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. *1. ^ . A U upational Outlook dbook, 1980-81 Edition S 5. Department of Labor reau of Labor Statistics irch 1980 lletin 2075 SOUTHWEST Mi£i§OUftf .* > * c: UNIVgRblTY LIBRARY U S. DEPOSITORY CX'-py NOV 2 11980 Pointers on Using the Handbook • To locate a particular occupation or industry, see: Contents, page v iii. Index to Occupations and Industries, page 635. • Occupations have new code numbers. This is the first Handbook to use the codes from the new 4th edition of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. The Index to the Diction ary of Occupational Titles, on page 626, lists nearly 1,000 occupations by D.O.T. code and title and, for each, refers you to the relevant page of the Handbook. • How do economists forecast the future? For a brief description of the assumptions and methods used in preparing BLS employment projections, see page 24. • For an overview of job prospects to 1990, read the section on Tomorrow’s Jobs starting on page 16 ■ • Should you steer clear of a slow-growing occupation? For pointers on interpreting the outlook section that appears in every Handbook statement, see page 4 . • Need more career information? Consult the Sources of Additional Information at the end of every statement. See page 8 for other places to look for information on occupations and careers. Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1980-81 Edition U.S. Department of Labor Ray Marshall, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Janet L. Norwood, Commissioner March 1980 Bulletin 2075 Material in this publication is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission of the Federal Government. Please credit the Bureau of Labor Statistics and cite the name and number of this publication. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D .C . 20402 Stock Number 029-001-02325-1 •fr U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1980— 0 -2 9 6 -6 6 6 Foreword Ray M arshall, Secretary o f L abor The difficulties many young people experience when making the transition from school to work have been recognized as a serious national problem. But the process of choosing and preparing for a career is no easier for persons who seek a career change or who enter the labor force at later stages in their lives. Selecting a career can be accompanied by anxiety and uncertainty regardless of when the decision is made. Accurate and comprehensive career guidance may ease the anxiety. In this way, one can become aware of available opportunities and alternatives, and can plan for a career that matches one’s abilities and aspirations. The Occupational Outlook Handbook, a major source of vocational guidance information, describes what workers do on the job; the training and education they need; earnings; working conditions; and expected job prospects for hundreds of occupations. It is our hope that this publication will continue to offer valuable help to everyone seeking satisfying and productive employment. Prefatory Note Janet L. N orw ood, Commissioner, Bureau o f L abor Statistics In our constantly changing economy, information on tomorrow’s career opportunities must be available if workers are to be prepared for the future. Since 1945, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has conducted research on employment in occupations and industries for use in vocational guidance. A major product of this research is the Occupational Outlook Handbook. The Handbook represents the most current and comprehensive information available on work today and job prospects for tomorrow. Revised every two years, the Handbook contains a description of job duties, education and training requirements, employment outlook, earn ings, and working conditions for several hundred occupations and 35 industries. Handbook information is based on data received from a variety of sources, including business firms, trade associations, labor unions, professional societies, educational institutions, and government agencies. For the first time, the Handbook includes in each occupational statement a section listing other occupations that require similar aptitudes, interests, or education and training. The Handbook also contains an index referenced to the most recent edition of the Dictionary o f Occupational Titles. IV Letter of Endorsement Dr. M ary F. Maples, President A m erican Personnel and G uidance Association William B. Lewis A dm inistrator U.S. Em ploym ent Service U.S. D epartm ent of Labor Choosing a career is one of life’s most important decisions. A wise choice can yield pride of achievement, an opportunity for personal growth, and the security of an adequate income. An unwise choice can lead to dissatisfaction not only with the job but also with oneself. Precisely what is a wise choice depends, of course, on the individual. Not everyone is attracted by or suited to the same type of work, and frequently a person’s job needs and aspirations change over time. Because deciding on a career, whether for the first or the fifteenth time, can be difficult, the advice of a trained counselor can help a great deal. M ax Cleland A dm inistrator Veterans A dm inistration Dr. M ary F. Berry Assistant Secretary for Education U.S. D epartm ent of Education To assist individuals in finding a fulfilling career, counselors must have current, accurate, and comprehensive occupational information. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a primary source of this information. For several hundred occupations and 35 major industries, the Handbook describes what workers do on the job, their working conditions, the training and education required, advancement possibilities, employment outlook, and earnings. To broaden the reader’s awareness of career options, each occupational statement also lists related occupations and gives sources of additional information. Counselors in all work settings will find this newest edition of the Handbook an invaluable tool for helping clients choose a satisfying and rewarding career. Robert R. H um phreys Commissioner Rehabilitation Services A dm inistration U.S. D epartm ent of Education Alvin Tucker D irector for Training and Education U.S. D epartm ent of Defense v Contributors The Handbook was prepared in the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Division of Occupational Outlook, under the supervision of Neal H. Rosenthal. The general planning and coordination of the Handbook was done under the direction of Michael Pilot. Alan Eck, Susan C. Gentz, Daniel E. Hecker, Anne Kahl, and Patrick Wash supervised the research and preparation of individual Handbook sections. Members of the Division’s staff who contributed sections were Vance H. Anthony, Douglas J. Braddock, Charles A Byrne III, Donald Clark, Lisa S. Dillich, Conley Hall Dillon, Jr., Lawrence C. Drake, Jr., John P. Griffin, H. Philip Howard, Stephen W. Ginther, Kevin Kasunic, Chester Curtis Levine, Thomas Nardone, H. James Neary, James V. Petrone, Debra E. Rothstein, Shirley G. Rudney, and Jon Q. Sargent. Max L. Carey supervised work on special projects associated with the Handbook. Susan C. Gentz coordinated the compilation and editing of charts. The gathering and editing of photographs was done by Kathy Wilson. Word processing was handled by Beverly A. Williams, Gloria D. Blue, and Brenda Mar shall. Other typing support was provided by Karen E. Harper, Vidella H. Hubbard, and Michelle Antoinette McCree. Note A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, and industrial organizations are able to provide career information that is valuable to counselors and jobseekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organizations are listed at the end of the statements on individual occupations and industries. Although these references were assem bled carefully, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has neither authority nor facilities for investigat ing the organizations listed. Also, because the Bureau does not preview all the information or publications that may be sent in response to a request, it cannot guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing of an organization, therefore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recommendation by the Bureau or the U.S. Department of Labor, either of the organization and its activities or of the information it may supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue. The occupational information contained in the Handbook presents a general, composite description of jobs and industries and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours, the right of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. vi Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor Statistics gratefully acknowledges the cooperation and assistance of the many government and private sources that either contributed photographs or made their facilities available to the U.S. Department of Labor photographers for this edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Inclusion of photographs to illustrate Handbook statements does not necessar ily mean that the photographs are free of every possible safety or health hazard. Depiction of companies or trade name products in no way constitutes endorsement by the Department of Labor. A&P Food Stores, Acacia Mutual Life Insur ance Co., Agrico Research Magazine, Air Line Pilots Association, Alder Display Stu dio, Allegheny Airlines, The Aluminum As sociation, American Medical Record Associ ation, American Telephone and Telegraph Co., American Chiropractic Association, American Trucking Associations, American Psychological Association, American Optometric Association, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, American Hospital Association, American Osteopathic Associa tion, American Personnel and Guidance As sociation, American Textile Manufacturing Institute, American Airlines, Amtrak, Asso ciation of American Railroads, Associated General Contractors of America, Associated Truck Lines, Inc., Atlantic Cleaners, Backriver Treatment Plant, Baltimore Gas and Electric Co., Baltimore Public Schools, Balti more Jewish Times, Baltimore Aircoil Co., Baltimore City, Md. Police Department, Bay Printing Co., Bendix Corp., Bethlehem Steel Corp., Bethlehem Review, Blake Construc tion Co., Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Bemie Boston, Braniff In ternational, Bureau of Indian Affairs, C & P Telephone Co., Harry T. Campbell & Sons Co., The Carpenter, Chase Manhattan Bank, Chessie System, Inc., Chesapeake Photo En graving, Chevron, Cinderella Shoe Shop, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Computer Manufacturing Corp., Department of Hous ing (Baltimore, Md.), Designer Optical, Dis play Data Corp., E. I. Dupont De Nemours & Co., Inc., Earl of Sandwich, Everhart Jew elers, Inc., Fairfax County Library (Va.), Ira Falls, Federal Correction Institute, Forging Industry Association, Garfinkel’s, Geico, Gemeny’s Flowers, General Elevator Co., General Electric, General Dynamics Corp., Georgetown University Law Center (D.C.), Georgetown University, George Washington University, Georgetown University Medical Center, Goddard Aerospace Center, Good year Tire and Rubber Co., Grumman Aero space Corp., Gulf Oil Corp., H & S Bakery, John L. Hampshire, Inc., Pat Harris Buick, Harte-Rotman & Drucke, Postmaster, Hern don, Va., Hecht Co., Hilton Hotel, Balti more, Hoffman Upholsterer, Howard County Extension Service (Md.), HyattRegency, Washington, D.C., Inland Photo, Inland Steel Co., The Honorable Senator Daniel K. Inouye, International Business Machines Corp., International Paper Co., Irwin Construction Co., Jackson State Uni versity, A1 Jarreau, Jean-Paul Restaurant, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Robert Wood John son Foundation, George E. Joseph, Kaiser Aluminum Corp., C. M. Kemp, Jordon Kitt Co., Krug & Son, Ed Kuiss, Ruth Lawsner, Lebow Brothers Co., Leon Bridges Co., Lynchburg Foundry Co., Maryland State Police, U.S. Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare, Maryland National Capi tal Park and Planning Commission, Mary land Department of Transportation, Maryland Science Center, Maryland Na tional Bank, Maryland Dental Laboratory, Inc., Maryland Rehabilitation Center, Mary land Geological Survey, Mary Washington Hospital, McCormick Flavor Division, McDonogh School (Md.), McDonnell Doug las Corp., Media Impact, Melart Jewelers, Del Mercado Shell Service Center, Merck and Co., Inc., Merkle Press, Inc., Merrill Lynch and Co., Inc., Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (D.C.), Joel Meyerowitz, Craig Milner, Model Cities Senior Center (D.C.), Monsanto Corp., Montgomery County Public Schools (Md.), Monument Life Insurance, Co., Morgan State Univer sity, National Institutes of Health, National Park Service, National Leather Service, Na tional Education Association, Naval Ord nance Laboratory, Navy, Marshall and Gor don, Northern Virginia Community College, Orkin Extermination Co., Ottenberg’s Bak ery, Parade Magazine, Joseph Parker Co., Bob Peck Chevrolet, Phillips Petroleum, President’s Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, Purdum Pharmacy, Whit man Requardt and Associates, Reston Inter national Travel, Riggs National Bank, Rochester Gas & Electric Co., Royce TV Re pair Services, Saint Columba’s Episcopal Church (D.C.), Smithsonian Institution, Southern Railroad Co., Captain Stan’s Boat Center, Sun Co., Inc., Sunoco of Alexandria, T. I. Swartz, Baltimore, Md., Texaco, Inc., Towson State University (Md.), United Air lines, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Air Force, U. S. Postal Service, United Way of America, Upjohn Health Care Services, Valley Animal Hospital, Warren-Ehret-Linck, Washington Cathedral, Washington Hospital Center, Wellborn Realtors, Westvaco Co., Western Electric, WMAR-TV (Baltimore, Md.), Yel low Cab Co.. Comments about the contents of this publication and suggestions for improving it are welcome. Please address them to Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212. VII Contents i Guide to the Handbook 7 How TO USE THE H andbook 8 W h e r e t o g o fo r m o r e INFORMATION 16 T o m o r r o w ’s jo bs 24 A s s u m p t io n s a n d m e t h o d s USED IN PREPARING THE EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS 27 The Outlook for Occupations 29 I n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t io n AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 30 30 31 32 Foundry occupations Patternmakers Molders Coremakers 34 34 36 37 39 40 Machining occupations All-round machinists Instrument makers (mechanical) Machine tool operators Setup workers (machine tools) Tool-and-die makers 42 Printing occupations 42 Compositors 44 Lithographers 45 Photoengravers 46 Electrotypers and stereotypers 47 Printing press operators and assistants 49 Bookbinders and bindery workers 51 51 52 53 55 56 57 59 60 61 63 64 66 67 Other industrial production and related occupations Assemblers Automobile painters Blacksmiths Blue-collar worker supervisors Boilermaking occupations Boiler tenders Electroplaters Forge shop occupations Inspectors (manufacturing) Millwrights Motion picture projectionists Ophthalmic laboratory technicians Photographic laboratory occupations Vlll/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 69 Power truck operators 70 Production painters 71 Stationary engineers 73 Wastewater treatment plant operators 74 Welders 77 O f f i c e o c c u p a t io n s 78 79 80 82 83 84 85 86 87 89 91 92 93 94 Clerical occupations Bookkeeping workers Cashiers Collection workers File clerks Hotel front office clerks Office machine operators Postal clerks Receptionists Secretaries and stenographers Shipping and receiving clerks Statistical clerks Stock clerks Typists 96 96 98 100 Computer and related occupations Computer operating personnel Programmers Systems analysts 102 Banking occupations 102 Bank clerks 103 Bank officers and managers 105 Bank tellers 107 107 109 111 Insurance occupations Actuaries Claim representatives Underwriters 113 Administrative and related occupations 113 Accountants 115 Buyers 117 City managers 118 College student personnel workers 120 Credit managers 121 Hotel managers and assistants 122 Lawyers 125 Marketing research workers 127 Personnel and labor relations workers 129 Purchasing agents 131 Urban planners 136 Hotel housekeepers and assistants 137 Pest controllers 139 139 140 142 Food service occupations Bartenders Cooks and chefs Dining room attendants and dishwashers 143 Food counter workers 144 Meatcutters 145 Waiters and waitresses 147 Personal service occupations 147 Barbers 148 Bellhops and bell captains 149 Cosmetologists 151 Funeral directors and embalmers 153 153 155 155 157 158 160 161 162 164 165 168 Private household service occupations Private household workers .>■;_' • .: • .h; / •\U r!} 5 Protective and related service occupations Correction officers FBI special agents Firefighters Guards Police officers State police officers Construction inspectors (Government) Health and regulatory inspectors (Government) Occupational safety and health workers 171 Other service occupations 171 Mail carriers 172 Telephone operators 174 E d u c a t io n a n d r e l a t e d o c c u p a t io n s 175 175 Teaching occupations Kindergarten and elementary school teachers 177 Secondary school teachers 179 College and university faculty 181 Teacher aides 183 Library occupations 183 Librarians 186 Library technicians and assistants 134 S e r v i c e o c c u p a t io n s 188 135 Cleaning and related occupations 135 Building custodians 188 Automobile parts counter workers 190 Automobile sales workers S a l e s o c c u p a t io n s 191 193 194 195 197 199 201 202 204 205 207 Automobile service advisors Gasoline service station attendants Insurance agents and brokers Manufacturers’ sales workers Models Real estate agents and brokers Retail trade sales workers Route drivers Securities sales workers Travel agents Wholesale trade sales workers 209 C o n s t r u c t io n o c c u p a t io n s 211 Bricklayers, stonemasons, and marble setters Carpenters Cement masons and terrazzo workers Construction laborers Dry wall installers and finishers Electricians (construction) Elevator constructors Floor covering installers Glaziers Insulation workers Ironworkers Lathers Operating engineers (construction machinery operators) Painters and paperhangers Plasterers Plumbers and pipefitters Roofers Sheet-metal workers Tilesetters 213 214 216 217 219 220 222 223 225 226 227 229 230 232 233 235 236 237 239 O c c u p a t io n s in TRANSPORTATION ACTIVITIES 240 240 242 243 245 247 Air transportation occupations Air traffic controllers Airplane mechanics Airplane pilots Flight attendants Reservation and passenger agents 249 249 251 Merchant marine occupations Merchant marine officers Merchant marine sailors 255 Railroad occupations 255 Brake operators 257 Conductors 258 Locomotive engineers 259 Shop trades 260 Signal department workers 261 Station agents 261 Telegraphers, telephoners, and tower operators 262 Track workers 264 264 265 267 Driving occupations Intercity busdrivers Local transit busdrivers Local truckdrivers 268 270 271 273 Long-distance truckdrivers Parking attendants Taxicab drivers Sc i e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n i c a l o c c u p a t io n s 275 275 276 278 279 Conservation occupations Foresters Forestry technicians Range managers Soil conservationists 282 284 285 285 286 286 287 288 288 289 290 290 291 Engineers Aerospace Agricultural Biomedical Ceramic Chemical Civil Electrical Industrial Mechanical Metallurgical Mining Petroleum 293 293 294 296 297 Environmental scientists Geologists Geophysicists Meteorologists Oceanographers 300 300 301 303 Life science occupations Biochemists Life scientists Soil scientists 305 305 307 Mathematics occupations Mathematicians Statisticians 309 Physical scientists 309 Astronomers 310 Chemists 312 Physicists 314 Other scientific and technical occupations 314 Broadcast technicians 315 Drafters 316 Engineering and science technicians 320 Food technologists 321 Surveyors and surveying technicians -3 2 4 M e c h a n ic s a n d r e p a i r e r s 325 Telephone craft occupations 325 Central office craft occupations 326 Central office equipment installers 327 Line installers and cable splicers 329 Telephone and PBX installers and repairers 331 331 332 Other mechanics and repairers Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics Appliance repairers 334 335 337 338 339 341 343 344 346 347 348 350 351 353 354 356 357 Automobile body repairers Automobile mechanics Boat-engine mechanics Bowling-pin-machine mechanics Business machine repairers Computer service technicians Electric sign repairers Farm equipment mechanics Furniture upholsterers Industrial machinery repairers Jewelers Locksmiths Maintenance electricians Motorcycle mechanics Piano and organ tuners and repairers Shoe repairers Television and radio service technicians 358 Truck mechanics and bus mechanics 360 Vending machine mechanics 361 Watch repairers -3 6 4 365 365 367 368 370 H e a l t h o c c u p a t io n s Dental occupations Dentists Dental assistants Dental hygienists Dental laboratory technicians 372 Medical practitioners 372 Chiropractors 373 Optometrists 374 Osteopathic physicians 376 Physicians 378 Podiatrists 379 Veterinarians 381 Medical technologist, technician, and assistant occupations 381 Electrocardiograph technicians 382 Electroencephalographic technologists and technicians 384 Emergency medical technicians 386 Medical laboratory workers 388 Medical record technicians and clerks 389 Operating room technicians 390 Optometric assistants 391 Radiologic (X-ray) technologists 393 Respiratory therapy' workers 395 395 397 398 Nursing occupations Registered nurses Licensed practical nurses Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants 400 Therapy and rehabilitation occupations Occupational therapists Occupational therapy assistants Physical therapists Physical therapist assistants and aides Speech pathologists and audiologists 400 401 403 404 405 CONTENTS/IX 408 408 409 411 412 413 Other health occupations Dietitians Dispensing opticians Health services administrators Medical record administrators Pharmacists 416 S o c ia l s c ie n t is t s 417 419 421 424 426 428 431 Anthropologists Economists Geographers Historians Political scientists Psychologists Sociologists 434 S o c ia l s e r v ic e OCCUPATIONS 435 435 436 438 439 Counseling occupations School counselors Employment counselors Rehabilitation counselors College career planning and placement counselors 442 442 443 445 Clergy Protestant ministers Rabbis Roman Catholic priests 447 447 Other social service occupations Cooperative extension service workers 448 Homemaker-home health aides 450 Social service aides 452 Social workers 455 P e r f o r m in g a r t s , d e s i g n , A N D C O M M U N IC A T IO N S O CCU PA TIO N S 456 456 458 459 461 Performing artists Actors and actresses Dancers Musicians Singers X/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 569 T r a n s p o r t a t io n , COMMUNICATIONS, AND PUBLIC UTILITIES 571 573 579 584 586 589 Civil aviation Electric power Radio and TV broadcasting Railroads Telephone Trucking 592 W h o l e s a l e a n d r e t a il TRADE 593 596 Restaurants Retail foodstores 599 F i n a n c e , in s u r a n c e , a n d REAL ESTATE M in in g a n d p e t r o l e u m 601 603 Banking Insurance 494 498 Coal mining Petroleum and natural gas production and gas processing 606 Se r v ic e a n d MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES 501 M a n u f a c t u r in g 608 611 Hotels Laundry and drycleaning plants 503 Aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft Aluminum Apparel Baking Drugs Electronics Foundries Industrial chemicals Iron and steel Logging and lumber mills Motor vehicles and equipment Nuclear energy field Office machines and computers Paper and allied products Petroleum refining Printing and publishing Textile mill products 614 G overnm ent 616 619 621 622 Federal civilian government Postal Service State and local governments Armed Forces 463 463 465 466 467 469 470 472 Design occupations Architects Display workers Floral designers Industrial designers Interior designers Landscape architects Photographers 474 474 476 478 480 Communications occupations Newspaper reporters Public relations workers Radio and television announcers Technical writers 483 The Outlook for Industries 485 A g r ic u l t u r e 494 507 511 516 519 523 527 530 533 540 544 548 552 556 560 562 565 Indexes 626 D ic t io n a r y o f O c c u p a t io n a l T it l e s (D.O.T.) I n d e x 635 I n d e x t o o c c u p a t io n s a n d INDUSTRIES 653 BLS MATERIALS USEFUL TO HANDBOOK READERS Guide to the Handbook How to Use the Handbook Where to Go for More Information Tomorrow’s Jobs Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing the Employment Projections HOW TO USE THE HANDBOOK As the economy grows and as new tech nologies and ways of doing business are de veloped, the variety of careers from which to choose increases. According to the Dictio nary o f Occupational Titles, there currently are more than 20,000 separate jobs in our economy. But most of us are familiar with only a few of these, usually the occupations of people we know or the characters we see on television or in films. Since choosing a career is one of the most important decisions a person can make, you should take some time to explore the possibilities fully before you make a selection. You may be surprised to discover that a job you never heard of, or never seriously considered seems right for you. Or, you may find that the career you now have in mind still seems like a good choice, and you can make your plans more confidently. One way to begin studying about careers is to look through the Occupational Outlook Handbook. This part of the Handbook de scribes the information presented in the Handbook and offers some useful hints on how to use it to help you find the right career. Where do I start? Like a dictionary, encyclopedia, or other reference book, the Handbook has no begin ning or ending point. You can simply look through the table of contents or index, find the occupation you are interested in, and read those sections. If you want to know more about the working world, read the section on Tomorrow’s Jobs first. It explains some of the changes taking place in the job market today, and what is expected to happen through the 1980’s. If you are just beginning to think about planning for a career, you may wonder what things you should consider. Start with what you know about your own interests and abili ties. Does science or art interest you? Do you enjoy working with your hands and building things, or do you really prefer working with people? Is money, recognition, or being a leader important to you? The answers to these and similar questions can help you dis cover your own characteristics. Understand ing something about yourself is important be cause your traits, abilities, and goals will largely determine whether you will like working in a particular job and if, in fact, you can do that job well. Your school counselor or another professional trained in human be havior can help you ask yourself the right questions. Talking with your family and friends can help you learn about yourself, too. Once you have decided what your interests are, look in the Handbook's table of contents to find occupations that appear to match your interests. All of the occupations in the Handbook are grouped in 13 clusters of related jobs. Thus, if you find that you enjoy building things, you might start by looking at occupations in the cluster on construction occupations. Or, if you want to make helping other people your life’s work, you might look at occupations in the social service cluster. The 13 occupational clusters are: —Industrial production —Office —Service —Education —Sales —Construction —Transportation —Scientific and technical —Mechanics and repairers —Health —Social science —Social service —Performing arts, design, and communications In addition to individual occupations, the Handbook also includes descriptions of the work in several industries. If you are inter ested in an industry, or if an industry is a major employer in your area, you may find it useful to read the section on that industry. From it, you will learn about the jobs found in the industry and their training require ments and earnings potential. A total of 35 industries are described in the Handbook, grouped according to major divisions in the economy. To find the industry you are interested in, turn to the alphabetical Index to Occupations and Industries at the back of the book. About those Numbers at the Head of Each Statement The numbers in parentheses that appear just below the title of most occupational statements are D.O.T. code numbers. D.O.T. stands for the Dictionary o f Occupational Titles (fourth edition), a U.S. Department of Labor publica tion. Each number helps classify jobs by the type of work done, training required, physical demands, and working conditions. D.O.T. numbers are used by public employment ser vice agencies for classifying applicants and job openings, and for reporting and other operat ing purposes. They are included in the Hand book because career information centers and libraries frequently use them for filing occupa tional information. An index listing Handbook occupations by D.O.T. number may be found in the back of the Handbook, just before the alphabetical index. What will I learn? Once you have chosen a place to begin— an occupation or industry you’d like to learn more about—you can use the Handbook to find out what the job is like, what education and training are needed; what the advance ment possibilities, earnings, and employment outlook are likely to be; and also related oc cupations you might want to explore. Each section of the Handbook follows a standard format, making it easier to compare different jobs. What follows is a description of the type of information presented in each occupation or industry section of the Handbook, with some hints on how to use this information. The Nature of the Work section describes the major duties of workers in the occupation or industry. It tells what workers do on the job, what tools or equipment they use, and how they do their work. Although the de scriptions are typical of each job, there are many occupations where the work varies with the size or type of employer. For exam ple, a registered nurse who works in an ele mentary school will spend more time treating minor injuries and soothing children’s feel ings than one who works in a hospital. There also are many fields of work that contain specialties; teaching and medicine are good examples. An important part in your career decision will probably be whether the work done on the job appeals to you, so try to find out as much as possible about work in those occu pations which interest you. The next chapter of the Handbook— Where to Go for More Information—suggests ways to learn more about jobs. You also can look for more infor mation in your school library or counseling center. If you and your counselor can arrange it, talk to someone who works in the occupa tion or, even better, watch them on the job. Working conditions also are very impor tant to consider when finding a career that appeals to you. Some people, for example, like outdoor work because of the chance to enjoy beautiful weather and the freedom that often goes with this type of job. Others like to work in an office to avoid bad weather and, usually, noise and dirt, too. A list of working conditions common to different occupations in the Handbook follows. Since those you feel strongly about, whether you like or dislike them, can make a job more or less attractive, you should consider them when making your decision. Overtime work. When overtime is required on a job, employees must give up some of their free time and be flexible in their per sonal lives. Usually, however, overtime does 3 offer added income or a chance to earn extra days off. Shift work. Evening or nightwork is part of the regular work schedule in many jobs. Bar tenders, guards, and some factory workers may be required to work these shifts on a permanent basis. Workers in other occupa tions, such as nurses and police officers, may work nights on a rotating basis. Still other workers may be assigned to split shifts: Busdrivers, for example, may work morning and evening rush hours with time off in the mid dle of the day. Some people prefer shift work because they can pursue leisure activities or take care of errands during daytime hours. In addition, information on part-time em ployment is included because it is important to students, homemakers, retired persons, and others who may want to work part time. Knowing which occupations offer good op portunities for part-time work can be a valu able lead in finding a job. The Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement section should be read care fully because preparing for an occupation can mean a considerable investment of time and money. If you currently are in school, it’s a good idea to look closely at the list of high school and college courses considered useful preparation for the career you have in mind. Outdoor work. Many workers have to be out doors some or all of the time. Mail carriers, construction workers, firefighters, and forest ers are a few examples. Being exposed to all types of weather may be preferred to indoor work, however, by those who enjoy the out doors and consider it healthy. Workers can prepare for jobs in a variety of ways, including college study leading to a degree, certificate, or associate degree; pro grams offered by public .and private post secondary vocational schools; home study courses; government training programs; ex perience or training obtained in the Armed Forces; apprenticeship and other formal training offered by employers; and high school courses. For each occupation, the Handbook identifies which way is preferred. In many cases, alternative ways of obtaining training are listed as well. It is worth remem bering that the level at which you enter an occupation and the speed with which you advance often are determined by the amount of training you have. Hazards. Some jobs are potentially danger ous. Cuts, bums, and falls can occur in res taurant kitchens, factory assembly lines, and forge shops, for example. Consequently, many jobs, such as mining and construction work, require the use of specially designed equipment and protective clothing. Certain occupations offer employment op portunities to persons who have little or no previous work experience. Many of these are included in the Handbook. Although such jobs generally are found in the office and ser vice clusters, some are also found in the sales, mechanic, and industrial production clusters. Physical demands. Some jobs require stand ing, crouching in awkward positions, heavy lifting, or are otherwise strenuous. Be sure you have the physical strength and stamina the work you are interested in requires. Many occupations are natural stepping stones to others. After working for a time as a computer programmer, for example, many people advance to jobs as systems analysts. The world of work is constantly changing and fewer people spend their lives in one or even two occupations. Some have several jobs over a lifetime, changing careers as they learn new skills or feel a need to try another line of work. If a pattern of movement from one occupation to another exists, it is discussed in this portion of each Handbook chapter. Environment. Work settings vary greatly. People work in office buildings; on construc tion sites; in mines, factories, restaurants, and stores; and on ships and planes. Some people like a quiet, air-conditioned setting, others prefer the hum of machinery. By knowing the setting of jobs you find interest ing, you can avoid working in an environ ment that you would find unpleasant. The Places of Employment section pro vides information on the number of workers in an occupation and tells whether they are concentrated in certain industries or geo graphic areas. The size of an occupation is important to a jobseeker because large occu pations, even those growing slowly, offer more openings than small ones as many workers retire or die each year. Some occupations, such as cooks and chefs, are concentrated in particular indus tries. Other occupations, such as secretaries, are found in almost every industry. If an oc cupation is found primarily in certain indus tries, this section lists them. A few occupations are concentrated in cer tain parts of the country. Actors and ac tresses, for example, usually work in Califor nia or New York. This information is included for the benefit of people who have strong preferences about where they live. For most occupations, however, employment is widely scattered and generally follows the same pattern as the distribution of the popu lation. 4 Information on occupational mobility can be useful in several ways. It is helpful to know, for example, that skills gained work ing at one job can make you more employable in another—perhaps a job that is more desir able in terms of earnings, working condi tions, or scope for self-expression. On the other hand, it also is useful to know which jobs offer the most opportunity for transfer ring to other work of a similar nature. Per sons trained in electrical or chemical engi neering, for example, frequently can transfer to another engineering specialty where they can apply general engineering knowledge in different ways. In some cases, moving from one occupa tion to another takes more than the training or experience acquired on the job. For exam ple, a hospital aide must have a year of spe cialized training before advancing to licensed practical nurse. Many Handbook statements describe the possibilities for advancement after additional training and note in-service programs that allow employees to gain needed skills while continuing to work part time. It usually is wise to discuss the patterns of job transfer and advancement described in the Handbook with counselors, local em ployers, and others who know about the par ticular job market where you want to work. The average patterns of movement from one occupation to another may not exist in every industry or area. One more factor you must consider is that all States have certification or licensing re quirements for some occupations. Physicians and nurses, elementary and secondary school teachers, barbers and cosmetologists, and electricians and plumbers are examples of workers who must be licensed. If you are considering an occupation that is licensed, be sure to check the requirements in the State in which you plan to work because a license from one State may not be valid in another. Common requirements for a license include completion of a State-approved training or educational program and a passing grade on a written test. A very important item to consider when making a career choice is the extent to which a particular job matches your personality. Although it often is difficult for people to assess themselves, your counselor undoubt edly is familiar with tests that can help you learn about yourself. For each occupation de scribed in the Handbook, information is pro vided which allows you to match you own unique personal characteristics—your likes and dislikes—with the characteristics of the job. A particular job could require a person who is able to do one or more of the follow ing: —make responsible decisions. —motivate others. —direct and supervise others. —work in a highly competitive atmosphere. —enjoy working with ideas and solving problems. —enjoy working with people. —enjoy working with tools or machinery—good coordination and manual dexterity are neces sary. —work independently—initiative and self-disci pline are necessary. —work as part of a team. —enjoy working with detail, either numbers or technical written material. —enjoy helping people. —use creative talents and ideas and enjoy having an opportunity for self-expression. —derive satisfaction from seeing the physical re sults of your work. —work in a confined area. —perform repetitious work. —enjoy working outside, regardless of the weather. Most jobs require some combination of these characteristics. The Employment Outlook section dis cusses prospective job opportunities. Know- ing whether or not the job market is likely to be favorable is quite important in deciding whether to pursue a specific career. While your interests, abilities, and career goals are extremely important, you also need to know something about the availability of jobs in the fields that interest you most. In most cases, the description of employ ment outlook for an occupation or industry begins with a sentence about the expected change in employment through the 1980’s. The occupation or industry is described as likely to grow about as fast as, faster than, or slower than the average for all occupations or industries (figure I). Job opportunities in a particular occupation or industry usually are favorable if employment is expected to in crease at least as rapidly as for the economy as a whole. Occupations or industries in which employment is likely to stay about the same or to decline generally offer less favor able job prospects. In some cases, a statement is made about the effect fluctuations in eco nomic activity have on employment in the occupation or industry. This information is valuable to people looking into long-range career possibilities at a time when the econ omy is in a recession. People understandably wonder: What will the economy be like when I enter the labor market? Will it be harder to find a job 5 or 10 years from now than it is today? The Handbook gives information, wherever feasible, on occupations and indus tries whose levels of employment fluctuate in response to shifts in the economic climate. It is important to bear in mind that employ ment in many—but not all—occupations and industries is directly affected by an economic downturn. A sharp improvement in the out look for these occupations and industries is likely as the economy picks up. However, other occupations and industries are less vul nerable to short-term changes in economic activity. Their growth or decline is influenced by other factors discussed in this section. For some occupations, information is available on the supply of workers—that is, the number of people pursuing the type of education or training needed and the number subsequently entering the occupation. When such information is available, the Handbook describes prospective job opportunities in terms of the expected demand-supply rela tionship. The prospective job situation is termed excellent when the demand for work ers is likely to greatly exceed the supply of workers; keenly competitive when the supply Figure II Job opportunities Prospective demand-supply relationship Excellent Very good Good or favorable May face competition Keen competition Demand much greater than supply Demand greater than supply Rough balance between demand and supply Likelihood of more supply than demand Supply greater than demand of workers is likely to exceed the demand for them. The precise terms used in the Hand book are shown in figure II. Workers who transfer into one occupation from another sometimes are a significant part of the supply of workers; similarly, those who transfer out may have a substantial effect on demand for workers because their leaving usually creates job openings. Although the information currently available on transfers among occupations is limited, the Handbook describes transfer patterns and their effect on the supply of workers for certain occupa tions. The employment outlook for engi neers, for example, notes that transfers into the field are likely to constitute a substantial portion of supply, if past trends continue. The information in the employment out look section should be used carefully, how ever. The prospect of relatively few openings, or of strong competition, in a field that inter ests you should make you take a second look at your career choice. But this information alone should not prevent you from pursuing a particular career, if you feel confident in your ability and are determined to reach your goal. Getting a job may be difficult if the field is so small that openings are few (actuaries and blacksmiths are examples) or so popular that it attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs (radio and television broadcast ing, journalism, the performing arts, and modeling). Getting a job also can be difficult in occupations and industries in which em ployment is declining (merchant sailors, photoengravers, typesetters), although this is not always the case. Remember, even occupations that are small or overcrowded provide some jobs. So do occupations in which employment is growing very slowly or even declining, for there is a need to replace workers who leave the occupation. If the occupation is large, the number of job openings arising from replace ment needs can be quite substantial. Book keepers, telephone operators, and machinists are examples of large occupations that pro- Figure I Description Projected 1978-90 change in employment requirements Much faster than the average for all o c cu p atio n s...........................................50.0 percent or more Faster than the average for all occupations.......................................................25.0 to 49.9 percent About as fast as the average for all occupations1..............................................15.0 to 24.9 percent More slowly than the average for all occupations...........................................5.0 to 14.9 percent Little change is e x p e c te d ..................................................................................... 4.9 to —4.9 percent Expected to d e c lin e .............................................................................................. —5.0 percent or more ‘The average increase projected for all occupations for the 1978-90 period is 20.8 percent. vide a significant number of job openings each year because workers leave. On the av erage, openings resulting from replacement needs are expected to account for the vast majority of all job openings in the next 10 years. In other words, don V rule out a potentially rewarding career simply because the prospec tive outlook in an occupation is not favor able. Do discuss your abilities and aptitudes with your counselor. Getting more informa tion is a good idea, too—look at the section on Where to Go for More Information for suggested ways to find out more about job outlook. How reliable is the information on the out look for employment over the next 10 years? No one can predict future labor market con ditions with perfect accuracy. In every occu pation and industry, the number of jobseek ers and the number of job openings constantly changes. A rise or fall in the de mand for a product or service affects the number of workers needed to produce it. New inventions and technological innova tions create some jobs and eliminate others. Changes in the size or age distribution of the population, work attitudes, training oppor tunities, or retirement programs determine the number of workers available. As these forces interact in the labor market, some oc cupations experience a shortage of workers, some a surplus, some a balance between job seekers and job openings. Methods used by economists to develop information on future occupational prospects differ, and judgments that go into any assessment of the future also differ. Therefore, it is important to under stand what underlies each statement on em ployment outlook. For every occupation and industry covered in the Handbook, an estimate of future em ployment needs is developed. These estimates are consistent with a set of assumptions about the future of the economy and the country. For a more detailed explanation of how these projections are developed, see the section en titled, Assumptions and Methods Used In Preparing the Employment Projections. Finally, you should remember that job prospects in your community or State may not correspond to the description of the em ployment outlook in the Handbook. For the particular job you are interested in, the out look in your area may be better or worse. The Handbook does not discuss the outlook in local areas; such information has been devel oped, however, by many States and localities. The local office of your State employment service is the best place to ask about local and 5 area employment projections. Names and ad dresses of these State and local information sources and suggestions for additional infor mation on the job market are given in the following section, Where to Go for More In formation. The Earnings section helps answer many of the questions that you may ask when choosing a career. Will the income be high enough to maintain the standard of living I want and to justify my training costs? How much will my earnings increase as I gain experience? Do some areas of the country or some industries offer better pay than others for the same type of work? Like most people, you probably think of earnings as money—a paycheck in the bank or cash in the pocket. But money is only one type of financial reward for work. Paid vaca tions, health insurance, uniforms, and dis counts on clothing or other merchandise also are part of total earnings. For about 9 out of 10 workers, money in come is received in the form of a wage or salary. A wage usually is an hourly or daily rate of pay, while a salary is a weekly, monthly, or yearly rate. Most craft workers, operatives, and laborers are wage earners, while most professional, technical, and cleri cal workers are salary earners. In addition to their regular pay, wage and salary workers may receive extra money for working overtime. Those who work on a night shift or who work irregular hours re ceive extra pay called a shift differential. Workers in some occupations, such as park ing attendants or waiters and waitresses, also receive tips based on the services they pro vide customers. Automobile sales workers and real estate agents are among those who are paid a commission—a percent of the amount they sell. Factory workers are some times paid a piece rate, which is an extra payment for each item they produce. For many workers, these types of pay amount to a large part of their total earnings. The remaining 10 percent of all workers are in business for themselves and earn selfemployment income instead of wages or sala ries. This group includes workers in a wide variety of occupations: Physicians, shopkeep ers, barbers, writers, photographers, and farmers are examples of workers who fre quently are self-employed. Some occupations may offer workers a chance to supplement their wage or salary income with self-employment income. For example, electricians and carpenters often do small repair or remodeling jobs during even ings or weekends, and college professors fre quently publish articles based on indepen dent research. Besides money income, most wage and sal ary workers receive a variety of fringe be nefits as part of their earnings on the job. Several are required by Federal and State law, including social security, workers’ com pensation, and unemployment insurance. These benefits provide income to persons http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 6 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Table 1. Career ladder of drafters Average annual earnings $ 9,800 11,200-13,700 16,900 Tracers (beginners)........................... Experienced drafters........................ Senior d ra fte rs ................................. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. when they are not working because of old age, work-related injury or disability, or lack of suitable jobs. Among the most common fringe benefits are paid vacations, holidays, and sick leave. In addition, many workers are covered by life, health, and accident insurance; partici pate in retirement plans; and are entitled to supplemental unemployment benefits. All of these benefits are provided—in part or in full —through their employers. Some employers also offer stock options and profit-sharing plans, savings plans, and bonuses. Workers in many occupations receive part of their earnings in the form of goods and services, or payments in kind. Sales workers in department stores, for example, often re ceive discounts on merchandise. Some private household workers receive free meals and housing. Workers in other jobs may receive uniforms, business expense accounts, or free transportation on company-owned planes. Which jobs pay the most? This is a difficult question to answer because good information is available for only one type of earnings— wages and salaries—and for some occupa tions even this is unavailable. Nevertheless, the Handbook does include some compari sons of earnings among occupations. Gener ally, earnings are compared to the average earnings of workers in private industry who are not supervisors and not in farming. This group represented about 60 percent of all w orkers in 1978. Besides differences among occupations, many levels of pay exist within each occupa tion. Beginning workers almost always earn less than those who have been on the job for some time because pay rates increase as workers gain experience or do more responsi ble work. An example is shown in table 1. Earnings in an occupation also vary by ge ographic location. The average weekly earn ings of beginning computer programmers, for example, vary considerably from city to city. (See table 2.) Of the 10 cities listed, the highest earnings occurred in Detroit, Mich., and the lowest in Boston, Mass. Although it is generally true that earnings are higher in the North Central and Northeast regions than in the West and South, there are excep tions. You also should keep in mind that those cities which offer the highest earnings are often those in which it is most expensive to live. In addition, workers in the same occupa tion may have different earnings depending on the industry in which they work. For ex ample, senior accounting clerks in 1978 ave raged $253.52 a week in public utilities, $213.38 a week in manufacturing, $202.82 a week in wholesale trade, and $196.48 a week in retail trade, but only $190.14 in services and $185.92 in finance, insurance, and real estate. Salaries also vary by the specialty or type of work performed. Surgeons, for example, earn more on the average than pediatricians Table 2. Average weekly earnings of beginning computer programmers, 1978, selected cities City Average weekly earnings Detroit............................................................................................................................................... $283.00 M ilw au k ee................................................................................................................................... 282 00 260^50 C leveland....................................................................................................... ! ........................... C h icago......................................................................................................................................... 260.00 H ouston......................................................................... ................... -JS7 so N e w a rk ................................................................................................................... 254^50 Minneapolis-St. P a u l ................................................................................................................ 241 50 B altim ore...................................................................................................................................... 234^00 Birmingham..................................................................................................................... 228 50 Boston............................................................................................................................................ 210.50 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Table 3. Median annual earnings of private physicians, 1977, by specialty Specialty Earnings Orthopedic surgeons...................................................................................................................... $91,940 General surgeons......................................................................................................................... 68,720 P ed iatrician s............................................................................................................................... 54,180 General p ra c titio n e rs........................ 51,000 SOURCE: Medical Economics. After tax-deductible expenses but before income taxes. or general practitioners. (See table 3.) Also, in most occupations, workers who become supervisors or managers earn more than their fellow workers. Because of all these variations in earnings, you should check with a counselor or with local employers if you are interested in spe cific earnings information for occupations in your area. The Related Occupations section is ap pearing for the first time in this edition of the Handbook. If you find that an occupation you are reading about appeals to you, you also may wish to explore the jobs listed in this section. Usually, the related occupations are those that require similar aptitudes, interests, and education and training. 7 WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION Whether you have questions about a par ticular job or are trying to compare various fields, the Occupational Outlook Handbook is a good place to begin. The Handbook will answer many of your initial questions. But remember that it is only one of many sources of information about jobs and careers. After reading a few Handbook statements, you may decide that you want more detailed in formation about a particular occupation. You may want to find out where you can go for training, or where you can find this kind of work in your community. If you are will ing to make an effort, you will discover a wealth of occupational information available at little or no cost. Sources o f Career Information Government agencies, professional soci eties, trade associations, labor unions, cor porations, and educational institutions put out career material that is available for the asking. Write to organizations listed in the Sources of Additional Information section at the end of every Handbook statement and ask for information on career opportuni ties. You will find the names and addresses of other organizations that publish career information in directories in your library’s reference section. There are directories that list: —trade associations. —professional associations. —business firms. —junior and community colleges. —home study and correspondence programs. —business, trade, and technical schools. Lists of organizations that distribute career information also may be found in directories put out by several commercial publishers. Carefully assess any career materials you obtain. Keep in mind the date and source, in particular. Material that is too old may con tain obsolete or even misleading information. Be especially cautious about accepting infor mation on employment outlook, earnings, and training requirements if it is more than 5 years old. The source is important because it affects the content. Although some occupa tional materials are produced solely for the purpose of objective vocational guidance, others are produced for recruitment pur poses. You should be wary of biased informa tion, which may tend to leave out important items, overglamorize the occupation, over state the earnings, or exxagerate the demand for workers. Libraries, career centers, and guidance offices are important sources of career infor 8 mation. Thousands of books, brochures, magazines, and audiovisual materials are available on such subjects as occupations, ca reers, self-assessment, and job hunting. Your school library or guidance office is likely to have some of this material; ask the staff for help. Collections of occupational material also can be found in public libraries, college libraries, learning resource centers, and ca reer counseling centers. Begin your library search by looking in an encyclopedia under “vocations” or “ca reers,” and then look up specific fields. The card catalog will direct you to books on par ticular careers, such as architect or plumber. Be sure to check the periodical section, too. You'll find trade and profes sional magazines and journals in specific areas such as automotive mechanics or inte rior design. Some magazines have classified advertising sections that list job openings. Many libraries and career centers have pamphlet files for specific occupations. Col lections of occupational information may also include nonprint materials such as films, filmstrips, cassettes, tapes, and kits. Computerized occupational information systems enable users to obtain career infor mation instantly. In addition to print and nonprint materials, most career centers and guidance offices offer individual counseling, group discussions, guest speakers, field trips, and career days. Counselors play an important role in pro viding career information. Vocational testing and counseling are available in a number of places, including: —guidance offices in high schools. —career planning and placement offices in col leges. —placement offices in vocational schools. —vocational rehabilitation agencies. —counseling services offered by community or ganizations, commercial firms, and professional consultants. —Job Service offices affiliated with the U.S. Em ployment Service. The reputation of a particular counseling agency should be checked with professionals in the field. As a rule, counselors will not tell you what to do. Instead, they are likely to administer interest inventories and aptitude tests; interpret the results; talk over various possibilities; and help you explore your op tions. Counselors are familiar with the job market and also can discuss entry require ments and costs of the schools, colleges, or training programs that offer preparation for the kind of work in which you are interested. Most important of all, a counselor can help you consider occupational information in re lation to your own abilities, aspirations, and goals. Don’t overlook the importance of personal contacts. Talking with people is one of the best ways of learning about an occupation. Most people are glad to talk about what they do and how well they like their jobs. Have specific questions lined up; you might ques tion workers about their personal experiences and knowledge of their field. By asking the right questions, you will find out what kind of training is really important, how workers got their first jobs as well as the one they’re in now, and what they like and dislike about the work. These interviews serve several pur poses: You get out into the business world, you learn about an occupation, you become familiar with interviewing, and you meet people worth contacting when you start look ing for a job. State occupational information coor dinating committees have recently been es tablished. These committees can help you find career information tailored to the job situation in your State or area. By contrast, the Handbook provides information for the Nation as a whole. The committee may provide the information directly, or refer you to other sources. In many States, it can also tell you where you can go to use the State’s career information system. To find out what career materials are availa ble, write to the director of your State oc cupational information coordinating com mittee. Following is a list of their titles and addresses: Alabama Director, Alabama Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, State Department of Ed ucation, First Southern Towers, Suite 402, 100 Commerce St., Montgomery, Ala. 36104. Alaska Coordinator, Alaska Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Pouch F—State Office Bldg., Juneau, Alaska 99811. Arizona Executive Director, Arizona State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1535 West Jefferson Ave., Room 345, Phoenix, Ariz. 85007. Arkansas Indiana Missouri Director, Arkansas State Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 5162, Little Rock, Ark. 72205. SOICC Contact, Indiana Office of Manpower De velopment, State Board of Vocational and Technical Educa tion, 17 W. Market St., 401 Illinois Bldg., Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. Director, Missouri Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 8300 E. High St., Jefferson City, Mo. 65101. California Director, California Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 535 East Main St., Ventura, Calif. 93009. Colorado SOICC Director, Office of Occupational Informa tion, Colorado Occupational Information Coor dinating Committee, 770 Grant St., Room 222, Denver, Colo. 80203. Connecticut Executive Director, Connecticut State Occupa tional Information Coordinating Committee, Hartranft Hall, 55 Elizabeth St., Hartford, Conn. 06053. Delaware Director, State Occupational Information Coor dinating Committee of Delaware, 820 North French St., 6th floor, Wilmington, Del. 19801. District of Columbia Executive Director, D.C. Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, 500 C St. NW„ Suite 621, Washington, D.C. 20001. Florida Director, Florida Occupational Information Coor dinating Committee, 325 John Knox Rd., Suite L-500, Tallahassee, Fla. 32303. Iowa Executive Director, Iowa State Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 523 E. 12th St., Des Moines, Iowa 50319. Kansas Director, Kansas Occupational Information Coor dinating Committee, Department of Human Resources, 634 S. Harrison, Suite C, Topeka, Kans. 66603. Hawaii Executive Director, Hawaii State Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 1164 Bishop St., Suite 502, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813. Program Manager, Montana State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59601. Nebraska Executive Director, State Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, W. 300 Nebraska Hall, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. 68588. Nevada Coordinator, Kentucky Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 103 Bridge St., Frankfort, Ky. 40601. Director, State Occupational Information Coor dinating Committee, Capitol Complex, 505 E. King St., Kinkead Bldg., Room 603, Carson City, Nev. 89710. Louisiana New Hampshire Director, Louisiana State Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 44094, Baton Rouge, La. 70804. SOICC Director, Department of Employment Se curity, 32 S. Main St., Concord, N.H. 03301. Kentucky Maine New Jersey Executive Director, State Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, State House Station 71, Augusta, Maine 04330. Acting Staff Director, New Jersey Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Department of Labor and Industry, Division of Planning and Research, P.O. Box 2765, Trenton, N.J. 08625. Maryland Executive Director, Maryland Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, Department of Human Resources, 1100 North Eutaw St., Baltimore, Md. 21201. Georgia Executive Director, State Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, 151 Ellis St., NE„ Suite 504, Atlanta, Ga. 30303. Montana Massachusetts New Mexico SOICC Director, New Mexico State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Suite C, Harvey Building, 839 Paseo de Peralta, Santa Fe, N.M. 87501. Executive Director, Massachusetts Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Park Square Bldg., Suite 341, 31 St. James Ave., Boston, Mass. 02116. SOICC Director, State Department of Labor, Labor Department Bldg. # 1 2 , State Campus, Albany, N.Y. 12240. Michigan North Carolina Executive Coordinator, Michigan Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 309 N. Washington, P.O. Box 30015, Lansing, Mich. 48909. SOICC Director, North Carolina Department of Administration, 112 W. Lane St., Raleigh, N.C. 27611. Minnesota North Dakota SOICC Director, Department of Economic Secu rity, 690 American Center Bldg., 150 E. Kellogg Blvd., St. Paul, Minn. 55101. State Director, State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1424 W. Century Ave., P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, N. Dak. 58501. New York Idaho Coordinator, State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, Len B. Jordan Bldg., 650 W. State St., Boise, Idaho 83720. Illinois Executive Director, Illinois Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, 623 E. Adams St., P.O. Box 1587, Springfield, 111. 62705. Mississippi Ohio SOICC Director, Vocational Technical Education, P.O. Box 771, Jackson, Miss. 39205. SOICC Director, State Department Bldg., S-65 S. Front St., Room 904, Columbus, Ohio 43215. 9 Oklahoma Virginia Executive Director, State Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, School of Occupa tional and Adult Education, Oklahoma State Uni versity, 1515 W. 6th St., Stillwater, Okla. 74074. SOICC Director, Vocational and Adult Educa tion, Department of Education, P.O. Box 6Q, Richmond, Va. 23216. Oregon Executive Secretary, Oregon Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, 875 Union St. NE„ Salem, Oreg. 97311. Washington SOICC Director, Commission for Vocational Edu cation, Bldg. 17, Airdustrial Park, Mail Stop LS-10, Olympia, Wash. 98504. West Virginia Pennsylvania SOICC Director, Pennsylvania Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, Labor and Industry Bldg., 7th and Forster Sts., Room 1008, Harrisburg, Pa. 17121. Executive Director, West Virginia State Occupa tional Information Coordinating Committee, Cap itol Complex, Bldg. # 6 , Room 221, Charleston, W. Va. 25305. Wisconsin Puerto Rico Executive Director, Puerto Rico Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, 414 Barbosa Ave., Hato Rey, P.R. 00917. SOICC Director, Wisconsin Occupational Infor mation Coordinating Committee, Educational Sciences Building, Room 952, 1025 W. Johnson, Madison, Wis. 53706. Rhode Island Wyoming Executive Director, Rhode Island Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 22 Hayes St., Room 315, Providence, R.I. 02908. Director, Wyoming Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1520 E. 5th St., Cheyenne, Wyo. 82002. American Samoa South Carolina SOICC State Director for Vocational Education, Government of American Samoa, Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799. SOICC Director, 1550 Gadsden St., Columbia, S.C. 29202. Guam South Dakota Executive Director, South Dakota Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 108 E. Missouri, Pierre, S. Dak. 57501. Tennessee Director, Tennessee Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 512 Cordell Hull Bldg., Nashville, Tenn. 37219. Texas Executive Director, State Occupational Informa tion Coordinating Committee, Texas Employment Commission Bldg., 15th and Congress Ave., Room 648, Austin, Tex. 78778. Utah Director, Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, State Board of Education, 250 E. 5th St. South, Salt Lake City, Utah 84111. Vermont Director, Vermont Occupational Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt. 05602. