Workers (D .O .T. 653.360-010 through .686-026; 692.685-146; 794.687-026; 795.684-010, .687-010; 977.381-010, .684-010, -018, -022, and .687-010) Nature of the Work Boilermakers need mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity. B o o k b in d in g — the a ssem b ly o f b o o k s in quantity from large, flat printed sh eets o f paper— is o n e o f the m o st co m p lica ted o c c u p ation s o f the printing in d u stries. S k illed b ook b in d ers ( D .O .T . 9 7 7 .3 8 1 -0 1 0 ) operate m ach in es that first fo ld the printed sh eets into u n its, k n o w n as “ s ig n a tu r e s,” so that the p a g es w ill be in the righ t order. T h ey then insert any illustrations that h a v e b een printed sep arately, gather and a ssem b le signatu res in proper order, and se w th em to geth er. T h ey sh ape the b o o k b o d ies w ith p resses and trim m in g m a ch in es and rein force them w ith g lu ed fabric strips. C o v ers are g lu e d or p asted on to the b ook b o d ie s, and then the b o o k s un dergo a variety o f fin ish in g op eration s and freq uent ly are w rapp ed in paper ja c k e ts. M ach in es are u sed e x te n siv e ly through out the p ro cess. M any sk illed b ook b in d ers a lso are in v o lv ed in m a g a zin e b in d in g. B ook b in d ers se ld o m perform a ll the d if ferent b in d in g ta sk s, but m any h a v e had training in all o f th em . In large sh o p s, b ook b in d ers m ay be a ssig n ed to o n e or a fe w o p eration s, m ost often to the operation o f c o m p lica ted m a ch in es, su ch as a large papercutter or a fo ld in g m a ch in e. W hen n ec essa ry , th ey m ak e repairs and adjust m en ts to bin dery eq u ip m en t. In m any b in d in g sh o p s, m u ch o f the w ork is d on e b y bin dery w orkers w h o are trained in o n ly o n e op eration or in a sm a ll num ber o f rela tiv ely sim p le task s. For e x a m p le , se m i sk illed bin dery w orkers perform su ch task s as fa sten in g sh eets or signatu res togeth er u sin g a m ach in e stap ler and feed in g signatu res into variou s m ach in es for stitch in g , fo ld in g , or g lu in g op eration s. S o m e b ook b in d ers w ork in hand b in d eries, w h ere th ey d e sig n origin al or sp ecia l bin d in g s for a lim ited ed itio n or restore and re Production Occupations/397 b in d rare b o o k s. T h is sk illed w ork requires crea tiv e a b ility , k n o w led g e o f m aterials, and a thorough b ackgroun d in the history o f bin d in g . H and b ook b in d in g is perhaps the o n ly kin d o f b in d in g that g iv e s the in d ivid u al an opportunity to w ork at a variety o f jo b s. Job Outlook Working Conditions D e sp ite the anticip ated in crease in the am ou n t o f bou n d printed m aterials, e m p lo y m en t grow th w ill b e lim ited by the in creasin g m ech an ization o f bin dery op eration s. For e x a m p le, the u se o f integral fold ers that auto m a tically fo ld p a g es as th ey co m e o f f the p ress elim in a tes the n eed for bindery workers to d o the fo ld in g b y hand. In add ition , m any b in d eries are in stallin g sop h isticated c o n v e y or b elt sy stem s to transport m aterials. T his eq u ip m en t a lso w ill red uce the n eed for b in d ery w orkers. T h e jo b is p h y sica lly d em an d in g as b o o k binders d o a co n sid era b le am oun t o f liftin g , sta n d in g , an d c a rr y in g . S o m e la rg e m a c h in e s, su ch as cu ttin g m a ch in es, require a great d eal o f p h y sica l effort to operate. B o o k b in d ers h a v e so m e variety in their jo b s , but the jo b s o f bin dery w orkers tend to b e m o n o to n o u s. Employment A b o u t 1 1 7 ,0 0 0 b ook b in d ers and bindery w orkers w ere e m p lo y ed in 1 9 8 0 . M any w orked in sh o p s that sp ec ia liz e in b ook b in d in g; others w o rk ed in the bin dery departm ents o f b o o k printing firm s, co m m ercia l printing p lan ts, and large lib raries. S o m e b ook b in d ers w ork ed for the Federal G o vern m en t. M o st b ook b in d ers are e m p lo y ed on a fu ll tim e basis; m any bin dery w orkers w ork part tim e or o n a tem porary b a sis. A lth o u g h b ook b in d ers w ork in all parts o f the co u n try, em p lo y m en t is concen trated in large printing cen ters su ch as N e w Y ork, C h ic a g o , W a sh in g to n , D .C ., L o s A n g e le s, and P h ilad elp h ia. L ittle or n o ch an ge in the e m p lo y m en t o f b ook b in d ers and bin dery w orkers is ex p ected through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. N e v er th e less, so m e jo b o p e n in g s w ill arise as w orkers retire, d ie , or ch a n g e o ccu p a tio n s. Job op p ortu n ities, th erefore, are ex p ected to b e better for sk illed book b in d ers than for bindery w ork ers. B ut b eca u se o f the relative ly sm all num ber o f hand b oo k b in d eries, o p portun ities in this field are e x p ected to be lim ited . Earnings A v era g e w a g e rates for sk illed b o o k b in d ers are b e lo w the average for other printing crafts. A 1980 su rvey o f u n ion w a g e rates in d icated that m in im u m w a g e rates for b o o k binders in p u b lish in g firm s and b o o k -b in d in g sh op s averaged $ 1 0 .0 5 an hour. In 1 9 8 0 , the average hou rly rate for all non su p ervisory and p rodu ction w orkers in private ind ustry, e x ce p t farm in g, w as $ 6 .6 6 . W age rates for bindery w orkers are c o n sid erab ly lo w e r than the rates for bo o k b in d ers, Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A 4 - or 5-y ea r a p p ren ticesh ip , w h ich in clu d e s o n -th e-jo b training as w e ll as related cla ssr o o m in stru ction , gen era lly is required to q u a lify as a sk illed b ook b in d er. A p p ren tice sh ip a p p lican ts u su a lly m ust h ave a h igh sc h o o l ed u ca tio n , m ech an ical aptitud e, and b e at lea st 18 years o f a g e. A p p ren tices re c e iv e training in a ll p h a ses o f b o o k b in d in g , su ch as ren ovatin g o ld and w orn b in d in gs and operatin g bin dery eq u ip m en t and cutting an d tr im m in g m a c h in e s . In m o s t p la n ts , b o ok b in d ers are taught to operate and m ain tain at lea st three d ifferen t p ie c e s o f bindery eq u ip m en t. M o st bindery w orkers learn their tasks through inform al o n -th e-job training that m ay last from sev era l m on th s to 2 years. A large nu m ber, h o w ev e r, learn through form al ap p ren ticesh ip program s that in clu d e c la ssro o m instruction as w e ll as o n -th e-job training. H ig h sc h o o l stu dents in terested in b o o k b in d in g careers sh o u ld take sh op co u rses to d e v e lo p their m ech a n ica l sk ills. A ccu ra cy , p a tie n c e, n ea tn ess, and g o o d e y e s ig h t are a m o n g q u a litie s n e e d e d b y b o o k b in d e r s. G o o d fin g er dexterity is e ssen tia l for th ose w h o c o u n t, insert, p a ste, and fo ld . A rtistic ab ility and im a g in a tio n are required for hand b o o k b in d in g . A d v a n cem en t opp ortu n ities g en erally are lim ited . In large b in d eries, sk illed b ook b in d ers w ith con sid era b le e x p erien ce m ay ad v a n ce to su p ervisors. Many bindery workers have part-time or temporary jobs. 398/Occupational Outlook Handbook and are a m on g the lo w e st for printing in d u s try w ork ers. T h e average m in im u m hourly rate for bin dery w orkers w as $ 7 .0 7 in 1980. Related Occupations O ther w orkers w h o set up and operate produ ction m achinery in clu d e paperm aking m ach in e operators, press operators, and pre c is io n m achine operators. Sources of Additional Information D eta ils about ap p ren ticesh ip s and other training opp ortu nities m ay be ob tain ed from lo ca l b oo k b in d in g sh o p s, lo ca l o ffic e s o f the G raphic A rts International U n io n , or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t serv ice. For gen eral in form ation on b ook b in d in g o ccu p a tio n s, w rite to: Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. Compositors_______ (D .O .T. 203.582-046, -062; 650.582-010, -014, -018, -022, .682- 010, .685-010; 654.382-010, .582-010; and 973.381-010) Nature of the Work In sm a ll sh o p s, o n e p erson m ay do all the w ork n eed ed to co m p lete a printing jo b . In large sh o p s, h o w ev e r, the w ork is d ivid ed a m on g sp ec ia lists. E ditors se lec t the m aterial to b e printed, w h ile co m p o sito rs prepare pre lim inary printing p lates for p ressroom w ork ers w h o d o the actual printing. A fter d ecid in g w hat is to b e printed and h o w it sh ou ld lo o k , editors sen d the m aterial or “ c o p y ” a lo n g w ith a list o f sp ecifica tio n s to the co m p o sin g room . T h ere, a co m p o sin g room su p ervisor rev iew s the ed ito r ’s s p e c ifi c a tio n s and m arks th e m a n u scrip t w ith instructions about the sty le and siz e o f ty p e, co lu m n w id th , and siz e o f pictures or illustra tio n s. T h e c o p y — the m aterial to b e printed— then is g iv en to a co m p o sito r w h o sp ec ia liz es in ty p esettin g eith er by “ hot t y p e ,” “ cold t y p e ,” or p h o to co m p o sitio n . T here are several w a y s o f setting and pro d u cin g printed m aterial. Hand compositors m ake up the o ld e st co m p o sin g room o c cu p a tion but e x ist o n ly in “ h ot t y p e ” operation s. T o d a y , hand typ esettin g is u sed rarely e x cep t for sm a ll sp ecia lty jo b s in w h ich the setting o f typ e b y m achine is im practical. H and ty p esetters read from the co p y and set each lin e o f ty p e , letter b y letter, on a “ co m p o sin g s t ic k ,” a d e v ic e that h old s type in p la ce. T h ey se lec t the p la ce w h ere w ords w ill be d iv id ed and a hyp h en p laced (h yp h en ation ), if the w ord d o e s n ot fit on a lin e , as w e ll as adjust the sp a cin g o f the type w ith p ie ce s o f m etal so that the lin e o f type w ill b e the w idth o f the co lu m n . A s each “ stic k ” is fille d , they slid e the com p leted lin es into a sh a llo w m etal tray ca lled “ g a l le y .” L in otyp e and m o n o ty p e m ach in e operators are craft w orkers w h o operate sem iau tom atic m ach in es that set typ e m uch m ore rapidly than can b e d on e b y hand m eth od s. Linotype machine operators read from co p y clip p ed to the m ach in e and operate a k eyboard to se le c t letters and other charac ters. A s th ey press the k e y s, m etal m o ld s o f the letters are a ssem b led into lin es o f w ord s. A fter c o m p letin g a lin e , operators tou ch a lev er and the m achine au tom atically fills the m o ld s w ith m olten lea d , form in g a lin e o f typ e into a so lid m etal strip ca lled a “ s l u g .” T h e slu g s are a ssem b led in to the typ e fram es from w h ich printing p lates are m ade. Monotype keyboard operators a lso operate a keyboard m ach in e. H o w ev er, instead o f se lec tin g m etal m o ld s, the m o n otyp e m ach in e p rod u ces a perforated paper tap e. T h ese o p erators feed the tape into a m ach in e that reads the tape and au tom atically se le c ts m etal m o ld s for e a ch letter. T h e m a ch in e then fo rces m olten m etal into e a ch m o ld to form the typ e. W h ile m ach in es m ake their tasks ea sier, m o n otyp e and lin o ty p e m ach in e operators m ust hyp henate and adjust typ e sp acin g to fit the w idth o f c o lu m n s. In sm all plan ts, op era tors a lso m ay m aintain and repair typ esettin g m ach in es. S o m e ty p esettin g w ill con tin u e to b e d on e by hand or w ith m o n o ty p e and lin o ty p e m a c h in es. H o w e v er , m ore and m ore firm s are usin g p h ototyp esettin g m a ch in es, w h ich can set typ e m uch m ore rapidly than lin o ty p e or m o n otyp e m ach in es. W ith this eq u ip m en t, a p h otograp hic p rocess rep laces the castin g o f type and the final product is a p h otograp hic film o f the typ e rather than a m etal slu g . Compositor doing layout work. In a c o m m o n typ e o f p h o to ty p esettin g , a ty p es in the tex t w ith ou t re gard to c o lu m n w id th or h yp h en a tio n and p rod u ces a m agn etic or perforated paper tape. T h e operator then fe ed s the tape con ta in in g the text into a com p u ter that is program m ed to d o h yp h en ation and create co lu m n s o f tex t. T h e com p u ter creates a se c o n d tape— co n ta in in g the text as it w ill appear w h en printed— that p h ototyp esetters insert into a p h o to co m p o sitio n m ach in e. T h is m ach in e d isp la y s the in d ivid u al characters o n the tape and p h otograp h s th em . T h e p h o totyp esetter then d e v e lo p s film s o f the m aterial to b e printed. phototypesetter T h e m o st ad van ced m eth od o f ty p esettin g u ses e lectro n ic p h oto ty p esettin g eq u ip m en t. W ith this eq u ip m en t, an operator u ses a k e y board to s e le c t the s iz e and sty le o f ty p e , to s e le c t the co lu m n w id th , and to p rovid e sp a c in g in stru ctio n s, as w e ll as to store each character in a com p u ter. T h e co m p u ter then d isp la y s c o lu m n s o f typ e o n a screen that is sim ilar to a T V picture tub e. O perators v isu a lly c h e ck the tex t and m ak e any required co rrection s. T h e in form ation is then transm it ted to a p h ototyp esetter w h ich p ro d u ces a film o f the m aterial. T h e se m a ch in es can prepare entire p a g e s o f ty p e and p rovid e sp a ce for any pictures that are to acco m p a n y the text. A fter the c o p y is s e t, typ esetters p ass it to other c o m p o sito rs w h o arrange the co lu m n s o f ty p e , p ictu res, and illu stration s accord in g to the la y o u t for e a ch p a g e su bm itted by the ed itor. I f letterp ress printing eq u ip m en t is b e in g u sed , th ey a ssem b le the m etal typ e and p h o to en g ra v in g s in a large m etal fram e that cla m p s all the p ie c e s togeth er. I f lith ograp hic film eq u ip m en t is b ein g u sed , th ey cut the film o f typ e and pictu res and tape the p ie ce s in p la c e. Production Occupations/399 After arranging all the pages of a particu lar job in proper sequence, compositors make page proofs to review the entire job. Page proofs are checked with the original copy for errors and returned to the editor for final changes. After final changes have been put into the type, the plate is sent to the press room where production printing plates are made. Working Conditions Hand compositors are on their feet most of the time and do some heavy lifting. Typeset ting machine operators sit for long periods of time. Monotype and linotype machines are very noisy. All compositors may be required to work overtime to meet publication deadlines; some regularly work evening or night shifts. Com positors employed by newspapers may work holidays and weekends. Employment About 128,000 workers were employed as compositors in 1980. About two-fifths worked for newspaper plants. Many others worked for commercial printing plants, book and magazine printers, and Federal, State, and local governments. Some worked for banks, insurance companies, advertising agencies, manufacturers, and other firms that do their own printing. Composing room workers are located in al most every community throughout the country, but they are concentrated in large printing cen ters such as New York, Los Angeles, Washing ton, D.C., Philadelphia, and Chicago. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the past, almost all compositors were trained through some type of apprenticeship program. However, in recent years, the intro duction of new technology has reduced the demand for all-round skilled compositors. As a result, more and more compositors are by passing the traditional apprentice approach and are learning the work on the job. In addition, many firms are small and thus can not afford the time and money to develop formal training programs. In large companies, persons who want to become all-round compositors generally are trained through an apprenticeship program. Most of these programs emphasize training in the operation of phototypesetting ma chines and in photocomposition work. Gen erally, apprenticeship covers a 4-year period of training, supplemented by classroom in struction or correspondence courses. How ever, this period may be shortened by as much as 2 to 2Vi years for apprentices who have had previous experience or schooling or who show the ability to learn the trade more rapidly. Applicants for apprenticeship generally must be high school graduates and in good physical condition. They usually are given aptitude tests. Important qualifications in clude training in mathematics and English, especially spelling. Printing and typing courses in vocational or high schools are good preparation for apprenticeship appli cants, and a general background in electron ics and photography is becoming increasingly useful. Many technical institutes, junior col leges, and colleges offer courses in printing technology which provide a valuable back ground for people who are interested in be coming all-round compositors. Persons with good typing skills can learn to be phototypesetting machine operators in a relatively short period of time. These work ers need not be trained as skilled composi tors, but they must be familiar with printing terms and measures. In recent years, many monotype and lino type operators have been retrained as photo typesetting operators. Manual dexterity and the ability to pay attention to detail and to work independently are important qualities for a compositor in layout work. machine operators, $10.79. In 1980, the average hourly rate for nonsupervisory and production workers in all private industries, except farming, was $6.66. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers oper ate machines equipped with a typewriter-like keyboard include clerk-typists, computer ter minal system operators, keypunch operators, and telegraphic-typewriter operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office of the Interna tional Typographical Union, or the local of fice of the State employment service. For general information on composing room occupations, write to: Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Job Outlook In spite of the anticipated expansion in the volume of printing, employment of composi tors is expected to decline through the 1980’s as high-speed phototypesetting machines and typesetting computers increasingly displace the traditional hot-metal, method of typeset ting which requires more operators. As a result, the few job opportunities that occur for monotype and linotype operators will re sult from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or change occupa tions. Persons who can operate phototypeset ting machines should have the best job prospects. Laborsaving developments in printing technology are expected to have the greatest impact on the employment of com positors by newspapers. Thus, employment prospects will be somewhat better for com positors in commercial shops. For the jobs that do become available, opportunites should be best for persons who have completed post-high school programs in printing technology, such as those offered by technical institutes and junior colleges. Many employers prefer to hire applicants who have completed these programs because the com prehensive training they receive helps them learn composing room trades and adapt to new processes and techniques more rapidly. Although most job opportunities will con tinue to be in the printing industry, a growing number will be found in other industries, such as paper and textile mills, which are doing their own typesetting instead of con tracting it to printing firms. Earnings According to a 1980 survey of union wages, the estimated average minimum hour ly rate for hand compositors was $10.45 and Coremakers (Foundry)______ (D .O .T . 518.381-014,.685-014,-018 and-022) Nature of the Work Foundry casting is a process that forms metal into intricate objects by pouring molten metal into carefully prepared molds and al lowing it to harden in the shape of the mold cavity. Many cast metal products—pipefittings, automobile engine blocks, and electric powerplant equipment, for example—are hollow. Coremakers prepare the “cores” that are placed in molds to form the hollow sections in these castings. The poured metal hardens around the core, so that when the core is removed the desired cavity or con tour remains. A core may be made either by hand or by machine. In both instances, a specially pre pared sand is packed into a core box made of wood, plastic, or metal in which a cavity of the desired size and shape has been formed. When hand methods are used, the coremaker uses rammers and other handtools to pack sand into the core box. The core then is removed from this box and is hardened by baking or by another drying method. Small cores are made on the workbench by bench coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381-014) and large ones are made on the foundry floor by floor coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381-014). Machine coremakers (D.O.T. 518.685014, -018, -022) operate machines that make sand cores by blowing or dumping sand into a core box. Some machine coremakers are required to set up and adjust their machines and do finishing operations on the cores. 400/Occupational Outlook Handbook ship program, or an equivalent amount of job experience, is needed to become a skilled hand coremaker. Apprenticeships generally are sponsored jointly by the employer and the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union. They include classroom instruction covering subjects such as shop mathematics and the properties of metals, supplemented by on-the-job training. Coremaking and molding skills are often combined into one apprenticeship program. In general, machine coremakers learn their work on the job. The length of training var ies by individual and foundry, but generally is less than the time required for hand core makers. Experienced coremakers teach be ginners how to make cores and operate ovens. An eighth grade education usually is the minimum requirement for coremaker trainees; however, many employers prefer high school graduates. Coremakers must stand for long periods and must move about frequently. The work requires manual dexterity. They also must be comfort able working with machinery. Coremakers earn higher pay as their skill increases, and some may advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Coremakers prepare the “cores” that form the hollow sections of industrial equipment. Others are primarily machine tenders and are closely supervised, and their machines are adjusted for them. Other workers who have an important role in the foundry metalcasting process are molders and patternmakers. For a description of these jobs, see those statements elsewhere in this section. Working Conditions Working in a foundry can be hazardous. Although the injury rate in foundries is high er than the average for manufacturing, core making is one of the least hazardous foundry jobs. Safety programs at many foundries and the use of personal protection equipment, such as metal-plated shoes and safety glasses, have reduced injuries. Working conditions vary considerably from one foundry to another. Heat, fumes, and dust have been greatly reduced in many plants by the installation of improved ventila tion systems and air-conditioning. However, in some older foundries, these hazards still exist. Employment In 1980, about 6,200 coremakers were em ployed in the foundry industry. Most of them worked in small shops that employed fewer than 250 people. Although foundries are locat ed throughout the country, the largest are concentrated in areas that have ready access to raw materials. States that have considerable metalworking production include Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Ala bama, New York, California, and Wisconsin. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 2- to 4-year apprentice Although the production and use of metal castings are expected to increase substantial ly, employment of coremakers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, as the grow ing use of machine coremaking will allow large increases in production with only mod erate increases in employment. Some job openings will result from the need to replace experienced coremakers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. The number of openings may fluctuate greatly from year to year because the demand for many foundry products is sensitive to changes in the econo my. Textile machinery and motor vehicle manufacturing industries, for example, use metal castings. When demand slackens for the products of these industries, as usually happens during recessions, demand for metal castings also falls. Thus, coremakers may experience layoffs or shortened workweeks when economic conditions are poor. Earnings In January 1980, average straight-time hourly earnings of floor coremakers ranged from $6.70 in iron and nonferrous foundries to $6.90 in steel foundries, according to a wage survey made by the National Foundry Association. Bench coremakers averaged $6.30 in iron foundries and $6.70 in steel and nonferrous foundries. Machine core makers averaged from $6.50 in nonferrous foundries to $7.10 in iron foundries. By comparison, production workers in all manu facturing industries averaged $7.27 an hour. Coremakers who were paid on an incentive basis generally had higher earnings than those who were paid a straight hourly wage. Production Occupations/401 Related Occupations Other workers who must know how to make cores, set them in molds, or operate coremaking machines are core setters, core making machine setters, pipe coremakers, mold closers, core inspectors, and coreroom foundry laborers. Sources of Additional Information For details about training opportunities for coremakers, contact local foundries, the local office of your State employment service, the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency, or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. Infor mation also is available from: International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union, 1225 E. McMillan St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45206. Additional career guidance material—free when requested on stationery with a school letterhead—is available from: American Foundrymen’s Society/Cast Metals Insti tute, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. ics (porcelain), or make castings of gold or chrome metal alloys. Technicians use small hand instruments such as wax spatulas and wax carvers, as well as special electric lathes and drills, high-heat furnaces, metal-melting torches, and other specialized laboratory equipment. Working Conditions Whether they are employed in independent commercial laboratories or in dental offices, dental technicians work in typical laboratory surroundings. Work areas are generally clean, well lighted, and well ventilated. Technicians usually have their own work benches which are equipped with Bunsen burners, grinding and polishing machines, and various handtools. The work is not stren uous, and although there may be pressure to meet schedules, dentists’ deadlines usually are flexible enough to allow for any problems or special requirements that may be involved in completing a difficult job. Salaried technicians usually work 40 hours a week but self-employed technicians fre quently work longer hours. Employment Dental Laboratory Technicians_______ (D .O .T. 712.281-010 and .381-014, -018, and -030) About 53,000 persons were employed as dental laboratory technicians in 1980. Most worked in commercial dental laboratories, which usually are small, privately owned businesses with fewer than 10 employees. However, a few laboratories are much larger, and employ over 200 technicians. Dental lab oratories are located mainly in large cities and populous States. Many laboratories re ceive work through the mail from dentists who work a considerable distance away. About 9,000 dental laboratory technicians worked in dentists’ offices. Others worked for hospitals that provide dental services and for the Federal Government, chiefly in Vet erans Administration hospitals and clinics and in the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No minimum formal education is needed to enter this occupation, but a high school diplo ma or its equivalent is an asset. Many dental laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job or through a registered apprenticeship program, although an increasing number com plete institutional training programs before starting work. Apprenticeship or on-the-job training usually lasts 3 or 4 years, depending on the trainee’s previous experience, ability to master the techniques, and the number of specialized areas to be learned. Classroom instruction for apprentices is provided in a few public vocational schools that offer courses in dental laboratory work. Formal training for this occupation is available in dental laboratory technology pro- Nature of the Work Dental laboratory technicians are skilled craftworkers who make and repair a wide variety of dental appliances, such as den tures, inlays, crowns, and braces. All work is done according to written instructions sub mitted by the dentist. Technicians work with plastics, ceramics, and metals. They use models of dental stone or plaster pourings made from impressions of a patient’s teeth or mouth taken by the dentist. Sometimes these models are made by the dentist or an assist ant, but most often by the technician. Most technicians specialize. For example, a denture contour wire specialist (D.O.T. 712.381-014) makes and repairs contoured wire frames and retainers for teeth used in dentures; a dental ceram ist (D .O .T . 712.281-010) applies porcelain paste over a metal framework to form dental crowns, bridges, and tooth facings; an orthodontic technician (D.O.T. 712.381-030) makes ap pliances for straightening teeth; and some technicians fabricate and repair full and par tial dentures. Trainees in beginning jobs usually mix and pour plaster into casts and molds and perform other simple tasks. As they gain experience, they do more difficult laboratory work. Some dental technicians perform the full range of laboratory work. Others are specialists who make crowns and bridges, arrange artificial teeth on dental appliances, make plastic molds for dentures, work with dental ceram Dental laboratory technicians generally need 4 to 5 years of training. 402/Occupational Outlook Handbook grams, lasting up to 2 years, that are offered by community colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and trade schools. In 1980, pro grams accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation in conjuction with the American Dental Association (ADA) were offered in 57 schools. Most of the accredited programs lead to an associate degree; some to a certificate or diploma. High school graduation or equivalent edu cation is required to enter these programs. The training includes formal classroom in struction in dental law and ethics, chemistry, ceramics, metallurgy, and other related sub jects. In addition, the student is given super vised practical experience in the school or dental laboratory. After completion of the 2year training program, the trainee needs about 3 more years of practical experience to develop the skills needed to be recognized as a well-qualified dental laboratory technician. Those receiving dental laboratory training in the Armed Forces usually qualify for civilian jobs as dental laboratory technicians. Dental laboratory technicians may become Certified Dental Technicians by passing writ ten and practical examinations given by the National Board for Certification, a trust es tablished by the National Association of Dental Laboratories. Certification is becom ing increasingly important as evidence of a technician’s competence. Dental technicians, depending upon their skill, experience, and education, may ad vance to supervisory or managerial positions. Most of today’s commercial laboratory own ers came up “from the bench” to own their own business. For some technicians, career advancement means moving into a related job within the dental field; well-qualified techni cians may become teachers in dental lab training programs, or sales representatives for dental products companies. Among the personal traits important in this occupation are a high degree of finger and manual dexterity, good vision, and the ability to recognize very fine color shadings. These attributes must be combined with the ability to follow instructions and an inclination for detailed and absolutely accurate work. High school students interested in careers in this occupation are advised to take courses in art, crafts, metal shop, metallurgy, and sciences. Furthermore, dentists are expected to do less themselves and, instead, hire technicians for their dental practices or send their laboratory work to commercial firms. In addition to job openings created by heightened demand for dental laboratory technicians, many openings will occur each year because of the need to replace techni cians who transfer to other occupations, re tire, or die. Earnings Dental laboratory technicians who worked full time in commercial laboratories received average salaries of about SI7,000 in 1980, according to the limited data available. Gen erally, education and experience, along with a specialized skill, bring higher earnings. For example, technicians who specialize in ce ramics receive the highest salaries (up to $30,000). Large dental laboratories employ supervisors or managers who usually earn more than technicians. In general, earnings of self-employed technicians exceed those of salaried workers. In the Federal Government, graduates of ADA-approved programs with no experience were paid starting salaries of about $ 11,000 a year in 1980. Experienced dental laboratory technicians employed in the Federal Govern ment generally earned between $15,000 and $20,000 annually, with the average earning about $17,700 per year. Many technicians in commercial laborato ries receive paid holidays and vacations and some also receive paid sick leave, bonuses, and other fringe benefits. Technicians em ployed by the Federal Government have the same benefits as other Federal employees. Related Occupations Dental laboratory technicians make artifi cial teeth, crowns and inlays, and orthodontic appliances following the specifications and instructions provided by the dentist. Other workers who provide services or make de vices for physicians include arch-support technicians, orthotics technicians (braces/surgical supports), prosthetics technicians (artifi cial limbs/appliances), and opticians (optical mechanic). Sources of Additional Information Job Outlook Job opportunities for well-qualified dental laboratory technicians are expected to be ex cellent through the 1980’s. Experienced tech nicians should be able to establish laboratories of their own. A technician whose work has become known to several dentists in a commu nity will have the best prospects of building a successful business. Employment of dental laboratory techni cians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations due to expansion of dental prepayment plans and the increasing number of older people who require dentures. For information about training and a list of approved schools, contact: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Information on scholarships is available from dental technology schools or from: American Fund for Dental Health, 211 E. Chica go Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. For information on career opportunities in commercial laboratories and requirements for certification, contact: National Association of Dental Laboratories, 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22305. Dispensing Opticians (D .O .T . 299.474-010 and 713.361-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Half the people in the United States use glasses or contact lenses to improve their vision. After a checkup by an eye doctor (ophthalmologist) or optometrist, who writes the prescription for corrective lenses, these people visit a dispensing optician (also called an ophthalmic dispenser). Dispensing opti cians accept the prescription, help the cus tomer select appropriate frames, write orders for ophthalmic laboratory work, and adjust the finished eyeglasses. In many States they also fit contact lenses. Dispensing opticians measure the distance between the centers of the pupils of the eyes to determine where lenses should be placed in relation to them. In helping customers select from the various styles and colors of eyeglass frames, they consider the customer’s hairstyle and facial features and also the weight and thickness of the corrective lenses. Dispensing opticians also prepare work or ders that give ophthalmic laboratory techni cians the information they need to grind the lenses and insert them in a frame. The work orders include lens prescriptions and informa tion on lens size, color, and style. After glasses are made, dispensing opticians use special instruments to check the power and surface quality of the lenses. Opticians then adjust the frame to the contours of the custom er’s face and head so that it fits properly and comfortably. Adjustments are made with handtools, such as optical pliers, files, and screwdrivers. Special instruments are used to check the power and surface quality of the lenses. In fitting contact lenses, dispensing opti cians follow ophthalmologists ’ or optometrists ’ prescriptions, measure the corneas of custom ers ’ eyes and then prepare specifications to be followed by the contact lens manufacturer. Contact lens fitting requires considerably more skill, care, and patience than conventional eyeglass fitting. Dispensing opticians tell cus tomers how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses during the initial adjustment period, which may last several weeks. The dispensing optician examines the patient’s eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with special instruments and microscopes at each visit. Ophthalmologists or optometrists re check the fit, as needed. Opticians may make minor adjustments; lenses are returned to the manufacturer for major changes. The majority of dispensing opticians are in the general practice of designing and fit ting eyeglasses and contact lenses. But some specialize in the fitting of cosmetic shells to cover blemished eyes. Still others specialize in the fitting of prostheses (artifi cial eyes). In some shops, they may do lens grinding and finishing and sell other optical goods such as binoculars, magnify- Production Operations/403 ing glasses, and nonprescription eyeglasses (sunglasses, for instance). Working Conditions Dispensing opticians work indoors in pleasant, quiet surroundings that are well lighted and well ventilated. Because they sell and service eye lenses, they deal with cus tomers most of the time. They spend part of their time on their feet. Dispensing opticians generally work a 40-hour week, although a 45- or 50-hour week is not uncommon. Some, especially those employed in retail shops in large shopping centers, work in the evenings and on Saturdays. Employment About 18,000 persons worked as dispens ing opticians in 1980. A large majority of them worked full time. Most dispensing opti cians work for optical shops or for depart ment stores, drug stores, and other retail outlets that sell prescription lenses. Some work for ophthalmologists or optometrists who sell glasses directly to patients. A few work in hospitals and eye clinics or teach in schools of ophthalmic dispensing. Some dis pensing opticians own retail optical shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An increasing number of entrants to this occupation have some kind of formal train ing in optical dispensing and fabricating, and employers generally prefer to hire peo ple who already are familiar with the trade. Nonetheless, the majority of dispensing op ticians learn their skills on the job. On-thejob training in dispensing work may last several years and usually includes instruc tion in optical mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision measuring instru ments and other machinery and tools. Training programs vary from employer to employer. In large companies, on-the-job training is structured much like an appren ticeship program, while training in small es tablishments is largely informal. Employers considering applicants for entry level jobs in optical dispensing look for high school graduates who have had courses in science and mathematics. Knowledge of physics, algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing is particularly valuable. Previous work experience in a related job is an asset. Because dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, they should be tactful and have pleasant personalities. Good communi cations skills are highly valued. Formal training in opticianry is offered by community colleges, vocational-technical in stitutes, trade schools, and manufacturers in programs that last from a few weeks to sever al years. In 1980, 18 schools offered 2-year programs in optical fabricating and dispens ing leading to an associate degree. The Com mission on Opticianry Accreditation—an organization created by the American Board of Opticianry, the National Academy of Op ticianry, and the Opticians Association of America—accredits 11 of these programs. A number of schools offer shorter programs, usually 6 months to 1 year in length, that lead to a certificate or diploma in opticianry. In addition, some medical schools, contact lens manufacturers, and professional societies offer short, nondegree courses in contact-lens fitting. A small number of opticians learn their trade in the Armed Forces. Some opticians acquire their skills through 2- to 4-year apprenticeship programs offered by optical dispensing companies. Apprentices with exceptional ability may complete their training in a shorter period. Individual States set the entrance requirements for these pro grams, with high school graduation ordinarily required. Apprentices receive training in opti cal mathematics and optical physics and in the use of laboratory equipment. In addition to technical training, apprentices may work di rectly with patients in fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. Trainees also are taught the basics of office management and sales. In 1980, 20 States and Puerto Rico re quired dispensing opticians to be licensed to dispense eyeglasses: Arizona, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Ten nessee, Vermont, Virginia, and Washington. To obtain a license, applicants must meet certain standards of education and training and pass either a written or practical exami nation, or both. In a growing number of States, opticians must take continuing educa tion courses to maintain their licenses. For specific requirements, consult the licensing board of the State. The American Board of Opticianry certifies the competence of dispensing opticians by means of written examinations. The National Opticianry Competency Examination of this organization leads to the Certified Optician Certificate, which attests to entry level compe tence in the field. Experienced opticians can take the Master in Ophthalmic Optics Exami nation, which leads to the Master in Ophthal mic Optics Certificate. Similarly, the National Committee of Contact Lens Examiners offers the Contact Lens Registry Examination. Dis pensing opticians who pass this exam are formally recognized as professionally compe tent to dispense contact lenses. Continuing education normally is required to maintain these various types of certification. Many dispensing opticians go into busi ness for themselves. Others may progress in their careers by becoming managers of retail optical stores or sales representatives for wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or lenses. Job Outlook Employment of dispensing opticians is ex pected to increase faster than the average for 404/Occupational Outlook Handbook all occupations through the 1980’s. In addi tion to job openings which result from growth in demand for opticians, some open ings will arise from the need to replace ex perienced workers who transfer to other kinds of work, retire, or die. Demand for corrective lenses is expected to rise as the population grows and as the elderly population in particular continues its substantial increase. Older persons require more vision care, on the whole, than others. Increasing public awareness of the impor tance of good eyesight (stimulated, for in stance, by the vision screening programs in schools) is also likely to spur demand. Heightened concern for hazards in the work place, and compliance with industrial safety precautions, may lead to increased purchases of safety goggles and glasses. Fashion, too, is likely to influence demand. The growing variety of frame styles and colors—as well as the increasing popularity of contact lenses— should encourage individuals to buy more than one pair of corrective lenses. Finally, demand for vision care—and for corrective lenses in particular—is associated with cover age for these services under public and pri vate health insurance programs. Employment opportunities should be ex cellent for dispensing opticians who have an associate degree in opticianry. Opportunities will be best in metropolitan areas because owners operate many of the retail shops in small communities and do not need dispens ing opticians. This occupation is affected by the ups and downs of the business cycle as it affects retail trade. During recessions, some dispensing opticians are laid off. Earnings The starting hourly wage rate for dispens ing opticians in one of the higher paying areas of the country was $8.75 in 1980, based on information from a small number of union contracts. Dispensing opticians who own and operate their own shops can expect to earn considerably more, generally from $20,000 to $30,000 a year. Apprentices start at a wage of about 60 percent of the skilled worker’s rate and re ceive periodic increases so that upon comple tion of the apprenticeship program, they are earning the beginning rate for experienced workers. Some dispensing opticians are members of unions. The principal union in this field is the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers with technical knowledge use machines and tools to do precise, delicate work include biomedi cal equipment technician, calibrator, dental laboratory technician, glass blower, instru ment repairer, locksmith, ophthalmic labora tory technician, orthodontic technician, prosthetics technician, and watch repairer. Sources of Additional Information A list of schools is available from: National Academy of Opticianry, P.O. Box 19391, Washington, D.C. 20036. National Federation of Opticianry Schools, Oph thalmic Dispensing Program, J. Sargeant Reynolds Community College, P.O. Box 12084, Richmond, Va. 23241. Information about apprenticeships in the 20 States that require a license is available from the State agency responsible for occupa tional licensing. In the other 30 States and the District of Columbia, information is available from the Division of Apprentice ship Training of the State Department of Labor. For general information about the occupa tion, contact: International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. National Federation of Opticianry Schools, Oph thalmic Dispensing Program, J. Sargeant Reynolds Community College, P.O. Box 12084, Richmond, Va. 23241. Opticians Association of America, 1250 Connecti cut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Chairperson of Optical Council, IUE-AFL-CIOCLC, 200 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10003. Furniture Upholsterers__ (D .O .T. 780.381-018, -022; .684-122) Nature of the Work Whether restoring a treasured antique or simply giving an ordinary living room couch a facelift, upholsterers combine artistic flair and manual skill to recondition sofas, chairs, and other upholstered furniture. These craft workers replace worn and damaged fabrics, springs, and padding. (Workers employed in the manufacture of upholstered furniture are not included in this statement.) All custom upholstery involves two steps: Removing the old cover, padding, and springs; and rebuilding the piece. However, because of differences in the way furniture is constructed, each job is unique. The follow ing is an explanation of some of the typical tasks involved in upholstering a piece of fur niture. Upholsterers usually place the furniture on padded wooden benches or some other type of support so that they may work at a conven ient level. Using hammers and tack pullers, they remove tacks or staples that hold the old fabric to the wooden frame. After stripping the old fabric, they remove the burlap and padding that cover the arms, back, sides, and seat of the piece. Upholsterers examine the springs and remove broken or bent ones. The springs sit on a mat woven from strips of nylon, jute, or cotton cloth called webbing that is attached to the frame. If webbing is worn, upholsterers remove all the springs and all the webbing. At times, the springs are a prefabricated unit and must be completely replaced. When rebuilding the furniture, upholsterers may reglue loose sections of the frame and refinish exposed wooden parts. If the mat that holds the springs was removed, they replace it. They tack webbing to one side of the frame, stretch it tight, and tack it to the opposite side. Other webbing is woven across the first and attached to the frame to form a new mat. After putting springs on the mat so they compress evenly, upholsterers sew or staple each spring to the webbing or frame and tie each spring to the ones next to it. Burlap then is stretched over the springs, cut and smoothed, and tacked to the frame. To form a smooth rounded surface over the springs and other parts of the frame, uphol sterers cover each section of the furniture— seat, back, arms—with filling material. After sewing the filling to the burlap, they cover it with a layer of felt and heavy cloth and tack the cloth to the frame. Finally, upholsterers put on the new fabric cover, which has been cut to size for a section, such as an arm or the back, and temporarily stitched together for fitting. After checking that the cover fits tightly and smoothly—or noting where ad justments are necessary—they remove the cover and sew it together and tack, staple, or glue it to the frame. To complete the job, upholsterers sew, tack, or glue on fringe, buttons, or other ornaments. Upholsterers use a variety of common handtools, including hammers, staple guns, tack and staple removers, pliers, and shears, and special tools such as webbing stretchers and upholstery needles. They also use sewing machines. Sometimes upholsterers pick up and deliver furniture. Shop owners and managers order supplies and equipment and keep business records. Upholsterers often work with interior designers. They upholster furniture with fab rics selected by the designer. Some upholster ers help customers select new furniture covers. Working Conditions Working conditions in upholstery shops vary—many shops are spacious, adequately lighted, well ventilated, and well heated; oth ers are small and dusty. Upholsterers stand while they work and do a considerable amount of stooping and bending and some heavy lifting. Employment About 35,000 people worked as furniture upholsterers in 1980. Most furniture uphol sterers own and operate, or work in uphol stery shops. These shops generally have fewer than three workers. Some upholsterers are employed by furniture stores. A few work for businesses, such as hotels, that maintain their own furniture. Production Operations/405 upholsterers, fur cutters, furniture finishers, rug repairers, and shoe repairers. Sources of Additional Information For details about work opportunities for upholsterers in your area, contact local up holstery shops, the local office of the State employment service, or a local of the Uphol sterers’ International Union. Instrument Makers (Mechanical)_____ (D.O.T. 600.280-010) Nature of the Work Sewing is one of the skills furniture upholsterers need. Employment of upholsterers is concentrat ed in metropolitan areas, where the large population provides the greatest demand for upholsterers’ services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to enter this trade is to start as a helper in an upholstery shop and learn on the job. Helpers learn by uphol stering furniture under the direction of ex perienced workers. Much time and practice are needed to learn complex tasks such as measuring and cutting the new fabric and sewing and attaching it to the frame with a minimum of waste. Usually about 3 years of on-the-job training are required to be come a fully skilled upholsterer. Inexperienced persons may get basic training in upholstery from vocational or high school courses. However, additional training and ex perience in a shop usually are required before these workers can work as quickly and effi ciently as experienced upholsterers. Although completion of an upholstery course does not assure a job, employers generally prefer to hire people with some knowledge of the trade. Persons interested in becoming upholster ers should have manual dexterity, good co ordination, and be able to do occasional heavy lifting. An eye for detail and flair for creative use of fabrics are helpful in making upholstered furniture as attractive as possible. The major form of advancement for uphol sterers is opening their own shop. It is easy to open a shop because only a small invest ment in handtools and a sewing machine is needed. However, the upholstery business is extremely competitive, so operating a shop successfully is difficult. Job Outlook Employment of upholsterers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Although more upholstered furniture will be used as population, personal income, and business expenditures grow, the demand for upholsterers will not keep pace with the growth in the amount of upholstered furniture in use because most consumers replace worn furniture rather than reupholster it. The de sire of some consumers to keep high quality and antique furniture or to save money by reupholstering less expensive furniture will account for most of the limited employment growth that is expected in this field. Inexperienced workers probably will have difficulty getting a job in upholstery shops because many shop owners will not take time from their work to supervise trainees. Earnings Hourly wages for experienced furniture upholsterers ranged from $6.75 to $10 in 1980. Some highly skilled upholsterers earned over $10 an hour. Employers general ly pay inexperienced trainees the minimum wage. Upholsterers usually buy their own handtools. Upholsterers generally work 40 hours a week. Business in upholstery shops usually increases during the last 4 months of the year. However, upholsterers usually do not work overtime and they rarely are laid off during the slack season. Some upholsterers are members of the Up holsterers ’ International Union of North America. Related Occupations Other workers who combine manual skills and a knowledge of materials such as fabrics and wood to repair things are automobile Instrument makers (also called experimen tal machinists and modelmakers) are among the most skilled of all machining workers. They work closely with engineers and scien tists to translate designs and ideas into ex perimental models, special laboratory equipment, and custom instruments. Experi mental devices constructed by these craft workers are used, for example, to regulate heat, measure distance, record earthquakes, and control industrial processes. The parts and models may range from simple gears to intricate parts of navigation systems for guid ed missiles. Instrument makers also modify existing instruments for special purposes. Instrument makers perform many tasks similar to those done by all-round machinists, tool-and-die makers, and setup workers. For example, they may set up and use machine tools such as lathes and milling machines to cut and form metal parts for instruments. In addition, they use handtools such as files and chisels to smooth rough metal parts. As in other types of machining work, accuracy is important. Like most machining workers, in strument makers measure finished parts to make sure they meet specifications. They use a wide variety of precision measuring equip ment, including micrometers, vernier cali pers, and dial indicators. Unlike other skilled machining workers, instrument makers often are not given de tailed instructions, such as blueprints, for their work. Instead, they may work from rough sketches or verbal instructions, or they may simply be given a concept to work with. As a result, their work often requires consid erable imagination and ingenuity. In addi tion, they must often work to much closer tolerances than other machining workers. Sometimes specifications must not vary more than one ten-thousandth of an inch. To meet these standards, they use special equipment or precision devices, such as the electronic height gauge, which other machining workers seldom use. They also work with a wider variety of materials than other machining workers. These materials include plastics and rare metals such as titanium and rhodium. In some instances, instrument makers work on instruments from start to finish. That is, they make and assemble all the parts, and 406/Occupational Outlook Handbook have taken algebra, geometry, trigonometry, science, and machine shopwork. Further technical schooling in electricity, physics, machine design, and electronics often is de sirable, and may make possible future pro motions to technician jobs. Persons interested in becoming instrument makers should have a strong interest in me chanical subjects and better than average ability to work with their hands. They must have initiative and resourcefulness because instrument makers often work with little or no supervision. Since instrument makers of ten face new problems, they must be able to develop original solutions. Frequently, they must visualize the relationship between indi vidual parts and the complete instrument and must understand the principles of the instru ment’s operation. Because of the nature of their jobs, instrument makers have to be very conscientious and take considerable pride in creative work. As instrument makers’ skills and knowl edge improve, they may advance to more responsible positions. For example, they may plan and estimate time and material require ments for the manufacture of the instruments or provide specialized support to professional personnel. Others may become supervisors and train less skilled instrument makers. Job Outlook Employment in this very small occupation is expected to increase at about the same rate Some instrument makers produce prototypes of new products. as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Some workers will be needed to then test the finished product. However, in particularly New York, Chicago, Los make prototypes of new instruments for mass large shops, or where time is important, the Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, Washington, production and also to make custom or spe cial instruments, particularly in the expand work may be divided among a number of Detroit, Buffalo, and Cleveland. ing field of industrial automation. Also, more workers. Similarly, if an instrument has elec versatile and sensitive precision instruments trical or electronic components, electronic Training, Other Qualifications, can be expected to emerge from current re specialists may be consulted. and Advancement search and development programs. Most Some instrument makers advance from the openings, however, will occur as workers Working Conditions Instrument makers often work under nearly ranks of machinists or skilled machine tool transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. ideal conditions. Because of the delicate na operators. These already skilled craft workers Overall, replacement needs will be small be ture of the mechanisms they work on, instru begin by doing simple instrument-making cause there are so few workers in this field. ment makers may work in the controlled tasks under close supervision. Usually 1 to 2 Inasmuch as instrument makers develop environment of “ white rooms.” These rooms years or more of instrument shop experience products for future industrial use more than are well lighted, slightly pressurized, tem are needed to qualify as instrument makers. for current consumption, fluctuations in the Other instrument makers learn their trade business cycle seldom affect employment. perature controlled, and dust free. Serious work accidents are not common, through apprenticeships that generally last Because of the time required to develop so but machine tools and flying bits of metal 4 years. A typical 4-year program includes phisticated instruments that will improve in may cause finger, hand, and eye injuries. To 8,000 hours of shop training and 576 hours dustrial production, these workers tend to be prevent such accidents, instrument makers of related classroom instruction. Shop train insulated from possible layoff. Also, employ must follow certain safety rules for machine ing emphasizes the use of machine tools, ers fear they may be unable to re-hire highly tools. These rules require special glasses, handtools, and measuring instruments, and skilled workers when economic conditions the working properties of various materials. improve. aprons, and tightly fitted clothing. Classroom instruction covers related techni cal subjects such as mathematics, physics, Employment Earnings Many of the approximately 4,300 instru blueprint reading, chemistry, metallurgy, Earnings of instrument makers compare electronics, and fundamental instrument de ment makers employed in 1980 worked for firms that manufactured instruments. Others sign. Apprentices must leam enough shop favorably with those of other highly skilled worked in research and development labora mathematics to plan their work and to use metalworkers. In 1980, instrument makers tories that make special devices for scientific formulas to solve problems in machining and had average earnings of $9.78 an hour. In research. The Federal Government employs assembly. Mechanical aptitude and manual comparison, all production workers in manu facturing industries averaged $7.27 an hour. dexterity are essential. many instrument makers. Many instrument makers are union mem For apprenticeship programs, employers The main centers of instrument making are located in and around a few large cities, generally prefer high school graduates who bers. Among the unions representing them Production Operations/407 are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the In ternational Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to instru ment maker are, of course, other machining occupations. These include all-round machin ists, tool-and-die makers, machine tool setup workers, and machine tool operators. Other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include arc cutters, blacksmiths, locksmiths, pattern makers (metal), and welders. Sources of Additional Information See the list under this same heading in the statement on all-round machinists elsewhere in this section. or other handtools or cast it in molds. Indi vidual parts are soldered to form the finished piece. Designs may be carved in metal, and diamonds or other stones mounted. Jewelers use pliers, files, saws, hammers, torches, soldering irons, and a variety of other small handtools. They use chemicals and polishing compounds, such as jeweler’s rouge, for soldering and finishing. Because the work is very detailed, jewelers often wear magnifying glasses. Working Conditions Jewelers usually work in comfortable sur roundings and the trade involves few physical hazards. However, doing delicate work while trying to satisfy demands for speed and qual ity from customers and employers can cause some stress. In stores and repair shops, jewelers gener ally work alone with little supervision. How ever, in retail stores they may talk with customers about repairs and even do some sales work. Employment Jewelers___________ (D .O .T . 700.281-010, -014, -022, and .381-030, -042, and -046) Nature of the Work For thousands of years people have worn and admired jewelry made from precious metals and stones, such as gold and dia monds. Jewelers use such materials to make and repair rings, necklaces, earrings, and other jewelry. Jewelers work in stores, factories, and re pair shops. Jewelers who work in stores and repair shops have a wide variety of duties; those who work in factories have more spe cialized duties. In jewelry stores and repair shops, jewelers generally offer many services to their cus tomers. Much of their time is spent repairing jewelry. Typical repair jobs are enlarging or reducing rings, resetting stones, and replac ing broken clasps and mountings. Some jew elers also may make jewelry by hand, repair watches, and do hand engraving. A small number are qualified gemologists and ap praise the quality and value of diamonds and other gemstones. Jewelers who own stores or shops have additional responsibilities. Besides working on jewelry, these small business people hire employees, order and sell merchandise, and handle other managerial duties. In jewelry factories, workers generally have one job in the manufacturing process. For example, some make molds to cast jew elry or dies to stamp it. Others do finishing work, such as setting stones and engraving. However, a small number of the most highly skilled jewelers make entire jewelry pieces. Following their own designs or those created by designers, they shape the metal with pliers About 28,000 people had jobs as jewelers in 1980. About two-fifths of all jewelers are self-employed, operating jewelry stores or re pair shops. Most jewelers employed in precious jewel ry manufacturing work in or near New York City. Although jewelry stores and repair shops are located throughout the country, most jobs in these establishments are in met ropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jewelers’ skills usually are learned through training on the job or in technical schools. Technical schools programs are the major source of training for people who want jobs in jewelry stores or repair shops. In these programs, which last from 6 months to 3 years students learn the use and care of jew elers’ tools and machines and basic jewelers’ skills, such as casting, stone setting, polish ing, and design. Store and shop owners pre fer graduates of these programs over people with no experience in the trade. However, most employers feel that graduates need an additional 3 years or more of supervised onthe-job training to refine their repair skills and to learn more about the operation of the store or shop. In jewelry factories, manufacturers provide on-the-job training in jewelry making skills for their production workers. Training can last for 3 to 4 years, depending on the difficulty of the skill. Training focuses on a particular special ty—casting, stone setting, engraving. A high school educaton is desirable for young people entering the trade. Courses in art, mechanical drawing, and chemistry are useful, depending on which aspect of the trade one chooses to follow. The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good eye-hand coordination, patience, and concentration. Artistic ability is a major as set, because jewelry must be stylish and attractive. In manufacturing, jewelers sometimes ad vance to supervisory jobs; however, advance ment opportunities generally are limited. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores or repair shops may become salaried managers of jew elry stores; some open their own businesses. A substantial financial investment is re quired to operate a jewelry store, because an inventory of expensive merchandise must be obtained. The jewelry business also is highly Working with precious metals often requires a delicate touch. 408/Occupational Outlook Handbook competitive. Jewelers who plan to open their own stores should have experience in selling. Jewelers of America, Time-Life Building, Suite 650, 1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020. Job Outlook Employment of jewelers is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. Besides new jobs arising from growth on demand for jewelers, job openings will result from the need to replace experienced jewelers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Overall, the job outlook will be better in jewelry stores and repair shops than in jewelry factories. Demand for jewelry repair will increase as rising prices of gold and gems make old jewelry more valuable. When more store owners offer jewelry repair service to meet this increased demand, job opportunities for jewelry repairers in stores and repair shops will increase. Jewelers should enjoy steady work even during economic downturns be cause the demand for jewelry repair is less sensitive to economic conditions than de mand for new jewelry. Busy store and shop owners often are re luctant to hire untrained and inexperienced workers. People entering the trade may have trouble finding a job unless they can demon strate their ability. Such persons can improve their chances for employment by attending a technical school with a good reputation among local store or shop owners. Job opportunities for jewelers in factories will decline through the 1980’s because of the increased use of mass production. In ad dition, the job outlook for jewelers in fac tories depends on the sales of jewelry. When inflation and recession force people to spend less on luxuries, such as jewelry, job oppor tunities in jewelry factories decline. Earnings In 1980, jewelers typically earned about $250 a week, according to the limited infor mation available. Earnings of experienced, unionized jewelry workers in manufacturing ranged from about $5.50 to $8 an hour. New workers in jewelry factories received $3.65 an hour to start. New workers receive period ic raises up to the minimum union wage for their job. In some precious jewelry factories the workweek is 35 hours. Most jewelers in stores and repair shops work 40 to 48 hours a week. During peak sales seasons, such as Christmas, they often work over 50 hours a week. Related Occupations Jewelers are important craft workers in the jewelry industry. Other skilled workers in this industry include gem cutters, gemologists, hand engravers, model makers, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on job opportunities in jewelry stores, contact: Lithographers______ to eyes. Platemakers working with toxic chemicals may be exposed to skin irritations. Work areas usually are well lighted and airconditioned. Lithographers generally work a regular 8hour day but they sometimes have to work overtime to meet publication deadlines. Some lithographers work night shifts. (D .O .T . 