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 10 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Information Acting Executive Director, Guam Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 2817, Agana, Guam 96910. Northern Mariana Islands Executive Director Northern Mariana Islands Oc cupational Information Coordinating Committee, P.O. Box 149, Saipan, Northern Mariana Islands 96950. Trust Territory of the Pacific Chairman, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Occupational Information Coordinating Commit tee, Office of Planning and Statistics, Saipan, Mariana Islands 96950. Virgin Islands Acting Chairman, Virgin Islands Occupational In formation Coordinating Committee, Department of Education, Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00801. Sources of Education and Training Information As a rule, professional or trade associa tions can provide lists of schools that offer training in a particular field—nursing, inte rior design, or operations research, for exam ple. Whenever possible, the Sources of Addi tional Information section at the end of every Handbook statement directs you to organiza tions that can provide training information. For general information, a library, career center, or guidance office may be the best place to look; all of them ordinarily have collections of catalogs, directories, and guides to educational and job training oppor tunities. The State career information system available in many States can also provide spe cific information on where to go for training in various fields. These systems are located in school guidance offices, Job Service offices, and other places. You can find out about the career information system in your State by writing to the director of the State occupa tional information coordinating committee at the address listed above. A number of standard guides give perti nent information on expenses, student financial aid, admissions requirements, and courses of study at most of the Nation’s community and junior colleges and colleges and universities. These are updated and re vised frequently; be sure to use the most re cent edition. Libraries and guidance offices often have collections of college catalogs as well. Directory o f Postsecondary Schools with Occupational Programs, 1978, a publication of the U.S. Department of Education’s Na tional Center for Education Statistics, lists approximately 9,500 schools that offer training after high school. The directory lists business, trade, and technical schools as well as community and junior colleges and colleges and universities. A companion vol ume, Programs and Schools, A Supplement to the Directory o f Postsecondary Schools with Occupational Programs, 1978, is par ticularly useful to students who are explor ing alternatives to a college education. It gives the names and addresses of all ac credited noncollegiate schools in the coun try that teach a particular skill or trade— automotive mechanics, cosmetology, or radio and television repair, for example. Labor unions and school guidance offices can provide information about apprentice ships. Local Job Service offices usually have at least one counselor familiar with apprenticeship programs in the area. In some cities, Apprenticeship Information Centers (AIC’s) affiliated with the U.S. Employment Service furnish information, counseling, and aptitude testing, and direct people for more specific help to union hir ing halls, Joint Apprenticeship Commit tees, and employer sponsors. The local Job Service can tell you whether there’s an AIC in your community. The U.S. Depart ment of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training has prepared several pam phlets that provide background informa tion on apprenticeship. These may be re quested from: Office of Information, Inquiries Unit, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room 10225, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. Sources o f Financial Aid Information If possible, consult a high school guidance counselor or college financial aid officer for advice on sources of financial aid. Don’t ne glect any possibility, for many organizations offer scholarships, fellowships, grants, loans, and work-study programs. Study the many directories and guides to sources of student financial aid which are updated and revised periodically and are generally available in guidance offices and public libraries. Many career information systems also provide in formation on financial aid. The Federal Government provides several kinds of financial assistance to needy stu dents: Grants, loans, work-study, and be nefits. Details are presented in a pamphlet entitled, Student Consumer's Guide; Six Fed eral Financial Aid Programs, 1979-80. This pamphlet is frequently revised; request the current edition from: Bureau of Student Financial Assistance, Post Office Box 84, Washington, D.C. 20044. Some student aid programs are designed to assist specific groups: Hispanics, blacks, na tive Americans, or women, for example. Se lected List o f Postsecondary Education Oppor tunities for Minorities and Women, published annually by the U.S. Department of Educa tion, is a useful guide to organizations that offer loan, scholarship, and fellowship assist ance, with special emphasis on aids for minorities and women. Opportunities for financial aid are listed by fields of study, in cluding architecture, arts and science, busi ness, education, engineering and science, health, international affairs, journalism, law, political science and public administration, psychology, socioligy, social work, speech pathology and audiology, and theology. Edu cational opportunities with the Armed Forces are also described. This publication can be found in many libraries and guidance offices, or may be purchased from the Super intendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price for the 1979 edition is $3.75. Career and Counseling Information for Special Groups Certain groups of jobseekers face special difficulties in obtaining suitable and satisfy ing employment. All too often, veterans, youth, handicapped persons, minorities, and women experience difficulty in the labor mar ket. The reasons for job market disadvan tages vary, of course. People may have trou ble setting career goals and looking for work for reasons as different as a limited command of English, a prison record, or lack of selfconfidence. Some people are held back by their background—by growing up in a set ting that provided only a few role models and little exposure to the wide range of oppor tunities in the world of work. A growing number of communities have career counseling, training, and placement services for people with special needs. Pro grams are sponsored by a variety of organiza tions, including churches and synagogues, nonprofit organizations, social service agen cies, vocational rehabilitation agencies, and the Job Service. Some of the most successful programs provide the extensive counseling that disadvantaged job-seekers require. They begin by helping clients resolve the personal, family, or other fundamental problems that prevent them from finding a suitable job. Some agencies that serve special groups take a strong interest in their clients, and provide an array of services designed to help people find and keep jobs. Employment counseling programs of all kinds are included in Directory o f Counseling Services, an annual publication that lists ac credited or provisional members of the Inter national Association of Counseling Services, Inc. (I ACS), an affiliate of the American Per sonnel and Guidance Association. The 1979-80 edition is available for $6 from IACS at Two Skyline Place, Suite 400, 5203 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Va. 22041. A directory of 140 women’s employment programs, entitled The National Directory o f Women’s Employment Programs, was pub lished in 1979 by Wider Opportunities for Women, a nonprofit organization. You might look for it in a library, or it can be purchased for $7.50 plus 40 cents postage from Wider Opportunities for Women, 1649 K St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. A revised edition of Directory o f Organiza tions Interested in the Handicapped is sched uled for publication in 1980. The Directory lists more than 100 voluntary and public agencies in the rehabilitation field and briefly describes their purpose, programs, and publi cations. Copies of the Directory may be ob tained from the People to People Committee for the Handicapped, 1522 K St. NW., Room 1130, Washington, D.C. 20005 Career counseling and job placement ser vices for older workers are listed in Finding a Job: A Resource Book for the Middle-Aged and Retired, published in 1978 by Adelphi University. The book is out of print, but cop ies may be available in libraries and counsel ing centers. Career materials tailored to the needs of women, handicapped workers, ex-offenders, and other special groups are generally availa ble in counseling centers and libraries. State vocational rehabilitation agencies are an im portant source of career and counseling in formation for people with disabilities. Several agencies of the Federal Government publish pamphlets on career opportunities and job hunting techniques that may interest counse lors working with special groups. Much of this material is free. Requests for career materials currently in stock may be directed to: Youth Office of Information, Inquiries Unit, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room 10225, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. Office of Information and Consumer Affairs, Em ployment Standards Administration, U.S. Depart ment of Labor, Room C-4331, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Minorities Office of Information and Consumer Affairs, Em ployment Standards Administration, U.S. Depart ment of Labor, Room C-4331, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Higher Education Scholarship Program, Division of Postsecondary Education, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1951 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20245. Handicapped President’s Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, Room 600, Vanguard Building, 1111 20th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. President’s Committee on Mental Retardation, Washington, D.C. 20201. Office of Information and Consumer Affairs, Employment Standards Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room C-4331, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Rehabilitation Services Administration, U.S. De partment of Education, Room 1427, 330 C St. SW„ Washington, D.C. 20201. Office of Personnel Management, Federal Job In formation Center, P.O. Box 52, Washington, D.C. 20044. Older Workers Office of Information, Inquiries Unit, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room 10225, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. National Clearinghouse on Aging, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Room 4551, 330 Independence Ave., SW., Washington, D.C. 20201. Women Women’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, Room S3002, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Veterans Office of Information, Inquiries Unit, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room 10225, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. Office of Personnel Management, Federal Job Information Center, P.O. Box 52, Washington, D.C. 20044. Department of Veterans Benefits, 232A, Veterans Administration Central Office, 810 Vermont Avenue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20420. Federal laws, Executive Orders, and se lected Federal grant programs bar dis crimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and handicap. Employers in the private and public sectors, Federal contrators, and grantees are covered by these laws. The 11 U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Co mission is responsible for administering many of the programs that prohibit dis crimination in employment. Information and inquiries about how to file a charge of discrimination should be sent to: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2401 E ST. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20506. Information on Finding a Job Do you need help in finding a job? For information on job openings, follow up as many leads as possible. Parents, neighbors, teachers, and counselors may know of jobs. Check the want ads. Investigate your local Job Service office and find out whether pri vate or nonprofit employment agencies in your community can help you. The following section will give you some idea of where you can go to look for a job and what sort of help to expect. Informal job search methods. Informal meth ods of job search are the most popular, and also the most effective. Informal methods in clude direct application to employers with or without referral by friends or relatives. Job seekers locate a potential employer and file an application, often without certain knowl edge that an opening exists. You can find targets for your informal search in several ways. The Yellow Pages and local chambers of commerce will give the names and addresses of appropriate firms in the community where you wish to work. You can also get listings of most firms in a specific industry—banking, insurance, and newspa per publishing, for example—by consulting one of the directories on the reference shelf of your public library. Friends, relatives, and people you meet during your job search are likely to give you ideas about places where you can apply for a job. Want ads. The “Help Wanted” ads in a major newspaper contain hundreds of job listings. As a job search tool, they have two advantages: They are cheap and easy to acquire, and they often result in success ful placement. There are disadvantages as well. Want ads give a distorted view of the local labor market, for they tend to under represent small firms. They also tend to overrepresent certain occupations, such as clerical and sales jobs. How helpful they are will depend largely on the kind of job you seek. Bear in mind that want ads do not provide complete information; many give little or no description of the job, working conditions, and pay. Some omit the identity of the em ployer. In addition, firms often run multiple listings. Some ads offer jobs in other cities (which do not help the local worker); others advertise employment agencies rather than employment. If you use the want ads, keep the following suggestions in mind: —Don’t rely exclusively on the want ads; follow up other leads, too. 12 —Answer ads promptly. The opening may be filled before the ad stops running. referral ensure a better match between appli cant and job. —Follow the ads diligently. Checking them every day as early as possible gives you the best advantage over other applicants, which may mean the difference between a job and a rejection. Services for veterans and youth. By law, veter ans are entitled to priority in interviewing, counseling, testing, job development, and job placement. Special counselors called veterans reemployment representatives are trained to deal with the particular problems of veterans, who may find it difficult to readjust to civilian life. Although such veterans often face multi ple problems, joblessness alone is a major barrier to resuming an ordinary life. Special help for disabled veterans begins with out reach units in each State, whose job it is to identify jobless disabled veterans and make them aware of the many kinds of assistance available. —Don’t expect too much from “blind ads” that do not reveal the employer’s identity. Employers use blind ads to avoid being swamped with applicants, or to fill a particu lar vacancy quietly and confidentially. The chances of finding a job through blind ads tend to be slim. —Be cautious about answering “no experi ence necessary” ads. Most employers are able to fill job openings that do not require experi ence without advertising in the newspaper. This type of ad may mean that the job is hard to fill because of low wages or poor working conditions, or because it is straight commis sion work. Public employment service. The public em ployment service, also called the Job Ser vice, is often overlooked in finding out about local job openings. Run by the State employment security agencies under the di rection of the Labor Department’s U.S. Employment Service, the 2,500 local Job Service offices provide help without charge. Job Service staff help jobseekers find em ployment and help employers find qualified workers. As its motto says, the Job Service aims to “bring people to jobs and jobs to people.” To find the office nearest you, look in the State government telephone listings under “Job Service” or “Employ ment.” Job matching and referral. Upon entering a Job Service center, an applicant is inter viewed to determine the type of work for which he or she indicates an interest and apti tude. The interviewer determines if the appli cant is “job ready” or if counseling and test ing services are needed. Applicants who know what kind of work they are qualified for may spend some time examining the Job Bank, a computerized listing of public and private sector job openings that is updated every day. The Job Bank is self-service; appli cants examine a book or microfilm viewer and select openings that interest them. After wards, a Job Service staff member may de scribe a particular job opening in some detail and arrange for an interview with the pro spective employer. Counseling and testing. Job Service centers also help jobseekers who are uncertain about their qualifications and the kind of work they want. Most centers are staffed with a special ist who furnishes complete counseling and testing services. Counselors help jobseekers choose and prepare for an occupation based on their qualifications and interests. They aim to help individuals become aware of their job potential and then develop it. The testing program measures occupational aptitudes, clerical and literary skills, and occupational interests. Testing and counseling before job To reduce excessive youth unemployment, Job Service centers test, counsel and refer young people to training programs or jobs whenever possible. Each year, local Job Ser vice centers conduct a Summer Youth Pro gram to provide full and part-time summer jobs for youth age 14 through 21. The pro gram, which gives priority to disadvantaged youth, arranges for jobs in schools, libraries, community service organizations, hospitals, and private nonprofit agencies. The Job Ser vice also refers applicants to job and training opportunities under the Comprehensive Em ployment and Training Act (CETA); Youth Conservation Corps (YCC); National Alli ance of Business (NAB); and other Federal and community programs concentrating on youth employment. Occupations in Demand. A monthly publica tion of the U.S. Employment Service entitled Occupations in Demand highlights occupa tions for which the Job Bank network reports large numbers of job openings. It also indi cates which cities and areas have significant numbers of job openings. An extra edition for students and graduates, published twice a year, lists high-demand occupations for which employers usually request people with high school or postsecondary training. The extra edition also identifies hard-to-fill occu pations listed with the Job Service. Copies of Occupations in Demand may be found in li braries and counseling centers. Or you can request single copies from: Consumer Information Center, Pueblo, Colorado 81009. Private employment agencies. In the ap propriate section of the classified ads or the telephone book you can find numerous advertisements for private employment agencies. All are in business to make money, but some offer higher quality ser vice and better chances of successful place ment than others. The three main places in which private agencies advertise are newspaper want ads, the Yellow Pages, and trade journals. Tele phone listings give little more than the name, address, phone number, and specialty of the agency, while trade journals generally adver tise openings for a particular occupation, such as accountant or computer program mer. Want ads, then, are the best source of general listings of agencies. These listings fall into two categories— those offering specific openings and those off ering general promise of employment. You should concentrate on the former and use the latter only as a last resort. With a specific opening mentioned in the ad, you have greater assurance of the agency’s desire to place qualified individuals in suitable jobs. When responding to such an ad, you may learn more about the job over the phone. If you are interested, visit the agency, fill out an application, present a resume, and talk with an interviewer. The agency will then arrange an interview with the employer if you are qualified, and perhaps suggest alternative openings if you are not. Most agencies operate on a commission basis, with the fee contingent upon a success ful match. The employer pays agencies ad vertising “no fees, no contracts” and the ap plicant pays nothing. Many agencies, however, do charge applicants. You should find out the exact cost before using the ser vice. Community agencies. A growing number of nonprofit organizations throughout the Na tion provide counseling, career development, and job placement services. These agencies generally concentrate on services for a partic ular labor force group—women, the elderly, youth, minorities, or ex-offenders, for exam ple. Some of these agencies are listed in direc tories already mentioned in the section on Career and Counseling Information for Spe cial Groups. It’s up to you to discover whether your community has such agencies and whether they can help you. The local Job Service cen ter should be able to tell you whether such an agency has been established in your commu nity. Your church, synagogue, or local li brary may have the information, too. The U.S. Department of Labor is another possible source of information, for many of these agencies receive some or all of their funding from the Federal government, through the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA). Among its many and varied provisions, CETA authorizes Federal money for local organizations that offer job counsel ing, training, and placement help to unem ployed and disadvantaged persons. For fur ther information, write: Office of Comprehensive Employment Develop ment, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room 6000, 601 D Street, NW., Washington, D.C., 20213. College career planning and placement offices. For those who have access to them, career planning and placement offices at col leges and universities offer the jobseeker many valuable services. Like community agencies that offer supportive services to disadvantaged jobseekers, college placement offices function as more than just employ ment agencies. In addition to counseling, they teach students to acquire jobseeking skills. They emphasize writing resumes and letters of application, listing possible employ ers, preparing for interviews, and other as pects of job search. College placement offices offer other services, too. At larger campuses they bring students and employers together by providing schedules and facilities for in terviews with industry recruiters. Many offices also maintain lists of local part-time and temporary jobs, and some have files of summer openings. Labor Market Information All State employment security agencies de velop detailed labor market data needed by employment and training specialists and educators who plan for local needs. Such in formation helps policymakers decide whether to expand a vocational training pro gram, for example—or drop it altogether. Jobseekers and counselors also may find these studies helpful. Typically, State agen cies publish reports that deal with future oc cupational supply, characteristics of the work force, changes in State and area eco nomic activities, and the employment struc ture of important industries. For all States, and for nearly all Standard Metropolitan Sta tistical Areas (SMSA’s) of 50,000 inhabitants or more, data are available that show current employment as well as estimated future needs. Each State issues a report covering current and future employment for hundreds of industries and occupations. In addition, major statistical indicators of labor market activity are released by all of the States on a monthly, quarterly, and annual basis. For in formation on the various labor market stud ies, reports, and analyses available in a spe cific State, contact the chief of research and analysis in the State employment security agency. Titles and addresses are as follows: Alabama Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of In dustrial Relations, Industrial Relations Bldg., 649 Monroe St., Montgomery, Ala. 36130. Alaska Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Secu rity Division, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 3-7000, Juneau, Alaska 99802. Arizona Chief, Labor Market Information, Research and Analysis, Department of Economic Security, P.O. Box 6123, Phoenix, Ariz. 85005. California Chief, Employment Data and Research Division, Employment Development Department, P.O. Box 1679, Sacramento, Calif. 95808. Colorado Chief, Research and Analysis, Division of Employ ment, Department of Labor and Employment, 1210 Sherman St., Denver, Colo. 80203. Connecticut Director, Research and Information, Connecticut Employment Security Division, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Weatherfield, Conn. 06109. Delaware Chief, Office of Research, Planning, and Evalua tion, Department of Labor, Bldg. D, Chapman Rd., Route 273, Newark, Del. 19713. District of Columbia Chief, Branch of Labor Market Information and Analysis, D.C. Department of Labor, 605 G St. NW., Room 1000, Washington, D.C. 20001. Florida Chief, Research and Statistics, Division of Em ployment Security, Florida Department of Commerce, Caldwell Bldg., Tallahassee, Fla. 32304. Georgia Director, Information Systems, Employment Se curity Agency, Department of Labor, 254 Washington St. SW., Atlanta, Ga. 30334. Hawaii Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, P.O. Box 3680, Honolulu, Hawaii 96811. Idaho Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Em ployment, P.O. Box 35, Boise, Idaho 83707. Illinois Manager, Research and Analysis Division, Bureau of Employment Security, Department of Labor, 910 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. Arkansas Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Secu rity Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, Ark. 72203. Indiana Chief of Research, Employment Security Division, 10 North Senate Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. 13 Iowa Nebraska Pennsylvania Chief, Research and Statistics, "Department of Job Service, 1000 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50319. Chief, Research and Statistics, Division of Em ployment, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, Lincoln, Nebr. 68509. Director, Research and Statistics, Bureau of Em ployment Security, Department of Labor and Industry, 7th and Forster Sts., Harrisburg, Pa. 17121. Kansas Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Human Resources, 401 Topeka Avenue, Topeka, Kans. 66603. Kentucky Chief, Research and Special Projects, Department of Human Resources, 275 E. Main St., Frankfort, Ky. 40601. Louisiana Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Em ployment Security, P.O. Box 44094, Baton Rouge, La. 70804. Maine Director, Manpower Research Division, Employ ment Security Commission, 20 Union St., Augusta, Maine 04330. Maryland Director, Research and Analysis, Department of Human Resources, 1100 North Eutaw St., Baltimore, Md. 21201. Massachusetts Director, Information and Research, Division of Employment Security, Hurley Bldg., Government Center, Boston, Mass. 02114. Michigan Director, Research and Statistics Division, Em ployment Security Commission, Department of Labor Bldg., 7310 Woodward Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48202. Minnesota Acting Director, Research and Statistics Services, Department of Economic Security, 390 North Robert St., St. Paul, Minn. 55101. Nevada Puerto Rico Chief, Employment Security Research, Employ ment Security Department, 500 East Third St., Carson City, Nev. 89713. Chief of Research and Statistics, Bureau of Em ployment Security, 427 Barbosa Ave., Hato Rey, P.R. 00917. New Hampshire Director, partment 32 South Concord, Economic Analysis and Reports, De of Employment Security, Main St., N.H. 03301. New Jersey Director, Division of Planning and Research, De partment of Labor and Industry, P.O. Box 2765, Trenton, N.J. 08625. New Mexico Rhode Island Supervisor, Employment Security Research, De partment of Employment Security, 24 Mason St., Providence, R.I. 02903. South Carolina Director, Manpower Research and Analysis, Em ployment Security Commission, P.O. Box 995, Columbia, S.C. 29202. South Dakota Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Secu rity Commission, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, N. Mex. 87103. Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Secu rity Department, 607 North Fourth St., Box 730, Aberdeen, S. Dak. 57401. New York Tennessee Director, Division of Research and Statistics, De partment of Labor, State Campus, Bldg. 1Z, Albany, N.Y. 12240. Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Em ployment Security, Cordell Hull Bldg., Room 519, Nashville, Tenn. 37219. North Carolina Texas Director, Bureau of Employment Security Re search, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, N.C. 2761 1. Chief, Economic Research and Analysis, Employ ment Commission, TEC Bldg., 15th and Congress Ave., Austin, Tex. 78778. North Dakota Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Secu rity Bureau, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, N.Dak. 58501. Utah Director, Research and Analysis, Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City, Utah 84147. Ohio Vermont Director, Division of Research and Statistics, Bu reau of Employment Services, 145 South Front St., Columbus, Ohio 43216. Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Em ployment Security, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt. 05602. Missouri Oklahoma Virginia Chief, Research and Statistics, Division of Em ployment Security, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, P.O. Box 59, Jefferson City, Mo. 65101. Chief, Research and Planning Division, Employ ment Security Commission, 310 Will Rogers Memorial Office Bldg., Oklahoma City, Okla. 73105. Commissioner, Virginia Employment Commis sion, P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, Va. 23211. Montana Oregon Washington Chief, Reports and Analysis, Employment Secu rity Division, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59601. Assistant Administrator, Research and Statistics, Employment Division, 875 Union St. NE„ Salem, Oreg. 9731 1. Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Secu rity Department, 1007 So. Washington St., Olympia, Wash. 98501. Mississippi Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Secu rity Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, Miss. 39205. 14 West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Chief, Labor and Economic Research, Depart ment of Employment Security, 112 California Ave., Charleston, W. Va. 25305. Director, Industry, P.O. Box Madison, Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Secu rity Commission, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, Wyo. 82601. Research and Statistics, Department of Labor and Human Relations, 7944, Wis. 53701. 15 TOMORROW’S JOBS Ay One statement can be made about the-fu ture with absolute certainty: It will he Hiffierent from today. Constant change is one of the most significant aspects of the US. job mar ket. Changes in the population, the introduc tion of new technology or business practices, and changes in the needs and tastes of the public continually alter the economy and affect employment in all occupations. The growth of the population has spurred^the need for workers to provide more housing, medical care, education, and other services and goods. The use of new technology has both created and eliminated hundreds of . thousands of jobs. The computer, for exam ple, has given birth to an entire new group of occupations—progranTmers, "systems analysts, peripheral equipment operators—while at the same time it has decreasedTHe^need for inventory~~clefks, bookkeepers, and other clerical workers. Changes in the way busi nesses are organized and managed have had similar effects. For example, the use of cen tralized credit offices has reduced the need for credit managers in retail stores. As an individual planning for a career, you must come to terms with changes that occur in the job market. Your interests and abilities will determine the occupations that attract you, but future economic and social condi tions will determine the job opportunities you face. Fortunately, most factors that alter the demand for workers in occupations—shifts in population or the labor force, the introduc tion of technology, and the development of new organization and management tech niques—generally occur over several years. By examining what has happened in the re cent past, it is possible to project future re quirements for workers in industries and oc cupations. Although no one can forecast the future with certainty, these employment pro jections will help you learn about future op portunities in occupations that interest you. Individual chapters of the Handbook pre sent current trends and projections of em ployment for many occupations and indus tries. This chapter provides a perspective for those discussions. In it you will find informa tion about expected changes in the popula tion and the labor force, as well as employ ment projections for major industrial sectors and broad occupational groups. 0 Population Changes in population are among the basic factors that will affect employment oppor tunities in the future. The demand for work ers in any occupation depends ultimately on the goods and services sought by the public. Changes in the size and characteristics of the population influence the amount and types of 16 goods and services required and also affect the size and characteristics of the labor force —the people who work or are available to work. Three population trends that will affect future employment opportunities are popula tion growth, shifts m~ffie~age structure of the 'population, and movement of the population within the-cauntr-V: ^ m )Population Growth. The population of the United States has increased throughout the century. However, the rate of growth (the size of the annual increases) was declining until the “baby boom,” after World War II. During the 1960’s, the rate of growth started to decline again. (Chart 1). ber of people between the ages of 14 and 24 will decline in the coming decade. The num ber of people 65 and over will grow but more slowly than in recent years. These changes in the age structure of the population will di rectly affect the types of goods and services demanded. For example, as the number of young people declines, the need for education services will fall. When greater numbers of people from the baby boom establish fami lies, they will require more housing and goods such as appliances. Shifts in the age structure of the popula tion also will affect the composition of the labor force. These effects are discussed in a later section. By 1990, the population is expected to in crease to 244 million. This is 11 percent ^R eg io n a l Differences. National trends in higher than the 1978 level of 219 million. population may not be the same as Continued growth will mean more people to changes in a particular region or locality. provide with goods and services causing A nation as large and diversified as the greater demand for workers in many indus United States is bound to vary geograph tries. The effects of population growth on em ically in the rate of the population growth. ployment in various occupations will differ. For example, between 1970 and 1975, the The differences are accounted for in part by average annual rates of population change the age distribution of the future population. in the Northeast and North Central re ® ) Age Structure. Because of the “baby gions were .2 percent and .4 percent com boom,” the proportion of young people in the pared with 1.5 percent and 1.6 percent for population has been high in recent years. the South and West. These trends reflect Through the 1980’s, when these young adults the movement of people between states—to start to enter the prime work years, the pro find new jobs, to retire, or for some other portion of the population between the ages 25 reason. to 44 will swell. By 1990, nearly one-third of the population will be in this age group. As a result of the relatively low number of births during the 1960’s and early 1970’s, the num Chart 2 shows the projected trends in pop ulation growth among the states between 1975 and 1990 that will occur if the move ment of people in the next decade is similar Since the 1960’s, the population has grown more slowly Average annual percent increase 2 1 mm If r 1 1 1.6 H H 1.7 1.2 0 of the Census 1.7 1.5 *| workers—and people looking for jobs—the unemployed. Through the late 1960’s and the 1970’s the number of people in the labor force grew tremendously because many peo ple born during the “baby boom” entered the job market, and more women sought jobs. In 1978, the civilian labor force totaled about 100 million persons—63.2 percent of the noninstitutional population 16 years of age and over. Because of interstate migration, changes in population will vary among States Percent change in population, 1975 to 1990 The labor force will continue to grow dur ing the 1980’s but at a slower rate than in recent years. By 1990 about 119 million per sons will be in the labor force—an 18.5 per cent increase over the 1978 level. Contribut ing to this growth will be the expansion of the working age population and the continued rise in the proportion of women who work. The labor force will grow more slowly be tween 1985 and 1990 than in the early 1980’s. This slowdown will result from a drop in the number of young people entering the work ing age and less rapid growth of the participa tion rate of women. (Chart 3). □ District of Columbia I I -10.0% to -.1% I I 0 to 9.9% r ~ n 10.0% to 19.9% ■ 1 20.0% to 29.9% 30% or more Source: Bureau of the Census A larger labor force will mean more people looking for jobs. However, because of shifts in the age structure, the employment outlook for many individuals will improve. •f 40 on n v • I 960 * ' ^ J \ \ '' y £ ' V , Age Structure. As a result of the large number of young people who have entered the labor force in recent years, competition for many entry level jobs has been stiff and many young workers have been unemployed. As the number of people between 16 and 24 —the ages when most people first enter the labor force—drops, competition for entry level jobs should ease. The 24 to 44 year old age group, those born during the “baby boom”, will find jobs and gain work experi ence. The whole economy should benefit since experienced workers generally are more productive and less likely to be unemployed. (Chart 4). ... ' :\ __..irtH***11*1^ * * : i Ylf: . i ; /m ^ :> " 1965 1970 Source: Bureau of t.abor Statistics . ♦ • 1975 1980 1985 1990 i 61 Education. Employers always wish to hire the best qualified persons available. This does not mean that they always choose those ap plicants who have the most education. How ever, individuals looking for a job should be aware that the higher educational attainment of the labor force as a whole could increase competition in many occupations. to that from 1970 to 1975. The population shift to the South and West will result in over half the population living in these areas by 1990. found in the section, “Where to Go for More Information.” Such geographic shifts in the population will alter the demand for and supply of work ers in local job markets. In areas with grow ing populations for example, demand for ser vices such as police and fire protection, water and sanitation will increase. At the same time more people looking for work in those areas could increase competition in some occupa tions. Individuals investigating future em ployment opportunities in an occupation should remember that local conditions could differ greatly from national projections pre sented in this Handbook. Sources of informa tion about local job market conditions can be The size and characteristics of the labor force determine the number and type of peo ple competing for jobs in the various occupa tions. In addition, because workers are a vital part of the production process, the size of the labor force limits the amount of goods and services that can be produced. Growth, alter ations in the age structure, and rising educa tional levels are among the labor force changes that will affect employment oppor tunities through the 1980’s. Persons contemplating dropping out of high school should recognize that a high school education has become standard. The educational attainment of the labor force has risen from 11.1 years of school in 1952 to 12.6 years in 1978. Thus, high school drop outs are likely to be at a serious disadvantage when seeking jobs that offer better pay or advancement unless they have specific train ing for the occupation they wish to enter. Many technical, craft, and office occupations now require postsecondary vocational educa tion or apprenticeship, because employers prefer to hire trained applicants rather than provide training. Growth. The civilian labor force consists of people with jobs—wage and salary workers, self-employed workers, and unpaid family Traditionally, a college education has been viewed as a gateway to better pay, higher status, and more challenging work. As col- Labor Force 17 lege education has become more widespread, the proportion of workers ■■in the labor force who have completed at least 4 years of col lege has risen from 8 to 17 percent between 1952 and 1978. Recent experience has shown, however, that the traditional view of a pollege degree as a guarantee of success has not been matched by reality. Between 1968 and 1978, employment of college graduates grew 76 percent. The proportion employed in professional and technical occupations, how ever, declined because these occupations did not expand as rapidly as the supply of gradu ates. As a result, 1 out of 4 college graduates took jobs traditionally filled by someone with less schooling. The proportion of graduates in clerical, lower-level sales, and blue-collar occupations grew. Analysis of the future demand for college graduates, and of future supply, indicates that more college graduates will be available than will be needed to fill jobs that require a college degree. Not all occupations requiring college degrees will be overcrowded, how ever. Despite widespread publicity about the poor job market for college graduates, gradu ates still hold a relative advantage over other workers. They are more likely to be em ployed and to hold the highest paying profes sional and managerial jobs. Persons inter ested in occupations that require college degrees should not be discouraged from pur suing careers that they believe match their interests and abilities, but they should be aware of job market conditions. The intro ductory section of the Occupational Outlook Handbook for College Graduates contains a more detailed discussion of the job prospects for college graduates. Through the 1980’s, the number of workers In the prime working ages will grow dramatically 1970 1978 1990 1970 1978 1990 4 1970 1978 1990 Source: Bureau of tabor Statistics H i Industries differ substantially in the kinds of workers they employ Service workers 0.5% Sfue-coitar workers 3.5% Employment The previous sections discussed trends in the population and the labor force—two fac tors which affect employment opportunities. Other factors include the policies of the Fed eral government, the inflation rate, and the availability of energy. The following sections present estimates of 1990 employment in major industries and occupational groups; also included are discussions of the reasons for changes in the level of employment. Changes in the population and the labor force and other factors determine the amount and type of goods and services that will be demanded in the future. If the demand for an industry’s product increases in the future, more workers generally will be hired to in crease production and employment in the in dustry will grow. Changes in occupational employment will result from growth in the industries that employ these workers. Every industry group has a unique mix of workers. Construction, for example, employs mostly blue-collar workers, while finance, insurance, and real estate is predominately a white-col lar industry group. (Chart 5). Growth in the construction industry would result in an in crease in employment of blue-collar workers, as would growth in mining, manufacturing or transportation—industries that also em ploy high proportions of blue-collar workers. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 18 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Construction Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Growth in the finance, insurance, and real estate industries would result in an increase in demand for white-collar workers. The estimates of employment growth in the following section are based on a model of the U.S. economy prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The model assumes, for the next decade, a moderately expanding labor force, a relatively slow decline in inflation, and moderate growth of government expen ditures. The Bureau also has prepared a high em ployment alternative model which assumes the Federal Government will seek to lower the unemployment rate rapidly by increasing grants to State and local governments. Be cause of government efforts to reduce unem ployment, the model also assumes a faster rate of growth for the labor force. Under these assumptions, employment in 1990 would be higher than estimated below for virtually every industry. A discussion of the assumptions and methods used to develop the two models can be found in a separate chapter of the Handbook and a more detailed explanation is given in Employment Projec tions for the 1980's, BLS Bulletin 2030. Industrial Profile To discuss employment trends and projec tions in industries, it is useful to divide the economy into nine industrial sectors under two broad groups—service-producing indus tries and goods-producing industries. Over two-thirds of the Nation’s workers currently are employed in industries that provide ser vices such as health care, trade, education, repair and maintenance, government, trans portation, banking, and insurance. Industries that produce goods through farming, con struction, mining, and manufacturing em ploy less than one-third of the country’s work force. volve personal contact, people are less likely to be replaced by machines in service-produc ing industries. Employment in the service-producing in dustries is expected to increase from 60.4 mil lion workers in 1978 to 78.4 million in 1990 or about 30 percent. Growth will vary among industries within the group. (Chart 7). The following paragraphs summarize recent trends and the projections of employment in the five industrial sectors that make up the service-producing industries. Service-Producing Industries. As shown in chart 6, employment in service-producing in dustries has been increasing at a faster rate than employment in goods-producing indus tries. Among the factors that have con tributed to this rapid growth are rising in comes and living standards that result in greater demand for schooling, health care, entertainment, and financial services. In ad dition, the growth of cities and suburbs brought a need for more local government services. Further, because many services in Transportation and public utilities. This is the slowest growing sector of the service-pro ducing industries. Between 1965 and 1978, employment in this sector increased only half as fast as in the service-producing industries as a whole due largely to declining employ Industries providing services wiil continue to employ more people than those providing goods Workers (millions)1 Service producing: Transportation and public utilities Trade Finance, insurance, and real estate Services Government Goods producing: Agriculture Mtnirtg Contract construction Manufacturing 60 Goods producing on 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 'Wage and salary workers, except for agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Through the 1980’s, changes in employment will vary widely among industries ilZ . /P " Projected change in employment, 1978-90 (millions)1 Agriculture Mining Contract construction Manufacturing Transportation and public utilities Trade Finance, insurance, and reai estate Services Government 'Wage and salary workers, except for includes self-employed and unpaid family Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Between 1978 and 1990, employment in the transporation and public utility sector is expected to rise from 4.9 to 5.4 million work ers or 10 percent. Communications indus tries will grow the fastest of the industries in the sector, about 17 percent, from 1.2 to 1.4 million workers. Improvements in communi cations equipment which have minimized the cost for such services and greatly increased the demand, will keep employment from growing as rapidly as output. Although employment in railroad and water transportation industries is expected to decline (but at a slower rate than before), other transportation industries such as air, local transit, and trucking will increase. Em ployment in transportation as a whole will rise about 7 percent from 2.9 to 3.1 million workers. The demand for electric power, gas utili ties, and water and sanitary services will in crease through the 1990’s as the population grows and more households are formed. Technological innovation in the systems used to provide these services will limit employ ment growth to about 8 percent from 780,000 workers in 1978 to 840,000 workers in 1990. 80 1965 ment requirements in the railroad and water transportation industries. However, even in the communications industries where de mand increased greatly, technological inno vations limited employment growth. J Trade. Both wholesale and retail trade employment have increased as the popula tion has grown and as rising incomes have enabled people to buy a greater number and variety of goods. Retail trade has grown more than wholesale trade; the expansion of the suburbs has created a demand for more shopping centers. Between 1978 and 1990, wholesale and retail trade employment is expected to grow from 19.4 to 24.8 million workers or about 28 percent. Employment will continue to increase faster in retail trade than in wholesale trade, 34 percent compared to 8 percent. Employment will rise despite the use of some laborsaving in novations such as self-service merchandiz ing and computerized checkout systems. Some of the employment growth in retail trade will result from part-time workers re placing full-time workers. Finance, insurance, and real estate. This sector grew 57 percent between 1965 and 1978 as these industries expanded to meet the financial and banking demands of a growing population. Within the sector, the two fastest growing industries have been banking and credit. Employment require ments have increased as banks provide more services, such as bank credit cards, and re main open longer hours. Between 1978 and 1990, employment in this sector is expected to rise from 4.7 to 6.3 million workers or 34 percent. A growing population that increasingly uses credit to finance purchases will keep the consumer de mand for credit and other financial services high. In addition, businesses will need assist19 ance to finance the expansion of their plants and the purchase of new equipment. Services. This sector includes a variety of industries, such as hotels, barber shops, auto mobile repair shops, business services, hospi tals, and nonprofit organizations. Employ ment in this sector has grown faster than any other in the service-producing group, in creasing 77 percent between 1965 and 1978. High demand for health care, maintenance and repair, advertising, and commercial cleaning services have been among the forces behind this growth. From 1978 to 1990, employment in the service industries is expected to increase from 16 to 24.4 million workers or 53 percent, nearly twice the rate of the service-producing industries as a whole. Employment require ments in health care are expected to grow rapidly due to population growth—particu larly the elderly—and rising incomes that in crease people’s ability to pay for medical care. Business services, including accounting, data processing, and maintenance, also are expected to grow rapidly. Government. Increased demand for ser vices provided by the government—educa tion, health and welfare, and police and fire protection caused employment in the govern ment sector to rise about 54 percent between 1965 and 1978. Employment in State and local governments expanded 65 percent com pared to 16 percent for the Federal Govern ment. School enrollments are expected to decline through the 1980’s as a result of low births rates in the 1960’s and 1970’s. Consequently, State and local governments will cut employ ment in schools. New government programs to offset these cuts are unlikely because of the public’s desire to limit government growth. As a result, between 1978 and 1990, govern ment employment is expected to rise only 13 percent, from 15.5 to 17.5 million workers. Goods-Producing Industries. Employment in the goods-producing industries rose only 9 percent between 1965 and 1978. Significant gains in productivity resulting from auto mated production, improved machinery, and other technological breakthroughs permitted large increases in output without additional workers. Between 1978 and 1990, employ ment in goods-producing industries is ex pected to increase from 28.7 to 32.5 million workers or about 13 percent. Growth rates will vary among the four sectors—agricul ture, mining, construction, and manufactur ing. for food will rise because of population growth, and exports of food will increase through the next decade. Farm productivity will continue to improve—although more slowly than in the past—and production is expected to rise even as employment contin ues to decline. Between 1978 and 1990, em ployment is projected to drop from 3.3 to 2.9 million workers or about 12 percent. Mining. Having declined through most of the 1960’s, employment in the mining sector increased substantially during the 1970’s. Employment rose about 32 percent between 1965 and 1978, mostly because of the coun try’s need for oil, coal, and other energy sources. As the development of fuel sources contin ues through the next decade, employment in the mining sector is expected to grow from 830,000 to 1 million workers about 20 per cent. In some nonenergy industries such as iron ore mining, employment will remain the same because of improvements in mining techniques. Contract construction. Employment grew during the 1960’s because of high demand for houses, apartments, office buildings, and highways. The slowdown of the economy during the early 1970’s limited employment growth in the construction industries during most of the decade. However, employment has increased greatly in the last few years due to a strong demand for new housing. During the early 1980’s, the demand for new housing will remain high because the number of households is expected to increase. Business expansion and maintenance of exist ing buildings also will require more construc tion. Between 1978 and 1990, employment in the construction sector is expected to in crease from 4.2 to 4.9 million workers or about 17 percent. Manufacturing. Although a growing pop http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ Federal20Reserve Bank of St. Louis Manufacturing employment is expected to rise to 23.6 million workers by 1990, a 16 percent increase from the 1978 level of 20.3 million workers. Demand for consumer goods is expected to rise because of increas ing incomes. Demand for capital goods such as machinery also should rise as businesses expand their plants and foreign countries in crease imports. Manufacturing is divided into two broad categories, durable goods manufacturing and nondurable goods manufacturing. Employ ment in durable goods manufacturing is ex pected to increase by about 19 percent, from 12.2 to 14.5 million workers, while employ ment in nondurable goods manufacturing is expected to increase by only 11 percent, from 8.2 to 9.1 million workers. Growth rates will vary among individual industries within each of these categories. In nondurable goods industries, for exam ple, employment in bakeries is expected to decline, while a moderate rise in employ ment is projected for the paper industry. Among durable goods industries, com puters and peripheral equipment is expected to undergo a rapid employment increase; iron and steel manufacturing will employ about the same number of workers in 1990 as in 1978. (Chart 8). Occupational Profile Customarily, occupations are divided into white-collar occupations—professional and technical, clerical, sales, and managerial jobs; blue-collar occupations—craft, operative, and laborer jobs; service occupations; and farm occupations. by industry in 1990 Workers (millions)1 iliifi « Government Agriculture. Employment in agriculture which has long been declining dropped nearly 23 percent between 1965 and 1978. At the same time output of farms has been in creasing through the use of more and better machinery, fertilizers, feeds, pesticides, and hybrid plants. Domestic demand for food will increase only slightly faster than the population through the 1980’s. The worldwide demand ulation and rising incomes have increased de mand for almost all types of goods, improved production methods have limited employ ment growth in many manufacturing indus tries. In fact, employment grew more slowly in manufacturing than in any other sector between 1965 and 1978, only 13 percent. Agriculture Mining 1.0 Contract construction and Wholesale and retail trade which includes self-empfoyed and unpaid family workers. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Growth rates among these groups have differed markedly, as shown in chart 9. Once a small proportion of the total labor force, white-collar workers now represent about half of the total. The number of ser vice workers also has risen rapidly, while the blue-collar work force has grown only slowly and farm workers have declined. The following section describes expected changes among the broad occupational groups between 1978 and 1990. (Chart employment in this group is expected to grow from 14.2 to 16.9 million workers or about 19 percent. 10). Greater efforts in energy production, transportation, and environmental protec tion will contribute to a growing demand for scientists, engineers, and technicians. The medical professions can be expected to grow as the health services industry expands. The demand for professional workers to further develop and utilize computer resources also is projected to grow. Professional and technical workers. This category includes many highly trained work ers, such as scientists and engineers, medical practitioners, teachers, entertainers, pilots, and accountants. Between 1978 and 1990, Some occupations in this group will offer less favorable jobs prospects, in many cases because the supply of workers will exceed openings. Teachers will continue to face competition, as will artists and entertain ers, airline pilots, and oceanographers. White-collar workers will continue to be the largest occupational group Workers (millions) Blue-collar^_____ o 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Through the 1980’s, changes In employment will vary widely among occupational groups -IQ Projected change in employment, 1978-90 (millions) -2 0 2 4 6 Professional and technical workers Managers and administrators Sales workers __ Clerical workers Craft workers [ 0 Nonfarm laborers □ Private household workers i® I Service workers, except private household Farm workers Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics I Employment decline New developments in computers, office machines, and dictating equipment will greatly affect employment in many occupa tions within this group. As computers are used more extensively to store information and perform billing, payroll, and other calcu lations, employment of file clerks and many types of office machine operators will level off or decline. At the same time, however, the need for computer and peripheral equipment operators will increase. Dictation machines, which have sharply reduced the need for ste nographers, will continue to adversely affect employment prospects for workers in that occupation. However, technological innovations will not affect many clerical workers whose jobs involve a high degree of personal contact. Substantial opportunities, for example, are anticipated for secretaries and receptionists. Sales workers. These workers are em ployed primarily by retail stores, manufac turing and wholesale firms, insurance compa nies, and real estate agencies. Employment of this group is expected to grow from 6.0 to 7.6 million workers, as increase of 27 percent. Much of this growth will be due to expan sion in the retail trade industry, which em ploys nearly one-half of these workers. The demand for both full- and part-time sales workers in retail trade is expected to increase as the growing population requires more shopping centers and stores. Despite the use of laborsaving merchandizing techniques such as computerized checkout counters, more stores and longer operating hours will cause employment to increase. Operatives, except transport Transport equipment operatives Changes in business size and organization have resulted in differing trends for selfemployed and salaried managers. The num ber of self-employed business managers will continue to decline as large corporations and chain operations increasingly dominate many areas of business. Some small busi nesses, such as quick-service groceries and fast-food restaurants, still will provide oppor tunities for self-employment, however. The demand for salaried managers will continue to grow as firms increasingly depend on trained management specialists, particularly in highly technical areas of operation. Clerical workers. This group constitutes the largest occupational group and includes bank tellers, bookkeepers, cashiers, secretar ies, and typists. Between 1978 and 1990, em ployment in these occupations is expected to grow from 16.9 to 21.7 million workers or 28 percent. 60 1960 Managers and administrators. This group includes workers such as bank offic ers and managers, buyers, credit managers, and self-employed business operators Be tween 1978 and 1990, this group is ex pected to grow from 10.1 to 12.2 million or 21 percent. I I Growth Craft workers. This group includes a wide variety of highly skilled workers, such as car penters, tool-and-die makers, instrument 21 makers, all-round machinists, electricians, and automobile mechanics. Between 1978 and 1990, employment of this group is ex pected to increase from 12.4 to 14.9 million or about 20 percent. Employment in nearly all construction trades is expected to grow, but particularly rapid increases are anticipated for heavy equipment operators, electricians, and plum bers and pipefitters. Among mechanics and repairers, employment will increase most among workers who repair automobiles com puters and office machines, appliances, and industrial machinery. In contrast, the long-run employment de cline in the railroad industry will lessen the demand for some craft occupations concen trated in that industry, such as railroad and car shop repairers. Because of advances in printing technology, very little growth is an ticipated in the printing crafts. Operatives. This group includes such pro duction workers as assemblers, production painters, and welders. Between 1978 and 1990, employment of operatives is expected to rise from 10.9 to 12.5 million workers or 15 percent. Employment of operatives is tied closely to the production of goods, because the major ity of these workers are employed in manu facturing industries. The projected slow growth of some manufacturing industries along with improved production processes, will hold down the demand for many of these workers. Employment of some textile opera tives, for example, is expected to decline as more machinery is used in the textile indus try. Transport operatives. This group includes workers who drive buses, trucks, forklifts, and taxis. Employment will increase because o f the need for transportatio n services. Some occupations such as switch operators and bus drivers are expected to decline. Between 1978 and 1990, the number of transport operatives will rise from 3.5 to 4.1 million or 17 percent. Nonfarm laborers. This group includes workers such as garbage collectors, construc tion laborers, and freight and stock handlers. Employment in this group is expected to grow only slowly as machinery increasingly replaces manual labor. Power-driven equip ment, such as forklift trucks, cranes and hoists will handle more material in factories, loading docks, and warehouses. Other ma chines will do excavating, ditch digging, and similar work. Between 1978 and 1990, em ployment of laborers is expected to increase from 4.7 to 5.1 million workers or 9 percent. Private household service workers. These workers include housekeepers, child care workers, and caretakers. Employment will decline from 1.2 million to 890,000 workers or 26 percent, between 1978 and 1990. De spite a rising demand for their services, the low wages and the strenuous nature of the work make these occupations unattractive to many people. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ Federal2 2Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job openings will result from employment growth, deaths, and retirements 12 Job openings 1978-90 (m illions) 5 0 5 10 war Clerical workers | H| if |§J§ Craft workers D ■ — — j] ■■— ■ 20 iitiss iip ilii wm Sales workers 15 : : ':' ' ' .' ■ i Operatives, except transport insport equipment operatives Nonfarm laborers Private household workers 1--- 1 ■ Service workers Farm workers Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics D ' t ■Em ploym ent decline ■ G ro w th □ D e a th s and retirements Service workers. This group includes a wide range of workers—firefighters, janitors, cosmetologists, and bartenders are a few ex amples. These workers, most whom are em ployed in service-producing industries, make up the fastest growing occupational group. Factors expected to increase the need for these workers are the rising demand for com mercial cleaning services, protective services; and—as incomes rise—more frequent use of restaurants, beauty salons, and leisure ser vices. Between 1978 and 1990, employment of service workers is expected to increase 35 percent from 11.7 to 15.8 million workers. Farm workers. This group includes farm ers and farm operators as well as farm labor ers. Employment of these workers has de clined for decades as farm productivity has increased as a result of fewer but larger farms, the use of more and better machinery, and the development of new feeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. Between 1978 and 1990, the number of farmworkers is expected to decline from 2.8 million to 2.4 million workers or 14 percent. (Chart 11). Jol) Openings ) ProjectecTsize and change in employment are two indicators of future job prospects; another is the total number of job openings expected in the occupation. The total in cludes job openings resulting from employ ment growth and the need to replace em ployees in an occupation who die, retire, transfer to another occupation, or simply stop working, perhaps to attend college or care for a family. Between 1978 and 1990, replacement needs from deaths and retirements are expected to be twice those from employment growth. (Chart 12). Although data are not available to estimate other replacement needs, research findings indicate occupational transfers and temporary labor force separations are a larger source of job openings than growth, deaths, and retirements combined. The relationship of replacement needs to employment in an occupation is complex and not completely understood. However, lim ited information indicates that some occupa tions will offer more job opportunities than their projected employment or growth rates would suggest. Generally speaking, employees in occupa tions requiring the least training or experi ence—such as many operative, clerical, ser vice, and sales occupations—have a higher replacement rate than other occupations. These workers can quit and later easily find a similar job. On the other hand, occupations requiring the most training or experience— such as professional and managerial occupa tions—tend to have the lowest replacement rates. Physicians, engineers, and bank managers, for example, have extensive train ing and there are few occupations to which they could transfer without taking a cut in pay. replacement needs are not available. How ever, the patterns of the past are unlikely to change significantly: Occupations which re quire little training will provide more em ployment opportunities from replacement needs than occupations which require exten sive training or experience. When reviewing the employment projec tions, keep in mind replacement needs. Be cause of job transfers, deaths, retirements, and other labor force separations, employ ment opportunities may exist even in occupa tions where employment is expected to de cline or to increase slowly. Unfortunately, projected data about total 23 ASSUMPTIONS AND METHODS USED IN PREPARING EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS Although the discussions of future em ployment contained in the Handbook are written in qualitative terms, they are based on quantitative estimates developed using the most recent data available on popula tion, industry and occupational employ ment, productivity, consumer expenditures, and other factors expected to affect em ployment. The Bureau’s research offices provided much of these data, but many other agencies of the Federal Government were important contributers, including the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training of the Department of Labor; the Bureau of the Census of the Department of Com merce; the Office of Education and the Rehabilitation Services Administration of the Department of Education; the Veterans Administration; the Office of Personal Management; the Interstate Commerce Commission; the Civil Aeronautics Board; the Federal Communications Commission; the Department of Transportation; and the National Science Foundation. In addition, experts in industry, unions, professional societies, and trade associations furnished data and supplied information through interviews. Many of these individu als also reviewed preliminary drafts of the statements. The information presented in each statement thus reflects the knowledge and judgment not only of the Bureau of Labor Statistics staff, but also of leaders in the fields discussed. The Bureau, of course, takes full responsibility for the published ma terial. After the information from these sources was compiled, it was analyzed in conjunc tion with the Bureau’s model of the econ omy in 1990. Like other models used in economic forecasting, the Bureau’s model encompasses the major facets of the econ omy and represents a comprehensive view of its projected structure. It is comprised of internally consistent projections of gross national product (GNP); industrial output and productivity; labor force; average weekly hours of work; and employment for detailed industry groups and occupations. A detailed description of the model ap pears in Methodology for Projections o f In dustry Employment, Bulletin 2036 (forth coming). Assumptions. The Bureau’s projections to 1990 are based on the following general as sumptions. 24 —Inflation will decelerate to 5.2 percent annually during 1980-90. —A stable, long-run unemployment rate close to 4.5 percent will be achieved by the mid-1980’s. —Higher energy prices will not constrain growth in GNP. —The institutional framework of the U.S. econ omy will not change radically. —Current social, technological, and scientific trends will continue. —No major event such as widespread or longlasting energy shortages or war will significantly alter the industrial structure of the economy or alter the rate of economic growth. Detailed information about the assump tions used in the projections are presented in Employment Projections for the 1980's, BLS Bulletin 2030. Methods. Beginning with population pro jections by age and sex developed by the Bu reau of the Census, a projection of the total labor force is derived using expected labor force participation rates for each population group. In developing participation rates, the Bureau takes into account a variety of factors that affect decisions to enter the labor force, such as school attendance, retirement prac tices, and family responsibilities. The labor force projection then is tran slated into the level of GNP that would be produced by a fully employed labor force. GNP is obtained by subtracting unemploy ment from the labor force and multiplying the result by a projection of output per worker. The estimates of future output per worker are based on an analysis of trends in productivity (output per work hour) among industries and changes in average weekly hours of work. Next, the projection of GNP is divided among its major components: Consumer ex penditures, investment, government expendi tures—Federal, State, and local—and net ex ports. Each of these components is broken down by producing industry. Consumer ex penditures, for example, are divided among industries producing goods and services such as housing, food, automobiles, medical care, and education. Once estimates are developed for these products and services, they are translated into detailed projections of industry output, not only for the industries producing the final product—such as an automobile—but also for the industries that provide electric power, transportation, component parts and other inputs required in the production process. In put-output tables developed by the Depart ment of Commerce and modified by the BLS are used to estimate output. By using estimates of future output per workhour based on studies of productivity and technological trends for each industry, industry employment projections are derived from the output estimates. These projections are then compared with employ ment projections derived using regression analysis. This analysis develops equations that relate employment by industry to com binations of economic variables, such as population and income, that are considered determinants of long-run changes in em ployment. By comparing projections result ing from input-output analysis and regres sion analysis, areas may be identified where one method produces a projection inconsis tent with trends or with the Bureau’s eco nomic model. The projections are then ad justed accordingly. Occupational employment projections. Projections of industry employment are tran slated into occupational employment projec tions using an industry-occupation matrix. This matrix, which is divided into 200 indus try sectors and 400 occupation sectors, de scribes the current and projected occupa tional structure of each industry. By applying the projected occupational structure for each industry to the industry employment projec tion and aggregating the resulting estimates for all industries, employment projections for each of the 400 occupations contained in the matrix are obtained. Thus, the projected em ployment of an occupation is determined by changes in the proportion of workers in the occupation in each industry, and the growth rate of industries in which an occupation is concentrated. For example, employment in an occupation would be projected to grow: (1) if its proportion of the work force in creases but industry employment remains constant, or (2) if its proportion of the work force remains constant but industry employ ment increases. In some cases, employment is related di rectly to one of the components of the Bu reau’s model—for example, the number of cosmetologists is related to consumer expen ditures for beauty shop services. In others, employment is related to an independent variable not explicitly projected in the model but believed to be a primary determinant of employment in that occupation. The projec tion of automobile mechanics, for example, is based on the expected stock of motor vehi cles. Projections that are developed indepen dently are compared with those in the matrix and revised, if necessary, to assure consist ency. Replacement needs. In addition to a pro jection of employment for each occupation, a projection is made of the number of workers who will be needed to replace those who die or retire. To estimate these replacement needs, the Bureau has developed tables of working life based on actuarial experience for deaths, and on decennial Census data for general patterns of labor force participation. Tables of working life provide death and labor force separation rates for the entire labor force, by age and sex groups. The rate for each age and sex group then is adjusted to reflect expected changes in labor force be havior. An overall separation rate for an oc cupation is obtained by weighting each pro jected rate by employment in the occupation for that age and sex group, and computing the weighted average. Average annual re placement needs are calculated by applying the projected occupational separation rate to projected employment. The Bureau is continuing research to de termine the effect of occupational transfers and temporary labor force separations on job openings. These transfers have not been taken into account in calculating replace ment needs. 25 The Outlook for Occupations Industrial Production Office • Service Education • Sales Construction Transportation Scientific and Technical Mechanics and Repairers Health Social Scientists • Social Service Performing Arts, Design, and Communications 27 INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Cars, newspapers, radios, bathtubs, guided missiles, eating utensils, books, and pencil sharpeners all have at least one thing in com mon. They, and almost all other products that we use, are made by the millions of workers in industrial production and related occupations. Most of these operatives and craft workers are employed in factories in the mass produc tion of goods. Others work outside of manufacturing in a wide variety of activities rang ing from showing motion pictures to shoeing horses. Because mass production would not be possible without interchangeable parts, workers in the machining and foundry occu pations play a basic role in the production process. These workers make the tools, dies, molds, cores, and other items that can be used to produce hundreds or even thousands of identical parts. Assemblers then put these parts together to make automobiles, tele phones, and hundreds of other products. If the parts or finished products require paint ing, production painters do that job. After the products are made, inspectors examine and test them to insure quality. Other factory workers are not directly in volved in the production process, but support it in some way. Stationary engineers, for ex ample, operate boilers and other equipment to heat and air-condition factories and other buildings. Millwrights move and install heavy machinery used in the production pro cess and power truck operators move materi als about the plant. Printing is another type of mass produc tion. Printing craft workers operate the ma chinery used to print newspapers, books, and other publications. Industrial workers also are employed out side of manufacturing in a variety of activi ties. Automobile painters, for example, re store the finish on old and damaged cars. Photographic laboratory workers develop film and make prints and slides. Most jobs in industrial production do not require a high school diploma. However, many employers prefer high school or voca tional school graduates who have taken courses such as blueprint reading and ma chine shop. Operatives, such as assemblers and power truck operators, ordinarily need only brief on-the-job training. Craft work ers, such as stationary engineers and ma chinists, require considerable training to qualify for their jobs. Many learn their trades on the job, but training authorities generally recommend completion of a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn a skilled trade. This chapter includes statements on more than 30 industrial production and related oc cupations. Many other workers who are in volved in industrial production are described elsewhere in the Handbook because of their close association with particular occupations. For example, engineers are included in the section on scientific and technical occupa tions. 