971.381-050; 972.281-010, .282-010, .381-014 and -022) Nature of the Work Lithography, also called offset printing, is the most efficient and fastest growing method of printing. It is a process of photographing the material to be printed, making a printing plate from the film, and pressing the inked plate against a rubber covered roller which in turn presses the ink onto the paper. Lithographers are responsible for a variety of printing activities ranging from photo graphing copy and pictures to making the final printing plates. Most lithographers spe cialize in one occupation, such as camera operator, artist, stripper, or platemaker. Camera operators start the process of making a lithographic plate by photographing and developing negatives of the material. They generally are further classified as line camera operators, halftone operators, or color separation photographers. Negatives may need retouching to lighten or darken certain parts. Lithographic artists make these correc tions by sharpening or reshaping images on the negatives. They do the work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. Lithographic artists must know the character istics of all types of paper and must produce fine shades of color. Like camera operators, they are assigned to only one phase of the work, and may have job titles such as dot etchers, retouchers, or letterers. Assemblers cut the film to required size and arrange and paste the negatives onto lay out sheets, which are used by platemakers to make press plates. Platemakers cover the sur face of flat pieces of metal with a coating of photosensitive chemicals, or may use plates with the coating already applied. They then put the layout sheet on top of the plate and expose both to bright lights. As the final step, platemakers treat the plate with chemi cals to bring out the images of the material to be printed. In a growing number of printing plants, lithographic platemakers use ma chines which automatically process the plates. This new equipment places more em phasis on technical skills than craft skills. The platemaker is responsible for operating and maintaining the machine and insuring that plates meet quality standards. When a large number of plates or multiple images are needed, operators use a step and repeat machine. Working Conditions Although lithographers stand most of the time, the work is not physically demanding. Lithographic artists and assemblers may find working with fine detail tiring and fatiguing Employment About 45,000 skilled lithographers were employed in 1980. Many worked for com mercial printing plants, newspapers, and book and magazine printers. Some worked in U.S. Government printing plants. Although lithographic workers are located in all parts of the country, most are employed in large printing centers such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. Training and Other Qualifications Many lithographers, particularly in small companies, learn the trade through on-thejob training—working as helpers and ob serving and being taught by experienced lithographers. However, a 4-year appren ticeship program usually is required in order to become a skilled lithographic craft work er. These programs may emphasize a spe cific craft, such as camera operator or lithographic artist, although an attempt is made to make the apprentice familiar with all lithographic operations. Usually, apprenticeship applicants must be in good physical condition, high school graduates, and at least 18 years of age. Apti tude tests usually are given to prospective apprentices to determine if they are suited for the work. Many technical institutes, junior colleges, and colleges offer 2-year programs in printing technology which provide a valuable back ground for persons interested in learning litho graphic crafts. High school and vocational school training in printing, photography, math ematics, chemistry, physics, mechanical draw ing, and art also is helpful. Camera operators should have an under standing of chemistry, optics, and the entire offset and photographic process. Precision, patience, good eyesight, and artistic skills are important qualifications for lithographic art ists and assemblers. A knowledge of elec tronics is becoming increasingly important because electronic equipment is coming into greater use for multicolor printing. Job Outlook Employment of lithographers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Besides em ployment arising from the increase in demand for lithographers, job openings will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or change occupations. Employment of lithographic workers is ex pected to increase in response to the contin ued growth of offset printing. Commercial printing firms and newspaper publishers in- Production Operations/409 newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Arts International Union, or the local office of thd State employment ser vice. For information on schools that offer courses in printing technology, write to: Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. For general information on lithographic occupations, write to: Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Printing and Graphic Communica tions Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. Molders (Foundry) (D .O .T . 518.361-010 and .682-010) Nature of the Work Lithographer operating a small offset press. wages, the estimated average minimum hour ly rate for lithographic artists was $12.81; for assemblers, $12.54; for camera operators, $12.65; and for platemakers, $12.53. In 1980, the average hourly rate for all nonsupervisory and production workers in private industry, except farming, was $6.66. creasingly are using offset printing methods instead of letterpress. Demand for workers also will result from the greater use of photo graphs and drawings in printed matter, and by the more widespread use of color in many printed products. In addition, lithographic work is less suited to mechanization than other printing processes. Employment opportunities should be best for people who have completed post-high school programs in printing technology, such as those offered by technical institutes and junior col leges. Many employers prefer to hire applicants who have completed these programs because the comprehensive training they receive helps them learn lithography and adapt more rapidly to new processes and techniques. Related Occupations Earnings Details on apprenticeship and other train ing opportunities in lithographic occupations are available from local employers such as According to a 1980 survey of union Lithographers are required to use artistic skills in their work. Artistic skills are also essential for occupations such as sign painters, jewelers, decorators, engravers, and photoen gravers. Sources of Additional Information One of the oldest known methods of mak ing metal products is casting—the process of pouring molten metal into a previously made mold. When the metal cools and hardens, it takes the shape of the mold. Metalcasting is one of the fastest, most economical, and ver satile ways to produce metal products. There are several different ways of making the molds that are used in casting, but green sand molding is the most common because it is so economical. In green sand molding, molders pack and ram a specially prepared mixture of sand, clay, and chemicals around a pattern of the object that is to be cast. The molding sand is contained in a box called a flask. The flask usually is made in two parts that can be separated to remove the pattern without damaging the mold cavity. When molten metal is poured into the cavity, it solidifies as it cools, and forms the casting. Technologically advanced molding ma chines that pack and ram the sand mechani cally are now used to make most molds. Thus, most of the workers in this occupation are machine molders. Machine molders (D.O.T. 518.682-010) operate machines that speed up and simplify the making of large quantities of identical sand molds. Their job includes setting up the machine, controlling the pressure applied to the sand by working the levers and pedals, and cutting pouring spouts in the mold. Machine molders also assemble the flask and pattern on the ma chine table and fill the flask with the pre pared sand mixture. In a few foundries, hand molders still con struct the sand molds, using primarily manual methods. Power tools, such as pneumatic rammers and squeeze plates, and handtools, such as trowels and hand rammers, are used to compact the sand. Molds for small cast ings usually are made on the workbench by bench molders (D.O.T. 518.361-010); those for large and bulky castings are made on the foundry floor by floor molders (D.O.T. 410/Occupational Outlook Handbook This molding job requires strength, coordina tion, and physical stamina. 518.361-010). An all-round hand molder can make many different types of molds. A less skilled molder may specialize in only a few simple types. Other workers who have an important role in the foundry metalcasting process are core makers and patternmakers. For a description of these jobs, see those statements elsewhere in this section. Working Conditions Working in a foundry can be hazardous, and the injury rate is higher than the average for all manufacturing industries. Molders must be careful to avoid bums from hot metal and to avoid cuts and bruises when handling metal parts, molds, and power tools. Safety pro grams at many foundries and use of safety equipment, such as safety shoes, have helped reduce injuries. Working conditions vary considerably from one foundry to another. In many plants, im proved ventilation systems and air-condition ing have reduced greatly the heat, fumes, and dust associated with this work; however, in some older foundries, these hazards still exist. Employment In 1980, about 24,000 persons worked as molders in plants that make and sell castings. Most of these foundries are small shops that employ fewer than 250 people. Although foundries are located throughout the country, the largest are concentrated in areas that are readily accessible to raw materials. The Great Lakes States, the west coast, and Alabama all have considerable metalcasting production. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 2-to 4-year apprenticeship program, or a comparable amount of on-the job experience, is needed to become a skilled hand molder. Workers with this training also are preferred for some kinds of machine molding, but in general, a shorter training period is required in order to become a quali fied machine molder. An eighth grade educa tion usually is the minimum requirement for all trainees. Many employers may prefer high school graduates, however. Apprenticeship programs generally are sponsored jointly by the employer and the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union. Under close supervision from skilled molders, apprentices begin with simple jobs, such as shoveling sand, and then gradually take on more difficult and responsible work, such as ramming molds, withdrawing pat terns, and setting cores. They also learn to operate the various types of molding ma chines. As their training progresses, they leam to make complete molds. In addition, the apprentice may work in other foundry departments to develop all-round knowledge of foundry methods and practices. The ap prentice usually receives at least 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as shop mathematics, metallurgy, and shop drawing. Hand molders who do highly repetitive work that requires less skill usually leam their jobs during a brief training period. Trainees work with an experienced molder to make a particular kind of mold. After 2 to 6 months, the trainee usually is capable of making a similar mold without any help. Most machine molders also leam the neces sary skills in a few months of informal onthe-job training. The length of training varies by individual and foundry, but generally is less than the time required for hand molders. Physical standards for molding jobs are fairly demanding. Molders stand while work ing, must move about a great deal to do accurate work, and must be competent in using molding tools such as shovels and ram mers. They need good eye-hand coordination and a high degree of manual dexterity. Mold ers may advance to a specialized molding job or evenually to a supervisory position. Job Outlook Employment of molders is expected to in crease more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Although de mand for metal castings is expected to in crease significantly, the trend toward more automatic machine molding and other laborsaving innovations will allow large increases in production with only moderate increases in employment. Some job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced molders who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. The number of openings, however, may fluc tuate greatly from year to year because the demand for a number of foundry products is sensitive to changes in the economy. Farm machinery and motor vehicles manufacturing are industries, for example, that use castings as components in their products. When de mand for these products slackens, as often happens during recessions, demand for metal castings also declines. Therefore, foundry workers may experience layoffs or shortened workweeks when economic conditions are poor. Earnings In January 1980, average straight-time hourly earnings of floor molders ranged from $6.50 in nonferrous foundries to $6.90 in iron and steel foundries, according to a wage survey made by the National Foundry Asso ciation. Bench molders averaged $5.70 in iron foundries and $6.10 in steel and nonfer rous foundries. By comparison, production workers in all manufacturing industries aver aged $7.27 an hour. Molders who were paid on an incentive basis generally had higher earnings. Related Occupations Other workers who need a knowledge of metal characteristics, molding sand, and pouring procedures are molding machine set ters, mold-maker helpers, mold closers, sand-slinger operators, pattern molders, and jewelry bench molders. * Sources of Additional Information For details about training opportunities for molders, contact local foundries, the local office of your State employment service, the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency, or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. Infor mation also is available from: International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union, 1225 E. McMillan St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45206. Additional career guidance material—free when requested on stationery with a school letterhead—is available from: American Foundrymen’s Society/Cast Metals Insti tute, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians________ (D .O .T . 7 1 3 .6 8 1 -0 1 0 and .6 8 4 -0 2 6 and -038; 716.280-008, -010, and -014, .360-010, .382-010, -018, and -022, .462-010, .681-018, .682-010, -014, and -018, and .685-018 and -022) Nature of the Work Ophthalmic laboratory technicians (also called optical mechanics) make prescription eyeglasses. Following the specifications pro vided by a dispensing optician, ophthalmol ogist (eye doctor), or optometrist, they cut, grind, and finish prescription lenses and as semble them with frames to produce finished glasses. Some ophthalmic laboratory techni cians help make contact lenses. There are two types of ophthalmic labora tory technicians: Surfacer (or lens grinder) Production Operations/411 and bench technician (or finisher). In small laboratories, one person may perform the tasks of both a surfacer and a finisher. Start ing with standard size lens blanks, which large optical firms mass-produce, surfacers set up and operate machines to grind and polish eyeglass lenses according to prescrip tion specifications. They use precision instru ments, such as focimeters and objective lens analyzers, to measure the lenses and make sure that they fit the prescription. In large laboratories, work is divided into separate operations which are performed mainly by workers who operate power grinding and polishing machines. Bench technicians mark and cut lenses and smooth their edges to fit frames. They then assemble the lenses and frame parts into fin ished glasses. Bench technicians use special tools, such as lens cutters and glass drills, as well as small files, pliers, and other handtools. They also use automatic edging ma chines to shape lens edges and precision instruments to detect imperfections. In large laboratories, the duties of bench technicians are divided into several operations which are performed mainly by skilled workers. Working Conditions Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work with machines that make a constant hum ming, whining sound. Sometimes they need to wear goggles to protect their eyes. Be cause most of their time on the job is spent standing, these workers are subject to fa tigue. Most ophthalmic laboratory techni cians work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Employment Almost 27,000 persons were employed as ophthalmic laboratory technicians in 1980. They worked in ophthalmic laboratories, for the most part. However, some worked for opticians, or for department stores, drug stores, and other retail firms that have optical departments. A few worked for ophthalmol ogists or optometrists who dispense glasses directly to patients. Some technicians work part time. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians are found in every State. However, employment is concentrated in large cities and in populous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Ophthalmic laboratory technicians usually leam their skills on the job. Employers prefer applicants for entry level jobs to be high school graduates who have had courses in science and mathematics. A knowledge of physics, algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing is particularly valuable. Interest in and ability to do precision work are essential. At first, technician trainees perform simple tasks such as processing lenses through a grinding machine. As they gain experience, they progress to operations such as lens cut ting and eyeglass assembly. When trainees have acquired experience in many types of Opthalmic laboratory technicians operate machines that grind and polish lenses. work, which usually takes about 3 years, they are considered all-round optical mechan ics. Some technicians specialize in one type of job, such as surfacing or bench work. The training time required to become a specialist is less than that needed to become an all round technician. Besides on-the-job training, there are other routes to enter this occupation. High school graduates can prepare to become technicians through 3- to 4-year formal apprenticeship programs operated by optical goods compan ies. Apprentices with exceptional ability may complete their training in a shorter period. Requirements for entry into these programs vary from State to State, but high school graduation usually is needed. Most training authorities agree that technicians who leam as apprentices have more job opportunities and more opportunities for advancement than those without such training. Persons interest ed in apprenticeships should check with the Division of Apprenticeship Training of their State’s Department of Labor. Apprentices are generally trained to be ei ther ophthalmic surfacers or finishers. Oph thalmic surfacers receive training in lens grinding and ophthalmic finishers leam to assemble eyeglasses into frames and to do frame repair. Some technicians leam their trade in the Armed Forces. Others complete programs in optical technology offered by community col leges, vocational-technical institutes, or trade schools. Graduates receive certificates, diplo mas, or associate degrees for programs vary ing in length from 6 months to 2 years. Graduates generally need some additional onthe-job training. The State of New Jersey requires ophthal mic laboratory technicians to be licensed. Applicants must meet certain standards of education and training and pass a written or practical examination. For specific require ments, consult the State licensing board. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can be come supervisors and managers. Some techni cians become dispensing opticians, although the trend is to train specifically for optician jobs. Some technicians, especially those receiving their training in both shop and dispensing work, may go into business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of ophthalmic laboratory technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Although some openings will result from growth in demand for techni cians, most will arise from the need to re place experienced workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Persons who have completed a formal training program should have the best opportunities for these jobs. 412/Occupational Outlook Handbook Conflicting trends will affect employment of ophthalmic laboratory technicians in the 1980’s. On the one hand, more technicians will be needed because of the rising demand for corrective lenses. Demand is expected to increase in response to overall population growth and the substantial increase in the number of elderly persons in particular. Older people tend to require the most vision care. Also contributing to demand for correc tive lenses is increasing public awareness of the importance of good eyesight, stimulated in part by vision screening programs in the schools. Fashion also spurs demand, as pre scription eyeglasses are increasingly used as a fashion accessory—thus encouraging indi viduals to buy more than one pair. Further, health insurance coverage for vision care ser vices—specifically including eyeglasses and contact lenses—plays a role. Any broadening or reduction in coverage under Medicare, Medicaid, or private health insurance would be likely to affect demand for corrective lenses. However, technological innovations that reduce labor requirements are being intro duced in optical laboratories, especially in the larger ones. The machines used to grind and polish lenses have become increasingly sophisticated, and computers are taking over some functions previously performed by ophthalmic laboratory technicians. The cu mulative effect of these advances has been to increase technicians’ productivity, en abling them to produce more per person than before. The business cycle has an impact on em ployment in this occupation. During reces sions some technicians are laid off, and, conversely, during periods of economic up swing, more technicians are hired. Earnings The starting hourly wage rate for ophthal mic laboratory technicians in one of the high er paying areas of the country was $7.60 in 1980, based on information from a small number of union contracts. Apprentices start at about 60 percent of the skilled worker’s wage rate and receive peri odic increases so that upon completion of the apprenticeship program, they are earning the beginning rate for experienced workers. Some ophthalmic laboratory technicians are members of unions. The principal union in this field is the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers with technical knowledge use machines and tools to do precise, delicate work include biomedi cal equipment technicians, calibrators, dental laboratory technicians, dispensing opticians, glass blowers, instrument repairers, lock smiths, orthodontic technicians, prosthetics technicians, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information A list of schools offering courses for peo ple who wish to become ophthalmic laborato ry technicians is available from: National Academy of Opticianry, P.O. Box 19391, Washington, D.C. 20036. National Federation of Opticianry Schools, Oph thalmic Dispensing Program, J. Sargeant Reynolds Community College, P.O. Box 12084, Richmond, Va. 23241. For general information about the occupa tion, contact: International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Chairperson of Optical Council, IUE-AFL-CIOCLC, 200 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10003. Opticians Association of America, 1250 Connecti cut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Patternmakers (Foundry) __ (D .O .T. 600.280-050 and 661.281-022) Nature of the Work Foundry casting is a process that forms metal into detailed objects by pouring molten metal into previously prepared molds and allowing it to harden in the mold cavity. A high quality product depends upon the initial pattern created by the foundry patternmaker. The formation of the hollow mold cavity, and ultimately the metal casting itself, relies upon an accurate, well-constructed pattern. Patterns are formed from many different materials—wood, metal, plastic, plaster, and even wax. Patternmakers work from blueprints pre pared by engineers or drafters. The blueprints contain information about the size, shape, and other properties desired in the finished cast object. From these instructions, pattern makers construct a precise pattern for the product by carefully checking each dimen sion with instniments such as micrometers and calipers. Precision is important because any imperfection in the pattern will be repro duced in the castings. Most workers in this occupation are metal patternmakers (D.O.T. 600.280-050). These workers prepare patterns from metal stock or from rough castings made from a wood pat tern. To shape and finish the patterns, they use many metalworking machines, including lathes, drill presses, shapers, milling ma chines, and grinders. To smooth surfaces, they also use small handtools, such as files and metal scrapers. Wood patternmakers (D.O.T. 661.281022) select the wood stock, lay out the pat tern, and cut each piece of wood to size. They then shape the rough pieces into final form with various woodworking machines, such as lathes and sanders, as well as many small handtools. Finally, they assemble the pattern segments by hand, using glue, screws, and nails. Other workers who have an important role in the foundry metal casting process are core makers and molders. For a description of these jobs, see those statements elsewhere in this section. Working Conditions Patternmakers work indoors in well-light ed, well-ventilated areas. The rooms in which they work generally are separated from the areas where the casting takes place, so they are not exposed to the heat and noise of the foundry floor. Although the work is not strenuous, pattemmaking requires consider able standing and moving about. Employment In 1980, about 3,000 patternmakers worked in foundries. Most foundries are small; more than 90 percent employ fewer than 250 workers, although several of the largest employ more than 5,000 workers. Although foundries are located throughout the country, the largest are concentrated in areas that are readily accessible to raw mate rials. Some States that have considerable metalworking activity are Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Alabama, New York, California, and Wisconsin. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Apprenticeship is the best means of quali fying as an experienced patternmaker. Ap prenticeship program s generally are sponsored jointly by the employer and the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union. Because of the high degree of skill and the wide range of knowledge needed for pattemmaking, it is difficult to learn the trade on the job, but with additional on-the-job training or experience, some skilled machin ists have transferred to metal pattemmaking. High school courses in mechanical drawing, blueprint reading, woodworking, metalwork ing, and shop mathematics are helpful to persons interested in becoming a pattern maker. In addition, vocational and technical school training in pattemmaking, metalwork ing, and machining provide useful prepara tion for an apprentice, and may be credited toward completion of the apprenticeship. The usual apprenticeship period for pat temmaking is 4 or 5 years. At least 144 hours of classroom instruction generally ac company the work experience provided each year. Because of the precise skills needed, apprenticeship programs for wood and metal pattemmaking are separate. Employers al most always require apprentices to have a high school education. Apprentices begin by helping experienced patternmakers in routine duties. They make simple patterns under close supervision; as they progress, the work becomes increasingly complex and the supervision more general. Patternmakers earn higher pay as their skill increases, and some become supervisors. Manual dexterity and attention to detail are especially important because of the precise Production Operations/413 facturing industries averaged $7.27 an hour. Related Occupations Because patternmakers learn either basic metalworking or woodworking, they may be able to use their skills and knowledge for jobs in related fields. Wood patternmakers, for example, may qualify for woodworking jobs such as cabinetmaker or bench carpen ter. Metal patternmakers may be able to transfer to metalworking occupations such as machinist, layout worker, or sheet-metal worker. Other workers who follow blueprints to construct full-sized and scale models of prod ucts include sample-body builders (auto mobile manufacturing), model makers (clocks and watches), form builders (aircraftaerospace manufacturing), loft workers (ship and boat building and repairing), mock-up builders (transportation equipment), wood model makers (any industry), cabinetmakers (woodworking), and metal fabricators (any industry). Sources of Additional Information For details about training opportunities for patternmakers, contact local foundries, the local office of your State employment service, the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency, or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. Infor mation also is available from: International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union, 1225 E. McMillan St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45206. Additional career guidance material—free when requested on stationery with a school letterhead—is available from: American Foundrymen’s Society/Cast Metals Insti tute, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. Photoengravers_____ (D .O .T . 970.361-014; 971.261-010; .381-014 through -038; .382-014 through -018; .684-010; .685-010; and 979.381-018) Patternmakers must carefully check each dimension. nature of the work. The ability to visualize objects in three dimensions also is important when reading blueprints. Job Outlook Employment of foundry patternmakers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s despite anticipated increases in found ry production. The increased use of metal and plastic patterns will allow production to increase faster than employment. Because these patterns last longer than wooden ones, fewer patterns have to be made. Some job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced patternmakers who re tire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The number of openings may fluctuate from year to year since the demand for many foundry products is sensitive to changes in the economy. About 400 pounds of metal castings go into the production of an auto mobile, for example. When economic condi tions are poor, the demand for cars as well as other expensive durable goods that use metal casting is reduced. Thus, patternmakers may experience layoffs or shortened workweeks when users of foundry products face a reduc tion in the demand for their products. Earnings Patternmakers generally have higher earn ings than other production workers in manu facturing. In January 1980, average straighttime hourly earnings of patternmakers ranged from $7.50 in steel foundries to $9.50 in iron foundries, according to a wage survey made by the National Foundry Association. In comparison, all production workers in manu Nature of the Work Photoengravers make metal printing plates of pictures and other copy that cannot be set in type. In letterpress photoengraving, ink is rolled over a printing surface which stands higher than the rest of the plate. When paper is pressed against this raised surface, the print or image is picked up. Similarly, gra vure photoengravers make gravure cylinders on which the image is etched below the sur face of the cylinder. Ink is placed in the etched or sunken areas, and, when paper is pressed against the surface, the ink is lifted out and appears on the paper. In both meth ods, however, the work of photoengravers is the same. For a typical letterpress job, photoen gravers first mount the picture or copy to be reproduced on a board, adjust the position and focus of a camera, and take a picture. After developing the negative, they print its image on a flat, metal plate by coating the 414/Occupational Outlook Handbook plate with a chemical solution sensitive to light, placing the negative on the plate, and exposing both to a bright light. As the final step in making the printing plate, photoen gravers put the plate in an acid bath which eats the metal away from areas which will not be covered with ink. The areas to receive ink—those that were exposed to the light through the negative—stand out to make con tact with the paper. The number of photoen graving operations performed depends on the quality of the printing required. Photoengrav ings for very high-quality books or periodi cals, for example, require more careful finishing than those for newspapers. Pho toengravers use handtools to inspect and touch up the plates. They cut away metal from the nonprinting part of the plate to prevent it from touching the inking rollers during printing. In small shops, the entire photoengraving operation usually is done by one person. In large shops, however, the work is divided among specialists who perform a particular operation such as camera work, printing, or etching. Working Conditions Photoengravers stand up most of the time but the work is not strenuous. Work areas generally have good light and ventilation. However, photoengravers who work with toxic chemicals may be exposed to skin irritations. Photoengravers may have to work over time to meet publication deadlines. Some work evening and night shifts. Photoen gravers employed by newspapers frequently work weekends and holidays. commercial shops that make photoengravings for other printing firms. Newspapers and photogravure shops employed several thou sand photoengravers. Book and magazine printers and the Federal Government also employ these workers. Many photoengravers have their own shops. Although photoengravers are located in all parts of the country, employment is concen trated in large printing centers such as New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., and Los Angeles. Training and Other Qualifications Most photoengravers learn their trade through a 4-year apprenticeship program that includes at least 800 hours of classroom in struction. In addition to the care and use of tools, apprentices are taught to cut and square negatives, inspect negatives for de fects, mix chemicals, sensitize metals, and operate machines used in the photoengraving process. Many apprentices specialize in one aspect of photoengraving such as camera work, etching, finishing, or proofing. Apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years of age and generally must have a high school or vocational school education or its equivalent, preferably with courses in print ing, chemistry, and physics. Due to declining demand for photoengravers, however, very few apprenticeships have been offered in re cent years. Some photoengravers have been retrained as lithographers. (See the statement on lithographers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Good eyesight and accurate color perception are particularly important because of the close work and color determinations involved. Employment Job Outlook About 10,000 skilled photoengravers were employed in 1980. More than half worked in Employment opportunities for photoen gravers are expected to be limited in the years ahead. Despite the growing use of photo graphs and other illustrations in publications, employment of photoengravers will decline as firms continue to switch from letterpress to off set printing, which requires no photoengraving. Also, new technological advances, such as col or scanners and color enlargers, and the trend toward automated platemaking should reduce the need for these workers. However, due to the expected growth in gravure printing, there should be some employment opportunities for gravure photoengravers. Some job openings are expected each year as experienced photoen gravers retire, die, or change occupations. Earnings Based on a survey of union wages, pho toengravers on the day shift in newspaper plants earned an estimated average minimum rate of $11.58 an hour in 1980; photoen gravers working the night shift receive extra pay. In 1980, the average hourly rate for all nonsupervisory and production workers in private industry, except farming, was $6.66. Related Occupations Photoengravers are required to use artistic skills in their work. These skills also are essen tial for occupations such as sign painters, jewel ers, decorators, engravers, and lithographers. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office of the union mentioned below, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information on photoen gravers, write to: Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. Photographic Process Workers___________ (D .O .T . 962.665-010; 970.281-010; -018, .381-010, -034; 972.281-010, -018 , 976.267-010 through .361-010, .381-014 through .564-014, .665-010 through .685-030, .687-014 through -022; 979.682-014) Nature of the Work Photoengravers take pictures of the copy to be reproduced. If the developing of film and printing of pictures were left to the photographer few photographs would be taken. Instead, profes sionals and amateurs alike generally rely on photographic process workers in photo finish ing or custom photo labs to develop film, make prints and slides, and do related tasks such as enlarging and retouching photo graphs. (This statement does not discuss em- Production Operations/415 ployees of laboratories that specialize in pro cessing professional motion picture film). All-round darkroom technicians can do ev erything necessary to develop and print film. They vary the developing process according to the type of film—black-and-white nega tive, color negative, or color positive. For example, a developing process for black-andwhite negative film covers five steps: Devel oper, stop bath, fixing bath, washing, and drying. The first three steps use chemical solutions and are performed in darkness. In a hand operation, the technician first immerses unwound film in the developer to bring out the image on exposed film. After a specified period, the technician transfers the film to a stop bath to prevent overdevelopment. Next, the film is placed in a fixing bath that makes it insensitive to light to prevent further expo sure. Finally, the technician washes the film with water to remove the fixing solution and places the film in a drying cabinet. Although processing is done by hand in some small photographic studios, technicians in many photographic labs operate machines that auto matically perform the steps described above. Processing of color film is more complex than processing of black-and-white film. Thus, some labs employ color-laboratory technicians (D.O.T. 976.681-010)—highly skilled workers who specialize in processing color film. The darkroom technician makes a photo graph by transferring the image from a nega tive to photographic paper. Printing frequently is performed on a projection printer, which consists of a fixture for holding negatives and photographic paper, an electric lamp, and a magnifying lens. The technician places the negative between the lamp and lens, and the paper below the lens. When the technician turns on the lamp, light passes through the negative and lens and records a magnified image of the negative on the paper. During printing, the technician may vary the contrast of the image or remove unwanted background by using paper patterns to shade part of the photographic paper from the projected image. After removing the exposed photographic pa per from the printer, the technician develops it in much the same way as the negative. If the customer desires, the technician mounts the finished print in a frame or on a paper or cardboard back. In addition to.working in the laboratory, darkroom technicians may set up lights and cameras or otherwise assist experienced pho tographers. Many technicians, particularly those in portrait studios who aspire to be come professional photographers, divide their time between taking and processing pictures. In some labs, helpers assist technicians. Technicians also may be assisted by workers who specialize in a particular activity, such as developers (D.O.T. 976.681-010), print washers (D.O.T. 976.684-022), projection printers (D.O.T. 976.381-018), and photo graph retouchers (D.O.T. 970.281-018). In most large photo labs where film devel oping is largely automated, darkroom techni Most photo process workers learn their skills on the job. cians supervise workers whose assignments require only a limited knowledge of develop ing and printing. Included are photofinishing laboratory workers (D.O.T. 976.687-018), who sort film according to the type of proc essing needed and number each roll for iden tification; color-printer operators (D.O.T. 976.382-014), who control the equipment used to produce color prints from negatives; print controllers (D.O.T. 976.685-010), who operate machines that expose rolls of photo graphic paper to negatives; automatic print developers (D.O.T. 976.685-026), who op erate machines that develop rolls of exposed photographic paper; cutters (D .O .T . 976.685- 010), who tend machines that cut processed film or prints into single or multi ple units; automatic mounters (D.O.T. 976.685- 022), who tend the automatic m ounting presses that cut film into individual transparencies and seal them in mounting frames; and photo checkers and assemblers (D.O.T. 976.687-014), who in spect and package finished slides and prints for customers. Working Conditions Photo lab jobs are not physically strenuous and the work is done in clean, well-lighted, and air-conditioned photofinishing laborato ries. However, many workers, especially in large laboratories, do repetitious work at a rapid pace. Some workers such as photo checkers and assemblers, who perform de tailed tasks, are subject to eye fatigue. Most photo lab employees work a 40-hour week. In labs that specialize in processing film for amateur photographers, employees may work a considerable amount of over 416/Occupational Outlook Handbook time, at premium pay, during peak seasons such as summer and after Christmas. Employment About 77,000 persons were employed as photo process workers in 1980. Most worked in large photofinishing labs that process film for amateur photographers. A large proportion of darkroom technicians work in photo labs operated by portrait and commercial studios and by manufacturers, newspaper and magazine publishers, adver tising agencies, and other organizations. Darkroom technicians also work in commer cial labs that specialize in processing the work of professional photographers. Photo process workers are employed in all parts of the country but are concentrated in the more populous areas such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and other large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most photo process workers leam their skills through informal on-the-job training. Beginners start as helpers and gradually leam to develop and print film by assisting experi enced technicians. It generally takes about 3 years to become a fully qualified darkroom technician. Some helpers specialize in a par ticular activity, such as printing or develop ing. Generally, less training time is required to become a specialist than to become an all round darkroom technician. When hiring darkroom technician helpers, employers prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in chemistry and mathematics are helpful to people interested in this field. Some high schools and trade schools offer courses in photography that in clude training in film processing. The Armed Forces also offer training in photographic processing. Experience gained through pro cessing film as a hobby is helpful. Several community colleges offer 2-year programs leading to an associate degree in photographic technology. Formal training also is available from vocational schools and technical institutes. Completion of postsecon dary courses in this field is helpful to people who are interested in supervisory and man agerial jobs in photo labs. Some darkroom technicians eventually be come professional photographers. (See the statement on photographers elsewhere in the Handbook). Others advance to supervisory positions in laboratories. On-the-job training for workers in special ized photo process occupations ranges from a few weeks for film numberers and automatic mounters, for example, to several months for photo checkers and assemblers. For many jobs, manual dexterity, good vision including normal color perception, and good hand-eye coordination are important qualifications. age through the 1980’s. Increased demand will create some jobs, but most openings will result from replacement needs, which report edly are high. Job prospects for photo proc ess workers are associated to some extent with fluctuations in the business cycle; these workers are subject to layoff during econom ic downturns, when the volume of film proc essing declines. The demand for film processing is expect ed to rise as a result of the expanding interest in amateur photography—spurred by rising population and personal income as well as improvements in still and movie cameras that make them easier to load and operate. Busi ness and government also are expected to contribute to the demand for film processing through expanded use of photography in re search and development activities and in creased use of photographs to illustrate printed materials. Employment of photo graphic process workers is not expected to keep pace with the demand for film process ing, however, because of the growing popu larity of self-processing instant cameras and the automation of photo lab operations. Earnings Earnings of photo process workers vary greatly depending on skill level, experience, and geographic location. Inexperienced photo process workers generally start at or just above the minimum wage, and earned be tween $3.40 and $4.50 an hour in 1980, according to the limited information avail able. Among workers in specialized occupa tions, printer operators and chemical mixers generally had the highest earnings. In gener al, darkroom technicians and those in super visory positions earned more than specialized workers. Related Occupations The more highly skilled photo process workers—all-round darkroom technicians and color-laboratory technicians, for example— need a specialized knowledge of the photodeveloping process. Other laboratory workers who apply specialized technical knowledge include chemical laboratory technicians, crime lab analysts, food testers, medical laboratory assistants, metallurgical techni cians, and quality control technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment oppor tunities in photographic laboratories and schools that offer degrees in photographic technology, write to: Photo Marketing Association International, 3000 Picture Place, Jackson, Mich. 49201. Shoe Repairers_____ (D .O .T. 365.361-014, 753.684-026, and 788.381-010) Job Outlook Nature of the Work Employment of photo process workers is expected to increase more slowly than aver People like their shoes to look nice and feel comfortable. Keeping them that way is the job of the shoe repairer. Using their knowledge of shoe construction and leather working, shoe repairers give worn shoes a new lease on life. Replacing soles and heels is the most com mon type of shoe repair. Repairers place the shoe on a last, a block shaped like a foot. They remove the old sole and heel with a knife and pincers. To prepare the shoe for the new sole, repairers rough the shoe’s bot tom by holding it against a sanding wheel. Repairers then cement to the shoe a piece of leather or rubber that will be the new sole. They hammer the new sole so it adheres to the shoe, and cement or stitch it in place. To form the new sole, repairers cut off the ex cess material with a trimming machine and smooth the edge against a sanding wheel. To reheel the shoe, repairers select a precut re placement heel or cut one to shape and ce ment and nail it in place. New soles and heels are stained and buffed to match the color of the shoe. Shoe repairers also replace insoles, restitch loose seams, and restyle old shoes by chang ing heels or dyeing uppers. Highly skilled repairers may design, make, or repair ortho pedic shoes according to doctors’ prescrip tions. Repairers also may mend handbags, luggage, tents, and other items made of leather, rubber, or canvas. They also replace zippers, dye handbags, and stretch shoes to conform to the foot. In large shops, repair work sometimes is divided into a number of specialized tasks. For example, some of the repairers only re move and replace heels and soles; others only restitch tom seams. Shoe repairers use a variety of power-oper ated equipment, such as sole-stitchers, heelnailing machines, and sewing machines. Among the handtools they use are hammers, knives, awls, nippers, and skivers (a special tool for splitting pieces of leather). Self-employed shoe repairers have man agerial responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. They have to maintain good relations with their customers; decide wheth er to sell items such as shoe polish and leather goods; keep business records; and su pervise other repairers, helpers, and cashiers. Working Conditions Because many shoe repairers own shops, working conditions often are determined by the repairer. Shops are usually comfortable, but some may be crowded and noisy and have poor lighting or ventilation. There may be strong odors from leather goods, dyes, and stains. The work is not strenuous and hazards are few. However, stamina is needed because repairers must stand much of the time. Employment About 16,000 shoe repairers were em ployed in 1980. Almost one-half of all shoe repairers work in their own shoe-repair shops; many of the shops are small, oneperson operations. Most of the remaining Production Operations/417 Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers make or repair items using leather and cloth are alterations tailors, furniture upholsterers, fur riers, luggage repairers, rug repairers, saddlemakers, and custom shoemakers. Sources of Additional Information Information about the shoe repair business and training opportunities may be obtained from: Shoe Service Institute of America, 154 W. Hub bard St., Chicago, 111. 60610. Information about work opportunities is available from State employment service of fices, as well as shoe shops and shoe service wholesalers in the community. Tool-and-Die Makers (D .O .T. 601.280, .281-010, -014, and -026; .380-010; .381-010, -014, -022, -026, -030, and -034) Most shoe repairers work alone. repairers work in larger shoe repair shops. Some repairers work in shoe stores, depart ment stores, and drycleaning shops. A small number are employed in shoe manufacturing, to repair shoes damaged in production. These workers generally are less skilled than those who work in repair shops. Shoe repairers are employed throughout the country. Employ ment, however, is concentrated in large cities. machines and handtools. They must have self-discipline because they often work alone with little supervision. In addition to being skilled craftworkers, repairers who own shops must have a working knowledge of business administration, marketing, and accounting. Many shoe repairers open their own shops. Some who are employed in large shops be come supervisors. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Job Outlook Shoe repairers learn their trade on the job as helpers to experienced repairers, or in vocational programs. Helpers begin by assist ing experienced repairers with simple tasks, such as removing soles and heels and stain ing, brushing, and shining shoes. As they gain experience, trainees learn to replace heels and soles, to estimate the cost of re pairs, and to deal with customers. Helpers usually become fully skilled in 6 months to 2 years; the length of training varies greatly with the individual. Twenty-four vocational training programs are available nationwide. This training is of fered at high schools, private vocational schools, junior colleges, and government fa cilities. Applicants to shoe repair programs at junior colleges usually must have a high school diploma. In vocational classes, stu dents study shoe construction and practice different types of shoe repair. Students also attend classes in business administration. The programs last from 6 months to 2 years. Graduates often are encouraged to gain addi tional training by working with experienced shoe repairers. Graduates of vocational pro grams may be preferred by employers over people with no experience or training. Shoe repairers must have manual dexterity and mechanical aptitude to work with various Employment of shoe repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Neverthe less, job opportunities are expected to be good for people with some training in shoe repair because of the need to replace experi enced shoe repairers who retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. However, training is difficult to obtain since there are few voca tional training programs and inexperienced workers often have difficulty finding a job as a helper in a repair shop. For many years, employment of shoe re pairers declined because shoes were rela tively inexpensive and many people bought new shoes instead of having old ones fixed. The popularity of cushion-soled footwear and other casual shoes which usually are not practical to repair also limited the de mand for these workers. The rising cost of shoes, however, should stimulate the de mand for repairs. Earnings Shoe repairers earned about $200 a week in 1980, according to the limited information available. Some managers and owners of shoe repair shops earned more than $300 a week. Shoe repairers often work more than 40 hours a week. The workweek is sometimes 10 hours a day, 6 days a week. Nature of the Work Tool-and-die makers are highly skilled, creative workers whose products—tools, dies, and special guiding and holding de vices—are used by other machining workers to mass-produce metal parts. Toolmakers produce jigs and fixtures (devices that hold metal while it is bored, stamped, or drilled). They also make gauges and other measuring devices used in manufacturing precision met al parts. Diemakers construct metal forms (dies) to shape metal in stamping and forging operations. They also make metal molds for diecasting and for molding plastics. Tooland-die makers also repair worn or damaged dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures, and aid in the design of tools and dies. Compared with most other machining workers, tool-and-die makers have a broader knowledge of machining operations, math ematics, and blueprint reading. Like machin ists, tool-and-die makers use almost every type of machine tool and precision measuring instrument. Because they work with all the metals and alloys commonly used in manu facturing, tool-and-die makers must be famil iar with the machining properties, such as hardness and heat tolerance, of a wide vari ety of metals and alloys. Working Conditions Tool-and-die makers usually work in “toolrooms,” which are in an area of the plant separated from the production floor. Toolrooms usually are quieter than the pro duction floor because there are not as many machines in use at one time. Because of the danger from flying pieces of hot metal, tool-and-die makers must fol low strict safety procedures when working around metal-cutting machines. Safety glass es with side shields and other protective clothing must be worn. In addition, loose or 418/Occupational Outlook Handbook billowy clothing, long hair, and rings or oth er jewelry are prohibited. Employment About 166,000 tool-and-die makers were employed in 1980. Most worked in plants that produce manufacturing, construction, and farm machinery. Others worked in auto mobile, aircraft, and other transportation equipment industries; small tool-and-die shops; and electrical machinery and fabricat ed metal industries. Although tool-and-die makers are situated throughout the country, jobs are most plenti ful in areas where many large factories are located. About one-fifth of all tool-and-die makers work in the Detroit and Flint, Chica go, and Los Angeles areas, which are major manufacturing centers for automobiles, ma chinery, and aircraft, respectively. Among the other areas that have large numbers of these workers are Cleveland, New York, Newark, Dayton, and Buffalo. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tool-and-die makers obtain their skills in a variety of ways, including formal apprentice ship, vocational school, and on-the-job train ing. Formal apprenticeship programs, how ever, are probably the best way to learn the trade. In selecting apprentices, most employers prefer persons with a high school or trade school education. Applicants should have a good working knowledge of algebra, geome try, trignometry, and physics, as well as con siderable mechanical ability, finger dexterity, Tool-and-die makers are in great demand. and an aptitude for precise work. Some em ployers test apprentice applicants to deter mine their mechanical aptitudes and their mathematical ability. Most of the 4 years of a tool-and-die ap prenticeship are spent in practical shop train ing. Apprentices learn to operate the drill press, milling machine, lathe, grinder, and other machine tools. They also learn to use handtools in fitting and assembling tools, gauges, and other mechanical equipment, and study heat treating and other metalworking processes. Classroom training consists of shop mathematics, shop theory, mechanical drawing, tool designing, and blueprint read ing. Several years of experience after appren ticeship are often necessary to qualify for more difficult tool-and-die work. Some com panies have separate apprenticeship programs for toolmaking and diemaking. Some machining workers become tooland-die makers without completing formal apprenticeships. After years of experience as skilled machine tool operators or machinists, plus additional classroom training, they de velop into skilled all-round workers who can make tools and dies. Skilled tool-and-die makers have numerous paths for advancement. Some advance to su pervisory and administrative positons in in dustry. Some become tool designers and others may open their own tool-and-die shops. Job Outlook Employment of tool-and-die makers is ex pected to increase more slowly than the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most openings will occur as experienced tool-and-die makers transfer to other occupa tions, retire, or die. The long-range expansion in metalworking industries will result in a continued need for tools and dies. The growth of this occupation will be limited, however, by the use of elec trical discharge machines and numerically controlled machines that have significantly changed toolmaking processes. Numerically controlled machining operations require few er of the special tools and jigs and fixtures and could increase the output of each tooland-die maker. Despite relatively slow growth in demand, there is a shortage of tool-and-die makers because training pro grams have not trained enough people in recent years. Opportunities, therefore, should be excellent for those with the proper training and experience. The extensive skills and knowledge of tool-and-die makers can be acquired only after many years of experience. Because of this, these workers are able to change jobs within the machining occupations more easily than less skilled workers. Tool-and-die mak ers produce industrial machinery rather than consumer durable goods. Because of the lengthy lead-time involved in making this equipment, their jobs are less sensitive to fluctuations in the business cycle than most other occupations. Employers are quite reluc tant to lay off these highly skilled workers even when production levels fall because they fear the workers will not be available when economic conditions improve. Earnings Tool-and-die makers are among the high est paid machining workers. In 1980, tooland-die makers employed in metropolitan areas had average earnings of $10.34 an hour. This was about one and three-fourths times as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Average hourly rates in 13 of the areas surveyed, selected to show how wage rates for tool-and-die makers differ in various parts of the country, appear in table 1. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of tool-anddie makers in selected areas, 1980 Hourly rate Area San Francisco-Oakland .................... Detroit.................................................... Cleveland .............................................. Chicago.................................................. Atlanta.................................................... Baltimore................................................ Cincinnati ...................................•......... Houston.................................................. Minneapolis-St.Paul .......................... B oston .................................................... New York ............................................ Hartford.................................................. Birmingham ......................................... $12.34 11.33 10.66 10.55 10.47 10.35 10.15 9.98 9.76 9.39 8.77 8.59 8.27 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Many tool-and-die makers are members of unions, including the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to tool-and-die maker are, of course, the other machining occupations. These include all round machinists, instrument makers, ma chine tool operators, machine tool setup workers, and machine tool programmers. Other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include arc cutters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths locksmiths, patternmakers (metal), and welders. Sources of Additional Information See the list under this same heading in the statement on all-round machinists elsewhere in the Handbook. Plant and Systems Operators The workers described in this section of the Handbook operate, maintain, and repair machinery in industrial plants and systems. They monitor and control equipment that ranges in complexity from the boiler in the basement of an apartment building to the technologically advanced equipment in nucle ar power and chemical plants and petroleum refineries. Stationary Engineers (D .O .T . 221.362-014; 914.167-014, .362-018, and .382-010 and -022; 950.362, 382-018, -022, -026, and 030, and .585; 952.362-010, -042, and .382-010; 953.362-010, -014, and .382-010; 954.382; and 955.382018) Nature of the Work Water and sewage treatment plant opera tors run equipment that purifies and dis tributes water for human use, as well as dis poses of liquid wastes, such as chemical and radioactive wastes. Gas plant operators han dle machinery that processes and distributes gas to business and residential customers. Power plant operators control machinery that provides energy for industry, and for such purposes as lighting, heating, refrigeration, ventilation, and air-conditioning. Hydroelec tric plants, nuclear reactors, powerhouses, and diesel plants are included in this group. Other plant and systems operators include chemical plant operators and petroleum plant operators. Plants and systems vary in size, complex ity, and degree of automation; some are run by only one operator at a time, while others require many. Operators tend to have certain tasks in common, however. They start up equipment and shut it down; monitor meters, gauges, or control panels; and make adjust ments. They may operate switches that con trol the flow of various materials and substances; take samples and run tests; keep records (of instrument readings and switching operations, for example); and do calcula tions. Operators also are responsible for peri odic inspection and maintenance. Some plant and systems operators control equipment that is highly automated and very expensive. Their jobs are responsible ones, and require technical skill. As recent events have shown, accidents in places such as nu clear power plants can have very serious con sequences indeed. Training requirements for operators have risen as industrial equipment has become more sophisticated. In the past, many operators started out as laborers or helpers and were trained on the job. Current ly, however, formal training is increasingly important. Such training is available from vocational-technical institutes, community and 2-year colleges, apprenticeship pro grams, the Armed Forces, employers, and government agencies. Certain plant and sys tems operators must hold a license or certifi cate. Detailed information on the training needed for two of these occupations appears in the statements that follow. Stationary engineers operate, maintain, and repair the machinery that provides me chanical and electrical power for industry. They are also responsible for the equipment that heats, air-conditions, refrigerates, and ventilates factories and other buildings. The equipment they tend and control includes boilers, diesel engines, turbines, generators, pumps, condensers, and compressors. Stationary engineers start up and shut down equipment in order to meet demands for power and to ensure the equipment is operating within established limits. They monitor meters, gauges, and other instru ments that are attached to equipment and make adjustments whenever necessary. They also keep a log of all relevant facts about the operation and maintenance of the equipment. On a steam boiler, for example, they ob serve, control, and keep records of steam pressure, temperature, water level, power output, and the amount of fuel consumed. Stationary engineers control the flow of fuel to the boiler and the steam pressure by ad justing throttles, valves, or automatic con trols. Stationary engineers must periodically re move from equipment the soot and corrosion that can reduce operating efficiency. To limit further corrosion, they test boiler water for purity and treat it with chemicals. These workers detect, identify, and correct any trouble that develops. They watch and listen to their machinery and routinely check safety devices. Often stationary engineers use hand or power tools to make repairs, ranging from a complete overhaul to replacing defec tive valves, gaskets, or bearings. In a large plant, the stationary engineer may be in charge of the powerplant or engine room and direct the work of assistant stationary engineers, turbine operators, boiler tenders, and air-conditioning and refrigeration opera tors and mechanics. In a small plant, the stationary engineer may be the only person operating and maintaining equipment. Working Conditions Stationary engineers generally have steady year-round employment. They usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. In plants that operate around the clock, they may be assigned to any one of three shifts—often on a rotating basis—and to Sunday and holiday work. Engine rooms, powerplants, or boiler rooms usually are clean and well lighted. Even under the most favorable conditions, however, some stationary engineers are ex posed to high temperatures, dust, dirt, and high noise levels from the equipment. Gener al maintenance duties may cause contact with oil and grease, and fumes or smoke. Workers are on their feet a lot; they also may have to crawl inside boilers and work in crouching or kneeling positions to inspect, clean, or repair equipment. Because stationary engineers work around boilers and electrical and mechanical equip ment, they must be alert to avoid bums, electric shock, and injury from moving machinery. Employment In 1980, 147,000 stationary engineers were employed in a wide variety of places, including power stations, factories, sewage and water treatment plants, office and apart ment buildings, shopping malls, hotels, and hospitals. Usually, plants that operate on three shifts employ four to eight stationary engineers, but some have more. In many plants, only one engineer works on each shift. Because stationary engineers work in so many different kinds of industries, they are employed in all parts of the country. Al though some are employed in small towns and in rural areas, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large industrial and commercial businesses are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many stationary engineers start as helpers or oilers and acquire their skills through in formal on-the-job experience. A good back ground also can be obtained in the Navy or Merchant Marine. However, most training authorities recommend formal apprenticeship programs because of the increasing complex ity of the machines and systems; programs are sponsored by the International Union of Operating Engineers and the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. In selecting apprentices, most local labormanagement apprenticeship committees pre fer high school or trade school graduates who have received instruction in mathematics, mechanical drawing, machine-shop practice, physics, and chemistry. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and good physical condi tion also are important qualifications. The apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years. In addition to on-the-job training, apprentices 419 420/Occupational Outlook Handbook ing program that eliminates this problem by establishing reciprocity of licenses. Stationary engineers advance to more re sponsible jobs by being placed in charge of larg er, more powerful, or more varied equipment. Generally, engineers advance to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Advance ment, however, is not automatic. For example, an engineer who has a first-class license may work for some time as an assistant to another first-class engineer before a vacancy occurs. Some stationary engineers eventually advance to jobs as plant engineers and as building and plant superintendents. A few obtain jobs as ex amining engineers and technical instructors. Job Outlook Despite an expanding economy that will require more mechanical and electrical pow er, employment of stationary engineers is expected to grow more slowly than the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Some employment growth is expected as ris ing fuel costs force employers to look for ways to increase efficiency. A growing number of small plants that have been operated automati cally are hiring a licensed engineer to cut their fuel consumption. In addition, large plants are being encouraged to generate more of their own electricity in order to reduce the demands placed on overburdened public utilities, and this will require more stationary engineers. Earnings receive classroom instruction in practical chemistry, elementary physics, blueprint reading, applied electricity, instrumentation, electronics, and other technical subjects. Becoming a stationary engineer without going through a formal apprenticeship pro gram usually takes many years of experience as an assistant to a licensed stationary engi neer or as a boiler tender. This practical experience can be supplemented by technical or other school training or home study. Many States, the District of Columbia, and many cities have licensing requirements for sta tionary engineers. Although requirements for a license differ from place to place, applicants usually must be at least 18 years of age, reside for a specified period in the State or locality in which the examination is given, meet the exper ience requirements for the class of license re quested, and pass a written examination. Generally, there are several classes of sta tionary engineer licenses. Each class speci fies the steam pressure or horsepower of the equipment the engineer can operate without supervision. The first class license permits the stationary engineer to operate equipment of all types and capacities. An applicant for this license may be required to have a high school education and an approved apprentice ship or on-the-job training. The lower class licenses limit the capacity of the equipment the engineer may operate without the supervi sion of a higher rated engineer. Because of regional differences in licens ing requirements, a stationary engineer who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new li cense. However, the National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engineers has helped 21 States adopt a standardized licens Stationary engineers had average hourly earnings of $9.42 in 1980, according to a survey of metropolitan areas. This was almost 40 per cent higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Average earnings for engineers in in dividual cities ranged from $6.33 in the Greenville-Spartanburg, S.C., metropolitan area to $11.32 in the Detroit, Mich., metropolitan area. The principal unions to which these work ers belong are the International Union of Operating Engineers and the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. Related Occupations Other workers involved with monitoring and operating stationary machinery include nuclear reactor operators, power station oper ators, wastewater treatment plant operators, waterworks pump-station operators, chemical operators, and refinery operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work oppor tunities is available from local offices of State employment services, locals of the In ternational Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the occupation may be referred to: International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Production Operations/421 National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 176 West Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60603. For questions concerning licensing require ments, contact: National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engineers, 1436 Fritz Rd., Verona, Wis. 53593. Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators (Sewage Plant Operators) (D .O .T . 955.362-010 and .585-010) Nature of the Work Clean water is essential for many things: Our health and recreation; the existence of fish and wildlife; and the functioning of many industries. Wastewater treatment plant operators, sometimes referred to as sewage plant operators, help keep America’s water clean by removing harmful domestic and in dustrial waste. In a sense, they manufacture clean water out of dirty water. Waste materials are carried by water through sewer pipes to treatment plants. Op erators control processes and equipment to remove these materials or render them harm less. These waste materials include organic and inorganic solids, some of which are tox ic, such as lead and mercury. By operating and maintaining the pumps, pipes, valves, and processing equipment of the treatment facility, operators move the wastewater that comes from the collection system through the various treatment processes. Operators read and interpret meters and gauges to make sure plant equipment and processes are working properly. Other jobs include operating chemical-feeding devices; taking samples of the wastewater and per forming chemical and biological laboratory analyses; and testing and adjusting the level of chlorine in the wastewater. Operators also make minor repairs on valves, pumps, and other equipment. They use gauges, wrench es, pliers, and other common handtools, as well as special tools. Occasionally operators must work under emergency conditions. A heavy rainstorm, for example, may cause an abnormal amount of wastewater to flow into sewerpipes which might exceed a plant’s treatment capacity. Emergencies also can be caused by conditions inside a plant, such as chlorine gas leaks or oxygen deficiencies. The duties of operators vary depending on the type and size of plant. In smaller plants, one operator may be responsible for the en tire system—making repairs, keeping plant records, handling complaints, and doing the maintenance work for the facility. In larger plants, the staff may include chemists, engi neers, laboratory technicians, mechanics, helpers, supervisors, and a superintendent. Water pollution standards have become increasingly stringent since adoption of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. To implement the law, a national system of uniform controls on the discharge of pollutants was set in motion. Under the 1972 law, as amended by the Clean Water Act of 1977, it is illegal for any industry to discharge any pollutant without a permit. Industrial facilities that send their wastes to municipal treatment plants must meet certain minimum standards and insure that these wastes have been adequately pre treated so that they do not damage munici pal treatment facilities. Municipal treatment plants must also meet discharge standards. In order to meet these requirements, opera tors will have to be able to operate more sophisticated systems. Working Conditions Wastewater treatment plant operators work both indoors and outdoors and may be exposed to noise from machinery and unpleasant odors, although chlorine and other chemicals are used to minimize these. Persons with allergies might suffer due to dust and other substances in the air. Because plants operate around the clock, operators are required to work shifts and on weekends and holidays. During emer gencies, overtime is common. Operators have to stoop, reach, and climb and often get their clothes dirty. Sometimes they are confronted with hazardous conditions, such as slippery walkways, dangerous gases, and malfunc tioning equipment. Employment About 41,000 persons worked as wastewater treatment plant operators in 1980. The vast majority worked for local governments; the rest worked for the Federal Government, utilities, and sanitary services. In 1980, almost 900 wastewater treatment plant operators were em ployed by the Federal Government, mostly by the Armed Forces. Wastewater treatment plant operators are employed throughout the country. Geo graphically, employment is distributed much like the Nation’s population, with most jobs in larger towns and cities. Many operators in small towns are employed part time or handle additional duties. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Trainees usually start as attendants or operators-in-training and learn their skills on the job under the direction of an experienced operator. They learn by observing the proc esses and equipment in operation and by do ing routine tasks such as recording meter readings; taking samples of wastewater and sludge; and doing simple maintenance and repair work on pumps, electric motors, and valves. They also are expected to perform housekeeping tasks such as cleaning and 422/Occupational Outlook Handbook maintaining plant equipment and property. Some of the larger treatment plants have more formal “ in-house” training programs. Persons interested in entering the field should have some mechanical aptitude and should be competent in basic mathematics. Employers generally prefer trainees who have a high school diploma or its equivalent. In some States this is a minimum educational requirement. Some positions, particularly in larger cities and towns, are covered by civil service regulations, and applicants may be required to pass written examinations testing elementary mathematics skills, mechanical ap titude, and general intelligence. Operators must be agile, since they have to climb ladders and move easily around heavy machinery. Some 2-year programs leading to an associ ate degree in wastewater technology and 1-year programs leading to a certificate are available; these provide a good general knowledge of water pollution control as well as basic prep aration for becoming an operator. Because plants are becoming more complex, comple tion of such courses increases an applicant’s chances for employment and promotion. Most State water pollution control agen cies offer training courses to improve the skills and knowledge of treatment plant oper ators. These courses cover principles of treat ment processes and process control, odors and their control, safety, chlorination, sedi mentation, biological oxidation, sludge treat ment and disposal, and flow measurements. Some operators take correspondence courses on subjects related to wastewater treatment, and some employers will pay part of the tuition for courses leading to a college degree in science or engineering. Operators may be promoted to positions such as supervisor and superintendent. A high school diploma and increasingly respon sible experience as an operator may be suffi cient to qualify for superintendent of a small plant, since at many small plants the superin tendent also serves as an operator. However, educational requirements are rising as larger, more complex treatment plants are built to meet new water pollution control standards. Superintendents of large plants are expected to have an engineering or science degree. Training in management techniques is becom ing increasingly important for operators seek ing supervisory positions. A few operators get jobs as technicians with State water pollution control agencies; they monitor and provide technical assistance to plants throughout the State. Vocational-technical school or commu nity college training generally is preferred for technician jobs. Experienced operators may transfer to related jobs with industrial wastewater treatment plants, companies selling wastewater treatment equipment and chemi cals, engineering consulting firms, or voca tional-technical schools. In 44 States, supervisors and certain opera tors must pass an examination to certify that they are capable of overseeing treatment plant operations. Voluntary certification pro grams are in effect in the remaining States. Typically, there are different classes of certi fication for different sizes of treatment plants. Job Outlook Employment of wastewater treatment plant operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, due to an anticipated slowdown in the rate of construction of new treatment plants as well as in modernization of existing ones. While some new jobs will be created from the limited expansion of wastewater treatment, most job openings will occur as experienced operators transfer to other occu pations, retire, or die. Operators with formal training will have the competitive edge in securing new positions or advancing to high er level positions. People who enter this field should enjoy steady employment because treatment of wa ter pollutants is a continuous operation and, therefore, plants seldom lay off employees— even during economic downturns. Earnings According to a survey conducted by the Water Pollution Control Federation, average annual salaries of wastewater treatment plant operators ranged from $11,800 to $14,300 in 1980. Some experienced operators earned as much as $23,000 a year. Salaries depend, among other things, on the size of the plant, the complexity of the operator’s job, and the operator’s level of certification. Salaries for trainees were about 90 percent of operators’ salaries. Average yearly salaries of supervi sors of wastewater treatment plants ranged from $13,700 to $18,200, while those of superintendents ranged from $18,900 to $21,900. The Federal Government paid wastewater treatment plant operators an aver age salary of about $18,000 a year in 1980. In early 1981, the Federal Government paid these operators starting salaries of approxi mately $17,400 a year. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity con sists of operating a system of machinery to process or produce materials include boiler operators, gas-compressor operators, powerplant operators, power-reactor operators, sta tionary engineers, turbine operators, and waterworks pump-station operators. Sources of Additional Information Environmental Protection Careers Guide book, a 1980 publication of the U.S. Depart ment of Labor and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, contains a list of post secondary environmental education programs (including wastewater programs), a chapter on water treatment occupations, and other useful information. It is available for $7.50 from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. For further information on training, contact: National Environmental Training Association, 158 S. Napoleon St., P.O. Box 346, Valparaiso, Ind. 46383. For information on certification, contact: Association of Boards of Certification, Municipal Building, Ames, Iowa 50010. Additional information is available from: Water Pollution Control Federation, 2626 Pennsyl vania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. For information on job opportunities, con tact State or local water pollution control agencies or local offices of the State employ ment service. Machine Operators, Tenders, and Setup Workers The workers included in this cluster set up, adjust, operate, and tend numerous kinds of machinery and equipment. These workers generally have job titles related to the type of machine they handle such as rolling machine setup operator, printing press operator, sew ing machine operator, and motion picture projectionist. Skilled machine setup operators adjust the speed, feed, and other controls on machines according to the specifications of a particu lar product or job. They then test die ma chines to make certain they are functioning properly and producing parts that conform to job specifications. After this determina tion has been made, semiskilled machine operators begin production. It is their job to control and monitor machines and equip ment and make necessary adjustments dur ing production. In small establishments, workers may per form a wider range of tasks than in large establishments, where workers’ duties may be more specialized. Some skilled workers may set up, operate, and tend equipment through out the production process. The accompanying table shows 1980 esti mated employment for selected occupations in this type of work. Table 1. Employment in selected machine operator, tender, and setup occupations, 1980 Occupation Employment Sewing machine operator, garment . Punch press operator, metal .......... Sewing machine operator, nongarment.................................. Machine tool operator, combination Lathe machine operator, metal . . . . Grinding and abrading machine operator, m etal............................ Drill press and boring machine operator........................................ Offset lithographic press operator .. Milling and planing machine operator........................................ Laundry presser, machine .............. Machine washer and starcher ........ Machine tool setter, metalworking . Electroplater.................................... Weaver ............................................ Spinner, frame ................................ Heat treater, annealer, and temperer Yam winder .................................... Motion picture projectionist .......... SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. 689,000 183,000 177,000 171,000 157,000 131,000 124,000 81,000 72,000 68,000 59,000 56,000 37,000 35,000 31,000 25,000 20,000 19,000 Most machine operators, tenders, and set up workers are employed in factories in the mass production of goods. Working condi tions in factories have improved substantial ly in recent years. The use of modem equipment and safety procedures has re duced the rate of accidents. Most factories are clean and well-lighted and some modem factories are air-conditioned. However, many workers must perform their jobs un der rather unpleasant conditions. For exam ple, electroplaters and boiler tenders may be exposed to fumes. Forge shops can be very hot and noisy. And working around even the most modem high-speed machines can still be dangerous. Some machine operators such as motion picture projectionists work in nonmanufac turing industries where the injury rate is much lower than in manufacturing indus tries. Because of the repetitive nature of some tasks, machine operators, tenders, and setup workers may find their jobs tedious and boring. Persons interested in these jobs should have manual dexterity and be mechanically inclined to use the tools and machinery re quired in their work. Physical stamina is important because many machine operators, tenders, and setup workers, such as produc tion painters, must stand for long periods of time and do a considerable amount of reaching and bending. Physical strength is essential for jobs such as printing press op erator and electroplater which require some heavy lifting and carrying. Precision, accu racy, and the ability to visualize three-di mensional objects from drawings also are important characteristics for many of these workers. Many jobs as machine operators, tenders, and setup workers do not require a high school diploma. However, employers often prefer high school or vocational school graduates who have taken courses in mathematics, machine shop, and blueprint reading. Most workers learn these jobs through onthe-job training provided by their employers. Skilled workers, such as machine tool setup workers, often complete formal apprentice ship programs. Some experienced workers may be required to take courses to keep abreast of new technologies. This section of the Handbook includes statements on selected machine operators, tenders, and setup workers. In addition to more detailed information on the nature of the work, employment, working conditions, and training requirements, these statements discuss job outlook and earnings. Boiler Tenders______ (D .O .T. 542.562-010; 553.682-010 and -022; .685-030, -086, -090, and -094; 558.382-014, .482-010, and .685-054; 559.585-022 and .662-010; 563.382-010 and .682-010; 572.360-010; 573.362-010; 950.382-010; 951.685-010 and 014, and .686-010) Nature of the Work Boiler tenders operate and maintain the steam boilers that power industrial machinery and heat factories, offices, and other build ings. They also may operate waste-heat boil ers that bum trash and other solid waste. Boiler tenders control the mechanical and or automatic devices that regulate the flow of air and fuel into the combustion chambers. They may, for example, start the pulverizers or stokers to feed coal into the firebox or start the oil pumps and heaters to ignite burners or sequence the safe burning of natu ral gas. These workers inspect and maintain boiler equipment. Their work includes monitoring meters and gauges attached to the boilers to ensure safe operation. Sometimes boiler tenders make minor repairs, such as packing valves or replacing indicators. Boiler tenders also chemically test and treat water for purity to prevent corrosion of the boiler and buildup of scale. Boiler tenders generally work under the supervision of licensed stationary engineers. (Information on stationary engineers appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Modem boiler rooms usually are clean and well lighted. However, boiler tenders may be exposed to noise, heat, grease, fumes, and smoke, and may have to work in awkward positions. They also are subject to bums, falls, and injury from defective boilers or moving parts, such as pulverizers and stok ers. Modem equipment and safety proce dures, however, have reduced accidents. Employment Almost one-half of the 62,000 boiler tenders employed in 1980 worked in fac tories. Plants that manufacture lumber, iron and steel, paper, chemicals, and stone, clay, and glass products are among the leading employers of boiler tenders. Many others work in hospitals, schools, and office and apartment buildings. A large number also work in government agencies. Although boiler tenders are employed in all parts of the country, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large industrial and commercial establishments are located. 423 424/Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some large cities and a few States require boiler tenders to be licensed. An applicant can obtain the knowledge and experience to pass the license examination by first working as a helper in a boiler room. Applicants for helper jobs should be in good physical condition and have mechanical aptitude and manual dexter ity. High school courses in mathematics, motor mechanics, chemistry, and blueprint reading also are helpful to persons interested in becom ing boiler tenders. There are two types of boiler tenders’ li censes—for low-pressure and high-pressure boilers. Tenders with licenses for low-pres sure boilers operate boilers generally used for heating buildings. Tenders of high-pressure boilers operate the more powerful boilers and auxiliary equipment used to power machinery in factories as well as heat large buildings, such as high-rise apartments. However, tenders may operate equipment of any pres sure if a licensed stationary engineer is on duty. Due to regional differences in licensing requirements, a boiler tender who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license. How ever, the National Institute for Uniform Li censing of Power Engineers is currently assisting many State licensing agencies in adopting uniform licensing requirements that would establish reciprocity of licenses. Boiler tenders may advance to jobs as sta tionary engineers. To help them advance, they sometimes supplement their on-the-job training by taking courses in chemistry, phys ics, blueprint reading, electricity, and airconditioning and refrigeration. Boiler tenders also may become maintenance mechanics. Job Outlook Little change in employment of boiler tenders is expected through the 1980’s as more new boilers are equipped with automat ic controls. Nevertheless, many openings will result each year from the need to replace experienced tenders who transfer to other oc cupations, retire, or die. Earnings Boiler tenders had average hourly earnings of $8.14 in 1980, according to the available data. This was higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. The average for tenders ranged from $5.26 in the Chattanooga, Tenn.—Ga. metropolitan area to $10.24 in Cleveland, Ohio. The principal unions to which boiler tenders belong are the International Brother hood of Firemen and Oilers and the Interna tional Union of Operating Engineers. Related Occupations Boiler tenders monitor and check steam boiler equipment which generates power for industrial machinery. Others whose work re quires a similar background and related du ties are oilers, operating engineers, power engineers, and stationary engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work oppor tunities in this trade is available from local offices of State employment services, locals of the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers, locals of the International Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the nature of the occupation, training, and employment oppor tunities may be referred to: National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 176 West Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60603. International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Electrotypers and Stereotypers (D .O .T . 974.381-010 and .382-014) Nature of the Work Boiler tenders monitor equipment that generates power for industrial machinery and residential heating. Electrotyping and stereotyping are rapidly being replaced by more technologically ad vanced printing processes. Electrotypers and stereotypers make duplicate pressplates of metal, rubber, and plastic. These plates are made from the metal type forms prepared in the composing room. Electrotype is used mainly in book and magazine work. Stereo type, which is less durable, is used chiefly for newspapers. Electrotyping and stereotyp ing are used for volume printing which re quires the use of duplicate plates. When a large edition of a magazine or newspaper is printed, several plates must be used to re place those that become too worn to make clear impressions. Also, by having duplicate plates, printers can use several presses at the same time and finish a big run quickly. Fur thermore, many big plants use rotary presses, which require curved plates made by either electrotyping or stereotyping from flat type forms. Electrotypers make a wax or plastic mold of the metal type form. They coat the mold with chemicals and place it into an electrolyt ic bath that puts a metallic shell on the coated mold. They then strip the shell from the mold and fill the back of the shell with molten lead to form a plate. After removing excess metal from the edges and back of the plate, they inspect the plate for any defects. The stereotyping process is simpler, quicker, and less expensive than electrotyping, but it does not yield as durable or as fine a plate. Ste reotypers make molds or mats of paper-mache instead of wax or plastic. The mat is placed on Production Occupations/425 are members of the International Printing and Graphic Communications Union. Related Occupations Electrotypers and stereotypers make molds of metal type. Other workers who make molds or cores are molders, coremakers, and electroplaters. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office of the Interna tional Printing and Graphic Communications Union, or the local office of the State em ployment service. For general information on electrotypers and stereotypers, write to: Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. International Printing and Graphic Communica tions Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Most stereotypers work for newspapers. the type form and covered with a cork blan ket and a sheet of fiberboard. The covered form is run under heavy steel rollers to im press the type and photoengravings on the mat. Then the mat is placed in a stereotype casting machine which casts a composition lead plate on the mold. In many of the larger plants, automatic machines cast stereotype plates. Some electrotypers and stereotypers do only one phase of the work, such as casting, molding, or finishing. Others handle many tasks. Working Conditions Most work in these trades requires little physical effort since the preparation of dupli cate printing plates is highly mechanized. However, some lifting of relatively heavy pressplates occasionally is required. Electrotypers who work with toxic chemicals may be exposed to skin irritations. Some electrotypers and stereotypers work evening and night shifts. Others may have to work overtime to meet publication deadlines. Stereotypers employed by newspapers fre quently work weekends and holidays. Employment About 1,900 electrotypers and stereotypers were employed in 1980. Many electrotypers work in large plants that print books and magazines. Most stereotypers work for news paper plants, but some work in large com mercial printing plants. Electrotypers and stereotypers also are employed in service shops that do this work for printing firms. Jobs in these trades can be found through out the country, but employment is concen trated in larger printing centers such as New York, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Washing ton D.C., and Chicago. Training and Other Qualifications Nearly all electrotypers and stereotypers learn their trades through 4-year apprentice ships. Electrotyping and stereotyping are sep arate crafts and relatively few transfers take place between the two. The apprenticeship program for each trade covers all phases of the work and almost always includes classes in related technical subjects as well as train ing on the job. However, due to the decline in demand for electrotypers and stereotypers, apprenticeships have not been offered in the last several years. Many experienced electro typers and stereotypers are now being re trained as offset plate makers and press operators. Job Outlook Job opportunities for electrotypers and ste reotypers are expected to be scarce through the 1980’s. Despite the anticipated increase in the volume of printing, employment of electro typers and stereotypers is expected to decline because of laborsaving developments. For ex ample, automatic plate casting eliminates many steps in platemaking. The use of plastic printing plates also requires less labor because such plates are more durable and reduce the demand for duplicate plates. Furthermore, the greater use of offset printing will eliminate the need for electrotype and stereotype plates. Earnings Based on a 1980 survey of union wages, estimated average minimum hourly rates were $9.80 for electrotypers and $10.37 for stereotypers in book and commercial printing shops. In 1980, the average hourly rate for all nonsupervisory and production workers in private industry, except farming, was $6.66. Nearly all electrotypers and stereotypers Forge Shop Occupations________ Forging is one of the oldest methods of working and shaping metals. Many machined items that must withstand heavy wear, such as wrenches, drill bits, and parts for auto mobiles and airplanes, are forged because forged metal parts are exceptionally strong when subjected to constant stress and pressure. The simplest forging method is hand forg ing done by a blacksmith. To forge products in greater quantities, modem forge shops substitute heavy power equipment and dies (tools that shape metal) for die blacksmith’s hammer and anvil. Five employees operating a large forging machine can turn out more forgings in an hour than five blacksmiths can make in a year! Most forgings are steel; but aluminum, copper, brass, bronze, and other nonferrous metals also are forged. Nonferrous forgings are useful in many critical applications, such as aircraft landing gear, which require resis tance to corrosion and a lighter weight to strength ratio. Forged products may be as small and lightweight as a key, or as bulky and heavy as a large piece of industrial machinery. Nature of the Work Before metal can be shaped, it must be heated to a very high temperature in a fur nace (forge) until it is workable. Workers place the heated metal between two metal dies that are attached to power presses or hammers. With tremendous force, the ham mers or presses pound or squeeze the metal into the desired shape. Other workers trim rough edges and excess metal and perform 426/Occupational Outlook Handbook other finishing operations such as heat treat ing and polishing. Two basic kinds of dies are used. The open die, which is flat and similar to the blacksmith’s hammer, is generally used to produce limited quantities of forgings or large-size, simple-shaped forgings. The im pression, or closed die, has a cavity shaped to the form of the metal part, and is used to produce large quantities of identical forgings. Basic forge shop equipment consists of various types of hammers, presses, dies, upsetters, and furnaces. Forge shop workers also use handtools, such as hammers, tongs and punches, to help mold and shape parts to fit exact specifications. Measuring devices such as rules, scales, and calipers are needed to inspect the finished products. Descriptions of some major forge shop production occupations follow. Hammersmiths (D.O.T. 612.361-010) di rect the operation of open die power ham mers. They follow blueprints and interpret drawings and sketches so that the part being forged will meet specifications. Hammer smiths determine how to position the metal under the hammer and which tools are need ed to produce angles and curves for the fin ished product. They decide the amount of hammer force and if and when the metal needs additional heating. Hammersmiths may head crews of four or more workers. A typical crew includes a ham mer driver or hammer runner who regulates the force of the forging blow; a crane operator who transfers the metal from the furnace to the hammer and properly places it under the ham mer; and a heater who controls the furnace that heats the metal to correct temperatures. One or more helpers assist as needed. Forge shop workers must wear safety equipment to prevent injury. The duties of hammer operators (D.O.T. 610.462-010) who operate impression die power hammers, are similar to those just described for hammersmiths. Because the parts forged by closed die hammers are intri cate and detailed, these operators are highly skilled. Helpers and heaters assist hammer operators in setting and aligning dies in the hammers. They position the metal under the hammer, control the force of the forging blow, and determine if and when the metal needs additional heating for easier shaping to the die impression. Press operators (D.O.T. 611.482-010 and .685-010) control huge presses equipped with either impression or open dies. These ma chines press and squeeze rather than hammer or pound the hot metal, and operators regu late machine pressure and move the hot metal between the dies. They also may control metal heating operations. Some workers use instruments such as squares and micrometers to set dies. Their skills are very similar to those of hammersmiths or hammer operators. With the help of heaters and several help ers, upsetters (D.O.T. 611.462-010) operate machines that shape hot metal by applying vertical or horizontal pressure. The heads of nails and bolts, for example, are made by upset forging. Heaters (D.O.T. 619.682-022) control furnace temperatures. They determine when the metal has reached the correct temperature by observing the metal’s color and the fur nace’s temperature gauge. Using tongs or mechanical equipment, they transfer the hot metal from the furnace to hammers or presses. Some heaters clean furnaces. Inspectors (D.O.T. 612.261-010) examine forged pieces for accuracy, size, and quality. They use tools such as gauges, micrometers, squares, and calipers to measure the exact dimensions of the forgings. Machines that test strength and hardness and electronic test ing devices also may be used. Die sinkers (D.O.T. 601.280-022) make impression dies for forging hammers and presses. Working from a blueprint, drawing, or template, these skilled workers outline the object to be forged on two matching steel blocks. They measure and mark the object’s shape in the blocks to form the impression cavity by using milling machines and other machine tools such as EDM (electrical dis charge machinery) and ECM (electrical chemical machinery). Using handtools such as scrapers and grinders, and measuring tools such as calipers and micrometers, die sinkers smooth and finish the die cavity to fit specifi cations. Finally, a sample is prepared from the finished cavity and is checked against specifications. Many forge shop workers clean and finish forgings. For example, trimmers (D.O.T. 615.685-030) remove excess metal with presses equipped with trimming dies. Grind ers (D.O.T. 705.484-010 and -014) remove rough edges with power abrasive wheels. Sandblasters or shotblasters (D .O .T . 503.687-010) operate equipment that cleans Production Occupations/427 and smoothes forgings by blasting them with a mixture of air and metal shot or grit. Pickiers (D.O.T. 503.685-030) dip forgings in an acid solution to remove surface scale and reveal any surface defects. Heat treaters (D.O.T. 504.682-010 and -018) heat and then cool forgings to harden and temper the metal. Working Conditions Forge shop occupations are more hazard ous than most manufacturing occupations. However, improved machinery and shop practices have reduced the noise and vibra tion. For example, many forge shops have heat deflectors and ventilating fans to reduce heat and smoke. Also, labor and manage ment cooperate to encourage good work prac tices through safety training and the use of protective equipment such as face shields, ear plugs and muffs, safety glasses, safety shoes, helmets, and machine safety guards. Although cranes are used to move very large objects, forge shop workers must be strong enough to lift and move heavy forging and dies. They also need stamina and endur ance to work in the heat and noise of a forge shop. Employment In 1980, about 46,000 production workers were employed in forge shops. Although forge shop workers are found in all areas, they are concentrated near steel-producing centers that provide the steel for forgings, and near metalworking plants that are the major users of forged products. Large num bers of forge shop workers are employed in and around Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, Los Angeles, Houston, and Pittsburgh. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most forge shop workers learn their skills on the job. They generally join hammer or press crews as helpers or heaters, and pro gress to other jobs as they gain experience. Advancement to hammersmith, for example, frequently requires several years of on-thejob training and experience. Some forge shops offer apprenticeship training programs for skilled jobs such as diesinker, heat treater, hammer operator, hammersmith, and press operator. These programs usually last 4 to 6 years, and of fer classroom training and practical experi ence in metal properties, power hammer and furnace operation, handtool use, and blueprint reading. Training for inspectors varies. Only a few weeks of on-the-job training are necessary for those who examine forgings visually or use only simple gauges. Inspectors who meet more complex and detailed specifications may receive several months’ training in blue print reading and mathematics. Employers generally prefer high school graduates. Mechanical drawing, blueprint reading, graphics, and mathematics (especial ly geometry) as well as any courses that offer machining or shopwork training are helpful. Job Outlook Employment of forge shop production workers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Some new jobs will become available because of growth in demand for forge shop products, but most openings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Employment will grow because of expan sion in industries that use forgings, particu larly aerospace and energy-related industries. Many drilling bits and other forged products will be needed for oil drilling and coal min ing operations. However, employment will not keep pace with forge shop production because improved forging techniques and equipment will result in greater output per worker. Employment in some forge shops is sensi tive to changes in economic conditions. In shops that make automobile parts, for exam ple, employment fluctuates with changes in the demand for new cars; thus, jobs in these shops may be plentiful in some years, scarce in others. Forge shop workers may experi ence layoffs or shortened workweeks when the demand for forged products is reduced. Earnings Average hourly earnings of forge shop production workers are higher than the aver age for all manufacturing production work ers. In 1980, production workers in iron and steel forging plants averaged $9.27 an hour, compared to $7.27 for production workers in all manufacturing industries. Many forge shop workers are union mem bers and belong to the International Brother hood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, and Blacksmiths. Others are members of the United Steelworkers of America; the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the International Die Sinkers’ Conference (Ind). Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to forg ing occupations are, of course, other forge shop occupations. Other workers who need precision and skill to work with metal in clude welders, blacksmiths, arc cutters, ma chinists, tool-and-die makers, and metal patternmakers. Machine Tool Operators______ (D .O .T. 602., 603., 604., 605., and 606.) Nature of the Work Machine tool operators use machine tools such as lathes, drill presses, milling ma chines, grinding machines, and punch presses to shape metal to precise dimensions. Al though some operators can work with a wide variety of machine tools, most specialize in one or two types. Operators fall into two broad skill catego ries—semiskilled and skilled. Semiskilled operators are essentially machine tenders who perform simple, repetitive operations that can be learned relatively quickly. Skilled opera tors can perform varied and complex machin ing operations. Both skilled and semiskilled operators have job titles related to the kind of machine they operate, such as milling ma chine operator and drill press operator. Most machine tool operators fall into the semiskilled category. Their jobs vary accord ing to the type of machine they work with; however, there are many tasks common to most machine tools. Typically, semiskilled operators place rough metal stock in a ma chine tool on which the speeds and operation sequence already have been set by skilled workers. (See the statement on machine tool setup workers elsewhere in the Handbook). By using special, easy-to-use gauges they watch one or more machines and make minor adjustments according to their instructions. However, they depend on skilled machining workers for major adjustments when their machines are not working properly. The work of skilled machine tool operators is similar to that of all-round machinists, except that it usually is limited to only one type of machine and involves little or no hand fitting or assembly work. Skilled machine tool opera tors plan and set up the correct sequence of machining operations according to blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. They adjust speed, feed, and other controls, and select the proper cutting instruments or tools for each operation. Using micrometers, gauges, and other precision measuring instruments, they compare the completed work with the tolerance limits given in die specifications. They also may select cutting fluids to keep the metal workpiece from getting too hot, and lubricants to keep the machine tools running smoothly. Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportuni ties in forging, contact local offices of the State employment service, personnel depart ments of forge shops, locals of the labor organizations listed above, or: The Forging Industry Association, 55 Public Square, Cleveland, Ohio 44113. Most machine shops are clean, well light ed, and well ventilated. Noise levels have been reduced with the introduction of better designed machine tools. However, some ma chine tools, such as screw machines, are still very noisy. To combat this noise, operators often wear earmuffs or earplugs. Coolants (the liquids used to reduce friction) are well 428/Occupational Outlook Handbook observing experienced operators at work. Later they leam to use measuring instru ments and to make elementary computations needed in shopwork. When trainees first op erate a machine, they are supervised closely by more experienced workers. After gaining some experience themselves, beginners often take over more of the duties associated with the tools they operate. For example, they may leam to adjust feed speeds and cutting edges, instead of calling upon other workers to perform these tasks. Some also may leam to read blueprints and plan the sequence of machining work. Individual ability and effort largely deter mine the time required to become a machine tool operator. Most semiskilled operators leam their jobs in a few months, but becom ing a skilled operator often requires 1 to 2 years. Some companies have formal training programs for new employees. Although no special education is required for semiskilled jobs, persons seeking such work can improve their opportunities by completing courses in mathematics and blue print reading. In hiring beginners, employers often look for persons with mechanical apti tude and some experience working with ma chinery. Physical stamina is important since much time is spent standing. Applicants should be able to work independently. They also should not mind working in a relatively small workspace. Although much of the work is repetitive, many machine tool opera tors derive satisfaction from seeing the results of their work. Skilled machine tool operators may become all-round machinists, tool-and-die makers, or advance to jobs in machine programming and maintenance. Job Outlook Most machine tool operators leam their skills on the job. contained on modem machine tools, but op erators of older machine tools sometimes have to stand on slippery floors caused by spilled coolants. Powerful, high-speed machine tools can be dangerous if strict safety rules are not observed. Machine tool operators must wear safety glasses and other devices to protect themselves from flying metal particles. They cannot wear loose-fitting clothes or jewelry as these might get caught in the machine, injuring the operator or damaging the machine. Employment About 1,020,000 machine tool operators were employed in 1980. Most worked in factories that produce fabricated metal pro ducts, transportation equipment, and ma chinery in large quantities. Skilled machine tool operators also worked in production de partments, maintenance departments, and toolrooms. Machine tool operators work in every State and in almost every city in the United States. They are concentrated, however, in major industrial areas such as the Great Lakes region. About one-fourth of all ma chine tool operators work in the Great Lakes cities of Detroit, Flint, Chicago, Cleveland, and Milwaukee. Among the oth er areas that have large numbers of these workers are Los Angeles, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Indianapolis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most machine tool operators leam their skills on the job. Beginners usually start by Job opportunities for machine tool opera tors should be fairly plentiful in the years ahead. Employment in the occupation is ex pected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to openings arising from growth in demand for these workers, many thousands of openings are expected to occur each year in this large occupation as operators transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. More machine tool operators will be need ed as metalworking industries expand their output. However, the use of faster and more versatile automatic machine tools and nu merically controlled machine tools will result in greater output per worker and tend to limit employment demand. Other factors that may slow growth in this occupation are new pro cesses in metalworking, such as electrical discharge and ultrasonic machining, and the use of powdered metals that reduce the need for final machining on some products. The number of openings may fluctuate greatly from year to year due to changes in economic conditions. When demand for the factory’s products slackens, production runs may be stopped or restricted, and workers Production Occupations/429 m ay b e la id o f f or m a y fa c e a shortened w o rk w eek . W orkers w ith thorough backgroun ds in m a ch in in g o p era tio n s, m ath em atics, blueprint rea d in g , and a g o o d w ork in g k n o w led g e o f the properties o f m eta ls w ill b e better ab le to adjust to the ch a n g in g jo b req uirem en ts that w ill result from te ch n o lo g ic a l ad van ces. Machine Tool Setup Workers___________ (D .O .T . 600.360-010, .380-010, -014, -022; 603.280-034, .360-010, .380-010; 604.360-010; 609.280-010, .380-014; 612.360-010; 615.280-010, .380-010; 616.260-018, .360-022, .380-010; 619.380-014; and 692.260-010) Earnings Nature of the Work M ach in e to o l operators are paid accord in g to hou rly or in cen tiv e rates, or b y a c o m b in a t io n o f b o th m e t h o d s . H ig h ly sk illed operators in m etropolitan areas had e stim a te d h o u rly e a rn in g s o f $ 1 0 .2 0 in 1 9 8 0 . T h is com p ares favorab ly w ith the a verage for n on su p ervisory w orkers in pri v a te in d u str y , e x c e p t fa r m in g . A v e r a g e hou rly rates in 10 o f the areas su rv ey ed , se lec ted to sh o w h o w w a g e rates o f m a c h in e to o l operators d iffer in variou s parts o f the co u n try, appear in table 1. M ach in e to o ls u sed in sh op s that d o m a ch in in g in large v o lu m e often are both very large and very c o m p le x . S etu p w ork ers, often c a lle d m ach in e to o l jo b setters, are sk illed w orkers w h o sp e c ia liz e in preparing th ese to o ls to operate e ffic ie n tly . M ost setup w ork ers w ork on o n ly on e typ e o f m a ch in e, su ch as a drill p ress or lath e. H o w e v er , so m e set up several d ifferen t m ach in es. B efo re th ey b e g in preparing a m a ch in e for u s e , setup w orkers co n su lt b lu ep rints, w ritten sp e c ific a tio n s, or jo b lay o u ts. From th ese they can determ ine h o w fa st the m aterial can b e fed into the m a ch in e, operatin g sp e e d s , and the or d er in w h ich the m ach in e w ill perform its o p er a tio n s. T h ey then se le c t and install the proper cu ttin g to o ls and adjust g u id e s, sto p s, and other con trols to insu re that the m ach in e w ill repeat its c y c le accu rately. A fter settin g up the m a ch in e, th ey u su a lly m ake a trial run to b e sure that it is running sm o o th ly and produ cin g parts that con fo rm to sp ec ific a tio n s. W h en th ey are sure the m a c h in e is fu n ction in g p rop erly, th ey ex p la in to se m isk ille d m ach in e operators h o w to run the m a ch in e and h o w to be sure that the m a c h in e ’s output m eets sp ec ific a tio n s. T h ey then turn the m ach in e o v e r to the sem isk illed operators to b eg in produ ction. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of machine tool operators in selected areas, 1980 Area Hourly rate Detroit........................................... $11.29 Cleveland ..................................... 10.62 Chicago......................................... 9.84 St. Louis ..................................... 9.61 Cincinnati ..................................... 9.46 Milwaukee .................................... 9.44 Baltimore....................................... 8.99 Minneapolis-St. Paul .................... 8.78 Hartford......................................... 7.94 Boston........................................... 7.58 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor statistics. M o st m ach in e to o l operators b e lo n g to un io n s, in clu d in g the International A sso c ia tio n o f M a ch in ists and A ero sp a ce W orkers; the Inter national U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp a ce and A gricu ltu ral Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica; the International U n io n o f E lectrica l, R a d io and M ach in e W orkers; the International B rotherh ood o f E lectrical W orkers; and the U n ited S teelw o rk ers o f A m erica. Related Occupations T h e o ccu p a tio n s m o st c lo s e ly related to m a ch in e to o l operators are, o f co u r se , the other m a ch in in g o ccu p a tio n s. T h ese in clu d e a ll-r o u n d m a c h in is ts , m a c h in e to o l setu p w o rk ers, to o l-a n d -d ie m a k ers, and instrum ent m akers. O ther o ccu p a tio n s that require p recision and sk ill in w orking w ith m etal in clu d e arc cu tters, b la ck sm ith s, g u n sm ith s, lo ck sm ith s, patternm akers (m eta l), and w eld ers. Sources of Additional Information S e e the list under this sam e h ead in g in the statem en t o n all-round m ach in ists e lsew h ere in the Handbook. Set-up workers prepare machine tools for use by operators. 430/Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions G en era lly , w orking con d itio n s are g o o d for th ese w orkers. M o st m ach in e sh op s are c le a n , w e ll lig h te d , an d w e ll v e n tila te d . M any m o d em sh op s are air-con d ition ed . In th o se sh o p s w h ere n o ise is a p rob lem , setup w orkers m ust w ear earm u ffs or earp lu gs to protect their hearing. S eriou s w ork a ccid en ts are not c o m m o n , but m ach in e to o ls and fly in g m etal particles m ay ca u se fin g er, han d, and e y e injuries. T o preven t su ch a ccid en ts, setup w orkers m ust fo llo w certain sa fety ru les. S a fety g la sse s and other p rotective d e v ic e s m ust b e w orn and lo o se c lo th in g , je w e lr y , and lon g hair are prohib ited. Setup w orkers en cou n ter so m e dan gers that other m a ch in in g w orkers d o not. D ie setters, for e x a m p le, m ay h a v e to p lace their hands in sid e a p ress w h en th ey are preparing the m ach in e for u se. A m ach in e to o l operator co u ld not d o this as the guard rails w ou ld be in p la ce. Employment In 1 9 8 0 , abou t 9 3 ,0 0 0 setup w orkers w ere e m p lo y ed in fa cto ries that m anufactured fab ricated m etal pro d u cts, transportation eq u ip m en t, and m ach in ery. M o st w orked for large co m p a n ies that e m p lo y ed m any sem isk illed m ach in e to o l operators. Setup w orkers u su al ly are not e m p lo y ed in m aintenance sh op s or in sm all jo b b in g sh o p s. Setu p w orkers are fou n d in every State. H o w e v er , e m p lo y m en t is concen trated in m a jo r industrial areas su ch as L o s A n g e le s, P h ila d elp h ia , N e w Y o rk , C h ic a g o , D etroit, and C lev ela n d . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Setup w orkers m ust m eet the sam e q u a lifi ca tio n s as all-round m a ch in ists. T h ey m ust be ab le to operate o n e or m ore kin ds o f m ach in e to o ls and se le c t the seq u en ce o f operation s so that m etal parts w ill be m ade a ccord in g to sp ec ific a tio n s. T h e ab ility to co m m u n ica te clea rly is im portant in ex p la in ing the m a ch in in g op eration s to sem isk illed w orkers. Setu p w orkers m ay advan ce w ithin a sh op to su p ervisory jo b s or transfer into other jo b s , su ch as parts program m er or pro du ction planner. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f setup w orkers is exp ected to in crease about as fa st as the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. A lth ou gh co n su m er and industrial dem an d for m a ch in ed g o o d s w ill g r o w , partly offsettin g this w ill b e greater prod u ctivity o f setup w orkers du e to the in creasin g u se o f nu m erically c o n trolled m ach in ed to o ls. In th ese m ach in e to o ls , operatin g se q u en ce s, fe e d sp ee d s, tool se le c tio n , and other fu n ction s are con trolled by a com puter. M ost jo b opp ortu nities w ill arise from the n eed to rep lace ex p erien ced w orkers w h o transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie. E m p loym en t o f setup w orkers sh ou ld re m ain stab le from year to year b eca u se this occu p ation is n ot particularly se n sitiv e to ch a n g es in the e c o n o m y . T h e im p act o f a drop in co n su m er dem an d w ill b e felt m ore b y setup w orkers w h o produ ce con su m er g o o d s than by th ose w h o produ ce m achinery and industrial products. E m p loyers are very reluctant to lay o f f th ese h igh ly sk illed w ork ers w h en produ ction fa lls b eca u se th ey are afraid the w orkers w ill no lon g er b e availab le w h en e co n o m ic con d itio n s im p rove. Earnings T h e earn in gs o f setu p w orkers com pare favorab ly w ith th ose o f other sk illed m ach in in g w ork ers. In 1 9 8 0 , setup w orkers in m et ropolitan areas had average earn in gs o f over $ 9 .7 8 an hour. M an y setup w orkers are m em b ers o f u n io n s, in clu d in g the International A sso c ia tio n o f M a ch in ists and A ero sp a ce W orkers; the Interna tion al U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp a ce and A gricultural Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m er ica; and the U n ited S teelw ork ers o f A m erica. Related Occupations T h e o ccu p ation s m o st c lo s e ly related to m ach in e to o l setup w orker are, o f c o u rse, the other m ach in in g occu p a tio n s. T h ese in c lu d e all-roun d m ach in ists, instrum ent m ak e rs, m ach in e to o l operators, and tool-an d d ie m akers. O ther o ccu p a tio n s that require p recision and sk ill in w ork in g w ith m etal in clu d e arc cutters, b la ck sm ith s, gu n sm ith s, lo ck sm ith s, patternm akers (m eta l), and w eld ers. P ress operators a lso adju st control m argins and the flo w o f ink to the in k in g roller. In so m e sh o p s, th ey o il and clea n the p resses and m ake m in or repairs. P ress operators w h o w ork w ith large p resses h a v e a ssistan ts and h elp ers. P ress o p era to rs’ jo b s m ay d iffer from o n e sh op to an oth er, m ain ly b e ca u se o f d iffer e n c e s in the k in d s and s iz e s o f p resses in the sh o p . P ress operators in sm a ll co m m ercia l sh o p s gen era lly operate rela tiv ely sim p le m anual p r e sse s. O n the other han d, a crew o f several p ress operators and p ress assistants runs gian t p resses u sed b y the large n ew sp a per, m a g a z in e, and b o o k printers. T h ese p resses are fed paper in b ig ro lls ca lled “ w e b s ” up to 5 0 in c h e s or m ore in w id th . T h ey print the paper on b oth sid es; cu t, a s s e m b le , and fo ld the pages; and co u n t the fin ish ed se c tio n s as th ey c o m e o f f the p ress. M any m o d e m plan ts h a v e in sta lled printing p r e sse s that u se com p u ters and so p h istica ted instrum entation to con trol press o p eration s. W ith th is eq u ip m en t, the press operator m o n i tors a con trol p an el that d etects p ro b lem s. T o adjust th e p ress, the operator p u sh es the proper button o n the con trol p a n el. P ress operators are gen era lly d esig n a ted accord in g to the typ e o f press th ey operate: L etterpress, gravure, or o ffse t. Working Conditions O perating a press is p h y sica lly d em a n d in g . P ress operators are on their fe et m o st o f the tim e and h ave to lift h ea v y p lates. P ressroom s are n o is y , and w orkers in cer tain areas freq u en tly w ear ear protectors. P ress operators are su b ject to hazards w h en w ork in g near m ach in ery. O ften , th ey w ork under pressu re to m eet d ea d lin es. M an y press operators w o rk e v en in g and n igh t sh ifts. Sources of Additional Information Employment S e e the list under this sam e headin g in the statem en t on all-round m a ch in ists elsew h e re in the Handbook. A b ou t 1 7 8 ,0 0 0 press operators and a ss is tants w ere e m p lo y ed in 19 8 0 . A b o u t h a lf w ork ed for com m ercia l printing sh o p s and b o o k and m a g a zin e p u b lish ers. M an y others had jo b s in n ew sp ap er p lan ts. S o m e press operators and assistan ts w ork ed fo r b an ks, insu ran ce c o m p a n ie s, paper m anufacturers, and organ ization s that d o their o w n print i n g , su ch as F e d e r a l, S ta te , an d lo c a l go v ern m en ts. P ress operators and assista n ts can fin d jo b s through out the cou n try, but e m p lo y m en t is con cen trated in large printing cen ters su ch as N e w Y ork , L o s A n g e le s , C h ic a g o , P h ila d el p h ia , and W a sh in g to n , D .C . Printing Press Operators and Assistants Nature of the Work Printing press operators prepare and oper ate the printing p resses in a p ressroom . B efo re actu ally starting the p r e ss, p ress operators set up and adjust it to insure that the printing im p ression s are distin ct and u n i form . P ress operators first insert and lo ck typ e setups or p lates into the press b ed and tighten the lo ck in g attach m en t w ith a w ren ch . T h e operators then le v e l the pressp lates by p lacin g p ie ce s o f paper that are e x a ctly the right th ick n ess underneath lo w areas o f the p lates. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st p r e ss o p e r a to rs lea rn th eir trade through a p p ren ticesh ip , but so m e learn as h elp ers or press a ssistan ts. O thers obtain their sk ills through a co m b in a tio n o f w ork e x p e rien ce and v o ca tio n a l or tech n ica l sc h o o l training. T h e len gth o f ap p ren ticesh ip and the c o n tent o f training d ep en d largely o n the k in d o f Production Occupations/431 c h in e operators, sh oem ak in g m ach in e opera tors, bin dery m ach in e operators, and p recisio n m ach in e operators. Sources of Additional Information D eta ils abou t app renticeships and other training opp ortu nities m ay b e o b tain ed from lo ca l em p lo y ers su ch as new sp ap ers and printing sh o p s, the lo ca l o ffic e o f the u n ion s m en tion ed b e lo w , or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e. For general in form ation abou t press opera tors and a ssistan ts, w rite to: Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. International Printing and Graphic Communica tions Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Many printing press operators learn their trade through apprenticeship programs. press u sed in the plan t. M o st press operators are trained to operate m ore than o n e p ress, but sp e c ia liz e in a particular area o f printing su ch as letterp ress, lith ograp h y, or gravure. T h e a p p ren ticesh ip p eriod in com m ercial sh o p s is 2 years for p ress a ssistan ts, and 4 years fo r press operators. In add ition to o n th e-job in stru ction , the ap p ren ticesh ip in clu d e s related cla ssr o o m or corresp on d en ce sc h o o l co u r se s. C ou rses in printing p rovid e a g o o d backgroun d. B e ca u se o f tech n ical d e v elo p m en ts in the printing in d u stry, cou rses in ch em istry , e le ctr o n ic s, and p h y sics a lso are h elp fu l. M ech a n ica l aptitude is im portant in m ak in g press adju stm ents and repairs. A n ab ility to v isu a lize co lo r is essen tia l for w ork on co lo r p resses. T e ch n o lo g ic a l ch a n g es h ave had a trem en d o u s e ffe c t o n the sk ill req uirem en ts o f p ress operators. F or e x a m p le , printing co m p a n ies w h ich ch a n g e from sh ee t-fed o ffs e t p resses to w e b -o ffs e t p resses h a v e to retrain their entire p ress crew b e ca u se the sk ill req uirem en ts for the tw o ty p es o f p resses are very differen t. W eb -o ffse t p r e sse s, w ith their faster operat ing sp ee d s, require faster d e c is io n s , m onitor in g o f m ore v a ria b les, and greater p h ysical effo rt. P ress operators m ay ad van ce in p ay and resp o n sib ility b y tak in g a jo b w ork in g on a m ore c o m p lex printing p ress. For e x a m p le, a tw o -c o lo r sh eet-fed press operator m ay b e c o m e a fo u r-co lo r sh eet-fed press operator. O thers m ay ad v a n ce to p ress operator-inch arge and be resp o n sib le for the w ork o f the entire press crew . Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f p ress operators is e x p ected to in crease m ore slo w ly than the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. T h e in creased u se o f faster and m ore e ffic ie n t p resses w ill partially o ffs e t the n eed for m ore press operators arisin g from grow th in the am ou n t o f printed m aterials. In addition to th e jo b s resu ltin g from grow th in dem an d for th ese w ork ers, op en in g s w ill arise each year as press operators retire, d ie , or transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s. Printing press operators are e x p ected to fa ce co m p etitio n for jo b s . T h e num ber o f ap p lican ts to app ren ticesh ip program s is e x p ected to e x c e e d the num ber o f o p e n in g s. A s a resu lt, m ost p e o p le w ill h a v e to take jo b s as press assistan ts or u n sk illed laborers before b e in g se lec ted for an ap p ren ticesh ip . S in ce m an y firm s are sw itch in g to w e b -o ffs e t p resses from letterp resses or sh ee t-fed p r e sse s, opp or tu n ities are e x p e cte d to b e m ore favorab le for w eb -p ress operators. A lth o u g h m o st jo b op p ortu n ities w ill c o n tin u e to b e in the printing ind ustry, a g row in g n u m ber o f o p en in g s w ill b e fou n d in other in d u stries, su ch as p a p erm ills, w h ich are d o in g m ore o f their o w n pressw ork instead o f con tractin g it ou t to printing firm s. Earnings A ccord in g to a 1980 su rvey o f union w a g e s, the estim ated average m in im u m hour ly rate fo r n ew sp ap er p ress operators-in ch arge w a s $ 1 1 .1 4 ; for n ew sp ap er press o p erators, $ 1 0 .3 8 ; for b o o k and jo b cylin d er press op erators, $ 1 0 .8 7 ; and for b o o k and job p ress assistan ts and fe ed er s, $ 1 0 .3 2 . P ress operators w h o w ork ed n igh t sh ifts receiv ed extra p a y . In 1 9 8 0 , the average hourly rate for all non su p ervisory and produ ction w ork ers in private in d u stry, e x ce p t farm in g, w a s $ 6 . 66 . Related Occupations O ther w orkers w h o set up and operate p rodu ction m achinery are paperm aking m a Production Painters Nature of the Work A lm o st ev ery m etal or w o o d produ ct m an ufactured g ets a coatin g o f paint or other fin ish b efore it lea v e s the fa ctory. A u to m o b ile s , for e x a m p le, u su ally r ec eiv e rust p reven tative, prim er, and paint totalin g at lea st 10 co a ts. E ven p e n c ils are d ip ped in paint several tim es b efore th ey are packed into b o x e s. T h e w orkers w h o ap p ly the v arn ish , la c q u er, p ain t, and other fin ish es u sed are ca lled p rodu ction pain ters. B eca u se th ey g en era lly w ork o n a ssem b ly lin e s , prod u ction p a in ters’ sk ills are d ifferen t from th o se o f painters w h o repair d am aged cars in b o d y sh o p s or from th ose w h o paint b u ild in g s. (In form ation o n th ese painters can b e fou n d in separate state m en ts elsew h e re in the Handbook.) M o st produ ction painters u se spray g u n s to apply fin ish es; the rest operate au tom atic pain tin g m a ch in ery, su ch as spraying m a ch in es, d ip p in g tan k s, and tu m b lin g barrels. Painters m ix the paint at the b eg in n in g o f the p ain tin g p r o c ess. T h ey first figu re areas to b e co v er ed in order to m ix the right am ou n t, and then fo llo w d irectio n s to b len d paint to its correct c o lo r and th ick n ess. T h ese step s require sim p le arithm etic in v o lv in g d e c im a ls and fraction s. V isc o sity m eters are u sed to m ake sure the paint is the right c o n siste n c y for proper ap p lica tio n . Pressure o f the spray gu n n o z z le s and spray pattern co n tro ls a lso m ust b e adjusted properly to en su re that the paint is e v e n ly app lied. B e sid e s sp rayin g p ain t, painters o n the prod u ction lin e h a v e other d u ties. I f an ob ject is to b e m u ltico lo red , th ey app ly m ask in g 432/Occupational Outlook Handbook tape to k eep c o lo rs from overlap p in g. Pro d u ction painters w h o operate m achinery set up pain tin g eq u ip m en t at the b egin n in g o f the sh ift and are resp o n sib le for k eep in g it run n in g. Painters a lso m ay operate w ash in g tanks to clea n item s b efore p ain tin g and bak ing o v e n s to dry the paint. A t the end o f the sh ift, painters clea n spray g u n s, v isc o sity m e ters, m ix in g p a d d les, and other eq u ip m en t. A n in creasin g num ber o f production lin es u se autom atic pain tin g m ach in ery and robots con tro lled by w orkers w h o adjust the n o z z le s o f gun s u sed b y rob ots. H ere, production painters ca lle d “ to u c h u p ” painters ch e ck for im p erfectio n s and sp ray-paint parts o f an arti c le that the m ach in e m isse s or can n ot reach, su ch as in sid e su rfa ces. A s p rodu ction lin es b e co m e m ore autom ated , painters m ust learn to handle m achinery su ch as electrostatic ap plicators and p ow d er-typ e painting sy stem s. Working Conditions P roduction painters gen erally w ork a 4 0 hour w e ek . H o w e v er , w ork sch ed u les m ay vary at plants w ith m ore than on e sh ift. U su ally in order o f sen io rity , w orkers can accep t or reject a certain jo b on a g iv en sh ift. P roduction painters u su ally have to stand for lo n g period s o f tim e to d o their jo b s . T o paint the u n dersid e or top o f an o b je c t, such as a car, m ay require reach in g or crou ch in g in un com fortab le p o sitio n s. Prod uction pain t ers on a ssem b ly lin es m ay be under pressure to k eep up w ith the sp eed o f the lin es. S in ce painters m ay spray hundreds o f identical item s a d a y , the w ork tends to b e m ore m o n oton ou s than in m any other b lu e-collar jo b s. B eca u se p rodu ction painters are ex p o se d to the hazards o f fu m es from paint and pain t m ix in g in gred ien ts, th ey m ay w ear m ask s w h ich c o v er the n o se and m outh . T h is is not very com fortab le during a full d a y ’s w ork. M any w ear co v er a lls to protect their c lo th es. Employment A b ou t 1 0 8 ,0 0 0 produ ction painters w ere em p lo y ed in 1980. A lm o st tw o-th ird s w orked in plants that m ade a u to m o b ile s, m ach in ery, furniture and other w o o d p rod u cts, or m anu factu red m etal products su ch as ca n s, tin w a re, and h an d tools. A lth ou gh production painters are scattered g e o g ra p h ica lly , large n u m b ers are e m p lo y e d in in d u str ia liz e d S tates. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Prod uction painters acquire their sk ills on the jo b , u su ally by w a tch in g and h elp in g ex p erien ced painters. T raining varies from a fe w days to several m on th s. S o m e m o d em pain tin g p r o c e s se s , su ch as th ose u sed to ap p ly p ow d ered c o a tin g s, dem and m ore sk ill than others and thus a lon g er training period . A s painters gain e x p e rien ce , they can ad van ce to h igh er sk ill c a teg o r ie s, a ssu m e m ore resp o n sib ility , and r ec e iv e h igh er w a g e s. P rod uction painters n eed g o o d e y esig h t and a d iscrim in atin g se n se o f c o lo r in order to d istin gu ish su b tle c o lo r d iffe re n c es and to se e that paint has b een ap p lied e v e n ly . H igh sc h o o l graduation is g en era lly not required for entry le v e l p o sitio n s, but the ab ility to read and w rite and d o b a sic arith m etic is e sse n tia l. Job Outlook E m p loym en t o f prod u ction painters is e x p e c ted to in crease abou t as fa st as the aver a ge for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. M an y jo b o p e n in g s a lso w ill result as ex p er ien ce d w orkers transfer to other o c cu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . M o st m anu factu ring in d u stries are ex p e cte d to in crease their outp ut in the years ahead. D em an d for co n su m er p rod u cts, su ch as auto m o b iles and furniture, w ill in crea se as p o p u lation and p erson al in c o m e g ro w . B u sin ess grow th w ill create a n eed for m ore industrial m ach in ery and eq u ip m en t. E m p lo y m en t o f painters is not e x p e cte d to k eep p a ce w ith this greater m anu factu ring output b e ca u se in creased u se o f au tom atic p ain tin g p r o c esses and other lab orsavin g in n o v a tio n s sh ou ld raise output per w orker. N e v e r th e le s s, there w ill still b e a n eed for e x te n siv e tou ch u p w ork w h ich can not b e autom ated. M o st prod u ction painters w ork in plants that produ ce durable g o o d s , su ch as a u to m o b ile s, m ach in ery , and furniture. S in ce pu rchases o f th ese g o o d s o ften can be put o f f , em p lo y m en t in th ese plan ts is particularly se n sitiv e to e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s. D u rin g r e c e s sio n s , produ c tion pain ters m ay b e laid o ff. Earnings H ourly w a g e rates for p rodu ction painters ranged from $ 4 .5 0 to $11 in 1 9 8 0 , b a sed on in form ation from a lim ited num ber o f u n ion con tracts. U n io n s to w h ich prod u ction painters b e lo n g in clu d e the International U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A e ro sp a ce and A gricultural Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica; International A sso c ia tio n o f M ach in ists and A ero sp a ce W orkers; and the U n ited S teelw o rk ers o f A m erica. Related Occupations P rod uction painters ap p ly pain ts u sin g spray eq u ip m en t. O ther w orkers w h o u se spray eq u ip m en t are: A u to pain ters, c o n struction p ain ters, and cera m ics and pottery m akers. Sources of Additional Information M ore fa cts about jo b op p ortu n ities in this field m ay b e a v a ila b le from lo ca l o ffic e s o f the State e m p lo y m en t se r v ic e. G en eral infor m ation on p rodu ction painters m ay be o b tain ed from; Most production painters use spray guns to apply finishes. Research Department, United Automobile Work ers, 8000 E. Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. Fabricators, Assemblers, and Handworking Occupations T h e w orkers d isc u sse d in this sectio n o f the Handbook produ ce m anufactured g o o d s. U sin g h a n d tools and han d-h eld p o w er to o ls, th ey perform task s ranging from the rep et itiv e to the h ig h ly intricate. M o st entry le v e l jo b s require relatively little form al education; fe w em p lo y ers in sist o n a h igh sc h o o l d ip lo m a. W hat cou n ts is the ab ility to perform . W orkers acquire their sk ills o n the jo b , u su a lly in a m atter o f days or w e e k s. Form al training program s are a v a il ab le for the m ore tech n ica lly d em an d in g o c c u p ation s su ch as w e ld in g , h o w ev er. T h is se c tio n o f the Handbook d escrib es the w ork o f a ssem b lers, a u tom ob ile p ain ters, and w eld ers. M any other production o ccu p ation s h a v e sim ila r entry req uirem en ts. S o m e o f th ese are id en tified in the fo llo w in g tabula tio n , w h ich p resents 19 8 0 e m p lo y m en t e sti m a tes for se lec ted fa b ricatin g, a sse m b ly , and han d w ork in g occu pations: Welder and flamecutter ....................... 573,000 Electrical and electronic assembler ....... 233,000 Automotive painter.............................. 41,000 Electronic wirer .................................. 31,000 Hand presser....................................... 29,000 Meat boner ......................................... 17,000 Metal pourer....................................... 15,000 Automobile seat cover installer............. 9,000 Furniture assembler and installer........... 9,000 Hand decorator.................................... 5,000 M any o f the fab ricatin g, a sse m b ly , and han d w ork in g o ccu p a tio n s are se n sitiv e to flu ctu a tio n s in the b u sin ess c y c le . A s factory orders d e c lin e during e co n o m ic dow ntu rn s, w orkers m ay ex p erien ce sh ortened w ork w e e k s , la y o ffs , and plant c lo s in g s. W orkers e m p lo y ed in m otor v e h ic le and other durable g o o d s m anu factu ring or in ind ustries that pro d u ce con stru ction and b u ild in g m aterials are e sp e c ia lly a ffected b y ch a n g es in b u sin ess co n d itio n s. O n the other han d, w orkers in in d u stries su ch as electro n ic eq u ip m en t and com p u ter m anu factu ring are le s s lik ely to be a ffected . S o m e p rodu ction jo b s are b ein g elim in ated b y ad v a n ced te ch n o lo g y . R o b o tics— the use o f autom ated a ssem b lin g , pain tin g and w e ld in g eq u ip m en t— is e x p ected to red u ce e m p lo y m en t in so m e o f the m ore rep etitive and dirty jo b s in the a u tom ob ile ind ustry, for ex a m p le. M ore in form ation about jo b opp or tu n ities and jo b security appears in the state m ents that fo llo w . Assemblers Nature of the Work W hen H enry Ford b egan p rodu cin g auto m o b iles on an a ssem b ly lin e , m o d e m m ass p rodu ction w as b o m . W orkers w h o had been b u ild in g each a u to m o b ile in d ep en d en tly , n ow fou n d th e m se lv es sp ec ia liz in g in ju st o n e part o f the jo b . Prod uction b e ca m e a team effort, w ith each w ork er p erform ing a sin g le task on ev er y car rollin g by on the lin e. O ver the y ears, m a ss p rodu ction spread to other in d u s tries, until tod ay a lm o st ev ery m anufactured item is p rodu ced in th is w a y . W orkers w h o put togeth er the parts o f m anufactured articles are ca lled assem b lers. S o m e tim es hundreds o f a ssem b lers w ork on a sin g le fin ish ed product. A ssem b lers u su ally w ork on item s that m o v e past their w ork stations au tom atically on co n v e y o rs. In the a u tom ob ile industry, for e x a m p le , o n e a ssem b ler m ay put nuts on b olts by hand or w ith a h an d tool, and the n ext w orker d o w n the lin e m ay tigh ten the nuts w ith a p o w er w ren ch . T h e se workers m ust c o m p lete their jo b w ith in the tim e it takes the part or product to p ass their w ork station. O ther assem b lers, k n ow n as b en ch a ssem b lers, d o m ore d elica te w ork. S o m e b ench assem b lers m ake su b a sse m b lie s. S u b assem b lie s are the interm ediate step s in the produ c tion process; for e x a m p le , steerin g colu m n s for au to m o b iles or m otors for vacu u m c le a n ers. O ther b en ch assen b lers m ake entire produ cts. B en ch a ssem b lers in rifle m an u fac turing p lan ts, for e x a m p le, b u ild com p lete rifles from a c o lle c tio n o f parts and su b as se m b lies. T h ey then test the fin ish ed product to b e sure it fu n ction s correctly. B en ch w ork gen era lly requires the ab ility to d o p recise and d etailed w ork . E lectron ics assem b lers u se tw e ez e rs, tin y cu tters, and m a gn ifyin g len se s to put togeth er the sm all com p on en ts u sed in radios and calcu lators. A n oth er group o f a ssem b lers, ca lle d flo o r a ssem b lers, put togeth er large m achinery or h eavy eq u ip m en t o n sh op flo o rs. S c h o o l b u s e s , cran es, and tractors are put togeth er in th is w a y . Parts are in stalled and fasten ed , u su ally w ith b o lts, sc r e w s, or rivets. A s se m blers often use a p o w er to o l, su ch as a grin d er or p ow er d rill, to g e t a proper fit. S o m e ex p erien ced assem b lers w ork w ith little or no su p ervision o n the m ore co m p lex parts o f su b a ssem b lies and are resp o n sib le for the fin al assem b ly o f co m p lica ted jo b s. T h ey m ay a ssem b le a te le v is io n set or put togeth er and test a calcu lator. S o m e w ork w ith the en g in eers and tech n icia n s, assem b lin g prod ucts that th e se p e o p le h a v e ju st d e sig n e d . T o test n ew id eas and b u ild m o d e ls, th ese w ork ers m ust k n o w h o w to read blueprints and en g in eerin g sp ec ific a tio n s and h o w to u se a variety o f to o ls and p recisio n m easuring in strum ents. Working Conditions T h e w ork in g con d itio n s o f assem b lers d if fer, d ep en d in g on the particular jo b per form ed . B en ch assem b lers w ork w h ile seated at tab les. M an y o f th em w ork in ro o m s that are c le a n , w e ll lig h ted , and free from du st. F loor assem b lers o f industrial m ach in ery m ay c o m e in con tact w ith o il and g rea se, and their w ork in g areas m ay b e q u ite n o isy du e to m ach in ery or to o ls b ein g u sed nearby. T h ey m ay h a v e to lift and fit h ea v y o b jects. W ork ers on a ssem b ly lin es are under pressure to k eep up w ith the sp eed o f the lin es. S in ce m o st assem b lers o n ly perform a fe w steps in the a ssem b ly p r o c ess, a ssem b ly jo b s tend to be m on oton ou s. W ork sch ed u les o f assem b lers m ay vary at plants w ith m ore than o n e sh ift. W orkers can accep t or reject a certain jo b o n a g iv e n sh ift, u su ally in order o f sen iority. Employment V irtually all o f the 1 ,6 7 0 ,0 0 0 a ssem b lers e m p lo y ed in 198 0 w ork ed in plants that m anu factu red durable g o o d s . Thirty percen t o f th ese w orkers a ssem b led electro n ic and electrical m a ch in ery, eq u ip m en t, and su p p lies in clu d in g electrical sw itc h e s, w eld in g eq u ip m en t, e le c tric m o to rs, ligh tin g eq u ip m en t, h o u seh o ld ap p lia n c es, and radios and te le v is io n s. N ea rly 17 percent o f a ll assem b lers put to geth er n o n ele c trical m ach in ery (d ie se l e n g in e s, steam turbine gen erators, farm tractors, m in in g and con stru c tion m ach in ery, co m p u ters, and w in d o w air con d itio n ers). M anufacturers o f m otor v e h i c le s and a sso cia ted eq u ip m en t em p lo y ed about 13 percent. A ssem b lers are concen trated in th e h ea v ily in d u strialized States o f C aliforn ia , N e w Y ork , M ich ig a n , Illin o is , O h io , and P en n sy lv a n ia . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement E m p loyers seek w orkers w h o can d o rou tin e w ork at a fast p a c e . A h igh sc h o o l d ip lom a is h elp fu l but u su a lly is not required. For so m e ty p es o f a ssem b ly jo b s , app li cants m ay h a v e to m eet sp ecia l req uirem en ts. S o m e e m p lo y ers lo o k for app licants w ith m e ch an ical aptitude and prefer th o se w h o have taken v o cation al sc h o o l cou rses su ch as m a- 433 434/Occupational Outlook Handbook Automotive Painters (D .O .T . 845.381-010 and -014) Nature of the Work A u to m o tiv e painters m ake o ld and da m a g e d m o to r v e h ic le s “ lo o k lik e n e w . ” T h e se sk illed w orkers repaint o ld er au to m o b ile s , tru ck s, and b u ses that h a v e lo st the luster o f their origin al paint and m ake fen d er and b o d y repairs alm ost in v isib le . (P ain ters w h o w ork on the p rodu ction lin es at m otor v e h ic le m anu factu ring plan ts are d iscu ssed elsew h e re in the Handbook.) Assembling electronic components is detailed work that requires concentration. ch in e sh op . G o o d e y e s ig h t, w ith or w ithou t g la s s e s , m ay b e required for assem b lers w h o w ork w ith sm all parts. In plants that m ake electrica l and electro n ic p rod u cts, w h ich m ay contain m any d ifferen t co lo red w ir es, app li cants often are tested for co lo r b lin d n ess. In ex p erien ced p eo p le can be trained to do m o st kinds o f a ssem b ly w ork in a fe w days or w e e k s. N e w w orkers m ay h ave their job d u ties ex p la in ed to them by the su pervisor and then b e p la ced under the d irection o f ex p erien ced e m p lo y e e s. W hen n e w workers h a v e d e v e lo p ed su ffic ien t sp eed and sk ill, they are p la ced on their o w n and are resp on sib le for the w ork th ey d o. A s a ssem b lers b e c o m e m ore e x p erien ced , they m ay p rogress to a ssem b ly jo b s that require m ore sk ill and b e g iv en m ore resp on sib ility. E xp erien ced assem b lers w h o h ave learned m any a ssem b ly op eration s and thus understand the con stru ction o f a produ ct m ay b eco m e product repairers. T h e se w orkers fix a ssem bled articles that in sp ectors h a v e id en tified as d e fe ctiv e. A ssem b lers a lso m ay ad van ce to insp ecto r, or be prom oted to su p ervisor. In so m e firm s, a ssem b lers can b e c o m e train ees for o n e o f the sk illed trades. te ch n o lo g y is greatly im p roved . C h an ges in b u s in e s s c o n d itio n s and n a tio n a l d e fe n s e n eed s w ill h ave a m ore pron ou n ced e ffe c t on a ssem b ly jo b s , sin c e m ost are in plants that prod u ce durable g o o d s , su ch as au tom ob iles and aircraft. L a yoffs w ill o ccu r during d o w n turns in the e c o n o m y . Earnings W age rates for a ssem b lers ranged from about $ 4 to $ 9 an hour in 198 0 , accord in g to inform ation from a lim ited num ber o f un ion con tracts. M ost assem b lers c o v ered by th ese contracts m ade b etw een $ 6 and $7 an hour. S o m e assem b lers are paid in cen tiv e or p ie c e w ork rates, and therefore can earn m ore by w ork in g faster. M any assem b lers are m em b ers o f labor u n io n s. T h ese u n ion s in clu d e the Internation al A sso c ia tio n o f M ach in ists and A erosp ace W orkers; the International U n io n o f E lectri c a l, R ad io and M ach in e W orkers; the U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp a ce and A gricultural Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica; the Interna tional B rotherh ood o f E lectrical W orkers; and the U n ited S teelw ork ers. Job Outlook Related Occupations E m p lo y m en t o f assem b lers is exp ected to grow as fast as the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s , as m anufacturing plants resp on d to the in creasin g dem and for con su m er products and for industrial m ach in ery and eq u ip m en t. In add ition , m any job o p en in g s w ill occu r b eca u se o f the need to rep lace w orkers w h o lea v e the occu p a tio n , retire, or d ie . R ep la cem en t n eed s w ill in fact b e the m ajor sou rce o f jo b op en in g s. N e w autom ated robot a ssem b ly m ach in es w ill rep lace so m e w o rk ers, but m ost a ssem b ly jo b s w ill not b e a ffected until the robot O ther occu p ation s w h ich in v o lv e handling or assem b lin g things are sew ers and stitch ers, w e a v er s, w eld ers, packers and w rappers, op h th alm ic laboratory tech n icia n s, ch eck ers, postal clerk s and sorting clerk s, and operators o f drill p re sse s, lam in atin g m a ch in es, grin d e rs, and rivetin g m a ch in es. Source of Additional Information Inform ation about e m p lo y m en t opp ortu ni ties for assem b lers is availab le from lo ca l o ffic e s o f the State e m p lo y m en t serv ice. W hen p ain tin g o n ly the repaired portions o f a v e h ic le , painters often h a v e to m ix paint to m atch the origin al c o lo r , w h ich can be very d ifficu lt if the co lo r has fa d ed . T o pre pare a v e h ic le for p ain tin g, painters or their h elpers u se p ow er sanders and sandpaper to r em o v e the original paint or rust, and fill sm all n ick s and scratch es w ith b o d y putty. T h ey a lso r em o v e or m ask parts th ey d o not w an t p ain ted , su ch as ch rom e trim , h ead lig h ts, w in d o w s , and m irrors. P ainters u se a spray gu n to app ly several prim er c o a ts. T h ey ap p ly lacq uer to v e h icle s w ith m etal b o d ies and acrylic en am el to n ew er v e h ic le s w ith p lastic b o d y parts. T h ey adjust the spray gu n n o z z le acco rd in g to the kind o f paint b ein g u sed and , if n ecessa ry , they adjust the air-pressure regu lator to o b tain the correct pressu re. I f the spray gu n is not adjusted p rop erly, paint m ay run or g o on to o th in ly. T o sp eed d ry in g , th ey m ay p lace the fresh ly pain ted v e h ic le under heat lam ps or in a sp ecia l infrared o v e n . A fter ea ch coat o f prim er d ries, th ey sand the surface to r em o v e any irregularities and to h elp the next co a t adhere better. Final san ding o f lacquer prim ers m ay b e d on e b y hand w ith a fine grade sandpaper; acrylic en am el prim ers d o not require fin al sa n d in g. A fter the fin al coat o f paint has d ried , painters or their helpers u su a lly p o lish the n e w ly pain ted su rface. Working Conditions A u to m o tiv e painters w ork ind oors w h ere th ey m ay b e e x p o se d to d an gerous fu m es from pain t and p a in t-m ixin g in gred ien ts. In m o st sh o p s, h o w e v e r , p ain tin g is d on e in sp ecia l ven tilated b ooth s that protect the painters from th ese hazards. Painters a lso w ear m ask s or respirators for add ition al pro tectio n . Painters m ust b en d and stoop to reach all parts o f the v e h ic le . Employment A b ou t 4 1 ,0 0 0 p erson s w o rk ed as au to m o tiv e p a in ters in 1 9 8 0 . A lm o s t th reefourths w ork ed in sh op s that sp ec ia liz e in a u tom otive repairs. M o st others w ork ed in the repair sh op s o f au tom o b ile and truck d ealers. S o m e painters w ork ed for orga n iza tion s that m aintained and repaired their o w n flee ts o f m otor v e h ic le s , su ch as trucking co m p a n ies and b u slin es. Production Occupations/435 P a in ters are e m p lo y e d th ro u g h o u t the cou n try, but are concen trated in m etropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M o st a u to m o tiv e painters start as helpers and gain their sk ills in form ally by w orking w ith e x p erien ced painters. B eg in n in g helpers u su a lly rem o v e trim , clean and sand su rfaces to b e pain ted, m ask su rfaces that they d o not w ant p ain ted , and p o lish fin ish ed w ork. A s helpers gain e x p e rien ce , they progress to m ore co m p lica ted ta sk s, su ch as m ix in g paint to a c h iev e a g o o d m atch and usin g spray g u n s to app ly prim er co a ts or final coats to sm a ll areas. B e co m in g sk illed in all asp ects o f a u to m o tiv e pain tin g u su ally requires 3 to 4 years o f on -th e-jo b training. A fe w a u to m o tiv e painters learn through a p p r e n tic e s h ip . A p p r e n tic e sh ip p ro g ra m s, w h ich g en era lly last 3 years, co n sist o f onthe-job training su p p lem en ted by form al in s t r u c t io n in a r e a s s u c h a s s h o p s a f e t y p r a c tic e s , p ro p er u se o f e q u ip m e n t, and b len d in g co lo rs. Painters sh ou ld h a v e g o o d h ealth , keen e y e s ig h t, and a g o o d co lo r se n se. C ou rses in a u to m o b ile -b o d y rep a ir, o ffe r e d b y h ig h sc h o o ls and v o ca tio n a l sc h o o ls , are h elp fu l. C o m p letio n o f high sc h o o l g en erally is not required but u su a lly is an advan tage. V olun tary certifica tio n by the N ation al In stitute for A u to m o tiv e S erv ice E x c ellen ce is r eco g n ized as a standard o f a ch ievem en t for a u to m o tiv e painters. For certifica tio n , paint ers m ust pass a written ex a m in ation and have at least 2 years o f e x p erien ce in the field . H ig h sc h o o l, trade or vocation al sc h o o l, or com m u n ity or ju n ior c o lle g e training in auto m o tiv e pain tin g and refin ish in g m ay su b sti tute for up to 1 year o f e x p erien ce. C ertified painters m ust retake the exam in ation at least ev ery 5 years. A n ex p erien ced autom otive painter with su p ervisory ab ility m ay ad van ce to sh op su pervisor. M any ex p erien ced painters w ith the n ecessa ry funds o p en their o w n sh op s. Job Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f a u to m otive painters is e x p ected to in crease faster than the average for all o ccu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s , as the num ber o f m otor v e h ic le s d am aged in traffic a ccid en ts g ro w s. In add ition to jo b s created by grow th in dem an d for th ese w ork ers, m any o p en in gs are e x p e cte d to arise ea ch year as ex p eri en ced painters transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . Job op p ortu n ities w ill b e best in h e a v ily pop ulated areas. D a m a g e from a ccid en ts is e x p ected to g r o w , d esp ite better h ig h w a y s, driver training c o u r se s, and im proved bum pers and other sa fety featu res o n n e w v e h ic le s w h ich m ay slo w the rate o f g row th . Painters a lso w ill be n eed ed to repaint old er v e h icle s w h ich have rust or faded paint. E xp erien ced a u to m o tive painters can e x p ect rela tiv ely steady w ork b ecau se the auto Automobile painters wear masks to protect themselves from fumes. m o tiv e p ain tin g b u sin ess is not a ffected m uch by ch a n g es in e c o n o m ic co n d ition s. R egard le s s o f the state o f the e c o n o m y , au tom ob iles con tin u e to b e d am aged in a ccid en ts and re quire repair and r efin ish in g . H o w e v er , there m ay b e fe w er op en in g s for p erson s seek in g to enter this occu p ation during rec essio n s. Earnings E x p erien ced painters e m p lo y ed by auto m o b ile dealers in 23 large c itie s had estim at ed average hou rly earn in gs o f $ 1 2 .7 5 in m id1 9 8 0 , n ea rly tw ic e th e a v e ra g e fo r all n on su p ervisory w orkers in private industry, e x ce p t farm in g. B eg in n in g app rentices u su al ly start at about h a lf the hou rly rate o f fu lly q u alified painters. A s they p rogress, their w a g e s gradually approach th o se o f ex p eri e n c ed a u tom otive pain ters. H elpers started at lo w e r w a g e rates. M any painters e m p lo y ed b y au tom ob ile d ealers and in d ep en d en t repair sh op s rec eiv e a c o m m is s io n b a sed o n th e la b o r c o s t charged to the cu stom er. U n der this m eth od , earn in gs dep en d largely o n the am oun t o f w ork a painter d o e s and h o w fast it is c o m p leted . E m p loyers freq u en tly guarantee c o m m issio n e d painters a m in im u m w e ek ly salary. H elpers and app rentices u su ally rec eiv e an hou rly rate until th ey b e c o m e su fficien tly s k ille d to w o rk o n a c o m m is s io n b a s is . T rucking c o m p a n ie s, b u slin e s, and other or gan iza tio n s that repair their o w n v e h icle s u su ally p ay b y the hour. M ost painters w ork 4 0 to 4 5 hours a w eek . M any a u tom ob ile painters b elo n g to un io n s, in clu d in g the International A sso cia tio n o f M ach in ists and A ero sp a ce W orkers; the In tern a tio n a l U n io n , U n ite d A u to m o b ile , A e r o s p a c e a n d A g r ic u lt u r a l I m p le m e n t W o r k e r s o f A m e r ic a ; th e S h e e t M e ta l W o rk ers’ International A sso cia tio n ; and the In tern a tio n a l B r o th e rh o o d o f T e a m ste r s, C h au ffeu rs, W areh ou sem en and H elpers o f A m erica (In d .). M ost u n ion painters w ork for the larger a u tom ob ile d ea lers, trucking c o m p a n ie s, and b u slin es. Related Occupations R estorin g d am aged m otor v e h icle s o ften in v o lv e s repair o f their b o d ies and m ech a n i ca l c o m p o n en ts as w e ll as p ain tin g. A u to m o b ile painters often w ork c lo s e ly w ith the fo llo w in g related autom otive serv ice o ccu p a tions: A u to m o b ile repair serv ice estim a to rs, a u tom ob ile b od y repairers and c u sto m izers, a u tom ob ile m e ch a n ics, and truck and bus m ech a n ics. Sources of Additional Information For m ore d etails abou t w ork o p p ortu n ities, con tact lo c a l au to m o tiv e-b o d y repair sh op s and a u tom ob ile dealers; lo ca ls o f the u n ion s p rev io u sly m en tion ed ; or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t se r v ic e. T h e State e m p lo y m en t serv ice a lso m ay b e a sou rce o f 436/Occupational Outlook Handbook inform ation about app ren ticesh ip and other training program s. For gen eral in form ation about the w ork o f auto m o tiv e pain ters, write: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 1 1 60611. 1. Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Industrial Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 1 1 60126. 1. National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. Inform ation on h o w to b e c o m e a certified a u to m o tiv e painter is ava ila b le from: National Institute for Automotive Service Excel lence, 1825 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Welders and Flamecutters (D.O.T. 81 exc. 819.281-018 and .687-010) Nature of the Work W eld in g is the m o st co m m o n w a y o f per m anently jo in in g m etal parts. T y p ic a lly , heat is app lied to the m etal p ie c e s to b e jo in e d , the parts m e lt, fu s e , and then form a perm a nent bon d. B e ca u se o f its stren gth, w eld in g is used to con stru ct and repair parts o f sh ip s, a u to m o b iles, sp a cecra ft, and thou san ds o f other products. W eld in g is a lso u sed to jo in beam s and steel rein forcin g rods in b u ild in g s, b rid g es, and h ig h w a y s. T here are three co m m o n w a y s to create the heat that is ap p lied to the parts b ein g jo in e d . In electric arc w e ld in g , the m o st freq uently used p r o c ess, heat is created as electric cur rent flo w s through an arc b etw een the tip o f the w eld in g electro d e and the m etal. In resis tance w e ld in g , heat is created in the w eld m etal by resistan ce to the flo w o f current through the m etal. In g as w e ld in g , the flam e from the com b u stion o f burning g a se s m elts the m etal. In arc and g as w e ld in g , filler m aterials, ca lled w e ld in g electro d es or w e ld ing rod s, are m elted and ad d ed to the w eld p u dd le to fill the jo in t, g iv in g it greater strength. It is the w e ld e r ’s jo b to con trol the am ount o f heat and the siz e o f the m elted area and to add the proper am oun t o f filler m aterial to form a strong jo in t. S in ce w eld in g p ro c esses d iffer and are u sed for m any p u rp oses, the eq u ip m en t and sk ill le v e ls o f w eld ers vary. S o m e jo b s re quire h igh ly sk illed m anual w eld ers w h o k n o w h o w to sa fe ly u se g as and electric arc w eld in g eq u ip m en t in all p o sitio n s and are ab le to plan their w ork from draw in gs or s p e c if ic a t io n s . S k ille d w e ld e r s k n o w the characteristics and prop erties, su ch as m elt ing p o in ts, o f ste e l, alu m in u m , and other co m m o n ly u sed m etals. E x a m p les o f sk illed w eld ers are m aintenance w eld ers, p ip e w e ld e rs, and w eld ers w h o construct sh ip s and b rid ges. In sh ip con stru ction , w eld ers jo in the steel p la tes, b e a m s, and p ip es. S o m e jo in ts to b e w eld ed are on the flo o r (d e c k ), so m e are on the w a lls, and so m e are overh ead . E ach m ust b e carefu lly w e ld e d to insure that the ship w ill not break apart in rough se a s. S h ip w eld ers g en erally use m anual arc w eld in g eq u ip m en t, alth ou gh sem iau tom atic eq u ip m en t is b ec o m in g m ore w id e ly u sed . A fter w eld ers read instructions to le a m w h ich m aterials and w eld in g m eth od to u s e , they obtain su p p lies from the storage area. T o form a jo in t by arc w e ld in g , th ey u se an electro d e in a h old er attached to an electrical ca b le co m in g from a w e ld in g p o w er su p p ly. A n other ca b le is attached to the m etal b ein g Ship welders join steel plates, beams, and pipes carefully to ensure that the ship will withstand rough seas. w e ld e d . T h u s, electricity w ill flo w through the w e ld in g e le ctr o d e , through the arc to the m etal b ein g w e ld e d , and back to the p o w er su p p ly. T h e p o w er su p p ly can b e adjusted to p rovid e the correct am oun t o f current. W hen the p o w er is turned o n , w eld ers “ strike an a r c ” by b riefly tou ch in g the electro d e to the m etal to start the electricity flo w in g and then p u llin g the rod back to form a sm a ll arc gap through w h ich the current m u st flo w . I f the d istan ce b e tw e en the ele ctr o d e and the m etal is correct, a stab le electric arc w ill b ridge the sp ace; the heat from the arc m elts the e le c trode and the m etal. W eld ers m o v e the arc a lon g the len gth o f the jo in t. A s the electro d e m elts and b e c o m e s shorter, th ey m o v e the h old er c lo se r to the m etal to k eep the right d istan ce from the arc. T h ey rep lace very short len gth electro d es w ith n ew o n e s. M ain ten an ce w eld ers repair t o o ls , m a c h in e s, and eq u ip m en t. O ften th ey bring por table g a s to rch es, h o s e s , and tanks to the jo b b e ca u se electricity m ay not b e a v a ila b le. W hen w ork in g on a broken p ip e, for e x a m p le, m ain ten an ce w eld ers e x a m in e the p ip e and prepare the break for repair. T h ey then se le c t a w e ld in g fille r rod appropriate for the jo b . N e x t, th ey lig h t the torch and adjust regu lators on the cy lin d ers o f fu el g a s, su ch as a c e ty le n e , and o x y g e n to obtain the right g as m ixtu res and fla m e. T hen they heat the e d g e s o f the break w ith the torch . A s the m etal b e g in s to so fte n , w eld ers m e lt the end o f the fille r rod in the hot liq u id m etal as th ey ca refu lly m o v e the torch and rod along the break. W eld ers m ust k eep the torch the correct d istan ce from the m eta l, ap p ly heat co rrectly , and repair the break w ith filler m a teria l. N o t all w eld ers n eed the sk ills required o f sh ip b u ild in g or m ain ten an ce w e ld ers. For e x a m p le , to w e ld a u to m o b ile fr a m e s , le s s sk illed w orkers u se eq u ip m en t that autom ati c a lly su p p lies the proper am oun t o f arc heat and fille r m aterial to the jo in t. A sse m b ly lin es bring car fram es to w eld ers w h o then p o sitio n their w e ld in g g u n s near the parts to b e w e ld e d and operate a sw itch on the handle w h ich a u tom atically starts the arc. T h ey g u id e the arc to c o m p lete the required jo in ts b efo re the a ssem b ly lin e tak es the fram e to another w orker. L ik e other w e ld e rs, they are resp o n sib le for the q u ality o f the jo in t. H o w e v e r , the jo b u su a lly requires le s s m anipu la tiv e sk ill b e c a u se all parts are id en tica l and each is w e ld e d in the sam e p o sitio n . In fa cto ries w h ere m any id en tical parts n eed to be w e ld e d , au tom atic arc, electron b ea m , or resistan ce w e ld in g m a ch in es are u sed . W orkers w h o operate su ch m a ch in es to w e ld a u to m o b ile m u fflers and w a sh in g m a c h in e s, for e x a m p le , n eed little k n o w led g e o f w e ld in g . T h ese w ork ers, freq uently ca lled w e ld in g m ach in e operators to d istin g u ish th em from m ore sk ille d , m anual w eld ers, p lace the parts to be jo in e d in fix tu res o n the m ach in e and push a bu tton. T h e m achine then clam p s the part in p la ce and p o sitio n s it, as n e c essa ry , to c o m p lete the w e ld in g c y c le . Production Occupations/437 A fter the c y c le is fin ish ed , operators rem ove the w e ld e d parts and lo ad the m ach in e again . T h e w ork o f arc and fla m e cutters is c lo s e ly related to that o f w eld ers. U sin g heat from burning g a se s or an electric arc, cutters cut and trim m etal rather than jo in it. S o m e e lectrica lly and m ech a n ica lly operated m a ch in e s fo llo w g u id elin es au tom atically. Working Conditions W eld ers freq u en tly are e x p o se d to p oten tial hazards. T h ey u se p rotective clo th in g , sa fety sh o e s , g o g g le s , h elm ets w ith protec tiv e le n s e s , and other d e v ic e s to prevent b u m s and e y e injuries. A lth ou gh ligh tin g and ven tila tio n u su a lly are ad eq u ate, so m e m etals g iv e o f f to x ic g a se s and fu m es as th ey m elt. W o rk ers o fte n are in c o n ta c t w ith ru st, g r ea se, and dirt on m etal su rfaces. M ach in e operators, h o w ev e r, are largely free from hazards a sso cia ted w ith m anual w e ld in g . A fa c e sh ield or g o g g le s gen erally are adequate p rotection . S k illed w e ld e rs, w orking in w e ld in g b o o th s, o ften h a v e lo n g p eriod s o f iso la tio n from other w orkers. Employment In 1 9 8 0 , abou t 5 7 3 ,0 0 0 w eld ers and flam ecutters w ere e m p lo y e d , in clu d in g a relatively sm a ll n u m ber o f cutters w h o u sed both flam e and arc cu ttin g eq u ip m en t. T hree ou t o f four w eld ers h elp m anu factu re durable go o d s; for e x a m p le , b o iler s, b u lld o ze rs, trucks, sh ip s, and co n su m er a p p lia n ces su ch as refrigera tors. M o st o f the rest repair m etal produ cts or h elp con stru ct b rid g es, large b u ild in g s, and p ip elin es. W eld ers are concen trated in m anufactur in g cen ters su ch as the G reat L akes States— P en n sy lv a n ia , O h io , M ich ig a n , In diana, and Illin o is. T h e rest are distributed m uch the sam e as the p o p u la tio n , w ith large num bers in N e w Y o rk , T e x a s, W isc o n sin , and C aliforn ia. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A lth o u g h it takes several years o f on -th ejo b training to b e c o m e a sk illed w e ld e r, less sk illed w ork can b e learned in ju st a fe w m on th s or le s s . S o m e w e ld in g operators, for e x a m p le , are taught to operate a m ach in e in a fe w hours and can han d le all a sp ects o f the jo b w ith in a w e ek . Entry le v e l w e ld in g sk ills are taught in h ig h s c h o o ls , v o ca tio n a l-tech n ica l institu tes, and co m m u n ity c o lle g e s through out the c o u n try. P rivate v o ca tio n a l sc h o o ls a lso teach w e ld in g in co u rses that take from 6 m onth s to 1 year to co m p lete . T h e A rm ed F orces operate w e ld in g sc h o o ls as w e ll. M any w e ld ers learn their craft through in form al, on -th ejo b instruction w h ile th ey w ork as w e ld e r s ’ h elp ers. A fe w c o m p a n ies operate w eld in g s c h o o ls , alth ou gh th ese program s u su ally teach ad van ced tech n iq u es to q u a lify w eld ers for w ork o n critical ap p lication s su ch as nu clear reactors or h igh pressure b oilers. A ll th ese program s train m anual w eld ers. W eld ers w h o operate au tom atic w e ld in g m a c h in e s n eed very little training and can u su al ly b e fu lly trained on the jo b in a m atter o f hours or d a y s. In m an y m anufacturing plan ts, e m p lo y ers se le c t cap ab le assem b lers or other w orkers to fill jo b o p en in g s for w e ld in g m a c h in e operators. P erson s co n sid erin g w ork as w eld ers or cutters n eed m anual d ex terity , g o o d e y e sig h t, an d g o o d e y e -h a n d c o o r d in a tio n . T h e y sh ou ld h a v e the ab ility to concen trate o n d e ta iled w ork for lo n g p eriod s and b e p h y sica l ly ab le to b en d , sto o p , and w ork in aw kw ard p o sitio n s. M o st e m p lo y ers prefer app licants w h o h a v e h igh sc h o o l or v o cation al sc h o o l training in w e ld in g . C ou rses in sh op m ath e m a tic s, m ech a n ica l d ra w in g , blueprint read in g , p h y sic s , and ch em istry a lso are h elp fu l. N e w te ch n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m en ts, e sp e c ia l ly in th e n u clear en erg y and aerosp ace fie ld s , require n e w sk ills. B e ca u se o f the hazards o f nu clear p o w er plant operation and o f air and sp a ce travel, both ind ustries dem an d very h ig h standards o f reliab ility for w e ld s. B efore b e in g a ssig n ed to w ork o n b u ild in g s, b rid ges, p ip e lin e s, or other jo b s w h ere the strength o f the w e ld is h ig h ly critica l, w eld ers m ay be required to p ass an ex a m in ation o f their w e ld in g sk ills g iv en b y an e m p lo y er or g o v ern m en t a g e n c y . W eld ers w h o p ass su ch e x a m in a tio n s g e n e r a lly are referred to as “ certified w e ld e r s .” P rom otion opp ortu n ities for w eld ers are g o o d . S o m e w e ld in g m ach in e operators learn sk illed w e ld in g jo b s; sk illed w eld ers m ay be p rom oted to w e ld in g in sp ecto rs, tech n icia n s, or su p ervisors. E xp erien ced w orkers w h o h a v e ob tain ed c o lle g e training are in great d em an d as w eld in g en g in eers to d e v e lo p n ew a p p lication s for w e ld in g . A sm all num ber o f e x p erien ced w eld ers o p en their o w n repair sh op s. Job Outlook E m p lo ym en t o f w eld ers is e x p ected to in crease as fast i f n ot faster than the average for all occu p a tio n s through the 1 9 8 0 ’s. In c rea ses in p op u lation and in co m e are e x p e c t e d to stim u late d em an d for b u ild in g s, h eavy m a ch in ery, a p p lia n ces, and thou san ds o f o th er products that w eld ers h elp m ak e. T h e rate o f ex p a n sio n in the ind ustries that produce th o se g o o d s w ill d eterm in e the actual in crease in the num ber o f w eld ers. In ad d ition , m any jo b s w ill arise e a ch year as w eld ers transfer to other o ccu p a tio n s, retire, or d ie . In e co n o m ic d ow n tu rn s, w eld ers are su bject to la y o ff as dem an d for con stru ction and d u rable g o o d s d e c lin e s. Job op p ortu n ities in the 1 9 8 0 ’s w ill not be the sam e for all k in ds o f w eld ers. R ob ot w eld in g sy stem s w ill rep lace m any w eld in g m a ch in e operators o n p rodu ction lin es. H ig h ly sk illed w eld ers w ill not b e a ffected by au tom ation , h o w ev e r, and co u ld in fa ct e x p erien ce greatly in creased dem an d i f nuclear p o w er p rodu ction regain s favo r and syn th etic fu el p rodu ction b e c o m es e co n o m ic a l. Job prosp ects for w eld ers w ill also vary m arkedly b y g eograp h ic region; dem and w ill b e strong in th e S u n b e lt a n d W e s t e r n S t a t e s in particular. Earnings T h e lim ited w a g e data ava ila b le ind icate that w e ld in g m ach in e operators earned from $ 9 to $ 1 0 an hour in 19 8 0 . W eld ers in the con stru ction industry earned $ 1 2 to $ 1 3 an h ou r, d ep en d in g on lo cation . W eld ers b e lo n g to m any d ifferen t u n io n s. A m o n g th ese are the International A s s o c i ation o f M ach in ists and A ero sp a ce W orkers; th e In tern a tio n a l B r o th e rh o o d o f B o ile r m a k e r s, Iron S h ip b u ild e r s, B la c k s m ith s , F o r g e r s a n d H e lp e r s ; th e I n t e r n a t io n a l U n io n , U n ited A u to m o b ile , A ero sp a ce and A gricu ltu ral Im p lem en t W orkers o f A m erica; the U n ited A sso c ia tio n o f Journ eym en and A p p ren tices o f the P lu m b in g and P ip e F itting Industry o f the U n ited States and Canada; and the U n ited E lectrica l, R ad io and M a c h in e W orkers o f A m erica. Related Occupations W eld ers are h ig h ly sk illed w orkers w h o m ust b e very fam iliar w ith the properties o f m etal and w h o u se han d -h eld eq u ip m en t or m ach in es to d o factory or con stru ction w ork. O ther p e o p le w ith sim ilar d u ties are b la ck sm ith s, fo rg e sh op w ork ers, all-roun d m a ch in ists, m a ch in e to o l operators, to o l-a n d -d ie m ak ers, m illw rig h ts, sh eet-m eta l w ork ers, and boilerm ak ers. Sources of Additional Information A lis t o f p o s ts e c o n d a r y p ro g ra m s in w e ld in g and cu ttin g , arranged b y State, m ay be fou n d in Programs and Schools, a Supplement to the Directory of Postsecond ary Schools with Occupational Programs, 1978, a p u b lication o f the U .S . D epartm ent o f E d u ca tio n ’s N ation al C enter for E d u ca tio n S ta tis tic s . T h is p u b lic a tio n m a y b e ava ila b le in c o u n selin g cen ters and large p u b lic libraries. For further in form ation o n training and w ork op p ortu n ities for w e ld e rs, co n ta ct lo ca l em p lo y ers or the lo ca l o ffic e o f the State em p lo y m en t se r v ic e. For gen eral inform ation abou t w e ld e rs, w rite to: The American Welding Society, 2501 NW. 7th St., Miami, Fla. 33125. International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations P eop le in transportation and m aterial m o v ing o ccu p a tio n s operate tru ck s, b u se s, taxi c a b s, train s, sh ip s, aircraft, and industrial eq u ip m en t that m o v e s p e o p le and m aterials. A lth ou gh th ey are e m p lo y ed in all in d u stries, w orkers in th ese o ccu p a tio n s are concen trated in the transportation industry. T h e fo llo w in g tabulation p resents 1980 e m p lo y m en t e sti m ates for the largest o ccu p ation s in this group: Transportation and material moving occupations Truckdriver and delivery and route worker........................................... 2,522,000 Heavy equipment operator.................. 453,000 Industrial truck operator..................... 400,000 Busdriver........................................... 285,000 Crane, derrick, and hoist operator . . . . 121,000 Airplane pilot.................................... 82,000 Railroad brake operator..................... 74,000 Taxicab driver .................................. 71,000 Conveyor operator ............................ 53,000 47,000 Locomotive engineer......................... Chauffeur ......................................... 42,000 Parking attendant .............................. 36,000 Railroad conductor............................ 33,000 http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 438 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis M ost em p lo y ers prefer to hire h igh sc h o o l graduates for transportation and m aterial m o v in g jo b , but p erson s w h o have n ot co m p leted h igh sc h o o l are o ften hired i f they m eet all other q u a lification s. For so m e o c cu p a tio n s, v o c a tional or tech n ical training or so m e c o lle g e ed u cation is an a d v a n ta g e. T h e ab ility to understand and fo llo w c o m p lex operatin g ru les, p roce du res, and instructions is an im portant require m ent for m o st o f th ese jo b s . B u s d rivers, for e x a m p le, m u st adhere to d etailed sc h e d u le s, rou tes, and operating p roced u res, and airplane p ilo ts m u st p a in sta k in g ly f o llo w c o m p le x ch eck o u t instructions b efore ta k e o ff to insure that their craft is in proper operatin g co n d itio n . D u ring op eration , they fo llo w proced ures to in sure the safety o f liv e s and property. A lth ou gh m ost o f th is w ork is not strenu o u s , m uch is ted iou s or stressfu l. C oordina tion and m anual d exterity are vital. S o m e m ech an ical aptitude is n eed ed to rec o g n ize w h en a v e h ic le , b u lld o zer, or p o w er truck is not operating properly. For m any w orkers in th ese o ccu p a tio n s, su ch as taxicab drivers, the e ffic ie n c y w ith w h ich they perform their w ork d irectly affects their earn in gs. G o o d v i s i o n , u s u a lly w ith or w ith o u t g la s s e s , and ab ility to ju d g e d ista n ces are req uired for transportation and m aterial m o v in g o c cu p a tio n s. G o o d c o lo r p ercep tio n is a lso required for m an y o f th ese jo b s . R egu lar p h y sica l ex a m in a tio n s are required fo r m o st jo b s to v erify that in d ivid u als h a v e n ot d e v e l o p e d ch ron ic m ed ica l co n d itio n s that m igh t lea d to an a ccid en t. G o o d health is vital in order to h an d le stress fo r p ro lo n g ed period s o f tim e, w h eth er drivin g a taxicab through c ity traffic all d a y , or operatin g a crane at a h ig h -rise con stru ction site w h ere a m isju d gm en t o f d istan ce co u ld d islo d g e f e llo w w o rk ers from their precariou s p erch es. M an y transportation and m aterial m o v in g o ccu p a tio n s are c lo s e ly regu lated . M o st m otor v e h ic le Operators n eed a c h a u ffe u r ’s lic e n se and freq u en tly m u st adhere to e x ten siv e regu la tio n s. S p ec ia l operatin g c ertifica tes are a lso n eed ed to b e e m p lo y ed as an airplane p ilo t or a m erchant m arin e o ffice r. M ore d eta iled in form ation o n training ap pears in the statem en ts that fo llo w . Motor Vehicle Operators Truck, bus, and taxicab drivers operate motor vehicles that transport passengers and goods over highways and city streets. Some drivers are behind the wheel almost all their working time, others also load and unload goods, make pickups and deliveries, and col lect money. Route drivers sell as well as drive. Courteously dealing with people is an important part of the work of busdrivers, route drivers, and taxicab drivers. It is much less a factor for truckdrivers who usually work alone or with a helper. Because motor vehicle operators spend so much time traveling streets and highways, they face a greater risk of accident than most other workers. Motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of job-related serious injur ies and deaths in this country. The job outlook for motor vehicles opera tors varies. Employment of long-distance and local truckdrivers is expected to increase through the 1980’s as more freight is moved by truck. Employment of busdrivers also is expected to increase as cities expand their transit systems and intercity bus travel in creases. Employment in other motor vehicle operative occupations is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa tions. In addition to openings resulting from growth, many new motor vehicle operators will be hired to replace those who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Motor vehicle operator jobs offer excel lent opportunities for persons who are not planning to attend college. The pay for most drivers is relatively high, and working conditions are fairly good. Many drivers are free from close supervision. The sections that follow cover long-distance and local truckdrivers, and intercity and local transit busdrivers. Intercity Busdrivers (D .O .T . 913.463-010) Nature of the Work For many towns and smaller cities, buses provide the only public means of travel to and from other communities. And for large cities, buses are an alternative to rail or air transportation. Over short distances, taking a bus may be just as fast as taking a train or plane, and service may be more frequent. When busdrivers report to the terminal or garage, they are assigned buses and pick up tickets, report blanks, and other items needed for their trips. They inspect their buses care fully to make sure the brakes, steering mechanism, windshield wipers, lights, and mirrors work properly. They also check the fuel, oil, water, and tires, and make certain that the buses are carrying safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and emergency reflectors. Drivers move the buses to loading plat forms where they take on passengers. They collect fares—tickets usually—as passengers board the buses and may use the buses’ public address systems to announce the des tination, route, time of arrival, and other information concerning the trips. At small stations, busdrivers may load and unload luggage, but at terminals and larger sta tions, this chore usually is performed by baggage handlers. Drivers’ routes vary. On local runs, drivers stop at many small towns only a few miles apart. On express runs, however, they may stop only at major cities after driving several hours on interstate highways. Drivers must always be alert to prevent accidents, especial ly in fast-moving highway traffic. They must operate the bus at safe speeds while trying to keep schedules and often must cope with adverse road and weather conditions. Before arriving at major terminals, they announce the stop and the scheduled depar ture time. At some small stations, drivers stop only if passengers are waiting to board or leave the bus or if they have freight to pick up or deliver. Drivers also regulate lighting, heating, and air-conditioning equip ment for the passengers’ comfort. If repair service is not available, they may change flat tires. As required by the U.S. Department of Transportation, drivers keep a current record on each trip of the distance traveled and the periods of time they spend driving, perform ing other duties, and off duty. Upon arriving at their final destinations, drivers complete and turn in these and other reports for their employers. They also report any repairs the buses need. Drivers working for small bus companies may also load and unload baggage and freight, fuel buses, and perform light maintenance. Drivers who operate chartered buses pick up a group of people, take them to the group’s destination, and generally remain with them until they return. These trips fre quently require drivers to remain away from home one night or more. Working Conditions Since intercity buses operate at all hours every day of the year, drivers may work nights and weekends. New drivers may be on call at all hours and may be required to report for work on very short notice. Drivers on some long routes remain away from home overnight. Driving schedules may range from 6 to 10 hours a day and from 3-1/2 to 6 days a week. However, U.S. Department of Transportation regulations specify that inter city drivers shall not drive more than 10 hours without having at least 8 consecutive hours off and shall not drive after being on duty for 15 hours without at least 8 hours off duty. Driving an intercity bus usually is not physically difficult, but it is tiring and re quires steady nerves. The busdriver is given a great deal of independence on the job and is solely responsible for the safety of the passengers and bus. Many drivers like work ing without direct supervision and take pride in assuming these responsibilities. Some also enjoy the opportunity to travel and to meet the public. Employment Nearly 30,000 intercity busdrivers were employed by about 1,330 bus companies in 1980. Some work out of terminals located in some of the small communities served by buses, but most work out of major terminals in large cities. Drivers of charter and tour buses often work out of company garages. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Intercity busdrivers must meet qualifica tions established by the U.S. Department of Transportation or a State agency, if the driv er works only within one State. Drivers must be at least 21 years old and be able to read, write, and speak English well enough to communicate with passengers and to com plete reports. They also must have good hearing, at least 20/40 vision with or without glasses, and normal use of their arms and legs. In addition, they must pass comprehen sive written examinations which test their knowledge of Department of Transportation and State motor vehicle regulations, as well as a driving test in the type of bus they will operate. Most States require that drivers have a chauffeur’s license, which is a commercial driving permit. Many intercity bus companies have con siderably higher requirements. Most prefer applicants who are at least 25 years of age; some prefer applicants who have bus or truckdriving experience. One large company requires applicants to have 20/20 vision with or without glasses. Since they represent their companies in dealing with passengers, busdrivers must be courteous and tactful. An even temperament and emotional stability are important qualifi cations, because driving buses in heavy, fastmoving traffic and dealing with passengers can be a strain. Many intercity bus companies give driver trainees 2 to 8 weeks of classroom and “be- 439 440/Occupational Outlook Handbook hind-the-wheel” driving instruction. In the classroom, trainees learn company and U.S. Department of Transportation rules, State and municipal driving regulations, and safe driving practices. They also learn how to determine ticket prices, keep records, and deal courteously with passengers. Trainees for many companies learn and practice driving skills on set courses. They make turns and zig-zag maneuvers, back up, and drive in narrow lanes. As they gain experience, they drive on lightly traveled roads, eventually advancing to heavily traf ficked highways and city streets. They also make trial runs, without passengers, to im prove their driving skills. After completing final driving and written examinations, new drivers begin a “break in” period. During this period, they make regularly scheduled trips with passengers, often accompanied by an experienced driver. The experienced driver gives helpful tips, answers questions, and determines that the new driver is performing satisfactorily. New drivers start out on the ‘‘extra board, ’’ which is a list of drivers who are given temporary assignments. While on this list, they may substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation, or they may drive chartered buses. Extra drivers may have to wait several years before they have enough seniority to get a regular assignment. Opportunities for promotion generally are limited, particularly in small companies. For most drivers, advancement consists of receiving higher paying or more leisurely routes. Experienced drivers may be promot ed to jobs as dispatchers, supervisors, or terminal managers. Job Outlook Employment of intercity busdrivers is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Inter city passenger travel will grow as population and income increase, but bus travel is expect ed to grow more slowly. Higher incomes will enable more people to travel by plane, which provides faster service over long distances, although it is more expensive. However, con tinuing public concern about energy conserva tion should increase intercity bus travel and busdriver employment. Additional intercity busdrivers will be needed to replace exper ienced drivers who transfer to other occupa tions, retire, or die. Since this relatively highpaying occupation attracts many qualified persons, applicants can expect stiff competi tion for the openings that arise. Applicants in excellent physical condition with good driving records stand the best chance of being hired. Because buses are a relatively inexpensive mode of intercity travel, their ridership often increases during downturns in the economy as travelers switch to cheaper types of trans portation. As a result, intercity busdrivers are seldom laid off. Earnings Drivers employed by large intercity bus companies had estimated average annual earn ings of about $22,000 in 1980, about 75 percent above the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farm ing. The wages of intercity busdrivers typi cally are computed on a mileage basis, but short runs may be on an hourly rate. Most regular drivers are guaranteed a minimum number of miles or hours per pay period. For work on other than regular assignments, reg ular drivers receive additional pay. Most intercity busdrivers belong to the Amalgamated Transit Union. In some areas of the country they belong to the United Trans Experienced drivers often accompany trainees on trips. portation Union or the International Brother hood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehouse men and Helpers of America (Ind.). Related Occupations Other occupations which involve driving heavy vehicles are hostlers, local transit busdrivers, local truckdrivers, long-distance truckdrivers, and operating engineers. Sources of Additional Information For further information on job opportuni ties in this field, contact intercity bus com panies or the local office of the State employment service. Local Transit Busdrivers (D .O .T . 913.463-010) Nature of the Work Everyday local transit busdrivers provide transportation for millions of Americans. These drivers follow definite time schedules and routes over city and suburban streets to provide passengers with an alternative to automobile driving and even ownership. The workday for local busdrivers begins when they report to their assigned terminal or garage. (Large cities have several garages while a small city may have only one.) At the garage, drivers are given transfers and refund forms. Drivers who are picking up buses may check their vehicle’s tires, brakes, windshield wipers, lights, and oil and water. They then drive to the start of their runs. Others go to designated intersections and re lieve drivers who are going off duty. On most runs, drivers pick up and dis charge passengers at bus stops. As passen gers board the bus, drivers make sure the correct cash fare, token, or ticket is placed in the fare box or that a valid pass is presented. They also collect or issue transfers. Drivers often answer questions about schedules, routes, and transfer points and sometimes call out street names at each stop. Busdrivers’ days are run by the clock, as they must pay special attention to their com plicated schedules. Although drivers may run late in heavier than average traffic, they do not let light traffic put them ahead of sched ule so that they miss passengers. Busdrivers must be alert to the traffic around them. Since sudden stops or swerves jar standing passengers, drivers try to antici pate traffic developments, not react to them. At the end of each day, busdrivers turn in trip sheets with a record of fares received, trips made, and significant delays in sched ule. They also turn in a report on the me chanical condition of their bus. In case of an accident, drivers must make out a report de- Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/441 scribing exactly what happened before and after the event and obtain the names, ad dresses, and phone numbers of persons on the bus. At times, drivers operate chartered buses— buses arranged for in advance by an organi zation or group. In these cases, they pick up a group of people, take them to their destina tion, and remain with them until they return. Working Conditions Driving a bus through heavy traffic while dealing with passengers is not physically strenuous, but it may cause nervous strain and fatigue. The workweek for regular drivers usually consists of 5 days with Saturdays and Sun days counted as regular workdays. Some drivers work evenings and after midnight. To accommodate the demands of commuter trav el, many local busdrivers work “ split shifts.” For example, a driver may work from 6 a.m. to 10 a.m., and then return to work from 3 p.m. to 7 p.m. Drivers may receive extra pay for working split shifts. Employment Nearly 97,000 local busdrivers were em ployed in 1980, primarily in large cities. Most worked for publicly owned transit sys tems or privately owned transit lines; a small number worked for sightseeing companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for busdriver positions should be at least 21 years old, be in good health, have good eyesight, with or without glass es, and have a good driving record. Many employers prefer applicants who have a high school education or its equivalent. Most require applicants to pass a physical examination and a written test of ability to follow complex bus schedules. Most States require busdrivers to have a chauffeur’s li cense, which is a commercial driving per mit. A relaxed personality is important since drivers face many minor annoyances such as traffic congestion, bad weather, and angry passengers. Most local transit systems give driver trainees several weeks of classroom and “ behind-the-wheel” instruction. In the class room, trainees learn work rules, safety reg ulations, and safe driving practices. They also learn to read schedules, keep records, and deal tactfully and courteously with pas sengers. Trainees usually begin with several hours of instruction on a training course, then practice on city streets. Because a busdriver is seated higher than other drivers, defensive driving—seeing and avoiding pos sible traffic dangers ahead of time—has much potential and is stressed. Trainees memorize and drive each of the runs oper ating out of their assigned garage. They also take several trips with passengers while supervised by an experienced driver. Train ees may also have to pass a written exami nation and a driving examination. A cheerful manner makes It easier to deal with bus riders. Most experienced drivers have regularly scheduled runs. New drivers, however, usu ally are placed on an “extra” list to substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. They also are assigned extra and special runs, for example, those during morning and evening rush hours and to the stadium the day of a sports event. Charter runs also are driven by extra list drivers. And in cities that use transit buses to transport children to school, extra list drivers are the operators of these buses. New drivers remain on the extra list until they have enough seniority to get a regular run. This may take several years. Runs are assigned on the basis of length of service, or seniority. Therefore, as drivers acquire seniority, they can choose runs they prefer, such as those that lead to overtime, or that have little traffic. Opportunities for promotions generally are limited. However experienced drivers may advance to jobs as supervisors or dispatchers. These workers assign buses to drivers, check whether drivers are on schedule, reroute bus es to avoid a blocked street or other prob lems, and dispatch extra vehicles and service crews to scenes of accidents and breakdowns. A few drivers advance to management posi tions. Promotion in publicly owned bus sys tems is often by competitive civil service examination. Job Outlook Employment of local busdrivers is expect ed to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Increased use of automobiles in cities and population shifts to the suburbs—where most people drive 442/Occupational Outlook Handbook their own cars—have caused a decline in bus ridership and driver employment. However, as part of the effort to conserve energy and reduce air pollution and traffic congestion, many cities are trying to improve local bus service by having express bus lanes, more frequent service with more routes, and more comfortable buses. Improved bus service will require more drivers. Additional drivers will be needed to replace drivers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Local transit busdrivers are rarely laid off during recessions. Even if bus ridership de creases, busdriver employment usually does not because scheduled service still must be provided. Earnings According to a survey of union contracts in 62 large cities, local busdrivers averaged $9.02 an hour in 1980, about one-third more than the average for all nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farming. Hour ly wages were highest in the large cities. Most local busdrivers are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union. Drivers in New York City and several other large cities belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. Some drivers belong to the United Transportation Union and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. When local truckdrivers arrive at the termi nal or warehouse, they receive assignments from the dispatcher to make deliveries, pick ups, or both. They also get delivery forms and check the condition of their trucks. Be fore the drivers arrive for work, material handlers generally have loaded the trucks and arranged the items in order of delivery to minimize handling of the merchandise. At the customer’s place of business, driv ers generally load or unload the merchandise. If there are heavy loads or many deliveries to make during the day, drivers may have help ers. Drivers of moving vans usually have crews of helpers to assist in loading and unloading household or office furniture. Drivers get customers to sign receipts for the goods and may receive money for the material delivered. At the end of the day, they turn in receipts, money, and records of deliveries made and report mechanical prob lems with their trucks. The work of drivers varies, depending on the product they transport. Produce truckers usually pick up a loaded truck in the early morning and spend the rest of the day deliv ering produce to many different grocery stores. The day for a driver of a lumber truck, on the other hand, consists of several round trips between the lumber yard and one or more construction sites. Working Conditions Related Occupations Other driving occupations in local transit include streetcar operators and subway opera tors. Other workers who drive heavy vehicles on highways and city streets are intercity busdrivers, local truckdrivers, and long-dis tance truckdrivers. Sources of Additional Information For further information on employment opportunities, contact a local transit system or the local office of the State employment service. Local Truckdrivers (D.O.T. 900.683-010, 902.683-010, 903.683-010 through -018, 905.663-010 through .683-010, 906.683-010 through -022) Nature of the Work In many instances, local truckdrivers are the link between the transportation industry and its customers. Goods may be shipped between terminals or warehouses in different cities by trucks, trains, ships, or planes. But the initial pickup from factories and the con solidation of cargo at terminals for intercity shipment, as well as final delivery of goods from terminals to stores and homes, usually are made by truck. Local truckdrivers are skilled drivers who can maneuver trucks into tight parking spaces, through narrow alleys, and up to loading platforms. Local truckdrivers frequently work 48 hours or more a week. Many who handle food for chain grocery stores, produce mar kets, or bakeries drive at night or early in the morning. Although most drivers deliver over regular routes, some have different routes each day. Truckdriving has become less physically demanding because most trucks now have more comfortable seating, better ventilation, and improved cab designs, but making many deliveries during a day can still be exhaust ing. Moreover, driving in heavy traffic can cause nervous strain. Local truckdrivers, un like long-distance drivers, usually can return home in the evening. Employment About 1.7 million people worked as local truckdrivers in 1980, mostly in and around large cities. Some drivers are employed in almost all communities, however. Most local drivers work for businesses which deliver their own products and goods, such as department stores, foodstores, and lumber yards. Many others are employed by trucking companies. Some work for Federal, State, and local government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Qualifications for local truckdrivers vary considerably, depending upon the type of truck and the nature of the employer’s busi ness. In most States applicants must have a chauffeur’s license, which is a commercial Local truckdrivers usually unload their own car go when making deliveries. driving permit. Information on how to get this license can be obtained from State motor vehicles department. Applicants may have to pass a general physical examination, a writ ten examination on driving regulations, and a driving test. They should have good hearing and at least 20/40 vision with or without glasses, be able to lift heavy objects, and be in good health. Employers prefer applicants with some previous experience driving a truck. Con sideration is given to driving experience in the Armed Forces. A person also may ob tain experience by working as a truckdriver’s helper. Truckdrivers often let their helpers drive part of the day. When driving vacancies occur, senior helpers usually are promoted. A more common method of entering truck driving is to start out as a dockworker, load ing and unloading freight. Dockworkers get a general idea of the trucking operation, and their work may give them the opportunity to move trucks around the yard. When a need for a truckdriver develops, a capable dockworker may be promoted. New drivers often start on panel or other small “ straight” trucks. As they gain experience and show good driving skills, they may advance to larger and heavier trucks, and finally to trac tor-trailers. Since drivers often deal directly with the company’s customers, the ability to get along well with people is important. Employers also look for responsible, self-motivated individ uals, since drivers work with little supervi sion. Many employers will not hire applicants who have bad driving records. Training given to new drivers usually is informal and may consist only of a few hours of instruction from an experienced driver, sometimes on the new employee’s own time. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/443 New drivers also may ride with and observe experienced drivers before being assigned their own runs. Additional training may be given if they are to drive a special type of truck. Some companies give 1 to 2 days of classroom instruction which covers general duties, the operation and loading of a truck, company policies, and the preparation of de livery forms and company records. Although most new drivers are assigned immediately to regular driving jobs, some start as extra drivers and do the work of regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. They receive a regular assignment when an opening occurs. Local truckdrivers may advance to dispatch er, manager, or to traffic work—for example, planning delivery schedules. However, rela tively few of these jobs are available. For the most part, a local truckdriver may advance to driving heavy or special types of trucks or by transferring to long-distance truckdriving. Lo cal drivers working for companies that also employ long-distance drivers have the best chances of advancing to these positions. paid drivers of light trucks to an average of $9.63 an hour paid tractor trailer drivers. Many local truckdrivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some local truckdrivers em ployed by companies outside the trucking industry are members of unions that represent the plant workers of their employers. Related Occupations Other driving occupations with duties similar to those of local truckdrivers are local busdrivers, long-distance truckdrivers, hos tlers, route drivers and deliverers. Sources of Additional Information Information on truckdriver training schools and on career opportunities in the trucking industry may be obtained from: American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. For details on truckdriver employment op portunities, contact local trucking companies or the local office of the State employment service. Job Outlook Employment of local truckdrivers is ex pected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Anticipated growth in business activity will result in more freight to be distributed. Since trucks carry virtually all local freight, em ployment of drivers is expected to increase. In addition to the job openings from growth in demand for truckdrivers, thousands of openings will result from the need to replace experienced drivers who transfer to other oc cupations, retire, or die. Many people are attracted to this field because earnings are high and no formal training is required. Consequently, applicants may face competition for available jobs dur ing the 1980’s. Applicants with good driving records have the best chance of being hired. Job openings for truckdrivers may vary from year to year since the number of drivers needed fluctuates with general business con ditions. Many new truckdrivers are hired when the economy and the volume of freight are growing, but few are hired when they are not. During recessions, when freight volume decreases, some drivers are laid off and oth ers work fewer hours. Those in industries such as wholesale food distribution, which is usually not affected much by recessions, are less likely to be laid off. Earnings As a rule, local truckdrivers are paid by the hour and receive extra pay for working overtime, usually after 40 hours. On the average, local truckdrivers earned $8.71 an hour in 1980, about one-third higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Earnings of local truckdrivers vary greatly, depending on the size truck they drive. In 1980, earnings ranged from an average of $6.17 an hour Long-Distance Truckdrivers_______ (D .O .T . 