29 Foundry Occupations The average American home contains over 2 tons of metal castings. Cooking utensils, stoves, sinks, bathtubs, and refrigerators are just a few of the everyday products we use that are cast or have cast metal parts. In addition, many industries use cast products. Machinery made of castings processes food, generates electricity, and stamps out parts for assembly lines. The process of casting forms metal into intricate objects by pouring molten metal into carefully prepared molds and allowing it to solidify. When the hot metal cools, cast ings take the shape of the mold cavity. The patternmaker, the molder, and the coremaker each play an important part in the process. A patternmaker makes an exact wood or metal model of the casting. A molder then places the model in a box and packs a sand mixture around it to form a mold. If the casting is to have a hollow sec tion, such as an automobile engine block, a coremaker makes a core of a packed and hardened sand mixture that is positioned in the mold before the molten metal is poured in. In 1978, about 3,700 patternmakers, 21,000 molders, and 12,000 coremakers worked in the foundry industry. About three-fourths of them worked in shops that make and sell castings. The remainder worked in plants that make castings to use in their final products, such as plants operated by manufacturers of automobiles or ma chinery. A high school education is the minimum requirement for an apprenticeship in pattern making. Some highly skilled molding and coremaking jobs also may require a high school education, but an eighth grade educa tion may be enough for entry into many molding and coremaking jobs. The production and use of castings are ex pected to grow significantly through the 1980’s. However, because of automation and other laborsaving improvements in produc tion methods, employment of patternmakers, coremakers, and molders is expected to in crease more slowly than the average for all occupations. In addition to those job open ings that result from employment growth, other openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. The number of openings may fluctuate from year to year because foundry employment is sensitive to ups and downs in the economy. Patternmakers, molders, and coremakers are discussed in detail in the following state ments. For general descriptions of the casting process and many of the other jobs involved 30/OCCUPAT1ONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in metal casting, see the statement on foun dries elsewhere in the Handbook. pattern segments by hand, using glue, screws, and nails. Sources of Additional Information Working Conditions For details about training opportunities for patternmakers, molders, and coremakers, contact local foundries, the local office of the State employment service, the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency, or the Bu reau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. Information also is available from the following organizations: Patternmakers work indoors in welllighted, well-ventilated areas. The rooms in which they work generally are separated from the areas where the casting takes place, so they are not exposed to the heat and noise of the foundry floor. Although the work is not strenuous, patternmaking requires con siderable standing and moving about. American Foundrymen’s Society/Cast Metals In stitute, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union, 1225 E. McMillan St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45206. Patternmakers______ Nature of the Work A high quality cast product depends upon the initial pattern created by the foundry pat ternmaker. The formation of the hollow mold cavity, and ultimately the metalcasting itself, rely upon an accurate, well-con structed pattern. Patterns are formed from many different materials—wood, metal, plas tic, plaster, and even wax. Patternmakers work from blueprints pre pared by engineers or drafters. The blue prints contain information about the size, shape, and other properties desired in the finished cast object. From these instruc tions, patternmakers construct a precise pattern for the product by carefully check ing each dimension with instruments such as micrometers and calipers. Precision is important because any imperfection in the pattern will be reproduced in the castings made from it. Most workers in this occupation are metal patternmakers (D.O.T. 600.280-050). These workers prepare patterns from metal stock or from rough castings made from a wood pat tern. To shape and finish the patterns, they use many metalworking machines, including lathes, drill presses, shapers, milling ma chines, and grinders. To smooth surfaces they also use small handtools, such as files and rasps. Wood patternmakers (D.O.T. 661.281022) select the wood stock, lay out the pat tern, and saw each piece of wood to size. They then shape the rough pieces into final form with various woodworking machines, such as lathes and sanders, as well as many small handtools. Finally, they assemble the Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Apprenticeship is the best means of quali fying as an experienced patternmaker. Be cause of the high degree of skill and the wide range of knowledge needed for patternmak ing, it is difficult to learn the trade on the job, but with additional on-the-job training or ex perience, some skilled machinists have trans ferred to metal patternmaking. High school courses in mechanical drawing, blueprint reading, and shop mathematics are helpful to persons interested in becoming patternmak ers. In addition, vocational and technical school training in pattemmaking, metal working, and machining provide useful preparation for an apprentice, and may be credited toward completion of the appren ticeship. The usual apprenticeship period for pat ternmaking is 5 years; however, a few ap prenticeships last only 3 or 4 years. At least 144 hours of classroom instruction generally accompany the work experience provided each year. Because of the precise skills needed, apprenticeship programs for wood and metal patternmaking are separate. Em ployers almost always require apprentices to have a high school education. Apprentices begin by helping experienced patternmakers in routine duties. They make simple patterns under close supervision; as they progress, the work becomes increasingly complex and the supervision more general. Patternmakers earn higher pay as their skill increases, and some become supervisors. Manual dexterity and attention to detail are especially important because of the pre cise nature of the work. The ability to visual ize objects in three dimensions also is impor tant when reading blueprints. Employment Outlook Employment of foundry patternmakers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s despite anticipated increases in foundry production. The increased use of (D.O.T.'518.682-010) operate machines that speed up and simplify the making of large quantities of identical sand molds. This in cludes setting up the machine, controlling the pressure applied to the sand by the working levers and pedals, and cutting pouring spouts in the mold. Machine molders also assemble the flask and pattern on the machine table and fill the flask with the prepared sand mix ture. In a few foundries, hand molders still con struct the sand molds, using primarily man ual methods. Power tools, such as pneumatic rammers and squeeze plates, and handtools, such as trowels and mallets, are used to com pact the sand. Molds for small castings usu ally are made on the workbench by bench molders (D.O.T. 518.361-010); those for large and bulky casting are made on the foundry floor by floor molders (D.O.T. 518.361-010). An all-around hand molder makes many different types of molds. A less skilled molder specializes in a few simple types. Working Conditions Using detailed blueprints, patternmakers design cast products. metal patterns will allow production to in crease faster than employment. Because metal patterns, unlike wooden ones, can be used again and again, fewer patterns have to be made. In addition to those openings created by employment growth, some job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced patternmakers who re tire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Most of these openings will be for metal pat ternmakers. The number of openings may fluctuate from year to year since the demand for foundry products is sensitive to changes in the economy. Earnings Patternmakers generally have higher earn ings than other production workers in manu facturing. In January 1979, average straighttime hourly earnings of wood patternmakers ranged from $7.30 in nonferrous foundries to $7.90 in gray iron and malleable foundries, according to a wage survey made by the Na tional Foundry Association. In comparison, all production workers in manufacturing in dustries averaged $6.48 an hour. Related Occupations Because patternmakers learn either basic metalworking or woodworking, they may be able to use their skills and knowledge for jobs in related fields. Wood patternmakers, for example, may qualify for woodworking jobs such as cabinetmaker or bench carpenter. Metal patternmakers may be able to transfer to metalworking occupations such as ma chinist, layout worker, or sheet-metal worker. Other workers who follow blueprints to construct full-sized and scale models of pro ducts include sample-body builders (automo bile manufacturing); model makers (clocks and watch), form builders (aircraft-aerospace manufacturing), last-pattern graders (shoes), loft workers (ship and boat building and re pairing), mock-up builders (transportation equipment), and wood model makers (any industry). Sources of Additional Information For sources of additional information, see the introductory section of this chapter. Molders Nature of the Work One of the oldest known methods of mak ing m etal p roducts is casting, the process o f pouring molten metal into a previously made mold and allowing the metal to harden in the shape of the mold. There are several different ways of making molds, but sand molding is the most common because it is so economi cal. In sand molding, molders pack and ram a specially prepared mixture of sand and other binders, such as clay and chemicals, around a pattern of the object that is to be cast. The mixture is contained in a box called a flask. The flask usually is made in two parts that can be separated to remove the pattern without damaging the mold cavity. When molten metal is poured into the cavity, it solidifies as it cools, and forms the casting. (Other types of molds and molding processes are described in the foundry industry section of the Handbook). Technologically advanced molding ma chines that pack and ram the sand mechani cally are now used to make most molds. Thus, most of the workers in this occupation are machine molders. Machine molders Working conditions vary considerably from one foundry to another. In many plants, improved ventilation systems and air-condi tioning have reduced greatly the heat, fumes, and dust; however, in many older foundries these still are problems. Working in a foundry can be hazardous, and the injury rate is higher than the average for all manufacturing industries. Safety pro grams and safety equipment, such as metalplated shoes, have helped reduce injuries at many foundries; however, molders must be careful to avoid burns from hot metal and to avoid cuts and bruises when handling metal parts, molds, and power tools. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 4-year apprenticeship pro gram, or equivalent experience, is needed to become a skilled hand molder. Workers with this training also are preferred for some kinds of machine molding, but in general a shorter training period is required in order to become a qualified machine molder. An eighth grade education usually is the minimum require ment for apprenticeship. Many employers prefer high school graduates, however. Apprentices, under close supervision by skilled molders, begin with simple jobs, such as shoveling sand, and then gradually take on more difficult and responsible work, such as ramming molds, withdrawing pat terns, and setting cores. They also learn to operate the various types of molding ma chines. As their training progresses, they learn to make complete molds. In addition, the apprentice may work in other foundry departments to develop all-round knowl edge of foundry methods and practices. The apprentice usually receives at least 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as shop arithmetic, metal lurgy, and shop drawing. FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS/31 Coremakers Nature of the Work Many cast metal products—iron piping, automobile engine blocks, and electric powerplant equipment, for example—are hollow. Coremakers prepare the “cores” that are placed in molds to form the hollow sections in these castings. The poured metal solidifies around the core, so that when the core is removed the desired cavity or contour re mains. A core may be made either by hand or by machine. In both instances, sand is packed into a block of wood, plastic, or metal in which a cavity of the desired size and shape has been formed or machined out. When hand methods are used, the coremaker uses mallets and other handtools to pack sand into the core box. The core then is removed from this box, and is hardened by baking or by another drying method. Small cores are made on the workbench by bench coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381-014) and large ones are made on the foundry floor by floor coremak ers (D.O.T. 518.381-014). Pouring molten metal requires concentration and a steady hand. Hand molders who do highly repetitive work that requires less skill usually learn their jobs during a brief training period. Trainees work with a molder to make a par ticular kind of mold. After 2 to 6 months, the trainee usually is capable of making a similar mold. Most machine molders also learn the necessary skills in a few months of informal on-the-job training. Physical standards for molding jobs are fairly high. Molders stand while working, must move about a great deal to do accurate work, and must be competent in using mold ing tools such as shovels and rammers. They need good eye-hand coordination and a high degree of manual dexterity. Molders may ad vance to a specialized molding job or eventu ally to a supervisory position. Employment Outlook Employment of molders is expected to in crease more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Although the demand or metal castings is expected to increase significantly, the trend toward more automatic machine molding, such as the sand slinging process, and other laborsaving inno vations will allow large increases in produc tion with only moderate employment 32/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK growth. In addition to job openings created by employment growth, openings will arise from the need to replace experienced m olders who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. The number of openings, however, may fluctuate greatly from year to year be cause the demand for foundry products is sensitive to changes in the economy. Earnings In January 1979, floor molders averaged $6.20 an hour and bench molders averaged $5.90, according to a wage survey made by the National Foundry Association. By com parison, production workers in all manufac turing industries averaged $6.48 an hour. Molders who were paid on an incentive basis generally had higher earnings. Related Occupations Other workers who need a knowledge of metal characteristics, molding sand, and pouring procedures are molding machine set ters, mold-maker helpers, mold closers, sandslinger operators, and jewelry benchmolders. Sources of Additional Information For sources of additional information, see the introductory section of this chapter Machine coremakers (D.O.T. 518.685014, -018, -022) operate machines that make sand cores by forcing sand into a core box. Some machine coremakers are required to set up and adjust their machines and do finishing operations on the cores. Others are primarily machine tenders. They are closely supervised and their machines are adjusted for them. (To see how the coremaker’s job is a basic step in the casting process, read the descrip tion of sand casting given in the statement on foundries elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Working conditions vary considerably from one foundry to another. Heat, fumes, and dust, have been greatly reduced in many plants by the installation of im proved ventilation systems and air-condi tioning. Although the injury rate in foun dries is higher than the average for manufacturing, coremaking is one of the least hazardous foundry jobs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 4-year apprenticeship training program or the equivalent experi ence is needed to become a skilled hand coremaker. Workers with this training also are preferred for the more difficult ma chine coremaking jobs, but in general a shorter training period is required to be come a qualified machine coremaker. Ap prenticeships in coremaking and molding often are combined. Experienced coremakers teach apprentices how to make cores and operate ovens. Class room instruction covering subjects such as arithmetic and the properties of metals gen erally supplements on-the-job training. Core- all occupations through the 1980’s, as the growing use of machine coremaking will allow large increases in production with only moderate employment growth. In addition to those job openings created by employment growth, other openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced coremakers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. The number of openings may fluctuate greatly from year to year since the demand for foundry products is sensitive to changes in the economy. Earnings In January 1979, average hourly earnings of floor coremakers were $6.30; bench core makers, $6 and machine coremakers, $5.40, according to a wage survey made by the Na tional Foundry Association. By comparison, production workers in all manufacturing in dustries averaged $6.48 an hour. Coremakers who were paid on an incentive basis generally had higher earnings than those who were paid a straight hourly wage. Related Occupations Coremakers prepare the “cores” that form the hollow sections for automobile engine blocks. 1: ; v makers earn higher pay as their skill increases, and some may advance to supervisors. An eighth grade education usually is the minimum requirement for coremaking ap prentices; however, most employers prefer high school graduates, and some employers require apprentices to have graduated from high school. Some types of hand coremaking require a high degree of manual dexterity. Employment Outlook Although the production and use of metal castings are expected to increase substan tially, employment of coremakers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for Other workers who must know how to make cores, set them in molds, or operate coremaking machines are core setters, core making machine setters, pipe coremakers, mold closers, core checkers, and coreroom foundry laborers. Sources of Additional Information For sources of additional information, see the introductory section of this chapter. FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS/33 Machining Occupations Machine tools are stationary, powerdriven machines used to shape or form metal by cutting, impact, pressure, electrical tech niques, or a combination of these processes. The most outstanding characteristic of machine tools is their precision of operation. For example, in this century the accuracy of machine tools has improved from a thou sandth of an inch to about a millionth of an inch. A millionth of an inch is about l/300th as thick as a human hair. This precision makes possible the production of thousands of identical parts which may easily be inter changed in the assembly or repair of final products. The interchangeability of parts, made possible by machine tools, is the most important requirement for the mass produc tion of goods. As a result, nearly every prod uct of American industry, from cornflakes to turbines, is made either using machine tools or using machines made with machine tools. Most machine tools are named for the way in which they shape metal. For example, commonly used machine tools include boring machines, milling machines, lathes, drilling machines, and grinding machines. All-round machinists can operate most types of ma chine tools, whereas machine tool operators generally work with one kind only. Tool-anddie makers make dies (metal forms) for presses and diecasting machines, devices to guide drills into metal, and special gages to determine whether the work meets specified tolerances. Instrument makers use machine tools to produce highly accurate instrument parts from metal and other materials. Setup 34/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK workers adjust tools for semiskilled machine tool operators to run. In 1978, over 1.1 mil lion workers were employed in these occupa tions. The following chapters present de tailed discussions of the work performed, training required, job outlook, and earnings for these occupations. All-Round Machinists______ (D.O.T. 600.280-022, .281-022, and .381-018) Nature of the Work All-round machinists are skilled metal workers who can turn a block of metal into an intricate part, such as a gear or piston, that meets precise specifications. They know how to set up and operate most types of ma chine tools used to make metal parts for cars, machines, and other equipment. They also know the working properties of a variety of metals such as steel, cast iron, aluminum, brass, and other metals that are used to make these parts. Using this knowledge of metals, plus their skill with machine tools, produc tion machinists plan and carry out all the operations needed to make a machined prod uct. Before they actually begin work on a part, machinists usually consult blueprints or writ ten specifications for the item. Using these, they select tools and materials for the job and plan the cutting and finishing operations. When making a rifle barrel, for example, they might select an alloy steel workpiece and then use a boring machine to cut out the rifle bore. After selecting a workpiece and the ap propriate machine for the job, machinists make standard shop computations relating to dimensions of work and machining computa tions. They must, for example, determine the exact point on the workpiece where they will bore the hole. They also must decide how fast they can feed the metal workpiece into the machine, and what cooling oils they should use to keep the metal from overheating and ruining the job. To be sure their work is accurate, they check it using precision instruments, such as micrometers, which measure to thousandths or even millionths of an inch. After complet ing machining operations, they may use hand files and scrapers to smooth rough metal edges before assembling the finished parts with wrenches and screwdrivers. Like production machinists, all-round ma chinists who work in plant maintenance shops have a broad knowledge of metals, of how machines work, and of machining oper ations. These workers are responsible for re pairing parts or making new parts for ma chinery that has broken down. They sometimes also adjust and test the parts they have made or repaired for a machine. Working Conditions The work environment for machinists has improved considerably in recent years. Most machine shops are clean, well lighted, and well ventilated. Many modern shops are airconditioned. Noise levels also have been re duced with the introduction of better de signed machine tools. In those shops where noise still is a problem, workers wear earmuffs or earplugs to protect their hearing. Good “housekeeping” now is emphasized in most machine shops, and helps make shops safer by reducing the chances of accidents caused by slippery floors or blocked aisles between the machine tools. Working around high-speed machine tools, however, can still present certain dan gers. Flying pieces of hot metal, for example, can cause burns and cuts. As a result, machi nists must follow strict safety practices. Safety glasses with side shields, and other protective devices must be worn; loose or bil lowy clothing, long hair, and rings or other jewelry are prohibited. These regulations help prevent once common accidents, such as burns from hot metal, cuts and other injuries caused by flying metal pieces, and parts of the body getting caught and mangled in the machine tool. Places of Employment About 400,000 persons worked as machi nists in 1978. Almost every factory that uses substantial amounts of machinery employs all-round machinists to maintain its mechan ical equipment. In some factories, machinists made large quantities of identical parts such as automobile axle shafts in production de partments. In others, machinists made lim ited numbers of varied products such as mis sile motor cases in machine shops. Most all-round machinists worked in the following industries: Machinery, including electrical; transportation equipment; fab ricated metal products; and primary metals. Other industries employing substantial num bers of these workers were the railroad, chemical, food processing, and textile indus tries. The Federal Government also em ployed all-round machinists in Navy yards and other installations. Although machinists work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where many factories are located. Among the leading areas of employment are Los An geles, Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, Boston, San Francisco, and Houston. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A 4-year formal apprenticeship is the best way to learn the machinist trade, but some companies have training programs for single purpose machines that require less than 4 years to complete. Many machinists do learn this trade on the job, however. Persons interested in becoming machi nists should be mechanically inclined so that they can use the tools and machines required in their work and so that they can understand the often complex mech anisms it is their job to build. They also should be temperamentally suited to do highly accurate work that requires concen tration as well as physical effort. Prospec tive machinists should be able to work in dependently. Although the work sometimes is tedious and repetitious, all-round machi nists frequently have the satisfaction of seeing the final results of their work. They also often are able to switch from making one product to another; as a result, variety is a major feature of all-round machinists’ work. A high school or vocational school educa tion, including mathematics, physics, or ma chine shop training, is desirable. Some com panies require experienced machinists to take additional courses in mathematics and elec tronics at company expense so that they can work with newer metalworking technologies, such as numerically controlled machine tools. In addition, equipment builders gener ally provide training in the electrical, hydrau lic, and mechanical aspects of machine-andcontrol systems. Typical machinist apprentice programs consist of approximately 8,000 hours of shop training and about 570 hours of related classroom instruction. In shop training, apprentices learn chipping, filing, hand tapping, dowel fitting, riveting, and the operation of various machine tools. In the classroom, they study blueprint read ing, mechanical drawing, shop mathemat ics, and shop practices. All-round machinists have numerous op portunities for advancement. Many become supervisors. Some take additional training and become tool-and-die or instrument makers. Skilled machinists may open their own shops or advance into other techni cal jobs in machine programming and tool ing. Employment Outlook The number of all-round machinists is ex pected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Growth in the demand for machined metal parts will cause most of the increase. In addition to openings created by growth in this large occupation, many openings will arise from the need to replace experienced machinists who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. As population and income rise, so will the demand for machined goods, such as au tomobiles, household appliances, and indus trial products. However, technological devel opments that increase the productivity of machinists are expected to keep employment from rising as fast as the demand for ma chined goods. Chief among these technological innova tions is the use of numerically controlled ma chine tools. These machines, which use com puters to control various machining operations, significantly reduce the time re quired to perform machining operations. Much of the employment growth will occur in the maintenance shops of manu facturing plants as industries continue to use a greater volume of complex machin ery and equipment. More skilled mainte nance machinists will be needed to prevent costly breakdowns in highly mechanized plants. Often the breakdown of just one machine can stop an entire production line for hours. Earnings The earnings of machinists compare favor ably with those of other skilled workers. Ma chinists employed in metropolitan areas had estimated average hourly earnings of $8.02 in 1978. Average hourly rates in 10 of the areas surveyed, selected to show how rates differ in various parts of the country, appear in the accompaning table. Because machinists work indoors, they are able to work year round and in all kinds of weather. As a result, their earnings are relatively stable. Many also re ceive numerous opportunities for overtime work. Many companies employ maintenance machinists to repair or make new parts for machinery that has broken down. Many machinists are members of unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the In ternational Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Brotherhood of MACHINING OCCUPATIONS/35 Table 1. Average hourly earnings of all-round machinists in selected areas, 1978 Area Hourly rate San Francisco-O akland.......................................................................................................... $9.56 Detroit........................................................................................................................................ 9.01 H ouston............................................................................................... C hicago..................................................................................................................................... 8.39 New York.................................................................................................................................. 8.33 Minneapolis-St. P a u l ............................................................................................................. 8.11 A tla n t a ..................................................................................................................................... 8.10 New O rlean s............................................................................................................................ 8.05 Boston........................................................................................................................................ 7.15 Jackson, Miss............................................................................................................................ 6.65 SOURCE: Bureau o f Labor Statistics. Electrical Workers; and the United Steel workers of America. Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to all-round machinists are, of course, the other machining occupations. These include tooland-die makers, machine tool operators, setup workers (machine tool), and instru ment makers. There are other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal, however, including arc cutters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, locksmiths, pattern makers (metal), and welders. Sources of Additional Information The National Machine Tool Builders As sociation, 7901 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102—whose members build a large pro portion of all machine tools used in this coun try—will supply, on request, information on career opportunities in the machine tool in dustry. The National Tool, Die and Precision Ma chining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Washington, D.C., 20022, offers information on apprenticeship training, including recom mended apprenticeship standards for tooland-die makers certified by the U.S. Depart ment of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. The Tool and Die Institute, 777 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068—a trade association—offers information on appren ticeship training in the Chicago area. Many local offices of State employment services provide free aptitude testing to per sons interested in becoming all-round machi nists or tool-and-die makers. In addition, the State employment service refers applicants for apprentice programs to employers. In many communities, applicants for appren ticeship also are received by labor-manage ment apprenticeship committees. Apprenticeship information also may be obtained from the following unions (which have local offices in many cities): International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, Skilled Trades Department, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. 36/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK dom use. They also work with a wider variety of materials than other machining workers. These materials include plastics and rare metals such as titanium and rhodium. In some instances, instrument makers work on 8.67instruments from start to finish. That is, they make all the parts, assemble them, and then test the finished product. However, in large shops, or where time is important, the work may be divided among a number of workers. Similarly, if an instrument has electrical or electronic components, electronic specialists may be consulted. Working Conditions Instrument Makers (Mechanical)______ (D.O.T. 600.280-010) Nature Of the WorkInstrument makers (also called experi mental machinists and modelmakers) are among the most skilled of all machining workers. They work closely with engineers and scientists to translate designs and ideas into experimental models, special labora tory equipment, and custom instruments. Experimental devices constructed by these craft workers are used, for example, to reg ulate heat, measure distance, record earth quakes, and control industrial processes. The parts and models may range from simple gears to intricate parts of navigation systems for guided missiles. Instrument makers also modify existing instruments for special purposes. Instrument makers perform many tasks similar to those done by all-round machi nists, tool-and-die makers, and setup work ers. For example, they may set up and use machine tools such as lathes and milling ma chines to fabricate metal parts for the instru ments they make. In addition, they use handtools such as files and chisels to smooth rough metal parts. As in other types of ma chining work, accuracy is important. Like most machining workers, instrument makers measure finished parts to make sure they meet specifications, using a wide variety of precision measuring equipment, including micrometers, verniers, calipers, and dial in dicators. Unlike other skilled machining workers, instrument makers often are not given de tailed instructions, such as blueprints, for their work. Instead, they may work from rough sketches or verbal instructions, or they may simply be given a concept to work with. As a result, their work often requires consid erable imagination and ingenuity. In addi tion, they must often work to finer tolerances than other machining workers. Sometimes specifications must not vary more than 10 millionths of an inch. To meet these stan dards, they use special equipment or preci sion devices, such as the electronic height guage, which other machining workers sel- Instrument makers often work under nearly ideal conditions. Because of the deli cate nature of the mechanisms they work on, instrument makers may work in the con trolled environment of “white rooms.’’ These rooms are well lighted,slightly pressurized, temperature controlled, and dust free. Serious work accidents are not common, but machine tools and flying bits of metal may cause finger, hand, and eye injuries. To prevent such accidents from occurring, in strument makers must folow certain safety rules when using machine tools. These rules include the wearing of special glasses, aprons, and tightly fitted clothing. Places of Employment Many of the approximately 6,000 instru ment makers employed in 1978 worked for firms that manufactured instruments. Others were in research and development laborato ries that make special devices for scientific research. The Federal Government em ployed many instrument makers. The main centers of instrument making are located in and around a few large cities, particularly New York, Chicago, Los An geles, Boston, Philadelphia, Washington, De troit, Buffalo, and Cleveland. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some instrument makers advance from the ranks of machinists or skilled machine tool operators. These already skilled craft work ers begin by doing the simpler instrument making tasks under close supervision. Usu ally 1 to 2 years or more of instrument shop experience are needed to qualify as instru ment makers. Other instrument makers learn their trade through apprenticeships that generally last 4 years. A typical 4-year program includes 8,000 hours of shop training and 576 hours of related classroom instruction. Shop training emphasizes the use of machine tools, handtools, and measuring instruments, and the working properties of various materials. Classroom instruction covers related techni cal subjects such as mathematics, physics, blueprint reading, chemistry, metallurgy, electronics, and fundamental instrument de- Other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include arc cutters, blacksmiths, locksmiths, pattern makers (metal), and welders. Sources of Additional Information See the list under this same heading in the previous statement on all-round machinists. Machine Tool Operators_____ (D.O.T. 602., 603., 604., 605., and 606.) Nature of the Work Machine tool operators use machine tools such as lathes, drill presses, milling ma chines, grinding machines, and punch presses to shape metal to precise dimensions. Al though some operators can work with a wide variety of machine tools, most specialize in one or two types. Instrument makers often do very precise work. sign. Apprentices must learn enough shop mathematics to plan their work and to use formulas. A basic knowledge of how things work is needed in solving gear and linkage problems. For apprenticeship programs, employers generally prefer high school graduates who have taken algebra, geometry, trigonometry, science, and machine shopwork. Further technical schooling in electricity, physics, machine design, and electronics often is de sirable, and may make possible future pro motions to technician jobs. Persons interested in becoming instrument makers should have a strong interest in me chanical subjects and better than average ability to work with their hands. They must have initiative and resourcefulness because instrument makers often work with little or as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most openings, however, will occur as workers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Overall, replacement needs will be small because there are so few workers in this field. Some workers will be needed to make models of new instruments for mass produc tion and also to make custom or special in struments, particularly in the expanding field of industrial automation. Also, more versa tile and sensitive precision instruments can be expected to emerge from current research and development programs. Laborsaving technological innovations, however, will limit employment growth. Numerically con trolled machine tools, for example, reduce the amount of labor required in machining operations. no supervision. Since instrum ent m akers often face new problems, they must be able to develop original solutions. Frequently, they must visualize the relationship between indi vidual parts and the complete instrument and must understand the principles of the instru ment’s operation. Because of the nature of their jobs, instrument makers have to be very conscientious and take considerable pride in creative work. As instrument makers’ skills and knowl edge improve, they may advance to more responsible positions. For example, they may plan and estimate time and material requirements for the manufacture of the instruments or provide specialized support to professional personnel. Others may be come supervisors and train less skilled in strument makers. Employment Outlook Employment in this very small occupation is expected to increase at about the same rate Earnings Earnings of instrument makers compare favorably with those of other highly skilled metalworkers. In 1978, instrument makers generally earned over $8 an hour. Many instrument makers are union mem bers. Among the unions representing them are the International Association of Machi nists and Aerospace Workers; the Interna tional Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America. Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to instrument maker are, of course, the other machining occupations. These include all round machinists, tool-and-die makers, setup workers (machine tool), and machine tool operators. Operators fall into two broad skill cate gories—semiskilled and skilled. Semiskilled operators are essentially machine tenders who perform simple, repetitive operations that can be learned relatively quickly. Skilled operators can perform varied and complex machining operations. Both skilled and semiskilled operators have job titles related to the kind of machine they operate, such as milling machine operator and drill press operator. Most machine tool operators fall into the semiskilled category. Their jobs vary according to the type of machine they work with; however, there are many tasks common to most machine tools. Typically, semiskilled operators place rough metal stock in a machine tool on which the speeds and operation sequence already have been set by skilled workers. By using special, easy-to-use gages they watch the machine and make minor adjustments. However, they depend on skilled machin ing workers for major adjustments when their machine is not working properly. The work of skilled machine tool operators is similar to that of all-round machinists, ex cept that it usually is limited to only one type of machine and involves little or no hand fitting or assembly work. Skilled machine tool operators plan and set up the correct sequence of machining operations according to blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. They adjust speed, feed, and other controls, and select the proper cutting instruments or tools for each operation. Using micrometers, gauges, and other precision measuring in struments, they compare the completed work with the tolerance limits given in the specifi cations. They also may select cutting oils to keep the metal workpiece from getting too hot and lubricating oils to keep the machine tools running smoothly. MACHINING OCCUPATIONS/37 Working Conditions Most machine shops are clean, well lighted, and well ventilated. Noise levels have been reduced with the introduction of better designed machine tools. However, some ma chine tools, such as screw machines, are still very noisy. To combat this noise, operators often wear earmuffs or earplugs. Coolants (the liquids used to reduce friction) are well contained on modern machine tools, but op erators of older machine tools sometimes have to stand on slippery floors caused by spilled coolants. Good shop practices and at tention to cleanliness, however, can signifi cantly reduce this danger. Powerful, high-speed machine tools can still be dangerous, though, if strict safety rules are not observed. Machine tool opera tors must wear safety glasses and other pro tective devices to protect themselves from flying metal particles. They cannot wear loose-fitting clothes or jewelry as these might get caught in the machine, injuring the opera tor or damaging the machine. Places of Employment More than 500,(XX) machine tool operators were employed in 1978. Most worked in fac tories that produce fabricated metal pro ducts, transportation equipment, and ma chinery in large quantities. Skilled machine tool operators also worked in production de partments, maintenance departments, and toolrooms. Machine tool operators work in every State and in almost every city in the United States. They are concentrated, however, in major industrial areas such as the Great Lakes region. About one-fourth of all ma chine tool operators work in the Great Lakes cities of Detroit, Flint, Chicago, Cleveland, and Milwaukee. Among the other areas that have large numbers of these workers are Los Angeles, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and In dianapolis. also should not mind working in a relatively small workspace. Although much of the work is tedious, many machine tool opera tors derive satisfaction from seeing the re sults of their work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Skilled machine tool operators may be come all-round machinists, tool-and-die makers, or advance to jobs in machine pro gramming and maintenance. Most machine tool operators learn their skills on the job. Beginners usually start by observing experienced operators at work. Later they learn to use measuring instru ments and to make elementary computations needed in shopwork. When trainees first op erate a machine, they are supervised closely by more experienced workers. After gaining some experience themselves, beginners often take over more of the duties associated with the tools they operate. For example, they may learn to adjust feed speeds and cutting edges, instead of calling upon other workers to perform these tasks. Some also may learn to read blueprints and plan the sequence of machining work. Individual ability and effort largely deter mine the time required to become a machine tool operator. Most semiskilled operators learn their jobs in a few months, but becom ing a skilled operator often requires 1 to 2 years. Some companies have formal training programs for new employees. Although no special education is required for semiskilled jobs, persons seeking such work can improve their opportunities by completing courses in mathematics and blue print reading. In hiring beginners, employers often look for persons with mechanical apti tude and some experience working with ma chinery. Physical stamina is important since much time is spent standing. Applicants should be able to work independently. They Employment Outlook Job opportunities for machine tool opera tors should be fairly plentiful in the years ahead. Employment in the occupation is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to openings arising from growth, many thousands of openings are expected to occur each year in this large occupation as operators retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. More machine tool operators will be needed as metalworking industries expand their output. However, the use of faster and more versatile automatic machine tools and numerically controlled machine tools will re sult in greater output per worker and tend to limit employment growth. Other factors that may slow growth in this occupation are the increasingly important new processes in metalworking, such as electrical discharge and ultrasonic machining, and the use of powdered metals that reduce the machining necessary for a final product. Workers with thorough backgrounds in machining operations, mathematics, blue print reading, and a good working knowledge of the properties of metals will be better able to adjust to the changing job requirements that will result from technological advances. Earnings Machine tool operators are paid according to hourly or incentive rates, or by a combina tion of both methods. Highly skilled opera tors in metropolitan areas had estimated hourly earnings of $8.53 in 1978. This com pares favorably with the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Average hourly rates in 10 of the areas surveyed, selected to show how wage rates of machine tool operators differ in various parts of the country, appear in the accompanying tabulation. Most machine tool operators belong to un ions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steel workers of America. Related Occupations Machine tool operators must spend much time on their feet observing machine operations to be sure everything is working smoothly. 38/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The occupations most closely related to machine tool operators are, of course, the Table 1. Average hourly earnings of machine tool operators in selected areas, 1978 Area Hourly rate Detroit................................................. C leveland........................................... C hicago.............................................. M ilw au k ee........................................ B altim ore........................................... Cincinnati........................................... H ouston.............................................. Minneapolis-St. P a u l ..................... Boston................................................. H artford.............................................. $9.35 8.64 8.19 8.08 7.90 7.64 7.49 7.25 6.51 6.27 SOURCE: Bureau o f Labor Statistics. other machining occupations. These include all-round machinists, setup workers (ma chine tool), tool-and-die makers, and instru ment makers. Other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include arc cutters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, locksmiths, patternmakers (metal), and welders. Sources of Additional Information See the list under this same heading in the statement on all-round machinists elsewhere in the Handbook. Setup Workers (Machine Tools) (D.O.T. 600.380-014) Nature of the Work Machine tools used in shops that do ma chining in large volume usually are both very large and very complex. Setup workers, often called machine tool job setters, are skilled workers who specialize in preparing these tools for use. Most setup workers work on only one type o f m achine, such as a drill press or lathe; however, some set up several differ ent kinds. Working Conditions Generally, working conditions are good for these workers. Most machine shops are clean, well lighted, and well ventilated. Many modern shops are air-conditioned. In those shops where noise is a problem, setup work ers wear earmuffs or earplugs to protect their hearing. Good “housekeeping” is empha sized in most shops, which lessens the chances of accidents due to slippery floors or blocked aisles between the machine tools. Serious work accidents are not common, but machine tools and flying metal particles may cause finger, hand, and eye injuries. To prevent such accidents from occurring, setup workers must follow certain safety rules. Safety glasses and other protective devices must be worn and loose clothing and jewelry are prohibited. Setup workers do encounter some dangers that other machining workers do not. Die setters, for example, may have to place their hands inside a press when they are preparing the machine for use. A machine tool operator could not do this as the guard rails would be in place. Places of Employment In 1978, more than 60,000 setup work ers were employed in factories that manu factured fabricated metal products, trans portation equipment, and machinery. Most worked for large companies that employed many semiskilled machine tool operators. Setup workers usually are not employed in maintenance shops or in small jobbing shops. Setup workers are found in every State. However, employment is concentrated in major industrial areas such as Los Angeles, Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, Detroit, and Cleveland. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Setup workers must meet the same qualifications as all-round machinists. They must be able to operate one or more kinds of machine tools and select the sequence of operations so that metal parts will be made according to specifications. The ability to communicate clearly is important in ex plaining the machining operations to semiskilled workers. Setup workers may advance within a shop to supervisory jobs or transfer into other jobs, such as parts programmer. Employment Outlook Employment of setup workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Although consumer and industrial demand for ma chined goods will grow, partly offsetting this will be greater productivity of setup workers due to the increasing use of numerically con trolled machined tools. In these machine tools, cutting sequences, feed speeds, tool se- Before they begin preparing a machine for use, setup workers consult blueprints, writ ten specifications, or job layouts. From these they can determine how fast the material to be machined should be fed into the machine, operating speeds, and the order in which the machine will perform its operations. They then select and install the proper cutting or other tools and adjust guides, stops, and other controls. After setting up the machine, they usually make a trial run to be sure that it is running smoothly and producing parts that conform to specifications. When they are sure the ma chine is functioning properly, they explain to semiskilled operators how to run the ma chine and how to be sure that the machine’s output meets specifications. They then turn the machine over to the semiskilled operators to begin production. Set-up workers prepare machine tools for use by semiskilled operators. MACHINING OCCUPATIONS/39 lection, and other operations are controlled by a computer. Most job opportunities will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings The earnings of setup workers compare fa vorably with those of other skilled machining workers. In 1978, setup workers in metropol itan areas had average earnings of about $8 an hour. Many setup workers are members of un ions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steel workers of America. facturing, tool-and-die makers must be famil iar with the machining properties, such as heat tolerance, of a wide variety of metals and alloys. Working Conditions Tool-and-die makers usually work in “toolrooms,” which are in a separate area of the plant off the production floor. Toolrooms usually are quieter than the production floor because there are not as many machines in use at one time. Otherwise, conditions are about the same as those for other machining workers. Tool-and-die makers must follow strict safety procedures when working around met al-cutting machines. Tool-and-die shops are usually safer than similar operations in pro duction plants. Related Occupation The occupations most closely related to setup worker (machine tool) are, of course, the other machining occupations. These in clude all-round machinists, instrument mak ers, machine tool operators, and tool-and-die makers. Other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include arc cutters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, locksmiths, patternmakers (metal), and welders. Sources of Additional Information See the list under this same heading in the statement on all-round machinists elsewhere in the Handbook. Tool-and-Die Makers (D.O.T. 601.280-022 and -046), .281-010 and -026, and .381-026) Nature of the Work Tool-and-die makers are highly skilled, creative workers whose products—tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices —are used by other machining workers to mass-produce metal parts. Toolmakers pro duce jigs and fixtures (devices that hold metal while it is shaved, stamped, or drilled). They also make gauges and other measuring devices used in manufacturing precision metal parts. Diemakers construct metal forms (dies) to shape metal in stamping and forging operations. They also make metal molds for diecasting and for molding plastics. Tool-and-die makers also repair worn or damaged dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures, and design tools and dies. Compared with most other machining workers, tool-and-die makers have a broader knowledge of machining operations, mathe matics, and blueprint reading. Like machi nists, tool-and-die makers use almost every type of machine tool and precision measuring instrument. Because they work with all the metals and alloys commonly used in manu 40/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Employment About 180,000 tool-and-die makers were employed in 1978. Most worked in plants that produce manufacturing, construction, and farm machinery. Others worked in auto mobile, aircraft, and other transportation equipment industries; small tool-and-die shops; and electrical machinery and fab ricated metal industries. Although tool-and-die makers are situ ated throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where many large facto ries are located. About one-fifth of all tooland-die makers work in the Detroit and Flint, Chicago, and Los Angeles areas, which are major manufacturing centers for automobiles, machinery, and aircraft, re spectively. Among the other areas that have large numbers of these workers are Cleveland, New York, Newark, Dayton, and Buffalo. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tool-and-die makers obtain their skills in a variety of ways, including formal appren ticeship, vocational school, and on-the-job training. Formal apprenticeship programs, however, are probably the best way to learn the trade. In selecting apprentices, most employers prefer persons with a high school or trade school education. Applicants should have a good working knowledge of mathematics and physics, as well as considerable mechanical ability, finger dexterity, and an aptitude for precise work. Some employers test appren tice applicants to determine their mechanical aptitudes and their abilities in mathematics. Most of the 4 years of a tool-and-die ap prenticeship are spent in practical shop train ing. Apprentices learn to operate the drill press, milling machine, lathe, grinder, and other machine tools. They also learn to use handtools in fitting and assembling tools, gauges, and other mechanical equipment, and study heat treating and other metalwork ing processes. Classroom training consists of shop mathematics, shop theory, mechanical drawing, tool designing, and blueprint read ing. Several years of experience after appren ticeship are often necessary to qualify for more difficult tool-and-die work. Some com panies have separate apprenticeship pro grams for toolmaking and diemaking. Some machining workers become tooland-die makers without completing formal apprenticeships. After years of experience as skilled machine tool operators or machinists, plus additional classroom training, they de velop into skilled all-round workers who can make tools and dies. Skilled tool-and-die makers have numer- ous paths for advancement. Some advance to supervisory and administrative positons in industry. Many tool-and-die makers become tool designers and others may open their own tool-and-die shops. Employment Outlook Employment of tool-and-die makers is ex pected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most openings, however, will occur as experienced tool-and-die makers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The long-range expansion in metalworking industries will result in a continued need for tools and dies. The growth of this occupation may be limited, however, by the use of elec trical discharge machines and numerically controlled machines that have significantly changed toolmaking processes. Numerically controlled machining operations require fewer of the special tools and jigs and fixtures and could increase the output of each tooland-die maker. The extensive skills and knowledge of tooland-die makers can be acquired only after many years of experience. Because of this, these workers are able to change jobs within the machining occupations more easily than less skilled workers. Table 1. Average hourly earnings of tool-and-die makers in selected areas, 1978 Area Hourly rate San Francisco-O akland...........................................................................................................$10.53 Detroit...................................................................................................................................... 9.31 C h icago................................................................................................................................... 8.98 C leveland................................................................................................................................ 8.77 B altim ore................................................................................................................................ 8.62 Minneapolis-St. P a u l ........................................................................................................... 8.24 Cincinnati................................................................................................................................ 8.20 A tla n t a ................................................................................................................................... 8.17 Boston...................................................................................................................................... 8.03 H ouston................................................................................................................................... 7.55 New York................................................................................................................................ 7.36 Birmingham............................................................................................................................. 7.22 H artford................................................................................................................................... 7.19 SOURCE: Bureau o f Labor Statistics. Earnings Tool-and-die makers are among the high est paid machining workers. In 1978, tooland-die makers employed in metropolitan areas had estimated earnings of $8.53 an hour. This was about one and one-half times as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Average hourly rates in 13 of the areas sur veyed, selected to show how wage rates for tool-and-die makers differ in various parts of the country, appear in the accompanying tab ulation. Many tool-and-die makers are members of unions, including the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to tool-and-die maker are, of course, the other machining occupations. These include all round machinists, instrument makers, ma chine tool operators, and setup workers (ma chine tool). Other occupations that require precision and skill in working with metal include arc cutters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths locksmiths, patternmakers (metal), and welders. Sources of Additional Information See the list under this same heading in the statement on all-round machinists elsewhere in the Handbook. MACHINING OCCUPATIONS/41 Printing Occupations In 1978, about 413,000 printing craft workers were employed to produce newspa pers, magazines, business forms, and hun dreds of other printed materials. Although most worked for publishers and commercial printing shops, an increasing number had jobs in “in-plant” shops operated by private companies, government agencies, and other organizations that do their own printing. The rapid growth of “in-plant” printing shops from an estimated 25,000 in 1967 to over 70,000 in 1978 has expanded employment opportunities for printing craft workers. However, not all “in-plant” printing shop employees are classified as printing craft workers; information about some of these other jobs is provided in the statement on office machine operators. Printing craft workers usually specialize in one area of printing operations: Type compo sition, platemaking, presswork, or binding. The most common way to learn the skills needed in most of these fields is through ap prenticeship, which generally lasts from 4 to 5 years. Apprenticeship applicants usually must be high school graduates who are at least 18 years of age, but requirements vary among employers. Most printing craft work ers who are covered by union contracts work fewer than 40 hours a week. Some contracts specify a standard workweek of less than 35 hours, but most fall within a 35- to 37-1/2hour range. Through the 1980’s, opportunities to enter printing crafts will stem mainly from the need to replace experienced workers who re tire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. Employment growth also will provide job openings in some crafts, but laborsaving technological developments will restrict growth in others. The statements that follow deal with em ployment opportunities for the major groups of printing workers: Compositors, photoen gravers, electrotypers and stereotypers, prin ting press operators and assistants, lithogra phers, bookbinders, and bindery workers. Compositors (D.O.T. 650.582-010, 650.582-014, -022, and 973.381-010) Nature of the Work In small shops, one person may do all the work needed to complete a printing job. In large shops, however, the work is divided among specialists. Editors select the material to be printed, while compositors prepare pre liminary printing plates for pressroom work 42/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ers who do the actual printing. Compositors insure that the job is completed accurately and on time. After deciding what is to be printed and how it should look, editors send the material or “copy” along with a list of specifications to the composing room. There, a composing room supervisor reviews the editor’s specifi cations and marks the manuscript with in structions about the style and size of type, column width, and size of pictures or illustra tions. The copy—the material to be printed —then is given to a compositor who special izes in typesetting. Hand compositors (D.O.T. 973.381-010) make up the oldest composing room occupa tion. Today, hand typesetting is used only for small jobs in which the setting of type by machine is impractical. Hand typesetters read from the copy and set each line of type, letter by letter, on a “compositing stick,” a device that holds type in place. They select the place where words will be divided and a hyphen placed (hyphemation), if the word does not fit on a line, as well as adjust the spacing of the type with pieces of metal so that the line of type will be the width of the column. As each “stick” is filled, they slide the completed lines into a shallow metal tray called “galley.” Linotype and monotype machine opera tors are craft workers who operate semiauto matic machines that set type much more ra pidly than can be done by hand methods. Linotype machine operators (D.O.T. 650.- 582-010) read from copy clipped to the ma chine and and operate a keyboard to select letters and other characters. As they press the keys, metal molds of the letters are assem bled into lines of words. After completing a line, operators touch a level and the machine automatically fills the molds with lead, form ing a line of type into a solid metal strip called a “slug.” The slugs are assembled into the type frames from which printing plates are made. Monotype keyboard operators (D.O.T. 650.582-014) also operate a keyboard ma chine. However, instead of selecting metal molds, the monotype machine produces a perforated paper tape. These operators feed the tape into a machine that reads the tape and automatically select metal molds for each letter. The machine then forces molten metal into each mold to form the type. While machines make their tasks easier, monotype and linotype machine operators must hypenate and adjust type spacing to fit the width of columns. In small plants, opera tors also may maintain and repair typesetting machines. Some typesetting will continue to be done by hand or with monotype and linotype ma chines. However, more and more firms are using phototypesetting machines, which can set type much more rapidly than linotype or monotype machines. With this equipment, a photographic process replaces the casting of type and the final product is a photographic film of the type rather than a metal slug. After arranging all the pages of a particu lar job in proper sequence, compositors use a proof press to make a test of the entire job. Page proofs are checked with the original copy for errors and returned to the editor for final changes. After final changes have been put into the type, the plate is sent to the pressroom where production printing plates are made. In a common type of phototypesetting, a phototypesetter (D.O.T. 650.582-022) types in the text without regard to column width or hyphenation and produces a magnetic or per forated paper tape. The operator then feeds the tape containing the text into a computer that is programmed to do hyphenation and create columns of text. The computer creates a second tape—containing the text as it will appear when printed—that phototypesetters insert into a photocomposition machine. This machine displays the individual characters on the tape and photographs them. The phototypesetter then develops films of the material to be printed. The most advanced method of typesetting uses electronic phototypesetting equipment. With this equipment, an operator uses a key board to select the size and style of type, to select the column width, and to provide spac ing instructions, as well as to store each char acter in a computer. The computer then dis plays columns of type on a screen that is similar to a TV picture tube. Operators visu ally check the text and make any required corrections. They then photograph the screen to obtain a film of the material. These machines can prepare entire pages of type and any accompanying pictures instead of a single line of type. After the copy is set, typesetters pass it to other compositors who arrange the columns of type, pictures, and illustrations according to the desired layout for each page. If letterpress printing equipment is being used, they assemble the metal type and photoengravings in a large metal frame that clamps all the pieces together. If lithographic film equip ment is being used, they cut the film of type and pictures and tape the pieces in place. Either method results in a preliminary prin ting plate. Working Conditions Hand compositiors are on their feet most of the time and do some heavy lifting. Type setting machine operators sit for long periods of time and work near noisy machinery. All compositors may be required to work overtime to meet publication deadlines; some regularly work evenings, or night shifts. Compositors employed by newspapers may work holidays and weekends. Places of Employment About 181,000 workers were employed as compositors in 1978. About one-third work for newspaper plants. Many others worked for commercial printing plants, book and magazine printers, and Federal, State, and local governments. Some worked for banks, insurance companies, advertising agencies, manufacturers, and other firms that do their own printing. Composing room workers are located in almost every community throughout the country, but they are concentrated in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications In the past, almost all compositors were trained through some type of apprenticeship program. However, in recent years, the intro duction of new technology has reduced the demand for all-round skilled compositors. As a result, more and more compositors are bypassing the traditional apprentice ap proach and learning the work on the job. Training as an all-round skilled composi tor is usually obtained through apprentice ship programs. Generally, apprenticeship covers a 4-year period of progressively ad vanced training, supplemented by classroom instruction or correspondence courses. How ever, this period may be shortened by as much as 2 to 2 1/2 years for apprentices who have had previous experience or schooling or who show the ability to learn the trade more rapidly. Apprentices may receive intensive training in one or more specialized fields, such as in the operation of phototypesetting machines, as well as in specialized work in hand composition and photocomposition. Applicants for apprenticeship generally must be high school graduates and in good physical condition. They usually are given aptitude tests. Important qualifications in clude training in mathematics and English, especially spelling. Printing and typing courses in vocational or high schools are good preparation for apprenticeship appli cants, and a general background in electron ics and photography is becoming increas ingly useful. Artistic ability is an asset for a compositor in layout work. Many technical institutes, junior colleges, and colleges offer courses in printing technology, which pro vide a valuable background for people who are interested in becoming all-round com positors. Persons with good typing skills can learn to be phototypesetting machine operators in a relatively short period of time. These work ers need not be trained as skilled composi tors, but they must be familiar with printing terms and measures. Employment Outlook Employment of compositors is expected to decline through the 1980’s. Nevertheless, a few thousand job openings are expected each year as experienced workers retire, die, or change occupations. In spite of the anticipated expansion in the volume of printing, employment of compositors is expected to decline because of the trend to high-speed phototypesetting and typesetting computers. These high speed machines require fewer operators than the traditional hot-metal method of typesetting. Changes in printing technology are expected to have the greatest impact on compositors employed by newspapers. Thus, employment prospects will be some what better for compositors in commercial shops. Compositor operating a phototypesetting machine. For the jobs that do become available, opportunites should be best for persons who have completed post-high school programs in printing technology, such as those offered by technical institutes and junior colleges. Many employers prefer to hire applicants who have completed these programs because the com PRINTING OCCUPATIONS/43 prehensive training that they receive helps them learn composing room trades and adapt to new processes and techniques more ra pidly. Although most job opportunities will con tinue to be in the printing industry, a growing number will be found in other industries, such as paper and textile mills, which are doing their own typesetting instead of con tracting it to printing firms. Earnings Union compositors on the day shift in newspaper plants had an estimated average rate of $9 an hour in 1978, according to a survey of 69 large cities. Union compositors in commercial shops earned an estimated av erage minimum rate of $9.49 an hour. These rates were about one and one-half times the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming. The hourly rate for workers in non-union shops is generally less. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers op erate machines equipped with a typewriter like keyboard include clerk-typists, com puter terminal system operators, keypunch operators, and telegraphic-typewriter oper ators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and prin ting shops, the local office of the Interna tional Typographical Union, or the local of fice of the State employment service. For general information on composing room occupations, write to: cialize in occupations such as camera opera tor, artist, stripper, and platemaker. Camera operators (D.O.T. 972.382-014) start the process of making a lithographic plate by photographing and developing nega tives of the material. They generally are clas sified as line camera operators, halftone oper ators, or color separation photographers. Negatives may need retouching to lighten or darken certain parts. Lithographic artists (D.O.T. 972.281-010) make these corrections by sharpening or reshaping images on the negatives. They do the work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. Litho graphic artists must know the characteristics of all types of paper and must produce fine shades of color. Like camera operators, they are assigned to only one phase of the work, and may have job titles such as dot etchers, retouchers, or letterers. Strippers (D.O.T. 971.281-014) cut the film to required size and arrange and paste the negatives onto layout sheets, which are used by platemakers to make press plates. Platemakers (D.O.T. 971.381-010) cover the surface of flat pieces of metal with a coating of photosensitive chemicals, or may use plates with the coating already applied. They then put the layout sheet on top of the plate and expose both to bright lights. As the final step, platemakers treat the plate with chemi cals to bring out the images of the material to be printed. In a growing number of printing plants, lithographic platemakers use ma chines which automatically process the plates. This new equipment places more em phasis on technical skills than craft skills. The platemaker is responsible for operating and maintaining the machine and insuring that plates meet quality standards. When a large number of plates or multiple images are needed, operators use a photocomposition machine. Working Conditions Although lithographers stand most of the time, the work is not physically demanding. Lithographic artists and strippers may find working with fine detail tiring. Platemakers working with toxic chemicals may be ex pected to skin irritations. Work areas usually are well lighted and air-conditioned. Lithog raphers generally work a regular 8-hour day but they sometimes have to work overtime to meet publication deadlines. Some lithogra phers work nights. Places of Employment About 28,000 skilled lithographers were employed in 1978. Many worked for com mercial printing plants, newspapers, and book and magazine printers. Some worked in U.S. Government printing plants. Although lithographic workers are located in all parts of the country, most are employed in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications Many lithographers learn the trade through on-the-job training—working as helpers and observing and being taught by experienced lithographers. However, a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship program usually is re quired in order to become a well-rounded lithographic craft worker. These programs may emphasize a specific craft, such as cam era operator or lithographic artist, although an attempt is made to make the apprentice familiar with all lithographic operations. Usually, apprenticeship applicants must be in good physical condition, high school grad uates, and at least 18 years of age. Aptitude tests usually are given to prospective appren tices to determine if they are suited for the work. American Newspaper Publishers Association, The Newspaper Center, P.O. Box 17407, Dulles Inter national Airport, Washington, D.C. 20041. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N, Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Lithographers Nature of the Work Lithography, also called offset printing, is one of the most rapidly growing methods of printing. It is a process of photographing the material to be printed, making a printing plate from the photograph, and pressing the inked plate against a rubber plate which in turn presses the ink onto the paper. Lithographers are responsible for a variety of printing activities ranging from photo graphing copy and pictures to making the final printing plates. Most lithographers spe 44/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment of lithographers is expected to grow faster than any other printing craft occupations. Many technical institutes, junior colleges, and colleges offer 2-year programs in prin ting technology, which provide a valuable background for persons who are interested in learning lithographic crafts. High school and vocational school training in printing, photography, mathematics, chemistry, physics, mechanical drawing, and art also are helpful. Sources of Additional Information Details on apprenticeship and other train ing opportunities in lithographic occupations are available from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Arts International Union, or the local office of the State employment ser vice. For information on schools that offer courses in printing technology, write to: Camera operators should have an understandng of chemistry, optics, and the entire offset and photographic process. Precision, patience, good eyesight, and artistic skills are important qualifications for lithographic art ists and strippers. A knowledge of electronics is becoming increasingly important because more electronic color scanners are being used for multicolor printing. For general information on lithographic occupations, write to: Employment Outlook Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Employment of lithographers is expected to increase faster than the average for all oc cupations through the 1980’s. In addition to the job openings resulting from employment growth the need to replace workers who re tire, die, or change occupations will provide some openings. International Printing and Graphic Communica tions Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. Employment of lithographic workers is ex pected to increase in response to the con tinued growth of offset printing. Commercial printing firms and newspaper publishers in creasingly are using offset printing methods instead of letterpresses. Demand for workers also will result from the greater use of photo graphs and drawings in printed matter, and by the more widespread use of color in many printed products. Employment opportunities should be best for people who have completed post-high school programs in printing technology, such as those offered by technical institutes and junior colleges. Many employers prefer to hire applicants who have completed these programs because the comprehensive train ing they receive helps them learn lithography and adapt more rapidly to new processes and techniques. Earnings Based on a survey of union wages in 69 large cities, in 1978, estimated average mini mum hourly rates for lithographic artists were $10.40; for strippers, $10.07; for camera operators, $10.23; and for platemakers, $10.01. These rates were about twice the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Many lithographic workers are members of the Graphic Arts International Union. Related Occupations Lithographers are required to use artistic skills in their work. Artistic skills are also essential for occupations such as sign paint ers, jewelers, decorators, engravers, and photoengravers. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes. Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. American Newspaper Publishers Association, The Newspaper Center, P.O. Box 17407, Dulles Inter national Airport, Washington, D.C. 10041. American Photoplatemakers Association, 556 West 167 St., South Holland, 111. 60473. Photoengravers (D.O.T. 971.261.010, 971.381-014, 971.381-038, 971.382-014) Nature of the Work Photoengravers make metal printing plates of pictures and other copy that cannot be set up in type. In letterpress photoengrav ing, ink is rolled over a printed surface which stands higher than the rest of the plate. When paper is pressed against the raised surface, the print or image is picked up. Similarly, gravure photoengravers make gravure cylin ders on which the image is etched below the surface of the cylinder. Ink is placed in the etched or sunken areas, and, when paper is pressed against the surface, the ink is lifted out and appears on the paper. In both meth ods, however, the work of photoengravers is the same. For a typical job, photoengravers first mount the picture or copy to be reproduced on a board, adjust the position and focus of a camera, and take a picture. After develop ing the negative, they print its image on a flat, metal plate by coating the plate with a chemi cal solution sensitive to light, placing the neg ative on the plate, and exposing both to a bright light. As the final step in making the printing plate, photoengravers put the plate in an acid bath which eats the metal away from areas which will not be covered with ink. The areas to receive ink—those that were shielded from the light by the negative —stand out to make contact with the paper. The number of photoengraving operations performed depends on the quality of the prin ting required. Photoengravings for very highquality books or periodicals, for example, re quire more careful finishing than those for newspapers. Photoengravers use handtools to inspect and touch up the plates. They cut away metal from the nonprinting part of the plate to prevent it from touching the inking rollers during printing. In a small shop, the entire photoengraving operation usually is done by one person. In large shops, however, the work is divided among specialists who perform a particular operation such as camera work, printing, or etching. Working Conditions Photoengravers stand up most of the time but the work is not strenuous. Work areas generally have good light and ventilation. However, photoengravers who work with toxic chemicals may be exposed to skin irrita tions. Photoengravers may have to work over time to meet publication deadlines. Some photoengravers work evening and night shifts. Photoengravers employed by newspa pers frequently work weekends and holidays. Places of Employment An estimated 8,000 skilled photoengrav ers were employed in 1978. More than half worked in commercial shops that make photoengravings for other printing firms. Newspapers and photogravure shops em ployed several thousand photoengravers. Book and magazine printers and the Fed eral Government also employ these work ers. Many photoengravers have their own shops. Although photoengravers are located in all parts of the country, employment is concen trated in large printing centers, such as New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Los Angeles. Training and Other Qualifications Most photoengravers learn their trade through a 5-year apprenticeship program that includes at least 800 hours of classroom instruction. In addition to the care and use of tools, apprentices are taught to cut and square negatives, inspect negatives for de fects, mix chemicals, sensitize metals, and operate machines used in the photoengraving process. Many apprentices specialize in one aspect of photoengraving such as camera work, etching, finishing, or proofing. Apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years of age and generally must have a high school or vocational school ed ucation or its equivalent, preferably with courses in printing, chemistry, and physics. Many employers require a physical exami nation for prospective photoengravers. Good eyesight is particularly important be cause of the close work and color determi nations involved. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for photoen gravers are expected to be scarce in the years PRINTING OCCUPATIONS/45 made from the metal type forms prepared in the composing room. Electrotype are used mainly in book and magazine work. Stereo type, which is less durable, is used chiefly for newspapers. Electrotyping and stereotyping are used for volume printing which requires the use of duplicate plates. When a large edi tion of a magazine or newspaper is printed, several plates must be used to replace those that become too worn to make clear impres sions. Also, by having duplicate plates, print ers can use several presses at the same time and finish a big run quickly. Furthermore, many big plants use rotary presses, which require curved plates made by either elec trotyping or stereotyping from flat type forms. Electrotypers make a wax or plastic mold of the metal type form. They coat the mold with chemicals and place it into an elec trolytic bath that puts a metallic shell on the coated mold. They then strip the shell from the mold and fill the back of the shell with molten lead to form a plate. After removing excess metal from the edges and back of the plate, they inspect the plate for any defects. Photoengraver preparing a metal printing plate. ahead. Despite the growing use of photo graphs and other illustrations in publica tions, employment of photoengravers will de cline as many firms switch from letterpress to offset printing, which requires no photoen graving. Also, new technological advances, such as color scanners and color enlargers, plus the trend toward automated platemak ing should reduce the need for these workers. However, due to the expected growth in gra vure printing, there will be some employment opportunities for gravure photoengravers. In addition, some job openings are expected each year as experienced photoengravers re tire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Earnings Photoengravers on the day shift in newspa per plants earned an estimated average mini mum rate of $9.63 an hour in 1978; photoen gravers working the night shift receive extra pay. The average was about two-thirds more than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Most photoengravers are members of the Graphic Arts International Union. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and prin ting shops, the local office of the union men tioned above, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information on photoengrav ers, write to: American Newspaper Publishers Association, The Newspaper Center, P.O. Box 17407, Dulles Inter national Airport, Washington, D.C. 20041. American Photoplatemakers Association, 556 West 167 St., South Holland, 111. 60473. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. Electrotypers and Stereotypers________ Related Occupations Photoengravers are required to use artistic skills in their work. These skills also are es sential for occupations such as sign painters, jewelers, decorators, engravers, and lithogra phers. Digitized46/OCCUPATIONAL for FRASER OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Nature of the Work Electrotypers (D.O.T. 974.381-010) and stereotypers (D.O.T. 974.382-014) make du plicate pressplates of metal, rubber, and plas tic for letterpress printing. These plates are The stereotyping process is simpler, quicker, and less expensive than electroty ping, but it does not yield as durable or as fine a plate. Stereotypers make molds or mats of papier-mache instead of wax or plastic. The mat is placed on the type form and covered with a cork blanket and a sheet of fiberboard. The covered form is run under heavy steel rollers to impress the type and photoengrav ings on the mat. Then the mat is placed in a stereotype casting machine which casts a composition lead plate on the mold. In many of the larger plants, automatic machines cast stereotype plates. Some electrotypers and stereotypers do only one phase of the work, such as casting, molding, or finishing. Others handle many tasks. Working Conditions Most work in these trades requires little physical effort since the preparation of dupli cate printing plates is highly mechanized. However, some lifting of relatively heavy pressplates occasionally is required. Electro typers who work with toxic chemicals may be exposed to skin irritations Some electrotypers and stereotypers work evenings and night shifts. Others may have to work overtime to meet publication deadlines. Stereotypers employed by newspapers fre quently work weekends and holidays. Places of Employment About 2,000 electrotypers and stereoty pers were employed in 1978. Many electro typers work in large plants that print books and magazines. Most stereotypers work for newspaper plants, but some work in large commercial printing plants. Elec trotypers and stereotypers also are em ployed in service shops that do this work for printing firms. tional Printing and Graphic Communica tions Union, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information on electrotypers and stereotypers, write to: American Newspaper Publishers Association, The Newspaper P.O. Box 17407, Dulles International Airport, Washington, D.C. 20041. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. International Printing and Graphic Communica tions Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Printing Press Operators and Assistants__________ (D.O.T. 651.382-010 and -014, .482-010, .585-010, and 682-010.) Nature of the Work Printing press operators prepare and oper ate the printing presses in a pressroom. Jobs in these trades can be found through out the country, but employment is concen trated in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications Nearly all electrotypers and stereotypers learn their trades through 4 year apprentice ships. Electrotyping and stereotyping are separate crafts and relatively few transfers take place between the two. The apprentice ship program of each trade covers all phases of the work and almost always includes classes in related technical subjects as well as training on the job. However, due to the de cline in demand for electrotypers and stereo typers, apprenticeships have not been offered in the last several years. Many experienced electroplaters and stereotypers are now being retrained as offset plate makers and press op erators. plicate plates. Furthermore, the greater use of offset printing, which eliminates the need for electrotype and stereotype plates, permits photoengravers to do much of the work for merly done by electrotypers. Earnings Based on a union wage survey, it is es timated that in 1978 union minimum wage rates in 69 large cities averaged $8.14 an hour for electrotypers and $9.17 an hour for stereotypers in book and commercial prin ting shops. Both averages were considerably higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Nearly all electrotypers and stereotypers are members of the International Printing and Graphic Communications Union. Employment Outlook Related Occupations Job opportunities for electrotypers and stereotypers are expected to be scarce through the 1980’s. Despite the anticipated increase in the volume of printing, employ ment of electrotypers and stereotypers is ex pected to decline because of laborsaving de velopments. For example, automatic plate casting eliminates many steps in platemak ing. The use of plastic printing plates also requires less labor because such plates are more durable and reduce the demand for du Electrotypers and sterotypers make molds of metal type. Other workers who make molds or cores are molders, coremakers, and electroplaters. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and prin ting shops, the local office of the Interna Before actually starting the press, press op erators set up and adjust it to insure that the printing impressions are distinct and uni form. Press operators first insert and lock type setups or plates into the press bed and then tighten the locking attachment with a wrench. The operators then level the pressplates by placing pieces of paper that are ex actly the right thickness underneath low areas of the plates. Press operators also adjust control mar gins and the flow of ink to the inking roller. In some shops, they oil and clean the presses and make minor repairs. Press operators who work with large presses have assistants and helpers. Press operators’ jobs may differ from one shop to another, mainly because of differ ences in the kinds and sizes of presses. Press operators in small commercial shops gener ally operate relatively simple manual presses. On the other hand, a crew of several press operators and press assistants runs giant presses used by the large newspaper, maga zine, and book printers. These presses are fed paper in big rolls called “webs” up to 50 inches or more in width. They print the paper on both sides; cut, assemble, and fold the pages; and count the finished newspaper sec tions as they come off the press. Many modern plants have installed prin ting presses that use computers and sophis ticated instrumentation to control press oper ations. With this equipment, the press operator monitors a control panel that de tects problems. To adjust the press, the oper ator pushes the proper button on the control PRINTING OCCUPATIONS/47 presses, will partially offset the need for more press operators arising from the growth in the amount of printed materials. In addition to the jobs from created by growth in demand for printing, a few thou sand openings will arise each year as ex perienced workers retire, die, or leave their jobs for other reasons. However, printing press operators are expected to face competi tion for jobs. Since there are generally long waiting lists for apprenticeship programs, most people will have to take jobs as press assistants or unskilled laborers before being selected for an apprenticeship. It is not un common for a person to work 2 or 3 years or more before beginning apprenticeship train ing. Since many firms are switching to weboffset presses from letterpresses or sheet-fed presses, opportunities are expected to be more favorable for web-press operators. Printing press assistants prepare finished work for shipment to the bindery. panel. Press operators are generally desig nated according to the type of press they op erate: Letterpress, gravure, or offset. Working Conditions Operating a press is a physically demand ing job. Press operators are on their feet most of the time and have to do some lifting of heavy plates. Pressrooms are noisy, and workers in cer tain areas frequently wear ear protectors. Press operators are subject to hazards when working near machinery. Often, they work under pressure to meet deadlines. Many press operators work evening and night shifts. Places of Employment About 167,000 press operators and assist ants were employed in 1978. More than half worked for commercial printing shops and book and magazine publishers. Many others had jobs in newspaper plants. Some press op erators and assistants work for banks, insur ance companies, manufacturers, and other organizations that do their own printing, such as Federal, State, and local govern ments. Press operators and assistants can find jobs throughout the country, but employment is concentrated in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most press operators learn their trade through apprenticeship, but some workers learn as helpers or press assistants. Others obtain their skills through a combination of work experience and vocational or technical school training. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 48/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The length of apprenticeship and the con tent of training depend largely on the kind of press used in the plant. The apprenticeship period in commercial shops is 2 years for press assistants, and 4 years for press opera tors. In addition to on-the-job instruction, the apprenticeship includes related class room or correspondence school courses. Courses in printing provide a good back ground. Because of technical developments in the printing industry, courses in chemistry and physics also are helpful. Mechanical ap titude is important in making press adjust ments and repairs. An ability to visualize color is essential for work on color presses. Physical strength and endurance are needed for work on some kinds of presses, where operators lift heavy plates and stand for long periods. Technological changes have had a tremen dous effect on the skill requirements of press operators. For example, printing companies which change from sheet-fed offset presses to web-offset presses have to retrain their entire press crew because the skill requirements for the two types of press are very different. Web-offset presses, with their faster operat ing speeds, require faster decisions, monitor ing of more variables, and greater physical effort. Press operators may advance in pay and responsibility by taking a job working on a more complex printing press, or by becoming the press operator-in-charge and being re sponsible for the work of the entire press crew. Employment Outlook Employment of press operators is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The in creased use of faster and more efficient Although most job opportunities will con tinue to be in the printing industry, a growing number of openings will be found in other industries, such as papermills, which are doing more of their own presswork instead of contracting it out to printing firms. Earnings A survey of union wages in 69 large cit ies, it is estimated that in 1978 indicated that the average minimum hourly rate for newspaper press operators-in-charge was $9.32; for newspaper press operators, $8.77; for book and job cylinder press opera tors, $8.72; and for book and job press as sistants and feeders, $8.70. These rates were about one and one-half times the av erage for all nonsupervisory workers in private industy, except farming. The hourly rate for workers in nonunion shops generally is less. Press operators who worked night shifts received extra pay. Many pressroom workers are covered by union agreements. The principal unions in this field is the International Printing and Graphic Communications Union and the Graphic Arts International Union. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate pro duction machinery are papermaking ma chine operators, shoe-making machine oper ators, bindery machine operators, and precision machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and prin ting shops, the local office of the union men tioned above, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information about press opera tors and assistants, write to: American Newspaper Publishers Association, The Newspaper Center, P.O. Box 17407, Dulles Inter national Airport, Washington, D.C. 20041. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. International Printing and Graphic Communica tions Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Bookbinders and Bindery Workers Nature of the Work Many printed items, such as books and magazines, must be folded, sewed, stapled, or bound after they leave the printing shops. Much of this work is done by skilled book binders (D.O.T. 977.381-010). Bookbinding—the assembly of books in quantity from large, flat printed sheets of paper—is one of the most complicated occu pations of the printing industries. Bookbind ers first fold the printed sheets into units, known as “signatures,” so that the pages will be in the right order. They then insert any illustrations that have been printed sepa rately, gather and assemble signatures in proper order, and sew them together. They shape the book bodies with presses and trim ming machines and reinforce them with glued fabric strips. Covers are glued or pasted onto the book bodies, and then the books undergo a variety of finishing opera tions and frequently are wrapped in paper jackets. Machines are used extensively throughout the process. Bookbinders seldom perform all the differ ent binding tasks, but many have had train ing in all of them. In large shops, bookbind ers may be assigned to one or a few operations, most often to the operation of complicated machines, such as a large papercutter or a folding machine. When necessary, they make repairs and adjustments to bind ery equipment. In many binding shops, much of the work is done by bindery workers who are trained in only one operation or in a small number of relatively simple tasks. For example, bindery workers (D.O.T. 653-685-010) perform such tasks as fastening sheets or signatures to gether using a machine stapler and feeding signatures into various machines for stitch ing, folding, or gluing operations. Some bookbinders work in hand binderies designing original bindings and special bind ings for a small number of copies of a large edition or restoring and rebinding rare books. This skilled work requires creative ability, knowledge of materials, and a thorough background in the history of binding. Hand bookbinding is perhaps the only kind of bind ing that gives the individual an opportunity to work at a variety of jobs. Working Conditions Many bookbinders work in plants that are hot and poorly lighted, and all plants are very noisy. Bookbinders do a considerable amount of lifting, standing, and carrying. Some large machines, such as cutting machines, require a great deal of physical effort to operate. Bookbinders have some variety in their jobs, but the jobs of bindery workers tend to be monotonous. Long periods of standing and constant use of the arms can be tiring. Most bookbinders are employed on a full time basis; many bindery workers work part time or on a temporary basis. Places of Employment About 69,000 bookbinders and bindery workers were employed in 1978. Many worked in shops that specialize in book binding; others work in the bindery depart ments of book printing firms, commercial printing plants, and large libraries. Some bookbinders worked for the Federal Gov ernment. Although bookbinders work in all parts of the country, employment is concentrated in large printing centers such as New York City, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Los An geles, and Philadelphia. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship, which in cludes on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction, generally is required to qualify as a skilled bookbinder. Appren ticeship applicants usually must have a high school education, mechanical aptitude, and be at least 18 years of age. Appentices receive training in all phases of bookbinding, such as renovating old and worn bindings and oper ating bindery equipment, cutting and trim ming machines, for example. In most plants, bookbinders are taught to operate and main tain at least three different pieces of bindery equipment. Most bindery workers learn their tasks through informal on-the-job training that may last from several months to 2 years. A large number, however, learn through formal apprenticeship programs that include class room instruction as well as on-the-job train ing. High school students interested in book binding careers should take shop courses to develop their mechanical skills. Accuracy, patience, neatness, and good eyesight are among qualities needed by bookbinders. Good finger dexterity is essential for those who count, insert, paste, and fold. Advancement opportunities generally are limited. In large binderies, skilled bookbind ers with considerable experience may ad vance to supervisors. Employment Outlook Employment of bookbinders and bindery workers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Nevertheless, some job openings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or change occupations. Despite the anticipated increase in the amount of bound printed materials, em ployment growth will be limited by the in creasing mechanization of bindery opera tions. Job opportunities are expected to be better for skilled bookbinders than for bindery workers since many tasks that bindery workers used perform by hand will be done by machine. PRINTING OCCUPATIONS/49 For example, the use of integral folders that automatically fold pages as they come off the press eliminates the need for bindery workers to do the folding by hand. In addi tion, many binderies are installing sophis ticated conveyor belt systems to transport materials. This equipment also will reduce the need for bindery workers. farming. The hourly rate for bookbinders in nonunion plants is generally less. Earnings Many bindery workers are members of The Graphic Arts International Union. Average wage rates for skilled bookbinders are below the average for other printing crafts. A survey of union wage rates in 69 large cities indicated that minimum wage rates for bookbinders in publishing firms and bookbinding shops averaged about $8.55 an hour in 1978. This rate was about one and one-half times the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except 50/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Wage rates for bindery workers are con siderably lower than the rates for book binders, and are among the lowest for printing industry workers. The average minimum hourly rate for bindery workers was $5.78 in 1978. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery include papermaking machine operators, shoemaking machine operators, shoemaking machine operators, press operators and precision machine op erators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local bookbinding shops, local offices of the International Graphic Arts Union, or the local office of the State employment service. For general information on bookbinding occupations, write to: American Newspaper Association, The Newspa per Center, P.O. Box 17407, Dulles International Airport, Washington, D.C. 20041. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. Other Industrial Production and Related Occupations Assemblers Nature of the Work When Henry Ford began producing his automobile on an assembly line, modem mass production was bom. Workers who be fore had built each automobile indepen dently, now found themselves specializing in just one part of the job. Production became a team effort, with each worker performing a single task on every car rolling by on the line. Over the years, mass production spread to other industries, until today almost every manufactured item is produced in this way. The workers who put together the parts of manufactured articles are called assemblers. Sometimes hundreds work on a single fin ished product. Many assemblers work on items that move past their work stations automatically on conveyors. In the automobile industry, for example, one assembler may start nuts on bolts by hand or with a handtool, and the next worker down the line may tighten the nuts with a power wrench. These workers must complete their job within the time it takes the part or product to pass their work station. test a calculator. Some work with the engi neers and technicians, assembling products that these people have just designed. To test new ideas and build models, these workers must know how to read blueprints and other engineering specifications, and use a variety of tools and precision measuring instru ments. the lines. Since most assemblers only per form a few steps in the assembly operation, assembly jobs tend to be more montonous than other blue-collar jobs. Work schedules of assemblers may vary at plants with more than one shift. Workers can accept or reject a certain job on a given shift, usually in order of seniority. Working Conditions Places of Employment The working conditions of assemblers dif fer, depending on the particular job per formed. Bench assemblers work while seated at tables. Many of them put together electronic equipment in rooms that are clean, well lighted, and free from dust. Floor assemblers of industrial machinery may come in contact with oil and grease, and their working areas may be quite noisy from nearby machinery or tools that are used. They may have to lift and fit heavy objects. Workers on assembly lines may be under pressure to keep up with the speed of About 1,164,000 assemblers worked in manufacturing plants in 1978. More than half were in plants that made machinery and motor vehicles. About half of all assemblers were employed in the heavily industrialized States of California, New York, Michigan, Illinois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Inexperienced people can be trained to do most kinds of assembly work in a few days or Other assemblers, known as bench assem blers, do more delicate work. Some make subassemblies. These units are the intermedi ate steps in the production process; for exam ple, steering columns for automobiles or mo tors for vacuum cleaners. Others make entire products. Assemblers in rifle manufacturing plants build complete rifles from a collection of parts and subassemblies and then test all the moving parts to be sure they function correctly. Benchwork generally requires the ability to do precise and detailed work. Some electronics assemblers, for example, use tweezers, tiny cutters, and magnifying lenses to put together the small components used in radios and calculators. Another group of assemblers, called floor assemblers, put together large machinery or heavy equipment on shop floors. School buses, cranes, and tanks are put together in this manner. Parts are installed and fastened, usually with bolts, screws, or rivets. Assem blers often use a power tool, such as a solder ing iron or power drill, to get a proper fit. Some experienced assemblers work with little or no supervision on the more complex parts of subassemblies and are responsible for the final assembly of complicated jobs. They may wire a television set or put together and Assemblers often must follow detailed instructions. OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/51 weeks. New workers may l\ave their job du ties explained to them by the supervisor and then be placed under the direction of ex perienced employees. When new workers have developed sufficient speed and skill, they are placed on their own and are respon sible for the work they do. the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and United Steelworkers. Employers seek workers who can do rou tine work at a fast pace. A high school di ploma is helpful but usually is not required. Related Occupations For some types of assembly jobs, appli cants may have to meet special requirements. Some employers look for applicants with me chanical aptitude and prefer those who have taken vocational school courses such as ma chine shop. Good eyesight, with or without glasses, may be required for assemblers who work with small parts. In plants that make electrical and electronic products, which may contain many different colored wires, applicants often are tested for color blind ness. As assemblers become more experienced they may progress to assembly jobs that re quire more skill and be given more responsi bility. Experienced assemblers who have learned many assembly operations and thus understand the construction of a product may become product repairers. These work ers fix assembled articles that inspectors have ruled defective. Assemblers also may ad vance to inspector and a few are promoted to supervisor. Some assemblers become trainees in skilled trades such as machinists. Other occupations which involve handling or assembling things are sewers and stitchers, welders, PBX installers, packers and wrap pers, opthalmic laboratory technicans, checkers, postal clerks, and sorting clerks. Source of Additional Information Additional information about employment opportunities for assemblers may be available from local offices of the State employment service. Automobile Painters (D.O.T. 845.381-014) Nature of the Work Automobile painters make old and dam aged motor vehicles “look like new.” These skilled workers repaint older vehicles that have lost the luster of their original paint and make fender and body repairs almost invisi ble. (Painters who work on the production lines at motor vehicle manufacturing plants are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. ) When painting only the repaired portions of a vehicle, painters often have to mix paint to match the original color, which can be very difficult if the color has faded. To pre pare a vehicle for painting, painters or their helpers use air- or electric-powered sanders and a coarse grade of sandpaper to remove the original paint or rust. Small nicks and scratches that cannot be removed by sanding are filled with body putty. Painters also re move or mask areas they do not want painted, such as chrome trim, headlights, windows, and mirrors. When the vehicle is ready, painters use a spray gun to apply several primer coats to the surface. Before applying paint, painters adjust the nozzle of the spray gun accord ing to the kind of lacquer or enamel being used and, if necessary, they adjust the airpressure regulator to obtain the correct pressure. If the spray gun is not adjusted properly, paint may run or go on too thinly. To speed drying, they may place the freshly painted vehicle under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven that is sealed to prevent dust and bugs from get ting onto the fresh paint. After each coat of primer dries, they sand the surface until it is smooth. Final sanding may be done Employment Outlook Employment of assemblers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s, creating thousands of openings each year. Most job openings, however, will result as workers retire, die, or leave the occupation. More assemblers will be needed in manu facturing plants to meet the increasing de mand for consumer products, such as au tomobiles and household appliances, as well as for industrial machinery and equipment. Most assemblers work in plants that pro duce durable goods, such as automobiles and aircraft, which are particularly sensitive to changes in business conditions and national defense needs. Therefore, even though em ployment is expected to grow, jobseekers may find that job opportunities will vary with the state of the economy. Earnings Wage rates for assemblers ranged from about $3 to $8 an hour in 1978, according to information from a limited number of union contracts. Most assemblers covered by these contracts made between $5 and $6 an hour. Some assemblers are paid incentive or piece work rates, and therefore can earn more by working more rapidly. Many assemblers are members of labor un ions. These include the International Associ ation of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; Digitized 52/OCCUPATIONAL for FRASER OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Automobile painter uses a spray gun to apply a primer coat. by hand, using a fine grade of sandpaper. If the surface to be painted is not smooth, the paint job will be rough and uneven. After the final coat of paint has dried, painters or their helpers usually polish the newly painted surface. Working Conditions Automobile painters work indoors where they may be exposed to fumes from paint and paint-mixing ingredients. In most shops, however, painting is done in special ven tilated booths that protect the painters. Painters also wear masks to protect their noses and mouths. While working painters must bend and stoop to reach all parts of the vehicle. Places of Employment Employment Outlook Employment of automobile painters is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addi tion to jobs created by growth in demand for these workers, many openings are expected to arise each year as experienced painters re tire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Employment of automobile painters is ex pected to increase primarily because more motor vehicles will be damaged in traffic ac cidents. As the number of vehicles on the road grows, accident losses will grow, even though better highways, lower speed limits, driver training courses, and improved bump ers and other safety features on new vehicles may slow the rate of growth. Painters also will be needed to repaint older vehicles which have rust or faded paint. About 40,000 persons worked as automo bile painters in 1978. Almost three-fourths worked in shops that specialize in automobile repairs. Most others worked in the repair shops of automobile and truck dealers. Some painters worked for organizations that main tained and repaired their own fleets of motor vehicles, such as trucking companies and buslines. Most persons who enter the occupation can expect steady work because the automo bile repair business is not affected much by changes in economic conditions. Job oppor tunities will be best in heavily populated areas. Painters are employed throughout the country, but are concentrated in metropoli tan areas. Painters employed by automobile dealers in 36 large cities had estimated average hourly earnings of $10.20 in mid-1978, com pared to an average of $5.67 an hour for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Inexperienced helpers and trainees earned substantially less. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most automobile painters start as helpers and gain their skills informally by working with experienced painters. Beginning helpers usually perform tasks such as removing trim, cleaning and sanding surfaces to be painted, and polishing the finished work. As helpers gain experience, they progress to more com plicated tasks, such as mixing paint to achieve a good match and using spray guns to apply primer coats and painting small areas. Becoming skilled in all aspects of auto mobile painting usually requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. A small number of automobile painters learn through apprenticeship. Apprentice ship programs, which generally last 3 years, consist of on-the-job training supplemented by classroom instruction in areas such as shop safety practices, proper use of equip ment, and general painting theory. Earnings Many painters employed by automobile dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission based on the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend largely on the amount of work a painter does and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee commis sioned painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate until they become sufficiently skilled to work on a commission basis. Trucking companies, buslines, and other or ganizations that repair their own vehicles usually pay by the hour. Most painters work 40 to 48 hours a week. Many automobile painters belong to un ions, including the International Associa tion of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Team sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Most painters who are union members work for the larger automobile dealers, trucking compa nies, and buslines. Persons considering this work as a career should have good health, keen eyesight, and a good color sense. Courses in automobilebody repair offered by high schools and voca tional schools provide helpful experience. Completion of high school generally is not required but may be an advantage, because to many employers graduation indicates that the person has at least some traits of a good worker, such as reliability and perseverance. Related Occupations An experienced automobile painter with supervisory ability may advance to shop su pervisor. Many experienced painters with the necessary funds open their own shops. Restoring damaged motor vehicles often involves repair of their bodies and mechani cal components as well as painting. Automo bile painters often work closely with the fol lowing related automotive service occu pations: Automobile service advisors, auto mobile body repairers and customizers, auto mobile mechanics, and truck and bus me chanics. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportuni ties, contact local employers, such as au tomobile-body repair shops and automobile dealers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of informa tion about apprenticeship and other train ing programs. For general information about the work of automobile painters, write: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave,, Chicago, 111. 60611. Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Industrial Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126. National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. Blacksmiths (D.O.T. 610.381-010 and 418.381-010) Nature of the Work Years ago the village blacksmith was as vital to a community as the country doctor. No one else could repair a broken wagon wheel, shoe a horse, or forge a tool to suit a farmer’s needs. Today, the blacksmith’s work still is important in factories and mines where heavy metal equipment must be repaired, and at stables and racetracks. Power hammers and ready-made horseshoes have made much of the work easier, but the basic tasks remain largely the same. The first thing a blacksmith must do when making or repairing anything made of metal is to heat it in a forge to soften it. Once the metal begins to glow red, it is ready for the blacksmith to pick it up with tongs, place it on the anvil—a heavy, smooth-faced iron block—and begin to shape it using presses and power hammers. On repair jobs, broken parts are rejoined by hammering them to gether. The blacksmith uses handtools such as hammers and chisels to finish the task at hand, often reheating the metal in the forge to keep it soft and workable. Before a finished product can be used, it must be hardened. To complete this stage of the process, the blacksmith reheats the metal to a high temperature in the forge and then plunges it into a water or oil bath. However, metal hardened in this way is brittle and can break under stress. If strength is important, blacksmiths temper the metal instead. To do this, they heat the metal to a lower tempera ture than they use for hardening, keep it hot for some time, and then allow it to cool at room temperature. Blacksmiths who specialize in shoeing OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/53 to 5 years of special training or experience are needed to obtain the skills necessary to shoe racehorses. Farriers who wish to work at racetracks must pass a licensing examination to demon strate their knowledge of corrective shoeing techniques and the proper shoe to use, de pending on the condition of the horse’s hoof or leg and the condition of the racetrack. The examination is a performance test and does not require a written examination. Blacksmiths must be in good physical con dition. Pounding metal and handling heavy tools and parts require considerable strength and stamina. Farriers, of course, must have the patience to handle horses. Opportunities for advancement are lim ited, especially for blacksmiths who work in small repair shops. However, blacksmiths may advance to be supervisors or inspectors in factories, or decide to open their own re pair shops. horses are called farriers. Today, most farri ers use ready-made horseshoes so that their primary job is to adjust shoes for a proper fit. On rare occasions, however, they make the shoes themselves. Racehorses need special care because they must withstand strenuous punishment to their legs and hooves. Im proper shoeing can permanently damage a valuable horse. Farriers who shoe racehorses need to be able to recognize weaknesses in a horse’s legs, and shoe it accordingly. Some horses, for example, need shoes that are thicker on the outside as compared to the inside edge in order to walk correctly. To shoe a horse, farriers begin by removing the old shoe with nail snippers and pincers. They examine the horse’s hoof for bruises or other problems, and then clean, trim, and shape the hoof. When the hoof is ready, they position and nail a shoe onto the hoof and finish by trimming the hoof flush to the new shoe. Places of Employment Of the approximately 11,000 blacksmiths employed in 1978, almost two-thirds worked in factories, railroads, and mines. The re mainder worked in small shops, and most were self-employed. Blacksmiths work in all parts of the country—in rural communities as well as in large industrial centers. Most farriers are self-employed and con tract their services to horse trainers at race track stables and to owners of horses used for private or public recreation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Blacksmith shops tend to be hot and noisy, but conditions have improved in recent years because of large ventilating fans and less vi bration from new machines. Blacksmiths are subject to burns from forges and heated met als and cuts and bruises from handling tools. Safety glasses, metal-tip shoes, face shields, earplugs, and other protective devices have helped to reduce injuries. Many beginners enter the occupation by working as helpers in blacksmith shops or large industrial firms that employ black smiths. Others enter through formal 3- or 4-year apprenticeship programs and transfer from related occupations such as hammer operator, press operator, or heat treater. Ap prenticeship programs teach blueprint read ing, metal properties and heat-treatment of metal, proper use of tools and equipment, and forging methods. Most apprentices are found in large industrial firms rather than in small repair shops. Vocational school or high school courses in metalworking, welding, and blueprint reading are helpful to persons interested in becoming blacksmiths. The jobs of some farriers may be seasonal. During the summer months, when horses are ridden more often, farriers may work long hours and even on weekends. Also, those who specialize in shoeing racehorses often work at several different racetracks within their area, and therefore must travel a great deal. In areas where horseracing is seasonal* they may have to move to another State dur ing the off season. Many farriers learn their craft by assist ing experienced farriers. Others may take a short course in horseshoeing lasting about 3 or 4 weeks before gaining experience on their own or as farriers’ assistants. Courses in horseshoeing are taught in several col leges, as well as at private horseshoeing schools. Persons considering enrolling at a school should talk to a farrier in the area about the school’s performance. At least 3 Working Conditions Digitized54/OCCUPATIONAL for FRASER OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Farriers may open their own shops or travel from job to job with a portable forge, if one is needed. Those with sufficient skills to pass a licensing examination may find em ployment at racetracks. Employment Outlook Employment of blacksmiths is expected to decline through the 1980’s. Forge shops are using machines to produce many of the metal articles that were formerly handmade by blacksmiths. In addition, welders are doing much of the metal repair work once done by blacksmiths. Nevertheless, some job open ings will occur as experienced blacksmiths retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment of farriers may increase slightly due to the growing popularity of horseracing and the increasing use of horses for recreational purposes. Since this is a small occupation, however, relatively few job open ings will become available. Earnings In union contracts covering a number of blacksmiths in steel plants and in the ship building and petroleum industries, hourly pay ranged from about $6 to $10.76 in 1978. Earnings of blacksmiths in railroad shops averaged $7.62 an hour in 1978. According to limited information, earnings of farriers who shoed saddle horses averaged between $15,000 and $20,000 a year in 1978; those who shoed racehorses earned up to $25,000 a year. Many blacksmiths are members of the In ternational Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers, and Helpers. Other unions representing black smiths include the United Steelworkers of America, the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America, and the International Union of Journeymen Horseshoers. Related Occupations Forge shops workers also shape hot metal with the aid of hammering and pressing machines. Some forging occupa tions that are similar to blacksmiths in clude hammersmiths, press operators, upsetters, hammer operators, heaters, and heat treaters. Other occupations that re quire similar skills and a knowledge of working with metal are welders, boiler makers, and sheet-metal workers. All of these occupations are discussed else where in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information For details about training opportunities for blacksmiths, contact local blacksmith shops and local offices of the State employ ment service. For general career information about the blacksmithing trade contact: International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers, and Helpers; AFL-CIO, 8th and State Ave., Kansas City, Kan. 66101. A list of schools that offer horseshoeing instruction and general information about the horseshoeing trade are available from: International Union of Journeymen Horseshoers, 2917 South Florida Ave., Caldwell, Idaho 83605. American Farriers Association, P.O. Box 695, Alburquerque, N. Mex. 87103. (Please send a stamped self-addressed envelope.). Blue-Collar Worker Supervisors_________ and weight of each truck. In some cases, supervisors also do the same work as other employees. This is especially true in the con struction industry where, for example, brick layer supervisors also lay brick. Because they are responsible for the output of other workers, supervisors make work schedules and keep production and employee records. They use judgment in planning and must allow for unforeseen problems such as absent workers and machine breakdowns. Teaching employees safe work habits and en forcing safety rules and regulations are other supervisory responsibilities. Supervisors also may demonstrate timesaving or laborsaving techniques to workers and train new em ployees. In addition to their other duties, bluecollar worker supervisors tell their subordi nates about company plans and policies; recommend good workers for wage in creases, awards, or promotions; and deal with poor workers by issuing warnings or recommending that they be disciplined or fired. In companies where employees be long to labor unions, supervisors meet with union representatives to discuss work prob lems and grievances. They must know the provisions of labor-management contracts and run their operations according to these agreements. Working Conditions Although working conditions vary from industry to industry, most blue-collar worker supervisors work in a normal shop environ ment. They may be on their feet much of the time overseeing the work of subordinates and may be subjected to the noise and grime of machinery. Since these supervisors are responsible for the work of other blue-collar workers, they may work longer hours in order to be on the job before other workers arrive and after they leave. First-line supervisors may have some prob lems being in the middle between the work force and management. On the other hand, blue-collar worker supervisors may find sat isfaction in having more challenging and prestigious jobs than most blue-collar work ers. Places of Employment About 1,670,000 blue-collar worker super visors were employed in 1978. Although they work for almost all businesses and govern ment agencies, over half of them work in manufacturing, supervising the production of cars, washing machines, and thousands of other products. Most of the rest work in the construction industry, in wholesale and retail trade, in public utilities, and transportation. Employment is distributed in much the same way as population, and jobs are located in all cities and towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement When choosing supervisors, employers generally look for experience, skill, and lead ership qualities. Employers place emphasis on the ability to motivate employees, main tain high morale, command respect, and get along with people. Completion of high school often is the minimum educational require ment, and 1 or 2 years of college or technical school can be very helpful to workers who want to become supervisors. Most supervisors rise through the ranks— that is, they are promoted from jobs where they operated a machine, worked on an as sembly line, or at a construction craft. This Nature of the Work In any organization, someone has to be boss. For the millions of workers who assem ble television sets, service automobiles, lay bricks, unload ships, or perform any of thou sands of other activities, a blue-collar worker supervisor is the boss. These supervisors di rect the activities of other employees and fre quently ensure that millions of dollars worth of equipment and materials are used properly and efficiently. While blue-collar worker supervisors are most commonly known as foremen or forewomen, they also have many other titles. In the textile industry, they are referred to as second hands; on ships, they are known as boatswains; and in the con struction industry, they are often called over seers, strawbosses, or gang leaders. Although titles may differ, the job of all blue-collar worker supervisors is similar. They tell other employees what jobs to do and make sure the jobs are done correctly. For example, loading supervisors at truck terminals assign workers to load trucks, and then check that the material is loaded cor rectly and that each truck is fully used. They may mark freight bills and record the load Blue-collar worker supervisors tell other workers what jobs are to be done. OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/55 work experience gives them’the advantage of knowing how jobs should be done and what problems may arise. It also provides them with insight into management policies and employee attitudes towards these policies. Supervisors are sometimes former union rep resentatives who are familiar with grievance procedures and union contracts. To supple ment this work experience, many companies have training programs to help develop su pervisory skills. Related Occupations Although few blue-collar worker supervi sors are college graduates, a growing number of employers are hiring trainees with a col lege or technical school background. This practice is most prevalent in industries with highly technical production processes, such as the chemical, oil, and electronics indus tries. Employers generally prefer back grounds in business administration, indus trial relations, mathematics, engineering, or science. The trainees undergo on-the-job training until they are able to accept supervi sory responsibilities. Sources of Additional Information Outstanding supervisors, particularly those with college education, may move up to higher management positions. In manufac turing, for example, they may advance to jobs such as department head and plant manager. Some supervisors, particularly in the con struction industry, use the experience and skills they gain to go into business for them selves. Employment Outlook Employment of blue-collar worker super visors is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition, many job openings will arise as experienced supervisors retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Population growth and rising incomes will stimulate demand for goods such as houses, air conditioners, TV sets, and cars. As a re sult, more blue-collar workers will be needed to produce these items, and more supervisors will be needed to direct their activities. Al though most of these supervisors will con tinue to work in manufacturing, a large part of the increase in jobs will be in nonmanufac turing industries, especially in the trade and service sectors. Earnings In 1978, average annual earnings of bluecollar worker supervisors who worked full time were about $18,000, approximately one and one-half times the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Supervisors usually are sala ried. Their salaries generally are determined by the wage rates of the highest paid workers they supervise. For example, some compa nies keep wages of supervisors about 10 to 30 percent higher than those of their subordi nates. Some supervisors receive overtime pay. Digitized56/OCCUPATIONAL for FRASER OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Many other workers have supervisory du ties, including those who supervise profes sional and technical, sales, clerical, and ser vice workers. Some of these are retail store or retail department managers; bank officers and head tellers; hotel managers, housekeep ers, and assistants; postmasters and line supervisors; head cooks; head nurses; and surveyors. A bibliography of career literature on management occupations is available from: American Management Association, 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. ers are carefully tested for leaks and other defects. Construction boilermakers also install auxiliary equipment on boilers and other ves sels. For example, they install vapor barriers on open-top oil, gas, and chemi ;al storage tanks to prevent fumes from polluting the air and air pollution control equipment, such as precipitators and smoke scrubbers, in electric plants that burn high sulfur coal. Boilermakers also maintain and make re pairs so that boilers remain safe and in good working conditions. For example, when boil ers occasionally develop leaks, boilermakers may dismantle the boiler, patch weak spots with metal stock, replace defective sections or strengthen joints. Working Conditions Boilermaking Occupations________ Nature of the Work Boilers, vats, and other large vessels that hold liquids and gases are essential to many industries. Boilers, for example, supply the steam that drives the huge turbines in electric utility plants and ships. Tanks and vats are used to process and store chemicals, oil, beer, and hundreds of other products. Layout workers and fitters help make the parts for these vessels, and boilermakers assemble them. Layout workers (D.O.T. 809.281-010) fol low blueprints and templates in marking off lines, curves, holes, and dimensions on metal plates and tubes used to make the various parts of a boiler, vat, or tank. Markings must be planned and measured carefully, with al lowances for curvature and thickness of the metal. Because errors in size or shape may be difficult or impossible to correct after the metal is cut, layout workers use instruments, such as compasses, protractors, gauges, and scales, to make precise measurements. After other shop workers cut and shape the metal to specifications, fitters (D.O.T. 805.361-014) use bolts or temporary welds, called tackwelds, to hold the parts in place while they check to see that parts line up according to blueprints. Fitters use grind ers or cutting torches to remove excess metal, and welding machines to fill in small gaps. A new piece may have to be cut' for large gaps. Small boilers may be assembled at the plant where they are made; however, once the pieces for a larger boiler or tank have been cut out and checked for proper fit, they are transported to the shop or con struction site for installation. There, boiler makers (D.O.T. 805.361-014) assemble and erect the vessels using rigging equipment such as hoists and jacks to lift heavy metal parts into place, and then weld of rivet the parts together. Because installation work must meet statutory safety standards, boil When laying out, fitting, assembling, or repairing boilers, workers often use poten tially dangerous equipment, such as blow tor ches and power grinders, and handle heavy materials. Work may be done in cramped quarters inside boilers, vats, or tanks, which are often damp and poorly ventilated. Be cause workers occasionally work at great heights on top of large vessels, boilermaking occupations are more hazardous than many other metalworking occupations. To elimi nate injuries, employers and unions actively promote safety programs and the use of pro tective equipment, such as safety glasses and metal helmets. Places of Employment About 37,000 boilermakers, layout work ers, and fitters were employed in 1978. Of these, several thousand boilermakers worked in the construction industry, mainly to as semble and erect boilers and other pressure vessels. Boilermakers also were employed in the maintenance and repair departments of iron and steel plants, petroleum refineries, railroads, shipyards, and electric powerplants. Large numbers worked in Federal Government installations, principally in Navy shipyards and Federal powerplants. Layout workers and fitters worked mainly in plants that make fire-tube and water-tube boilers, heat exchangers, heavy tanks, and similar products. Boilermaking workers are employed throughout the country, but employment is concentrated in highly industrialized areas, such as New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Houston, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many people have become boilermakers by working for several years as helpers to experienced boilermakers, but most training authorities agree that a formal apprentice ship is the best way to learn this trade. Ap prenticeship programs usually consist of 4 years of on-the-job training, supplemented by about 150 hours of classroom instruction Earnings According to a national survey of workers in the construction industry, union wage rates for boilermakers averaged $11.55 an hour in 1978, compared with $10.63 for all building trades. Annual earnings for boiler makers working in the building trades gener ally are lower than hourly rates would indi cate because poor weather conditions and fluctuations in construction activity may ad versely affect the number of hours they can work. Boilermakers employed in railroad shops averaged about $7.90 an hour in 1978. Comparable wage data were not available for boilermakers employed in industrial plants. However, hourly wage rates for many union boilermakers, layout workers, and fit ters employed in fabricated plate work and in the petroleum and shipbuilding industries ranged from about $6 to $12 in 1978. Most boilermaking workers belong to labor unions. The principal union is the In ternational Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. Other workers are members of the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America; the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other occupatons assemble, install, or repair metal equipment or machines. These occupations include as semblers, blacksmiths, instrument makers, ironworkers, machinists, millwrights, pat ternmakers, plumbers, setup workers, sheetmetal workers, tool-and-die makers, and welders. Many boilermakers do maintenance and repair work. each year in subjects such as blueprint read ing, shop mathematics, and welding. Ap prentices often have to travel if work is not available in their locality. Otherwise, they may be laid off and the program take longer than 4 calendar years. Most layout workers and fitters are hired as helpers and learn the craft by working with experienced employees. It generally takes at least 2 years to become a highly skilled layout worker or fitter. When hiring apprentices or helpers, em ployers prefer high school or vocational school graduates. Courses in shop, mathe matics, blueprint reading, welding, and ma chine metalworking provide a useful back ground for all boilermaking jobs. Most firms require applicants to pass a physical exami nation because good health and the capacity to do heavy work are necessary in these jobs. Mechanical aptitude and the manual dexter ity needed to handle tools also are important qualifications. Layout workers and fitters may become boilermakers or advance to shop supervisors. Boilermakers who become skilled in the practical and technical aspects of the trade may advance to boilermaking supervisor (D.O.T. 805.131-010). A few go into business for themselves. Employment Outlook Sources of Additional Information Employment in boilermaking occupations is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to job openings from employment growth, other openings will arise each year as For further information regarding boiler making apprenticeships or other training op portunities, contact local offices of the unions previously mentioned, local construction experienced w orkers retire, die, or transfer to com panies and boiler m anufacturers, or the other fields of work. local office of the State employment service. The construction of many new electric powerplants will create a need for additional boilers and will cause employment of boiler makers, layout workers, and fitters to in crease. Boiler Tenders (D.O.T. 951.685-010 and -014) The expansion of other industries that use boiler products, such as the chemical and petroleum refining industries, will further in crease the demand for these workers. Also, more boilermakers will be needed to install pollution control equipment if further pollu tion control legislation is enacted. Despite the expected overall increase in employment, most of the industries that pur chase boilers are sensitive to economic condi tions. Therefore, during economic down turns some boilermakers, fitters, and layout workers may be laid off, and others may have to move from one area of the country to an other to find employment. Nature of the Work Boiler tenders operate and maintain the steam boilers that power industrial machin ery and heat factories, offices, and other buildings. They also may operate waste-heat boilers that bum trash and other solid waste. Boiler tenders control the mechanical or automatic devices that regulate the flow of air and fuel into the combustion chambers. They may, for example, start the pulverizers or stokers to feed coal into the firebox or start the oil pumps and heaters to ignite burners. These workers inspect and maintain boiler OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/57 sure if a licensed stationary engineer is on duty. Due to regional differences in licensing re quirements, a boiler tender who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license. However, the National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engineers is currently assisting many State licensing agencies in adopting uniform licensing requirements that would eliminate this problem by establishing reci procity of licenses. Boiler tenders may advance to jobs as sta tionary engineers. To help them advance, they sometimes supplement their on-the-job training by taking courses in chemistry, physics, blueprint reading, electricity, and air-conditioning and refrigeration. Boiler tenders also may become maintenance me chanics. Employment Outlook Little change in employment of boiler ten ders is expected through the 1980’s as more new boilers are equipped with automatic con trols. Nevertheless, a few thousand openings will result each year from the need to replace experienced tenders who retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Earnings Boiler tenders read meters and gauges attached to boilers to insure safe operation. equipment. Their work includes reading me ters and gauges attached to the boilers to ensure safe operation. Sometimes boiler ten ders make minor repairs, such as packing valves or replacing indicators. Boiler tenders also chemically test and treat water for purity to prevent corrosion of the boiler and buildup of scale. Boiler tenders generally work under the supervision of licensed stationary engineers. (Additional information on stationary engi neers appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Modern boiler rooms usually are clean and well lighted. However, boiler tenders may be exposed to noise, heat, grease, fumes, and smoke, and may have to work in awkward positions. They also are sub ject to burns, falls, and injury from defec tive boilers or moving parts, such as pul verizers and stokers. Modern equipment and safety procedures, however, have re duced accidents. Places of Employment About one-half of the 71,000 boiler tenders employed in 1978 worked in factories. Plants that manufacture lumber, iron and steel, paper, chemicals, and stone, clay, and glass products are among the leading employers of boiler tenders. Public utilities also employ Digitized 58/OCCUPATIONAL for FRASER OUTLOOK HANDBOOK many of these workers. Many others work in hospitals, schools, and office and apartment buildings. Although boiler tenders are employed in all parts of the country, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large manufacturing plants are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some large cities and a few States re quire boiler tenders to be licensed. An ap plicant can obtain the knowledge and expe rience to pass the license examination by first working as a helper in a boiler room. Applicants for helper jobs should be in good physical condition and have mechani cal aptitude and manual dexterity. High school courses in mathematics, motor me chanics, chemistry, and blueprint reading also are helpful to persons interested in becoming boiler tenders. There are two types of boiler tenders’ li censes—for low-pressure and high-pressure boilers. Low-pressure tenders operate boilers generally used for heating buildings. Highpressure tenders operate the more powerful boilers and auxiliary boiler equipment used to power machinery in factories as well as heat large buildings, such as high-rise apart ments. Both high- and low-pressure tenders, however, may operate equipment of any pres Boiler tenders had average hourly earn ings of $6.69, according to a survey of metropolitan areas in 1978. This was higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. The average for tenders ranged from $4 in the San Antonio, Tex. metro politan area to $8.42 in the Seattle, Wash, metropolitan area. The principal unions to which boiler ten ders belong are the International Brother hood of Firemen and Oilers and the Interna tional Union of Operating Engineers. Related Occupations Boiler tenders monitor and check steam boiler equipment which generates power for industrial machinery. Others whose work re quires similar background and related duties are oilers, operating engineers, power engi neers, and stationary engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work oppor tunities in this trade is available from local offices of State employment services, locals of the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers, locals of the International Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the nature of the occupation, training, and employment op portunities may be referred to: National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 176 West Adams St., Chicago, III. 60603. International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Electroplaters ant odors also are part of the undesirable working conditions in electroplating plants. However, most plants have ventilation sys tems and other safety devices that reduce oc cupational hazards. Protective clothing and boots provide additional safeguards. (D O T . 