903.683-010 through -018, 904.383-010 and .683-010, 905.483-010 and .663-018) Nature of the Work At all hours of the day and night, big trucks travel along turnpikes, freeways, and highways carrying goods between terminals hundreds, or even thousands, of miles apart. Behind the wheel are the top professional drivers. They drive the largest and most ex pensive equipment and receive the highest wages of all drivers. The runs of long-distance truckdrivers vary widely. Some drivers have short “turna rounds.” They deliver a load to a nearby city, pick up another loaded trailer, and drive it back to their home base the same day. Others are assigned runs that take an entire day, and they remain away from home over night. Often on longer runs, drivers are as signed loads going to other cities rather than back to their home bases and may continue to haul loads from city to city for as long as a week before returning home. Some compan ies use two drivers on very long runs. One drives while the other sleeps in a berth be hind the cab. These “ sleeper runs may last for days, or even weeks at a time. Some drivers have regular runs, transport ing freight to the same city on a regular basis. But demand for trucking service fluc tuates; shippers request varying amounts of service to different cities every day. There fore, many drivers have unscheduled runs. Dispatchers tell these drivers when to report for work and where to haul the freight. When drivers report for work, the trucks already have been loaded with cargo and serviced with fuel and oil. But, before mov ing from the terminal, drivers inspect the trucks they will drive to make sure the trucks will operate safely. For example, the drivers make sure the brakes, windshield wipers, and lights are working and that a fire extinguish er, flares, and other safety equipment are aboard. Drivers adjust mirrors so that both sides of the truck are visible from the driver’s seat, and make sure the cargo has been load ed properly so it will not shift during the trip. If some equipment does not work, or is miss ing, or if the cargo is not loaded properly, drivers report the problem to the dispatcher for correction. Once they are on the road, drivers must be alert not only to prevent accidents, but also to drive their trucks efficiently. Because of the truck’s size, drivers sit higher than the cars, pickups, and vans around them and have the advantage of being able to see far down the road. They seek traffic lanes that allow them to move at a steady speed, and when going downhill, they may increase speed slightly to gain momentum for a hill ahead. After they reach their destination, drivers complete reports about the trip and the condi tion of the truck, as required by the U.S. Department of Transportation. If they have had an accident during the trip, a detailed report of the incident is required. Long-distance truckdrivers spend most of their working time behind the wheel. Drivers hauling some specialty cargo, though, often load or unload their trucks, since they may be the only individuals at the destination fa miliar with this procedure. Auto transport drivers, for example, drive and position the cars on the racks and remove them at the final destination. Gasoline tank truckdrivers attach the hoses and operate the pumps on their trucks to transfer the gasoline to gas stations’ storage tanks. When picking up or delivering furniture, drivers of long-distance moving vans hire local workers to help them load or unload. Working Conditions Trucking companies engaged in interstate commerce are subject to the U.S. Depart ment of Transportation rules governing hours of work and other matters. These regulations limit the hours drivers may work and assure a reasonable amount of time for rest. For ex ample, a driver cannot be on duty for more than 60 hours in any 7-day period and cannot drive more than 10 hours without being off duty at least 8 hours. Many drivers, particu larly on long runs, work close to the maxi mum hours permitted. Drivers on long runs may face boredom and fatigue. Although many drivers work during the day, night travel is common and frequently preferred because roads are less crowded and trips take less time. 444/Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment An estimated 575,000 long-distance driv ers were employed in 1980. Most live near large cities and manufacturing centers that have many truck terminals. Drivers who spe cialize in transporting agricultural products or minerals may live in rural areas. A large proportion of long-distance truckdrivers work for trucking companies that of fer transportation service to businesses in general. Many others work for companies, such as furniture manufacturers, which own and operate trucks to deliver their specific products. A significant number of drivers are owner-operators. They own their trucks and either operate independently, serving a vari ety of businesses, or lease their services and their trucks to a trucking company. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The U.S. Department of Transportation establishes minimum qualifications for long distance truckdrivers who are engaged in in terstate commerce. A driver must be at least 21 years old and pass a physical examina tion, which the employer usually pays for. Good hearing, 20/40 vision with or without glasses, normal use of arms and legs (unless a waiver is obtained), and normal blood pres sure are the main physical requirements. Employers seek people with good driving records who can pass a road test operating the type of vehicle driven in regular service. In addition, they must take a written exami nation on the Motor Carrier Safety Regula tions of the U.S. Department of Transporta tion. In most States, truckdrivers also must have a chauffeur’s license, which is a com mercial driving permit. The hiring standards at many trucking op erations are higher than those described. Many firms require that new drivers be at least 25 years old. Others specify height and weight limitations. Some companies employ only applicants who have had several years’ Long-distance truckdrivers spend most of their working time behind the wheel. experience driving trucks long distances. Driver-training courses are a desirable method of preparing for truckdriving jobs. Most training authorities and employers rec ommend high school driver-training courses. In addition, a high school course in auto motive mechanics helps drivers make minor roadside repairs. A small number of private and public tech nical-vocational schools offer truckdriving courses. Students learn to inspect the trucks and freight, to drive large vehicles in crowd ed areas and in highway traffic, and to com ply with Federal, State, and local regulations. Completion of a course, however, does not assure a job. Graduates of these schools who do get truckdriving jobs often start as local drivers. Persons interested in attending one of these schools should check with local trucking companies to make sure the school’s training is acceptable to them. A more common method of entering truck driving is to start as a dockworker, loading and unloading freight at a loading dock. Ex perienced dockworkers may advance to local truckdriving jobs. New drivers often start on panel or other small “ straight” trucks. As they gain experience and show good driving skills, they may advance to heavier trucks and finally to tractor-trailers. Local drivers with tractor-trailer experience are good candi dates for long-distance jobs. Graduates of truckdriving schools who cannot get jobs as drivers sometimes apply to become dockworkers. If they are hired, their school ex perience gives them an advantage over other dockworkers when driving vacancies occur. New drivers usually are given a brief ex planation of company policy and are taught how to prepare forms used on the job. They also receive a small amount of driving in struction and practice on a training course to learn how to maneuver these larger trucks. They then make one or more training trips under the supervision of an instructor or an experienced driver. Drivers for large trucking companies fre quently start on the “extra board.” The extra board is a list of drivers, assigned in rotation, who make the many unscheduled trips or who substitute for drivers unable to make their scheduled runs. Some individuals enter trucking by pur chasing a truck and going into business for themselves. While many of these owner-op erators are successful, a large number fail to cover expenses and eventually lose their trucks. Individuals interested in becoming owner-operators should have good business sense as well as some truckdriving exper ience. Courses in accounting, business, and business arithmetic are helpful. Opportunities for promotion in this occu pation are limited. A few drivers may ad vance to jobs as safety supervisor, driver supervisor, and dispatcher. However, such jobs often are unattractive to long-distance truckdrivers, since the starting pay usually is less than the pay for driving. Most drivers can only expect to advance to driving runs that provide increased earnings or preferred sched ules and working conditions. Job Outlook Employment of long-distance truckdrivers is expected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. The general economic growth of the Nation is ex pected to increase the amount of freight that will be carried long distances by truck, thus increasing the demand for drivers. But the de mand for drivers is expected to increase more slowly than the growth in freight because larger trucks should increase the amount of freight each driver can haul. In addition to jobs created by growth in demand for drivers, thousands of openings will also occur in this large occupa tion as experienced drivers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Since driver earn ings are high and no formal training is required, applicants can expect to face strong competi tion for available jobs. Job opportunities may vary from year to year because the amount of freight moved by trucks fluctuates with the economy. Many new truckdrivers are hired when the economy and the volume of freight are expanding, but few when they decline. During slowdowns in the econo my, some truckdrivers are laid off and others work fewer hours, decreasing their earnings. Earnings Based on limited information, drivers em ployed by large trucking companies had estimat ed annual average earnings of about $26,900 in 1980. Pay rates are fairly uniform because this field is highly unionized, and union contracts generally are master agreements covering all employers within a multi-State region. Howev er, the earnings of individual drivers vary, de pending on mileage driven, number of hours worked, and type of truck. Some companies outside the trucking indus try that operate trucks such as bakeries and dairies pay their drivers on the same basis as they pay their other employees—a monthly, weekly, or daily wage. Generally, such a wage is for a specified number of hours; if drivers work additional hours, they receive extra pay. A workweek of at least 50 hours is very common. Most long-distance drivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some drivers outside the trucking industry belong to the unions that represent plant employees of the companies for which they work. Related Occupations Other driving occupations with duties similar to those of long-distance truckdrivers are intercity busdrivers, local truckdrivers, and hostlers. Sources of Additional Information Information on truckdriver training schools and career opportunities in the trucking in dustry may be obtained from: American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Other Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Airplane Pilots_____ (D .O .T . 196.167-010, .223-010 through .263-022, .263-030, -034, and -042) Nature of the Work Pilots are skilled, highly trained profes sionals who fly planes to carry out a wide variety of tasks. Most pilots transport passen gers and cargo, while others perform tasks such as crop dusting, testing aircraft, and taking photographs. Except on small aircraft, two pilots usu ally are needed to fly the plane. Generally, the most experienced pilot (called captain by the airlines) is in command and super vises the other crew members on board. The copilot assists in communicating with air traffic controllers, monitoring the instru ments, and flying the plane. Most large air liners have a third pilot in the cockpit who serves as flight engineer. The flight engi neer assists the other pilots by monitoring and operating many of the instruments and systems, making minor inflight repairs, and watching for other aircraft. Before departure, pilots plan their flights carefully. They confer with dispatchers and weather forecasters to find out about weather conditions en route and at their destination. Based on this information, they choose a route, altitude, and speed that should provide the fastest, safest, and smoothest flight. When flying under instrument flight rules, the pilot in command must file an instrument flight plan with air traffic control so that the flight can be coordinated with other air traf fic. Before taking off, pilots thoroughly check their planes to determine that the engines, controls, instruments, and other systems are working properly. They also make sure that baggage or cargo has been loaded correctly. Takeoff and landing are the most difficult parts of the flight and require close coordina tion between the pilot and copilot. For exam ple, as the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pilot concentrates on the runway while the copilot scans the instrument panel. To calcu late the speed they must attain to become airborne, pilots on large airplanes consider the altitude of the airport, outside tempera ture, weight of the plane, and the speed and direction of the wind. The moment the plane reaches this speed, the copilot informs the pilot who then pulls back on the controls to raise the nose of the plane. Unless the weather is bad, the actual flight is relatively easy. Pilots steer the plane along their planned route and are monitored by the air traffic control stations they pass along the way. They continuously scan the instrument panel to check their fuel supply and the con dition of their engines. Pilots may request a change in altitude or route if circumstances dictate. For example, if the weather briefing led the pilots to expect a smoother ride than is being experienced, they may ask air traffic control if pilots flying at other altitudes have reported better conditions. If so, they may request a change. This procedure also may be used to find a stronger tailwind or a weaker headwind to save fuel and increase speed. If visibility is poor, pilots must rely com pletely on their instruments. Using the read ings on the altimeter, they know how high above ground they are and can fly safely over mountains and other obstacles. Special navi gation radios give pilots precise information which, with the help of special maps, tells them their exact position. Other very sophis- Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation. 445 446/Occupational Outlook Handbook ticated equipment provides directions to a point just above the end of a runway and enables pilots to land completely “ blind.” Once on the ground, pilots must complete records on their flight for their company and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Airline pilots have the services of large support staffs and consequently perform few nonflying duties. Pilots employed by busi nesses that use their own aircraft, however, usually are the businesses’ only experts on flying and consequently have many other du ties. For example, since pilots understand the requirements for a balanced load, the busi ness pilot loads the plane and handles all passenger luggage. While the plane is being refueled, the pilot stays with it to assure that the job is done properly. Other nonflying responsibilities include keeping records, scheduling flights, arranging for major main tenance, and performing minor maintenance and repair work on their planes. Some pilots are instructors. They teach their students the principles of flight in ground-school classes and demonstrate how to operate aircraft in “ dual-controlled” planes. A few specially trained pilots employed by the airlines are “examiners” or “check pi lots.” They periodically fly with each airline pilot and copilot to make sure that they are proficient. Working Conditions By law, airline pilots cannot fly more than 85 hours a month or more than 1,000 hours a year. Most airline pilots actually fly less than 70 hours a month and, although they have additional nonflying duty hours, usually only work 16 days a month. However, the major ity of flights involve layovers away from home. When pilots are away from home, the airlines provide hotel accommodations and an allowance for expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night, so work schedules often are irregular. Pilots who have little seniority may be assigned night or early morning flights. Pilots employed outside the airlines often have irregular schedules; they may fly 30 hours one month and 90 hours the next. Since these pilots frequently have many non flying responsibilities, they have much less free time than airline pilots. Except for busi ness pilots, most pilots employed outside the airlines do not remain away from home over night. They may work odd hours, however. Instructors, for example, often give lessons at night or on weekends. All pilots are subject to certain risks and inconveniences involved in flying. Airline pilots, especially those on international routes, often suffer jet lag—disorientation and fatigue caused by many hours of flying through different time zones. The work of test pilots, who check the flight performance of new and experimental planes, may be dan gerous. Agricultural pilots must work with toxic chemicals and often do not have the benefit of a regular landing strip. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the mental stress of being responsible for a safe flight, no matter what the weather, can be very tiring. Particularly during takeoff and landing, pilots must be alert and ready to act if something goes wrong. Employment About 82,000 civilian pilots worked in 1980. Nearly one-half worked for the air lines. Many others worked as flight instruc tors at local airports or for large businesses that use their own airplanes to fly company cargo and executives. Some pilots flew small planes for air taxi companies, usually to or from lightly traveled airports not serviced by the airlines. Others worked for a variety of businesses performing tasks such as crop dusting, inspecting pipelines, or conducting sightseeing trips. Federal, State, and local governments also employed pilots. Several thousand pilots were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All pilots who are paid to transport passen gers or cargo must have a commercial pilot’s license from the FAA. To qualify for this license, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours or more of flight experience. They also must pass a strict physical examination to make sure that they are in good health and have 20/20 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and no physical handicaps that could impair their performance. Applicants must pass a written test that includes questions on the principles of safe flight, navigation techniques, and FAA regulations. They also must demon strate their flying ability to FAA examiners. In addition to a commercial license, pilots who have to fly in bad weather must be licensed by the FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots may qualify for this license by having 40 hours of experience flying by instruments, passing a written examination on procedures and FAA regulations covering instrument flying, and demonstrating their ability to fly by instruments. Airline pilots must fulfill additional re quirements. They must pass FAA written and flight examinations to earn a flight engi neer’s license. Captains must have an airline transport pilot’s license. Applicants for this license must be at least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying experi ence including night and instrument flying. All licenses are valid as long as a pilot can pass the required physical examinations and the periodic tests of flying skills demanded by government and company regulations. Flying can be learned in military or civil ian flying schools. Either kind of training satisfies the flight experience requirements for licensing. The FAA has certified about 1,400 civilian flying schools, including a few colleges and universities that offer degree credit for pilot training. Persons in the mili tary gain substantial experience on jet air craft, which airlines and many businesses prefer. Having lost many pilots to the airlines in recent years, the military hopes to curb unacceptable rates of attrition through finan cial incentives. Consequently, the airlines may increasingly seek pilots experienced in general aviation. Pilots hired by airlines must be high school graduates; however, most airlines re quire 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. Because pilots must be able to make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure, airline companies reject applicants who do not pass required psychological tests. New airline pilots usually start as flight engineers. Although airlines favor applicants who already have a flight engineer’s license, they may train those who have only the com mercial license. All new pilots receive sever al weeks of intensive training in simulators and classrooms before being assigned to a flight. Companies other than airlines generally do not require as much flying experience. How ever, a commercial pilot’s license is required and companies prefer applicants who have experience in the type of plane they will be flying. New employees generally start as co pilots. Test pilots often are required to have an engineering degree. Advancement for all pilots generally is limited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as flight instructors, building up their flying hours while they teach. As they become more experienced, these pilots occasionally fly charter planes and perhaps get jobs with small air transportation firms, such as air taxi companies. Some advance to business flying jobs. A small number get flight engineer jobs with the airlines. In the airlines, advancement usually de pends on seniority provisions of union con tracts. After 5 to 10 years, flight engineers advance according to seniority to copilot and, after 10 to 20 years, to captain. Seniority also determines which pilots get the more desirable routes. In a nonairline job, a copilot may advance to pilot and, in large compan ies, to chief pilot in charge of aircraft sched uling, maintenance, and flight procedures. Job Outlook Employment of pilots is expected to in crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to jobs created by growth in demand for pilots, openings will result as experienced pilots die, retire, or leave the occupation. Competition for job openings should be keen, however, because the number of quali fied pilots seeking jobs is expected to exceed the number of openings. In the long run, the expected growth in airline passenger and cargo traffic will create a need for more airliners, more pilots, and more flight instructors. Businesses are ex pected to operate an increasing number of planes and employ more pilots to fly cargo to locations that the scheduled airlines do not Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/447 service. However, the increasing use of ad vanced communications systems that include video links and computers may limit growth in business travel by corporate executives. In the short run, however, employment of pilots is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During slow periods when a de cline in the demand for air travel forces air lines to curtail the number of flights, airlines may furlough some pilots. During recessions, commercial and corporate flying, flight in struction, and testing of new aircraft also decline, adversely affecting pilots employed in those areas. Because wages are lower outside the air lines, there is not as much competition for these jobs. Still, flying is a popular activity, so there usually are more applicants than openings even for these positions. Recent college graduates who have experi ence flying jet aircraft and who have a com mercial pilot’s license and a flight engineer’s license can expect first consideration for jobs with the major airlines. Businesses generally have fewer formal education and experience requirements than airlines. However, these companies prefer applicants with experience in the type of plane they will be flying on the job. Earnings Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation. In 1980, the average salary for airline pilots was $67,000 a year. Starting salaries for flight engineers averaged $14,400 a year, while some senior captains on the largest aircraft earned as much as $110,000. Earnings depend on factors such as the type, size, and speed of the plane, and the number of hours and miles flown. Extra pay is given for night and international flights. Generally, pilots working outside the air lines earn lower salaries. According to a survey conducted by the American Manage ment Associations, average salaries for chief pilots ranged from about $31,000 to $40,000 a year in 1980; for captains/pilots, $24,000 to $36,000 a year; and for co pilots, $21,000 to $26,000 a year. Usually, pilots who fly jet aircraft earn higher sala ries than non-jet pilots. Airline pilots generally are eligible for life and health insurance plans. They also receive retirement benefits and, if they fail their FAA physicals, disability payments. Some airlines provide allowances to pilots for pur chasing and cleaning their uniforms. As an additional benefit, pilots and their immediate families usually are entitled to reduced fare transportation on their own and other airlines. Most airline pilots are members of the Air Line Pilots Association, International. Those employed by one major airline are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Many flight engineers are members of the Right Engi neers’ International Association. Related Occupations Helicopter pilots need skills and perform duties similar to those of airplane pilots. Al though they are not in the cockpit, air traffic controllers and dispatchers also play an im portant role in making sure flights are safe and on schedule, and participate in many of the decisions pilots must make. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in a particular airline, and the qualifications re quired, may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the airline. Addresses of airline companies are available from: Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. For information about the duties as well as the physical and educational requirements for airline pilots and flight engineers, request Pilots and Flight Engineers, publication GA300-122 (include a self-addressed mailing la bel), from: U.S. Government Printing Office, Library and Statutory Distribution Service, 5208 Eisenhower Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22304. For information on airline pilots, contact: Airline Pilots Association, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. For a copy of List of Certificated Pilot Schools, write to: U.S. Department of Transportation, Publications Section, M-443.1, Washington, D.C. 20590. For information about job opportunities in companies other than airlines, consult the classified section of aviation trade magazines and apply to companies that operate aircraft at local airports. Merchant Marine Officers Nature of the Work Every ship has jobs of such importance to its safe operation that the persons doing them are identified as having special responsibil ities. These persons are the ship’s officers. In command of every oceangoing merchant vessel is the captain or master (D.O.T. 197.167-010), who is the shipowner’s sole representative. The captain has complete au thority and responsibility for the ship’s oper ation and the safety of the crew, passengers, cargo, and vessel. In port, the captain may serve as the ship owner’s agent in conferring with custom offi cials and, in some cases, may act as paymaster for the ship. Although not technically a mem ber of a specific department, the captain usual ly has been promoted from the deck depart ment and generally is associated with it. Deck D epartm ent. Deck officers or “ mates,” as they are traditionally called, di rect navigation of the ship and supervise the cleaning and maintenance of the deck and hull. They maintain the authorized speed and course; plot the vessel’s position; post look outs for other ships; record information in the ‘‘log ” of the voyage; and immediately notify the captain of any unusual occurrences. To comply with Coast Guard regulations for en suring the safe and efficient operation of ships, deck officers must be familiar with modem navigational equipment, such as so nar, radar, and radio directional finders. The chief mate (D.O.T. 197.133-022), also known as the first mate or chief offi cer, is the captain’s key assistant and as signs duties to the deck crew and maintains order and discipline. The chief mate also plans and supervises the loading and un loading of cargo, and assists the captain in taking the ship in, to and out of port. On some ships, the chief mate may be in charge of first-aid treatment. By tradition, the second mate (D.O.T. 197.133-022) is the navigation officer. The second mate sees that the ship is provided with the necessary navigation charts and that its navigation equipment is maintained properly. Third mates (D.O.T. 197.133-022), the most junior-rated deck officers, act as signal officers and are in charge of all signaling equipment. They also assist in the supervi sion of cargo loading and unloading. The third mate frequently inspects the ship’s life saving equipment to be sure it is ready for use in fire, shipwreck, or other emergencies. Engine Department. Marine engineers oper ate all engines aboard ship. They also inspect the engines and other equipment and ensure that required repairs are made. They also make sure proper steam pressure and oil and water temperatures are maintained. The chief engineer (D.O.T. 197.130-010) supervises the engine department, and is responsible for the efficient operation of engines and other mechanical equipment. The chief engineer oversees the fuel consumption and operation of the ship’s main powerplant and auxiliary equipment. The first assistant engineer (D .O.T. 197.130- 010) supervises engineroom person nel and directs operations such as starting, stopping, and controlling the speed of the main engines. The first assistant engineer also oversees and inspects the lubrication of engines, pumps, generators, and other ma chinery and, with the aid of the chief engi neer, directs all types of repairs. The second assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130- 010) has charge of the boiler and associated equipment such as the water-feed system and pumps. The second assistant en gineer also supervises the cleaning of boilers. The third assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130- 010) supervises the operation and maintenance of the lubrication system and other engineroom equipment. Some third as sistant engineers are responsible for the elec trical and refrigeration systems aboard ships. Other officers. A ship keeps contact with the shore and other vessels through its ra dio officer (D.O.T. 193.262-022), who also maintains radio equipment. These officers send and receive messages by voice or Morse 448/Occupational Outlook Handbook Captain plots vessel’s course. code and monitor the emergency frequency for distress calls. They periodically receive and record time signals, weather reports, position reports, and other information. Radio officers also may maintain depth recording equipment and electronic navigation equipment. Some freighters and all passenger vessels carry pursers (D.O.T. 197.167-014). The purser, or staff officer, does the extensive paperwork that is required before a ship en ters or leaves a port. The purser prepares payrolls and assists passengers, as required. To improve the medical care aboard freight ers and facilitate U.S. Public Health Service clearance when a ship arrives in port, some pursers have been trained as physicians’ as sistants by the Staff Officers Association, a union of pursers. On passenger ships, these duties are performed by doctors and nurses. Working Conditions An officer working in the engineroom must be able to withstand high temperatures while a deck officer must be able to adapt to both bitter cold and the hot sun. The accommodations for officers aboard U.S. vessels are generally excellent. Howev er, some officers find being confined to a ship for long periods of time boring. Employment An estimated 13,000 officers were em ployed aboard U.S. oceangoing merchant vessels during 1980. Due to long vacations and other breaks in service such as those resulting from illness, about two officers are employed for every job on a ship. Nearly three-fifths of all officers were aboard freighters and most of the remainder were aboard tankers. Only a small percentage were on combination freighter-passenger vessels. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for an officer’s license in the deck or engineering departments of oceango ing vessels must meet certain legal require ments. Captains, chief and second mates, and chief and first assistant engineers must be at least 21 years old. The minimum age for third mates, third assistant engineers, and radio operators is 19. In addition, applicants must present proof of U.S. citizenship and obtain a U.S. Public Health Service certifi cate attesting to their vision, color percep tion, and general physical condition. Besides meeting legal and medical require ments, candidates must also have at least 3 years of appropriate sea experience or grad uate from an approved training program. Deck officer candidates must pass Coast Guard examinations that require extensive knowledge of navigation, cargo handling, and deck department operations. Marine en gineering officer candidates must demonstrate in-depth knowledge of propulsion systems, electricity, plumbing and steam fitting, metal shaping and assembly, and ship structure. To advance to higher ratings, officers must pass progressively more difficult examinations. For a Coast Guard license as a radio offi cer, applicants must have a first- or secondclass radiotelegraph operator’s license issued by the Federal Communications Commis sion. For a license to serve as the sole radio operator aboard a cargo vessel, the Coast Guard also requires 6 months of radio experi ence at sea. Unlike most professions, merchant marine officers do not have to meet minimum educa tion requirements. A sailor with 3 years’ ex perience in the deck or engine department may apply for either a third mate’s license or for a third assistant engineer’s license. How ever, because of the complex machinery and navigational and electronic equipment on modem ships, formal training usually is needed to pass the Coast Guard’s examina tion for these licenses. The fastest and surest way to become a well-trained officer is through an established training program. Such programs are avail able at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point, N.Y., and at six State mer chant marine academies: California Maritime Academy, Vallejo, Calif.; Great Lakes Maritime Academy, Traverse City, Mich.; Maine Maritime Academy, Castine, Maine; Massachusetts Maritime Academy, Buzzards Bay, Mass.; Texas Maritime Academy, Gal veston, Tex.; and State University of New York Maritime College, Fort Schuyler, N.Y. About 550 students graduate each year from the State schools; about one-half are trained as deck officers and one-half as marine engi neers. The U.S. Merchant Marine Academy now selects about 10 percent of the approxi mately 250 persons who enter the academy each year to be trained as “omnicompetent” officers. They are taught both navigational and technical skills so they can work in either the deck or engine department. Admission to the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy is through nomination by a member of Con gress, whereas entrance to the other acade mies is made through written application directly to the school. Most of the academies offer 4-year pro grams in nautical science or marine engineer ing, which include courses such as navigation, mathematics, electronics, propulsion systems, electrical engineering, naval architecture, lan guages, history, and shipping management, as well as practical experience at sea. After Coast Guard examinations are passed, licenses are issued for either third mate or third assistant engineer. In addition, graduates may receive commissions as ensigns in the U.S. Naval Reserve. New legislation requires that, beginning in 1986, graduates of the U.S. Merchant Ma rine Academy must serve at least 5 years in the merchant marine or the military. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/449 Because of their thorough grounding in theory and its practical application, acade my graduates are in the best position to move up to master and chief engineer rat ings. Their well-rounded education also helps qualify them for shoreside jobs such as marine superintendents, operating manag ers, design engineers, naval architects, or shipping executives. A number of trade unions in the maritime industry provide officer training. However, the number of qualified ships ’ officers gradu ating from union-sponsored schools has been reduced significantly since the end of the Vietnam War. Of the several training schools created during the 1960’s, all but the Nation al Marine Engineers’ Beneficial Association (MEBA)-operated Calhoon Engineering School in Baltimore, Md., have restricted training programs to upgrading officers al ready licensed. The Calhoon School grants a third assistant engineer’s license to about 80 graduates each year. Its 3-year program con sists of both classroom instruction and sea experience. Two years are spent at the school in Baltimore; the third year is spent aboard various merchant ships. A correspondence course is completed during the sea training phase. The classroom training consists of such courses as steam engineering, diesel engineering, electrical engineering, math, physics, chemistry, and welding. Students are provided with free room, board, medical care, and textbooks in addition to a monthly grant. Trainees must agree to serve at least 3 years in the merchant marine after the 3-year training period. A small number of unlicensed sailors who show exceptional ability are selected for union-sponsored programs of self-study which enable them to obtain either a third mate’s license or a third assistant engineer’s license. Advancement for deck and engine officers is along well-defined lines and depends pri marily upon specified sea experience, passing a Coast Guard examination, and leadership ability. Deck officers start as third mates. After 1 year’s sea service, they are eligible to take a second mate examination. A second mate may apply for a chief mate’s license after 1 year of sea service. Officers in the engine department start as third assistant en gineers. After 1 year of service, they may apply for a second assistant’s license and finally a chief engineer’s license. Job Outlook Little or no change in the employment of ships’ officers is expected through the 1980’s. From the end of World War II through the mid-1970’s, the number of vessels in our merchant marine declined steadily as owners of American ships found it advantageous to register them outside the country. In recent years, however, the size of our fleet has stabilized and is expected to increase slightly through the 1980’s because the Federal Gov ernment has taken steps to ensure that ships registered in the United States and operated by American crews are available to transport essential cargo. To maintain this capability, the Government sometimes pays the differ ence in wages if U.S. crews instead of for eign crews are used, and helps pay for the construction of ships. Some job openings will occur as a result of the need to replace experienced workers who take shoreside employment, retire, or die. Replacement needs are relatively high be cause ships’ officers are somewhat older, on the average, than workers in other occupa tions and the liberal pension plans offered by the merchant marine industry encourage early retirement. Also, some officers find they pre fer the stability of shoreside employment. Job opportunities are expected to be favor able through the 1980’s because the demand for officers is expected to roughly equal the number of graduates from officer training schools. Job opportunities for merchant marine offi cers are expected to be excellent in related maritime fields. For example, the expanded interest in offshore mineral and oil explora tion should generate a greater need for trained officers to work on oceanographic research and oil exploration vessels. Federal Government policy could alter the job outlook. On the one hand, should the Government require that a fixed proportion of imported oil or exported grains be carried in American ships—a move that would require American crews—employment opportunities could increase significantly. On the other hand, should the Government reduce subsidies to American ship owners, employment would decline. Earnings Earnings of officers depend upon their rank and the type of ship. Wages are highest on large ships. The accompanying table shows monthly base wages for officers aboard an average freighter in 1980. Addi tional payments for overtime or for assuming extra responsibilities generally average about 50 percent of base pay. For example, a sec ond mate with a monthly base pay of $2,074 may regularly earn about $3,110 each month. Officers and their dependents enjoy sub stantial pension and welfare benefits. Vaca tions range from 18 to 30 days for each 30 days of employment. Officers with 20 years of service have the option of a monthly pen sion of $325 or 40 percent of their monthly rate of pay. Those who have 25 years of service are eligible for $425 a month or 50 percent of their monthly rate. Officers forced to retire prematurely due to a permanent dis ability receive partial pensions. Comprehen sive medical care and hospitalization are provided for officers and their families through employer or union programs. The workweek aboard ship is considerably different from the workweek on shore. At sea, most officers are required to work 7 days a week. Generally, they work two 4hour watches (shifts) during every 24-hour period and have 8 hours off between each watch. Some officers work 8 hours a day, Monday through Friday. All officers are paid overtime for work over 40 hours a week. When the ship is in port, the basic workweek is 40 hours for all crewmembers. Almost all officers belong to maritime un ions. The two largest are the International Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots, representing deck officers, and the National Marine Engineers’ Beneficial Association, representing engineering officers. The Staff Officers Association and the Marine Staff Officers Association represent pursers aboard certain freighters. Radio officers are repre sented by the American Radio Association and the Radio Officers Union. In addition, a number of independent unions organize offi cers on tankers. Many officers’ unions re quire initiation fees which range from $1,000 to $5,000. Related Occupations Occupations having responsibilities and duties similar to merchant marine officers include fishing vessel captains, yacht mas ters, ship pilots, tugboat captains and mates, dredge captains and mates, ferryboat cap tains, passenger barge masters, riverboat masters, quartermasters, and barge captains. Table 1. Monthly base wages for merchant marine officers, December 1980 Occupation Base pay1 Sources of Additional Information Captain ...................................................... Chief engineer ......................................... First assistant engineer............................ First mate .................................................. Radio officer.............................................. Second assistant engineer ...................... Second m a te ............................................. Third assistant engineer.......................... Third mate ................................................ Purser ........................................................ Office of Maritime Labor and Training, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transporta tion, 400 7th Street, SW., Washington, D.C. 20590. $5,386 4,895 2,926 2,926 2,368 2,074 2,074 1,863 1,863 1,443 For general information about merchant marine officers’ jobs, write to: Information about job openings, qualifica tions for employment, wage scales, and other particulars is available from local maritime officers’ unions. If no maritime union is list ed in the local telephone directory, contact: 'East Coast wages aboard a single-screw ship of 12,000-17,000 power tons. International Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots, 39 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10006. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration. National Marine Engineers’ Beneficial Associ ation, 444 North Capitol St., Washington, D.C. 20001. 450/Occupational Outlook Handbook Merchant Marine Sailors Nature of the Work Sailors make up most of a merchant ship’s crew and do most of the manual labor. Em ployment is along craft lines with varying skill levels. Each worker is assigned to one of the following departments: Deck, engine, or steward’s. Deck D epartm ent. O r d i n a r y s e a m e n (D.O.T. 911.687-030), the entry rating in the deck department, scrub decks, coil and splice ropes, paint, clean living quarters, and do other general maintenance work. They also may relieve able seamen who steer the ship and act as lookouts to watch for other ships. A b le se a m en (D.O.T. 911.364-010) must have a thorough knowledge of all parts of the ship and be able to handle all gear and deck equipment. At times, they act as quartermas ters and steer the ship and serve as lookouts. Able seamen also are responsible for rig ging, repairing, and stowing cargo-handling and other gear. They must be able to tie common knots and handle mooring lines when the ship is docking or departing. Able seamen also are required to be familiar with fire prevention and control methods. They participate in periodic boat drills and are trained in all operations connected with launching lifeboats and liferafts. In addition to their more skilled tasks, they do general deck maintenance work similar to that done by ordinary seamen. The b o a ts w ain (D.O.T. 911.131-010), or bosun, is the highest ranking able seaman. As boss of the deck crew, the boatswain relays the deck officers’ orders and sees that these orders are carried out. The boatswain assists the chief mate in assigning work to crew members and directs general mainte nance operations such as cleaning decks and polishing metalwork. When the ship docks or anchors, the boatswain supervises the deck crew in handling the lines used for mooring. Some cargo vessels carry a d e c k u tility (D.O.T. 911.687-022) to maintain the ship’s decks under the supervision of the boatswain and determine the condition of bilges (compartments in the bottom of the hull) and do general maintenance work. hand Engine Department. The engineering staff consists of workers who have a variety of occupational specialties requiring varying de grees of skill, from the entry rating of wiper to specialized skilled jobs such as refrigerator engineer. W ip e r s (D .O .T. 699.687-014) keep the engineroom and machinery clean. Most cargo vessels carry one to three wipers. O ile r s (D.O.T. 911.584-010) lubricate me chanical equipment. They make regular rounds of ship machinery to check oil flow and pressures. Oilers also may help overhaul and repair machinery. F ir e r s -w a te r te n d e r s (D.O.T. 951.685-018) check and regulate the amount of water in the boilers, inspect gauges, and regulate fuel flow to keep steam pressure constant. They also check the oper ation of evaporators and condensers, which are used to convert salt water to fresh water. The s h ip ’s e le c tric ia n (D.O.T. 825.281014) repairs and maintains electrical equip ment, such as generators and motors. Electricians also test wiring for short circuits and remove and replace fuses and defective lights. Certain types of ships require workers who have special skills, such as re frig e ra tio n en g in e e r s (D.O.T. 950.362-014) who maintain proper temperatures in refrigerator compart ments for perishable cargoes such as meat and vegetables. Aboard ocean-going ships, general maintenance work is performed by sailors. Steward’s Department. The c h ie f s te w a r d (D.O.T. 350.137-014) supervises the prep aration and serving of meals and the upkeep of living quarters aboard ship. The chief steward also assists the c h ie f c o o k (D.O.T. 315.131-010) in planning menus and is re sponsible for ordering new supplies. The chief cook and assistant cooks prepare meals. The chief cook also supervises the other gal ley (ship’s kitchen) workers and is responsi ble for keeping the galley clean and orderly. U tility h a n d s (D.O.T. 318.687-014) and m e s s a tte n d a n ts (D.O.T. 350.677-010) com plete the crew in the steward’s department. These beginning jobs require little skill. Util ity hands carry food supplies from the store room and refrigerators, prepare vegetables, Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/451 wash cooking utensils, and scour galley equipment. Mess attendants set tables, serve meals, clean tables, wash dishes, and care for living quarters. Due to the greater use of prepackaged foods and smaller crew sizes, many new ships have reduced the number of workers in the steward’s department. For example, the chief cook and chief steward may be replaced by a combination chief steward/cook. Working Conditions A person working in an engineroom must be able to withstand high temperatures while a deck worker must be able to adapt to both bitter cold and the hot sun. Able seamen may have to stand for considerable periods at a time while serving as lookouts. Accommodations for sailors aboard U.S. vessels are generally good, but not luxurious. Meals are served in a messroom, which often doubles as a recreation room where the crew can read, write letters, play cards, and social ize. Crew members generally share quarters aboard older ships and have little privacy, but most new ships have single-berth rooms. Many sailors find the work aboard ship rou tine and boring. Employment An estimated 24,000 sailors were em ployed aboard U.S. oceangoing vessels dur ing 1980. Due to long vacations and other breaks in duty, such as illness, the number of employed sailors is about 1.5 times the num ber of jobs on ships. Over one-half of the jobs were aboard freighters, and most of the remainder were aboard tankers. Only a small percentage were on combination freighterpassenger ships. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although not required, previous sea experi ence in the Coast Guard or Navy is a useful background for entering the merchant marine. Applicants must obtain a doctor’s certificate specifying they are in good health. Applicants without previous experience at sea then must obtain a letter from a shipping company stating that, if qualified, they will be hired if a job becomes available. Those who have had ser vice at sea in the U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Guard, Military Sealift Comand, or the U.S. Army Transportation Corps may present an approved transcript of such services in place of a letter of commitment. In addition, all appli cants must register with the U.S. Coast Guard and acquire from it universal identification papers called a merchant mariner’s document. The document, however, does not guarantee a job. It merely qualifies a person to be consid ered for a job when the supply of regular workers has been exhausted. For commercial vessels, the National Maritime Union and the Seafarers’ Interna tional Union operate employment offices along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf Coasts and the Great Lakes, and the Sailors’ Union of the Pacific operates in many ports on the West Coast. For Government-operated ships, Typical crew aboard a modem, automated ship Deck Department C hief M ate Second M ate Third M ates Boatswain Captain Able-bodied Seamen Radio Officer Steward’s Department Steward Cook ^ Assistant Cook Engine Department Br lt (2 ) r f\ ita n t(2 ) ^ Third Assistants I Mess Attendants (£ (i Utility Hand Deck Engine Room Mechanics Maintenance Person Officers (11) Other Crew Members (15) the Navy’s Military Sealift Command (MSC) has employment offices in Bayonne, N.J. and Oakland, Calif. Jobseekers are given shipping cards when they register at the employment offices. When shipping companies send job orders to the employment office, sailors who have been unemployed the longest get first prefer ence on any jobs for which they are quali fied. Inexperienced applicants are likely to have difficulty getting jobs at the present time because the number of experienced workers exceeds the number of job openings. Applicants must be present at the employ ment office when jobs are announced and may lose their places if they are not present or have turned down three job offers. A sailor advances in the deck and engine departments by serving a designated period in a rating, and by successfully completing a Coast Guard examination that tests ability to use and maintain equipment. For example, after serving a minimum of 1 year aboard an oceangoing vessel, an ordinary seaman may apply to the Coast Guard for limited endorse ment as an able seaman. However, due to the shortage of jobs, maritime unions in recent years have required that seamen take all ac cumulated vacation time after 6 or 7 months of sea duty. As a result, it now generally takes at least 22 months for an ordinary sea men to obtain an able seaman’s certificate. For full endorsement, applicants must be at least 19 years of age and have passed an examination that tests their knowledge of sea manship and ability to carry out all the duties required of able seamen. Able seamen who have supervisory ability may advance to boatswain after years of service. Most training programs in the industry are designed to help experienced workers up grade their ratings. Upgrading courses for sailors are offered by the Seafarers’ Interna tional Union, the National Maritime Union, and a number of other organizations. A small number of persons who show ex ceptional ability are selected for union-spon sored programs of self-study which enable unlicensed sailors to advance to the licensed officer ranks as either third mate or third assistant engineer. A sailor advances in the steward’s depart ment by serving a designated period in a rating and by successfully completing job advancement training. A mess attendant or utility hand can advance to third cook, to cook-baker, to chief cook, and finally to chief steward. The Seafarers’ International Union and the National Maritime Union op erate programs which train individuals for jobs in the steward’s department. Job Outlook Employment of merchant marine sailors is expected to decline through the 1980’s. Some job openings, however, will arise each year due to the need to replace experienced sailors who retire, die, or quit the sea for other reasons. Competition for these positions is expected to be keen because the number of people seeking jobs as sailors probably will exceed openings. Most openings will be filled by experienced sailors who are unem ployed; very few inexperienced applicants are expected to get jobs. Employment opportunities in the U.S. Merchant Marine are directly related to the number of American ships—and to the num ber of sailors required to operate each ship. At the end of World War II, the United States possessed the largest merchant marine fleet ever assembled. Since then, however, the number of ships declined until recently as some owners transferred their ship’s registra tion outside the country. The number of American ships is expected to increase slightly through the 1980’s be cause the Federal Government has taken steps to insure that ships registered in the United States and operated by American crews are available to transport essential car 452/Occupational Outlook Handbook go. To maintain this capability, the Govern ment pays the difference in wages to a com pany if they use American crews, rather than foreign crews, and helps pay for the con struction or purchase of new merchant ships. Despite the expected increase in the size of our fleet, employment of sailors is expected to decline because new ships are operated with smaller crews. For example, older, nonautomated vessels generally carry a crew of twelve sailors in the engineering department, whereas new, automated ships only carry four—three deck engine mechanics and one wiper. Deck engine mechanics replace oilers, firer-watertenders, and electricians. Older freighters and tankers customarily employ three ordinary seamen, whereas these jobs have been eliminated on some newer ships. In addition, mechanization of tasks has elimi nated jobs for carpenters, and the use of prepackaged food and smaller crew sizes have reduced the number of cooks and stew ards needed. Some job opportunities for merchant marine sailors are expected in related maritime fields. For example, the expanded interest in offshore mineral and oil exploration should generate some demand for sailors to work on oceanogra phic research and oil exploration vessels. Federal Government policy could alter the job outlook. Employment opportunities may improve if the Government requires that a fixed proportion of imported oil or exported grains be carried in American ships—a move that would require more American ships. Conversely, should the Government reduce subsidies to American shipowners, employ ment would decline. Earnings Crew members of American merchant ships enjoy excellent pay and fringe benefits. Earnings depend on job assignments and type of vessel. Basic monthly pay for a crosssection of ratings on a typical freighter in 1980 is shown in the accompanying table. about 50 percent of base wages. For exam ple, an oiler with a monthly base pay of $1,120 regularly earns about $1,680 each month. Liberal employer-financed fringe benefits are provided. Vacations range from 5 to 15 days for each 30 days of employment. Sail ors may retire on pensions after 20 years of service. Sailors and their dependents are cov ered by comprehensive medical care and hos pitalization programs. The workweek aboard ship is considerably different from the workweek on shore. At sea, most sailors are required to work 7 days a week. Generally, they work two 4-hour watches (shifts) during every 24-hour period and have 8 hours off between each watch. Some sailors are day workers. They work 8 hours a day, Monday through Friday. All sailors are paid overtime for work over 40 hours a week. When the ship is in port, the basic workweek is 40 hours for all crew members. Sailors are represented by a number of labor organizations; the two largest are the National Maritime Union of North America and the Seafarers’ International Union of North America. Related Occupations Other occupations involved with helping to operate and maintain a vessel include ferry boat operators, hatchtenders, boat loaders, barge hands, ferryboat deck hands, pilot-boat deckhands, and tugboat deckhands. Sources of Additional Information For general information about merchant marine sailors’ jobs, write to: Office of Maritime Labor and Training, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transporta tion, 400 7th Street, SW., Washington, D.C. 20590. Information about job openings, qualifica tions for employment, wage scales, and other particulars is available from local maritime unions. If no maritime union is listed in the local telephone directory , contact: National Maritime Union of North America, 346 West 17th St., New York, N.Y. 10011. Table 1. Monthly base wages for merchant marine sailors, December 1980 Occupation Base pay1 Seafarers’ International Union of North America, 675 Fourth Ave., Brooklyn, N.Y. 11232. Electrician.................................................. Chief stew ard........................................... Carpenter.................................................... Chief baker............................................... Deck utility hand ..................................... Able seam an............................................. Firer-watertender ..................................... Oiler .......................................................... Ordinary seaman ..................................... Mess attendant/utility hand .................... Operating Engineers (Construction Machinery Operators)_________ $1,732 1,472 1,354 1,275 1,251 1,121 1,120 1,120 874 868 ‘East Coast wages aboard a single-screw ship of 12,000-17,000 power tons. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration. Monthly wages are supplemented by pre mium pay for overtime and other factors. On the average, premium earnings are equal to (D .O .T. 850.662-010, -014, .663-014, -018, and -022; .683 exc. -014, 851.663-010; 853.663-010, -014, and -022; .683-010, -014, and -018; 859.362-010, .682-010, -014, and -018; .683 exc. -018; 869.683-010, -014, and -018; 921.663-014, -030, -054, -058,-062) Nature of the Work Lifting and positioning a quarter-ton pane of glass by crane into an 8-foot by 10-foot window opening 10 stories above the ground require considerable skill. At the crane’s controls is an operating engineer. Operating engineers also work the controls of bulldozers, trench excavators, paving machines, and many other types of special ized machinery used at construction sites. Some workers know how to operate many kinds of machines; other workers, only a few. Because the skills and training re quired vary, operating engineers usually are classified by the type of machines they op erate. The following paragraphs discuss the duties of operators of three commonly used types of equipment: Tower cranes, bulldoz ers, and air compressors. Tower cranes are used to lift and move building materials around a construction site. The crane operator climbs a ladder inside the crane’s mast—a tall steel tower—to the con trol booth that is located beneath the crane’s boom—a long steel arm perpendicular to the mast. The operator must accurately judge distances and heights and push or pull a number of buttons, levers, and pedals in proper sequence to pick up and deliver mate rials. These controls rotate the boom around the mast, and raise and lower a cable with a hook that lifts heavy objects. At times, the operator may not see either the pickup or delivery point and must follow the hand or flag signals and radio commands of another worker. Bulldozers gouge out, level, and distribute earth, and remove trees, rocks, and debris from land before building starts. Bulldozer operators generally handle fewer controls than crane operators, and since the “dozer” operator works at ground level, estimating distances is less of a problem. The operator raises or lowers the “blade” attached to the front of the “dozer” by push ing a button or by pushing or pulling a lever. To clear land, a bulldozer operator lowers the blade to the ground, shifts to forward gear and presses a pedal for power, causing the blade to scrape and level the ground. The operator will back up and repeat the process until the land is cleared and graded. Air-compressor operators tend machines that take in air and force it through a a narrow hose to run special “air” tools, such as jackhammers. Before starting an air com pressor, the operator checks for tight hose connections and may manually pump air through the compressor to check for leaks. The operator also makes sure the compressor has fuel and water. The operator then starts the air compressor and allows it to build sufficient pressure to operate efficiently. While the compressor is running, the opera tor periodically checks fuel, water, and pres sure levels. At the end of the workday, the operator turns the compressor off and ‘‘bleeds off” pressure in the air hose by opening an air pressure release valve. This allows an easy start the next time the compressor is to be used. Operating engineer helpers, sometimes called “oilers,” make sure the machines have Transportation and Material Moving Occupations/453 gas and oil and are properly lubricated. Help ers also make minor repairs and adjustments. Experienced operators who are working alone also perform these tasks. Major re pairs, however, usually are made by heavyequipment mechanics. Working Conditions Operating engineers work outdoors, in both hot and cold weather. However, they do not work in rain or snow. Operating some machines, particularly bulldozers and some types of scrapers, is physically tiring because the constant movement of the machine shakes or jolts the operator. Also, most machines are noisy. In addition, operating engineers can be injured in accidents involving the equipment. Tower crane operators, for exam ple, may fall as they climb to or from the crane’s control booth. Employment Approximately 270,000 operating engi neers were employed in 1980. Many worked for general building contractors in highway, dam, airport, and other large-scale construc tion projects. Others worked for utility com panies, manufacturers, and other business firms that do their own construction work, as well as State and local highway and public works departments. Less than one-tenth were self-employed, a smaller proportion than in most building trades. Operating engineers are employed in every section of the country, both in large cities and in small towns. Some work in remote locations on construction projects, such as highways and dams. operate, maintain, and repair various types of construction equipment and machinery. In the classroom, apprentices receive instruction in engine operation and repair, cable splic ing, hydraulics, welding, and safety and first aid. Employers prefer to hire high school graduates who are at least 18 years old. Courses in driver education and automobile mechanics and experience in operating trac tors and other farm machinery are helpful. A number of private vocational schools offer instruction in the operation of certain types of construction equipment. Completion of such a program may help a person get a job as a trainee or apprentice. However, per sons considering such training should check the reputation of the school among construc tion employers in the area. Operating engineers need to be alert and have a good sense of balance as well as good eye-hand-foot coordination and physical strength. Advancement for operating engineers gen erally is limited to increases in pay. Some operating engineers may become supervisors. Job Outlook Job opportunities for operating engineers should be plentiful over the long run. Em ployment in this occupation is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Population and business growth will lead to the con struction of more factories, houses, office buildings, and other structures. More operat ing engineers also will be needed in mainte nance work on roads and highways. Besides the job openings created by in creased demand for operating engineers, many openings will arise as experienced workers transfer to other occupations, retire or die. Jobs should be easiest to find during spring and summer since construction picks up as the weather becomes warmer. Because construction activity is sensitive to ups and downs in the economy, the number of job openings may fluctuate from year to year. When construction activity declines, howev er, operating engineers who are laid off may be able to find jobs in other industries. Earnings Hourly rates for all operating engineers ranged from $11 to $14 in 1980. These rates are about twice the average for all nonsupervisory and production workers in private industry, except farming. Persons operating light equipment such as air compressors have slightly lower wages. Operating engineers working in less populated areas earn less. Annual earnings generally are lower than hourly wage rates would indicate because the annual number of hours worked can be ad versely affected by poor weather and fluctu ations in construction activity. Hourly wage rates for apprentices start at about 70 percent of the full rate paid to experienced workers and increase periodically. Many operating engineers are members of the International Union of Operating Engi neers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most individuals learn the trade by begin ning as truckdrivers or helpers. They may do simple tasks such as cleaning, greasing, and starting machines. Then, under an experi enced operator, they learn to repair and oper ate light equipment. Later, they may learn to operate larger equipment such as bulldozers and cranes. Most training authorities recom mend completion of a 3-year formal appren ticeship as the best way to become an operating engineer. Since apprentices learn to operate a variety of machines, they have bet ter job opportunities. The apprenticeship program consists of at least 3 years of on-the-job training and 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. The programs are administered by unionmanagement committees of the International Union of Operating Engineers and the Asso ciated General Contractors of America, and by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors. Apprentices are classified into one of three groups: Universal equipment operators, grade and paving operators, and plant equipment operators. On the job, trainees are taught to To grade land, operating engineers must handle the controls precisely. 