500.362-010 through .684-010) Places of Employment Nature of the Work About 40,000 people worked as electro platers in 1978. About half of them worked in job shops that specialized in metal plating and polishing for manufacturing firms and other customers. Virtually all of the remain ing platers worked in plants that manu factured automobile bumpers, plumbing fixtures, cooking utensils, household appli ances, electronic components, motor vehi cles, and other metal products. The Federal Government employed a few platers for maintenance purposes at a number of mili tary and civilian installations. Electroplating is a commonly used manu facturing process that gives metal or plastic articles a protective surface or an attractive appearance. Products that are electroplated include items as different as automobile bumpers, silverware, costume jewelry, and jet engine parts. In all cases, however, the object being plated is connected to one end of an electric circuit and placed in an appropri ate solution. The other end of the electric circuit is connected to the plating material. By controlling the amount of electricity that flows from the plating material through the solution to the object being plated, electro platers control the amount of chromium, nickel, silver, or other metal that is applied to the final product. Prior to electroplating any object, electro platers study the job specifications which in dicate the parts of the objects to be plated, the type of plating metal to be applied, and the desired thickness of the plating. Following these specifications, they prepare the plating solution by carefully adding the proper amounts and types of chemicals. Electroplaters work in almost every part of the country, although most work in the Northeast and Midwest, near the centers of the metalworking industry. Large numbers of electroplaters work in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, New York City, Detroit, Cleveland, Providence, and Newark. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In preparing an item for electroplating, platers may first cover parts of it with lac quer, rubber, or tape to keep these parts from being exposed to the plating solution. They then either scour the article or dip it into a cleaning bath to remove dirt and grease be fore putting it into the solution. Most electroplaters learn the trade on the job by helping experienced platers. It usually takes at least 3 years to become an all-round plater. Platers in large shops usually are not required to have an all-round knowledge of plating and can learn their jobs in much less time. However, workers who receive such limited training generally have difficulty in transferring to shops doing electroplating with metals outside their specialty. Electroplaters must carefully inspect their work for defects such as minute pits and nodules. They may use a magnifying glass to examine the surface and micrometers and calipers to check the plating thickness. While a high school diploma is not essen tial for entry, high school or vocational school courses in chemistry, electricity, phys ics, mathematics, and blueprint reading are helpful. Skill requirements and work performed vary by type of shop. All-round platers in small shops analyze solutions, do a great va riety of plating, calculate the time and elec tric current needed for various types of plat ing, and perform other technical duties. They also may order chemicals and other supplies for their work. Platers in larger shops usually carry out more specialized assignments that require less extensive knowledge. A small number of electroplaters receive all-round training by working 3 or 4 years as an apprentice. Apprenticeship programs combine on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in the properties of metals, chemistry, and electricity as applied to plating. Apprentices do progressively more difficult work as their skill and knowl edge increase. By the third year, they deter mine cleaning methods, do plating without supervision, make solutions, examine plating results, and direct helpers. One- or two-year electroplating courses are available in junior colleges, technical institutes, and vocational high schools. In addition, many branches of the American Electroplaters Society give basic courses in electroplating. Working Conditions Electroplaters stand most of the time while they work. They also have to do a lot of reaching, bending, and carrying. Although mechanical equipment is generally used for lifting, the platers often have to lift by hand objects weighing as much as 100 pounds. There are many occupational hazards as sociated with plating work such as the risk of burns from splashing acids and the inhala tion of toxic fumes. Dampness and unpleas Qualified platers may become supervisors. Some may become sales representatives for metal products wholesalers or manufactur ers. Electroplaters with the necessary capital may go into business for themselves. Electroplaters must inspect their work for flaws. Employment Outlook Little change is expected in employment of electroplaters through the 1980’s. Most openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Although there will be a continuing need for electroplating, employment growth will be restricted by the increasing application of automated plating equipment. In addition, stricter water quality standards established by the Environmental Protection Agency will require plants to install expensive equip ment. This could cause the closing of less efficient plating operations. Earnings Hourly wage rates for experienced electro platers ranged from about $5 to $8 in 1978, according to the limited information availa ble. Entry level rates ranged from $3.75 to $4 an hour. Some platers are members of the Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers and Helpers Inter national Union, Other platers have been or ganized by the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, and the In ternational Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Related Occupations Electroplaters finish metal products. Oth ers who work with or finish metals are heat treaters, jewelers, metal finishers, metal molders, metal sprayers, patternmakers, photoengravers, and silversmiths. Source of Additional Information Information on the availability of appren ticeships or on-the-job training may be ob tained from State employment offices and OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/59 local union offices. Training opportunities may also be located by contacting manufac turing plants and job shops that do electro plating. For more specific information about job opportunities and training, write to: American Electroplaters Society, Inc., 1201 Loui siana Ave., Winter Park, Fla. 23609. National Association of Metal Finishers, 111 East Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. Forge Shop Occupations________ Forging is one of the oldest methods of working and shaping metals. The exceptional strength of forged metal parts makes this an often used method of forming products that must withstand heavy wear. Many machine tools, such as wrenches and drill bits, are forged because they are subjected to constant stress and pressure. The simplest forging method is hand forg ing done by a blacksmith. Modern forge shops, however, substitute heavy power equipment and dies (tools that shape metal) for the blacksmith’s hammer and anvil. In this way, products can be forged in much greater quantity. Five employees operating a large forging machine can turn out more forgings in an hour than five blacksmiths can make in a year! Most forgings are steel; but aluminum, copper, brass, bronze, and other metals also are forged. Nonferrous forgings are useful in many critical applications, for example, air craft landing gear. Some of the advantages of nonferrous metal forgings are corrosion re sistance and a lighter weight to strength ratio. Forged products may be as small and light weight as a key, or as bulky and heavy as a piece of industrial machinery. Nature of the Work Before metal can be shaped, it must be heated intensely hot furnaces (forges) until it is soft. Workers place the heated metal be tween two metal dies that are attached to power presses or hammers. With tremendous force, the hammers or presses pound or squeeze the metal into the desired shape. To finish the forging, other workers remove rough edges and excess metal and perform other finishing operations such as heat treat ing and polishing. Two kinds of dies are used. The open die, which is flat and similar to the blacksmith’s hammer, is used when only a limited quantity of forgings or large-size, simple-shaped forg ings are needed. The impression, or closed die, has a cavity shaped to the form of the metal part, and is used to produce large quantities of identical forgings. Basic forge shop equipment consists of varDigitized60/OCCUPATIO for FRASER NAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ious types of hammers, presses, dies, upset ters, and furnaces. Forge shop workers also use handtools, such as hammers and tongs, to help mold and shape parts to fit exact specifi cations. Measuring devices such as rules, scales, and calipers are needed to inspect the finished products. Descriptions of some major forge shop production occupations follow. Hammersmiths (D.O.T. 612.361-010) di rect the operation of open die power ham mers. They follow blueprints and interpret drawings and sketches so that the part being forged will meet specifications. Hammer smiths determine how to position the metal under the hammer and which tools are needed to produce desired angles and curves. They decide the amount of hammer force and if and when the metal needs additional heat ing. Hammersmiths head crews of four or more workers. A typical crew includes a hammer driver or hammer runner who regulates the force of the forging blow; a crane operator who transfers the metal from the furnace to the hammer and properly places it under the hammer; and a heater who controls the fur nace that heats the metal to correct tempera tures. The rest of the crew consists of one or more helpers to assist as needed. The duties of hammer operators (D.O.T. 610.462-010) who operate impression die power hammers, are similar to those just de scribed for hammersmiths. Generally the parts forged by closed die hammers are more intricate and detailed, thus these operators are highly skilled. With the assistance of a crew of helpers and heaters, hammer opera tors set and align dies in the hammers. They correctly position the metal under the ham mer, control the force of the forging blow, and determine if and when the metal needs additional heating to make it easier to shape the metal to that of the die impression. Press operators (D.O.T. 611.482-010 and .685-010) control huge presses equipped with either impression or open dies. These ma chines press and squeeze rather than hammer or pound the hot metal, and the operators regulate machine pressure and move the hot metal between the dies. They also may con trol the metal heating operations. Some oper ators, set up the dies in the presses, using instruments such as squares and micrometers to make sure these are in place. Their skills are very similar to those of hammersmiths or hammer operators. 'W ith the help of heaters and several help ers, upsetters (D.O.T. 611.462-010) operate machines that shape hot metal by applying horizontal pressure. The heads of nails and bolts, for example, are made by upset forging. Heaters (D.O.T. 619.682-022) control fur nace temperatures. They determine when the metal has reached the correct temperature by observing the metal’s color and the furnace’s temperature gauge. Using tongs or mechani cal equipment, they transfer the hot metal from the furnace to hammers or presses. Some heaters clean furnaces. Inspectors (D.O.T. 612.261-010) examine forged pieces for accuracy, size, and quality. They use tools such as gauges, micrometers, squares, and calipers to measure the exact dimensions of the forgings. Machines that test strength and hardness and electronic testing devices also may be used. Die sinkers (D.O.T. 601.280-022) make the impression dies for the forging hammers and presses. Working from a blueprint, draw ing, or template, these skilled workers make an outline of the object to be forged on two matching steel blocks. They measure and mark the object’s shape in the blocks to form the impression cavity by using milling ma chines and other machine tools such as EDM (electrical discharge machinery) and ECM (electrical chemical machinery). Using handtools such as scrapers and grinders, and mea suring tools such as calipers and microme ters, die sinkers smooth and finish the die cavity to fit specifications. Finally, a sample is prepared from the finished cavity and is checked against specifications. Many forge shop workers clean and finish forgings. For example, trimmers (D.O.T. 615.685-030) remove excess metal with presses equipped with trimming dies. Grind ers (D.O.T. 705.484-010 and -014) remove rough edges with power abrasive wheels. Sandblasters or shotblasters (D.O.T. 503.687-010) operate equipment that cleans and smoothes forgings by blasting them with a mixture of air and metal shot or grit. Picklers (D.O.T. 503.685-030) dip forgings in an acid solution to remove surface scale and reveal any surface defects. Heat treaters (D.O.T. 504.682-010 and -018) heat forgings and then allow them to cool, which hardens and tem pers the metal. Working Conditions Forge shop occuapations are more hazard ous than most manufacturing occupations. However, improvements in machinery and shop practices have reduced some noise and vibration. For example, many forge shops have heat deflectors and ventilating fans to reduce heat and smoke. Also, labor and man agement cooperate to encourage good work practices through safety training and the re quired use of protective equipment such as face shields, ear plugs and muffs, safety glasses, metal-toed shoes, helmets, and ma chine safety guards. Although cranes are Used to move very large objects, forge shop workers must be strong enough to lift and move heavy forging and dies. They also need stamina and endur ance to work in the heat and noise of a forge shop. Places of Employment In 1978, about 74,000 production workers were employed in forge shops. About twothirds of these worked in shops that make and sell forgings. The remainder worked in plants that use forgings in their final pro ducts, such as plants operated by manufac- Employment in some forge shops is sensi tive to changes in economic conditions. In shops that make automobile parts, for exam ple, employment fluctuates with changes in the demand for new cars; thus, jobs in these shops may be plentiful in some years, scarce in others. Earnings Average hourly earnings of forge shop pro duction workers are higher than the average for all manufacturing production workers. In 1978, production workers in iron and steel forging plants averaged $8.03 an hour, com pared to $6.17 an hour for production work ers in all manufacturing industries. Most forge shop workers are union mem bers. Many belong to the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. Others are members of the United Steelwork ers of America; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the International Die Sinkers’ Conference (Ind). Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to the forging occupations are, of course, the other forge shop occupations. Other workers who need precision and skill to work with metal include welders, blacksmiths, arc cut ters, machinists, tool-and-die makers, and metal patternmakers. Before metal can be shaped, it must be heated until it glows. turers of automobiles, farm equipment, and handtools. Although forge shop workers are found in all areas, they are concentrated near steel-producing centers that provide the steel for forgings, and near metalworking plants that are the major users of forged products. Large numbers of forge shop workers are em ployed in and around the cities of Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, Los Angeles, and Pitts burgh. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most forge shop workers learn their skills on the job. They generally join hammer or press crews as helpers or heaters, and prog ress to other jobs as they gain experience. Advancement to hammersmith, for example, requires several years of on-the-job training and experience. Some forge shops offer apprenticeship training programs for skilled jobs such as diesinker, heat treater, hammer operator, ham mersmith, and press operator. These pro grams usually last 4 years, and offer classroom training and practical experience in metal properties, power hammer and fur nace operation, handtool use, and blueprint reading. Training requirements for inspectors vary. Only a few weeks of on-the-job train ing are necessary for those who examine forgings visually or use only simple gauges. Others who inspect forgings that must meet exact specifications may need some background in blueprint reading and math ematics, and may be given several months of training. Employers usually do not require a high school diploma, but graduates may be pre ferred. Persons interested in more skilled forge shop jobs should complete high school and take mathematics (especially geometry), drafting, and shopwork. Employment Outlook Employment of forge shop production workers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Some new jobs will become avail able because of growth in demand for forge shop products, but most openings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Employment will grow because of expan sion in industries that use forgings, particu larly automobile and energy-related indus tries. Many forged drilling bits and other forged products will be needed for oil drilling and coal mining operations. However, em ployment will not keep pace with forge shop production because improved forging tech niques and equipment will result in greater output per worker. Sources of Additional Information For information on employment oppor tunities in forging, contact local offices of the State employment service, personnel depart ments of forge shops, locals of the labor or ganizations listed above, or: The Forging Industry Association, 55 Public Square, Cleveland, Ohio 44113. Freeport Road, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15238. Inspectors (Manufacturing) Nature of the Work Most products—including the things we eat, drink, wear, and ride in—are checked by inspectors during the manufacturing process to insure that they meet quality standards and specifications. Inspectors also check the raw materials and parts that make up fin ished goods. Inspectors use a variety of methods to make certain that products meet specifica tions. They may taste-test a soft drink; exam ine a jacket for defects; or use micrometers, protractors, gauges, and magnifying glasses to make sure that airplane components are OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/61 assembled properly. Inspectors frequently make simple calculations to measure parts and examine work orders or blueprints to verify that products conform to standards. Inexperienced inspectors usually work under close supervision. More senior inspec tors generally have less supervision; they usu ally have authority to accept or reject pro ducts; and some analyze the reasons for faulty construction and recommend correc tive action. Skilled inspectors usually know how to use a variety of complex testing in struments. In assembling large, complicated products such as automobiles, airplanes, and electrical equipment, for example, skilled in spectors use automatic gauges and comput ers to assure that production standards are maintained within safe and precise tolerance levels. Some inspectors make minor repairs and adjustments, such as filing a rough edge or tightening a bolt. They may also grade pro ducts for quality. Where proper performance is critical, for example in nuclear reactor parts or missile components, inspectors ex amine each part individually; for other parts, such as spark plugs they only inspect sample items. Working Conditions Working conditions vary considerably de pending on the parts, products, or processes to be examined. Inspectors who work on the production floor of machinery or metal fabricating plants may be exposed to high temperatures, oil, grease, and noise. Other inspectors, how ever, work while sitting in clean, quiet, airconditioned workplaces. Places of Employment About 736,000 inspectors were employed in 1978. More than two-thirds worked in plants that produced durable goods such as machinery, transportation equipment, elec tronics equipment, and furniture. Others worked in plants that produced nondurable goods such as textiles, apparel, and leather products. Inspectors worked in every part of the country, although they were concentrated in the industrialized States. The majority of these workers are employed in Ohio, Penn sylvania, Illinois, California, Michigan, In diana, New Jersey, and North Carolina. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Inspectors generally are trained on the job —from a few hours or days to several months, depending upon the skill required. Employers look for applicants who have good health and eyesight—with or without glasses—who can follow directions, concen trate on details, and perform repetitive tasks accurately. Also, manual dexterity is needed. Applicants should be able to get along with people since inspectors occasionally work as part of a team. A few large companies give pre-employment tests to check skills such as the ability to work with numbers. Some em ployers may hire applicants who do not have a high school diploma but who have qualify ing aptitudes or related experience. Other employers prefer experienced workers for in spection jobs. Many inspectors acquire the necessary skills and experience by working at various production line jobs, especially as sembling. Inspectors in entry level jobs, after gain ing experience and perhaps studying blue print reading and shop mathematics, usu ally can advance to more highly skilled inspection work. Some go on to become in spection supervisors or quality control technicians. Employment Outlook Employment of inspectors is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. As popula tion and personal incomes grow, most manu facturing industries are expected to increase their output and thus to employ more inspec tors. Additionally, the growing complexity of manufactured products should result in a need for more skilled inspectors as compa nies emphasize improved quality. Many openings will result as workers retire, die, or tranfer to other occupations. Employment of inspectors may fluctuate from year to year since they are concentrated in firms that produce durable good. Produc tion of these items is particularly sensitive to changes in business conditions. Earnings Wages for inspectors ranged from $3.85 tp $8.68 an hour in 1978, according to informa tion from a limited number of union con tracts. Many inspectors are members of labor unions, including the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agri culture Implement Workers of America; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; United Steelworkers; and the Allied Industrial Workers of America. Related Occupations Inspectors insure that products meet quality standards and specifications. CCUPATIO NAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Digitized62/O for FRASER Inspectors examine manufactured goods for flaws and to control quality. Others who test the reliability and quality of materials are bridge inspectors, elevator examiners and ad justers, quality control technicians, auto re pair service estimators, petroleum inspectors, water quality testers, agricultural commodity inspectors, building inspectors, and weights and measures inspectors. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment oppor tunities in this field may be available from State employment service offices. The American Society for Quality Control certifies quality technicians. They also pub lish a booklet called “Careers in the Quality Sciences,” which describes the occupation of inspector and includes information on qual ity engineering and management careers as well. For information about the test required for certification, or for a free copy of the booklet, write to: American Society for Quality Control, 161 West Wisconsin Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. 53203. Millwrights (D.O.T. 638.281-018) Nature of the Work With the coming of the Industrial Revolu tion, machines replaced many handcrafted items and new and bigger factories became necessary. The textile industry in England was one of the first to use machinery to mass produce its goods. The workers who planned and built these textile mills, and set up the equipment that was needed, were called mill wrights. The occupation gradually expanded to other factories, and today the millwright installs all types of machinery in almost every industry. The millwright is a skilled craft worker who may perform any or all of the tasks in volved in preparing machinery for use in plants. This often includes construction of concrete foundations or wooden platforms on which heavy machines are mounted. As they either personally prepare or supervise the construction of these structures, mill wrights must know how to read blueprints and work with various building materials. Millwrights also may dismantle existing equipment when it becomes obsolete or to make better use of factory space. To loosen and disassemble parts, they use wrenches, hammers, pliers, metal cutting torches, and other hand and power tools. To aid in moving machinery, the mill wright may use any number of rigging de vices. For example, to install a new oven in a food processing plant, millwrights may use a hoist or a small crane to move the oven from the truck on which it arrived to a con veyor which would carry it into the plant. Then it may be lifted, with the aid of a crow bar for leverage, onto a dolly and taken to a foundation for proper positioning. In assembling machinery, millwrights fit bearings, align gears and wheels, attach mo tors and connect belts to prepare a machine for use. Mounting and assembling a piece of equipment requires tools similar to those used in the dismantling process. When preci sion leveling is necessary, measuring devices Millwrights install and check all types of machinery in plants. are used. To set up automatic pin-setting equipment in a bowling alley, for example, plumb bobs—or weights which determine perpendicularity—must be attached. Mill wrights also use squares to test right angles and calipers to measure diameter and thick ness. ards such as cuts and bruises. They also face injury from falling objects or machinery that is being moved, and from falls when climbing up walkways and platforms to install equip ment. Accidents have been reduced by the use of protective devices such as safety belts and hats, however. Many of the millwright’s duties also are performed by industrial machinery repairers. (See the statement on industrial machinery Places of Employment Most of the estimated 95,000 millwrights repairers elsew here in the Handbook .) T his em ployed in 1978 w orked for m anufacturing includes preventive maintenance, such as oil ing and greasing, and fixing or replacing worn parts. companies; the majority were in transporta tion equipment, metal, paper, lumber, and chemical products industries. Others worked for contractors in the construction industry. Machinery manufacturers employed a small number to install equipment in customers’ plants. Millwrights employed by contract installa tion and construction companies do a variety of installation work. Those employed in fac tories usually specialize in installing the par ticular types of machinery used by their em ployers. They also may maintain plant equipment such as conveyors and cranes. Working Conditions Millwrights employed by factories ordi narily work year round. Those employed by construction companies and companies that manufacture and install machinery may ex perience periods of unemployment; however, they usually are compensated with a higher hourly wage rate. Frequently these mill wrights must travel. Millwrights are subject to usual shop haz Millwrights work in every State. However, employment is concentrated in heavily indus trialized areas such as Detroit, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Buffalo, and the Chicago-Gary area. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some millwrights start as helpers to skilled workers and learn the trade informally on the job. This process can take from 6 to 8 years. Others learn through 4-year formal appren ticeship programs which combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction. Appren- OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/63 ticeship programs include training in dis mantling, moving, erecting, and repairing machinery. Helpers also may work with con crete and receive instruction in related skills such as carpentry, welding, and sheet-metal work. Classroom instruction is given in shop mathematics, blueprint reading, hydraulics, electricity, and safety. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs must be at least 17 years old. Some em ployers prefer to hire high school or voca tional school graduates. Courses in science, mathematics, mechanical drawing, and ma chine shop practice are useful. Because millwrights often put together and take apart complicated machinery, mechanical aptitude is important. Strength and ability also are important, because the work re quires a considerable amount of lifting and climbing. Workers; and the International Brother hood of Firemen and Oilers. Related Occupations To set up machinery for use in a plant, millwrights must know how to use hoisting devices, and to assemble, disassemble, and in some cases repair machinery. Other workers with similar job duties are elevator construc tors, industrial machinery repairers, iron workers, machine assemblers, machinists, and maintenance mechanics. Sources of Additional Information For futher information on apprenticeship programs, write to the Apprenticeship Coun cil of your State’s labor department, local offices of your State employment service, or local firms that employ millwrights. Employment Outlook Employment of millwrights is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Employ ment will increase as new plants are built, as existing plant layouts are improved, and as increasingly complex machinery is installed and maintained. Besides job openings from growth in the demand for millwrights, many openings will arise annually as experienced millwrights retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings According to a survey of metropolitan areas, hourly wages for millwrights averaged $8.72 in 1978—about 50 percent higher than the average wage for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Earnings for millwrights in 10 areas that rep resent various regions of the country appear in the accompanying tabulation. Most millwrights belong to labor unions, among which are the International Associa tion of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America (construction mill wrights); United Steelworkers of America; International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; United Paperworkers International Union; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Motion Picture Projectionists (D.O.T. 960.362-010) Nature of the Work Working as key behind-the-scenes person nel, projectionists operate the movie projec tors and sound equipment in theaters. Be cause the type of equipment differs from theater to theater, they must be able to han dle a variety of duties. In theaters with older equipment, projec tionists use two projectors, sound equipment, a film rewinding machine, and seven reels of film or more. Before the movie begins, they examine the film, check the equipment to see that it works properly, and load the projec tors with the first and second reels. After adjusting the extrem ely bright projector lamp which provides light for the screen, pro jectionists start the first reel. If the picture is out of focus or unsteady, they adjust the pro jector lens. Volume controls also may be ad justed if the sound is too loud or too soft. A reel of film lasts 20 minutes or more. When the reel is almost complete, cue marks (small circles in the upper right comer of the picture) signal that it is time to start the sec ond projector. After a second series of cue Table 1. Average hourly earnings of millwrights in selected areas, 1978. Area Hourly rate Indianapolis................................................................................................................................$9.48 D etroit.............................................................................. 9.19 A tla n t a ................................................................................................................................... 9.05 H ouston................................................................................................................................... 8.95 B altim ore................................................................................................................................ 8.84 St. Louis................................................................................................................................... 8.60 C hicago................................................................................................................................... 8.56 Cincinnati................................................................................................................................ 8.45 Minneapolis-St. P a u l .......................................................................................................... 8.02 B oston...................................................................................................................................... 6.74 marks appears, the projectionist simultane ously closes the shutter on the first projector and opens the second one. This changeover happens so quickly that the audience does not notice an interruption on the screen. Next, the projectionist removes the first reel and rewinds it on the rewinding machine. The entire process is repeated until all the reels have been shown. If the film breaks, the projectionist must rethread it rapidly so that the show may continue. Almost all new theaters and many reno vated theaters have automated or semiautomated equipment. When the film is properly programmed or “set up,” the machines auto matically can dim houselights, open curtains, start the show with picture and sound, change from one projector to another, and rewind the film. This equipment also uses larger reels, which lessens the number of pro jector changeovers. In theaters that have this automated equip ment, the projectionist’s main job is the “set up” of the film because a movie comes from a film exchange company on seven to twelve individual reels of film. To set up the film, the projectionist must splice it from these reels and rewind it on two to three reels or on one “platter.” The projectionist also cues the pro gram by placing small metallic tabs on the film that will activate the various functions of the machinery, such as the film changeover, when the film is run. The film must then be carefully inspected for flaws, which may cause the film to break during the showing. In case of trouble, such as a break in the film, the equipment shuts off until the projec tionist can correct the problem. When a movie has finished its run in a theater, the projectionist must cut the film to fit on the smaller reels before returning it to the film exchange company. Projectionists also clean and lubricate equipment, check for defective parts and damaged film, and make minor repairs and adjustments. For example, they may replace a badly worn projector sprocket. Major re pairs usually are made by service technicians who specialize in repairing projection and sound equipment. However, employers sometimes seek a projectionist who can do all the repair work. Working Conditions Most projectionists work 4 to 6 hours on weekday evenings and 10 hours or more on Saturday or Sunday. In theaters with week day matinees, projectionists usually work 6 hours a day, 6 days a week. Some projection ists work at several theaters. For example, a weekly schedule may call for two evenings in each of three theaters. In small towns, projec tionists usually work only part time because of the small number of shows. Projectionists employed at drive-ins—particularly in north ern States—may be laid off for several months during the winter. SOURCE: Bureau o f Labor Statistics. 64/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Projection rooms usually have adequate lighting and ventilation, and some are airconditioned. The work is not strenuous and is relatively hazard free, but there is danger of electrical shock and acid bums from the projector’s lamp if proper safety precautions are not taken. Although projectionists must stand a lot, they may sit for short periods while the equipment is operating. Most pro jectionists work without direct supervision and have infrequent contact with other thea ter employees. Places of Employment An estimated 11,000 motion picture pro jectionists were employed full time in 1978. The majority worked for indoor theaters; most of the remainder worked for drive-ins. Some projectionists worked for large manu facturing companies, colleges, television stu dios, and Federal, State, and local govern ments. Projectionists work in every section of the country. Geographically, employment is dis tributed about the same as population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most theaters in urban areas are union ized, and young people seeking jobs as projec tionists generally must meet union member ship requirements. The union locals establish these membership requirements, and they vary considerably among the locals. In nonunion theaters young people may start as ushers or helpers and learn the trade by working with an experienced projectionist. Generally, unions prefer that applicants be high school graduates. In a few cities and States, projectionists must be licensed. The license often must be obtained before apply ing for union membership. Several locals only admit applicants who have had experience with projection equip ment. These applicants may work for a trial period in several theaters under the supervi sion of the regular projectionist. If they dem onstrate an adequate knowledge of the pro jection equipment and its operation, they may join the union. The trial period usually lasts several weeks, and during that time the applicant receives no pay. Some locals conduct training programs, which usually do not require previous experi ence with projection equipment. Trainees learn the trade by working with projection ists. They first learn simple tasks, such as threading and rewinding film and progress to more difficult assignments such as adjusting and repairing equipment. A trainee often works in several theaters to become familiar with different types of equipment. Some training programs include classroom instruc tion in basic electronics and mechanics. After training, the applicant must pass a written exam about equipment use and maintenance; the applicant then becomes a union member. Trainees are not paid for their work in the theaters. Persons interested in becoming projection ists should have good eyesight—including normal color perception—and good hearing. They should be temperamentally suited to working alone. Manual dexterity and me chanical aptitude also are important qualifi cations. High school courses in mechanics and electronics or practical experience gained from operating 16-millimeter projec tors at school or in the Armed Forces is help ful. Advancement opportunities for projec tionists are limited. Some, however, become projectionist-managers and run many of the theater’s daily operations. Employment Outlook Little change is expected in employment of motion picture projectionists through the 1980’s. Most job openings will occur as ex perienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Applicants may face keen competition for the jobs that become available. Because earnings of motion picture projectionists are relatively high, applicants frequently outnumber job openings. In some areas, new union members may only be able to work part time as replacements for full time projectionists. The number of movie theaters is expected to increase more slowly than in recent years, because lack of new films will hurt the theat ers’ ability to compete with other forms of entertainment such as television. Further more, because of laborsaving innovations in equipment and theater design, employment of projectionists will not keep pace with the increase in theaters. While older theaters had one screen and employed at least one projec tionist, most new theaters are built with sev eral screens side by side so that one projec tionist, aided by automated projection machines and longer film reels, can run films for more than one auditorium at a time. The replacement of single-screen theaters by those with multiple screens will slow the growth of employment for projectionists, even though new theaters will be con structed. Earnings Average hourly earnings for projectionists in large metropolitan areas ranged from $5 to $12.50 in 1978, according to information from several union contracts. Wages vary among locals, the specific rate being deter mined by the type of theater, movie, and equipment involved. Generally, downtown theaters pay higher hourly rates than subur ban or drive-in theaters. Projectionists who work more than one screen also receive extra pay. Related Occupations Motion picture projectionists operate and repair movie projectors and sound equipment. Others who work with small machinery include appliance repairers, bi cycle repairers, blueprinting machine oper ators, television and radio installers and re pairers, and offset-duplicating machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Trainee projectionists first learn simple tasks such as threading and rewinding film. Details about training programs and em ployment opportunities may be obtained from any local of the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators of the United States and Canada. OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/65 Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians (D.O.T. 716.280-014) Nature of the Work Ophthalmic laboratory technicians (also called optical mechanics) make eyeglasses according to specifications provided by dis pensing opticians, eye physicians (ophthal mologists), and optometrists. Some ophthal mic laboratory technicians help make hard contact lenses. There are two types of oph thalmic laboratory technicians: Surfacer (or lens grinder) and bench technician (or fin isher). In small laboratories, one person may perform the tasks of both a surfacer and a finisher. Starting with standard size lens blanks, which large optical firms massproduce, surfacers set up and operate ma chines to grind and polish eyeglass lenses ac cording to prescription specifications. They use precision instruments, such as lensometers and objective lens analyzers, to measure the lenses and make sure that they fit the prescription. In large laboratories, work is divided into separate operations which are performed mainly by workers who operate power grinding and polishing machines. Bench technicians mark and cut lenses and smooth their edges to fit frames. They then assemble the lenses and frame parts into fin ished glasses. Bench technicians use special tools, such as lens cutters and glass drills, as well as small files, pliers, and other handtools. They also use automatic edging ma chines to shape lens edges and precision in struments to detect imperfections. In large laboratories, the duties of bench technicians are divided into several operations which are performed mainly by skilled workers. Working Conditions Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work with machines that make a constant hum ming, whining sound. Sometimes they need to wear goggles to protect their eyes. Because most of their time on the job is spent stand ing, these workers are subject to fatigue. Places of Employment About 26,500 persons worked as ophthal mic laboratory technicians in 1978. Most ophthalmic laboratory technicians work in ophthalmic laboratories. Some work for re tail optical dispensaries or other stores that sell prescription lenses. A few work for eye physicians or optometrists who dispense glasses directly to patients. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians are found in every State. However, employment is concentrated in large cities and in populous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The vast majority of all ophthalmic labora tory technicians learn their skills on the job. At first, technician trainees do simple jobs such as processing lenses through a grinding machine. As they gain experience, they prog ress to other operations such as lens cutting and eyeglass assembly. When the trainees have acquired experience in many types of work, which usually takes about 3 years, they are considered all-round optical mechanics. Some technicians specialize in one type of job, such as surfacing or bench work. The training time required to become a specialist is less than that needed to become an all round technician. High school graduates can prepare to be come a technician through 3- to 4-year for mal apprenticeship programs. Apprentices with exceptional ability may complete their training in a shorter period. Most training authorities agree that technicians who learn as apprentices have more job opportunities and more opportunities for advancement than those without such training. Apprentices are generally trained to be ei ther ophthalmic surfacers or finishers. Oph thalmic surfacers receive training in lens grinding and ophthalmic finishers learn to assemble eyeglasses into frames and to do frame repair. Some technicians receive training while in the Armed Forces. Others attend community colleges or vocational or technical schools, where they receive certificates, diplomas, or associate degrees in programs varying in length from 9 months to 3 years. Graduates from these types of programs generally need additional on-the-job training. Employers prefer applicants for entry jobs as ophthalmic laboratory technicians to be high school graduates who have had courses in the basic sciences. A knowledge of physics, algebra, geometry, and mechan ical drawing is particularly valuable. Inter est in and ability to do precision work are essential. Some States require licenses for ophthal mic laboratory technicians. To obtain a li cense, the applicant generally must meet cer tain minimum standards of education and training and must also pass either a written or practical examination attesting to his or her competency in the field. For specific re quirements, the licensing boards of individ ual States should be consulted. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians use machines to grind and polish lenses. 66/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can be come supervisors and managers. Some tech nicians become dispensing opticians, al though the trend is to train specifically for optician jobs. Some technicians, especially those receiving their training in both shop and dispensing work, may go into business for themselves. Employment Outlook For general information about the occupa tion, contact: Employment of ophthalmic laboratory technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to the job openings from employment growth, some openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Chairman of Optical Council, IUE-AFL-CIOCLC, 200 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10003. Opticians Association of America, 1250 Connecti cut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. More technicians will be needed due to the rising demand for corrective lenses. This de mand is expected to increase as the general population grows and as the elderly, the group requiring the most eye care, continues to grow as a proportion of the general popu lation. State programs to provide eye care for low-income families, union health insurance plans, and Medicare also will stimulate de mand. Moreover, the growing variety of frame styles and colors may encourage in dividuals to buy more than one pair of glasses. However, because of the small size of the occupation, there will be relatively few job openings. Persons who have completed a for mal training program should have the best opportunities for these jobs, while those with out formal skills may face competition. Earnings Hourly wage rates for ophthalmic techni cians ranged from $5.30 to $8.75 in 1978, based on information from a small number of union contracts. Apprentices start at about 60 percent of the skilled worker’s rate; their wages are increased periodically so that upon comple tion of the apprenticeship program, they receive the beginning rate for experienced workers. Most ophthalmic laboratory technicians work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Some ophthalmic laboratory technicians are members of unions. The principal union in this field is the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers with technical knowledge use machines and tools to do precise, delicate work in clude calibrators, dental laboratory techni cians, dispensing opticians, glass blowers, instrument repairers, locksmiths, orthodon tic technicians, prosthetics technicians, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information A list of schools offering courses for people who wish to become ophthalmic laboratory technicians is available from: National Academy of Opticianry, 514 Chestnut St., Big Rapids, Mich. 49307. National Federation of Opticianry Schools, Ferris State College, Big Rapids, Mich. 49307. Photographic Laboratory Occupations________ (D.O.T. 550.485-010, 970.281-018, 976.267-010 through .687-022) Nature of the Work Amateur snapshots, home movies, profes sional portraits, and photographs to illustrate publications require the skills of thousands of photographic laboratory employees. These workers develop film, make prints and slides, and perform related tasks, such as enlarging and retouching photographs. (This chapter does not discuss employees of laboratories who specialize in processing professional mo tion picture film). All-round darkroom technicians can per form all tasks necessary to develop and print film. They vary the developing process ac cording the the type of film—black-andwhite negative, color negative, or color posi tive. For example, a developing process for black-and-white negative film covers five steps: Developer, stop bath, fixing bath, washing, and drying. The first three steps use chemical solution and are performed in dark ness. In a hand operation, the technician first immerses unwound film in the developer, a solution that brings out the image on exposed film. When the film has remained in the de veloper for a specified period, the technician transfers it to a stop bath to prevent over development. Next, the film is placed in a fixing bath that makes it insensitive to light to prevent further exposure. Finally, the technician washes the film with water to re move the fixing solution and places the film in a drying cabinet. Although processing is done by hand in some small photographic studios, in many photographic labs techni cians operate machines that automatically perform the steps described above. Processing of color film is more complex than for black-and-white. Thus, some labs employ color-laboratory technicians (D.O.T. 976.681-010)—highly skilled workers who specialize in processing color film. The darkroom technician makes a photo graph by transferring the image from a nega tive to photographic paper. Printing fre quently is performed on a projection printer, which consists of a fixture for holding nega tives and photographic paper, an electric lamp, and a magnifying lens. The technician places the negative between the lamp and lens, and the paper below the lens. When the technician turns on the lamp, light passes through the negative and lens and records a magnified image of the negative on the paper. During printing, the technician may vary the contrast of the image or remove unwanted background by using paper patterns to shade part of the photographic paper from the pro jected image. After removing the exposed photographic paper from the printer, the technician develops it in much the same way as the negative. If the customer desires, the technician mounts the finished print in a frame or on a paper or cardboard back. In addition to working in the laboratory, darkroom technicians may set up lights and cameras or otherwise assist experienced pho tographers. Many technicians, particularly those in portrait studios who aspire to be come professional photographers, divide their time between taking and processing pic tures. In some labs, helpers assist technicians. Technicians also may be assisted by workers who specialize in a particular activity, such as developers (D.O.T. 976-681-010), print washers (D.O.T. 976.684-022), projection printers (D.O.T. 976.381-018), and photo graph retouchers (D.O.T. 970.281-018). In most large photo labs where the filmdeveloping processes are largely automated, darkroom technicians supervise workers who do assignments requring only a limited knowledge of developing and printing. In cluded are photofinishing laboratory workers (D.O.T. 976.687-018), who sort film accord ing to the type of processing needed and number each roll for identification; colorprinter operators (D.O.T. 976.382-014), who control the equipment used to produce color prints from negatives; print controllers (D.O.T. 976.685-010), who operate machines that expose rolls of photographic paper to negatives; automatic print developers (D.O.T. 976.685-026), who operate machines that de velop rolls of exposed photographic paper; cutters (D.O.T. 976.685-010), who tend ma chines that cut processed film or prints into single or multiple units; chemical mixers (D.O.T. 550.485-010), who measure and combine the various chemicals that make up developing solutions; automatic mounters (D.O.T. 976.685-022), who tend the auto matic mounting presses that cut film into in dividual transparencies and seal them in mounting frames; and photo checkers and as semblers (D.O.T. 976.687-014), who inspect and package finished slides and prints for customers. Working Conditions Photo lab jobs are not physically strenuous and are performed in clean, well-lighted, and air-conditioned photofinishing laboratories. However, many workers, especially in large laboratories, do repetitious work at a rapid pace. Some workers who perform detailed tasks like photo checkers and assemblers are subject to eye fatigue. OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/67 training time is required to become a special ist than to become an all-round darkroom technician. When hiring darkroom technician helpers, employers prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in chemistry and mathematics are helpful to people interested in this field. Some high schools and trade schools offer courses in photography that in clude training in film processing. The Armed Forces also offer training in photographic processing. Experience gained through proc essing film as a hobby is helpful. Two-year curricula leading to an associate degree in photographic technology are of fered by several colleges. Formal training also is available from vocational schools and technical institutes. Completion of post secondary courses in this field is helpful to people who are interested in supervisory and managerial jobs in photo labs. Some darkroom technicians eventually be come professional photographers. (See state ment on photographers elsewhere in the Handbook). Others advance to supervisory positions in laboratories. On-the-job training for workers in special ized photo lab occupations ranges from a few weeks for film numberers and automatic mounters, for example, to several months for photo checkers and assemblers and chemical mixers. For many jobs, manual dexterity, good vision including normal color percep tion, and good hand-eye coordination are im portant qualifications. Employment Outlook Employment in photo lab occupatons is expected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s as the demand for film processing rises. In additon to jobs arising from the increase in de mand for these workers, many openings will result as workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Lab workers reproduce a magazine picture for use as a photo slide. Most photo lab employees work a 40-hour week. In labs that specialize in processing film for amateur photographers, employ ees may work a considerable amount of overtime, at premium pay, during peak seasons such as summer and after Christ mas. in processing the work of professional pho tographers. Photo lab workers are employed in all parts of the country but are concentrated in the more populous areas such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and other large cities. Places of Employment In 1978, about 57,000 persons worked in photo lab occupations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers are employed by large photofinishing labs that process film for ama teur photographers. A large proportion of darkroom technicians work in photo labs operated by portrait and commercial studios and by manufacturers, newspaper and maga zine publishers, advertising agencies, and other organizations. Darkroom technicians also work in commercial labs that specialize Most photographic laboratory workers learn their skills through informal on-the-job training. Beginners start as helpers and grad ually learn to develop and print film by assist ing experienced technicians. It generally takes about 3 years to become a fully quali fied darkroom technician. Some helpers be come specialists in a particular activity, such as printing or developing. Generally, less Digitized68/OCCUPATIONAL for FRASER OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The demand for film processing is ex pected to rise as a result of the expanding interest in amateur photography—spurred by rising population and personal income as well as improvements in still and movie cam eras that make them easier to load and oper ate. Business and government also are ex pected to contribute to the demand for film processing through expanded use of photog raphy in research and development activities and increased use of photographs to illustrate printed materials. Employment of photo graphic laboratory workers is not expected to grow as fast as the demand for film process ing, however, because of the growing popu larity of self-processing instant cameras and the increasing automation of photo lab oper ations. Earnings Earnings of photo lab workers vary greatly depending on skill level, experience, and geographic location. Inexperienced photo lab workers generally earned between $2.90 and $4 an hour in 1978, according to the limited information available. Workers in specialized occupations earned from $2.90 to $6 an hour. Among these workers, printer operators and chemical mixers gen erally had the highest earnings. In general, darkroom technicians and those in supervi sory positions earned more than the special ized workers. Most of the experienced dark room technicians earned between $5 and $8 an hour in 1978. Related Occupations Some of the more skilled photographic lab oratory workers such as all-round darkroom technicians and color-laboratory technicians, require specialized knowledge of the photodeveloping process. Other laboratory workers who apply specialized technical knowledge to perform their jobs include chemical laboratory technicians, criminal ists, food testers, medical laboratory assist ants, metallurgical technicians, and quality control technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment oppor tunities in photographic laboratories and schools that offer degrees in photographic technology, write to: Photo Marketing Association, 603 Lansing Ave., Jackson, Mich. 49202. Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 1090 Executive Way, Des Plaines, 111. 60018. that are stacked on the floor or a platform, drivers must judge distance accurately and operate the truck smoothly so that no dam age occurs to the stock. Operators also must know the lifting capacity of the truck and the kinds of jobs it can do. made automobiles, machinery, fabricated metal products, paper, building materials, and iron and steel. Many power trucks opera tors also were employed in warehouses, de pots, freight and marine terminals, and mines. Operators may have to keep records of materials moved and do some manual load ing and unloading. They also may be respon sible for keeping their trucks in good working condition by cleaning and oiling them, check ing the water in batteries, making simple ad justments, and reporting any mechanical problems. Power truck operators are employed in all parts of the country, but most work in large industrial and transportation centers. Working Conditions Power truck operators are subject to haz ards such as collisions and falling objects. Safety laws to minimize these hazards have led to safer, quieter, and better handling trucks. For example, all rider-type power trucks now have overhead guards and most trucks used outdoors have all-weather cabs. Also, more firms are using battery-powered trucks which are relatively noiseless and pol lution free. Places of Employment About 360,000 persons worked as power truck operators in 1978. About three-fourths of them worked in manufacturing industries. Large numbers were employed in plants that Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Power truck operators train on the job. Most workers can learn to operate a power truck in a few days. It takes several weeks, however, to learn the layout of the plant, the operation of a truck in the plant, and the handling of materials in the most efficient way. Many companies have training programs that include classroom instruction and prac tice with the power truck. In classes, trainees learn how the vehicle and its lift operate, proper methods of transporting materials, simple maintenance procedures, and safe driving rules. These 1- to 5-day programs stress practice with power trucks which trainees may be required to operate on an obstacle course. Because trucks are becoming more versatile and expensive, firms are ex pected to emphasize training programs which will increase the skills of operators and Power Truck Operators (D O T. 921.683-050) Nature of the Work In the past, when a company needed pro ducts or raw materials moved from one place to another, workers were required to move the items manually. This method, in most cases, was physically demanding and ineffi cient. Today, the task has been greatly facili tated by the increasing use of power trucks. A typical power truck has a hydraulic lift ing mechanism and forks to carry a load on a wooden skid or pallet, or other attachments for greater versatility. For example, a truck may have a clamp lift to move cartons, bales, or paper rolls, a scoop to lift coal, or a tow bar to pull warehouse trailers. Because the trucks are steered by the rear wheels and start and stop very quickly, oper ators must use care and skill in driving. Al though power trucks are relatively easy to operate, operators usually must follow spe cial procedures at a plant, warehouse, or con struction site. For example, forks must be kept down if the truck is driven without a load. If the load is too high or wide to see around, the operator must drive the truck in reverse. When loading or removing materials Operators must judge distance accurately to avoid damage to merchandise. OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/69 avoid damage to trucks and materials from accidents. Employers seek applicants who have aver age manual dexterity, strength, and stamina because operators must get on and off the truck frequently and occasionally load and unload material. Good eyesight, including good depth perception, is required to pick up, move, and deposit loads with the power truck. Large companies generally require ap plicants to pass a physical examination. Some mechanical ability is helpful because opera tors often perform minor maintenance on power trucks. Opportunities for advancement are lim ited. A few operators may become supervi sors. Employment Outlook Employment of power truck operators is expected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to jobs resulting from employment growth, many operators will be needed to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. As the population grows and living stan dards rise, and as power trucks increasingly replace hand labor in moving materials, more power truck operators will be needed. The number of jobs available annually will vary, because the occupation is sensitive to changes in the demand for manufactured-goods. several times before they are packed into boxes. The workers who apply the varnish, lac quer, paint, and other finishes used in facto ries are called production painters. Because they generally work on assembly lines, pro duction painters’ skills are different from those of painters who repair damaged cars in body shops or from those who paint build ings. (Information on these painters can be found in separate statements elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most production painters use spray guns to apply finishes; the rest operate automatic painting machinery, such as spray ing machines, dipping tanks, and tumbling barrels. Painters mix the paint at the beginning of the process. They first figure areas to be cov ered, and then follow directions to blend paint to its correct color and thickness. These steps require simple arithmetic involving decimals and fractions. Viscosity meters are used to make sure the paint is the right con sistency for proper application. Pressure of the spray gun nozzles and spray pattern con trols also must be adjusted properly to ensure that the paint is evenly applied. Besides spraying, painters are responsible for other duties on the production line. If an object is to be multicolored, masking tape must be applied to keep colors from over lapping. Production painters who operate machinery set up the painting equipment at the beginning of the shift and are responsi ble for keeping it running. Other machines used in the painting process may also be operated by the painters. For example, washing tanks are used to clean items before painting and baking ovens to dry the paint. At the end of the shift, painters clean spray guns, viscosity meters, mixing paddles, and other equipment. An increasing number of production lines use automatic painting machinery. Here, production painters check for imperfections and spray-paint parts of an article that the machine misses or cannot reach, such as in side surfaces. As production lines become more automated, painters must learn to han dle all types of modem painting machinery, such as electrostatic applicators and powdertype painting systems. Working Conditions Work schedules of production painters may vary at plants with more than one shift. Usually in order of seniority, workers can accept or reject a certain job on a given shift. Production painters usually have to stand for long periods of time to do their jobs. To paint the underside or top of an object, such as a car, may require reaching or crouching in uncomfortable positions. Production painters on assembly lines may be under Earnings In 1978, power truck operators earned an average of about $6.50 an hour, slightly above the average for nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farming. Earn ings of operators varied slightly by region and industry. Related Occupations Other occupations using power-operated equipment to lift and move materials include conveyor console operators, crane operators, derrick operators, hoist engineers, jammer operators, and operating engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information on work opportunities for power truck operators may be available from the local office of the State employment ser vice. Production Painters Nature of the Work Almost every metal or wood product manufactured gets a coating of paint or other finish before it leaves the factory. Automo biles, for example, usually receive rust pre ventative, primer, and paint totaling at least 10 coats. Even pencils are dipped in paint 70/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Production painters wear masks to protect them from exposure to fumes. pressure to keep up with the speed of the lines. Since painters may spray hundreds of identical items a day, the work may become boring. processes and other laborsaving innovations should raise output per worker. Neverthe less, there will still be a need for extensive touchup work which can not be automated. Because production painters are exposed to fumes from paint and paintmixing ingredi ents, they may wear masks which cover the nose and mouth. Many wear coveralls to pro tect their clothes. Most production painters work in plants that produce durable goods, such as automo biles, where employment is particularly sen sitive to changes in general economic and business conditions. Therefore, employment of these painters can be expected to fluctuate from year to year. Places of Employment About 133,000 production painters were employed in 1978. More than two-thirds worked in plants that made automobiles, ma chinery, furniture and other wood products, or manufactured metal products such as cans, tinware, and handtools. Although pro duction painters are scattered geograph ically, large numbers are employed in indus trialized States. About one-fourth of all furniture painters were employed in North Carolina and Pennsylvania, while approxi mately one-third of all automobile painters worked in Michigan—over one-half of these in Detroit. Over one-fourth of the painters employed by companies making machinery and metal products worked in Ohio and Illi nois. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Earnings Hourly wage rates for production painters ranged from $3.42 to $10.50 in 1978, based on information from a limited number of union contracts. Unions to which production painters be long include the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aero space Workers; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Production painters apply paints using spray equipment. Other workers who use spray equipment are: Auto painters, con struction painters, ceramics and pottery makers, and fumigators. Production painters acquire their skills on the job, usually by watching and helping ex perienced painters. Training varies from a few days to several months. Some modern painting processes, such as those used to apply powdered coatings, demand more skill than others and thus a correspondingly longer training period. As painters gain expe rience, they can advance to higher skill cate gories, assume more responsibility, and re ceive higher wages. Research Department, United Automobile Work ers, 800 E. Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. Production painters need good eyesight and a discriminating sense of color in order to distinguish subtle color differences and to check that paint has been applied evenly. Stationary Engineers Sources of Additional Information More facts about job opportunities in this field may be available from local offices of the State employment service. General informa tion on production painters may be obtained from: High school graduation is generally not required for entry level positions, but a di ploma or its equivalent may be needed to advance to higher skill levels. (D.O.T. 950.362, .382, .485-010, .562-010, .585-010, and .685-010) Employment Outlook Employment of production painters is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Many job openings also will result as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. Stationary engineers operate and maintain the machinery that provides mechanical and electrical power for industry, and heat, airconditioning, refrigeration, and ventilation for factories and other buildings. The equip ment they tend and control includes steam boilers, diesel engines, turbines, generators, pumps, condensers, and air compressors. Most manufacturing industries are ex pected to increase their output in the years ahead. Demand for consumer products, such as automobiles and furniture, will increase as population and personal income grow. Busi ness growth will create a need for more in dustrial machinery and equipment. Employ ment of painters is not expected to keep pace with this greater manufacturing output be cause increased use of automatic painting Stationary engineers start up and shut down equipment, monitor meters and gauges that are attached to equipment to make sure it is running properly, and make adjustments whenever necessary. On a steam boiler, for example, they observe, control, and keep rec ords of steam pressure and temperature, water level, power output, and the amount of fuel consumed. Stationary engineers control the flow of fuel to the boiler and the steam Nature of the Work pressure by adjusting throttles or valves or overriding automatic controls. Stationary engineers also protect equip ment from soot and corrosion. Boiler water, for example, frequently is tested for purity and treated with chemicals. These workers detect and identify any trouble that develops. They watch and listen to machinery and routinely check the safety controls. Often stationary engineers use hand or power tools to make minor repairs, such as replacing defective valves, gaskets, or bear ings. In a large plant, the stationary engineer may be in charge of the boiler room and di rect the work of assistant stationary engi neers, turbine operators, boiler tenders, and air-conditioning and refrigeration mechan ics. In a small plant, the stationary engineer may be the only person operating and main taining equipment. Working Conditions Stationary engineers generally have steady year-round employment. They usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. In plants that operate around the clock, they may be assigned to any one of three shifts—often on a rotating basis—and to Sunday and holiday work. Engine rooms, powerplants, or boiler rooms usually are clean and well lighted. Even under the most favorable conditions, however, some stationary engineers are ex posed to high temperatures, dust, and dirt from the equipment. General maintenance duties may cause contact with oil and grease, and fumes or smoke. Workers also may have to crawl inside boilers and work in crouching or kneeling positions to inspect, clean, or re pair equipment. Because stationary engineers often work around boilers and electrical and mechanical equipment, they must be alert to avoid bums, electric shock, and injury from moving ma chinery. Places of Employment In 1978, 179,000 stationary engineers were employed in a wide variety of places, includ ing power stations, factories, sewage and wa ter-treatment plants, office and apartment buildings, hotels, and hospitals. Usually, plants that operate on three shifts employ four to eight stationary engineers, but some have more. In many plants, only one engineer works on each shift. Because stationary engineers work in so many different kinds of industries, they are employed in all parts of the country. Al though some are employed in small towns and in rural areas, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large indus trial and commercial businesses are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many stationary engineers start as helpers or oilers and acquire their skills through in- OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/71 tion and an approved apprenticeship or onthe-job training. The lower class licenses limit the capacity of the equipment the engi neer may operate without the supervision of a higher rated engineer. Because of regional differences in licensing requirements, a stationary engineer who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new li cense. However, the National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engineers is now assisting many States in adopting a standardized licensing program that would eliminate this problem by establishing reci procity of licenses. Stationary engineers advance to more re sponsible jobs by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equip ment. Generally, engineers advance to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Ad vancement, however, is not automatic. For example, an engineer who has a first-class license may work for some time as an assist ant to another first-class engineer befor a va cancy occurs. Some stationary engineers eventually advance to jobs as plant engineers and as building and plant superintendents. A few obtain jobs as examining engineers and technical instructors. Employment Outlook Stationary engineers monitor meters and guages to make sure machinery is running properly. formal on-the-job experience. A good back ground also can be obtained in the Navy or Merchant Marine. However, most training authorities recommend formal apprentice ship programs because of the increasing com plexity of the machines and systems. In selecting apprentices, most joint labormanagement apprenticeship committees pre fer high school or trade school graduates who have received instruction in mathematics, mechanical drawing, machine-shop practice, physics, and chemistry. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and good physical condi tion also are important qualifications. The apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years. In addition to on-the-job training, apprentices receive classroom instruction in practical chemistry, elementary physics, blueprint reading, applied electricity, and other techni cal subjects. Becoming a stationary engineer without going through a formal apprenticeship pro OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Digitized72/OCCUPATIONAL for FRASER gram usually takes many years of experience as an assistant to licensed stationary engi neers or as a boiler tender. This practical experience can be supplemented by technical or other school training or home study. Many States, the District of Columbia, and many cities have licensing requirements for stationary engineers. Although requirements for a license differ from place to place, appli cants usually must be at least 18 years of age, reside for a specified period in the State or locality in which the examination is given, meet the experience requirements for the class of license requested, and pass a written examination. Generally, there are several classes of sta tionary engineer licenses. Each class specifies the steam pressure or horsepower of the equipment the engineer can operate. The chief engineer license permits the stationary engineer to operate equipment of all types and capacities. An applicant for this license may be required to have a high school educa Despite an expanding economy which will require more mechanical and electrical power, employment of stationary engineers is expected to show little change through the 1980’s. The need for stationary engineers will be limited by the trend toward more powerful and more centralized equipment. For exam ple, a large boiler operated by one stationary engineer can supply heat and refrigeration for several buildings, instead of each building having its own small boiler and its own engi neer. Nevertheless, many job openings will arise annually because of the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Earnings Stationary engineers had average hourly earnings of $7.93 in 1978, according to a sur vey of metropolitan areas. This was almost 50 percent higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Averages for engineers in in dividual cities ranged from $5.25 in the Greenville-Spartanburg, S.C., metropolitan area to $9.50 in the Sacramento, Cal., metro politan area. The principal unions to which these work ers belong are the International Union of Op erating Engineers and the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. Related Occupations Other workers involved with monitoring and operating stationary machinery include nuclear reactor operators, power station operators, wastewater treatment plant op erators, waterworks pump-station opera tors, chemical operators, and refinery oper ators. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work op portunities is available from local offices of State employment services, locals of the International Union of Operating Engi neers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the occupation may be referred to: International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 176 West Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60603. For questions concerning licensing re quirements, contact: National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engineers, 176 West Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60603. Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators (Sewage-Plant Operators)_____ an abnormal amount of wastewater to flow into sewage pipes which might exceed a plant’s treatment capacity. The duties of operators vary depending on the type and size of plant. For example, the treatment process in an industrial plant, such as a food-processing company, may be simple since the wastewater is of a known content. Treatment plants that serve entire cities, on the other hand, must be equipped to treat a mixture of waste products that varies daily, thus making the operator’s job more compli cated. In smaller plants, one operator may be responsible for the entire system—making re pairs, keeping plant records, handling com plaints, and doing the maintenance work for the facility. In larger plants, the staff may include chemists, engineers, laboratory tech nicians, mechanics, helpers, supervisors, and a superintendent. As a result of the passage of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, water pollution standards will become in creasingly stringent. In order to meet these higher requirements, operators will have to be able to operate more sophisticated sys tems. Working Conditions Wastewater treatment plant operators work both indoors and outdoors and may be exposed to noise from machinery and un pleasant odors, although chlorine and other chemicals are used to minimize these. Per sons with allergies might suffer due to dust and other substances in the air. Because plants operate around the clock, operators are required to work shifts. During emergen cies, overtime is common. Operators have to stoop, reach, and climb and often get their clothes dirty. Places of Employment About 112,000 people worked full time as wastewater treatment plant operators in 1978, of whom about 62,000 worked in mu nicipal plants, 48,000 in private industry, and 2,000 in Federal installations. Wastewater treatment plant operators are employed throughout the country. Geo graphically, employment is distributed much like the Nation’s population, with most jobs in larger towns and cities. Many operators in small towns are employed part time or han dle additional duties. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Trainees usually start as helpers and learn their skills on the job under the di rection of an experienced operator. They learn by doing routine tasks such as re cording meter readings; taking samples of wastewater and sludge; and doing simple (D.O.T. 955.362-010) Nature of the Work Clean water is essential for many things: our health and recreation; the existence of fish and wildlife; and the functioning of many industries. Wastewater treatment plant oper ators help keep America’s water clean by removing harmful domestic and industrial waste. Waste materials are carried by water through sewer pipes to treatment plants. Operators control equipment to remove these materials or render them harmless. By operating and maintaining the pumps, pipes, valves, and processing equipment of the treatment facility, operators move the wastewater that comes from the collection system through the various treatment pro cesses. Operators read and interpret meters and gages to make sure plant equipment is working properly. Other jobs include oper ating chemical-feeding devices; taking sam ples of the water and performing chemical and biological laboratory analyses; and testing and adjusting the level of chlorine in the water. Operators also make minor repairs on valves, pumps, and other equip ment. They use gages, wrenches, pliers, and other common handtools, as well as special tools. Occasionally operators must work under emergency conditions. A heavy rainstorm, for example, may cause Making minor repairs is part of the wastewater treatment plant operator’s job. OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/73 maintenance and repair work on pumps, electric motors, and valves. They also are expected to perform housekeeping tasks such as cleaning and maintaining plant equipment and property. Persons interested in entering the field should have some mechanical aptitude and should be competent in basic mathematics. Employers generally prefer trainees who have a high school diploma or its equivalent, and, in some States, this is a minimum educa tional requirement. Some positions, particu larly in larger cities and towns, are covered by civil service regulations, and applicants may be required to pass written examinations testing elementary mathematics skills, me chanical aptitude, and general intelligence. Operators must be agile, since they have to climb ladders and move easily around heavy machinery. Some 2-year programs leading to an asso ciate degree in wastewater technology and 1-year programs leading to a certificate are available; these provide a good general knowlege of water pollution control as well as basic preparation for becoming an opera tor. Because plants are becoming more com plex, completion of such courses increases an applicant’s chances for employment and pro motion. Most State water pollution control agen cies offer training courses to improve the skills of treatment plant operators. These courses cover principles of sludge diges tion, odors and their control, chlorination, sedimentation, biological oxidation, and flow measurements. Some operators take correspondence courses on subjects related to wastewater treatment, and some em ployers will pay part of the tuition for courses leading to a college degree in sci ence or engineering. Operators may be promoted to positions such as supervisor and superintendent. A high school diploma and increasingly respon sible experience as an operator may be suffi cient to qualify for superintendent of a small plant, since at many small plants the superin tendent also serves as an operator. Educa tional requirements, however, are rising as larger, more complex treatment plants are being built to meet new water pollution con trol standards. Superintendents of large plants are expected to have an engineering or science degree. Training in management techniques is becoming increasingly impor tant for operators seeking supervisory posi tions. A limited number of operators may become technicians employed by State water pollution control agencies to monitor and provide technical assistance to plants throughout the State. Some technical-voca tional school or junior college training gener ally is preferred for technician jobs. In 42 States, supervisors and certain opera tors must pass an examination to certify that they are capable of overseeing treatment plant operations. Voluntary certification pro grams are in effect in the remaining States,' with the exception of Alaska. 74/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Under a typical program, there are differ ent classes of certification for different sizes of treatment plants. For example, to be certi fied a “class I operator” capable of operating a small plant with simple equipment, an ap plicant should be a high school graduate, demonstrate general knowledge of treatment operations by passing a written test, and complete 1 year of satisfactory employment at a treatment plant. Requirements for cer tification as a class IV operator who super vises a large plant employing complex tech nology may require a bachlelor’s degree in science or engineering; 4 years of treatment plant experience, 2 years of which were in a position of major responsibility; and specific knowledge of the entire field of wastewater treatment as demonstrated through a written test. Typically, a large plant would employ mostly operators certified for operating small or medium-sized plants, but always under the supervision of a class IV operator. operators, gas-compressor operators, powerplant operators, power reactor operators, sta tionary engineers, turbine operators, and waterworks pump-station operators. Sources of Additional Information People interested in a career in wastewater treatment should contact their local or State water pollution control agencies. Additional information is available from: Water Pollution Control Federation, 2626 Penn sylvania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. Manpower Planning and Training Branch (WH596), Office of Water Program Operations, Envi ronmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460. Welders (D.O.T. 81) Employment Outlook Employment of wastewater treatment plant operators is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, mainly as a result of the construction of new treatment plants to pro cess the increasing amount of domestic and industrial wastewater. Also, more highly trained operators will be needed as existing plants expand and modernize their facilities to cope more effectively with water pollution. In addition to new jobs from expansion of wastewater treatment, many job openings will occur as experienced operators retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Those operators with formal training will have the best job opportunities. People who enter this field should have steady employment in the years ahead. Even during economic downturns, treatment plants seldom lay off employees. Earnings According to a survey conducted by the Water Pollution Control Federation, aver age annual salaries of wastewater treatment plant operators ranged from $9,300 to $14,100 in 1978. Some experienced opera tors earned as much as $22,000 a year. Salaries depend, among other things, on the size of the plant and the complexity of the operator’s job. Salaries for trainees were roughly 90 percent of operators’ sala ries. Average yearly salaries of supervisors of wastewater treatment plants ranged from $10,200 to $21,300, while those of superintendents ranged from $12,200 to $24,600. Average earnings of experienced wastewater treatment plant operators are above the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farm ing. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity con sists of operating a system of machinery to process or produce materials include boiler Nature of the Work Welding is the most common way of per manently joining metal parts. Typically heat is applied to the metal pieces to be joined, the parts melt, fuse, and then form a permanent bond. Because of its strength, welding is used to construct and repair parts of ships, au tomobiles, spacecraft, and thousands of other products. It also joins beams and steel rein forcing rods in buildings, bridges, and high ways. There are three common ways to create the heat that is applied to the parts being joined. In electric arc welding, the most frequently used process, heat is created in the arc as electric current flows through the arc be tween the tip of the welding electrode and the metal. In resistance welding, heat is created in the weld metal by resistance to the flow of current through the metal. In gas welding, the flame from the combustion of burning gases melts the metal. In arc and gas welding," filler materials, called welding electrodes or welding rods, are melted and added to the weld puddle to give the joint greater strength. It is the welder’s job to control the amount of heat and the size of the melted area and to add the proper amount of filler material so that they form a strong joint. Since welding processes differ and are used for many purposes, the equipment and skill levels of welders vary. Some jobs require highly skilled manual welders who know how to safely use gas and electric arc welding equipment in all positions and are able to plan their work from drawings or specifica tions. Other jobs can be handled by unskilled welding machine operators who simply press a button to start the welding machine. Skilled welders know the characteristics and proper ties, such as melting points, of steel, alumi num, and other commonly used metals. Ex amples of skilled welders are maintenance welders, pipe welders, and welders who con struct ships and bridges. In ship construction, welders join the steel plates, beams, and pipes. Some joints to be welded are on the floor, some are on the walls, and some are overhead. Each must be carefully welded to insure that the ship will not break apart in rough seas. Ship welders generally use manual arc welding equipment, although semiautomatic equipment is used in some places. After weld ers read instructions to learn which materials and welding method to use, they obtain sup plies from the storage area. To form a joint by arc welding, they use an electrode in a holder attached to an electrical cable coming from a welding power supply. Another such cable is attached to the metal being welded. Thus, electricity will flow through the the welding electrode, through the arc to the metal being welded, and back to the power supply. The power supply can be adjusted to provide the correct amount of current. When the power is turned on, welders “strike an arc” by briefly touching the electrode to the metal to start the electricity flowing and then pulling the rod back to form a small arc gap over which the current must flow. If the dis tance between the electrode and the metal is correct, a stable electric arc will bridge the space; the heat from the arc melts the elec trode and the metal. Welders move the arc along the length of the joint. As the electrode melts and becomes shorter, they move the holder closer to the metal to keep the right distance from the arc. They replace very short electrodes. Maintenance welders repair tools, ma chines, and equipment. Often they bring por table gas torches, hoses, and tanks to the job because electricity may not be available. When working on a broken pipe, for exam ple, they examine the pipe and prepare the break for repair. Maintenance welders then select a welding filler rod appropriate for the job. Next, they light the torch and adjust regulators on the cylinders of fuel gas, such as acetylene, and oxygen to obtain the right gas mixtures and flame. Then they heat the edges of the break with the torch. As the metal begins to soften, welders melt the end of the filler rod in the hot liquid metal as they carefully move the torch and rod along the break. Welders must keep the torch the cor rect distance from the metal, apply heat cor rectly, and repair the break with filler mate rial. quires less manipulative skill because all parts are identical and each is welded in the same position. Large factories, having many identical parts to be welded may reduce production costs by using automatic arc, electron beam, or resistance welding machines. Workers who operate such machines to weld automo bile mufflers and washing machines, for ex ample, need little knowledge of welding. These workers, frequently called welding ma chine operators to distinguish them from more skilled, manual welders, place the parts to be joined in fixtures on the machine and push a button. The machine then clamps the part in place and positions it, as necessary, to complete the welding cycle. After the cycle is finished, operators remove the welded parts and load the machine again. The work of arc and flame cutters is closely related to that of welders. Using heat from burning gases or an electric arc, cutters cut and trim rather then join metal. Some electrically and mechanically operated ma chines follow guidelines automatically. Working Conditions Welders are exposed to more potential hazards than most other workers. They use protective clothing, safety shoes, goggles, helmets with protective lenses, and other de vices to prevent bums and eye injuries. Al though lighting and ventilation usually are adequate, some metals give off toxic gases and fumes as they melt. Workers often are in contact with rust, grease, and dirt on metal surfaces. Machine operators, however, are largely free from hazards associated with manual welding. A face shield or goggles generally are adequate protection. Skilled welders, working in welding booths, often have long periods of isolation from other workers. Places of Employment In 1978, about 679,000 welders and flame cutters were employed, including a relatively small number of cutters who used both flame and arc-cutting equipment. Almost twothirds of all welders help manufacture dura ble goods; for example, boilers, bulldozers, trucks, ships, and heavy machinery. Most of the rest repair metal products or help con struct bridges, large buildings, and pipelines. Welders are concentrated in the manufac turing centers of the Great Lakes States. About one-third work in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois. The rest are distributed much the same as the population, with large numbers in New York, Texas, Wisconsin, and California. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Though several years of on-the-job train ing are required to become a skilled welder, less skilled work can be learned on the job in a few months. Some welding operators, for example, can operate a machine in a few hours and handle all parts of their job in a week. Beginners often start in simple production jobs where the type and thickness of the metal and the position of the welding opera tion rarely change. As the need arises, super visors or experienced workers teach new em ployees how to weld vertical and overhead joints and different metals. Many large com panies train their own welders. A few compa nies have apprenticeship programs including classroom and on-the-job training that last several years. Persons planning careers as welders or cut ters need manual dexterity, good eyesight, and good eye-hand coordination. They Not all welders have the skills required of shipbuilding or maintenance welders. For ex ample, less skilled workers use semiauto matic arc weld equipment to weld automo bile frames. Semiautomatic equipment automatically supplies the proper amount of arc heat and filler material to the joint. For example, assembly lines bring car frames to welders who then position their welding guns near the parts to be welded and operate a switch on the handle which automatically starts the arc. They guide the arc to complete the required joints before the assembly line takes the frame to another worker. Like other welders, they are responsible for the quality of the joint. However, the job usually re OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/75 should have the ability to concentrate on de tailed work for long periods, and be physical able to bend, stoop, and work in awkward positions. Most employers prefer applicants who have high school or vocational school training in welding. Courses in shop mathe matics, mechanical drawing, blueprint read ing, physics, and chemistry also are help ful. New technological developments, espe cially in the nuclear energy and aerospace, require new skills. Because of the hazards of nuclear power plant operation or high-speed air and space travel, both industries demand high standards of reliability for welds. Before being assigned to work on buildings, bridges, pipelines, or other jobs where the strength of the weld is highly critical, welders may be required to pass an examination of their welding skills given by an employer or gov ernment agency. Welders who pass such ex aminations generally are referred to as “certi fied welders.” Promotion opportunities for welders are good. Some welding machine operators learn skilled welding jobs; skilled welders may be promoted to welding inspectors, technicians, or supervisors. Experienced workers who have obtained college training are in great demand as welding engineers to develop new applications for welding. A small number of experienced welders open their own repair shops. 76/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Employment for welders is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s because of the greater use of welding. In addition, many jobs should arise each year as welders retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Job op portunities may vary as the economy fluctu ates. Increases in population and income are ex pected to stimulate demand for cars, build ings, heavy machinery, appliances, and thou sands of other products that welders help make. Employment of welders also is ex pected to increase as welding replaces other methods of joining metals. Welding generally is cheaper than other methods of joining metal parts, and it is being used more fre quently in the manufacturing and construc tion industries. Earnings National wage data on welders are not available. However, the limited data availa ble indicate that welding machine operators earned from $6 to $7 an hour in 1978. Weld ers in the construction industry earned $9 to $12 an hour, depending on location. Welders belong to many different unions. Among these are the International Associa tion of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Brotherhood of Boilermak ers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Work ers of America (Ind.). Related Occupations Welders are highly skilled workers who must be very familiar with the properties of metal and use hand-held equipment or ma chines to do factory or construction work. Other people with similar duties are black smiths, forge shop workers, all-round machi nists, instrument makers (mechanical), ma chine tool operators, and tool-and-die makers. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training and work opportunities for welders, contact local employers or the local office of the State em ployment service. For general information about welders, write to: The American Welding Society, 2501 NW. 7th St., Miami, Fla. 33125. International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. OFFICE OCCUPATIONS Office workers perform a wide range of tasks that are needed to keep business and other organizations running on a day-to-day basis. Clerical workers, such as secretaries and typists, keep records and maintain files, type, and operate office machines. Profes sional and technical employees give legal ad vice, prepare and analyze financial reports, design computer systems, and arrange bank loans. Opportunities in office work exist for peo order to maintain accurate records. Besides ple with many different educational back . the technical skills required to do their jobs, grounds. Some jobs can be entered with a all office workers need good judgment and high school education; many others, how the ability to communicate their ideas to oth ers. ever, require at least a college degree. Office work also involves a wide variety of This chapter of the Handbook describes skills. Most professionals, for example, need office work in clerical occupations, computer problem-solving ability to analyze data and and related occupations, banking occupa help determine company policy. Clerical tions, insurance occupations, and adminis workers must pay close attention to detail in trative and related occupations. OFFICE OCCUPATIONS/77 Clerical Occupations About 17 million people worked in clerical jobs in 1978. Many kept records and did other office paperwork. Others handled com munications, operated office machines, shipped and received merchandise, and rang sales on cash registers. Workers in clerical jobs have a wide var iety of skills and experience. They include highly skilled title searchers in real estate firms and executive secretaries in business offices as well as relatively unskilled messen gers and file clerks. Despite the diversity of jobs and duties, clerical employment is con centrated in a few familiar jobs. Roughly 1 of every 5 clerical workers is a secretary. One in ten is a bookkeeper. The accompanying chart shows employment in these and other major clerical occupations discussed in this section of the Handbook. Other sections of the Handbook also discuss clerical occupations. See the statements on computer operating personnel, bank clerks, bank tellers, mail car riers, telephone operators, teacher aides, and social service aides. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer high school graduates for clerical jobs. They look for people who understand what they read, know basic spell ing and grammar, and can use arithmetic. The ability to type and do neat and accurate paperwork is required for nearly all entry level positions, and some employers expect applicants to take typing or clerical aptitude tests. Many employers prefer applicants who Digitized78/OCCUPATIONAL for FRASER OUTLOOK HANDBOOK have some knowledge of office practices. High schools, community and junior col leges, business schools, and home study schools teach these skills. Business education programs typically in clude courses in typing, shorthand, clerk-typ ist skills, and office procedures. Many workstudy programs permit students to earn school credits while they gain experience in a clerical job. Many States and localities sponsor programs to train unemployed and low-skilled workers for entry level jobs. Whether or not they have had formal training in business and office practices, be ginning clerical workers generally receive some on-the-job training. They learn how their employers keep records and become fa miliar with the kinds of business forms used. Some workers learn to operate adding and duplicating machines; others may attend classes to learn how to operate word process ing equipment; still others learn about the procedures involved in handling stock or in ventory control. Continuing changes in the office environ ment, many made possible by the computer, have increased the demand for clerical work ers who are adaptable, flexible, and versatile. Workers must be prepared to be retrained whenever an employer introduces new equip ment. Secretaries and typists, for example, may have to spend days or weeks in classes to learn to operate word processing equip ment, information storage systems, and other automated equipment. The frequency with which office equipment is changed or up dated makes retraining or continuing educa tion more important than ever for clerical workers. Advancement opportunities for clerical workers are good, and many employers pro vide courses in the skills needed for more demanding jobs. As workers become more highly skilled, they are assigned more dif ficult tasks. Junior typists, for example, may be promoted to senior typists as their speed and accuracy improve. Receptionists who learn typing and office procedures may be come secretaries or typists. Promotion to such jobs as administrative assistant, office manager, or clerical supervisor generally de pends on leadership ability, work experience, and knowledge of the organization as a whole. Employment Outlook Employment of clerical workers is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addi tion to new jobs, many openings will occur as employees die, retire, or leave their jobs. Growth in the number of clerical workers is expected to result primarily from an in crease in paperwork in most kinds of organi zations. Although a great deal of paperwork is handled by computer, and automation has had a strong impact on office equipment and procedures, computerization and automation will not affect all clerical jobs. Job opportuni ties will be especially favorable for reception ists, secretaries, and typists. Demand for these workers will continue to be strong in banking, insurance, and manufacturing and in firms that provide business, professional, health, or educational services. Opportuni ties may be reduced in a number of routine clerical jobs such as payroll, bank, and file clerk. At the same time, the nature of clerical jobs is likely to change. The introduction of new equipment often involves a reorganiza tion of work flow, office procedures, and staff. Very often, this entails retraining staff, assigning new responsibilities, and doing the job somewhat differently. Persons with clerical skills, particularly secretarial and typing, should find extensive opportunities for temporary or part-time work as more employers use these workers during peak business periods. Earnings Some clerks in routine jobs earned just over $100 a week, while highly skilled workers were paid $200 or more, accord ing to a 1978 survey. Salary variations within an occupation are relatively com- They record business transactions, including payroll deductions and bills paid and due. They also may type vouchers, invoices, and other financial records. Working Conditions For the most part, working conditions for bookkeeping workers are the same as those for other office employees in the same com pany. Bookkeeping requires sitting for long periods and involves examining detailed nu merical information. Some persons may find this tiring. Workers who operate older book keeping machines may be exposed to high noise levels. Newer equipment is relatively quiet, however. Places of Employment mon and usually reflect differences in edu cational level, work experience, and level of responsibility. Salaries in different parts of the country also vary; earnings generally are lowest in southern cities and highest in northeastern and western urban areas. In 1978, for exam ple, secretaries averaged $225 a week in the Northeast, $236 in the West, and $210 in southern cities. Clerical employees work 40 hours a week in many cities. In some, especially in the Northeast, the scheduled workweek is 37 hours or less. Most clerical workers in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and a 2 week vacation after working 1 year. Longer vaca tions, based on added years of service, may range to 4 weeks or more. Group life and health insurance plans, sickness benefits, and retirement plans often are available. Sources of Additional Information Many State employment service offices can provide information about earnings, hours, and employment opportunities in cler ical jobs. Information concerning training for cleri cal occupations in your State is available from: State Supervisor of Office Occupations Education, State Department of Education, State capital. A directory of private business schools located in cities throughout the country may be obtained from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1730 M St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. For the names of labor organizations and professional associations that can provide in formation about specific occupations, see the discussions of individual clerical occupations that follow. Bookkeeping Workers (D.O.T. 210.382-010 through -026) Nature of the Work Every business needs systematic and upto-date records of accounts and business transactions. Bookkeeping workers maintain these records in journals, ledgers, and on other accounting forms. They also prepare periodic financial statements showing all money received and paid out. The duties of bookkeeping workers vary with the size of the business. However, virtually all of them use calculating machines each day. Many use check-writing machines, mechanical or elec tronic bookkeeping machines, and other kinds of office equipment. In many small firms, a general bookkeeper (D.O.T. 210.382-014) handles all the book keeping. He or she analyzes and records all financial transactions, such as orders and cash sales. General bookkeepers also check money taken in against that paid out to be sure accounts “balance,” calculate the firm’s payroll, and make up employees’ paychecks. General bookkeepers also prepare and mail customers’ bills and answer the telephone. In large businesses, several bookkeepers and accounting clerks work under the direc tion of a head or supervisory bookkeeper. In these organizations, bookkeepers often spe cialize in certain types of work. Some, for example, prepare statements of a company’s income from sales or its daily operating ex penses. Others may post payments and charges on cards using bookkeeping ma chines, or feed information on accounts re ceivable and accounts payable into the computer. Accounting clerks (D.O.T. 216.482-010), sometimes known as bookkeeping clerks, perform a variety of routine tasks. More than 1.8 million persons worked as bookkeeping workers in 1978. Jobs for book keeping workers are found throughout the economy—in business firms mostly, but also in schools, hospitals, nonprofit organiza tions, and government agencies. An espe cially large number of bookkeepers work in wholesale and retail trade. Approximately 1 bookkeeper in 3 works for a retail store or wholesaler. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates who have taken business arithmetic, bookkeeping, and princi ples of accounting meet the requirements for most bookkeeping jobs. Some employers pre fer applicants who have completed business courses at a community or junior college or business school. Employers sometimes seek applicants who have had experience working with accounts payable and receivable. A fa miliarity with bookkeeping machines and the ways in which computers are used in book keeping operations is an asset. A knowledge of typing also is useful. Training for this occupation is widely available. Bookkeeping is taught in high schools, in community and junior colleges, and in business schools and colleges. Busi ness education programs typically include bookkeeping-accounting, business law, busi ness arithmetic, office practices, and princi ples of data processing for office workers. Some programs give business students an op portunity to learn on the job through workstudy programs arranged by high schools and local businesses. The work experience, together with the first-hand knowledge of of fice procedures, can help when students look for jobs after graduation. In a few States, bookkeeping workers must be licensed to work on tax returns. State lic ensing agencies can provide information on these requirements in your area. Above all, bookkeeping workers need to be good at working with numbers. They also have to be able to concentrate on details. Small mistakes can be very serious in this field, so bookkeepers need to be careful, accu rate, and orderly in their work. Because they CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS/79 jobs and have different job titles. Those who work in theaters, for example, are often called box office cashiers or ticket sellers. They operate ticket-dispensing machines and answer telephone inquiries. Restaurant cash iers, sometimes called cashier checkers, may handle reservations for meals and special parties, type menus, or sell items at the candy and cigarette counter. In supermarkets and other self-service stores, cashiers known as checkout clerks, checkers, or grocery clerks wrap or bag purchases. They also may re stock shelves and mark prices, rearrange dis plays of merchandise, and take inventory. In many offices, cashiers, known as agency or front-office cashiers, type, operate the switch board, do bookkeeping, and act as reception ists. Bookkeeping workers must perform calculations quickly and accurately. often work with others, bookkeepers should be cooperative and able to work as part of a team. Newly hired bookkeeping workers begin by recording routine transactions such as ac counts receivable or accounts payable. They advance to more responsible assignments, such as preparing income statements and op erating bookkeeping machines or computers. Some bookkeeping workers are promoted to supervisory jobs. Others who enroll in col lege accounting programs may advance to jobs as accountants. Bookkeeping experience provides a good background for college courses in accounting but normally cannot be substituted for such courses. Employment Outlook Jobs for bookkeepers will be numerous through the 1980’s even though employment in the occupation is expected to grow slowly. The occupation is large and turnover is high. Many openings will occur, therefore, because of the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Future employment growth in this occupa tion will be slowed by the increasing use of bookkeeping machines and computers that process data more accurately, rapidly, and economically than workers doing it by hand. Earnings Beginning accounting clerks in private firms averaged $724 a month in 1978, ac cording to a Bureau of Labor Statistics sur vey of clerical occupations. They had higher salaries, on the average, than beginning file clerks or typists, but earned less than begin ning secretaries or stenographers. Ex perienced accounting clerks earned $916 a month, about the same as the average for all 80/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In early 1979, the starting salary in the Federal Government was $7,422 for book keeping workers right out of high school. Ap plicants for Federal jobs who had 1 year of experience or 1 year of education beyond high school could start at $8,366. The aver age salary for general accounting clerks in the Federal Government in 1978 was $14,802 per year. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other jobs com pute totals and record financial transactions. Like bookkeepers, they must be good at working with numbers. Among such workers are audit clerks, payroll clerks, posting clerks, statistical clerks, and bank tellers. Sources of Additional Information See the statement on clerical occupations for sources of additional information. Cashiers____________ (D.O.T. 211.137., .362-010, .367-010, .462, .467, .482, and .582, 249.467-010) Nature of the Work Supermarkets, movie theaters, and res taurants are among the many businesses that employ cashiers to handle payments from customers. Most cashiers receive money, make change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. The related occupation of bank teller is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. In addition to these duties, cashiers, de pending on their employers, may do other Cashiers operate several types of ma chines. Many use cash registers that print the amount of the sale on a paper tape. A rapidly growing number of cashiers operate elec tronic registers, computerized point-of-sale registers, or computerized scanning systems. Depending upon its complexity, a computer ized system may automatically calculate the necessary taxes and record inventory num bers and other information. Such registers are replacing less versatile, conventional models in many stores. Cashiers who work in hotels and hospitals use machines that record charges for telephone, medical, and other ser vices and prepare itemized bills. Cashiers also operate adding and change-dispensing machines. Working Conditions Most cashiers work indoors, often in small booths or behind counters located near store entrances. They may have to stand for long periods of time. In some cases, they are ex posed to cold drafts in the winter and consid erable heat during the summer. Places of Employment In 1978, about 1,400,000 persons worked as cashiers. More cashiers work in supermar kets and other foodstores than in any other kind of store. However, cashiers are needed in businesses and organizations of all types and sizes, and many find jobs in department stores, drugstores, shoestores, hardware stores, furniture stores, and in other kinds of retail stores. Restaurants, theaters, schools, and hospitals also employ a large number of cashiers. Businesses employing cashiers are located in large cities, in suburban shopping centers, in small towns, and in rural areas. The Federal Government employs a small number, primarily in the Department of De fense, in clubs, cafeterias, and exchanges on military installations. Opportunities for part-time work are very good. Nearly half of all cashiers work part time; about 1 in 4 is a student. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer beginning cashiers with high school diplomas. Courses in business Code-UPC) of each purchase to a com puter that is programed to record a decription and price of the item, add the tax, and print out a receipt. The computer also keeps track of the store’s inventory and places orders with the warehouse when stock is needed. The widespread adoption of automated checkout systems in super markets and other establishments is ex pected to slow employment growth of cashiers and other workers. However, re sistance from consumer and labor groups may slow the adoption of such systems. Earnings Beginning cashiers often earn the mini mum wage required by law. In establish ments covered by the Federal law, the mini mum was $2.65 an hour in 1978. In addition, minimum wages in many establishments are governed by State law. Cashiers earn wages ranging from the minimum in a given estab lishment to several times that amount. Ac cording to a 1977 Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of grocery stores, the top hourly union rates for full-time cashiers ranged from $3.72 to $7.64. Wages tended to be highest in the West and the North Central region and low est in the South; wages generally were higher in large metropolitan areas than in smaller cities. Experienced full-time cashiers who were members of the United Food and Commer cial Workers International Union earned av erage wages of $6.67 per hour in 1978; begin ners earned average wages of $4.50 per hour. Wages for nonunion cashiers are generally lower than those for union cashiers. Because they meet the public, cashiers should be neat in appearance, tactful, and pleasant. arithmetic, bookkeeping, typing, and other business subjects are good preparation for cashier jobs. Cashier training is offered as part of many public school vocational pro grams. Many employers offer on-the-job train ing for cashiers. In a small firm, the begin ner is trained on the job by an experienced worker. In large firms, cashier training programs often include classroom instruc tion in the use of electronic or computer ized registers and in other phases of cash ier’s jobs. Many persons enter cashier positions without significant prior work ex perience. For some jobs, however, employ ers seek persons who have special skills or business experience, such as typing or sell ing. Many openings also are filled by pro moting other qualified workers who are al ready employed by the firm. Persons who want to become cashiers should be able to do repetitious work accu rately. They need finger dexterity, a high de gree of eye-hand coordination, and an apti tude for working with figures. Because they meet the public, cashiers should be neat in appearance and able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with customers. Promotion opportunities as cashiers tend to be limited. However, the cashier’s job af fords a good opportunity to learn an em ployer’s business and so may serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible clerical job, such as bookkeeper, or to a managerial posi tion. Cashiers working in chainstores and other large retail businesses, for example, may advance to department or store manag ers. Employment Outlook Job openings for cashiers are expected to be plentiful through the 1980’s. Employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Some new jobs will result from growth in retail trade. However, much more important as a source of jobs for cash iers will be the need to replace workers who die, retire, or change jobs. Because the occu pation is large and turnover is high, many cashier jobs will be available over the next 10 years. Further employment of cashiers is likely to be affected by the use of computerized checkout systems, which are beginning to replace cash registers in some supermar kets. An optical or magnetic scanner trans mits the code number (Universal Product Many cashiers are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers Interna tional Union. Others are represented by a variety of unions, depending on the industry in which they work. They generally receive health insurance, annual and sick leave, pen sion benefits, and other benefits available to other workers. Cashiers often work during rush periods such as holidays, weekends, late afternoons, and evenings. Work at these times often is required in theaters, restaurants, and foodstores. Many cashiers in these places work part time or on split shifts. Full-time cashiers in supermarkets and other large retail stores usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week; how ever, they may work on weekends and have time off during the week. Related Occupations Cashiers pay or receive money and keep account of such exchanges. Other workers with similar duties include bank tellers, ticket sellers, post office clerks, toll collectors, and sales clerks. Sources of Additional Information Details about employment opportunities are available from local businesses and the local office of the State employment ser vice. CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS/81 Collection Workers (D O T. 241.367-010) Nature of the Work Companies that lend money or extend credit expect to be repaid. However, custom ers who “buy now” are not always able to “pay later.” Collection workers, often called bill collectors, help maintain a company’s fi nancial well-being by keeping bad debts to a minimum. A collector’s primary job is to convince people to pay their unpaid bills. The col lector usually receives a bad debt file after normal billing methods, such as monthly statements and collection form letters, have failed to elicit payment. The file contains information about the debtor, the nature and amount of the unpaid bill, the last charge incurred, and the last time payment was made. The collector then contacts the debtor by phone or by mail, determines why the bill is unpaid, and tries to get the debtor to pay or make new arrangements for payment. The approach that collectors use de pends on the type of payment problem they are handling. For example, customers may feel that the bill is incorrect, or that the merchandise they bought is faulty, or that services they were billed for were not properly performed. Collectors normally recommend that the debtors resolve these disagreements by contacting the original sellers. In large stores, problems are re ferred to special “customer service” de partments, set up to deal with disputed ac counts. If the problems are not settled, the collectors again contact the customers to convince them that they were properly charged and should pay the debts. When customers have met with financial emergencies or mismanaged their money, collectors may work out new payment schedules. If collectors find customers fraudulently avoiding payment of their bills, they may recommend that the files be turned over to an attorney. When a debtor moves without leaving a forwarding address, the collector may in quire at the post office, search telephone directories, and call on references listed on the original credit application. In large col lection operations, this may be done by col lection workers known as “tracers.” In small organizations, bill collectors may perform other functions besides con tacting delinquent customers. They may advise customers with financial problems, or contact customers to determine if they are satisfied with the way their accounts are being handled. Some collectors super vise the repossession procedure for busi nesses that reclaim goods when payment is not made, such as banks and finance com panies. 82/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Collection workers must be quick witted and persuasive to get people to pay their debts. Working Conditions Collectors spend most of their time in the office. In most cases, the person with the de linquent account has received a form letter reminder that the account is past due, and the collector’s job is to follow up by making telephone calls. On rare occasions, a collector may make a personal visit to the debtor. These visits usually are necessary when a large amount of money is involved and the debtor has not responded to telephone con tact. Places of Employment About 78,000 collection workers were em ployed in 1978. Although collectors work for a variety of businesses, most are employed by banks, loan companies, and collection agen cies. Many others work for retail and whole sale businesses. Jobs for collectors are located throughout the United States, but opportunities are best in heavily populated urban centers. Many firms with branch offices in rural areas locate their collection departments in the business district of nearby cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school education usually is suffi cient for entry into the collection field. Be cause a collector handles delinquent accounts on a person-to-person basis, high school courses in psychology and speech may be useful. Previous employment as a sales clerk can help the collection workers learn how credit transactions originate and how they are handled at the point of sales. Knowledge of a foreign language may be an asset for persons seeking collection jobs in areas with a large non-English-speaking population. Usually, the collector’s training is on the job. The employer may provide training manuals that explain collection procedures, but more often the new employee gains col lection skills informally. For example, the new collector learns telephone techniques by observing experienced workers make collec tion calls. Training also is available through the edu cational branch of the American Collectors’ Association, which offers short courses for collectors in areas such as collection of bad debts by telephone and skip tracing. A collector’s most important asset is the ability to get along with different kinds of people. He or she must be alert, imaginative, and quick-witted to handle the difficult situa tions that are part of collection work. While collectors should be sympathetic to the billpayers’ problems, they also must be persua sive to overcome some debtors’ reluctance to fulfill their financial obligations. Because a collector spends most of the day on the tele phone, a pleasant speaking voice and manner are important. The collector’s job generally offers limited opportunities for advancement; competition for the few supervisory positions is keen. The collector with above-average abilities, how ever, may become a collection manager or supervisor of a staff of collectors. A few col lection workers progress to other positions in the credit field, such as bank loan officer or supervisor in a collection agency. Further ed ucation, such as that available through pro fessional associations of collectors or college courses, may be helpful for advanced posi tions in the credit and collection field. Employment Outlook The applicant who has a background of high school business courses and can demon strate effective telephone skills should find good job opportunities in the collection field. Demand is strongest for people who are per sonable, outgoing, and have the ability to mo tivate others, for traits such as these are likely to lead to success on the job. In recent years, the role of the collector has expanded to include customer debt counsel ing, and collection methods have been modi fied in line with modem management tech niques and recent consumer legislation. Despite this improved image, the number of persons seeking collection jobs is expected to fall short of the need for additional workers. Employers will need large numbers of collec tors to fill vacancies createcf by turnover, which is relatively high in this occupation. In addition, new positions will open up as the need for collection work grows. Employment opportunities should be best in collection agencies, where replacement needs continue to be high, and in retail trade firms, where earnings often are somewhat lower than the average. The strongest compe tition for collection positions will be in large metropolitan banks that generally offer higher salaries and better opportunities for advancement than other employers. The demand for collection workers through the 1980’s will be spurred by the expansion of credit card services and the fur ther growth of suburban retail stores. Delin quent accounts, unfortunately, are an un avoidable aspect of the credit system. As businesses extend attractive credit terms for the purchase of greater numbers of goods and services to more and more people, the num ber of delinquent accounts can be expected to increase. Additional collection workers will be required to service these accounts on a person-to-person basis. Earnings Although earnings for collectors vary among employers, the limited information available indicates that beginning collectors earned about $165 a week in 1978, or about $8,600 a year. Managers of collection depart ments often earned $17,000 a year and more. A survey by the American Collectors As sociation showed that telephone collectors working for collection agencies had an aver age monthly income of $950, or about $11,400 a year. Incomes of individual workers can vary substantially because collection agencies generally use some form of salary plus commission plan as an incentive to their collectors. Commission schedules vary widely from agency to agency. A collector may be paid a relatively high salary with a low rate of com mission or receive a low salary and a high rate on the money he or she collects for the agency. In some agencies, a quota is assigned to a collector or group of collectors and a bonus is paid if the quota is reached. A few collection workers only earn commissions. In addition to salary, collectors receive the benefits common to other office occupations, such as paid vacations -and health insurance. Those who occasionally make visits outside the office usually are furnished a company car or are paid expenses for using their own automobile. Related Occupations Many other workers deal with customers to adjust claims, arrange for payment of debts, and repossess merchandise. Some of these workers are customer-complaint clerks, credit analysts, credit reporters, collection clerks, repossessors, and skip tracers. Sources of Additional Information Information on jobs as collection workers as well as other positions in a credit collec tion office is available from: American Collectors Association, 4040 W. 70th St., Minneapolis, Minn. 55435. File Clerks (D.O.T. 206) Nature of the Work An orderly file system is often the key to an efficient organization. In most offices, rec ords are arranged so that information can be located quickly. This creates many job op portunities for file clerks, who keep records accurate, up to date, and properly placed. File clerks classify, store, update, and re trieve office information on request. To do this, they examine incoming material and store it for future use according to a system, such as by number, letter of the alphabet, or subject matter. When these records are re quested, file clerks locate them and turn them over to the borrower. They keep track of materials removed from the files and make sure that those given out are returned. Some clerks operate mechanized files that rotate to bring the needed records to them. Others retrieve documents or spools of mi crofilm and place them in an electronic trans mitter that displays the information on video terminals located elsewhere in the organiza tion. Records must be up to date to be useful. File clerks make sure that new information is added to existing files shortly after it is re ceived. Working Conditions File clerks usually work in offices, with a company’s other clerical workers. However, if the organization has a central filing room, workers may be separated from other depart ments. Although they do not do heavy lift ing, file clerks must frequently stoop, bend, and reach. Places of Employment About 273,000 persons worked as file clerks in 1978. In addition, many other cleri cal workers performed some filing tasks in connection with their work. As in other cleri cal occupations, opportunities for temporary or part-time work are abundant. Although filing jobs are found in almost every kind of organization, about one-half of all file clerks work in banking, insurance, or real estate firms, or in the offices of lawyers, doctors, and other professionals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer high school graduates for beginning file clerk positions. Generally, they seek applicants who can type and do accurate paperwork. Many employers prefer applicants who have some knowledge of of fice practices as well. High schools, community and junior col leges, and business schools teach these and other skills. Business education programs typically include courses in typing, short hand, clerk-typist skills, and office practices and procedures. Many programs have workstudy arrangements which permit students to earn school credits while they gain experi ence in an office job. Many States and locali ties sponsor programs to train unemployed and low-skilled workers who can read and spell well for beginning clerical jobs as file clerks. Because file clerk generally is an entry level job, some employers consider an appli cant’s willingness to work and learn more important than any special training or educa tion. The file clerk usually receives some training when beginning work. On-the-job training almost always is necessary because each organization has its own filing system and office procedures. In organizations that have their own filing procedures, the clerk learns the job in a few weeks. Learning to operate mechanical filing systems usually takes more time. If more than filing is in volved, several months of on-the-job training is needed. From time to time, file clerks may destroy outdated file materials or transfer them to inactive storage. They check files at regular intervals to ensure that all items are correctly placed. Whenever data cannot be located, the file clerk searches for the missing records. As an organization’s needs for information change, file clerks modify old filing systems or establish new ones. File clerks must read accurately and ra pidly, spell well, and like detailed work. Most file clerks must be able to type. They should be neat, able to work as part of a team, and not be easily bored by repetitive tasks. In small offices, file clerks often type, sort mail, or operate duplicating machines. Those who work with automated filing sys tems may code and microfilm all incoming documents. File clerk jobs often are filled by beginners. Workers can advance to more difficult filing duties and to jobs supervising other file clerks. In addition, after some experience and more training, they may be promoted to jobs CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS/83 eye and, through their attitude and behavior, greatly influence guests’ impressions and promote a hotel’s reputation. Reservation clerks record written or tele phoned requests for rooms, prepare registra tion forms, and notify room clerks of guests’ arrival times. Rack clerks keep records of room assign ments to advise housekeepers, telephone op erators, and maintenance workers that rooms are occupied. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually select high school grad uates who have some clerical aptitude as front office clerks. A knowledge of bookkeep ing is helpful for work in a smaller hotel or on the night shift, because clerks often have a wider range of duties under these circum stances. Occasionally, employees in other hotel occupations, such as bellhops or eleva tor operators, may be promoted to front of fice jobs. File clerks add new records to existing files shortly after they are received. as typists, receptionists, or office machine op erators. eral Government averaged about $187 a week in 1978. Employment Outlook Related Occupations Employment of file clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s as business expan sion continues to create a need for more and better recordkeeping. In addition, a large number of file clerks will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other jobs. Other workers sort, store, and retrieve documents and other materials. Among these are general clerks, mail handlers, property clerks, tape librarians, collators, and sorters. The growing volume of paperwork and continued expansion of those businesses that traditionally have employed many file clerks is expected to assure steady employment growth. However, this growth will be slower than in past years, reflecting more extensive use of computers to arrange, store, and trans mit information. Jobseekers who have typing and other secretarial skills and are familiar with a wide range of office machines should have better opportunities than less ex perienced applicants. File clerks should find many opportunities for temporary or parttime work, especially during peak business periods. Earnings According to a recent survey, beginning file clerks in urban areas averaged $127 a week in 1978. Those with some experience averaged $152; those with a great deal of ex perience, $194. File clerks earned somewhat less than three-fourths of the average earn ings of nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. In the Federal Government, beginning file clerks without high school diplomas started at about $126 a week in early 1979, and high school graduates began at $143 a week. Experienced file clerks in the Fed 84/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Sources of Additional Information See the statement on clerical occupations for sources of additional information. Hotel Front Office Clerks___________ (D.O.T. 238.137-010, .362-010, and .367-030) Nature of the Work Handling room reservations, greeting guests, issuing keys, and collecting payments are among the duties performed by hotel and motel front office clerks. Because many smaller hotels and motels require minimal staffs, the front office clerk may also function as a bookkeeper, cashier, or telephone opera tor. Large hotels, however, usually employ several front office clerks to perform various services, such as receiving mail, providing in formation, or issuing keys. About 79,000 per sons worked as front office clerks in 1978. Room or desk clerks assign rooms to guests and answer questions about hotel ser vices, checkout time, or parking facilities. In assigning rooms, they must consider guests’ preferences while trying to maximize hotel revenues. These clerks fill out guests’ regis tration forms and sometimes collect pay ments. Room clerks are always in the public Newly hired workers usually begin as mail, information, or key clerks and receive their training on the job. The training period is usually brief and includes an explanation of the job’s duties and information about the hotel, such as room locations and services offered. Once on the job, they receive help and supervision from the assistant manager or an experienced front office worker. Some clerks may need additional training in data processing or office machine operation be cause of the increased use of computerized front office systems. In the past, front office personnel fre quently have made the transition to managerial positions. Most hotels promote front office workers from within so that a key or mail clerk may be promoted to room clerk, then to assistant front office manager, and later to front office manager. Although a col lege background is generally not required for front office work, it is an asset for advance ment to management. Clerks may also im prove their opportunities for promotion by taking home or group study courses in hotel management such as those sponsored by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel & Motel Association. (See the chapter on hotel managers and assistants elsewhere in the Handbook.) A presentable appearance, a courteous and friendly manner, and a desire to help people are important traits for front office clerks. Another attribute helpful for work in larger hotels or resorts that cater to a diverse clientele is the ability to speak a foreign language. Employment Outlook Employment of front office clerks is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Em ployment growth will be limited by the use of computerized front office systems in most hotel and motel chains, and most job open ings will result from the need to replace Working Conditions Because some types of office machines are very noisy, operators may work in special areas apart from other company offices. In other respects, working conditions are simi lar to those of other office workers in the same firm. The work requires sitting for long periods and demands concentration and at tention to detail, which may tire some people. Places of Employment In 1978, about 160,000 people worked as office machine operators. Large numbers were employed by banks, insurance compa nies, and wholesale and retail stores. Many office machine operators work for firms that specialize in providing such business services as preparing bills, mailing circulars, and copying and collating records and reports. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Computerization of reservation systems will increase the training requirements for many front office clerks. workers who die, retire, or leave the occupa tion. Related Occupations Billing machine operators (D.O.T. 214.482-010) prepare customer statements by typing information, such as customers’ names, purchases, and amount of sales, on a billing machine that automatically computes the balances and required payments. Hotel front office clerks are often the first employees customers deal with, and it is im portant that they leave customers with a good impression. Other workers who are also responsible for giving a good first impression are receptionists, hosts/hostesses, and sales clerks. Bookkeeping machine operators (D.O.T. 210.382-022 and -026) record a firm’s finan cial transactions on a bookkeeping machine and calculate trial balances, summary re ports, and other necessary data. See the statement on the hotel industry elsewhere in the Handbook for information on earnings and working conditions, sources of additional information, and more informa tion on employment outlook. Adding and calculating machine operators (D.O.T. 216.482-014 and -022) use mechani cal adding machines and electronic calcula tors to compute payrolls and invoices and do other statistical work. Office Machine Operators_________ (D.O.T. 207; 208.462-010 and .582-014; 210.382-022 and -026; 213.682-010; 214.482-010; and 216.482-014 and -022) Nature of the Work To speed their paperwork, most businesses use office machines to record information, determine bills and inventories, and perform other operations. Some of the clerical work ers who operate copiers, bookkeeping ma chines, calculators, and the many other kinds of machines commonly found in offices are described in this statement. (Several other jobs that involve the use of office ma chines are described elsewhere in the Hand book . See the statements on computer oper ating personnel, bank clerks, statistical clerks, typists, and secretaries and stenogra phers.) Mail preparing and mail handling machine operators (D.O.T. 208.462-010) use machines to open incoming mail and prepare bills and letters for mailing. Some machines fold and insert enclosures, while others address, seal, and stamp envelopes. Addressing machines print addresses on envelopes using stencils or metal plates prepared by embossing machine operators (D.O.T. 208.582-014) using special typewriters. Duplicating machine operators (D.O.T. 207) run equipment that can reproduce let ters, bills, invoices, and other documents. Included are mimeograph, stencil, and copying machines. These workers keep the machines loaded with paper, see that they are properly adjusted for the number of copies to be made, and may collate—put together—pages of lengthy documents by hand or machine. Tabulating machine operators (D.O.T. 213.682-010) operate machines that sort and total large quantities of accounting and sta tistical information and print the results on special business forms. Employers prefer high school or business school graduates for all but the most routine office machine jobs. Most newly hired work ers are expected to be able to type, operate adding machines and calculators, and use basic business arithmetic. These skills, which are taught in nearly all high schools, are use ful for most office jobs. Vocational education programs offered by most public school sys tems provide training in office machine oper ation. In addition, private business schools often teach machine operation as part of the training for clerical jobs. Previous training may not be necessary, however, for this is a beginning clerical job and most employers expect to train newly hired workers. The amount of instruction and on-the-job training beginners receive de pends on the types of machines they operate. Duplicating machine operators, for example, work with simplified and automated equip ment; they generally learn their jobs in a few days. Bookkeeping machine operators, how ever, use more complex equipment and may need several weeks to learn to use their ma chines correctly. Sometimes training is given at schools run by office equipment manufacturers. Ad vances in office technology mean fairly fre quent changes in office machinery and equip ment. When new machines are installed, all the operators—not just newly hired opera tors—may have to spend some time in class. A willingness to learn new techniques and master new equipment is increasingly impor tant for office machine operators. Finger dexterity, good eye and hand coor dination, and good vision are also important. Billing and calculating machine operators should know simple arithmetic so they can detect obvious errors in computations. Me chanical ability is an advantage, especially for duplicating and tabulating machine oper ators, who may have to clean and take care of their machines. Most employers promote from within and CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS/85 are distribution clerks who sort incoming and outgoing mail in workrooms. Postal clerks work at local post offices or at large central mail processing facilities. At local post offices postal clerks sort the mail for delivery to individual customers. Incom ing mail collected from the local neighbor hood boxes is forwarded to the nearest mail processing center where clerks continue the process of sorting and preparing the mail for delivery. About 300 mail processing centers throughout the country service the local post offices in surrounding areas. Once mail is re ceived at a center, letter-sorting machine clerks, distribution clerks, and mailhandlers separate the mail into groups of letters, par cel post, magazines, and newspapers. Then mailhandlers feed the letters through stamp canceling machines. Afterwards mailhan dlers take the mail into other workrooms to be sorted according to destination. There, clerks read the ZIP codes and simply push keys corresponding to the letters’ destina tions on electronic mail-sorting machines; the letters drop into the proper slots. Finally, the mail is sent from the mail processing cen ter to local post offices or to other centers for further sorting. Finger dexterity and good vision are important for office machine operators. give strong consideration to seniority and job performance as shown by supervisors’ rat ings. Promotion may be from a routine ma chine job to a more complex one, or to a related clerical job. Employers often provide any additional training that may be required. In firms having large clerical staffs, office machine operators may advance to jobs train ing beginners or to supervisory positions as section or department heads. In the Federal Government, the starting salary for office machine operators in early 1979 was $6,561 a year. Those with some experience began at $7,422 a year. Employment Outlook Workers in a number of other occupations operate office equipment. Among these are clerk typists, computer operators, peripheral equipment operators, keypunch operators, cashiers, and typists. Employment of office machine operators is expected to grow more slowly than the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Demand for additional workers will be restrained because of con tinued advances in office technology which permit even small businesses to adopt com puterized recordkeeping and to reduce the requirements for operators in branch offices. Earnings According to Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates of earnings for clerical workers in urban areas, bookkeeping machine operators averaged $167 a week in 1978. Those with more experience earned $189. Machine bill ers earned somewhat more. Those operating billing machines averaged $195. Digitized86/OCCUPATIONAL for FRASER OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Billing and bookkeeping machine opera tors earned slightly less than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. Related Occupations Sources of Additional Information See the statement on clerical occupations for sources of additional information. In addition to selling stamps and money orders, clerks at post office windows weigh packages to determine postage and check to see if their condition is satisfactory for mailing. Clerks also register and insure mail and answer questions about postage rates, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Occasionally they may help a cus tomer file a claim for a damaged package. In large post offices, a window clerk may provide only one or two of these services and may be called a registry, stamp, or money order clerk. Working Conditions Working conditions of clerks differ ac cording to work assignments and the amount and kind of laborsaving machinery in the post office. In small post offices, clerks may carry heavy mail sacks from one part of the building to another, and sort the mail by hand. In large post offices and mail processing centers, chutes and conveyors move the mail, and much of the sorting is done by machine. In either case, clerks are on their feet most of the time, reaching for sacks and trays of mail and placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays while walking around the work room. Nature of the Work Distribution clerks may become bored with the routine of sorting mail unless they try to improve their speed and accuracy. They also may have to work at night or on weekends, because most large post offices process mail around the clock. Most people are familiar with the post of fice window clerk who works behind the counter selling stamps or accepting parcel post. However, the majority of postal clerks A window clerk, on the other hand, has a greater variety of duties, has frequent contact with the public, generally has a less strenuous job, and rarely has to work at night. Postal Clerks (D.O.T. 243.367-014) Places of Employment Two out of every five employees of the U.S. Postal Service were postal clerks in 1978. The majority of the 260,000 postal clerks work at mail processing centers, al though many still sort mail and provide win dow services at local post offices throughout the country. Three out of four clerks worked full time; most of the others were part-time employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postal clerks must be U.S. citizens and at least 18 years old (at least 16 if they have a high school diploma). They must qualify on a written examination that measures their clerical accuracy and abilities to memorize mail distribution systems, read, and do sim ple arithmetic. Applicants must also pass a physical examination and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants who are to work with an electronic sorting ma chine must pass a special examination which includes a machine aptitude test. Applicants should apply at the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work. Applicants’ names are listed in the order of their stores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran, and 10 points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. Disabled veterans who have a compensable, serviceconnected disability of 10 percent or more are placed at the top of the list. When a va cancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list for future appoint ments. New clerks are trained on the job. Most clerks begin with simple tasks to learn re gional groupings of States, cities, and ZIP codes. To help clerks learn these groups, many post offices offer classroom instruc tion. A good memory, good coordination, and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are important. Distribution clerks work closely with other clerks, frequently under the ten sion and strain of meeting mailing deadlines. Window clerks must be courteous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving com plaints. Postal clerks are classified as casual, parttime flexible, part-time regular, or full-time. Casual workers are not career employees, but are hired to help process mail during peak mailing periods of the year. Part-time flexible clerks are career employees who do not have a regular work schedule but replace absent workers and help with extra work as the need arises. Part-time flexible clerks sometimes work as many as 40 hours per week. Parttime regulars have a set work schedule—for example, 4 hours a day. Full-time clerks usu ally work a 40 hours week. Window clerks must be courteous and tactful. Most clerks begin as part-time flexible employees and become full-time workers as vacancies occur. Full-time clerks may bid for preferred assignments such as the day shift, a window job, or a higher level nonsupervisory position as expediter or win dow service technician. Clerks may become supervisors. Employment Outlook Employment of postal clerks is expected to decline through the 1980’s as more efficient automated sorting machines are installed. The quantity of mail handled by the postal service is expected to increase only slowly because of rising postal rates, greater use of telephones, and new ways of distributing ad vertising circulars. In addition, growing quantities of mail will be transmitted elec tronically, and will require little or no sort ing. Nevertheless, many job openings will re sult from the need to replace clerks who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings In 1978, experienced full-time postal clerks averaged $17,058 a year, about one and one-half times the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex pect farming. Full-time postal clerks started at a base rate of $14,603 a year and increased to a maximum of $17,188 after 8 years. Clerks working part-time flexible schedules started at $7.27 an hour and could advance to $8.56 an hour after 8 years. All clerks who work night shifts receive 10 percent additional pay. Full-time postal employees have more job se curity than workers in most other industries. For information on fringe benefits, see the statement on postal service occupations else where in the Handbook. Related Occupations Although postal clerks play an important role in moving the Nation’s mail, mail carri ers and mailhandlers also play key roles, and their work and qualifications are closely related to that of postal clerks. Postal clerks sort mail either by hand or by keyboarding addresses into electronic letter-sorting ma chines. Other information processing occu pations that have related duties include mail clerks, file clerks, routing clerks, sorters, medical record clerks, clerk-typists, cashiers, keypunch operators, and ticket sellers. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment service offices can supply details about en trance examinations and employment oppor tunities for postal clerks. Receptionists (D.O.T. 237.367-038) Nature of the Work All organizations want to make a good first impression on the public. This is an im portant part of the job of the receptionist, who generally is the first person a caller sees. Receptionists greet customers and other visitors, determine their needs, and refer call ers to the person who can help them. Recep tionists’ day-to-day duties vary a great deal, depending on where they work. Those in hos pitals and doctors’ offices, for example, may obtain personal and financial information and then direct patients to the proper waiting rooms. In beauty shops, receptionists arrange appointments and may show customers to CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS/87 the operator’s booth. In factories or large business firms, they provide callers with identification cards and arrange escorts to take them to the proper office. Many receptionists keep business records of callers, the times at which they called, and the persons to whom they were referred. When they are not busy with callers, recep tionists may type, file, or operate a switch board. Some receptionists open and sort mail and collect and distribute messages. Still oth ers prepare travel vouchers and do simple bookkeeping. Working Conditions Because receptionists greet customers and visitors, they usually work in areas that are carefully designed and furnished to make a good impression. Working conditions usually are pleasant; offices are clean, well lighted, and relatively quiet. Although most have regular hours, recep tionists in hospitals and some professional offices may work weekends or in the even ings. Places of Employment About 588,000 persons worked as recep tionists in 1978. Although receptionists work in almost every kind of organization, almost half work for doctors, dentists, hospitals, nursing homes, and other health-service providers. Large numbers of receptionists also work in insurance companies, banks, factories, and firms providing business and personal services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement This occupation offers good opportunities for persons without prior work experience. Employers usually require that receptionists have a high school diploma. Courses in En glish, spelling, typing, elementary bookkeep ing, and business practices are useful for receptionists. A receptionist should like meeting new people and have a desire to be helpful and informative. A neat appearance, a pleasant voice, and an even disposition also are impor tant. Because receptionists do not work under close supervision, common sense and a thorough understanding of how the business is organized help them handle various situa tions that arise. Promotion opportunities for receptionists are limited, especially in small offices. In large workplaces, however, a receptionist who has clerical skills may advance to a bet ter paying job as a secretary, administrative assistant, or bookkeeper. Typing, shorthand, business arithmetic,basic accounting, and other useful subjects are taught in high schools throughout the country. College or business school training also can be helpful in advancing to better paying office jobs. Many companies have their own training programs so that the skills needed for advancement can be learned on the job. Employment Outlook Employment of receptionists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. Thousands of open ings will result each year as businesses ex pand and many experienced receptionists leave their jobs. The number of replacements will be quite large because the occupation is large and turnover is high. Within the fast-growing clerical field, re ceptionist employment is expected to grow rapidly. This is largely because so many receptionists work for firms providing busi ness and professional services—sectors of the economy that are expected to continue to show very strong growth. The need for recep tionists in law firms, management consulting firms, doctors’ offices, hospitals, clinics, ad vertising agencies, and many similar kinds of organizations will contribute to the an ticipated employment increase. In addition, more and more firms are coming to recognize the importance of the receptionist in promot ing good public relations. Further, because the receptionist’s work is of a person-to-person nature, it is unlikely to be affected by office automation. Earnings Full-time switchboard operator-reception ists working in urban areas averaged $155 a week in 1978. This was just over three-quar ters as much as the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Receptionists working in the western United States had average weekly earnings of $166. Those in southern cities averaged $147 a week. In the Federal Gov ernment, beginning information receptionists with a high school diploma or 6 months of work experience earned $143 a week in early 1979. Related Occupations A number of other workers deal with the public, receive and provide information, or direct people to others who can assist them. Among these are information clerks, infor mation and referral aides, and customer ser vice representatives. Sources of Additional Information A pleasant appearance and a good speaking voice are essential to the receptionist. 88/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK See the section on clerical occupations for sources of additional information. Secretaries and Stenographers (D.O.T. 201 and 202) Nature of the Work The efficiency of any organization depends upon secretaries and stenographers, who are at the center of communications within their firm. They process and transmit information to the staff and to persons in other organiza tions. Secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-030) relieve their employers of routine duties so that they can work on other matters. Most secretaries schedule appointments, deal with callers, type, and take shorthand. However, the time spent on these duties varies in different types of organizations. In offices where dictation and typing are handled in word processing centers, adminis trative secretaries handle all other secretarial duties. (For more information on these cen ters, see the statement on typists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Adminstrative secretaries often work in clusters of three or four so that they can readily help each other. Because they are released from dictation and typing, they can serve several members of the profes sional staff. Their duties range from filing, routing mail, and answering telephones to more responsible work such as answering let ters, doing statistical research, and writing reports. Some secretaries do very specialized work for which training is available in business schools and community and junior colleges. Legal secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-010) pre pare legal papers and correspondence such as summonses, complaints, motions, and subpo enas. They may also review law journals and assist in other ways with legal research. Med ical secretaries (201.362-014) compile and re cord medical records, charts, and corre spondence; they need to know medical ter minology and hospital or laboratory proce dures. Technical secretaries assist engineers or scientists. In addition to the usual secre tarial duties, they may prepare much of the correspondence, maintain the technical li brary, and gather and edit materials for scientific papers. Another specialized secretary is the social secretary (D.O.T. 201.162-010), who ar ranges social functions, answers personal correspondence, and keeps the employer in formed about all social activities. Member ship secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-018) com pile and maintain membership lists, record the receipt of dues and contributions, and give out information to members of organiza tions and associations. They may have such other duties as sending out newsletters and promotional materials. School secretaries (D.O.T. 201.362-022) handle secretarial du ties in elementary and secondary schools; they may take care of correspondence, pre pare bulletins and reports, keep track of money for school supplies and student activi ties, and maintain a calendar of school events. Stenographers (D.O.T. 202.362-014) take dictation and then transcribe their notes on a typewriter. They may either take shorthand or use a stenotype machine that prints sym bols as certain keys are pressed. General ste nographers, including most beginners, take routine dictation and do other office tasks such as typing, filing, answering telephones, and operating office machines. Experienced and highly skilled stenographers take dif ficult dictation and do more responsible cleri cal work. They may sit in on staff meetings and later give a summary report or a wordfor-word record of the proceedings. They also supervise other stenographers, typists, and clerical workers. Technical stenographers must know the terms used in a particular profession. They include medical, legal, and engineering or scientific stenographers. Some experienced stenographers take dictation in foreign languages; others work as public ste nographers serving traveling business people and others. Shorthand reporters (D.O.T. 202.362-010) are specialized stenographers who record all statements made in a proceeding. Shorthand reporters often work as court reporters. They take down all statements made at legal pro ceedings and present their record as the offi cial transcript. Many other shorthand report ers work as free-lance reporters who record out-of-court testimony for attorneys, pro ceedings of meetings and conventions, and other private activities. Still others record the proceedings in the Congress of the United States, in State legislatures, and in both State and Federal agencies. Most reporters dictate notes on magnetic tapes that a typist can transcribe later. Be cause the reporter’s transcript is the official record of a proceeding, accuracy is vitally important. Working Conditions Working conditions for secretaries are similar to those of other office workers in the same organization. Offices are clean, welllighted, and usually free from high noise lev els except during peak typing periods. These jobs often involve sitting for long periods, and typing often requires working from materials that are difficult to read. Ex ecutive secretaries, on the other hand, who perform a number of duties, have the variety in their jobs that many workers prefer. Places of Employment Nearly 3.6 million persons worked as secretaries in 1978, including 162,000 legal secretaries and 83,000 medical secretaries. Fewer than 100,000 persons worked as ste nographers. Secretaries and stenographers are em ployed in businesses and organizations of all kinds. About two-thirds of them, however, work in banks, insurance companies, real es tate firms, government agencies, and other establishments providing services to the pub lic. Most specialized stenographers and secretaries work for doctors, lawyers, and other professional people. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, graduation from high school is required for a job as a secretary or stenogra pher. Many employers prefer applicants who have additional secretarial training at a col lege or private business school. Courses vary from a few months’ instruction in basic short hand and typing to longer programs teaching specialized skills such as shorthand reporting or legal or medical secretarial work. Short hand reporters generally must complete a 2year course in a shorthand reporting school. An increasing number of private firms and government agencies have their own training facilities where employees can upgrade their skills and broaden their knowledge of the or ganization. Also, many State and local gov ernments sponsor programs to train unem ployed and low-skilled workers for entry level jobs as secretaries. Several States require each court reporter to be a Certified Shorthand Reporter (CSR). A certification test is administered by a board of examiners in each of the States that have CSR laws. The National Shorthand Report ers Association confers the designation Reg istered Professional Reporter (RPR) upon those who pass a two-part examination and participate in continuing education pro grams. The RPR designation is recognized as the mark of excellence in the profession. Employers usually have no preferences among the many different shorthand meth ods. For court reporters, however, the prefer ence is for stenotype (machine shorthand), not only because reporters can write faster using stenotype, but also because they can feed stenotype notes to a computer for high speed transcription. The most important fac tors in hiring and promotion are speed and accuracy. To qualify for jobs in the Federal Government, stenographers must be able to take dictation at a minimum of 80 words per minute and type at least 40 words per minute. Workers must achieve higher rates to ad vance to more responsible positions. In pri vate firms the requirements vary, but appli cants with the best speed and accuracy will receive first consideration in hiring. Many shorthand reporting jobs require more than 225 words of dictation per minute; shorthand reporters in the Federal Government gener ally must take 175 words a minute. Secretaries and stenographers should have good hearing; a knowledge of spelling, punc tuation, grammar, and a good vocabulary are essential. The ability to concentrate amid dis tractions is vital for shorthand reporters. Employers look for persons who are poised and alert, and who have pleasant personali ties. Discretion, judgment, and initiative are CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS/89 ment have been introduced in recent years, no adverse impact on employment of secre taries is expected. However, jobseekers who are familiar with a wide range of office ma chines and procedures are likely to have bet ter prospects than other workers. Persons with secretarial skills should find extensive opportunities for temporary or part-time work as employers increasingly turn to these workers during peak business periods. Such arrangements may be espe cially attractive to students, persons with family responsibilities, retired persons, and others interested in flexible work schedules. In addition to having good typing and shorthand skills, secretaries should be poised, alert, and pleasant. important for the more responsible secretar ial positions. Many stenographers who improve their skills advance to secretarial jobs; others who acquire the necessary speed through addi tional training can become shorthand report ers. Secretaries can increase their skills and broaden their knowledge of their company’s operations by taking courses offered by the company or by local business schools, col leges, and universities. As secretaries gain knowledge and experience, they can qualify for the designation Certified Professional Secretary (CPS) by passing H series of exams given by the National Secretaries Associa tion. This designation is recognized by a growing number of employers as the mark of achievement in the secretarial field. Many executive secretaries are promoted to man agement positions because of their extensive knowledge of their employer’s operations. Employment Outlook Employment of secretaries is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s as the expansion of business and government continues to cre ate more paperwork. Hundreds of thousands of jobs will become available each year due to growth and the need to replace those who die, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Demand for secretaries will rise mainly as organizations that require large secretarial staffs expand their operations. New govern ment agencies, particularly at the State and local level; insurance companies offering new forms of protection; and banks providing fi nancial counseling for an increasingly afflu ent population are just a few of the organiza tions that will need well-trained and versatile secretaries in the years ahead. Although many new types of automated office equip 90/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment of stenographers is expected to continue the decline of recent years. The increased use of dictation machines has severely reduced the need for office stenogra phers, and fewer jobs will be available than in the past. In contrast, demand for skilled shorthand reporters should remain strong as State and Federal court systems expand to handle the rising number of criminal court cases and civil lawsuits. Competition for entry level jobs is increasing as more students enter the field. Opportunities will be best for those who have earned certification by the National Shorthand Reporters Associ ation. Earnings According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) survey, general stenographers working in private industry averaged $819 a month in 1978; experienced workers who were highly skilled averaged $918. According to the 1978 BLS survey, secre taries to supervisors in small offices earned monthly salaries of $817. Secretaries to offic ers in small companies had average monthly salaries of $893; those working for middle management in large companies averaged $991. Secretaries having greater responsibili ties, such as executive secretaries to corpo rate officers, earned average monthly salaries of $1,085. Beginning clerk-stenographers in the Fed eral Government earned from $697 to $876 a month in early 1979 depending on educa tion, training, and experience. Shorthand re porters generally earn higher salaries than stenographic office workers. In 1978, accord ing to a survey made by the National Short hand Reporters Association, earnings of be ginning reporters ranged from $1,000 to $1,400 a month depending on speed, educa tion, experience, and geographical location (earnings are generally higher in large cities than in rural areas). Starting salaries for secretaries in the Federal Government ranged from $876 to $1,085 a month, while the average for all secretaries was $1,081 a month. Stenographers earned slightly less, and secretaries slightly more, than average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are bookkeepers, receptionists, office managers, personnel clerks, typists, adminis trative assistants, medical assistants, and legal assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in secretarial work, write to: National Secretaries Association (International), 2440 Pershing Rd., Suite G10, Kansas City, Mo. 64108. Additional information on careers in sec retarial work and a directory of business schools are available from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1730 M St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. High school students interested in careers as legal secretaries may request the pamphlet “So you want to be a legal secretary.” Write to: National Association of Legal Secretaries (Interna tional), 3005 East Skelly Dr., Tulsa, Okla. 74105. For information about shorthand reporting, contact: National Shorthand Reporters Association, 18 Park St. SE„ Vienna, Va. 22180. Shipping and Receiving Clerks (D.O.T. 219.367-030; 222.137-030 and -034, .367-058, .387-050, and .687-018 through -034; 248.362-010, .367-014; and 920.687-162) Nature of the Work Shipping and receiving clerks keep track of goods transferred between businesses and their customers and suppliers. In small com panies, one clerk may record all shipments sent out and received; in larger companies, a number of clerks take care of this record keeping. Shipping clerks are responsible for all ship ments leaving a business place. Before goods are sent to a customer, these clerks check to be sure the order has been filled correctly, and may fill the order themselves. They ob tain merchandise from the stockroom and wrap it or pack it in shipping containers. Clerks also put addresses and other identify ing information on packages, look up and compute either freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. They also may prepare invoices and furnish information about shipments to another part of the company, such as the accounting de partment. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move it to the shipping dock and direct its loading into trucks according to its destination. Shipping and receiving clerks in small businesses may perform some stock clerk duties. (For more information about the additional duties of shipping clerks in small firms, see the state ment on stock clerks elsewhere in the Hand book.) When shipments arrive, receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether their em ployer’s orders have been correctly filled by verifying incoming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice. They record the shipment and the condition of its contents. Clerks also arrange for adjustments with shippers when ever merchandise is lost or damaged. The job may also include routing or moving ship ments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stockroom and providing infor mation that is needed to compute invento ries. Working Conditions Although shipping and receiving clerks generally work in warehouses or in shipping and receiving rooms, they may spend consid erable time on outside loading platforms. Workplaces often are large, unpartitioned areas that may be drafty, cold, and littered with packing materials. Most clerks have to stand for long periods while they check merchandise. Locating numbers and descriptions on cartons often requires a great deal of bending, stooping, and stretching. Also, under the pressure of getting shipments moved on time, clerks sometimes may help load or unload materials in the warehouse. Night work and overtime, including work on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays, may be necessary when shipments have been unduly delayed or when materials are needed im mediately on production lines. Most shipping and receiving clerks receive time and onehalf for work over 40 hours. Places of Employment About 461,000 persons worked as shipping and receiving clerks in 1978. More than half worked in factories and about one-third were employed by wholesale houses or retail stores. Although jobs for shipping and receiv ing clerks are found throughout the country, most clerks work in urban areas, where many factories and wholesale houses are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates are preferred for beginning jobs in shipping and receiving de partments. Business arithmetic, typing, and other high school business subjects are help ful. The ability to write legibly and keep or derly records is important. Dependability and an interest in learning about the firm’s products and business activities are other qualities that employers seek. In addition, shipping and receiving clerks should be able to work under close supervision at repetitive tasks. New employees usually are trained on the job by an experienced worker. As part of their training, they often file, check ad dresses, attach labels, and check items in cluded in shipments. As clerks gain experi ence, they may be assigned tasks requiring a good deal of independent judgment, such as handling problems with damaged merchan dise, or supervising other workers in shipping or receiving rooms. A job as a shipping or receiving clerk offers a good opportunity for new workers in a firm to learn about their company’s products and business practices. Some clerks may be pro moted to head shipping or receiving clerk, warehouse manager, or purchasing agent. Very experienced workers with a broad un derstanding of shipping and receiving may enter related fields such as industrial traffic management. (Industrial traffic managers and purchasing agents are discussed else where in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook Employment of shipping and receiving clerks is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The number of shipping and receiving clerks will not increase as much as office cler ical workers such as secretaries or bank clerks, however, largely because so many shipping and receiving clerks work in manu facturing and trade, industry sectors that are among the slowest growing in the economy. Further, employment of shipping and reCLERICAL OCCUPATIONS/91 ceiving clerks will continue to be affected by automation. Growing numbers of firms are using computers to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records. The in creased use of conveyor belts to move ship ments also will make warehouse operations more efficient. Earnings Shipping and receiving clerks in urban areas averaged $232 a week in 1978, accord ing to a recent survey. This is about as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Salaries varied substantially, however, by type of em ployer. Shipping and receiving clerks em ployed by manufacturing firms averaged $227, those working for wholesale houses averaged $249, and those employed by public utilities averaged $280. Related Occupations Shipping and receiving clerks record, check, and often store the materials that a company receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who perform similar duties are stock clerks, mate rial clerks, distributing clerks, routing clerks, and order fillers. Sources of Additional Information See the section on clerical occupations for sources of additional information. Statistical Clerks (D.O.T. 206.387-010, 209.362-026 and .387-101, 214.362-010, 215.362-010 and .367-010, 216, 219.482-014, 221.587-030, 222.387-014 and .687-030, and 953.167-010) ber talliers or lumber checkers record the amount and type of lumber processed in saw mills; pit recorders collect production data in the steel industry. roads, use rate tables to compute railway freight charges and calculate the weight of shipments or distance railroad cars have traveled. Compiling and coding. In organizations of all types, information must be properly filed, verified, or prepared for data processing. Posting clerks (D.O.T. 216.587-014) do this work by making entries in registers and jour nals. They receive and sort records of ship ments, production, and financial transactions to provide company officials with current in formation on business activities. Classifica tion clerks (D.O.T. 206.387-010) record data systematically for easy location. Coding clerks (D.O.T. 209.387-010) convert infor mation obtained from records and reports into computer codes for data processing. Per sonnel clerks (D.O.T. 209.362-026) gather and file information on the training, skills, job duties, work history, and wages of a firm’s employees. Their work may include some typing and preparation of reports. Scheduling. Statistical clerks may sched ule business activities that involve the move ment of people and things to assure that these activities run smoothly and efficiently. For example, assignment clerks (D.O.T. 215.367010) in bus companies assign drivers to meet riders’ transportation needs. Drivers are selcted on the basis of experience, seniority, and nature of the assignment. Crew schedul ers (D.O.T. 215.362-010) do similar work for airlines; they assign pilots to scheduled flights and log the mileage each pilot has flown. Gas dispatchers (D.O.T. 953.167-010) determine the proper pressure in a natural gasline to meet customers’ requirements after considering information such as weather, time of day, and other factors that affect the use of gas. Computing and tabulating. Organizations frequently use numerical records for reports and research. Statistical clerks gather infor mation from records to present in a chart or table for analysis. Actuarial clerks (D.O.T. 216.382-062) use formulas, statistical charts, and insurance rate books to assist actuaries in determining insurance rates for company customers. They also prepare charts and ta bles for studies on general insurance prac tices. Policy checkers (D.O.T. 219.482-014) verify the accuracy of insurance company records. Statistical clerks (D.O.T. 216.382062) are employed by government agencies, business firms, health care facilities, and re search organizations to calculate numerical data and prepare charts and tables on topics such as population, housing, health, and business conditions. Demurrage clerks (D.O.T. 214.362-010), employed by rail Working Conditions Most statistical clerks are employed in of fices where working conditions generally are good. Work areas are clean, well-lighted, and free from loud noises. Not all clerks work in offices, however. For example, talliers and shipping checkers are stationed where a com pany produces, ships, or receives products or raw materials. In such cases, clerks may work alongside production workers and ma terial handlers. These clerks must be careful as they move about these fast-paced opera tions. Places of Employment About 377,000 persons worked as statisti cal clerks in 1978. Although statistical clerks are employed in nearly every industry, over half of them worked in finance, insurance, Nature of the Work Administrators and managers in all types of organizations depend on numerical rec ords to help make decisions. Statistical clerks prepare these records and help ensure their accuracy and completeness. Although the oc cupational title “statistical clerk” covers a number of different jobs, all of them can be grouped into four categories: Recording, compiling and coding, computing and tabu lating, and scheduling. Recording. This work involves collecting and verifying the accuracy of information. Shipping checkers (D.O.T. 222.687-030) in manufacturing companies and wholesale and retail businesses ensure that merchandise to be shipped is properly labeled and contains the desired number of items. Car checkers (D.O.T. 222.387-014) keep records of ship ments as they arrive at or leave a railroad freight terminal. They check the number of railroad cars and verify their contents with the specifications on the invoice. Talliers (D.O.T. 221.587-030) record the number of items received, transferred, or produced. They may have a job title that indicates the kind of items they count. For example, lum 92/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Statistical clerks increasingly use data processing equipment. and real estate firms; manufacturing compa nies; or government agencies. Because businesses of almost every size re quire numerical records, statistical clerks work throughout the United States. Jobs are concentrated, however, in heavily populated cities that are centers of industry and govern ment activities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for statistical clerk jobs. They seek applicants who have an aptitude for working with numbers and the ability to do detailed work. High school students may prepare for jobs as statistical clerks by taking courses in general mathematics, algebra, and geometry. Also recommended are courses in data proc essing, office procedures, bookkeeping, and typing. In many companies, general clerks who have become familiar with their employers’ record systems and office procedures are pro moted to statistical clerk positions. On-thejob training may include the use of calcula tors, tabulating machines, and typewriters. Statistical clerks must be familiar with the items or information they observe and re cord. For example, lumber checkers must know the various types and qualities of wood products. In preparing data for processing, coding clerks must use the proper computer codes to avoid errors. Statistical clerks should be able to do prompt and accurate work under close super vision. Also, they should be tactful and even tempered when working with others in the same office. Most employers follow a promotion-fromwithin policy that allows experienced work ers to qualify for more responsible jobs as they become available. Qualified statistical clerks may perform more difficult assign ments or advance to supervisory positions. Some statistical clerks are able to advance to a technician level where they may deal with the technical problems of statistical research projects. Some clerks become computer pro grammers. Employment Outlook Employment of statistical clerks is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In ad dition to job opportunities arising from this growth, many additional openings will occur as clerks die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. This occupation includes a wide range of jobs, and prospects are better in some areas than in others. Some routine jobs, for exam ple, may be eliminated as computers are used increasingly to collect and process informa tion. However, statistical clerks in jobs that require personal contact or involve the prepa ration of data for computer analysis are ex pected to be in great demand. Among the factors that will contribute to the demand for statistical clerks is the ex pected increase in business and government activities, including projects requiring the collection and processing of large amounts of numerical data. In addition, administrators increasingly will rely on numerical records to analyze and control all aspects of their orga nization’s work. Earnings Limited information indicates that begin ning statistical clerks earn about as much as workers in other entry level clerical jobs such as office clerks or file clerks; salaries for these workers ranged between $129 and $149 a week in 1978. The entrance salary for begin ning statistical assistants employed by the Federal Government was $161 a week in 1978. Experienced workers such as accounting clerks who perform statistical work earned between $168 and $215 a week in 1978. Earn ings are highest in manufacturing, transpor tation, and utilities industries; they tend to be lower in retail trade; finance, insurance, and real estate; and service industries. Related Occupations Other workers perform calculations, keep numerical records, and prepare statistical re ports for use by other departments in a com pany. Among these are accounting clerks, bookkeepers, payroll clerks, and insurance clerks. Sources of Additional Information See the statement on clerical occupations for sources of additional information. Stock Clerks_____ (D.O.T. 206.387-030; 209.367-054; 222.137-034; .367-010, -038,-042, and -062; ,587-030 and -050; .687-010; 249.367-066; and 969.367-010) Nature of the Work Keeping track of supplies and equipment is important in all kinds of businesses. Wellbalanced inventories and accurate record keeping help prevent production slowdowns and lost sales. Stock clerks control the flow of supplies in and out of stock rooms. They receive, un pack, and store incoming merchandise or material. When necessary, they report dam aged or spoiled goods. They also issue equip ment and supplies; keep track of the number of items in storage; and reorder things that are in short supply. On outgoing orders, they may check the items for quality and quantity and sometimes make minor repairs or adjust ments. Materials are stored in bins, on the floor, or on shelves according to the plan of the stockroom. Stock clerks organize and mark items with identifying codes or prices so that inventories can be located quickly and easily. They keep records of items entering or leav ing the stockroom. Sometimes they label, pack, crate, or address goods for delivery. Stock clerks working in small firms also may perform various duties usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks. (For more information about the additional duties of stock clerks in small firms, see the statement on shipping and receiving clerks elsewhere in the Handbook.) In large firms with special ized jobs, inventory clerks periodically count items on hand and make reports showing stock balances. Procurement clerks work in factories and prepare orders for the purchase of new equipment. Working Conditions Although stock clerks usually work in relatively clean, heated, and well-lighted areas, workers are on their feet much of the day. The job involves considerable bending and lifting. Working conditions may vary depending on the items they handle. For example, stock clerks who handle refrigerated goods will spend some time in cold storage rooms. Those who handle construction materials such as bricks and lumber must do much walking and climbing to note the condition and quantity of items. Places of Employment About 507,000 persons worked as stock clerks in 1978. About two-thirds of them worked in factories, wholesale firms, and re tail stores. Others were employed by airlines, government agencies, schools, hospitals, and other organizations that keep large quantities of goods on hand. Jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, but most work in urban areas where factories, ware houses, and stores are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no specific educational requirements for beginning stock clerks, em ployers prefer high school graduates. Read ing and writing skills and a basic knowledge of mathematics are necessary; typing and fil ing abilities also are useful. Good health, es pecially good eyesight, is important. Gener ally, those who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs must be bonded. Stock clerks usually receive on-the-job training. New workers begin with simple tasks such as counting and marking stock. Basic responsibilities of the job usually are learned within several weeks. As they prog ress, stock clerks learn to keep records of incoming and outgoing materials, take inven tories, and order supplies. In small firms, stock clerks may advance to sales positions or become assistant buyers or purchasing agents. In large firms, stock clerks can ad vance to more responsible stock handling jobs such as invoice clerk, stock control clerk, or procurement clerk. A few may be CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS/93 More experienced typists do work that re quires a high degree of accuracy and indepen dent judgment. Senior typists work from rough drafts which are difficult to read or which contain technical material. They may plan and type complicated statistical tables, combine and rearrange materials from differ ent sources, or prepare master copies to be reproduced on copying machines. Clerk typists (D.O.T. 203.362-010) com bine typing with filing, sorting mail, answer ing telephones, and other general office work. Varitypists (D.O.T. 203.382-026) produce master copies, such as stencils, on machines similar to typewriters. Transcribing machine operators (D.O.T. 203.582-058) type letters and reports as they listen to dictation re corded on magnetic tape. Other typists who have special duties include policy writers (D.O.T. 203.582-066) in insurance compa nies, and mortgage processing clerks (D.O.T. 203.382-022) in banks. Fully stocked shelves insure that sales of fast-moving products are not interrupted. promoted to warehouse manager. This job involves a wide range of duties and respon sibilities and normally requires extensive stock room experience and additional educa tion. Employment Outlook Employment of stock clerks is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Stock clerks will not experience the rapid employment growth projected for office clerical workers such as secretaries or bank clerks, however. Growth will be slower than in other clerical occupations largely because so many stock clerks work in manufacturing and trade, in dustry sectors that are among the slowest growing in the economy. Further, employ ment of stock clerks will continue to be af fected by automation. Computers are used for inventory control in many concerns, and automated storage systems have reduced the need for frequent shifting of stock by hand. Nevertheless, many job openings for stock clerks will occur each year as employment rises and as workers die, retire, or transfer to other jobs. In large companies, people who apply for entry level, unskilled work may be placed in stock clerk positions. Employers generally fill such jobs quickly. Individual^ who specifically seek work as a stock clerk there fore may have to apply at a number of con cerns to find employment. Earnings Experienced stock clerks earned average weekly salaries of $226 in 1978, according to the limited data available. This was slightly above the average for nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government, beginning Digitized94/O for FRASER CCUPATIO NAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK stock clerks without experience were paid $143 a week in early 1979; those with some education beyond high school received $161 a week. Experienced stock clerks in the Fed eral Government averaged about $194 a week in 1978. Stock clerks generally receive time and one-half for work over 40 hours. Overtime may be required when large shipments are delivered and when inventory is taken. Related Occupations Other workers also handle, organize, and store materials for a company. Among these are order fillers, shipping and receiving clerks, material clerks, distributing clerks, and routing clerks. Sources of Additional Information See the section on clerical occupations for sources of additional information. Typists (D.O.T. 203) Nature of the Work A rapid flow of written communication is essential to the modern office. The typist helps to maintain this flow by making neat, typed copies of handwritten, printed, and re corded words. Beginning or junior typists usually type headings on form letters, copy directly from handwritten drafts, and address envelopes. Often, they do other office tasks, including answering telephones, filing, and operating office machines such as copiers and calcula tors. Some offices group many typists in word processing centers to handle the transcrip tion and typing for several departments. These magnetic-tape typewriter operators (D.O.T. 203.584-034) produce letters and reports on high-speed typing machines from material stored in a programmed memory. They eliminate a great deal of re typing because they make corrections be fore producing the final copy. Word proc essing supervisors (D.O.T. 203.137-010) coordinate the activities of workers who operate magnetic-tape typewriters and composing machines. Working Conditions Typists work in offices and have working conditions similar to those of other office em ployees. They must sit for long periods and sometimes must contend with high noise lev els caused by nearby office machines. Places of Employment About 1 million persons worked as typists in 1978. In addition, many other workers— including secretaries, newspaper reporters, writers, and editors—used typing skills in the performance of their jobs. Part-time employment is readily available for workers with clerical skills. Typists are employed throughout the entire economy. About half of them work in factories, banks, insurance companies, real estate firms, and government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Typists generally need a high school di ploma. Good spelling, punctuation, and grammar are essential. The ability to operate office equipment, such as copying and adding machines, and a knowledge of office proce dures, are assets. An increasing number of companies and government organizations have typist train ing programs to help employees learn or up- Employment Outlook The number of typists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s as business expan sion increases the volume of paperwork. Also, many job openings will occur every year because turnover in this occupation is very high. Continued growth of the economy, partic ularly in industries that generate vast quanti ties of written records and correspondence, will assure very good prospects for typists in the years ahead. Demand should be particu larly strong for highly skilled workers and those who can handle other office jobs in addition to typing. Many employers will pre fer typists who are familiar with word proc essing equipment. Because an increasing number of employers are using temporary and part-time workers during peak business periods, opportunities should continue to be excellent for typists who do not wish to work full time. Earnings According to a 1978 survey, beginning typists averaged $162 a week. Those with experience earned $193 a week, slightly less than the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government, the starting salary for typists without experience was $143 a week in early 1979, compared with $181 a week for those with experience. Aver age weekly earnings for all typists in the Fed eral Government were $174 in 1978. Successful typists are neat, accurate, and able to concentrate on details. Related Occupations grade skills and advance to more responsible positions. Many States and localities sponsor programs to train unemployed and lowskilled workers for entry jobs as typists. Many other office workers use typing skills. Among these are secretaries, stenogra phers, receptionists, office machine opera tors, telephone operators, personnel clerks, and administrative assistants. Many employers test the speed and accu racy of applicants for typing jobs. Most jobs require a speed of 50 to 60 words per minute. All typists who transcribe recorded dictation need sharp hearing and must be especially good in spelling. Typists should be neat, ac curate, and able to concentrate amid distrac tions. As beginners increase their skills, they often advance to higher level typing jobs. Some typists are promoted to supervisor jobs in word processing centers. Others who mas ter additional skills can move into secretarial jobs. Sources of Additional Information See the statement on secretaries and ste nographers for places to write for more infor mation on clerical jobs. CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS/95 Computer and Related Occupations Since 1951 when the first computer was installed for commercial use, computer sys tems have become an increasingly important part of everyday life. Today these machines bill customers, pay employees, record airline and hotel reservations, help forecast weather, and monitor factory production processes. Scientific and engineering researchers rely on computer systems to solve complex equations as well as to collect, store, and sort vast amounts of data. Microcomputers are used at home for business and pleasure. Workers in computer and related occupa tions design systems for processing informa tion, write instructions and translate them into machine-readable language, and operate computers and peripheral equipment such as remote terminals. Most computer careers require some type of specialized training. A college degree is becoming increasingly important for systems analysts and programmers—especially for those working in scientific and engineering research operations. Computer operators usually need a high school diploma, and spe cialized training and experience may be con sidered more important than formal educa tion beyond high school. For all computer occupations, employers stress the importance of learning on the job. In addition to technical knowledge and skills, computer personnel must be able to concentrate and should enjoy working with details. Those who operate equipment—data entry or console operators, for example— must have manual dexterity and some me http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 96/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis chanical aptitude. Programmers and systems analysts must be able to think logically and should enjoy solving problems. This chapter describes three basic com puter occupations: Computer operating per sonnel, programmers, and systems analysts. Computer Operating Personnel__________ (D.O.T. 203.582-022, -030; 206.387-030; 208.685-030; and 213.132-010 and -014, .362-010, and .382-010) Nature of the Work All data systems require specialized work ers to enter data and instructions, operate the computer, and retrieve the results. The data to be processed and the instructions for the computer are called “input;” the results are called “output.” Information is entered into a computer system by data entry personnel in a variety of ways. In some systems, keypunch operators (D.O.T. 203.582-030) prepare input by punching patterns of holes in computer cards to represent specific letters, numbers, and special characters, using a machine similar to a typewriter. In others, data typists (D.O.T. 203.582-022) use special machines that con vert the information they type to holes in cards or magnetic impulses on tapes or disks. Most newer systems are capable of remote data entry. The user sits at a machine equipped with a typewriter keyboard and an electronic screen that displays the data as it is entered directly into the computer. In some newer systems, data enters the computer at the source of creation, for example, at the loading dock or at a supermarket checkout line. Once the input is coded—prepared in a form the computer can read—it is ready to be processed. Console operators (D.O.T. 213.362-010), who monitor and control the com puter, decide what equipment should be set up for each job by examining the special in structions that the programmer has written out. To process the input, they make sure the computer has been loaded with the correct cards, magnetic tapes, or disks, and then start the computer. While it is running, they watch the computer console paying special atten tion to signals, such as error lights, that could indicate a malfunction. If the computer stops or an error is signalled, operators must locate the problem and solve it or terminate the program. In some systems, devices directly con nected to the computer provide output in the form desired by the programmer. In others, high-speed printers or card-tape-converters run by auxiliary equipment operators—high speed printer operators (D.O.T. 213.382-010) and card-tape-converter operators (D.O.T. 213.382-010)—perform this function. Frequently, data on punched cards, mag netic tape, or disks are kept for future use. Tape librarians (D.O.T. 206.387-030) clas sify and catalog this material and maintain files of current and previous versions of pro grams, listings, and test data. In smaller or ganizations, librarians may do some data entry as well as coordinate activities between the programmer and the operations depart ment. Working Conditions Because electronic computers must be ope rated at carefully controlled temperatures, operators work in well-ventilated rooms; airconditioning counteracts the heat generated by machine operations. When the equipment is operating, the computer room can be noisy. Some console and auxiliary equipment op erators work evening or night shifts because many organizations use their computers 24 hours a day. Tape librarians usually work only day shifts. Places of Employment About 666,000 persons worked as console, auxiliary equipment, and keypunch opera tors in 1978. judgment, especially when working without supervision on second and third shifts. Advancement opportunities for keypunch and auxiliary equipment operators are lim ited, as data entry techniques become more specialized. However, promotion to a super visory position is possible after several years on the job. With additional training, often including community or junior college study, a few operators advance to jobs as console operators. Console operators also may be promoted to supervisory positions, or to jobs that com bine supervision and console operation. Through on-the-job experience and addi tional training, some console operators ad vance to jobs as programmers. Employment Outlook Computer operators must feel comfortable working with machines. Although workers in these occupations are employed in almost every industry, most work in manufacturing firms, wholesale and retail trade establishments, banks, and gov ernment agencies. Many computer and pe ripheral equipment operators work for insur ance companies and firms that provide data processing services for a fee. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In firms that have just installed a new com puter system, tabulating and bookkeeping machine operators may be transferred to jobs as keypunch or auxiliary equipment opera tors, or console operators. Most often, how ever, employers recruit workers who already have the necessary skills to operate the equip ment. Many high schools, public and private vo cational schools, private computer schools, business schools, and community or junior colleges offer training in computer operating skills. The military services also offer valu able training in a number of computer skills. In addition, a growing number of business firms across the country hold weekend semi nars on data processing for high school stu dents. Similarly, computer professional as sociations encourage student participation in professional conferences. Employers in private industry usually re quire applicants to have a high school educa tion, and many prefer console operators to have some community or junior college train ing, especially in data processing. The Fed eral Government requires a high school di ploma, unless applicants have had specialized training or experience. Many em ployers test applicants to determine their ap titude for computer work, particularly their ability to reason logically. Keypunch opera tors and other data entry personnel often are tested for their ability to work quickly and accurately. Beginners usually are trained on the job. The length of training needed varies—auxil iary equipment operators can learn their jobs in a few weeks, but console operators require several months of training because they must become sufficiently familiar with the com puter equipment to be able to identify the causes of equipment failures. Keypunch and auxiliary equipment opera tors should be able to work under close supervision as part of a team. They also must feel comfortable working with machines and doing repetitive, organized tasks. Console operators, however, must use independent Changes in data processing technology will have differing effects on computer oper ating occupations over the next decade. Em ployment of console and peripheral equip ment operators is expected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s while employment of key punch operators should continue the decline of recent years. Recent advances in miniaturizing cir cuits have enabled manufacturers to reduce both the size and the cost of computer components. As this technology develops, a continued expansion in the use of com puters is expected, especially by small busi nesses. Employment of console and periph eral equipment operators in data processing service firms may grow less ra pidly than in the past as more small firms install their own computer systems, but overall demand for these workers should remain fairly strong. This same technology will further reduce demand for keypunch operators. The pri- New ways to prepare data for computers have added to the growing need for peripheral equipment operators but have lessened demand for keypunch operators Employment (thousands) 400 Peripheral equ ipment operators ----------- Keypunch operators ....*...... 0. 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/97 mary reason for this decline is the increased use of computer terminals and storage of data on disks and cassettes. As direct data entry techniques continue to become more effi cient, the importance of punched cards as a form of input will diminish. Despite the an ticipated decline in employment, several thousand openings will occur each year as workers die, retire, or transfer out of the oc cupation. Earnings Weekly earnings of keypunch operator trainees in private industry averaged around $160 in 1978, according to surveys conducted in urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statis tics and firms engaged in research on data processing occupations. Lead operators earned from $220 to $250 weekly. Weekly earnings of beginning console op erators averaged about $175. Experienced workers earned from $220 to $250, and lead operators earned from $260 to $300 weekly. The average weekly earnings for tape librari ans in 1978 was $190. In the Federal Government, console oper ators and keypunch operators without work experience started at about $140 a week. Throughout the economy in 1978, console operators earned slightly more and keypunch operators earned slightly less than average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers orga nize data and process information on elec tronic equipment include secretaries and typ ists, printing typesetters and compositors, transcribing machine operators, and file clerks. Sources of Additional Information Further information on data processing careers is available from: American Federation of Information Processing Societies, 1815 North Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Programmers (D.O.T. 020.162-014 and .167-022) Nature of the Work Computers can process vast quantities of information rapidly and accurately, but only if they are given step-by-step instructions to follow. Because the machines cannot think for themselves, computer programmers must write detailed instructions called programs that list in a logical order the steps the ma chine must follow to organize data, solve a problem, or do some other task. Programmers usually work from problem descriptions prepared by systems analysts who have carefully studied the task that the 98/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK computer system is going to perform—per haps organizing data collected in a survey or estimating the stress on portions of a building during a hurricane. These descriptions con tain a detailed list of the steps the computer must follow, such as retrieving data stored in another computer, organizing it in a certain way, and performing the necessary calcula tions. (A more detailed description of the work of systems analysts is contained in the following chapter.) An applications pro grammer then writes the specific program for the problem, by breaking down each step into a series of coded instructions using one of the languages developed especially for comput ers. Some organizations, particularly smaller ones, do not employ systems analysts. In stead, workers called programmer-analysts are responsible for both systems analysis and programming. Programs vary with the type of problem to be solved. For example, the mathematical calculations involved in payroll accounting procedures are different from those required to determine the flight path of a space probe. A business applications programmer devel oping instructions for billing customers would first take the company records the computer would need and then specify a so lution by showing the steps the computer must follow to obtain old balances, add new charges, calculate finance charges, and de duct payments before determining a cus tomer’s bill. The programmer then codes the actual instructions the computer will follow in a high-level programming language, such as COBOL. Next, the programmer tests the operation of the program to be sure the instructions are correct and will produce the desired informa tion. The programmer tries a sample of the data with the program and reviews the re sults to see if any errors were made. If errors did occur, the program must be changed and rechecked until it produces the correct re sults. This is called “debugging” the pro gram. Finally, an instruction sheet is prepared for the computer operator who will run the program. (The work of computer operators is described in the statement on computer oper ating personnel.) Although simple programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use complex mathematical formulas or many data files may require more than a year of work. In some cases, several programmers may work together in teams under a senior program mer’s supervision. Applications programmers are usually business-oriented, engineering-oriented, or science-oriented. A different type of special ist, the systems programmer, maintains the general instructions (called software) that control the operation of the entire computer system. These workers make changes in the sets of instructions that determine the alloca tion of the computer’s resources among the various jobs it has been given. Because of their knowledge of operating systems, sys tems programmers often help applications programmers determine the source of prob lems that may occur with their programs. Working Conditions Programmers work about 40 hours a week, but their hours are not always from 9 to 5. Once or twice a week a programmer may report early or work late to use the computer when it is available; occasionally, they work on weekends. When a new program is being tested, programmers may get calls from com puter operators asking for advice at all hours of the day or night. Places of Employment In 1978, about 247,000 persons worked as computer programmers. Most were em ployed by manufacturing firms, banks and insurance companies, data processing service organizations, and government agencies. Many programmers work in large firms that need and can afford expensive computer systems. Small firms, which generally require computers only for payroll or billing pur poses, often pay data processing service or ganizations to do this work. Small firms may maintain their own low-cost, small business computers. Systems programmers usually work in research organizations, computer manufacturing firms, and large computer centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no universal training require ments for progammers because employers’ needs vary. Most programmers are college graduates; others have taken special courses in com puter program m ing to supplem ent their experience in fields such as accounting or inventory control. Employers using computers for scientific or engineering applications prefer college graduates who have degrees in computer or information science, mathematics, engineer ing, or the physical sciences. Graduate de grees are required for some jobs. Very few scientific organizations are interested in ap plicants who have no college training. Although some employers who use com puters for business applications do not re quire college degrees, they prefer applicants who have had college courses in data process ing, accounting, and business administration. Occasionally, workers who are experienced in computer operation or payroll accounting but have no college training are promoted to programming jobs; however, they need addi tional data processing courses to become fully qualified programmers. Although it may be preferred, prior work experience is not essential for a job as a programmer; in fact, about half of all entrants to the occupa tion have no significant work experience. Computer programming is taught at pub- vancement are good. In large organizations, they may be promoted to lead programmers and be given supervisory responsibilities. Some applications programmers may be come systems programmers. Both applica tions programmers and systems program mers often become systems analysts or are promoted to managerial positions. Employment Outlook Employment of programmers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s as computer usage expands, particularly in firms provid ing accounting and business management services, and in organizations involved in re search and development. In addition to job openings resulting from growth of the occu pation, several thousand openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Because many programmers are relatively young, few open ings will result from deaths or retirements. However, many vacancies will be created as experienced workers transfer into jobs as sys tems analysts or managers. The demand for applications programmers will increase as many processes once done by hand are automated, but employment will not grow as rapidly as in the past for several reasons. Improved software, such as utility programs that can be used by other than data processing personnel, will simplify or elimi nate some programming tasks. Also, employ ment of programmers in data processing firms is not expected to rise as fast as in re cent years. Technology has reduced both the size and cost of computer hardware, bringing a computer system within reach of small businesses. As more small firms install their own computer rather than rely on a data processing firm, employment growth in these data processing firms may slow somewhat. Programmers write detailed instructions that list the steps the computers must follow to solve a problem. lie and private vocational schools, commu nity and junior colleges, and universities. In struction ranges from introductory home study courses to advanced courses at the graduate level. High schools in many parts of the country also offer courses in computer programming. An indication of experience and profes sional competence at the senior programmer level is the Certificate in Computer Program ming (CCP). This designation is conferred by the Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals upon candidates who have passed a basic five-part examination. In addi tion, individuals may take another section of the exam in order to specialize in business, science, or systems. In hiring programmers, employers look for people who can think logically and are capa ble of exacting analytical work. The job calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work with extreme accuracy even under pres sure. Ingenuity and imagination are particu larly important when programmers must find new ways to solve a problem. Beginning applications programmers usu ally spend their first weeks on the job attend ing training classes. After this initial instruc tion, they work on simple assignments while completing further specialized training pro grams. Programmers generally must spend at least several months working under close supervision before they can handle all aspects of their job. Because of rapidly changing technology, programmers must continue their training by taking courses offered by their employer and software vendors. For skilled workers, the prospects for further ad Demand throughout the economy, how ever, should remain strong over the next dec ade. Prospects should be brightest for college graduates who have had computer-related courses, particularly for those with a major in computer science or a related field. Gradu ates of 2-year programs in data processing technologies also should find ample oppor tunities, although generally limited to busi ness applications. Earnings Average weekly earnings of programmer trainees in private industry ranged from $240 to $250 in 1978, according to surveys con ducted in urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and firms engaged in research on data processing occupations. Systems pro grammers generally earn more than applica tions programmers, and lead programmers earn more than either systems or applications programmers. For example, experienced sys tems programmers averaged about $430 a week compared to $360 for applications pro grammers. Average weekly salaries for lead systems programmers were $465, compared to $415 for lead applications programmers. COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/99 In the Federal civil service, the entrance sal ary for persons with a college degree was about $200 a week in 1978. In general, pro grammers earn about twice as much as the average earnings of all nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farming. Programmers working in the North and West earned somewhat more than those working in the South. Those working for data processing services and public utilities had higher earnings than programmers em ployed in banks, advertising, or educational institutions. Related Occupations Other workers in mathematics, business, and science who solve detailed problems in clude mathematicians, statisticians, engi neers, financial analysts, actuaries, mathe matical technicians, and operations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about the occupa tion of programmer is available from: American Federation of Information Processing Societies, 1815 North Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Information about the Certificate in Com puter Programming is available from: The Institute for Certification of Computer Profes sionals, 35 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 2828, Chicago, 111. 