454/Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Agriculture, mining, manufacturing, pub lic utilities, and transportation are other in dustries that use a lot of specialized ma chinery to move earth and materials. Other occupations in which workers operate such equipment include: bridge-or-gantry-crane operators, coke loaders, continuous mining machine operators, conveyor operators, der rick operators, locomotive-crane operators, longwall mining machine tenders, oil well perforator operators, roof bolters, stevedores, and yarding engineers. Sources of Additional Information For further information about apprentice ships or work opportunities in this occupa tion, contact a local of the International Union of Operating Engineers; a local ap prenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency. In addi tion, the local office of the State employment service may provide information about ap prenticeship and other programs that provide training opportunities. For general information about the work of operating engineers, contact; Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20036. Associated Builders and Contractors, 444 N. Cap itol St., Suite 409, Washington, D.C. 20001. Helpers, Handlers, Equipment Cleaners, and Laborers Helpers, handlers, equipment cleaners, and laborers assist skilled workers and per form the routine tasks required to complete a project. These workers are employed in near ly every industry and geographic area of the Nation. Helpers assist machine operators and tenders who work with metal, wood, plastic, textiles, and other materials. Some helpers aid workers who fabricate, assemble, and hand finish manufactured goods. Others help workers who inspect, test, examine, and sample raw materials and finished products. Mechanic and repairer helpers aid in adjust ing, maintaining, and repairing tools, equip ment, and machines. In the construction trades, helpers and laborers work with brick layers, carpenters, electricians, painters, sur veyors, and others to build and maintain buildings, roads, bridges, and other projects. Still other helpers assist in drilling oil wells, blasting, and cutting materials to be mined. Most handlers, equipment cleaners, and laborers manually lift and carry materials in production activities. Garbage collectors gather refuse for disposal. Stevedores load and unload ships’ cargoes. Stock handlers sort and place tools, equipment, and other materials. Baggers package groceries. Ma chine feeders deposit or remove materials from machines or equipment. Fuel pump attendants and lubricators fill gas tanks, check engine oil and air pressure in tires, clean windshields, and do other routine ser vices on cars and trucks in garages and gasoline service stations. Parking lot atten dants park cars at lots and garages. Many industries need cleaners to help maintain the appearance and function of vehicles and equipment. Other workers pack materials for shipment and storage. Millions of workers are employed as help ers, handlers, equipment cleaners, and labor ers. The following tabulation provides 1980 employment estimates for several of the larg er occupations in this cluster. Helper, trades ........................................... Production packager ................................. Fuel pump attendant and lubricator . . . Shipping packer......................................... B agger........................................................... Garbage collector....................................... Vehicle cleaner ......................................... Surveyor helper ......................................... Rotary drill operator h elp er.................... 955,000 609,000 401,000 346,000 235,000 117,000 116,000 56,000 40,000 Because their jobs require little skill, helpers, handlers, equipment cleaners, and laborers have minimal education require ments. They usually leant their duties on the job or in short training sessions given by die employer. These workers must be in excellent phys ical health since most jobs require frequent bending, stooping, and heavy lifting. Jobs may require outdoor work, sometimes in un comfortable weather conditions. Occupation al hazards include cuts, bums, and sore or strained muscles. Jobs as helpers, handlers, equipment cleaners, and laborers are expected to be plentiful due to the very high turnover rate in these occupations. However, some of these workers may be laid off during recessions. This is particularly common among construc tion laborers and others working in industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. Also, some workers may lose their jobs as routine tasks are mechanized. Many helpers, handlers, equipment clean ers, and laborers earn relatively low wages. Supervisors and workers who belong to un ions, however, can expect to earn higher wages. Many workers, such as construction laborers, do not earn any wages when weather or economic conditions prevent them from working. Detailed information on the nature of the work, employment, training requirements, job oudook, earnings, and working condi tions for construction laborers—the largest of the helper, handler, equipment cleaner, and laborer occupations—is presented in the fol lowing statement. Construction Laborers Nature of the Work Construction laborers provide much of the routine physical labor on all types of con struction and demolition projects. They erect and dismantle scaffolding, set braces to sup port the sides of excavations, and clean up rubble and debris. Laborers also help unload and deliver materials, machinery, and equip ment to carpenters, masons, and other con struction workers. Because they perform a wide variety of jobs, laborers are employed during all phases of a construction project. Some construction laborers have job titles that indicate the kinds of work they do. Bricklayers’ tenders and plasterers’ tenders, both commonly known as hod carriers, help bricklayers and plasterers by mixing and sup plying materials, setting up and moving port able scaffolding, and providing many other services. Hod carriers must be familiar with the work of bricklayers and plasterers and know the materials and tools they use. Some hod carriers also help cement masons. Another group of laborers, pipelayers, lay sewer and other large, nonmetal pipe and seal connections with concrete and other materials. Recent years have seen much mechaniza tion of laborers’ tasks. Thus, laborers now may operate such things as motorized lifts and ditch-diggers of the “walk-behind” vari ety, various kinds of small mechanical hoists, as well as laser beam equipment to align and grade ditches and tunnels. Although some construction laborers’ jobs require only a few basic skills, many jobs require training and experience, as well as a broad knowledge of construction methods, materials, and operations. Rock blasting, rock drilling, and tunnel construction are examples of work in which “know-how” is important. Laborers who work with explosives must know the effects of different explosive charges under varying rock conditions to prevent in jury and property damage. Laborers do almost all the work in the boring and mining of a tunnel, including operations that workers in other trades would handle for a job above ground. Working Conditions Construction work is physically strenuous, since it requires frequent bending, stooping, climbing, and heavy lifting. Much of the work is performed outdoors. Construction la borers, like almost all other workers in con struction occupations, are subject to falls from scaffolds; cuts, bums, and abrasions from various tools and equipment; and sore or strained muscles from heavy lifting. Employment Over 1 million workers were employed as construction laborers in 1980. Most of them worked for construction contractors, State and city public works and highway depart ments, and public utility companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Little formal training is needed to get a job as a construction laborer. Generally, ap plicants must be at least 18 years old and in good physical condition. Many new employees transfer from lower paying occupations such as farm laborer or janitor. Many other persons take jobs as con- 455 456/Occupational Outlook Handbook common among these workers when the level falls. Over the long run, however, growth in population and economic activity will spur construction. Laborers will be needed to meet the demand for moving materials, mix ing and pouring concrete, and helping craft workers, particularly on large projects such as bridges, dams, high-rise buildings, and power plants. Earnings According to a survey of cities with at least 100,000 inhabitants, union wage rates for construction helpers and laborers aver aged $9.80 an hour in 1980, compared with $6.66 an hour for all production and nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Wage rates were generally highest in the West and lowest in the South. Annual earnings for construction laborers generally are lower than hourly rates would indicate because poor weather and fluctuations in construction activity may adversely affect the number of hours they can work a year. Many construction laborers are members of the Laborers ’ International Union of North America. Related Occupations Erecting scaffolding is one of many jobs performed by construction laborers. struction laborers because no previous experi ence is required or the work schedule does not interfere with school, another job, or other activities. Beginners’ jobs are usually of the simplest type, such as unloading trucks and digging ditches. As workers gain experience, job as signments become more complex. Many tasks require skills too complex for on-the-job training. As a result, contractors and unions have established 4- to 8-week formal training programs in many States to teach basic construction concepts, safety practices, and machinery operation. Some lo cales offer training to help experienced labor ers keep abreast of technological advances. In assisting skilled craft workers, construc tion laborers combine strength, willingness to learn, and the ability to follow directions. Other occupations which require similar attri butes are blacksmith helpers, dock hands, material handlers, quarry workers, and sand blasters. Job Outlook A large number of job openings for con struction laborers are expected annually through the 1980’s. Although employment growth is expected to be about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, the overwhelming majority of job openings will result from the occupation’s high turnover rate. Some laborers acquire informally on the job the minimum skills that enable them to move into craft jobs such as carpenter or bricklayer. Employment of construction laborers is highly sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy, particularly to the level of con struction activity. Consequently, layoffs are Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities, contact local building or construction con tractors, local construction associations, a lo cal of the Laborers’ International Union of North America, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about the work of construction laborers, contact: Laborers’ International Union of North America, 905 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Laborers’-Associated General Contractors’ Educa tion and Training Fund, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW„ Suite 909, Washington, D.C. 20036. Military Occupations The main purpose of the Armed Forces— the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard—is national defense. The Army prepares for land-based defense, while the Air Force’s mission is air and space de fense. The Navy organizes and trains forces for sea-based activities. The Marine Corps prepares for land and sea actions in support of naval operations. The Coast Guard, under the Department of Transportation (except in wartime, when it serves the Navy), has re sponsibility for enforcing Federal maritime laws and conducting rescues of distressed vessels and aircraft. In 1980, nearly 2.1 million persons were on active duty in the Armed Forces—about 777,000 in the Army; 558,000 in the Air Force; 527,000 in the Navy; 188,000 in the Marine Corps; and 39,000 in the Coast Guard. In addition, about 2.2 million persons were in reserve units. Military personnel are stationed throughout the United States and in many countries around the world. In the United States, the largest numbers are stationed in California, followed by Texas, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and the Washington, D.C. metro politan area. About 490,000 are stationed outside the United States. Over 300,000 of these are stationed in Europe (mainly in Ger many); large numbers also are in the Western Pacific area. Although the number of jobs in the Armed Forces is not expected to increase significant ly through the 1980’s, opportunities for those interested in entering military occupations should be excellent. Each year thousands of persons are recruited and trained to replace those who complete their enlistment or retire. Military personnel enjoy more job security than their civilian counterparts. Satisfactory job performance generally assures one of steady employment and earnings. Occupations in the Military The range of occupations in the military is almost as wide as in civilian life. Jobs in clude clerical and administrative work, skilled construction trades, electrical and electronic occupations, auto repair, and hun dreds of other specialties requiring varied amounts of education and training. Each year the Armed Forces give hundreds of thou sands of men and women basic and advanced training that is transferable from military to civilian careers. A list of major job categories for enlisted personnel is presented below. — Administration. — Clerical. — Data processing. — Accounting, finance, and disbursing. —Supply and logistics. — Religious, morale, and welfare. —Information and education. Electrical and Mechanical Equipment Repairers: —Aircraft. — Automotive. — Wire communications. — Missiles, mechanical and electrical. — Armament and munitions. — Shipboard propulsion. — Power-generating equipment. — Precision equipment. — Aircraft launch equipment. — Other mechanical and electrical equipment. Craft Workers: — Metalworking. — Construction. — Utilities. — Construction equipment operation. — Lithography. —Industrial gas and fuel production. — Fabric, leather and rubber. — Firefighting and damage control. — Other crafts. Service and Supply Handlers: — Food service. — Motor transport. — Material receipt, storage, and issue. — Law enforcement. — Military police. — Personal service. — Auxiliary labor. — Forward area equipment support. Infantry, Gun Crews, and Seamanship Specialists: —Sonar equipment. —Nuclear weapons equipment. —ADP computers. —Teletype and cryptographic equipment. —Other electronic equipment. Communications and Intelligence Specialists: —Radio and radio code. —Sonar. —Radar and air traffic control. —Signal intelligence/electronic warfare. —Intelligence. —Communications center operations. —Combat operations control. Medical and Dental Specialists: —Medical care. —Technical medical services. —Related medical services. —Dental care. —Infantry. — Armor and amphibious. — Combat engineering. — Artillery/gunnery, rockets, and missiles. — Air crew. — Seamanship. —Installation security. Electronic Equipment Repairers: Functional Support and Administration Workers: — Radio/radar. — Personnel. — Missile guidance, control, and checkout. Seaman stands watch aboard a destroyer. — Fire control electronic systems. Other Technical and Allied Specialists: —Photography. —Mapping, surveying, drafting, and illustrating. —Weather. —Ordnance disposal and diving. —Scientific and engineering aides. —Musicians. Although many people make the Armed Forces a career, some plan to use the skills and training obtained in military service in civilian jobs. A brief discussion of the rela- 457 458/Occupational Outlook Handbook tion of each military job category to civilian occupations follows. Most private businesses and government agencies require the same basic skills that are needed forfu n c tio n a l su p p o r t a n d a d m in is tr a tio n jobs in military service. Many civilian repairer jobs rely on the same basic theories and advanced trouble shooting techniques as those used in military jobs as e le c tr ic a l a n d m ec h a n ic a l e q u ip m e n t r e p a i r e r s . In some fields, however, additional civilian training may be needed. Civilian jobs similar to the military’s c ra ft w o rk e rs usually require completion of an ap prenticeship program. Although military training and experience will not enable a veteran to forego a civilian apprenticeship, many programs give credit for skills acquired in the service. Many jobs as s e r v ic e a n d su p p ly h a n d lers are identical to those in civilian life, and military experience is helpful in obtaining similar civilian employment. Most jobs in the in fa n try, gu n c re w s, a n d sea m a n sh ip s p e c ia lis ts group are unique to the Armed Forces. This work exper ience, however, may help develop leader ship and supervisory skills for future civilian employment. Although e le c tr o n ic e q u ip m e n t r e p a ire rs generally maintain and repair specialized military equipment, most training and experi Technician checks an aircraft’s fuel supply. ence gained can relate to civilian occupa tions, such as electronics technician, aircraft instrument mechanic, or radar and radio re pairer. The service-trained specialist may need additional training on specialized equip ment to gain journey worker status in civilian employment. Again, credit sometimes is giv en in an apprenticeship program for skills acquired in the service. Some c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d in te llig e n c e s p e , such as sonar, radar, and radio opera tors, may transfer their skills to civilian jobs. In general, however, these military jobs have very few or no civilian counterparts. c ia lists After leaving the military, many servicetrained m e d ic a l a n d d e n ta l s p e c ia lis ts are qualified to take certification examinations for entry into civilian jobs. Civilian occupations in which service-trained individuals can be come certified include: Physicians’ assistants; laboratory technicians; emergency medical technicians; medical technologists; dental as sistants; physical therapists; and nurses. (States allow service-trained personnel to take the Licensed Practical Nurse Examination; a few, the Registered Nurse Examination.) O th e r tec h n ic a l a n d a llie d s p e c ia lis ts in clude a wide range of jobs. Although many have a civilian parallel, such as photographer, meteorologist, and musician, others provide skills with limited demand in the civilian sector, such as ordnance disposal and diving. Working Conditions Military life is more disciplined and regi mented than civilian life. There are dress and grooming requirements. Certain military for malities, such as saluting superior officers, and special military laws must be followed. Hours and working conditions vary substan tially in the wide range of jobs found in military service. Most military personnel usually work 8 hours a day, 5 or 5-1/2 days a week. Some assignments, however, require night and week end work, or require persons to be on call at all hours. Some jobs—even in non-combat situa tions—are more hazardous than others. Per sons with such assignments normally receive additional compensation. Enlistment, Training, and Promotion G e n e r a l e n lis tm e n t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . Al though specific enlistment requirements for each service or enlistment option within a particular service may vary, all branches have certain general qualifications. Enlistees may be either single or married, but they must be between the ages of 17 and 35. All branches prefer high school graduation or its equivalent and require it for certain enlistment options. Both a written examina tion (Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery) and a physical examination are required. E n listm en t o p t io n s . A variety of enlistment options, each involving different combina tions of active and reserve duty, is available. Most active duty programs range from 3 to 6 years, with 3- and 4-year enlistments the most common. Selection depends on the indi vidual’s general and technical aptitudes and personal preference as well as the needs of the service. Women are now eligible to enter 95 per cent of all military specialties. Only fields involving combat duty are excluded. People planning to apply the skills gained through military training to a civilian career should obtain certain information before choosing a military occupation. First, they should determine how good the prospects are for civilian employment in jobs related to the military specialty which interests them. Sec ond, they should know the prerequisites for the related civilian job. Many occupations require licensing certification, or a minimum level of education. Those who are interested should find out whether military training is sufficient to enter the field or, if not, what additional training will be required. Other H a n d b o o k statements give much in formation about the job outlook for civilian occupations for which military training is helpful. Additional information often can be obtained from schools, unions, trade associ ations, and other organizations in the field of interest, or from a school counselor. By find ing this information before choosing a specif ic military occupation, young people entering the Armed Forces will help insure that the type of training they obtain will fit their career plans. Military Occupations/459 Training programs for enlisted personnel. After a 6- to 11-week basic training period, depending on the service branch, most re cruits enter formal classroom training to pre pare for a specialized field of work. The remainder receive on-the-job training at their first duty assignment. For those not assigned directly to schools, formal classroom training follows on-the-job training. After initial or advanced training, recruits are sent to their service assignment. In addition to on-duty training, military personnel may choose from a variety of edu cational programs. Most military installations have a tuition assistance program for person nel who wish to take courses during off-duty hours. Each service branch also offers programs for full-time education, and provides full pay, allowances, tuition, and related fees. Courses also are available to help service personnel earn their high school equivalency diplomas. In addition, programs are being instituted to allow credit for military training courses towards associate or baccalaureate college degrees. Other programs enable en listed personnel to take college courses and additional military training to become com missioned officers. Officer training. Officer training in the Armed Forces is provided through the Feder al Service Academies (Naval, Air Force, Military, and Coast Guard); the Reserve Of ficer Training Corps (ROTC); Officer Can didate School (OCS); the National Guard (State Officer Candidate School programs); and other programs. Federal Service Academies provide a 4year college program leading to a bachelor of science degree. The midshipman or cadet is provided free room and board, tuition, medi cal care, and monthly allowance. Graduates receive regular commissions and have a 5year active duty obligation. To become a candidate for appointment as a midshipman or cadet in the Naval, Air Force, or Military Academy, most applicants obtain a nomination from an authorized source (usually a member of Congress). Can didates do not need to know a member of Congress personally to request a nomination. Nominees must have an academic record of the requisite quality, college aptitude test scores above an established minimum, and recommendations from teachers or school of ficials; they also must pass a medical exami nation. Appointments are made from eligible nominees according to personal preference of the nominating authority and by a competi tive system based on the nominees’ qualifica tions. Appointments to the Coast Guard Acade my are made on a competitive basis. A nomination is not required. ROTC programs train students in about 500 Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force units at participating colleges and uni versities. Trainees take 2 to 5 hours of mili tary instruction a week in addition to regular college courses. The Armed Forces train personnel in hundreds of different types of jobs. Students in the last 2 years of a ROTC program and all those on ROTC scholarships receive a monthly allowance while attending school and additional pay for summer train ing. After graduation, they serve as officers on active duty for a stipulated period of time. College graduates can earn a commission in the Armed Forces through OCS Programs in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and National Guard. Persons trained in health professions may qualify for direct appointment as officers. Financial assistance is available for students training in some fields. Direct appointments also are available for those qualified to serve in other special duties, such as the judge advocate general (legal) or chaplain corps. Flight training is available to commissioned officers in each branch of the Armed Forces. Promotion opportunities. Each service has different criteria for promoting personnel. Generally, however, new enlistees are pro moted from the first to the third level within the first year. Subsequent promotions are based on a more competitive system. Criteria for promotion may include time in service and grade, proficiency in assigned duties, the evaluation and recommendation of the com manding officer, and written examinations. Earnings, Allowances, and Benefits In addition to basic pay, military personnel receive free room and board (or a living allowance), medical and dental care, a mili tary clothing allowance, military supermarket and department store shopping privileges, use of recreational facilities, 30 days of paid va cation a year, and travel opportunities. The pay grades for enlisted E-l to E-9. The pay grades sioned officers are 0-1 to 0-10. examples of military pay and personnel are for commis Table 1 gives allowances. Table 1. Regular military compensation1by grade for active members with less than 2 years of service, 1980 Pay grade Compensation Enlisted members E-l .......... $ 9,399 E-2 .......... 10,243 E-3 .......... 10,777 E-4 .......... 11,544 E-5 .......... 12,533 E-6 .......... 14,011 Commissioned officers: O-l .................................. 0 - 2 .................................. 0 - 3 .................................. 0-4 .................................. 15,624 18,373 21,085 22,898 'Includes basic pay and basic allowances for quarters and food. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense. 460/Occupational Outlook Handbook Special pay generally is awarded for un usually demanding or hazardous duties, as signments to certain areas outside the continental United States, and outstanding proficiency in the performance of duty. Military personnel are eligible for retire ment benefits after 20 years of service. Athletic and other recreational facilities— such as libraries, gymnasiums, tennis courts, golf courses, and movies—are available on most military installations. Help with person al or financial problems is available from personal affairs officers, legal assistance offi cers, and chaplains, as well as supporting agencies. Veterans’ benefits. The Veterans Admin istration (VA) provides numerous benefits to those who have served in the Armed Forces. Veterans are given care in a VA hospital for service-connected disabilities; those with other medical problems can be given care if they are unable to pay the cost of hospitalization elsewhere. Veterans are eligible for certain loans, including home loans. Veterans, regardless of health, can convert a military life insurance policy to an individual policy with any participat ing company in the veteran’s State of resi dence. In addition, job counseling, testing, and placement services are available. Veterans who participated in the Veterans’ Educational Assistance Program (VEAP) may receive educational benefits. Under this program, Armed Forces personnel may elect to save from $25 to $100 a month for a maximum of 36 months towards their future education. The Government will put in $2 for every $ 1 contributed by the service mem ber, until the combined contributions reach a maximum of $8,100. This sum becomes the service member’s fund. Upon separation from active duty, the fund can be used to finance an education at any VA-approved institution. VA-approved schools include vo cational, correspondence, business, technical, and flight training schools; community and junior colleges; and colleges and universities. Information on educational and other veterans’ benefits is available from offices located in each State, the District of Colum bia, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Additional Sources of Information Each of the military services publishes handbooks and pamphlets that describe en trance requirements, training and advance ment opportunities, and other aspects of military careers. These publications are avail able at all recruiting stations, most State em ployment service offices, and in high schools, colleges, and public libraries. For additional information, write to: U.S. Army Recruiting Command, Fort Sheridan, 111. 60037. USAF Recruiting Service, Directorate of Recruit ing Operations, Randolph Air Force Base, Tex. 78148. Director, Personnel Procurement Division, Head quarters, U.S. Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. 20380. Navy Opportunity Information Center, P.O. Box 2000, Pelham Manor, N.Y. 10803. Commandant, (G-PMR), U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. 20590. Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Index Dictionary o f Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Fourth E d ition num bers referen ced in the o ccu p ation al statem en ts are listed in colu m n 1. N u m b ers rep resenting the c la ssific a tio n structure o f the 1 9 8 0 Standard Occupational Classification Manual (S.O.C.) — up on w h ich the Handbook’s clu sterin g arrangem ent is b ased — are listed alo n g sid e the D.O.T. n u m b er(s) to w h ich they correspon d. D.O.T. Number 001.061-010 -018 001.261 002.061 002.151 SOC Code 161 161 372 1622 421 002.167 002.261-010 003.061 003.151 1633 421 003.161 3711 003.167 through .187 003.167-030 1633 -034 -062 003.261-010 003.281 00S.061 through .167 005.281 006.061 006.151 006.261 1622 1633 1633 1636 3711 372 1628 372 1623 3719 007.061-010 through 1635 -022 -026 -034 1635 421 007.151 007.161-018 -022 -026 -030 -034 007.167-014 -022 007.181-010 007.261 through .281 008.061 008.151 008.167 372 1635 3713 3713 1635 1635 1635 3713 372 1626 421 1626 008.261-010 010.061-014 -018 -022 3719 1624 1625 1624 -026 010.151.010 1624 421 010.161.010 1625 SO C D.O.T. Title Architect..................................... Landscape architect ..................... Drafters....................................... Aerospace engineers..................... Sales engineer, aeronautical products................................... Aerospace engineers..................... Drafter, aeronautical..................... Electrical engineers ..................... Sales engineer, electrical products................................... Engineering and science technicians................................ Electrical engineers ..................... Engineer-in-charge, studio operations ................................ Engineer-in-charge, studio transmitter................................ Systems engineer, electronic data processing....................... . Instrumentation technician............ Drafters....................................... Civil engineers ............................ Page 51 53 222 58 58 58 222 62 62 223 62 221 221 72 223 222 62 Drafters....................................... Ceramic engineers ....................... Sales engineer, ceramic products .. Engineering and science technicians.............................. Mechanical engineers................... 222 60 60 Tool designer .............................. Utilization engineer..................... Sales engineer, mechanical equipment................................ Engineering assistant, mechanical equipment................................ Mechanical research engineer....... Mechanical-engineering technician . Optomechanical technician .......... Test engineer, mechanical equipment................................ Plant engineer.............................. Tool-drawing checker................... Heat-transfer technician................ Drafters....................................... 223 63 Chemical engineer ....................... Chemical equipment sales engineer Technical director, chemical plant....................................... Chemical-engineering technician .. Mining engineer......................... Petroleum engineer....................... Research engineer, mining-and-oilwell equipment and services Safety engineer, mines.................. Sales engineer, mining-and-oilwell equipment and services Chief engineer, research ............ 223 63 63 222 63 223 223 63 63 222 223 222 61 61 61 223 64 65 64 41, 64 64 65 D .O . T . N u m b e r Code D .O . T . T itle -014 010.167-010 -014 1625 1625 1625 -014 -018 -022 010.281-010 -014 -018 011.061-010 -014 -018 -022 -026 011.161-010 3833 3833 3833 372 372 372 1623 1623 1623 1623 1623 1623 011.261 through .361 012.061 012.061-010 -014 -018 012.067-010 012.167-010 3719 -014 -018 -022 -026 -030 -034 -038 -042 -046 -050 -054 -058 -062 012.167-066 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1712 -070 012.187 012.261-010 012.267-010 012.281-010 013.061 013.151-010 1634 1634 389 3712 389 1632 421 013.161-010 3719 014.061 014.151-010 014.167-010 -014 014.281-010 015.362 through .384 017 1637 421 1637 1637 372 3832 Chief petroleum engineer ............ Chief engineer ............................ District supervisor, mud analysis well logging ............................ Observer, electrical prospecting ... Observer, gravity prospecting....... Surveyor, oil-well directional ....... Drafter, directional survey............ Drafter, geological....................... Drafter, geophysical..................... Foundry metallurgist .................... Metallographer............................ Metallurgist, extractive ................ Metallurgist, physical................... Welding engineer......................... Supervisor, metallurgical-andquality-control-testing................ Engineering and science technicians................................ Industrial engineers ..................... Product-safety engineer ................ Safety engineer............................ Standards engineer....................... Metrologist.................................. Configuration management analyst.................................... Director, quality control .............. Factory lay-out engineer .............. Fire-prevention research engineer .. Fire-protection engineer................ Industrial engineer ....................... Industrial-health engineer.............. Liaison worker, tool fabrication ... Manufacturing engineer................ Production engineer..................... Production planner....................... Quality-control engineer .............. Safety manager............................ Supervisor, vendor quality............ Systems analyst, electronic data processing................................ Time-study engineer..................... Industrial engineers ..................... Air analyst .................................. Industrial engineering technician ... Smoke tester................................ Agricultural engineer.................... Sales engineer, agricultural equipment................................ Agricultural-engineering technician ................................ Mechanical engineers................... Sales engineer, marine equipment .. Marine surveyor........................... Port engineer .............................. Drafter, marine............................ Engineering and science technicians................................ Drafters....................................... 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 1634 372 Page 65 65 65 223 223 223 222 222 222 64 64 64 64 64 64 223 41, 63 223 223 63 63 63 63 63 41, 63 41, 63 63 41, 63 63 63 63 63 63 41, 63 63 72 63 63 41 223 223 59 59 223 63 63 63 63 222 223 222 461 462/Occupational Outlook Handbook SO C SO C D .O . T . N u m b e r C ode 017.281-034 018.167-010 -014 -018 -026 -034 -038 -042 -046 -050 018.261-018 -022 -026 018.262-010 019.061-010 019.161-014 019.181-010 019.261-010 -022 019.281-010 019.381-010 020.062-010 020.067-010 -014 -022 020.162-014 020.167-010 -018 -022 372 3733 3739 1643 1649 3733 1649 1649 1649 1649 3734 3734 3739 1644 1639 3719 380 389 389 3711 389 1636 1639 1739 1733 3971 1732 3971 3972 -026 020.187-010 -014 021.067-010 022.061-010 -014 022.137-010 022.161-010 022.261-010 022.281-014 -018 023.061-014 023.067-010 024.061-010 -014 -018 -022 -026 -030 -034 -038 -042 -046 -050 -054 024.161-010 024.167-010 025.062-010 025.267 029.067 029.167-010 029.261 029.280-010 029.361 through .381 040.061-010 -014 -018 -022 -030 D .O . T . T itle Technical illustrator..................... Chief of party.............................. Geodetic computer....................... Land surveyor ............................ Photogrammetric engineer............ Surveyor assistant, instruments . . . . Surveyor, geodetic ....................... Surveyor, geophysical prospecting . Surveyor, marine ......................... Surveyor, m ine............................ Editor, map.................................. Mosaicist..................................... Photogrammetrist......................... Field-map editor........................... Biomedical engineer..................... Test technician ............................ Laser technician........................... Biomedical equipment technician .. Test technician ............................ Calibration laboratory technician . . Laboratory technician .................. Computer-applications engineer ... Engineering analyst ..................... Mathematician ............................ Statistician, mathematical ............ Programmer, business .................. Actuary....................................... Programmer chief, business ......... Programmer, engineering and scientific .................................. 1733 Statistician, applied ..................... 3971 Programmer, information system . . 3974 Programmer, process control......... 1842 Astronomer.................................. 1845 Chemist....................................... 1845 Chemist, food.............................. 1845 Laboratory supervisor .................. 3831 Chemical-laboratory chief............ 3831 Chemical-laboratory technician . . . . 3831 Chemist, water purification........... 3831 Laboratory tester ......................... 1843 Physicist ..................................... 1843 Physicist, theoretical .................... 1847 Crystallographer........................... 1649 Geodesist..................................... 1847 Geologist..................................... 1847 Geologist, petroleum .................... 1847 Geophysical prospector ................ 1847 Geophysicist................................ 1847 Hydrologist.................................. 1847 Mineralogist ................................ 1847 Paleontologist.............................. 1847 Petrologist.................................... 1847 Seismologist ................................ 1847 Stratigrapher................................ 1847 Engineer, so il.............................. 1847 Geophysical-laboratory chief......... 1846 Meteorologist .............................. 389 Engineering and science technicians................................ 1849 Geographers ................................ Aerial-photograph interpreter......... 389 3831, Engineering and science 389 technicians................................ 389 Photo-optics technician ................ 389 Engineering and science technicians................................ 1853 Agronomist.................................. 1853 Animal scientists ......................... 1853 Dairy scientist.............................. 382 Dairy technologist ....................... 1852 Forest ecologist ........................... Page 201 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 60 223 223 223 223 223 223 72 72 70 70 230 68 230 230 71 230 230 75 76 76 76 76 223 76 223 86 86 80 82 80, 84 80 82 82, 84 80 80 80 80 82 80 80 82 83 223 77 77 223 223 223 88, 89 88, 89 88 88 88 D .O . T . N u m b e r C ode -034 -038 -042 -046 -050 -054 -062 040.361-010 1852 1853 1853 185 1852 1852 1852 382 041.061- 010 -014 -018 -022 -026 -030 -034 -038 -042 -046 -050 -054 -058 -062 -066 -070 -074 -078 -082 -086 -090 041.081-010 041.261-010 041.381-010 045.061 through .067 045.107-010 1855 1853 1853 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1853 1854 1855 1854 1854 1854 1855 1855 1854 1853 1854 1854 1853 1855 382 1915 24 -018 -022 -026 -030 24 1915 1915 1915 -034 -038 -042 1915 2400 2400 049.364-010 049.384-010 050.067- 010 -014 382 382 1912 1912 050.117-010 1132 051.067- 010 052 054.067- 010 -014 055.067 070 070.101- 046 071.101- 010 072.061- 010 072.101- 010 -014 -018 -022 -026 -030 -034 -038 073.061 through .264 073.264-010 074.161-010 075.117 through .374 1914 1913 1916 1916 1919 261 261 261 262 262 262 262 262 262 262 262 262 27 27 301 D . O . T . T itle Page Forester............................................. 92 Horticulturist..................................... 88,89 88 Poultry scientist ............................... Range manager................................. 94 Siviculturist........................................... 88, Soil conservationist ......................... 95 Wood technologist ........................... 92 Laboratory technician, artificial breeding ...................................... 223 Anatomist......................................... 88 Animal breeder................................. 88 Apiculturist....................................... 88 Aquatic biologist ............................. 84,88 Biochemist ...................................... 76, 88,90 Biologist ........................................... 88 86 Biophysicist....................................... Botanist............................................. 88 Cytologist......................................... 88 88 Entomologist..................................... Geneticist ......................................... 88 Histopathologist ............................... 88 Microbiologist................................... 88 Mycologist ....................................... 88 88 Nematologist..................................... Parasitologist..................................... 88 Pharmacologist................................. 88 Physiologist....................................... 88 Plant breeder..................................... 88 Plant pathologist............................... 88 Zoologist........................................... 88 Food technologist............................. 91 Public-health microbiologist ........... 88 Biology specimen technician........... 223 112 Psychologists ................................... Counselor ........................................... 30, 134, 143 Director of counseling..................... 30,134 Psychologist, clinical....................... 112 Psychologist, counseling.................... 30,112 Psychologist, industrialorganizational .............................. 112 Psychologist, school.......................... 112 Residence counselor......................... 30 Vocational-rehabilitation counselor...................................... 141 Feed-research aide ............................ 223 Biological aide ................................. 223 Economist.......................................... 104 Market-research analyist 1 .................109, 235, 236 Director, employment research and planning................................ 104 Political scientist .............................. 116 Historians .......................................... 106 Research worker, social welfare . . . 115 Sociologist.......................................... 115 Anthropologists.................................. 101 Physicians.......................................... 153 Medical officer.................................. 153 Osteopathic physician ...................... 152 Oral pathologist ................................ 148 Dentist................................................ 148 Endodontist........................................ 148 Oral surgeon...................................... 148 Orthodontist ...................................... 148 Pedodontist........................................ 148 Periodontist........................................ 148 Prosthodontist.................................... 148 Public health dentist ........................ 148 Veterinarians...................................... 156 Veterinary meat inspector ................... Pharmacist ........................................ Registered nurses ............................ 36,156 163 169 92 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.)/463 D.O.T. Number 075.117-014 so c Code 131 -018 1283 -022 076.101-010 076.107-010 076.121-010 -014 076.224-010 076.364-010 077 078.121-010 131 3034 3034 3032 3033 5233 5233 302 362 078.261-010 -014 078.281-010 078.361-010 -014 -018 -030 078.362-018 -022 362 362 362 363 362 365 362 369 369 -026 078.381 078.687-010 365 369 5233 079.021-010 -014 079.101-010 -018 -022 079.117-018 079.127-010 1843 1843 289 281 283 369 143 079.161-010 079.167-014 079.361-010 079.364-014 -018 079.367-010 -014 079.371-010 079.374-010 -014 -022 090.107-010 090.117-018 -022 -030 090.167-014 -022 -030 090.227-010 369 131 3031 369 304 5233 364 5232 369 366 369 24 1281 1281 1281 1281 1281 1281 22 091.107-010 091.221-010 091.227-010 092.227-010 -014 096.121 through .167 099.117-018 -022 099.224-010 1282 233 233 232 231 239, 1283 1282 121 239 2249 399 251 .227-022 099.327-010 100.117 through .267 100.367-010 -014 -018 -022 -026 251 251 399 251 251 D O T. Title Page Director, community health nursing.................................... 169 Director, educational community health nursing......................... 169 Director, nursing services ........... 169 172 Audiologist................................ Speech pathologist ..................... 172 161 Occupational therapist................ Physical therapist....................... 165 303 Physical therapist assistant ......... 301 Occupational therapy assistant ... 160 Dietitians.................................... Medical technologist, teaching 184 supervisor.............................. 184 Chemistry technologist................ 184 Microbiology technologists ......... 184 Cytotechnologist......................... Dental hygienist......................... 175 184 Medical technologist .................. Nuclear medical technologist . . . . 188 184 Tissue technologist..................... 177 Electrocardiograph technician . . . . Electroencephalographic 179 technologist............................ 188 Radiologic technologist.............. 184 Medical laboratory workers......... Laboratory assistant, blood and 184 plasma.................................... 41, 86 Health physicist ......................... Medical physicist....................... 86 Chiropractor .............................. 147 Optometrist................................ 150 Podiatrist.................................... 156 Sanitarian .................................. 36 Inservice coordinator, auxiliary personnel................................ 43 Industrial hygienist..................... 41 Medical-record administrator....... 40 171 Respiratory therapist .................. Optometric assistant.................... 302 Physician assistant ..................... 167 Medical assistant ....................... 299 Medical record technician ........... 186 Dental assistant........................... 298 Emergency medical technician .. 180 Nurse, licensed practical............ 183 Surgical technician..................... 190 Foreign-student advisor .............. 30 30 Dean of students I ..................... Director, athletic......................... 30 30 Financial-aid officer.................. Director of admissions................ 30 Director of student affairs ......... 30 Registrar, college or university .. 30 Faculty member, college or university.............................. 131 Dean of students II .................. 47 144 Teacher, industrial arts.............. Teacher, secondary school........... . 101, 144 Teacher, elementary school....... 135 Teacher, kindergarten................ 135 Cooperative extension service workers ................................ 133 Principal .................................. 47 Superintendent, schools............ 47 Instructor, physical education ... . 135, 144 Instructor, military science ......... 144 Teacher aide I ........................... 273 Librarians ................................ 138 Bibliographer ........................... Classifier.................................. Library technical assistant......... Music-librarian......................... Music librarian, international broadcast.............................. 138 138 229 138 138 D.O.T. Number 100.387-010 101.167 through 102.117 109.067-010 110 119.267-026 120.007-010 129.107-018 131.067-010 -014 -018 -022 131.087-010 -014 131.267-010 -014 -018 -022 -026 132 141.031-010 141.061 141.061-010 -014 -018 -022 -026 141.067-010 .081-010 -014 142.031-010 142.051-014 142.061-014 -026 142.081-010 -018 143.062-014 -026 -030 -034 143.362-010 .382-010 -014 143.457-010 149.031-010 150.047-010 151.047-010 152.041-010 152.047-022 159.124-010 159.147-010 160 SOC Code 251 252 1719 2110 396 2042 2049 3313 3313 3313 3313 321 321 3313 3313 3313 3312 3980 3312 322 322, 325 325 325 322 160.167-046 161.167-010 162.117-022 -026 162.157-010 325 325 322 325 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 326 326 326 326 326 326 326 326 329 324 327 323 323 2033 333 1412, 1419, 1473, 149 1473 142 1499 1499 1443 -018 -022 -034 -038 1442 1442 1449 1449 162.167-010 -014 -030 163.117-018 163.167-010 164.117-010 -014 1443 1443 1449 125 125 125 125 D.O.T. Title Catalog librarian..................... Historians .............................. Page 138 106 Information scientist................ 72 97 Lawyers ................................ 227 Paralegal assistant .................. Clergy member....................... ..124, 125, 127 30 Director of religious activities .. Columnist/commentator........... .. 195, 199 Copywriter ............................ .. 199,235 Critic..................................... 199 Editorial writer....................... 199 Continuity writer .................... 199 Reader .................................... 199 Newscaster............................ 195 Newswriter............................ 199 Reporter ................................ .. 195, 196 Script reader........................... 199 Writer, technical publications .. .. 199, 232 Writers and editors.................. 199 Art director............................ .. 201, 235 Commercial artists.................. 201 201 Cartoonist.............................. Fashion artist ......................... ... 201, 235 Graphic designer .................... ...201, 202, 235, 236 Illustrator................................ .. 201, 235 Medical Illustrator.................. 201 Creative director..................... ... 201, 235 Cartoonist, motion pictures . . . . 201 Commercial designer.............. 201 Art director............................ 201 Interior designer..................... 207 Cloth designer ....................... .. 201, 202 Industrial designer .................. 206 Floral designer....................... ... 201, 204 Package designer ................... ... 201, 202 Photographer, aerial................ 209 Photographer, scientific........... 209 Photographer, still .................. 209 Photojournalist....................... 209 Biological photographer........... 209 Camera operator..................... 209 Photographer, finish................ 209 Photographer........................... 209 Supervisor, scenic arts............ 201 Actor..................................... 212 Dancer .................................... 214 215 Musician, instrumental............ Singer .................................... 217 Camp counselor..................... 121 Announcer.............................. 195 Accountants ........................... 23 Chief bank examiner .............. 36 Management analyst................ 28 Field contractor ..................... 46 Field contractor technician _ _ 46 Broker-and-market operator, grain .................................. 46 Buyer..................................... 26 Buyer, assistant....................... 26 Procurement engineer.............. 46 Purchasing agent ................... ... 46, 235, 236 Buyer, grain ........................... 46 Buyer, tobacco ....................... 46 Purchase-price analyst ............ 46 Manager, promotion................ 38 Manager, advertising.............. 235 Manager, advertising.............. ... 235, 236 Manager, advertising agency ... 235 464/Occupational Outlook Handbook D.O.T. Number 164.167-010 165.067-010 .167-010 166.067-010 166.117-010 -014 -018 166.167-014 so c Code 125 332 332 143 123 143 123 143 -018 -022 -026 -030 -034 166.227-010 166.267-010 -018 -030 168.167-010 -022 -026 -030 -034 -038 -042 -046 123 143 123 123 143 239 143 143 137 5132 1473 1473 1472 1472 1472 1473 1472 -050 -054 -062 1472 1419 1473 -074 1473 -078 168.264-010 -014 168.267-014 -018 -022 -042 -046 -050 -054 -058 -062 -066 -074 -078 168.287-010 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 1473 -014 1473 1473 -018 168.387-010 1473 169.167-010 149 1414 -058 169.207-010 143 169.267-018 1419 24 -026 1473 169.284-010 180.117-010 through 1320, .167 5522-5, 5611 185.167-034 124 -038 186.117-026 1419 -038 122 -050 1419 -054 121 -058 1353 -070 122 -074 1419 122 -078 186.137-010 186.167-014 -050 4519 1419 1419 D.O.T. Title Account executive ..................... Public-relations representative . . . . Sales-service promoter.............. Occupational analyst .................. Director, industrial relations ....... Manager, employee welfare......... Manager, personnel ................... Director of placement ................ Manager, benefits....................... Manager, compensation.............. Manager, education and training .. Manager, employment................ Manager, labor relations ............ Training representative................ Employment interviewer ............ Job analyst ................................ Retirement officer ..................... Customs patrol officer................ Immigration inspector ................ Inspector, boiler......................... Inspector, building ..................... Inspector, electrical .................... Inspector, elevators..................... Inspector, health care facilities ... Inspector, heating and refrigeration ........................... Inspector, plumbing .................... Manager, credit and collection . .. Occupational-safety-and-health inspector ................................ Reviewing officer, driver’s license................................... Safety inspector ......................... Inspector, air-carrier.................... Safety inspector ......................... Claim examiner ......................... Customs import specialist........... Customs inspector ..................... Fopd and drug inspector ............ Inspector, furniture and bedding .. Inspector, government property ... Inspector, industrial waste........... Inspector, motor vehicles............ Investigator................................ License inspector ....................... Mine inspector........................... Mortician investigator ................ Inspector, agricultural commodities........................... Inspector, quality assurance......... Inspector, railroad....................... Opener-verifier-packer, customs .. Administrative assistant.............. Underwriter................................ Conciliator ................................ Financial aid counselor .............. Supervisor, special services......... Admeasurer................................ Agricultural occupations ............ Manager, merchandise................ Manager, parts ........................... Factorer ..................................... Manager, financial institution . . . . Negotiator, letter of credit........... President, financial institution . . . . Real-estate agent ....................... Treasurer, financial institution . . . . Trust officer .............................. Vice president, financial institution .............................. Supervisor, safety deposit ........... Foreign-exchange trader.............. Operations officer....................... Page 235 193 193 43 43 43 43 30, 43.. 129 43 43 43 43 43 43 129 43 43 36 36 36 32 32 32 36 32 32 33 36 36 41 36 41 260 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36, 41 36 36 36 36 36 28 22,48 43 30 30 36 313 27 237 25 25 25 25 247 25 25 25 25 25 25 D.O.T. Number -054 -058 186.267-018 187.117-010 -018 -038 -050 187.137-010 187.161-010 187 167-034 -078 -090 -110 -122 SOC Code 122 1419 1415 121 121 1351 1132 1352 1351 1359 1351 1359 1351 1351 -126 188.117-082 1351 1134 -114 189.167-030 191.167-014 193.162-018 112 137 149 392 193.167-014 193.262-018 -022 -038 194.262-010 -018 194.282-010 194.362-010 -014 -018 194.382-014 195.107 195.137-010 195.164-010 195.167-010 195.167-014 393 393 393 393 393 3719 393 3719 3719 393 3719 2032 2032 2032 2032 2032 -018 -030 -034 195.227-014 195.267-014 1352 2032 2032 2033 2032 196.167-010 196.223 196.263-010 -014 -018 -022 -030 -034 -042 197.130-010 197.133-022 197.167-010 -014 199.167-014 201, 202 203 203.582-022 -026 -030 -046 825 825 825 825 825 825 825 825 825 8244 8241 8241 149 192 4513, 4622, 4633 O 4793 4793 4793 4793 -070 205.362-026 205.367-018 206.387-030 208.685-030 209.387-026 209.687-022 4793 4642 4782 4696 4613 4696 4699 D.O.T. Title Reserve officer........................... Securities trader II ...................... Loan officer .............................. Administrator, hospital................ Director, institution .................... Manager, hotel or motel ............. Public health service officer ....... Recreation supervisor.................. Executive c h e f........................... Director, nurses’ registry............. Manager, convention.................. Manager, dental laboratory ......... Manager, front office.................. Manager, hotel recreational facilities.................................. Manager, liquor establishment ... Director, medical facilities section.................................... Manager, c ity ............................. Program manager....................... Claim agent .............................. Air-traffic-control specialist, tower...................................... Field supervisor, broadcast ......... Field engineer............................. Radio officer.............................. Transmitter operator.................... Audio operator........................... Sound mixer.............................. Video operator ........................... Recording engineer .................... Rerecording mixer...................... Telecine operator ....................... Tape transferrer ......................... Social workers ........................... Casework supervisor .................. Group worker............................. Community organization worker .. Community-relations-and-services advisor, public housing ........... Camp director............................. Parole officer ............................. Probation officer......................... Recreation leader....................... Human relations or drug and alcohol counselor.................... Chief pilot.................................. Airplane pilots ........................... Airplane pilot............................. Airplane pilot, commercial ......... Airplane pilot, photogrammetry .. Check pilot................................ Executive pilot........................... Facilities-flight-check pilot ......... Test pilot.................................... Engineer .................................... Mate, ship.................................. Master, ship .............................. Purser ....................................... Urban planner............................. Secretaries and stenographers . . . . Page 25 25 25 34 34 38 34 121 291 34 38 34 38 38 38 34 28 28 260 219 221 221 448 221 221 221 221 221 221 221 221 119 119 119 119 119 121 119 119 121 119 445 445 445 445 445 445 445 445 445 448 448 447 448 117 270 Typist ....................................... 276 Data typist ................................ 263 Data coder operator .................... 263 Keypunch operator..................... . 263, 398 Photocomposition-keyboard operator.................................. . 263, 398 Verifier operator......................... 263 258 New-accounts tellers .................. Claims clerk.............................. 260 Tape librarian............................. 263 Sorting-machine operator............. 256 Library clerk ............................. 229 Sorter......................................... 256 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/465 D.O.T. Number 210.382-014 -018 -022 -026 -058 211.132-010 211.362-010 -014 -018 -022 -026 211.367 through .582 213.132-010 -014 so c Code 4712 4712 4718 4718 4712 4529 4364 4364 4791 4791 4791 4364 4512 4512 213.362-010 213.382-010 4613 4613 213.685-010 4613 216.362-014 -026 216.382-038 217.382 4712 4712 4712 4718, 4729 4699 375 4791 4795 4753 4743 4743 239 219.362-062 219.367-026 219.462-010 219.467-010 222.587-014 230.363-010 230.367-010 235.222-010 235.462-010 235.562-014 4732 4732 235.662-014 -018 -022 -026 4732 4732 4732 4739 237.367-038 238.137-010 238.362-010 238.367-010 -018 -026 -030 239.367-026 241.217-010 241.267-018 241.357-010 241.362-010 241.367-010 -022 -026 243.367-014 245.362-010 247.137-010 4645 4514 4643 4644 4644 4644 4644 4739 4782 4782 4786 4782 4786 4786 4783 4742 4794 4525 247.382-010 247.387-010 249.365-010 249.367-046 -074 249.382-010 249.467-010 249.687-014 250.157-010 250.257-010 250.357-014 -018 251.157-010 252.157-010 4699 4756 4694 4694 4795 4799 4364 4694 4123 4122 4123 4123 4124 4369 D.O.T. Title Bookkeeper I ............................ Bookkeeper II ........................... Bookkeeping-machine operator I . Bookkeeping-machine operator II Reconcilement clerk .................. Teller, head .............................. Cashier I .................................... Foreign banknote teller-trader . .. Teller......................................... Teller, collection and exchange . Teller, note .............................. Cashiers..................................... Page 256 256 256 256 256 258 240 258 258 258 258 240 Supervisor computer operators ... Supervisor, machine recorders unit ....................................... Computer operators.................... Computer-peripheral-equipment operator.................................. Auxiliary-equipment operator, data processing....................... Collection clerk......................... Mortgage-accounting clerk ......... Interest cleric ............................ Bank clerk ................................ 263 Trust-securities cleric.................. Programmer, detail .................... Coupon cleric............................ Grading cleric............................ Braille-and-talking-books cleric ... Rural-mail carrier ..................... Mail carrier .............................. Private-branch-exchange service advisor................................... Central-office operator .............. Switchboard operator, police district................................... Communication-center operator . . Directory-assistance operator . . . . Telephone operator .................... Telephone-answering-service operator.................................. Receptionist .............................. Manager, reservations................ Hotel cleric................................ Gate agent ................................ Reservations agent..................... Ticket agent.............................. Travel clerk .............................. Service observer......................... Claim adjuster........................... Claim examiner......................... Collection clerk......................... Claims clerk.............................. Collector................................... Repossessor................................ Skip tracer ................................ Post-office clerk......................... Medical record cleric.................. Supervisor, advertising-dispatch clerks ..................................... Media cleric .............................. . 235, Advertising cleric....................... Registration clerk....................... Library assistant ....................... Teacher aide II ......................... Mortgage cleric........................... Information clerk-cashier............ Page (library) runner ................ Superintendent, sales.................. Sales agent, insurance .............. . 235, Leasing agent, residence ........... Sales agent, real estate ............ Sales agent, securities................ Travel agent.............................. . 235, 256 230 258 273 229 267 267 263 263 263 263 256 256 256 256 274 274 274 274 274 274 274 269 38 265 255 255 255 265 274 260 260 262 260 262 262 262 268 186 235 236 235 229 229 273 256 240 229 247 242 247 247 250 252 D.O.T. Number 254.357-014 259.357-018 SOC Code 4153 4153 260 through 290 (2) 273.353-010 279.357-062 297.667-014 298.081-010 298.381-010 4342 4367 445 322 322 299.474-010 311.137-010 -014 -018 -022 311.477-014 449 5211 5211 5211 5211 5216 -018 -022 -026 -030 -034 -038 311.674-010 -018 311.677-010 -014 -018 312.474 and .477 312.687-010 313 through 315 5213 5213 5213 5213 5216 5216 5216 5213 5218 5216 5218 5212 316 318.687-010 -014 319.474-010 321 323.137-010 324.137 324.477-010 324.677-010 330.371-010 -014 332.271-018 331 and 332 339.371-014 350.137-014 350.677-010 352.167-010 352.367-010 365.361-014 372.137-010 372.267 through .367-010 372.367-014 372.563 372.567-010 372.667-010 -014 -018 -030 -034 -038 372.677-010 373 373.167-018 373.367-010 375.133-010 5218 5211, 5214-5, 5219 5217 5219 5219 5216 5214 5241 5251 5262 5262 5252 5252 5252 5252 5253 5211 5213 5269 5257 6854 5112 5132, 5144 5133 5144 5144 5144 5144 5133 5144 5144 5144 5133 1131, 5111, 5122-3 5119 5122 5112 D.O.T. Title Page Sales representative, advertising . 235, 236 Sales representative, radio and television time ....................... . 235, 236 Retail trade sales workers, 249 manufacturers’ sales workers, 243 wholesale trade sales workers . 253 Salesperson, automobiles ........... 239 237 Salesperson, parts ..................... 245 Model ....................................... Displayer, merchandise.............. . 201, 203 Decorator .................................. .201, 203, 204 402 Optician, dispensing I I .............. Counter supervisor..................... 293 Waiter/waitress, banquet, head .. 295 Waiter/waitress, captain ............ 295 Waiter/waitress, head ................ 295 Counter attendant, lunchroom or 293 coffee shop............................ Waiter/waitress, bar.................... 295 295 Waiter/waitress, dining car......... 295 Waiter/waitress, formal.............. Waiter/waitress, informal ........... 295 Waiter/waitress, room service ... 295 Waiter/waitress, take out ........... 295 Canteen operator....................... 293 Waiter/waitress, buffet .............. 295 Cafeteria attendant..................... 296 293 Counter attendant, cafeteria....... Dining room attendant .............. 296 290 Bartenders.................................. 290 Bartender helper......................... Cooks and chefs ....................... . 291, 450 Meatcutters................................ Kitchen helper ........................... Scullion..................................... Fountain server ......................... Hotel housekeepers and assistants Supervisor, housecleaner............ Bellhops and bell captains......... Porter, h am w ......................... Bellhop ..................................... Barber....................................... Barber apprentice....................... Hair stylist................................ Cosmetologists........................... Scalp-treatment operator............ Steward/stewardess, chief, cargo vessel..................................... Mess attendant........................... Director, social ......................... Airplane-flight attendant............ Shoe repairer ............................ Correction officer, head............ Guards....................................... 294 296 450 293 305 305 308 308 308 307 307 309 309 309 Jailer ......................................... Armored car guard and driver .. Armored car guard .................... Airline security representative ... Bodyguard.................................. Correction officer ..................... Gate tender................................ Guard, security ......................... Merchant patroller..................... Patrol conductor............ Firefighters ................................ 280 284 284 284 284 280 284 284 284 280 282 450 450 121 311 416 280 284 Fire marshal.............................. 41 Fire inspector............................ 41 Police sergeant........................... . 286, 287 466/Occupational Outlook Handbook D.O.T. Number 375.137-010 SOC Code 5142 -014 -018 5112 4511 -022 -026 375.163-010 4511 5112 5112 -014 375.167-010 5132 5112 -014 5112 -018 137 -022 -030 -034 -038 -042 -046 375.263-010 5112 5112 5112 5112 5132 5112 5132 -014 -018 375.267-010 through 375.267-026 375.267-030 375.367 through 375.587 375.367-010 375.384-010 5132 5132 5132 376.667-018 377.117 through 377.264 5144 5012, 5122, 5124, 5133 5134 782 (3) 377.667-018 379.364-010 401 through 405, 407 through 429 452 452.364-014 452.687-014 459.387-010 503.685-030 503.687.010 504.682-010 -018 518.361-010 518.381-014 518.682-010 518.685-014 -018 -022 542.562-010 553.682-010 -022 553.685-030 -086 -090 -094 558.382-014 558.482-010 558.685-054 559.585-022 559.662-010 563.682-010 572.360-010 573.362-010 600.260-018 600.280-010 5132 5112, 5134 5133 5132 5122-3, 5720 5123 5123 579 7549 875 7544 7544 6861 6861 7542 7542 7542 7542 7675 7675 7675 7675 7675 7675 7675 7676 7675 7675 7676 7675 7675 6881 7675 7329 6813 D O T. Title Commander, identification and records..................................... Desk officer ................................ Police lieutenant, community relations.................................... Secretary of police ..................... Traffic sergeant ........................... Commanding officer, motorized squad ..................................... Pilot, highway patrol .................. Commanding officer, homicide squad ..................................... Commanding officer, investigation division.................................. Commanding officer, motor equipment.............................. Detective chief........................... Launch commander, harbor police Police captain, precinct ............ Police lieutenant, patrol ............ Special agent ............................ Traffic lieutenant....................... Accident-prevention-squad police officer.................................... Police officer I ......................... State-highway police officer....... Police officers ........................... Police inspector I I ..................... Police officers ........................... Page 286, 287 286, 287 286 287 286, 287 286, 287 286, 287 286, 287 286, 287 286, 287 286, 287 286 286, 287 286, 287 282 286 286, 287 286 287 286, 287 286 286 280 Police officer I I ......................... Police officer, identification and records............................ 286, 287 Patroller..................................... 284 286 Police officers ........................... Deputy sheriff, civil division ... Automobile tester ..................... Agriculture occupations.............. 286 36 313 Forestry technicians.................... 318 Smoke jumper . .. .j.................... Forest-fire fighter . J.................... Cruiser .........a J..................... Metal-cleaner, immersion........... Sandblaster ................................ Annealer.................................... Heat treater II ........................... Molder....................................... Coremaker.................................. Machine molder......................... Coremaker, machine I .............. Coremaker, machine I I .............. Coremaker, machine I I I ............ Furnace operator ....................... Black-ash burner operator ......... Reduction-furnace operator......... Calcine furnace ......................... Pigment furnace tender.............. Rabble-furnace tender................ Rotary-furnace tender ................ Burner operator ......................... Furnace operator ....................... Red-lead burner......................... Vacuum-pan operator ................ Acid maker .............................. Charcoal burner, beehive kiln ... Furnace-combustion analyst ....... Dry-kiln operator....................... Model maker, firearms.............. Instrument maker....................... 282 282 318 425 425 425 425 409 399 409 399 399 399 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 423 392 405 D.O.T. Number -022 -026 -030 -034 -038 -042 -046 -050 600.281-010 -018 600.360-010 600.380-010 -014 -022 601.280 except -022 601.280-022 601.281-010 -014 -026 601.380-010 601.381-010 -014 -022 -026 -030 -034 602 603 except .280-034, .360-010 and .380-010 603.280-034 603.360-010 603.380-010 604 except .360-010 604.360-010 605 606 609.280-010 609.380-014 610.462-010 611.462-010 611.482-010 611.685-010 612.261-010 612.360-010 612.361-010 615.280-010 615.380-010 615.685-030 616.260-018 616.360-022 616.380.010 619.260-008 -010 SOC Code 6813 6813 6813 6813 6813 6813 6817 6817 613 6881 6813 7329 7329 7329 6811 D.O.T. Title Machinist .................................. Machinist apprentice .................. Machinist apprentice, automotive Machinist, automotive................ Machinist, experimental ............ Maintenance machinist .............. Patternmaker apprentice, metal .. Patternmaker, metal.................... Fluid-power mechanic................ Lay-out worker ......................... Machine try-out setter .............. Fixture maker............................. Job setter .................................. Machine setter........................... Tool-and-die maker.................... Page 392 392 392 392 392 392 412 412 392 392 429 429 429 429 417 6811 6811 6811 6811 6829 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 6811 75, 76 75, 76 Die sinker.................................. Die maker, bench, stamping . . . . Die-try-out worker, stamping . . . . Tool maker, bench .................... Carbide operator ....................... Die finisher .............................. Die maker ................................ Die maker apprentice ................ Plastic tool maker..................... Plastic fixture builder................ Saw maker................................ Machine tool operators.............. Machine tool operator .............. 425 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 427 427 7322 7322 7322 75, 76 Job setter .................................. Buffing-line set-up worker......... Grinder machine setter.............. Machine tool operator .............. 429 429 429 427 7312 75, 76 75, 76 7339 7312 7319 7319 7319 7319 6881 7319 6829 7314 7314 7514 7339 7329 7339 7339 7339 429 Setter, automatic-spinning lathe .. Machine tool operator .............. 427 Machine tool operator .............. 427 429 Trim-machine adjuster................ Threader-machine setter ............ 429 Drop-hammer operator .............. 425 425 Upsetter..................................... 425 Forging-press operator I ............ Forging-press operator II ........... 425 Inspector .................................... 425 Die setter .................................. 429 Heavy forger ............................. 425 Slitter service and setter ........... 429 429 Shear setter................................ Punch-press operator II ............ 425 Spring coil machine setter......... 429 Machine setter........................... 429 Four-slide-machine setter ........... 429 383 Ornamental metal worker........... Ornamental metal worker apprentice .............................. 383 Punch press setter..................... 429 Spring repairer, hand ................ . 324, 328 425 Heater....................................... Automobile mechanic ................ . 324, 328 Automobile-mechanic apprentice . . 324, 328 394 Automobile tester ..................... Automobile-repair-service 394 estimator.................................... Air-conditioning mechanic ......... . 324, 328 Brake repairer ........................... . 324, 328 Bus inspector............................. 328 Carburetor machanic.................. . 324, 328 Front-end mechanic.................... . 324, 328 Maintenance mechanic .............. . 324, 328 Transmission mechanic.............. . 324, 328 Tune-up mechanic..................... . 324, 328 Vehicle-fuel-systems converter ... . 324, 328 Squeak, rattle, and leak repairer . 324, 328 619.380-014 -018 619.682-022 620.261-010 -012 -014 -018 7314 7339 7544 6111 6111 6881 6881 620.281-010 -026 -030 -034 -038 -046 -062 -066 -070 620.364-010 6111 6111 6881 6111 6111 6111 6111 6111 6111 6115 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/467 D.O.T. Number 620.381.010 -018 -022 620.584-010 620.682-010 620.684-014 -018 -022 -034 621.281-014 -030 624.281-010 -014 .361-014 624.381 through .684 625.261-010 625.281-010 -014 -022 625.361-010 625.684-010 626 628.261-010 628.281-010 628.381-010 628.382-010 628.484-010 628.684-018 -026 -030 -034 629.280-010 630.281-038 631.261-014 633 637.261-010 -014 -018 -026 637.381-010 -014 638.261-014 -022 638.281-018 -022 639.281-014 650.582 653.685-010 661.281-022 683.684-010 683.685-014 692.260-010 699.687-014 700.281-010 -014 -022 700.381-030 -042 -046 705.484-010 -014 706.381-030 -046 709.687-018 712.281-010 712.381-014 so c Code 6111 6117 6111 8619 7312 8632 6111 6111 6111 6116 Page D.O.T. Title Automobile-radiator mechanic . . . 324, 328 328 Mechanical unit repairer........... Repairer, heavy ....................... . 324, 328 Spring repairer helper, hand . .. . 324, 328 Brake drum-lathe operator ....... . 324, 328 Automobile-mechanic helper . . . . 324, 328 Brake adjuster ......................... . 324, 328 Clutch rebuilder....................... . 324, 328 323 Used-car renovator .................. Airframe-and-power-plant 321 mechanic.............................. 350 6117 Mine-car repairer..................... 326 6118 Farm equipment mechanic....... 6118 Farm equipment mechanic 326 apprentice ............................ 6118 Sprinkler-inigation-equipment 326 mechanic.............................. 326 6118, Farm equipment mechanics . . . . 6812 328 6881 Diesel-engine tester.................. 328 6112 Diesel mechanic....................... 328 6112 Diesel-mechanic apprentice....... 328 6111 Fuel-injection servicer.............. 328 6112 Diesel-engine erector................ 328 8632 Diesel-mechanic helper............ 350 Industrial machinery repairers .. 613 350 Overhauler .............................. 613 350 613 Machine fixer........................... 350 Card clothier ........................... 613 350 Flat clothier ............................ 613 350 Reed repairer........................... 613 350 Needle straightener .................. 613 350 613 Shuttle fixer............................ 350 613 Spindle plumber....................... 350 Utility worker, roller shop . . . . 613 350 613 Maintenance mechanic ............ 350 Treatment-plant mechanic......... 613 350 613 Powerhouse mechanic.............. 346 6000, Business machine repairers . . . . 6154, 6171, 6174 6156 Air-conditioning installer345 servicer, window un it........... Environmental-control-system 616 installer-servicer.................... 345 6179 Gas-appliance servicer.............. .. 330, 345 616 345 Refrigeration mechanic............ 345 616 Evaporative-cooler installer....... 345 Refrigeration unit repairer ....... 616 351 6178 Machine erector....................... 355 6179 Pinsetter mechanic, automatic . . 351 6178 Millwright................................ 351 6178 Millwright apprentice .............. 355 6179 Coin-machine-service repairer .. 398 7442, Compositor.............................. 7642 396 7649 Bindery worker ....................... 412 6831 Patternmaker, wood.................. 613 350 Chain repairer ......................... 614 Card changer, Jacquard loom .. 350 7322 Machine setter......................... 429 875 450 Machine cleaner....................... 407 6822 Jeweler ................................... 6822 Jeweler apprentice.................... 407 6822 Silversmith .............................. 407 6822 Locket maker........................... 407 6822 Ring maker ............................ 407 6822 Sample maker ......................... 407 7758 Filer, hand, tool ..................... 425 425 7529 Final finisher, forging dies . . . . 6174 Repairer, typewriter.................. 346 6111 Wheelwright ............................ . . 324, 328 8641 Hot-top-liner helper.................. 455 6865 Dental ceramist ....................... 175 6865 Contourwire specialist, denture . 175 D.O.T. Number -018 -030 713.361-010 -014 713.681-010 713.684-026 -038 714.281-018 SOC Code 6865 6865 6864 6864 6864 7759 7522 6813 715.281-010 -014 716.280-008 -010 716.280-014 716.360-010 716.382-010 -018 -022 716.462-010 716.681-018 716.682-010 -014 -018 716.685-018 -022 720.281-010 -014 -018 721.281-010 6171 6171 6864 6864 6864 7322 6864 7477 7477 6864 6864 7478 7678 6864 7677 7677 6155 6155 6155 6152 -026 6152 722.281-010 723.381-010 -014 723.584-010 729.381-018 730.281-038 730.361-010 -014 753.684.026 780.381-018 -022 780.684-122 788.381-010 801.361-014 -018 6151 6156 6156 6156 6159 6172 6172 6172 6179 6853 6853 6179 6854 6473 6473 801.684-026 804.281-010 -014 805.261 through .381 806.684-010 806.684-118 807.281-010 807.381-010 -022 .664-010 807.684-010 809.281-010 810 through 819.281-014 819.281-022 through .686-010 6473 6824 6824 6814 Page D.O.T. Title 175 Dental-laboratory technician....... 175 Orthodontic technician .............. 402 Optician apprentice, dispensing .. 402 Optician, dispensing I .............. 410 Lens mounter............................ 410 Eyeglass-frame truer .................. 410 Polisher, eyeglass frames........... Machinist, motion picture 392 equipment.............................. 358 Watch repairer........................... 358 Watch repairer apprentice........... 410 Optician..................................... 410 Optician apprentice ................... 410 Optician..................................... 410 Sizer, machine........................... 410 Lathe operator, contact lens . . . . 410 Precision-lens grinder ................ 410 Precision-lens grinder apprentice . 410 Precision-lens centerer and edger 410 Lens polisher, hand .................. 410 Eyeglass-lens cutter.................... 410 Precision-lens generator ............ 410 Precision-lens polisher................ 410 Grinder, hand............................ 410 Lens-fabricating-Machine tender . 343 Radio repairer ........................... 343 Tape-recorder repairer................ 343 Televison-and-radio repairer....... Automotive-generator-and-starter repairer .................................. . 324, 328 Propulsion-motor-and-generator 328 repairer .................................. 331 Instrument repairer..................... 330 Electrical-appliance repairer....... 330 Vacuum cleaner repairer ........... 330 Appliance repairer..................... 340 Street-light repairer ................... 353 Piano technician......................... 353 Piano tuner................................ 353 Pipe organ tuner and repairer ... 416 Repairer, boot and shoe ........... 404 Furniture-upholsterer .................. 404 Furniture-upholsterer apprentice .. 404 Upholstery repairer .................... 416 Cobbler..................................... 375 Structural-steel worker................ Structural-steel worker 375 apprentice .............................. Reinforcing-metal worker........... 375 Sheet-metal worker .................... 383 383 Sheet-metal worker apprentice ... Boilermaking occupations........... 395 772 772 6115 6115 6115 6711 6115 6821 (4) Assembler, automobile .............. Repairer, general....................... . 324, Truck-body builder .................... Automobile-body repairer........... Service mechanic....................... Muffler installer......................... Automobile-bumper straightener.. Lay-out worker I ..................... Welders..................................... 433 328 323 323 328 324 323 395 436 Welders..................................... 436 819.687-014 820.261-010 7533, 7714, 862, 8725 862 6153 436 -014 -018 820.381-010 6153 6153 6152 Welder helper............................ Electrician apprentice, powerhouse............................ Electrician, powerhouse ............ Electrician, substation................ Battery maintainer, large emergency storage.................. 340 340 340 340 468/Occupational Outlook Handbook soc D .O .T . N u m b er Code 821.261-014 821.361-010 -018 -030 -038 821.367-014 821.381-014 -014 822.261-010 -018 -022 822.281-014 -018 -022 -030 6433 6433 6433 6433 6433 782 6881 8643 6151 6881 6158 6151 6158 6151 6151 -034 6151 822.361-010 -014 -026 -030 822.381-014 -018 822.684-010 824.261-010 -014 824.281-010 -014 -018 824.381-010 824.681-010 824.683-010 824.684-010 825.281-010 -014 -018 -022 6151 6151 6151 6881 6157 6151 772 6432 6432 6432 782 6432 6432 6432 782 772 6159 6152 6159 6159 -026 -030 6159 6176 -034 825.361-010 825.381-010 6176 6176 6151 -014 6151 -018 -022 6159 6867 -026 -030 -034 -038 825.664-010 827.261-010 -014 6881 6432 6432 6159 8637 6156 6156 827.361-014 827.464-010 827.584-010 827.661-010 828.261-010 -014 828.281-010 828.381-010 829.281-010 -014 829.361-010 616 6156 772 6156 6155 6153 6153 6159 6175 6153 6157 -014 6157 829.667-010 8635 8643 829.684-022 6442 840.381-010 D .O .T . T itle Page Line maintainer ........................... 338, 369 Cable installer-repairer.................. 338 Line erector ................................ 369 Line erector apprentice ................ 369 Tower erector.............................. 369 Safety inspector ........................... 41 Voltage tester.............................. 340 Tower erector helper .................... 369 Electrician, office......................... 331, 340 Maintenance inspector.................. 340 Station installer-and-repairer......... 341 Central-office repairer .................. 331 Maintenance mechanic, telephone . 341 Private-branch-exchange repairer ... 341 Technician, plant and maintenance ............................ 221 Technician, submarine cable equipment................................ 331 Cable tester.................................. 338 333 Central-office installer.................. 331 Transmission tester....................... Trouble locator, test desk ............ 331 Line installer-repairer .................. 338 Private-branch-exchange installer .. 341 Frame wirer ................................ 331 Electrician.................................... 369 Electrician apprentice.................... 369 Airport electrician ....................... 340 Electric distribution checker ......... 369 Neon-sign servicer....................... 336 Street-light servicer ..................... 340 Electrician................................... 340, 369 Night patrol inspector .................. 336 Neon tube pumper....................... 336 Electrical repairer......................... 340 Electrician................................... 340, 450 Electrician, airplane..................... 340 Electrician, automotive ................. 324,328, 340 Electrician, locomotive ................ 340 Elevator repairer.............................340, 348, 369 Elevator-repairer apprentice........... 340, 369 Elevator constructor..................... 348 Aircraft mechanic electrical and radio ....................................... 340 Top-lift and automatic window repairer ................................... 324, 340 Controller repairer and tester......... 340 Electrical and radio mock-up mechanic.................................. 340 Electrical inspector....................... 340 Electrician, marine....................... 340 Electrician apprentice, marine....... 340 Third-rail installer ....................... 340 Elevator constructor helper ........... 348 Electrical-appliance servicer ......... 330 Electrical-appliance service apprentice ................................ 330 Refrigeration mechanic ................ 345 Air conditioning installer.............. 330, 345 Electrical-appliance repairer ......... 330 Household-appliance installer....... 330 Electronic-organ technician........... 353 Field engineer.............................. 335 Electronics mechanic .................... 335 Equipment installer ..................... 340 Automatic-door mechanic ............. 369 Electrical repairer......................... 340, 369 Cable splicer..................................338, 340, 369 Cable-splicer apprentice..................338, 340, 369 Cable-splicer helper..................... 338 Electrician helper......................... 455 Painter......................................... 377 D.O.T. Number -014 -018 840.681-010 841.381-010 842.361-018 -022 -026 842.381-010 -014 842.644-010 842.681-010 844.364-010 -014 844.461-010 844.684-010 845.381-010 -014 845.681-010 850.662-010 -014 850.663-010 -014 -018 -022 -026 850.683-010 -018 -022 -026 -030 -034 -038 -042 -046 851.663-010 853.663-010 -014 -022 853.683 853.685-010 859.362-010 .682-010 -014 -018 859.683 860.281 through 860.381-054 860.664-014 861.361-010 -014 861.381-010 -014 -018 -022 -026 -030 -038 -042 -046 -050 -054 -058 -062 861.684-010 -014 -018 SOC Code 6442 6442 6442 6443 6444 6444 6444 6424 6444 6424 6424 6463 6463 6463 6463 7669 7669 6442 6474 7678 8316 8317 8245 8317 8316 8317 8316 8317 8316 8316 6474 8317 8316 8317 8316 6466 6466 6466 4666, 6466, 8317 6466 6474 6474 6474 6476 8312, 6466 6422 8642 6413 6413 6412 6412 6412 6412 6412 6413 6413 6413 6463 6463 6414 6414 6414 6412 6412 6414 D.O.T. Title Page 377 Painter apprentice, shipyard ....... 377 Painter, shipyard......................... Painter, stage setting .................. 377 Paperhanger .............................. 377 Plasterer .................................... 379 Plasterer apprentice .................... 379 Plasterer, molding ..................... 379 368 Dry-wall applicator .................... Stucco mason ............................. 379 Taper ......................................... 368 Dry-wall applicator .................... 368 366 Cement mason ........................... 366 Cement mason apprentice ........... Concrete-stone finisher .............. 366 Concrete rubber ......................... 366 434 Painter apprentice, automotive ... Painter, transportation equipment . 434 377 Railroad car letterer.................... Horizontal-earth-boring-machine 452 operator.................................. 452 Rock-drill operator..................... Dredge operator ......................... 455 Elevating-grader operator............ 452 Lock tender .............................. 452 452 Motor-grader operator ................ 387 Stripping-shovel operator............ Bulldozer operator I .................... . 387, 452 Dragline operator....................... 452 Form-grader operator.................. 452 Mucking-machine operator ......... 452 Power-shovel operator................ . 387, 452 Rock-drill operator I .................. 452 Scraper operator......................... 452 Tower-excavator operator............ 452 452 Utility-tractor operator................ 452 Septic-tank installer .................... 452 Asphalt-paving-machine operator . 452 Concrete-paving-machine operator 452 Stone spreader operator.............. Operating engineers.................... 387 Asphalt-heater tender.................. Well-drill operator ..................... Earth-boring-machine operator .. . Foundation-drill operator............ Pile-driver operator .................... Operating engineers.................... 455 452 452 452 452 452 Carpenters.................................. 364 Joiner helper.............................. Composition-stone applicator . . . . Monument setter......................... Acid-tank liner........................... Bricklayer.................................. Bricklayer.................................. Bricklayer apprentice.................. Bricklayer, firebrick and refractory tile ......................... Marble setter.............................. Stonemason................................ Stonemason apprentice................ Terrazzo worker......................... Terrazzo-worker apprentice......... Tile setter.................................. Tile setter apprentice .................. Tile-conduit layer....................... Cupola patcher........................... Patcher ...................................... Tile setter .................................. 455 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 363 366 366 385 385 385 363 363 385 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) lndex/469 SOC D .O .T . N um ber Code D .O .T . T itle 861.687-010 8641 862.261-010 862.281-010 -014 -018 645 645 645 645 862.361-010 -014 -018 862.381-010 645 645 645 645 -014 -018 -022 -026 -030 -034 862.681-010 862.682-010 862.684-014 -022 -034 645 645 645 645 645 645 645 645 871 8645 645 Bricklayer helper, firebrick and refractory tile ......................... Pipe fitter .................................. Coppersmith.............................. Coppersmith apprentice.............. Oil burner servicer and installer.................................. Furnace installer......................... Gas-main fitter........................... Pipe fitter, diesel engine I ........... Aircraft mechanic, plumbing and hydraulics .............................. Industrial-gas fitter..................... Pipe fitter .................................. Pipe fitter diesel engine I I ........... Pipe fitter apprentice .................. Plumber..................................... Plumber apprentice..................... Plumber..................................... Pipe cutter.................................. Laborer, construction or leak .. .. Pipe-fitter helper......................... Water softener servicer and installer.................................. Insulation worker apprentice ....... Insulation workers ..................... 863.364-010 863.381 thru 863.664 863.684-010 6465 6465 863.685-010 6465 864.381-010 864.481-010 864.687-010 865.381-010 -014 866.381-010 -014 .684-010 869.281-010 6462 6462 8648 6464 6464 6468 6468 6468 6167 869.361-018 869.381-010 -034 869.664-014 869.683-014 869.684-022 -050 869.685-010 869.687-026 900.683-010 902.683-010 903.683-010 -014 -018 904.383-010 904.683-010 905.483-010 905.663-010 -014 -018 905.683-010 906 909.127-010 911.131-010 911.364-010 911.584-010 911.687-022 6422 6422 6422 6479 8314 6479 6424 7675 871 8213 8213 8213 8213 8213 8212 8212 8213 8213 8213 8212 8213 8214 1342 71 8243 8244 8243 6465 Composition-weatherboard applier.................................... Insulation power unit tender..................................... Carpet layer .............................. Floor layer ................................ Carpet-layer helper..................... Glazier....................................... Glazier apprentice ..................... Roofer....................................... Roofer apprentice....................... Roofer applicator....................... Furnace installer and repairer, hot a i r .................................... Sign erector and repairer............ House repairer ........................... Timber framer ........................... Construction worker I ................ Rigger....................................... Fence erector ............................ Sheetrock applicator.................... Kettle tender.............................. Construction worker I I ................ Concrete-mixing-truck driver . . . . Dump-truck driver ..................... Explosives-truck driver .............. Powder-truck driver.................... Tank-truck driver....................... Tractor-trailer-truck driver........... Log-truck driver......................... Milk driver................................ Garbage collector driver ............ Truck driver, heavy .................... Van driver.................................. Water-truck driver II .................. Local truckdrivers ..................... Safety coordinator ..................... Boatswain .................................. Able seaman.............................. Marine oiler .............................. Deckhand .................................. P age 455 380 380 380 345 345 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 455 455 380 374 374 364 374 371 371 371 372 372 382 382 382 345 . 336, 364 364 364 455 375 455 368 455 455 442 442 . 442, 443 . 442, 443 . 442, 443 443 443 443 442 . 442, 443 442 442 442 41 450 450 450 450 SO C D .O .T . N u m ber Code -030 913.463-010 921.260-010 921.663-014 -030 -054 -058 -062 929.683-014 930.382-010 930.482-010 930.665-010 8243 8215 6177 8315 8314 8315 8315 8315 8318 654 654 654 930.666-014 930.683-010 656 654 -014 931.261-010 932.683-014 950.362 through .585 950.362-014 951.685-010 -014 -018 951.686-010 952.381-010 955.362-010 654 653 8316 8319, 6931-2, 7679 6931 696 7668 7668 8725 6881 691 955.585-010 691 961.367-010 961 667-010 962.162-010 962.167-010 962.281-014 -018 962.362-014 962.381-014 4450 445 1341 3719 399 399 399 399 -018 962.384-010 962.665-010 970.281-010 -018 970.361-014 970.381-010 -018 -034 970.661-014 970.681-026 971.261-010 971.382-018 6862 399 7679 6863 6868 6863 6868 6863 6868 6863 6863 6823 7644 -014 971.684-010 971.685-010 972.281-010 -014 -018 972.381-010 972.382-014 973.381-010 974.381-010 974.382-014 7444 7756 7644 6842 6842 6842 6842 7444 6841 6849 6849 D .O .T . Title P age Ordinary seaman ....................... 450 Bus driver.................................. . 439,440 375 Rigger....................................... 452 Cherry picker operator................ 452 Hoisting engineer....................... 452 Tower crane operator.................. 452 Tractor-crane operator ................ 452 Truck-crane operator .................. 452 Tractor operator ......................... 387 Driller machine ......................... Drilling-machine operator........... . 387,388 Long-wall-mining-machine 387 tender..................................... Tailer......................................... 387 Continuous-mining-machine 387 operator.................................. 387 Cutter operator........................... 387 Blaster....................................... 387 Loading-machine operator........... 419 Stationary engineers.................... Refrigerating engineer................ 450 Firer, high pressure .................... . 423, 450 Firer, low pressure..................... 423 423 Firer, marine.............................. 423 Fuel-house attendant .................. 340 Switch inspector......................... Wastewater-treatment-plant 421 operator.................................. Wastewater-treatment-plant 421 attendant................................ 245 Model, photographers’ .............. 245 221 Director, technical ..................... 221 Manager, sound effects .............. 221 Sound-effects technician ............ 221 Special effects specialist ............ 221 Light technician ......................... Lighting-equipment operator .................................. 340 Miniature-set constructor............ 201 221 Microphone-boom operator....... Dubbing-machine operator......... 414 Airbrush artist ......................... 414 414 Photograph retoucher................ Repeat chief............................ 413 414 Colorist, photograph ................ Lay-out former......................... 201 Spotter, photographic................ 414 Letterer.................................... . 201, 202 Painter, animated cartoons......... 201 Etcher, hand............................ 413 Repeat photocomposing machine operator................................ 43 Photographer, photoengraving ... 413 Blocker .................................... 413 Roller-print tender.................... 413 Process artist ........................... . 408, 414 Process stripper ....................... 408 Process artist, apprentice........... . 408, 414 Lithographic platemaker ........... 408 Photographer, lithographic......... 408 Compositor.............................. 398 Electrotyper.............................. 424 424 Stereotyper .............................. 470/Occupational Outlook Handbook SOC Code 7820, 7479, 6868 .381-014 through 6849, 6868, .564-010; 7671, 7753, 4752 D.O.T. Number 976.267 through .361-010; soc D.O.T. Title Photographic process workers . . . . Page 414 *4513, 4515, 4623-4, 4649, 4699, 4733, 4793, 4799 2 4153, 4232-7, 4239, 4242-6, 4249, 4342-8, 4351-4, 4356, 4359, 4362, 4366-7, 4369, 4450 3382, 4757, 5512-5, 5611-7, 5619, 5621-2, 5624-7, 573, 71 471, 7332-3, 7339, 7532-3, 7714, 7717, 7720 5 4753, 6863, 725, 7671, 7678, 7720, 7753, 7757, 7759, 782. D.O.T. Number Code .665-010 through (5) .685-030; and .687-014 through .687-022 977.381-010 6844 979.682-014 7645 D.O.T. Title Bookbinder................................... Blueprinting machine operator . . . . Page 396 414 Index to Occupations P age A Able seamen, see: Merchant marine sailors.................. Academic librarians........................................................ Account clerks, see : Bank clerks .................................. Account executives, see: Advertising workers................................................ Securities sales w orkers.......................................... Accountants .................................................................... Accounting clerks, see: Bookkeepers and accounting clerks .................................................... Acquisitions librarians.................................................... Actors and actresses........................................................ Actuaries.......................................................................... Adjusters, claim, insurance............................................ Administrative and managerial occupations.................. Administrative assistants, see: City m anagers.............. Administrative dietitians ................................................ Administrative secretaries .............................................. Administrative support occupations, including clerical . Administrators, health services...................................... Administrators, medical reco rd ...................................... Administrators, school.................................................... Admissions counselors, see: College student personnel workers.................................................... Adult services librarians ................................................ Advertising managers .................................................... Advertising workers........................................................ Aeronautical technicians ................................................ Aerospace engineers........................................................ Affirmative action coordinators, see: Personnel and labor relations specialists .............. Agency cashiers.............................................................. Agents, see: Real estate agents and brokers ................ Agents and brokers, insurance ...................................... Agricultural accountants ................................................ Agricultural and biological scientists ............................ Agricultural and forestry occupations.................... Agricultural chemical sales w orkers.............................. Agricultural commodity graders, see: Agricultural occupations ........................................ Health-regulatory inspectors .................................. Agricultural economists.................................................. Agricultural engineers .................................................... Agricultural journalists .................................................. Agricultural marketing specialists.................................. Agricultural occupations ................................................ Agricultural pilots .......................................................... Agricultural quarantine inspectors.................................. Agricultural technicians.................................................. See also: Agricultural occupations ........................ Agricultural vocational teachers .................................... Agronomists, see: Agricultural occupations ........................................ Agricultural and biological scientists .................... Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics .............. Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration m echanics................................................................ Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration technicians Air safety inspectors ...................................................... Air traffic controllers...................................................... 450 .138 .256 .235 .250 . .23 .259 .138 .212 ....... 22 J ........ 28 . . . .160 . . . . 2 70 .. . . 255 ........ 34 ........40 ........ 47 ........30 . . . .138 . . . .236 . . . .235 . . . . 22 4 ........58 ........43 . . . .241 .. . . 247 . . . . 2 42 . . . .315 ....... 88 . . . .313 . . . .315 . . . .316 ........ 36 . . . .315 59, 314 . .. .315 . .. .315 . . . .313 . .. .315 ........ 36 . .. .225 . .. .314 .. . .315 .. ..314 ....... 88 . ...345 . . . .345 . . . .224 ........ 36 . . . .219 Page Aircraft mechanics.........................................................................321 See also : Agricultural occupations .......................................313 Airline reservation and ticket agents .......................................... 255 Airplane pilots ...............................................................................445 Airport traffic controllers...............................................................219 Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors.....................................36 All-round darkroom technicians, see: Photographic process w orkers.............................................. 414 Ambulance attendants, see: Emergency medical technicians...............................................................................180 Ambulance drivers, see: Emergency medical technicians...............................................................................180 Anatomists, see: Agricultural and biological scientists .................................................................................. 88 Animal caretakers, see: Agricultural occupations ...................... 313 Animal scientists, see: Agricultural and biological scientists ................................................................ 89 Animators, see: Commercial artists ........................................ .201 Announcers, radio and television .................................................195 Anthropologists...............................................................................101 Anthropometrists ...........................................................................102 Appliance repairers ...................................................................... 330 Arc welders .................................................................................. 436 Archeologists, see: Anthropologists .............................................101 Architects ........................................................................................ 51 Architects, landscape...................................................................... 53 Archivists, see: Historians.............................................................106 Armed Forces, see: Military occupations .................................. 457 Art directors, see: Advertising workers.............................................................. 235 Commercial a rtists................................................................ 201 Artists, commercial, see: Advertising workers.............................................................. 235 Commercial a rtists................................................................ 201 Artists’ models ............................................................................ 245 Assemblers.................................................................................... 433 Assistant city m anagers.................................................................. 28 Assistant principals, see: School administrators............................ 47 Assistant professors, see: College and university faculty ................................................................... 131 Assistant superintendents, see: School administrators.................. 47 Associate professors, see: College and university faculty ...................................................................131 Astrogeologists................................................................................ 81 Astronomers.................................................................................... 75 Astrophysicists, see: Astronomers ................................................ 75 Attorneys ........................................................................................ 97 Audio control technicians, see: Broadcast technicians.............................................................................. 221 Audiologists ...................................................................................172 Audiovisual librarians ...................................................................138 Automatic transmission specialists, see: Automobile mechanics...........................................................324 Automobile air-conditioning specialists, see: Automobile mechanics...........................................................324 Automobile body repairers ...........................................................323 Automobile electricians, see: Automobile m echanics.............................................................................. 324 Automobile-glass mechanics, see: Automobile m echanics......................................................................... .324 Automobile mechanics.................................................................. 324 471 472/Occupational Outlook Handbook Page Automobile painters...................................................................... 434 See also: Automobile body repairers ...................................323 Automobile parts counter managers .............................................237 Automobile parts counter workers ...............................................237 Automobile-radiator mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics...........................................................324 Automobile repair service estimators ...........................................394 Automobile sales workers ............................................................ 239 Automobile service advisors see: Automobile repair service estimators .......................................................394 Auxiliary equipment operators, see: Computer operating personnel ...............................................................263 B Bank clerk s.................................................................................... 256 Bank officers and managers ...........................................................25 Bank tellers.....................................................................................258 Barbers ...........................................................................................307 Bartender helpers ...........................................................................290 Bartenders...................................................................................... 290 Beauticians, s e e : Cosmetologists .................................................309 Beauty operators, s e e Cosmetologists...........................................309 Bell captains.................................................................................. 308 Bellhops and bell captains.............................................................308 Bench coremakers, s e e : Coremakers ...........................................399 Bench molders, s e e : Molders ...................................................... 409 Bench technicians, s e e : Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.............................................................................. 410 Benefits specialists, s e e : Personnel and labor relations specialists.................................................................. 43 Bibliographers, see: Librarians .....................................................138 Biochemists...................................................................................... 90 Biographers, see: Historians .........................................................106 Biological oceanographers.............................................................. 84 Biological scientists, see: Agricultural and biological scientists .................................................................88 Biological technicians ........................................................ 225, 314 Biologists, see: Agricultural and biological scientists ...................................................................................88 Biomedical engineers.......................................................................60 Blasters, see: Coal mining operatives................................ 387, 388 Blue-collar worker supervisors .................................................... 390 Boatswains, see: Merchant marine sailors .................................. 450 Body repairers, automobile ...........................................................323 Boiler tenders................................................................................ 423 S e e a l s o : Stationary engineers.............................................. 419 Boilermakers.................................................................................. 395 Boilermaking occupations .............................................................395 Book designers...............................................................................202 Bookbinders and bindery w orkers.................................................354 Bookkeepers.................................................................................. 259 S e e a l s o : Bank clerk s............................................................ 256 Bookkeepers and accounting clerks .............................................259 Bookkeeping machine operators, s e e : Bank clerks .....................257 Bookmobile librarians ...................................................................138 Bordereau clerks, s e e : Typists...................................................... 276 Bosuns, s e e : Merchant marine sailors ........................................ 450 Botanists, s e e : Agricultural and biological scientists ...................................................................................88 Bowling-pin-machine mechanics, s e e : Pinsetter m echanics.............................................................................. 354 Box office cashiers........................................................................ 240 Braille operators, s e e : Typists...................................................... 276 Braille typists, s e e : Typists .......................................................... 276 Brake mechanics, s e e : Automobile mechanics.............................324 Page Bricklayers ..................................................................................... 363 Bricklayers and stonemasons.........................................................363 Bricklayers’ tenders, see: Construction laborers...................................................................................455 Broadcast technicians.....................................................................221 Brokers, real estate.........................................................................247 Building inspectors........................................................................... 32 Bulldozer operators, See: Coal mining operatives .........................................................387 Operating Engineers.................................................................452 Bus mechanics ............................................................................... 328 Busdrivers, intercity....................................................................... 439 Busdrivers, local tran sit.................................................................440 Business machine repairers ...........................................................346 B uyers............................................................................................... 26 C Cable splicers, see: Line installers and cable splicers ......................................................................... 338 Camera operators, printing, see: Lithographers .........................408 Captain, see: Airplane pilots .......................................................................445 Merchant marine officers.......................................................447 Card-type converter operators, see: Bank clerks .........................256 Career planning counselors, college, see: College career planning and placement counselors........................................................................... 129 College student personnel workers .........................................30 Carpenters....................................................................................... 364 Carpet installers, see: Floor covering installers .................. 371 Cartographers, see: Geographers ...................................................77 Cartoonists .....................................................................................201 Caseworkers, see: Social w orkers................................................. 119 Cashiers...........................................................................................240 Cashier checkers............................................................................. 241 Casualty insurance agents ............................................................. 242 Catalogers, see: Librarians ........................................................... 138 Catholic priests............................................................................... 127 Cement masons and terrazzo workers...........................................366 Central office craft occupations ..................................................331 Central office equipment installers ............................................. 333 Central office operators, telephone..............................................274 Central office repairers, telephone ..............................................331 Ceramic engineers ........................................................................... 60 Certified public accountants ...........................................................23 Chain workers, see: Surveyors .......................................................54 Check encoders, see: Bank clerks.................................................256 Check inscribers, see : Bank c le rk s...............................................256 Check-out clerks, see: Cashiers ...................................................241 Checkers, see: D rafters................................................................................... 222 Cashiers................................................................................... 241 Chefs, see: Cooks and c h e fs.........................................................291 Chemical engineers .........................................................................61 Chemical mixers, see: Photographic process w orkers.................414 Chemical oceanographers ............................................................... 85 Chemical technicians..................................................................... 225 Chem ists........................................................................................... 76 Chief cooks, see: Merchant marine sailors .................................450 Chief engineers, see: Merchant marine officers.......................................................448 Broadcast technicians............................................................... 221 Chief mates, see: Merchant marine officers ...............................448 Chief officers, see: Merchant marine officers .............................448 Index to Occupations and lndustries/473 Page Chief stewards, see: Merchant marine sailors ............................ 450 Child health associates...................................................................167 Child welfare workers, see: Social w orkers................................. 119 Children’s librarians ..................................................................... 138 Chiropractors ................................................................................. 147 Circulation clerks, see: Library technicians and assistants .........................................................................229 City managers...................................................................................28 City planners ................................................................................. 117 Civil engineering technicians.........................................................224 Civil engineers.................................................................................62 Claim adjusters, insurance............................................................ 260 Claim examiners, insurance...........................................................261 Claim representatives, insurance...................................................260 Classifiers, see: Librarians ........................................................... 138 Cleaning and building service occupations .................................305 Clerk-typists ...................................................................................276 Clerks, see: Account clerks, bank clerks .................................................256 Accounting clerks, bookkeeping w orkers.............................259 Bank clerk s.............................................................................256 Bookkeeping clerks ...............................................................259 Check-out clerks, cashiers.....................................................241 Clerk-typists...........................................................................276 Control clerks, bank clerks ...................................................256 Distribution clerks, postal clerks...........................................268 Exchange clerks, bank clerks ...............................................256 Interest clerks, bank clerks ...................................................256 Medical record clerks ........................................................... 186 Mortgage clerks, bank clerks ...............................................256 Postal c le rk s ...........................................................................268 Posting clerks, bank clerks ...................................................256 Rack clerks, hotel .................................................................264 Reconcilement clerks, bank clerks .......................................256 Recording clerks, bank c le rk s...............................................256 Reservation clerks, h o te l.......................................................265 Room and desk clerks, h o te l.................................................265 Transit clerks, bank clerks.....................................................256 Trust securities clerks, bank clerk s.......................................256 Window clerks, postal clerks ...............................................268 Climatologic geographers ...............................................................77 Climatologists, see: Meteorologists ...............................................83 Clinical dietitians........................................................................... 160 Clinical laboratory w orkers........................................................... 184 Coal mining operatives .................................................................387 Collection w orkers.........................................................................262 College and university faculty ..................................................... 131 College career planning and placement counselors .....................129 College placement officers, see : College career planning and placement counselors........................................................................... 129 College student personnel workers .........................................30 College student personnel workers .................................................30 College union staff members...........................................................30 Color-laboratory technicians, see: Photographic process workers .....................................................................414 Color-printer operators, see: Photographic process workers .................................................................... 414 Commercial account underwriters...................................................49 Commercial and graphic artists and designers.................. 201, 235 Commercial decorators .................................................................204 Commercial photographers ...........................................................209 Commercial tellers, see: Bank te lle rs...........................................258 Commodity loan clerks, see: Bank clerks ...................................256 Communication-center operators, see: Telephone operators.................................................................................274 Communications occupations ....................................................... 193 Page Community dietitians.....................................................................160 Community health nurses .............................................................169 Community outreach librarians ..................................................... 138 Community planners ......................... 117 Compensation analysts, see: Personnel, and labor relations specialists............ ........................................... 43 Compensation managers, see : Personnel and labor relations specialists.............. \ .....................................43 Compositors .......................................... ^..................................... 398 Computer operating personnel................ \ ...................................263 Computer operators, see: Computer operating personnel............................................ \ . .................................263 Computer programmers, see: Programmers^................................230 Computer service technicians ....................\ . ...............................335 Conservationists, s o il................................. \ ............................... 95 Console operators, see: Bank clerics............................................A ..............................256 Computer operating personnel................ \ ...........................263 Construction and extractive occupations . . . . a...........................360 Construction electricians ................................... 369 Construction inspectors (government)............................................ 32 Construction laborers.................................................................... 455 Construction machinery operators, see: Operating engineers.............................................................. 452 Construction occupations.............................................................. 361 Consumer safety inspectors............................................................ 36 Continuous mining machine operators, see: Coal mining operatives............................................................. 387 Contour wire specialists, denture, see: Dental laboratory technicians .............................................. 401 Control clerks, see: Bank c le rk s.................................................. 256 Cooks and ch e fs............................................................................ 291 Cooperative extension service workers.........................................133 See also : Agricultural occupations ...................................... 315 Copilots.......................................................................................... 445 Copywriters.................................................................................... 235 Coremakers (foundry) .................................................................. 399 Corporate designers, see: Industrial designers ............................ 206 Correction officers........................................................................ 280 Correction sergeants...................................................................... 280 Correspondent bank officers .......................................................... 25 Correspondents, see: Reporters and correspondents .......................................................................196 Cosmetologists...............................................................................309 Counselors, see: College career planning and placement counselors...........................................................................129 College student personnel workers ........................................ 30 Employment counselors....................................................... .134 Rehabilitation counselors.......................................................141 School counselors...................................................................143 Counter workers, fo o d .................................................................. 293 Country collection clerks, see: Bank clerk s................................ 257 Court reporters.............................................................................. 270 Cow testers, see: Agricultural occupations .................................315 Crane operators, see: Operating engineers.................................. 452 Credit m anagers...............................................................................33 Cryptographic-machine operators, see: Typists .......................... 276 Curators, see: Historians...............................................................106 Customer engineers, see: Business machine repairers ...................................................346 Computer service technicians .............................................. 335 Customers’ brokers, see: Securities sales workers .................................................................................. 250 Customs inspectors.......................................................................... 36 Cutter operators, see: Coal mining operatives.............................387 Cytotechnologists, see: Medical laborataory workers........................ 184 474/Occupational Outlook Handbook Page D Dancers.......................................................................................... 214 Darkroom technicians, see: Photographic process workers .................................................................... 414 Data converting machine operators, see: Bank clerks...................................................................................... 256 Data examination clerks................................................................ 256 Data typists, see: Bank c le rk s...................................................... 256 Dean of students, see: College student personnel workers ..................................................................... 30 Deck officers, see: Merchant marine officers ............................ 447 Deck utility hands, see: Merchant marine sailors ...................... 450 Dental assistants............................................................................ 298 Dental ceramists, see: Dental laboratory technicians.............................................................................. 401 Dental hygienists ...........................................................................175 Dental laboratory technicians ......................... 401 Dentists...........................................................................................148 Denture contour wire specialists.................................................. 401 Departmental head assistants, see: City managers.................................................................................. 28 Deputy sheriffs.............................................................................. 287 Design occupations ...................................................................... 201 Designers ...................................................................................... 201 Designers, b o o k ............................................................................ 202 Designers, floral............................................................................ 204 Designers, g raphic........................................................................ 202 Designers, industrial .................................................................... 206 Designers, interior ........................................................................ 207 Designers, package ...................................................................... 202 Designers, te x tile .......................................................................... 202 Desk attendants, see: Library technicians and assistants ........................................................................ 229 Detailers, see: Drafters ................................................................ 222 Detectives, see: Police officers.................................................... 286 Developers, see: Photographic process workers ........................ 414 Diemakers, see: Tool-and-die m akers.......................................... 417 Diesel mechanics .......................................................................... 328 Diesinkers, see: Forge shop occupations .................................... 425 Dietetic educators...........................................................................160 Dietitians.........................................................................................160 Dining room attendants and dishwashers, see: Waiters assistants and kitchen helpers ................................ 296 Directors of adm issions.................................................................. 30 Directors of placement.................................................................... 30 Directors of residence l i f e .............................................................. 30 Directors of student affairs ............................................................ 30 Directory assistance operators.......................................................274 Dishwashers, see: Waiter’s assistants and kitchen helpers.................................................................................... 296 Dispensing opticians .....................................................................402 See also : Optometrists ............................................................... 150 Display workers (retail trade) ...................................................... 203 Distribution clerks, see: Postal clerks.......................................... 268 Doctors, medical ...........................................................................153 Doctors, osteopathic.......................................................................152 Drafters.......................................................................................... 222 Dragline operators, see: Coal mining operatives.........................387 Drilling machine operators, see: Coal mining operatives .............................................................................. 387 Drivers, see: Intercity busdrivers................................................................ 439 Local transit busdrivers ........................................................ 440 Local truckdrivers ................................................................ 442 Long-distance truckdrivers .................................................. 443 Page Druggists, see: Pharmacists.......................................................... 163 Drywall installers and finishers.................................................... 368 E Ecologists, see: Agricultural and biological scientists .................89 Economic geographers..................................................................... 77 Economic geologists ....................................................................... 81 Economists..................................................................................... 104 Editors, see: Writers and editors................................................... 199 EEG technicians............................................................................. 179 EEG technologists......................................................................... 179 EKG technicians ...........................................................................177 Electric sign repairers ................................................................... 336 Electrical engineers ......................................................................... 62 Electrical inspectors......................................................................... 32 Electricians, see also: Central office craft occupations ...........................................331 Merchant marine sailors.........................................................450 Electricians, construction............................................................... 369 Electricians, maintenance ............................................................. 340 Electrocardiograph technicians ..................................................... 177 Eilectroencephalographic technicians............................................. 179 E'lectroencephalographic technologists ......................................... 179 Electronic computer programmers.................................................230 Electronic engineers, see: Electrical engineers .............................62 Electronic organ technicians ......................................................... 354 Electronic reader-sorter operators, see: Bank clerks....................................................................................... 256 Electronics technicians...................................................................224 E'lectrotypers and stereotypers.......................................................424 Elementary school teachers........................................................... 135 Eilevator constructors ..................................................................... 348 Eilevator mechanics, see: Elevator constructors ...........................348 Embryologists, see: Agricultural and biological scientists ................................................................. 88 Emergency medical technicians ................................................... 180 Employment counselors................................................................. 134 Employment interviewers, personnel .............................................43 Esncoders, see: Bank clerks ...........................................................256 Eindodontists................................................................................... 148 Engineering aides, see: Engineering and science technicians................................................................. 223 Engineering and science technicians.............................................223 Engineering geologists..................................................................... 81 Engineering technicians................................................................. 223 Engineers ......................................................................................... 57 See also : Aerospace engineers.........................................................58 Agricultural engineers .....................................................59 Biomedical engineers.......................................................60 Ceramic engineers ...........................................................60 Chemical engineers .........................................................61 Civil engineers.................................................................62 Electrical engineers .........................................................62 Electronic engineers.........................................................62 Industrial engineers .........................................................63 Mechanical engineers.......................................................63 Metallurgical engineers ...................................................64 Mining engineers ............................................................. 64 Petroleum engineers......................................................... 65 Engineers, stationary .....................................................................419 Engineers, surveyors and architects ...............................................51 Enroute controllers, air traffic.......................................................219 Entomologists................................................................................... 88 Environmental health inspectors .....................................................36 Index to Occupations and lndustries/475 Page Ethnologists, see: Anthropologists ............................................... 101 Exchange clerks, see: Bank clerks .............................................. 256 Experimental machinists, see: Instrument makers (mechanical)...........................................................................405 Exploration geophysicists ...............................................................82 Extension agents, see: Cooperative extension service workers....................................................................... 133 Extractive occupations...................................................................387 F Family service workers, see: Social workers ...............................119 Farm equipment m echanics................................................ 315, 326 Farm equipment sales workers, see: Agricultural occupations.............................................................................315 Farm laborers, see: Agricultural occupations..............................313 Farm operators, see: Agricultural occupations.............................313 Farm supervisors, see: Agricultural occupations........................ 314 Farmers, see: Agricultural occupations .......................................313 Fashion illustrators.........................................................................201 Fashion m odels...............................................................................245 FBI special agents .........................................................................282 Field engineers, see: Business machine repairers ...................................................346 Computer service technicians ...............................................335 Field technicians, see: Broadcast technicians...............................221 Financial aid counselors...................................................................30 Financial aid o fficers.......................................................................30 Finishers, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.......................410 Fire protection engineers................................................................ 41 Firefighters.....................................................................................282 Firers/watertenders, see: Merchant marine sailors .....................................................................................450 First assistant engineers, see: Merchant marine officers ...................................................................................448 First mates, see: Merchant marine officers .................................448 Fitters, boilermaking occupations.................................................395 Fitting models ...............................................................................245 Flight attendants.............................................................................311 Flight engineers, see: Airplane p ilo ts.......................................... 445 Floor coremakers, see: Coremakers .............................................399 Floor covering installers ...............................................................371 Floor covering mechanics .............................................................371 Floor molders, see : M olders.........................................................409 Floral designers .............................................................................204 Food and beverage preparation and service occupations.............................................................................290 Food counter workers ...................................................................293 Food inspectors ...............................................................................36 Food technologists...........................................................................91 Foreign buyers .................................................................................26 Foreign student advisers .................................................................30 Foremen and forewomen...............................................................390 Foresters ...........................................................................................92 Forestry a id e s .................................................................................318 Forestry technicians............................................................... 313,318 Forge shop occupations.................................................................425 Frame wirers, see : Telephone central office craft occupations.....................................................................331 Freelance reporters......................................................................... 196 Front-end mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics .....................324 Front-office cashiers.......................................................................241 Front-office clerks, h o te l...............................................................265 Furnace installers, see: Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanics .....................................345 Furniture upholsterers ...................................................................404 Gas appliance servicers................................................................ 330 Gas burner mechanics, see: Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanics .................................. 345 Gas fitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters .................................. 380 Gas welders .................................................................................. 436 Genealogists, see: Historians.........................................................106 General bookkeepers .................................................................... 259 General stenographers .................................................................. 270 Geochemists, see: Geologists ........................................................ 80 Geochronologists, see: Geologists ................................................ 80 Geodesists, see: Geophysicists ...................................................... 82 Geographers .................................................................................... 77 Geological oceanographers ............................................................ 81 See also: Oceanographers ...................................................... 85 Geological technicians.................................................................. 225 Geologists........................................................................................ 80 Geomagneticians, see: Geophysicists............................................ 82 Geomorphologists, see: Geologists................................................ 80 Geophysicists .................................................................................. 82 Glaziers.......................................................................................... 372 Graphic designers.......................................................................... 201 Grinders, see: Forge shop occupations........................................ 425 Grocery clerks, see: Cashiers ...................................................... 240 Guards............................................................................................ 284 Guidance counselors .....................................................................143 H Hairstylists, see: Barbers .................................................................................. 307 Cosmetologists...................................................................... 309 Hammer operators, see: Forge shop occupations ...................... 425 Hammersmiths, see: Forge shop occupations ............................ 425 Hand compositors, printing.......................................................... 398 Health and regulatory inspectors (government) ............................ 36 Health diagnosing and treating practitioners ...............................147 Health service occupations .......................................................... 298 Health services administrators........................................................ 34 Health technologists and technicians ...........................................175 Heat treaters, see: Forge shop occupations ................................ 425 Heaters, see: Forge shop occupations.......................................... 425 Heating mechanics........................................................................ 345 Helpers, handlers, equipment cleaners, and laborers.................................................................................. 455 High school teachers .....................................................................144 High speed printer operators, see: Bank clerks............................................................................ 256 Computer operating personnel.............................................. 263 Highway patrol officers, see: State police officers .................................................................................. 287 Histologic technicians; see: Medical laboratory workers ...................................................................................184 Historians .......................................................................................106 Hod carriers, see: Bricklayers ............................................................................ 363 Construction laborers............................................................ 455 Horticulturists.................................................................................. 89 Hospital nurses...............................................................................169 Hotel front-office clerks................................................................ 265 Hotel housekeepers and assistants................................................ 305 Hotel managers and assistants........................................................ 38 Housekeepers and assistants, hotel ............................................. .305 Hydrologic technicians.................................................................. 225 476/Occupational Outlook Handbook Page Hydrologists, see: Geophysicists..................................................82 Hygienists, dental..........................................................................175 I Immigration inspectors.................................................................... 36 Industrial buyers, see: Purchasing ag en ts...................................... 46 Industrial designers ........................................................................206 Industrial engineers ........................................................................ 63 Industrial hygienists, see: Occupational safety and health w orkers.................................................................. 41 Industrial machinery repairers...................................................... 350 Industrial n u rses............................................................................. 169 Industrial photographers................................................................ 209 Industrial engineering technicians................................................ 224 Information scientists, see: Librarians ......................................... 138 Inhalation therapy workers.............................................................171 Inspectors, construction.................................................................. 32 Inspectors, health and regulatory .................................................. 36 Instructors, see: College and university faculty.....................................................................................131 Instrument assistants........................................................................ 54 Instrument makers (mechanical) .................................................. 405 Instrument repairers, see: Central office craft occupations............................................................................ 331 Instrumentation technicians .......................................................... 225 Insulation workers .........................................................................374 Insurance agents and brokers........................................................ 242 Intercity busdrivers........................................................................ 439 Interest clerks, see: Bank clerks .................................................. 257 Interior decorators, see: Interior designers ...................................207 Interior designers ...........................................................................207 International officers, see: Bank officers and managers .......................................................................... 25 Ironworkers.....................................................................................375 J Jewelers.......................................................................................... 407 Job analysts...................................................................................... 43 Journalists, see: Reporters and correspondents ..........................196 K Keypunch operators, see: Computer operating personnel.................................................................................263 Kindergarten teachers..................................................................... 135 Kitchen helpers, see: Waiters assistants and kitchen helpers ...................................................................... 296 L Laboratory technicians, dental .................................................... 401 Laboratory workers, medical ....................................................... 184 Labor relations specialists.............................................................. 43 Laborers, construction.................................................................. 455 Land surveyors................................................................................ 54 Landscape architects ...................................................................... 53 Lawyers .......................................................................................... 97 Layout artists ...................................................................... 202, 236 Layout workers, boilermaking occupations .................................395 Legal assistants ............................................................................ 227 Page Legal secretaries ........................................................................... 270 Lens grinders, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians............................................................................... 410 Letterers ......................................................................................... 202 Letter sorting machine clerks, postal ...........................................268 Librarians .............................'..........................................................138 Library assistants ...........................................................................229 Library attendants ......................................................................... 229 Library clerk s................................................................................. 229 Library helpers............................................................................... 229 Library technicians and assistants.................................................229 Licensed practical nurses ............................................................. 183 Life insurance ag en ts..................................................................... 242 Life scientists................................................................................... 88 See also: Agricultural and biological scientists ............................................................. 88 Life underwriters .............................................................................49 Lighting technicians, see: Broadcast technicians.........................221 Limnologists, see : Oceanographers ...............................................84 Line installers and cable splicers .................................................338 Linguistic anthropologists ............................................................. 101 Linotype machine operators, printing...........................................398 Lithographers ................................................................................. 408 Loading machine operators, see: Coal mining operatives .................................................................... 387, 388 Loan officers, see: Bank officers and managers ...........................25 Local transit busdrivers .................................................................440 Local truckdrivers ......................................................................... 442 Long-distance operators, telephone .............................................274 Long-distance truckdrivers ...........................................................443 Longwall mining machine operators, see: Coal mining operatives........................................................ 387, 388 Loss control consultants, see: Occupational safety and health workers .......................................................41 M Machine coremakers, see: Coremakers .......................................399 Machine molders, see : Molders ...................................................409 Machine drillers, see: Coal mining operatives ...........................387 Machine operators, tenders, and setup w orkers...........................423 Machine tool operators .................................................................427 Machine tool setup workers .........................................................429 Machinery repairers, industrial ..................................................... 350 Machinists, all-round, see: All-round machinists............................................................................... 392 Magnetic-tape-typewriter operators...............................................277 Mail carriers................................................................................... 267 Mailhandlers, see : Postal clerks ...................................................268 Maintenance electricians ...............................................................340 Maintenance mechanics, see: Industrial machinery repairers ............................................................... 350 Maintenance technicians, see: Broadcast technicians............................................................................... 221 Management analysts, see: City managers.....................................28 Managers, city ................................................................................. 28 Manicurists, see: Cosmetologists .................................................309 Manufacturers’ sales workers......................................................... 243 Marble setters, see: Bricklayers and stonemasons ........................................................................... 363 Marine biologists, see: Oceanographers......................................... 84 Marine geologists, see: Geologists................................................. 81 Marketing and sales occupations .................................................235 Market research analysts ............................................................... 109 Marketing research workers........................................................... 236 Masters, see: Merchant marine officers .......................................448 Index to Occupations and lndustries/477 Page Material moving occupations, see: Transportation and material moving occupations ........................................ 438 Mates, see: Merchant marine officers ........................................ 447 Mathematical scientists and systems analysts ...............................68 Mathematical technicians...............................................................225 Mathematicians.................................................................................70 Meatcutters.................................................................................... 294 Meat and poultry inspectors .........................................................315 Mechanical engineers.......................................................................63 Mechanical inspectors .....................................................................32 Mechanical engineering technicians ............................................ 224 Mechanics, see: Air-conditioning mechanics...................................................345 Aircraft m echanics.................................................................321 Automobile mechanics...........................................................324 Bus mechanics .......................................................................328 Farm equipment m echanics........................................ 315, 326 Gas burner mechanics ...........................................................345 Oil burner njeghanics.............................................................345 Pinsetter ipbchanics ...............................................................355 Truck mechanics ..................................................................... 328 Vending machine mechanics.................................................356 Mechanics and repairers ...............................................................320 Media assistants.............................................................................236 Media buyers .................................................................................236 Media directors .............................................................................236 Media specialists, see: Librarians ............................................... 138 Medical assistants...........................................................................299 Medical geographers, see: Geographers.........................................77 Medical illustrators ...................................................................... 201 Medical laboratory assistants......................................................... 184 Medical laboratory technicians ..................................................... 184 Medical office assistants ...............................................................299 Medical record administrators........................................................ 40 Medical record technicians and clerks ......................................... 186 Medical secretaries.........................................................................270 Medical social workers ................................................................. 119 Medical technologists ................................................................... 184 Membership secretaries .................................................................271 Merchandise displayers, see : Display workers ...........................203 Merchandise managers, see: B uyers...............................................26 Merchant marine officers...............................................................447 Merchant marine sailors.................................................................450 Mess attendants, see: Merchant marine sailors .......................... 450 Metal patternmakers, see: Patternmakers.....................................412 Metallurgical engineers ...................................................................64 Meteorological technicians .......................................................... 225 Meteorologists .................................................................................83 Microbiologists, see: Agricultural and biological scientists .................................................................88 Military occupations.......................................................................457 Millwrights.....................................................................................351 Mineralogists, see: Geologists.........................................................81 Mining engineers .............................................................................64 Ministers, Protestant ..................................................................... 124 Mobile equipment and vehicle mechanics and repairers...................................................................................321 Model dressers, see: Display workers .........................................203 Model makers, see: Instrument makers (mechanical).......................................................................... 405 Models ...........................................................................................245 Molders (foundry) .........................................................................409 Monotype keyboard operators, printing .......................................398 Mortgage clerks, see: Bank clerks ...............................................257 Mortgage processing c le rk s...........................................................257 Motor vehicle body repairers .......................................................323 Page Motor vehicle repairers ...................................................... 324, 328 Musicians ......................................................................................215 N Natural scientists and mathematicians .......................................... 67 Neon sign repairers .......................................................................336 Newscasters, see: Radio and television announcers and newscasters...................................................195 Newspaper reporters, see: Reporters and correspondents .......................................................................196 Nurse educators, see: Registered nurses.......................................169 Nurse practitioners.........................................................................169 Nurses, see: Licensed practical nurses .....................................................183 Registered n u rses...................................................................169 Nutritionists, see: Dietitians ......................................................... 160 O Occupational health consultants .................................................... 41 Occupational health nurses ...........................................................169 Occupational safety and health inspectors, see: Health and regulatory inspectors.............................................36 Occupational safety and health w orkers........................................ 41 Occupational therapists .................................................................161 Occupational therapy assistants.................................................... 301 Oceanographers .............................................................................. 84 Oceanographic engineers, see: Oceanographers............................ 85 Office electricians, see: Central office craft occupations.................................................................... 331 Office machine repairers .............................................................. 346 Office nurses .................................................................................169 Oil burner mechanics, see: Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanics .................................. 345 Oilers, see: Merchant marine sailors........................................................ 450 Operating engineers.............................................................. 452 Operating engineers, (construction machinery operators) .............................................................................. 452 Operating room technicians, see: Surgical technicians...............................................................................190 Operations officers, see: Bank officers and managers...................................................................................25 Operators, telephone .................................................................... 274 Ophthalmic dispensers.................................................................. 402 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians .............................................. 410 Optical mechanics ........................................................................ 410 Opticians, dispensing.................................................................... 402 Optometric assistants .................................................................... 302 Optometric technicians, see: Optometric assistants.....................302 Optometrists...................................................................................150 Oral pathologists ...........................................................................148 Oral surgeons.................................................................................148 Ordinary seamen, see: Merchant marine sailors ........................ 450 Ornamental ironworkers.................................................................376 Orthodontic technicians................................................................ 401 Orthodontists .................................................................................148 Orthopedic physician assistants..................................................... 167 Osteopathic physicians...................................................................152 P Package designers ........................................................................202 Painters, automobile......................................................................434 478/Occupational Outlook Handbook Page Painters, production...................................................................... 431 Painters and paperhangers.............................................................377 Paleomagneticians, see: Geophysicists...........................................82 Paleontologists, see: Geologists .....................................................81 Paperhangers.................................................................................. 377 Paralegals, see: Legal assistants .................................................. 227 Paramedics, see: Emergency medical technicians.......................180 Paraoptometrics, see: Optometric assistants.................................302 Parts counter managers, see: Automobile parts counterworkers .......................................................................237 Party chiefs, see: Surveyors and surveying • technicians.................................................................................54 Passenger agents, see: Airline reservation and ticket agents .......................................................................... 255 Paste-up workers .......................................................................... 202 Pathologists, see: Agricultural and biologic scientists.........................................88 Medical laboratory workers................................................... 184 Pathologists, speech.......................................................................172 Patrol officers, see: Police officers........................................................................ 286 State police officers .............................................................. 287 Patternmakers (foundry) .............................................................. 412 PBX attendants, see: Telephone operators...................................274 PBX installers and repairers, telephone .......................................341 PBX operators, see: Telephone operators ...................................294 PBX repairers................................................................................ 341 Pedodontists ...................................................................................148 Perforator typists, see: Typists .................................................... 276 Performing artists.......................................................................... 212 Periodontists...................................................................................148 Personal service occupations........................................................ 307 Personnel and labor relations specialists ...................................... 43 Petroleum engineers........................................................................ 65 Petroleum geologists .......................................................................81 Pharmacists.....................................................................................163 Pharmacologists, see: Agricultural and biological scientists .................................................................88 Photocheckers and assemblers, see: Photographic process workers .................................................................... 414 Photoengravers.............................................................................. 413 Photofinishing laboratory workers................................................ 414 Photogrammetrists, see : Surveyors and surveying technicians.............................................................. 55 Photograph retouchers, see: Photographic process workers .................................................................... 414 Photographers........................ 209 Photographic models, see: M odels...............................................245 Photographic process w orkers...................................................... 414 Photographic technicians.............................................................. 414 Photojoumalists, see : Photographers ...........................................209 Phototypesetters, printing ............................................................ 398 Physical anthropologists.................................................................101 Physical geographers ...................................................................... 77 Physical meteorologists ................. 83 Physical oceanographers .................................................................85 Physical scientists............................................................................ 75 Physical therapist assistants.......................................................... 303 Physical therapists .........................................................................165 Physician assistants .......................................................................167 Physicians, medical .....................................................................153 Physicians, osteopathic .................................................................152 Physicists ........... 86 Physiologists.................................................................................... 88 Piano and organ tuners and repairers ...........................................353 Piano technicians ...........................................................................353 Piano tuners .................................................................................. 353 Page Picklers, see: Forge shop occupations .......................... 425 Pilots and copilots .........................................................................445 Pinsetter mechanics ....................................................................... 354 Pipefitters ....................................................................................... 380 Pipelayers, see: Construction laborers ........................................ 455 Pipe-organ repairers....................................................................... 353 Placement directors and counselors, college, see: College career planning and placement counselors........................................................................... 129 College student personnel workers .........................................30 Plainclothes officers, see: Police officers.....................................286 Planetologists, see: Geophysicists................................................... 82 Planning counselors, college......................................................... 129 Plant and systems operators .........................................................419 Plasterers......................................................................................... 379 Plasterers’ tenders, see: Construction laborers.............................455 Plumbers and pipefitters ...............................................................380 Podiatrists....................................................................................... 156 Police district switchboard operators, see: Telephone operators............................................................... 274 Police officers................................................................................. 286 See also : State police officers ...............................................287 Political geographers ...................................................................... 77 Political scientists............................................................................110 Portrait photographers ................................................................... 209 Postal clerks ................................................................................... 268 Posting clerks, see: Bank clerks ................................................... 256 Posting machine operators, see: Bank c le rk s...............................256 Practical nurses, licensed............................................................... 183 Precision production occupations .................................................392 Press operators, see: Forge shop occupations .............................425 Press operators, printing ...............................................................430 Priests, Roman Catholic ............................................................... 127 Principals, see: School administrators ...........................................47 Print controllers, see: Photographic process workers ..................................................................... 414 Print developers, automatic, see: Photographic process workers .....................................................................414 Print shop stenographers, see: Secretaries and stenographers................................................................... 270 Print washers, see : Photographic process workers ................................................................................... 414 Printers, see: Photographic process workers ...............................414 Printing press operators and assistants .........................................430 Private-branch-exchange service advisors, see: Telephone operators............................................................... 274 Private duty nurses......................................................................... 169 Professors, see: College anduniversity faculty ............................ 131 Production managers .....................................................................236 Production occupations ................................................................. 390 Production painters.........................................................................431 Production technicians, see: Engineering and science technicians................................................................. 223 Programmers................................................................................... 230 Projection printers, see: Photographic process workers ..................................................................... 414 Proof machine operators, see: Bank clerks .................................256 Prosthodontists............................................................................... 148 Protestant ministers ....................................................................... 124 Psychiatric social workers ............................................................. 119 Psychologists ................................................................................. 112 Public health dentists..................................................................... 148 Public librarians............................................................................. 138 Public relations workers ............................................................... 193 Public works inspectors................................................................... 32 Purchasing agents............................................................................. 46 Pursers, see: Merchant marine officers .......................................447 Index to Occupations and lndustries/479 Page Room and desk clerks, h o te l........................................................265 Rural carriers, see: Mail carriers ................................................ 267 R abbis............................................................................................. 125 Radio and television announcers and newscasters....................... 195 Radio officers, see: Merchant marine officers............................ 447 Radio service technicians .............................................................343 Radiologic (X-ray) technologists ................................................. 188 Range conservationists, see: Range m anagers...............................94 Range ecologists, see: Range m anagers.........................................94 Range m anagers.................................................................... 94 Range scientists, see: Range managers .........................................94 Real estate agents and brokers .....................................................247 Realtors...........................................................................................247 Receptionists...................................................................................269 Reconcilement clerks, see: Bank clerks .......................................257 Recording clerks, see: Bank clerk s...............................................256 Recording technicians, radio and television, see: Broadcast technicians.............................................................221 Recreation workers......................................................................... 121 Recruiters, see: Personnel and labor relations specialists ................................................................................ 43 Reference librarians....................................................................... 138 Refrigeration engineers, see: Merchant marine sailors .................................................................................... 450 Refrigeration mechanics.................................................................345 Regional geographers.......................................................................77 Regional planners, see: Urban and regional planners...................................................................................117 Registered n u rse s........................................................................... 169 Registered representatives, see: Securities sales workers .........................................................................250 Regulatory inspectors, see: Health and regulatory inspectors ...............................................................36 Rehabilitation counselors............................................................... 141 Reinforcing metal workers.............................................................376 Religious workers........................................................................... 124 Repair service estimators, automobile .........................................394 Renal social workers .....................................................................119 Repairers, see: Appliance repairers ...............................................................330 Automobile body repairers ...................................................323 Business machine repairers ...................................................346 Central office repairers, telephone .......................................331 Electric sign repairers ...........................................................336 Industrial machinery repairers...............................................350 Neon-sign repairers ...............................................................336 Piano and organ tuners and repairers ...................................353 Shoe repairers.........................................................................416 Telephone and PBX repairers...............................................341 Watch repairers.......................................................................358 Reporters and correspondents ....................................................... 196 Research analysts, market ............................................................. 109 Research dietitians......................................................................... 160 Reservation agents, see: Airline reservation and ticket agents ...........................................................................255 Reservation clerks, h o te l...............................................................265 Residence counselors.......................................................................30 Residential carriers, see: Mail carriers.........................................267 Resilient floor layers, see: Floor covering installers .................................................................................371 Resistance w elders.........................................................................436 Respiratory therapy workers ......................................................... 171 Retail trade sales workers .............................................................249 Retouchers, see: Photographic process workers...........................414 Riggers, see: Ironworkers .............................................................375 Roman Catholic priests ................................................................. 127 R oofers...........................................................................................382 S S a fety e n g in e er s, see: O ccu p ation al safety and h ealth w orkers ............................................................................................. 41 Salary and w a g e a d m in is tr a to r s ...................................................................... 4 3 S a les o c cu p a tio n s, see: M ark eting and sales o c c u p a t i o n s .................................................................................................. 2 3 5 S a les w o ik e r s, see : A u to m o b ile parts cou n ter w o ik ers ..................................................2 3 7 A u to m o b ile sa les w orkers ....................................................................2 3 9 A u to m o b ile se r v ic e a d visors ...............................................................3 9 4 Insurance agen ts and b r o k e r s .............................................................. 2 4 2 M an u factu rers’ sa les w o r k e r s .............................................................. 2 4 3 R eal estate agen ts and brokers ......................................................... 2 4 7 R etail trade sa les w o ik ers ....................................................................2 4 9 S ecu rities sa les w o i k e r s .........................................................................2 5 0 W h o le sa le trade sa les w o i k e r s ............................................................2 5 3 S an d b lasters, see: F orge sh o p o c c u p a t i o n s ............................................ 4 2 5 S a n ita r ia n s.................................................................................................................. 37 S c h o o l a d m in is tr a to r s...........................................................................................4 7 S c h o o l c o u n s e l o r s ................................................................................................ 143 S c h o o l lib r a r ia n s ...................................................................................................138 S c h o o l nu rses ........................................................................................................ 169 S c h o o l s e c r e t a r ie s ................................................................................................2 7 0 S c h o o l so c ia l w orkers ......................................................................................119 S c h o o l su p e r in te n d e n ts........................................................................................4 7 S c h o o l teach ers, see: C o lle g e and u n iversity facu lty ..........................................................131 K indergarten and elem en tary teach ers .......................................... 135 Secon d ary sc h o o l t e a c h e r s ....................................................................144 S c ie n c e t e c h n ic ia n s ............................................................................................. 2 2 3 S c ie n tis ts, p h y s i c a l ................................................................................................7 5 S e a m e n , see: M erchant m arine sailors ....................................................4 5 0 S e c o n d assistant e n g in e er s, see: M erchant m arine o ffic e r s ..........................................................................................................4 4 8 S eco n d m a tes, see: M erchant m arine o ffice rs .....................................4 5 0 S econ d ary sc h o o l t e a c h e r s .............................................................................. 144 Secretaries and stenograph ers ...................................................................... 2 7 0 S ecu rities sa les w o i k e r s ................................................................................... 2 5 0 S ecu rity o ffic e r s , see: G uards ...................................................................... 2 8 4 S e ism o lo g is ts, see: G e o p h y s i c is t s ................................................................. 8 2 S e r v ic e ad v iso rs, see: A u to m o b ile repair serv ice estim ators ..................................................................................................... 3 9 4 S e r v ic e o b serv ers, see: T elep h on e operators ....................................... 2 7 4 S e r v ic e o ccu p a tio n s ...........................................................................................2 7 9 S e r v ic e sa les w ork ers, see: A u to m o b ile repair se r v ic e e s t im a t o r s ......................................................................................3 9 4 S e r v ic e tech n icia n s, c o m p u t e r ...................................................................... 3 3 5 S e r v ic e w riters, see: A u to m o b ile repair serv ice estim ators ..................................................................................................... 3 9 4 S et-u p w orkers (m ach in e to o ls ), see: M ach in e to o l set-up w o ik ers .......................................................................................... 4 2 9 S e w a g e plant operators ...................................................................................421 S h eet-m etal w o r k e r s ...........................................................................................3 8 3 S h e r iff’s d ep u ties ............................................................................................. 2 8 6 S h ip s ’ e lectricia n s, see: M erchant m arine s a i l o r s ............................... 4 5 0 S h o e r e p a ir e r s ....................................................................................................... 4 1 6 Shorthand reporters ...........................................................................................2 7 0 S h otb lasters, see: F orge sh op o ccu p a tio n s ............................................ 4 2 5 S h o w c a se trim m ers, see: D isp la y w orkers ............................................ 2 0 3 S h o w ro o m m o d els ............................................................................................. 2 4 5 S in g e r s ....................................................................................................................... 2 1 7 S lid e m ou n ters, see: Photographic p ro cess w orkers ........................4 1 4 480/Occupational Outlook Handbook Page Social and recreation workers .......................................................119 Social scientists and urban planners .............................................101 Social scientists, social workers, religious workers, and law yers...............................................................97 Social secretaries .......................................................................... 2:70 Social workers ............................................................................... 119 Sociologists.....................................................................................115 Soil conservationists........................................................................ 95 Solid earth geophysicists .................................................................82 Sorters, see: Bank c le rk s...............................................................256 Space or broadcast-time sales workers ........................................ 236 Special agents, see: FBIspecial agents ...................................... 282 Special collections librarians.........................................................138 Special librarians ........................................................................... 138 Speech pathologists ................................................................... 172 Sprinkler fitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters ...........................380 Staff officers, see: Merchant marine officers.............................. 447 State highway patrol officers.........................................................287 State police officers .......................................................................287 State troopers ................................................................................ 287 Station installers, see: Telephone and PBX installers and repairers...........................................................341 Stationary engineers, see: Boiler tenders ..........................419, 423 Statisticians.......................................................................................71 Steamfitters, see : Plumbers and pipefitters .................................380 Stenographers.................................................................................270 Stewardesses...................................................................................311 Stewards .........................................................................................311 Stonemasons.................................................................................. 363 Stratigraphers, see : Geologists ...................................................... 81 Stripping-shovel operators, see: Coal mining operatives ...............................................................................387 Structural steelworkers...................................................................375 Student health service directors.......................................................30 Surfacers, ophthalmic laboratory technicians...............................410 Surgeon assistants........................................................................... 167 Surgical technicians ....................................................................... 190 Surgical technologists..................................................................... 190 Surveyors and surveying technicians .............................................54 Synoptic meteorologists...................................................................83 Systems analysts.............................................................................. 72 Systems programmers, see: Programmers ...................................230 T T a ilers, see: C oal m in in g o p eratives .......................................................3 8 8 T each er aid es ........................................................................................................2 7 3 T each ers, see: C o lle g e and u n iversity fa cu lty .......................................................... 131 D a n c e r s .......................................................................................................... 0 0 0 H ig h sc h o o l teach ers .............................................................................. 144 K indergarten and elem en tary sc h o o l teach ers ........................... 135 M u sicia n s ..................................................................................................... 215 S econ d ary sc h o o l t e a c h e r s .................................................................... 144 S in g e r s ............................................................................................................. 217 V o ca tio n a l tea ch ers, agriculture ....................................................... 315 T each ers, lib rarians, and c o u n s e l o r s .......................................................... 129 T ech n ical illustrators ........................................................................................ 201 T ech n ical librarians ........................................................................................... 138 T ech n ical secretaries ........................................................................................ 2 7 0 T ech n ica l ste n o g r a p h e r s ................................................................................... 2 7 0 T ech n ica l w riters ................................................................................................ 232 T ech n icia n s, b road castin g ..............................................................................221 Page Technicians, dental laboratory.......................................................401 Technicians, engineering and science...........................................223 Technicians, forestry ..................................................................... 318 Technicians, medical record ......................................................... 186 Technicians, television and radio serv ice.....................................343 Technologists and technicians, except h e a lth ...............................219 Telephone adjusters, see: Claim representatives .........................260 Telephone and PBX installers and repairers ...............................341 Telephone answering-service operators, see: Telephone operators............................................................... 274 Telephone installers ....................................................................... 341 Telephone line installers and cable splicers .................................338 Telephone operators.......................................................................274 Telephone repairers ....................................................................... 341 Teletype operators, see: Bank clerks ...........................................256 Television and radio service technicians .....................................343 Tellers, b ank................................................................................... 258 Terminal operators, see: T ypists...................................................276 Terminal-system operators, see: Typists.......................................276 Terrazzo workers ........................................................................... 366 Textile designers............................................................................. 202 Therapeutic dietitians..................................................................... 160 Therapist assistants, physical......................................................... 303 Therapists, educational, see: Kindergarten and elementary school teachers ..................... 135 Secondary school teachers..................................................... 144 Therapists, inhalation......................................................................171 Therapists, occupational ................................................................161 Therapists, physical........................................................................165 Therapy assistants, occupational...................................................301 Third assistant engineers, see: Merchant marine officers ................................................................................... 447 Third mates, see: Merchant marine officers ...............................447 Ticket agents, a irlin e..................................................................... 255 Ticket sellers, see: Cashiers .........................................................240 Tilesetters....................................................................................... 385 Tool-and-die makers....................................................................... 417 Tool designers, see: Engineering and science technicians............................................................................. 223 Toxicologists..................................................................................... 88 Tracers, see: Drafters..................................................................... 222 Traffic controllers, airp o rt............................................................. 219 Training specialists, see: Personnel and labor relations specialists................................................................... 43 Transcribing machine operators, see: Typists .............................276 Transit clerks, see: Bank clerks ................................................... 257 Transmission engineers, see: Broadcast technicians............................................................................... 221 Transmission testers, see: Central office craft occupations ........................................................................... 331 Transmitter operators, see: Broadcast technicians............................................................................... 221 Transportation and material moving occupations.........................438 Travel agents ................................................................................. 252 Treatment plant operators, wastewater.........................................421 Trimmers, forge shop ...................................................................425 Troopers, see: State police officers...............................................287 Trouble locators, telephone........................................................... 331 Truck mechanics and bus mechanics ...........................................328 Truckdrivers, lo c a l......................................................................... 442 Truckdrivers, long-distance...........................................................443 Trust officers, see: Bank officers and managers ...........................25 Trust securities clerks, see: Bank clerks .....................................257 Tune-up mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics.........................324 Typists............................................................................................. 276 Index to Occupations and lndustries/481 Underwriters, insurance.................................................................. 49 University faculty...........................................................................131 Upholsterers, see: Furniture upholsterers.....................................404 Upsetters, see: Forge shop occupations ...................................... 425 Urban geographers.......................................................................... 77 Urban and regional planners .........................................................117 Urologic physician assistants.........................................................167 Utility hands, see: Merchant marine sailors .............................. 450 V Varitype operators, see: Typists .................................................. 276 Vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics and repairers.................................................................................. 321 Vending machine m echanics.........................................................356 Verifier operators, see: Bank clerks ............................................ 256 Veterans coordinators, see: College student personnel workers.....................................................................30 Veterinarians........................................................................156, 315 See also: Agricultural and biological scientists .....................89 Video-control engineers, see: Broadcast technicians.............................................................................. 221 Video recording technicians, see: Broadcast technicians.............................................................................. 221 Vocational rehabilitation counselors, see : Rehabilitation counselors.......................................................141 Vocational counselors, see: Employment counselors...............................................................................134 Vocational nurses, licensed...........................................................183 Volcanologists, see: Geologists.......................................................81 W age-h ou r c o m p lia n ce o f f i c e r s ...................................................................... 36 W aiters and w a i t r e s s e s ......................................................................................2 9 5 W aiters assistan ts and k itch en help ers .................................................... 2 9 6 W astew ater treatm ent plant o p e r a t o r s .......................................................4 21 W atch r e p a ir e r s ..................................................................................................... 3 5 8 W e l d e r s .................................................................................................................... 4 3 6 W eld ers, m aintenance ..................................................................... 436 W eld in g m ach in e operators ........................................................................... 4 3 6 W h o lesa le trade sa les w o r k e r s ...................................................................... 2 5 3 W in d o w cle rk s, see : P ostal clerk s ............................................................ 2 6 8 W in d o w dressers, see: D isp la y w o r k e r s ..................................................2 0 3 W ip ers, see: M erchant m arine s a i l o r s ...................................................... 4 5 0 W ood patternm akers, see: P a tte r n m a k e r s............................................................................................. 4 1 2 W ord p ro cessin g su p erv iso rs, see: T y p i s t s ............................................ 2 7 6 W riters, artists, and e n t e r t a in e r s ................................................................. 192 W riters, t e c h n i c a l ................................................................................................2 3 2 See also: W riters and ed itors ............................................................ 199 X X -ray te ch n o lo g ists, r a d i o l o g i c .................................................................... 188 Y Y ou n g adult librarians ...................................................................................... 138 Z Zoologists, see: Agricultural and biological scientists ..................................................................................88 R eprints from the O ccupational O utlook H andbook 5 l,e o 'in All sections of the 1982-83 edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook are available in reprint form. Reprints are especially useful for jobseekers who want to know about a single field and for counselors who need to stretch the contents of a single Handbook among many students. 2200-1 2200-2 2200-3 2200-4 2200-5 2200-6 2200-7 2200-8 2200-9 2200-10 2200-11 □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ The titles of all 27 reprints are listed here, and an index to the reprints appears on the following pages. Price of reprints: $2.25 each. A complete set costs only $13.00. 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A r4 13 4 13 3 6 3 6 23 19 16 27 27 7 20 14 26 5 19 19 19 19 15 19 Accountants and auditors Actors and actresses Actuaries Advertising workers Aerospace engineers Agricultural and biological scientists Agricultural engineers Agricultural occupations Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics Aircraft mechanics Airline reservation and ticket agents Airplane pilots Air traffic controllers Anthropologists Appliance repairers Architects Assemblers Astronomers Automobile body repairers Automobile mechanics Automobile parts counter workers Automobile repair service estimators Automobile sales workers Automotive painters B 16 Bank clerks 2 Bank officers and managers 16 Bank tellers 21 Barbers 18 Bartenders 18 Bellhops and bell captains 6 Biochemists 3 Biomedical engineers 26 Blue-collar worker supervisors 26 Boilermaking occupations 26 Boiler tenders 24 Bookbinders and bindery workers 16 Bookkeepers and accounting clerks 22 Bricklayers and stonemasons 13 Broadcast technicians 20 Business machine repairers 15 Buyers c 22 Carpenters 18 Cashiers 22 Cement masons and terrazzo workers 3 3 5 10 7 3 16 16 9 8 8 13 or 14 24 4 or 16 4 or 20 17 22 18 6 or 9 25 17 21 2 Central office craft occupations (telephone) Central office equipment installers (telephone) Ceramic engineers Chemical engineers Chemists Chiropractors City managers Civil engineers Claim representatives Collection workers College and university faculty College career planning and placement counselors College student personnel workers Commercial and graphic artists and designers Compositors Computer operating personnel Computer service technicians Construction inspectors (government) Construction laborers Cooks and chefs Cooperative extension service workers Coremakers Correction officers Cosmetologists Credit managers 17 27 23 14 18 6 6 6 25 21 Firefighters Flight attendants Floor covering installers Floral designers Food counter workers Food technologists Foresters Forestry technicians Forge shop occupations Furniture upholsterers G 5 or 7 5 5 23 17 Geographers Geologists Geophysicists Glaziers Guards H 6 or 17 Health and regulatory inspectors (government) 11 Health services administrators 7 Historians 18 Hotel front office clerks 18 Hotel housekeepers and assistants 2 Hotel managers and assistants I D 13 11 11 11 10 11 12 14 3 23 Dancers Dental assistants Dental hygienists Dental laboratory technicians Dentists Dietitians Dispensing opticians Display workers Drafters Drywall installers and finishers E 7 Economists 12 EEG technicians and technologists 12 EKG technicians 20 Electric sign repairers 3 Electrical engineers 23 Electricians (construction) 24 Electrotypers and stereotypers 22 Elevator constructors 12 Emergency medical technicians 8 Employment counselors 3 Engineering and science technicians 3 Engineers F 19 Farm equipment mechanics 17 FBI special agents 14 3 20 or 26 25 23 15 27 14 22 Industrial designers Industrial engineers Industrial machinery repairers Instrument makers Insulation workers Insurance agents and brokers Intercity busdrivers Interior designers Ironworkers J 21 Jewelers K 9 Kindergarten and elementary school teachers L 14 7 7 7 9 9 Landscape architects Lathers Lawyers Legal assistants Librarians Library technicians and assistants 11 Licensed practical nurses 20 Line installers and cable splicers 24 Lithographers 27 Local transit busdrivers 27 Local truckdrivers 27 Long-distance truckdrivers 483 M 25 25 25 16 20 or 26 15 2 or 7 6 18 3 12 12 12 12 27 27 3 5 26 3 15 25 15 Machine tool operators Machine tool setup workers Machinists, all-round Mail carriers Maintenance electricians Manufacturers ’ sales workers Market research analysts Mathematicians Meatcutters Mechanical engineers Medical assistants Medical laboratory workers Medical record administrators Medical record technicians and clerks Merchant marine officers Merchant marine sailors Metallurgical engineers Meteorologists Millwrights Mining engineers Models Molders Musicians o 3 or 17 Occupational safety and health workers 11 Occupational therapists 11 Occupational therapy assistants 5 Oceanographers 22 Operating engineers (construction machinery operators) 12 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians 12 Optometric assistants 10 Optometrists 10 Osteopathic physicians 11 11 11 10 5 21 20 23 22 10 17 7 16 24 26 6 8 7 or 8 2 or 13 2 R 8 Rabbis 13 Radio and television announcers and newscasters 12 Radiologic (X-ray) technologists 6 Range managers 15 Real estate agents and brokers 16 Receptionists 8 Recreation workers 11 Registered nurses 8 Rehabilitation counselors 13 or 24 Reporters and correspondents 12 Respiratory therapy workers 15 Retail trade sales workers 8 Roman Catholic priests 22 Roofers s P 23 Painters and paperhangers 25 Patternmakers 2 Personnel and labor relations specialists 3 Petroleum engineers 10 Pharmacists 24 Photoengravers B o r 24 Photographers 24 Photographic process workers Physical therapist assistants Physical therapists Physician assistants Physicians Physicists Piano and organ tuners and repairers Pinsetter mechanics Plasterers Plumbers and pipefitters Podiatrists Police officers Political scientists Postal clerks Printing press operators and assistants Production painters Programmers Protestant ministers Psychologists Public relations workers Purchasing agents 9 8 9 16 15 23 21 13 8 School administrators School counselors Secondary school teachers Secretaries and stenographers Securities sales workers Sheet-metal workers Shoe repairers Singers Social workers 7 Sociologists 6 Soil conservationists 11 Speech pathologists and audiologists 17 State police officers 26 Stationary engineers 6 Statisticians 12 Surgical technicians 3 Surveyors and surveying technicians 6 Systems analysts T 9 or 16 Teacher aides 13 or 24 Technical writers 20 Telephone and PBX installers and repairers 16 Telephone operators 21 Television and radio service technicians 23 Tilesetters 25 Tool-and-die makers 15 Travel agents 19 Truck mechanics and bus mechanics 16 Typists u 2 Underwriters 14 Urban and regional planners V 20 Vending machine mechanics 10 Veterinarians w 18 Waiters and waitresses 18 Waiters ’ assistants and kitchen helpers 26 Wastewater treatment plant operators 21 Watch repairers 25 Welders and flamecutters 15 Wholesale trade sales workers 13 or 24 Writers and editors 102 1 484 ☆ U S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1982— 354-356
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