60601. specifications for programmers to follow and work with them to “debug,” or eliminate er rors from the system. (The work of computer programmers is described in another chapter in this section of the Handbook.) The problems that systems analysts solve range from monitoring nuclear fission in a powerplant to forecasting sales for an appli ance manufacturing firm. Because the work is so varied and complex, analysts usually specialize in either business or scientific and engineering applications. Some analysts improve systems already in use by developing better procedures or adapt ing the system to handle additional types of data. Others do research, called advanced systems design, to devise new methods of sys tems analysis. Working Conditions Systems analysts usually work about 40 hours a week—the same as other professional and office workers. Unlike many computer operators, systems analysts are not assigned to evening or night shifts. Occasionally, how ever, evening or weekend work may be neces sary to complete emergency projects. Places of Employment About 182,000 persons worked as systems analysts in 1978. Employment of these work ers is concentrated in two geographic regions —about one-third of the total are employed in the Midwest and one-fourth work in the northeastern portion of the United States. Most systems analysts worked in urban areas for manufacturing firms, banks, insurance companies, and data processing service or ganizations. In addition, large numbers worked for wholesale and retail businesses and government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There is no universally acceptable way of preparing for a job as a systems analyst be cause employers’ preferences depend on the work being done. However, college graduates generally are sought for these jobs, and, for some of the more complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred. Employers usually want analysts with a background in accounting, business management, or eco nomics for work in a business environment while a background in the physical sciences, mathematics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organizations. A growing number of employers seek appli cants who have a degree in computer science, information science, information systems, or data processing. Regardless of college major, employers look for people who are familiar with programming languages. Courses in Systems Analysts (D.O.T. 003.167-062, 012.167-066, and 020.062-010) Nature of the Work Many essential business functions and scientific research projects depend on sys tems analysts to plan efficient methods of processing data and handling the results. Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the data processing problem with managers or specialists to determine the exact nature of the problem and to break it down into its component parts. If a new inventory system is desired, for example, systems analysts must determine what new data must be collected, the equipment needed for computation, and the steps to be followed in processing the information. Analysts use various techniques, such as cost accounting, sampling, and mathematical model building to analyze a problem and de vise a new system. Once a system has been developed, they prepare charts and diagrams that describe its operation in terms that managers or customers can understand. They also may prepare a cost-benefit analysis to help the client decide whether the pro posed system is satisfactory. If the system is accepted, systems analysts translate the logical requirements of the sys tem into the capabilities of the computer ma chinery or “hardware.” They also prepare 10O/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Analysts begin by discussing a problem to break it down into component parts. computer concepts, systems analysis, and data base management systems offer good preparation for a job in this field. Prior work experience is important. Nearly half of all persons entering this occu pation have transferred from other occupa tions, especially from computer programmer. In many industries, systems analysts begin as programmers and are promoted to analyst positions after gaining experience. Systems analysts must be able to think log ically and should like working with ideas. They often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously. The ability to concentrate and pay close attention to detail also is im portant. Although systems analysts often work independently, they also work in teams on large projects. They must be able to com municate effectively with technical person nel, such as programmers, as well as with clients who have no computer background. In order to advance, systems analysts must continue their technical education. Techno logical advances come so rapidly in the com puter field that continuous study is necessary to keep skills up to date. Training usually takes the form of 1- and 2-week courses of fered by employers and “software” vendors. Additional training may come from profes sional development seminars offered by pro fessional computing societies. An indication of experience and profes sional competence is the Certificate in Data Processing (CDP). This designation is con ferred by the Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals upon candidates who have completed 5 years’ experience and passed a five-part examination. In large data processing departments, per sons who begin as junior systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems analysts after several years of experience. Systems analysts who show leadership ability also can advance to jobs as managers of sys tems analysis or data processing depart ments. Employment Outlook Employment of systems analysts is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as computer usage expands, particularly in accounting firms and organizations engaged in research and development. In addition to opportuni ties that will result from growth in computer usage, some openings will occur as systems analysts advance to managerial positions, be come consultants, or enter other occupa tions. Because many of these workers are relatively young, few positions will result from retirement or death. The demand for systems analysts is ex pected to rise as computer capabilities are increased and as new applications are found for computer technology. Sophisticated ac counting systems, telecommunications net works, and scientific research are just a few areas where continual study of the potential uses of computer systems is resulting in new approaches to problem solving. Over the next decade, systems analysts also will be develop ing ways to use the computer’s resources to solve problems in areas we have not yet recognized. Advances in technology that have drasti cally reduced the size and cost of computer hardware will have differing effects on em ployment of systems analysts. Employment in data processing firms may not grow as rapidly as in recent years as more small busi nesses install their own computers rather than rely on a data processing service. This will be offset, however, by a rising demand for analysts to design systems especially for the small computer and geared specifically for problems of small firms. The outlook for graduates of computerrelated curriculums should be excellent. Col lege graduates who have had courses in com puter programming, systems analysis, and other data processing areas should also find many opportunities. Persons without a col lege degree and college graduates unfamiliar with data processing will face competition from the large number of experienced work ers seeking jobs as systems analysts. Earnings Earnings for beginning systems analysts in private industry averaged about $300 a week in 1978, according to surveys conducted in urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and private firms engaged in research on computer occupations. Experienced workers earned from $370 to $420, and lead systems analysts earned from $450 to $460 weekly. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for recent college graduates with a bachelor’s degree was about $200 a week in 1978. Over all, systems analysts earn well over twice as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Systems analysts working in the North and West earned somewhat more than those in the South, and generally their earnings were greater in data processing service firms or in heavy manufacturing than in insurance com panies or educational institutions. Related Occupations Other workers in mathematics, business, and science who use logic and reasoning abil ity to solve problems are financial analysts, urban planners, engineers, mathematicians, operations research analysts, and actuaries. Sources of Additional Information Further information about the occupation of systems analyst is available from: American Federation of Information Processing Societies, 1815 North Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. Association for Systems Management, 24587 Bagley Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44138. Information about the Certificate in Data Processing is available from: The Institute for Certification of Computer Profes sionals, 35 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 2828, Chicago, 111. 60601. COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/101 Banking Occupations Commercial banks constitute one of the fastest growing industries in our economy. To keep pace with requirements of the community, they offer a variety of services: Checking, savings, and credit card ac counts; commercial and consumer loans; trust fund management; and financial counseling. 9 Banks employ highly specialized tech niques and equipment in very detailed work. Consequently, most employees gain experience and skill through on-the-job training. Although banks usually seek col lege graduates for officer trainee jobs, many openings exist for high school gradu ates in other bank positions. Bank em ployees generally have good opportunities for advancement. They can qualify for better positions by enrolling in programs of fered by the American Bankers Associa tion, American Institute of Banking, or State banking associations, or by taking college courses in finance and business. Bank employees should enjoy working with numbers and be able to perform detailed work. Personal qualifications, such as honesty and the ability to communicate with customers, are important. This section discusses three categories of banking occupations: Clerks, officers and managers, and tellers. 102/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Bank Clerks______ (D.O.T. 209.687-022; 210.382-014, -018, -022, -026, -058; 216.362-014, -018, -026, and .382-038; 217.382-010, -014; 219.362-062; and 249.382-010) Nature of the Work All organizations need clerks to handle paperwork. Because of the specialized nature of banking, some clerical duties in banks dif fer from those of other businesses. (Secretar ies, typists, receptionists, file clerks, and other clerical workers whose jobs are much the same in banks as in other businesses are discussed in greater detail elsewhere in the Handbook.) In a small bank, one clerk may do several jobs, such as sorting checks, totaling debit and credit slips, and preparing monthly state ments for depositors. In a large bank, how ever, each clerk usually specializes and fre quently has a special job title, as well. Many bank clerks use office machines unique to banking. Clerks known as sorters (D.O.T. 209.687-022) separate documents— checks, deposit slips, and other items—into different groups and tabulate each “batch” so they may be charged to the proper accounts. Often clerks use canceling and adding ma chines in their work. Proof-machine operators (D.O.T. 217.382-010) use equipment that sorts checks and deposit slips, adds their amounts, and records the tabulations. Bookkeeping workers are the largest group of bank clerks. The job titles of bookkeepers generally reflect the kinds of records they keep—for example, Christmas club book keepers, discount bookkeeper, interestaccrual bookkeeper, trust bookkeeper, and commodity loan clerk. Bookkeeping-machine operators (D.O.T. 210.382-022 and -026), sometimes called account clerks, posting ma chine operators, or recording clerks—run conventional or electronic posting machines to record financial transactions. Reconcile ment clerks (D.O.T. 210.382-058) process fi nancial statements from other banks to rec oncile differences, ensure accuracy, and aid the auditing of accounts. Trust securities clerks (D.O.T. 219.362-062) post investment transactions made by trust officers in behalf of bank customers. In addition to duties in dicated by their titles, many of these workers do routine typing, calculating, and posting. Other clerical employees whose duties and job titles are unique to banking include coun try-collection clerks (D.O.T. 219.362-014), who sort thousands of pieces of mail daily and determine which items must be held at the main office and which should be routed to branch banks for collection; transit clerks (D.O.T. 217.382-014), who sort checks and drafts on other banks, list and total the amounts involved, and prepare documents to be mailed for collection; exchange clerks (D.O.T. 216.362-018), who service foreign deposit accounts and determine charges for cashing or handling checks drawn against such accounts; interest clerks (D.O.T. 216.382-038), who keep records on interest-bear ing items that are due to or from the bank; and mortgage clerks (D.O.T. 249.382-010), who type legal papers dealing with real estate upon which money has been loaned and maintain records relating to taxes and insur ance on these properties. Electronic data-processing has created several new clerical occupations unique to banking. These include the electronic readersorter operator, who runs electronic check sorting equipment; the check inscriber or en coder, who operates machines that print in formation in magnetic ink on checks,and other documents for machine reading; and the control clerk, who keeps track of the large volume of documents flowing in and out of the computer division. Other occupa tions include card-tape converter operator, coding clerk, console operator, data typist, data converting machine operator, data ex amination clerk, high-speed printer operator, tape librarian, teletype operator, and verifier operator. Working Conditions Although some bank clerks work evenings or weekends, most generally work about 36 ries than have firms in other industries, such as wholesale trade or manufacturing. Related Occupations Many clerical skills and abilities found in banking also are needed in other sectors of the financial community and in many other industries. For example, accounting clerks combine an ability to record and compute numerical data with a knack for concentrat ing on detail to provide and maintain accu rate, comprehensive, and up-to-date financial records; other clerical workers who perform similar duties include audit clerks, bookkeep ers, claims examiners, payroll clerks, and timekeepers. Administrative clerks perform a variety of office tasks, including preparing correspon dence, running errands, and maintaining rec ords. Others who perform similar tasks are insurance, mortgage, real-estate, securities, and court clerks. Some bank clerks provide customers with information about safe deposit boxes. hours per week during normal business hours. Clerks generally do not deal with cus tomers. Much of their work is routine and requires remaining at work stations for ex tended periods. promotion depends upon the worker’s per formance, qualifications, and motivation as well as the available openings. Employment Employment of bank clerks is expected to grow much faster than the average for other occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to opportunities stemming from growth in the industry, many jobs will arise from the need to replace the large number of clerks who leave their jobs each year. As a result, banking should continue to be a good source of employment for clerical workers. Banks employed approximately 500,000 clerks in 1978; one-fourth were secretaries or typists, one-third were bookkeepers, and an other one-third were office machine opera tors. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduation is considered ade quate preparation for most beginning clerical jobs in banks. Courses in bookkeeping, typ ing, business arithmetic, and office machine operation are desirable. Applicants may he given brief tests to determine their ability to work rapidly and accurately, and to commu nicate effectively with others. They should be able to work under close supervision as part of a team. Beginners often are hired as file clerks, keypunch operators, transit clerks, or clerktypists. Some are trained by the bank to oper ate various office machines. A few start as messengers. A clerk in a routine job may be promoted to a clerical supervisory position, to teller or credit analyst, and eventually to senior super visor. Advancement to a bank officer posi tion is a possibility for outstanding clerks who have had college training or have taken specialized courses in banking. Additional education—particularly courses offered by the American Institute of Banking—may help workers advance. (See statement on the banking industry for information on the In stitute’s educational program.) In general, Employment Outlook Jobs for clerks will arise as established banks expand their services and new banks and branches open. Future employment growth will differ markedly among individ ual clerical occupations. Nearly all banks use electronic equipment that lessens demand for workers such as check sorters and bookkeep ing machine operators. Moreover, the need for keypunch operators is declining as banks shift from punched card to magnetic tapebased computer systems. New technologies, however, are unlikely to displace large numbers of workers. Over all, the banking industry and employment of clerks in the banking industry are expected to grow. Workers whose duties are given to a machine most likely will be reassigned to new jobs created by the change or to duties related to new banking services. Earnings Beginning salaries for clerical workers de pend upon the worker’s actual position and length of experience, as well as the size and location of the bank. An inexperienced typist usually earned between $110 and $135 a week in early 1979. In general, financial insti tutions have paid clerical workers lower sala Bank messengers gather, sort, and distrib ute various items and documents within and outside of the bank. Other workers who simi larly process information are correspondence clerks, expediters, mail handlers, medical re cord technicians, and proofreaders. Proof machine operators employ concen tration and finger dexterity to process large amounts of financial data quickly and accu rately. Other occupations requiring similar capabilities in the operation of machines are billing machine operators, keyboard opera tors, linotype operators, tabulating machine operators, and typists. Sources of Additional Information See the statement on the banking industry elsewhere in the Handbook for additional in formation. Bank Officers and Managers__________ (D.O.T. 186.117-026, 038, 050, -054, -070, -074 -078, .137-010, .167-014, -050, -054, -058, and .267-018) Nature of the Work Practically every bank has a president who directs operations; one or more vice presi dents who act as general managers or who are in charge of bank departments such as trust or credit; and a comptroller or cashier who, unlike cashiers in stores and other busi nesses, is an executive officer generally re sponsible for all bank property. Large banks also may have treasurers and other senior officers, as well as junior officers, to supervise the various sections within different depart ments. Banks employed over 330,000 officers and managers in 1978. Bank officers make decisions within a framework of policy set by the board of direc tors and existing laws and regulations. They must have a broad knowledge of business acBANKING OCCUPATIONS/103 tivities to relate to the operations of their department. For example, loan officers eval uate the credit and collateral of individuals and businesses applying for a loan. Similarly, trust officers must understand each account before they invest funds to support families, send young people to college, or pay retire ment pensions. Besides supervising financial services, officers advise individuals and busi nesses and participate in community pro jects. Because banks offer many services, a wide choice of careers is available to workers who specialize. Loan officers may handle installment, commercial, real estate, or agricultural loans. To evaluate loan applications properly, offic ers need to be familiar with economics, pro duction, distribution, merchandising, and commercial law. Also, they need to know business operations and should be able to an alyze an industry’s financial statements. Bank officers in trust management require knowledge of financial planning and invest ment for investment research and for estate and trust administration. Operations officers plan, coordinate, and control the workflow, update systems, and strive for administrative efficiency. Careers in bank operations include electronic data processing manager and other positions in volving internal and customer services. A correspondent bank officer is responsi ble for relations with other banks; a branch manager, for all functions of a branch office; and an international officer, for advising cus tomers with financial dealings abroad. A working knowledge of a foreign country’s fi nancial system, trade relations, and eco nomic conditions is beneficial to those inter ested in international banking. Other career fields for bank officers are auditing, economics, personnel administra tion, public relations, and operations re search. Working Conditions Since a great deal of bank business depends on customers’ impressions, officers and managers are provided attractive, comforta ble offices and are encouraged to wear con servative, somewhat formal, business clothes. Bank officers and managers typically work 40 hours a week; however, attending civic functions, keeping abreast of community de velopments, establishing and maintaining business contacts, and similar activities are aspects of their jobs that occasionally require overtime work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bank officer and management positions generally are filled by management trainees, and occasionally by promoting outstanding bank clerks or tellers. College graduation usually is required for management trainees. A business administration major in finance or a liberal arts curriculum, including ac counting, economics, commercial law, politi cal science, and statistics, serves as excellent preparation for officer trainee positions. In fact, a Master of Business Administration (MBA) in addition to a social science bache lor’s degree comes closest to the “ideal” col lege education. However, banks do hire peo ple with diverse backgounds such as chemical engineering, nuclear physics, and forestry to meet the needs of complex, hightechnology industries with which they deal. Valuable experience may be gained through summer employment programs. A management or officer trainee may spend a year or two learning the various banking areas before choosing a permanent position. This practice is common but not universal. A bank may hire an applicant with specific skills for a position that is clearly defined at the outset. Persons interested in becoming bank offic ers should like to work independently and to analyze detailed information. They also need tact and good judgment to counsel customers and supervise employees. Advancement to an officer or management position may come slowly in small banks where the number of positions is limited. In large banks that have special training pro grams, promotions may occur more quickly. For a senior officer position, however, an em ployee usually needs many years of experi ence. Although experience, ability, and leader ship are emphasized for promotion, advance ment may be accelerated by special study. The American Bankers Association (ABA) offers courses, publications, and other train ing aids to officers on every phase of banking. The American Institute of Banking, an arm of the ABA, has long filled the same educa tional need among bank support personnel. (See the statement on the banking industry elsewhere in the Handbook for more infor mation on these and other training programs sponsored by universities and local bankers’ associations.) Because banking is an essential part of business, well trained, experienced officers and managers may transfer to closely related positions in other areas of finance or to posi tions within other industries, such as manu facturing, that need individuals with banking experience. Employment Outlook Through the 1980’s, employment of bank officers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations. Rising costs due to expanded banking services and the increasing dependence on computers will require more officers to provide sound man agement and effective quality control. Greater international trade and investment will stimulate international and domestic banking activities, thus increasing the need for bank officers and managers. Opportuni ties also will arise as experienced officers leave their jobs. College graduates who meet the standards for management trainees should find good opportunities for entry po sitions. Earnings Bank officers provide personal financial assistance to customers. 104/O CCUPATIO NAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Officer trainees at the bachelor’s level gen erally earned between $900 and $1,000 a month in 1978. Those with master’s degrees started at between $1,100 and $1,300 a month. A Master of Business Administra tion, however, appears to be worth more in salary terms: Graduates with an MBA were offered starting salaries of $1,400 to $1,600 a month in 1978. Salaries of senior bank officers may be sev eral times as much as starting salaries. The actual salary level depends upon the particu lar position and the size and location of the bank. For officers, as well as for other bank employees, earnings are likely to be lower in small towns than in big cities. Related Occupations Bank officers and managers combine for mal schooling with further exposure in one or more areas of banking, such as lending, to provide services for customers. Other occu pations which require similar training and ability include business representatives, in dustrial relations directors, safety council di rectors, city managers, export managers, and purchasing agents. Sources of Additional Information See the statement on the banking industry elsewhere in the Handbook for additional in formation. Bank Tellers________ (D.O.T. 211.132-010, .362-014, -018, -022, and -026) Nature of the Work Most bank customers have contact with the teller, the individual who cashes checks and processes deposits or withdrawals. Many banks employ one or two “all-purpose” tell ers; larger banks employ tellers in more spe cialized functions. One teller, for example, sells savings bonds; another accepts payment for customers’ utility bills. A third receives deposits for Christmas club accounts; and a fourth keeps records and performs the neces sary paperwork for customer loans. Still other tellers handle foreign currencies, sell travelers’ checks, or compute interest on sav ings accounts. Commercial tellers, the most common kind of teller, cash customers’ checks and handle deposits and withdrawals from check ing and savings accounts. Before cashing a check, the teller must see that the written and numerical amounts agree, verify the identity of the person to receive payment, and be cer tain that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller must carefully count out the cash to avoid errors. Often a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier’s check, which the teller types up and verifies. When accepting a deposit, the teller checks the accuracy of the deposit slip and enters the total in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use machines to make change and total deposits. In some banks, tellers use computer terminals to record deposits and withdrawals. In other banks, they write deposit receipts and passbook en tries by hand. Tellers’ duties begin before and continue after banking hours. They begin the day by receiving and counting an amount of work ing cash for their drawer; this amount is verified by a supervisor, usually the head teller. Tellers use this cash for payments during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. After banking hours, tellers count cash on hand, list the currency-received tickets on a settlement sheet, and balance the day’s accounts. They also sort checks and deposit slips. Paying and receiving tellers may supervise one clerk or more. days to 3 weeks or longer. Beginners usually start as commercial tellers; in large banks which have a separate savings teller’s “cage,” they may start as savings tellers. Often banks simultaneously train tellers for other clerical duties. Employment The conditions governing advancement of tellers are much the same as those for clerks. The teller interested in promotion has access to courses and other sources of additional training. Such self-improvement efforts, cou pled with satisfactory performance on the job, would make a teller an attractive candi date for promotion. After gaining experience, a teller in a large bank may advance to head teller; those who have had some college or specialized training offered by the banking industry may be promoted to an officer or managerial position. (See the statement on the banking i n d u s t r y for information about the educational programs of the American Institute of Banking.) About 410,000 tellers were employed in 1978. A large number work part time. Employment Outlook Working Conditions Although some tellers work evenings or on Saturdays, most generally work during the day, Monday through Friday. Continual communication with customers, repetitive tasks, and prolonged standing characterize the job. After a couple of years’ work, tellers typically seek other positions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring tellers, banks seek people with basic qualities: Clerical skills, friendliness, and attentiveness. Although not required, a high school diploma is generally preferred. Maturity, neatness, tact, and courtesy are im portant because customers deal with tellers far more frequently than with other bank em ployees. Although tellers work indepen dently, their recordkeeping is closely super vised. They work with detail and are confined to a small work area. New tellers usually observe experienced workers for a few days before doing the work themselves. Training may last from a few The number of bank tellers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s as banks expand services. Thousands of openings will occur each year as a result of growth in demand for tellers and the need to replace tellers who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. The relatively high replacement needs in this occupation are expected to be an important source of job opportunities. Qualified appli cants should find good employment pros pects. Although increased use of mechanical and electronic equipment may eliminate some routine duties and speed other work, total employment is not likely to be adversely af fected. BANKING OCCUPATIONS/105 Earnings Most beginning tellers earned between $110 and $135 a week in 1978. Experienced tellers generally earned between $135 and $180 a week. The actual salary depends upon the length of service, the location and size of the bank, and the worker’s specific duties. Most savings tellers, for example, earned be tween $135 and $165 a week in 1978, while note tellers usually earned between $160 and 106/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK $190 a week. In general, the greater the range of responsibilities the teller performs, the higher the salary. similar duties include cashiers, toll collec tors, post office clerks, auction clerks, and ticket sellers. Related Occupations Sources of Additional Information Tellers combine a knowledge of bank procedures with quickness and accuracy to exchange money, checks, and other financial items with customers. Other workers with See the statement on the banking industry elsewhere in the Handbook for additional in formation on this and other banking occupa tions. Insurance Occupations Insurance protection is an integral part of our lives. It frees policyholders and their beneficiaries from worry about the enormous financial burdens that sometimes result from death, illness, or other losses. Businesses could not operate, nor could most people buy homes or other major items, without the as surance of protection from sudden disaster. Insurance workers adapt policies to meet changing needs, decide which applications can be accepted, establish premium rates on the policies, and investigate and settle claims. A college degree is increasingly important for managerial, professional, and sales jobs in insurance, although some positions are open to high school graduates who have appropri ate experience. Insurance workers in clerical positions generally need a high school di ploma. Regardless of their previous training, insurance workers must continually learn while on the job. Many professional associa tions sponsor courses in all phases of insur ance work, and employees are encouraged to participate to prepare themselves for more responsible jobs. This section describes three insurance oc cupations: Actuaries, claim representatives, and underwriters. (Statements on the insur ance industry and insurance agents and brokers are included elsewhere in the Hand book.) Actuaries expenses as they occur. In the same manner, the actuary calculates premium rates and de termines policy contract provisions for each type of insurance offered. Most actuaries spe cialize in either life and health insurance or property and liability (casualty) insurance; a growing number specialize in pension plans. To perform their duties effectively, actuar ies must keep informed about general eco nomic and social trends, and legislative, health, and other developments that may af fect insurance practices. Because of their broad knowledge of insurance, company ac tuaries may work on problems arising in their company’s investment, group underwriting, or pension planning departments. Actuaries in executive positions help determine general company policy. In that role, they may be called upon to explain complex technical matters to company executives, government officials, policyholders, and the public. They may testify before public agencies on pro posed legislation affecting the insurance busi ness, for example, or explain intended changes in premium rates or contract provi sions. Actuaries who work for the Federal Gov ernment usually deal with a particular insur ance or pension program, such as social secu rity or life insurance for veterans and members of the Armed Forces. Actuaries in State government positions regulate insur ance companies, supervise the operations of State retirement or pension systems, and work on problems connected with unemploy ment insurance or workers’ compensation. Consulting actuaries set up pension and wel fare plans for private companies, unions, and government agencies. They calculate future benefits and determine the amount of the an nual employer contribution. Actuaries who are enrolled under the provisions of the Em ployee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) evaluate these pension plans and submit reports certifying their financial soundness. Working Conditions Actuaries have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity; their offices gener ally are comfortable and pleasant. Most actuaries work between 35 and 40 hours a week, although they may be required to work overtime during busy periods. Ac tuaries may travel to branch offices of their company or to clients. Places of Employment Approximately 9,000 persons worked as actuaries in 1978. Four of every 10 actuaries worked New York, Hartford, Chicago, Phil adelphia, or Boston. About two-thirds of all actuaries worked for private insurance companies. Almost 90 percent of these worked for life insurance companies; the rest worked for property and liability (casualty) companies. The number of actuaries employed by an insurance company depends on its volume of business and the (D.O.T. 020.167-010) Nature of the Work Why do young persons pay more for auto mobile insurance than older persons? How much should an insurance policy cost? An swers to these and similar questions are pro vided by actuaries who design insurance and pension plans that can be maintained on a sound financial basis. They assemble and an alyze statistics to calculate probabilities of death, sickness, injury, disability, unemploy ment, retirement, and property loss from ac cident, theft, fire, and other hazards. Actuar ies use this information to determine the expected insured loss. For example, they may calculate how many persons who are 21 years old today can be expected to live to age 65— the probability that an insured person might die during this period is a risk to the com pany. They then calculate a price for assum ing this risk that will be profitable to the company yet be competitive with other insur ance companies. Finally, they must make sure that the price charged for the insurance will enable the company to pay all claims and Actuaries analyze statistical data. INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS/107 types of insurance policies it offers. Large companies may employ over 100 actuaries on their staffs; others, generally smaller compa nies, may rely instead on consulting firms or rating bureaus (associations that supply actu arial data to member companies). Consulting firms and rating bureaus em ploy about one-fifth of all actuaries. Other actuaries work for private organizations ad ministering independent pension and welfare plans or for Federal and State government agencies. A few teach in colleges and univer sities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A good educational background for a be ginning job in a large life or casualty com pany is a bachelor’s degree with a major in mathematics or statistics; a degree in actuar ial science is even better. Some companies hire applicants with a major in engineering, economics, or business administration, pro vided they demonstrate a thorough founda tion in calculus, probability, and statistics (20-25 hours). Courses in accounting, com puter science, economics, and insurance also are useful. Although only 25 colleges and universities offer a degree in actuarial sci ence, several hundred schools offer a degree in mathematics or statistics. A strong background in mathematics is essential for persons interested in a career as an actuary. Of equal importance, however, is the need to pass, while in school, one or more of the examinations offered by professional actuarial societies. Three societies sponsor programs leading to full professional status in they specialty. The Society of Actuaries gives nine actuarial examinations for the life and health insurance and pension field, the Casualty Actuarial Society gives ten exami nations for the property and liability field, and the American Society of Pension Actuar ies gives nine examinations covering the pen sion field. Because the first parts of the exam ination series of each society cover similar materials, students need not commit them selves to a career specialty until they have taken about five examinations. The first two test competence in subjects such as algebra, calculus, elementary statistics, geometry, and trigonometry; the next three the more ad vanced concepts of actuarial science such as theories of compound interest, mortality ta bles, and risk. Success in passing these first few examinations helps students evaluate their potential as actuaries, and those who pass usually have better opportunities for em ployment and higher starting salaries. Actuaries are encouraged to complete the entire series of examinations as soon as possi ble; completion generally takes from 5 to 10 years. Examinations are given twice each year. Extensive home study is required in order to pass the advanced examinations; many actuaries spend as much as 20-25 hours a week studying. Actuaries who complete five examinations in either the life insurance series or the pension series or seven examina 108/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tions in the casualty series are awarded “as sociate” membership in their society. Those who have passed an entire series receive full membership and the title “fellow.” Consulting pension actuaries who service private pension plans and certify their sol vency must be enrolled by the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries. Applicants for enrollment must meet certain experience and education requirements as stipulated by the Joint Board. Beginning actuaries often rotate among different jobs to learri various actuarial oper ations and to become familiar with different phases of insurance work. At first, their work may be routine, such as preparing tabulations for actuarial tables or reports. As they gain experience, they may supervise clerks, pre pare correspondence and reports, and do re search. Advancement to more responsible work as assistant, associate, and chief actuary de pends largely on job performance and the number of actuarial examinations passed. Many actuaries, because of their broad knowledge of insurance and related fields, are selected for administrative positions in other company activities, particularly in un derwriting, accounting, or data processing departments. Many advance to top executive positions. Employment Outlook Employment of actuaries is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. In addition to job openings resulting from growth in demand for actuaries, additional openings will arise each year as individuals retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Job opportunities will be best for new college graduates who have passed at least two actuarial examina tions while still in school and have a strong mathematical and statistical background. However, because of the large number of per sons expected to receive degrees in actuarial science, mathematics, and statistics, and the large number of students taking actuarial ex aminations, competition for beginning jobs should remain keen. Employment in this occupation is in fluenced to a great extent by the volume of insurance sales, which will continue to grow over the next decade. Shifts in the age distri bution of the population through the 1980’s will result in a large increase in the number of people with established careers and family responsibilities. This is the group that tradi tionally has accounted for the bulk of private insurance sales. Increased sales, however, are only one determinant of the demand for actuaries. Changes in existing insurance practices have created a need for more actuarial services. For example, as more and more insurance companies branch out into more than one kind of insurance coverage, more actuaries will be needed to establish the rates for the different types of insurance offered. Growth in sales of relatively new forms of protection, such as dental, prepaid legal, and kidnap in surance also will create additional demand for actuaries. As more States pass competi tive rating laws, many companies that previ ously relied on rating bureaus for actuarial data can be expected to expand existing actu arial departments or create new ones. The liability of companies for damage re sulting from their product has recieved much attention as a result of recent court decisions. In the years ahead, actuaries will be more involved in the development of product lia bility insurance, medical malpractice and workers’ compensation coverage. Earnings In 1978, actuaries had average salaries more than twice as high as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. New college graduates enter ing the life insurance field without having passed any actuarial exams averaged $10,933 in 1978, according to a survey of U.S. compa nies by the Life Office Management Associa tion (LOMA). Applicants who had success fully completed the first exam received $12,754 and those who had passed two exams averaged $13,584. In the Federal Government, new gradu ates with the bachelor’s degree could start at $10,500 a year in 1978. Applicants with ei ther 1 year of graduate study or relevant work experience were hired at $13,000, and those with the master’s degree or 2 years’ experience started at $15,900 a year. Actuar ies in the Federal Government averaged $28,350 a year in 1978. Beginning actuaries can look forward to a marked increase in earnings as they gain pro fessional experience and advance in an actu arial society’s examination program. Life in surance companies usually give merit increases averaging from $566 to $978 to their actuaries as they pass each successive examination leading to membership in the Society of Actuaries. Associates who re ceived that designation in 1978 averaged $18,325 a year; salaries for actuaries who be come fellows during that year averaged $27,163. Fellows with additional years of experi ence earned substantially more—top actu arial executives averaged about $47,600 in 1978. Although data are not available for salaries of actuaries in casualty companies or consult ing firms, it is believed that salaries for these specialists generally are comparable to those paid by life insurance companies. Most ac tuaries have liberal vacation policies and other employee benefits. Related Occupations Actuaries assemble and analyze statistics as well as apply various statistical techniques in their day-to-day work. Other workers whose jobs involve similiar skills include mathematicians, statisticians, economists, fi nancial analysts, and engineering analysts. Sources of Additional Information For facts about actuarial opportunities and qualifications, contact: American Society of Pension Actuaries, 1700 K St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Casualty Actuarial Society, 110 Plaza, 250 West 34 St., New York, N.Y. 10001. Society of Actuaries, 208 South LaSalle St., Chi cago, 111. 60604. Claim Representatives (D.O.T. 168.267-014, 241.217-010, .267-018, and 249.262-010) Nature of the Work Fast and fair settlement of all claims is essential to any insurance company if it is to meet its commitments to policyholders and also protect its own financial well-being. The people who investigate claims, negotiate set tlement with policyholders, and authorize payment are known as claim representatives —a group that includes claim adjusters and claim examiners. When a property-liability (casualty) insur ance company receives a claim, the claim ad juster determines whether the policy covers it and the amount of the loss. Adjusters use reports, physical evidence, and testimony of witnesses in investigating a claim. When their company is liable, they negotiate with the claimant and settle the case. Adjusters must make sure that settlements reflect the claimant’s actual losses. They must protect their company from false or in flated claims but, at the same time, settle valid claims fairly and promptly. Some ad justers are allowed to issue checks on com pany funds; most, however, submit their findings to claim examiners who review them to insure that proper procedures have been followed and then authorize payment. Some adjusters work with all lines of insur ance. Others specialize in claims from fire damage, marine loss, automobile damage, workers’ compensation loss, or product lia bility. Several States have “no-fault” automo bile insurance plans that relieve the adjuster from determining responsibility for a loss. Adjusters in these States still must decide the amount of loss, however. A growing number of casualty companies employ special adjust ers to settle small claims, usually minor auto mobile or homeowner damage claims. These workers, generally called “inside adjusters” or “telephone adjusters,” contact claimants by telephone or mail and have the policy holder send repair costs, medical bills, and other statements to the company. Many com panies centralize this operation in a drive-in claims center where the cost of repair is de termined and a check is issued on the spot. Adjusters work away from the office most of the time. They may be called to the site of an accident, fire, or burglary. Adjusters make their own schedules of the activities needed to dispose of a claim properly. They also keep written or taped records of information ob tained from witnesses and other sources and prepare reports of their findings. In life insurance companies, the counter part of the claim adjuster is the claim exam iner, who investigates questionable claims or those exceeding a specified amount. They may check claim applications for complete ness and accuracy, interview medical special ists, consult policy files to verify information on a claim, or calculate benefit payments. Generally, examiners are authorized to inves tigate and approve payment on all claims up to a certain limit; larger claims are referred to a senior examiner. Examiners checking incorrect or question able claims may correspond with investigat ing companies, field managers, agents, or the family of the insured. Claim examiners occa sionally travel to obtain information by per sonal interview, or contact State insurance departments and other insurance companies. In addition to verifying claims and approving payment, examiners also maintain records of settled claims and prepare reports to be sub mitted to their company’s data processing department. Some experienced examiners serve on committees, conduct surveys of claim practices within their company, and help devise more efficient ways to process claims. They, like claim adjusters, sometimes testify in court on contested claims. Working Conditions Claim adjusting is not a desk job. It re quires that a person be physically fit because much of the day may be spent in traveling, walking about outdoors, and climbing stairs. Adjusters may have to work evenings or weekends in order to interview witnesses and claimants. Since most companies provide 24hour claim service to their policyholders, some adjusters always must be on call. (See the statement on the insurance industry for additional information on working condi tions and employee benefits.) Occasionally, an experienced adjuster may travel to the scene of a disaster, such as a hurricane or a riot, to work with local personnel. Some cases may require travel outside the United States. Claim examiners have desk jobs that re quire no unusual physical activity. Although the average workweek for examiners is 35 to 40 hours, they may work longer at times of peak claim loads or when quarterly and an nual statements are prepared. They also may need to travel occasionally. Places of Employment About 169,000 persons worked as claim representatives in 1978. The majority of claim adjusters worked for insurance compa nies that sell property and liability coverage. Some were employed by independent adjust ing firms that contract their services for a fee. These independent firms ranged from na tional companies employing hundreds of ad justing specialists to small 3- or 4-person local operations. A relatively small number of adjusters represent the insured rather than the insurance company. These “public ad justers” usually are retained by banks, finan cial organizations, and other business firms to handle fire and other losses to property. They negotiate claims against insurance companies and deal with adjusters for such companies. Recording the details of damage assists agents in accurately estimating repair costs. Most claim examiners worked for life in surance companies in large cities, such as New York, San Francisco, Chicago, Dallas, INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS/109 and Philadelphia, where most home offices are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a growing number of insur ance companies prefer claim representa tives to have a college degree, many hire those without college training, particularly if they have specialized experience. For ex' ample, persons experienced in automobile repair may qualify as auto adjusters, and those with clerical experience might be hired as inside adjusters. 'J f No specific field of college study is recom mended. Although courses in insurance, eco nomics, or other business subjects are help ful, a major in almost any college field is adequate preparation. An adjuster who has a business or accounting background might specialize in financial loss from business in terruption or damage to merchandise. Col lege training in engineering is helpful in ad justing industrial claims. A legal background is most helpful to those handling workers’ compensation and product liability cases. Most large insurance companies provide beginning claim adjusters and examiners onthe-job training and home study courses. Claim representatives are encouraged to take courses designed to enhance their profes sional skills. For example, the Insurance In stitute of America offers a six-semester study program leading to an associate degree in claims adjusting upon successful completion of six examinations. Adjusters can prepare for these examinations by independent home study or through company or public classes. A professional Certificate in Insurance Ad justing also is available from the College of Insurance in New York City. The Life Office Management Association (LOMA), in cooperation with the Interna tional Claim Association, offers a claims edu cation program for life and health examiners. The program is part of the LOMA Institute Insurance Education Program leading to the professional designation, FLMI (Fellow, Life Management Institute) upon successful com pletion of eight written examinations. About three-fourths of the States require adjusters to be licensed. Despite wide varia tion in State licensing requirements, appli cants usually must comply with one or more of the following: Pass a written examination covering the fundamentals of adjusting; fur nish character references; be 20 or 21 years of age and a resident of the State; offer proof that they have completed an approved course in insurance or loss adjusting; and file a surety bond. Because they often work closely with claimants, witnesses, and other insurance professionals, representatives must be able to adapt to many different persons and situa tions. They should be able to communicate effectively and gain the respect and coopera tion of people from different backgrounds. For example, when adjusters’ evaluations of 110/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK claims differ from those of the persons who have suffered the loss, they should be able to explain their conclusions tactfully. Examin ers need to be familiar with medical and legal terms and practices and Federal and State insurance laws and regulations. Because they may have to check premium payments, pol icy values, and other numerical items in proc essing a claim, examiners should be adept at making mathematical calculations. Both ad justers and examiners should have a good memory and enjoy working with details. Beginning adjusters and examiners work on small claims under the supervision of an experienced worker. As they learn more about claim investigation and settlement, they are assigned claims that are higher in loss value and more difficult. Trainees are promoted as they demonstrate competence in handling assignments and as they progress in their course work. Because of the complexity of insurance regulations and claims proce dures, workers who lack formal academic training may advance more slowly than those with 2 years or more of college. Employees who show unusual competence in claims work or outstanding administrative skills may be promoted to department supervisor in a field office or to a managerial position in the home office. Qualified adjusters and ex aminers sometimes transfer to other depart ments, such as underwriting or sales. Employment Outlook Employment of claim representatives is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as the num ber of insurance claims continues to increase. In addition to jobs created by growth in the need for these workers, many jobs will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or transfer to other jobs. Several factors point to a growing volume of insurance and a resulting need for claim adjusters. Over the next decade a steadily rising number of workers will be entering their most productive years. These workers and their families are likely to seek insurance protection as they purchase homes, automo biles, and other consumer durables. New or expanding businesses will need protection for new plants and equipment and for insurance covering their employees’ health and safety. As more people live and work in densely populated areas, the increased risk of auto mobile accident, fire, or theft should result in a greater number of claims. As ways of doing business continue to change, the demand for certain kinds of claim adjusters will be stronger than for oth ers. For example, the growing trend toward drive-in claim centers and claim handling by telephone should reduce the demand for au tomobile adjusters while it stimulates de mand for inside adjusters. Independent ad justers who specialize in automobile damage claims should continue to suffer some loss of business. Prospects should be excellent, how ever, for adjusters who specialize in highly complex types of business insurance such as marine cargo, workers’ compensation, and product liability. A similar situation exists for claim examin ers. Employment of examiners in casualty companies should rise about as fast as for adjusters; however, much slower growth is expected for life insurance examiners as in creased use of computers enables them to process more claims, especially routine ones and those that arise under group policies. Earnings According to a survey of property and lia bility companies, claim adjusters averaged about $14,760 a year in 1978; inside adjusters earned average salaries of about $11,215. Most public adjusters are paid a percentage of the amount of the settlement—generally 10 percent. Adjusters are furnished a com pany car or are reimbursed for use of their own vehicles for business purposes. Salaries of claim adjusters are about one and one-half times the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming; salaries of inside adjusters are slightly above the average for all nonsupervisory workers. A survey of life insurance companies by the Life Office Management Association re vealed that claim examiners earned average salaries of $13,870 a year in 1978. According to the survey of property and liability compa nies, casualty claim examiners averaged $ 17,100. Claim supervisors in casualty companies and life companies averaged $18,650 a year. Claim examiners earn more than one and one-half times the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Most insurance companies have liberal va cation policies and other employee benefits. Related Occupations Other workers who have to make critical decisions on the basis of financial data in clude auditors, loan officers, credit manag ers, and real estate appraisers. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as a claim examiner or adjuster is available from the home offices of many life and property and liability insurance companies. Information about licensing requirements for claim adjusters may be obtained from the department of insurance in each State. Information about career opportunities in these occupations also may be obtained from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. American Alliance of Insurance, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. The National Association of Independent Insurers, Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. For information about public insurance adjusting, contact: National Association of Public Adjusters, 1613 Munsey Building, Baltimore, Md. 21202. sometimes accompany salespeople on ap pointments with prospective customers. Career information on life insurance claim examining is available from: Most underwriters specialize in one of three major categories of insurance: Life, property and liability, or health. They further specialize in group or individual policies. The property and liability underwriter specializes by type of risk insured, such as fire, automo bile, marine, or workers’ compensation. Some underwriters, called commercial ac count underwriters, handle business insur ance exclusively. They often must evaluate a firm’s entire operation in appraising its insur ance application. Casualty companies are doing more “package” underwriting, whereby various types of risks are insured under a single policy. In such situations, the underwriter must be familiar with several dif ferent lines of insurance rather than specializ ing in a single line. American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Underwriters (D.O.T. 169.167-058) Nature of the Work Insurance companies assume millions of dollars in risks each year by transferring the chance of loss from their policyholders to themselves. Underwriters appraise and select the risks their company will insure. (The term underwriter sometimes is used in refer ring to insurance agents; see the statement on insurance agents and brokers elsewhere in the Handbook for a discussion of that occu pation.) Underwriters decide whether their compa nies will accept risks after analyzing informa tion in insurance applications, reports from loss control consultants, medical reports, and actuarial studies (reports that describe the probability of insured loss). Because these decisions seldom are reviewed at a higher level, underwriters have great responsibility. Their companies may lose business to com petitors if they appraise risks too conserva tively or may have to pay more claims if their underwriting actions are too liberal. When deciding that a policy is an accept able risk, an underwriter may outline the terms of the contract, including the amount of the premium. Underwriters frequently correspond with policyholders, agents, and managers about policy cancellations or to fill requests for information. In addition, they An increasing proportion of total insur ance sales is being made through group con tracts. A standard group insurance policy in sures all persons in a specified group through a single contract at uniform premium rates; this type of group policy generally provides life or health insurance protection. The group underwriter analyzes the overall composition of the group to be sure that total risk is not excessive. A different type of group policy that has gained widespread acceptance is the policy that provides the members of a group —a labor union, for example—with individ ual policies geared to their own circum stances. These policies generally are in the casualty field, covering automobiles, pleasure boats, and homes. The casualty underwriter analyzes the application of each group mem ber and makes individual appraisals. Some group underwriters attend meetings with union or employer representatives to discuss the types of policies available to their groups. Working Conditions Underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity. Their offices generally are comfortable and pleasant. Al though some overtime may be required, the normal workweek is 35-40 hours. Underwrit ers occasionally may be away from home for several days while attending meetings. Places of Employment An estimated 28,000 persons worked as insurance underwriters in 1978. Over threefourths were property and liability under writers working in regional or home offices throughout the United States; most life insur ance underwriters were in home offices in a few large cities, such as New York, San Fran cisco, Chicago, Dallas, and Philadelphia. To assure an accurate appraisal of risk, under writers carefully review applications. ground. Some small companies hire persons without a college degree for underwriter trainee positions. In addition, some high school graduates who begin as underwriting clerks may be trained as underwriters after they demonstrate an aptitude for the work. Underwriter trainees begin by evaluating routine applicants under the close supervi sion of an experienced risk appraiser. They study claim files to become familiar with fac tors associated with certain types of losses. As they develop the sound judgment that is required, they are assigned policy applica tions that are more complex and have a greater face value. Continuing education is a necessity if the underwriter expects to advance to senior level positions. Insurance companies gener ally place great emphasis on completion of one or more of the recognized independent study programs. Many companies pay tui tion and the cost of books for those who satis factorily complete underwriting courses; some offer salary increases as an additional incentive. Independent study programs are available through the American Institute of Property and Liability Underwriters, the American College of Life Underwriters, the Academy of Life Underwriters, the Health Insurance Association of America, and the Life Office Management Association. As un derwriters gain experience, they can qualify as a ‘fellow” of the Academy of Life Under writers by passing a series of examinations and completing a paper on a topic in the underwriting field. Examinations are given by the Institute of Home Office Underwriters and the Home Office Life Underwriters As sociation. Designation as a “fellow” is recog nized as a mark of achievement in the under writing field. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for persons who like working with detail and enjoy evaluating information. In addition to analyzing problems, underwriters must make prompt decisions and be able to communi cate their ideas effectively. They must also be imaginative and aggressive, especially when they have to get additional information from outside sources. Experienced underwriters who complete courses of study may advance to chief under writer or underwriting manager. Some un derwriting managers are promoted to senior managerial jobs after several years. Employment Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment of underwriters is expected to rise faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s as insurance sales continue to expand. Each year many jobs will become available as the need for underwrit ers grows and as those who die, retire, or transfer to other work are replaced. For beginning underwriting jobs, most large insurance companies seek college grad uates who have a degree in liberal arts or business administration, but a major in al most any field provides a good general back Several factors underlie the expected growth in the volume of insurance and the resulting need for underwriters. Over the next decade, a much larger portion of our population will enter their most productive INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS/111 years. As this traditional market for life in surance expands, the volume of life insurance sales is expected to rise to protect families’ standards of living, finance children’s educa tion, and provide retirement income. Prop erty and liability insurance sales also should expand as purchases of automobiles, pleasure boats, and other consumer durables increase. Both spending for new home construction and the American public’s growing security consciousness should contribute to demand for more extensive insurance protection. New or expanding businesses will need pro tection for new plants and equipment and insurance for workers’ compensation and product liability. Heightened competition among insurance companies and changes in regulations affecting investment profits also are expected to increase the insurance indus try’s need for competent underwriters. Earnings Underwriters in life insurance who had 2 to 4 years’ experience averaged about $14,000 a year in 1978, according to a Life Office Management Association (LOMA) survey. Senior life underwriters (those with 5 to 8 years’ experience) averaged $18,600, while 112/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK senior group underwriters earned average salaries of $18,700. Supervisors of underwrit ing in life insurance companies averaged $17,670 to $23,860. In most cases, underwrit ers in larger companies earned higher sala ries. A survey of companies that sell property and liability insurance showed that under writers with 2 to 4 years’ experience averaged $14,800 a year in 1978. Earnings varied subs tantially by underwriting specialty, however: personal lines underwriters earned average salaries of $12,800, while those specializing in surety bonds averaged $15,600. Senior un derwriters earned substantially higher in comes—personal lines underwriters ave raged $17,300 while those specializing in commercial lines received an average of $13,600 a year. Experienced underwriters earn about one and one-half times the average earnings of nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. Underwriting supervisors in property and liability compa nies averaged about $19,700 a year in 1978. Most insurance companies have liberal va cation policies and other employee benefits. (See the statement on the insurance industry for additional information on working condi tions and employee benefits.) Related Occupations Underwriters make important decisions on the basis of financial data. Other workers with the same type of responsibility include auditors, loan officers, credit managers, and real estate appraisers. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as an insurance underwriter is available from the home offices of many life insurance and property and liability insurance com panies. Information about career oppor tunities as an underwriter also may be ob tained from: American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. Alliance o f American Insurers, 1776 F St. NW., Suite 504, Washington, D.C. 20006. The National Association of Independent Insurers, Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. Administrative and Related Occupations Business and other organizations need a diversity of workers to keep things running smoothly. Hotels, for example, need manag ers to operate the hotel profitably and to see that the needs of guests are satisfied. Large corporations require workers to handle spe cialized areas such as personnel, public rela tions, purchasing, and market research. Many communities employ city managers to help solve problems such as air and water pollution, and urban planners to make deci sions concerning growth and development. Most organizations also employ the services of accountants and lawyers; larger organiza tions have these workers on their staff. The decisions and advice of these and other ad ministrative workers combine to set organi zation goals and policies and determine dayto-day actions. Nearly all administrative jobs require a college degree, although employers vary in the specific area of study they seek. The jobs also involve different types of skills. Ac countants, for example, need to be competent in mathematics because they prepare and an alyze financial reports. For other workers, such as college student personnel workers and hotel managers, the ability to deal well with people is more important. This section describes a number of ad ministrative occupations, including city managers, buyers, lawyers, and purchasing agents. . . . ents more effectively or give advice about dif ferent types of computers or electronic data processing systems. Accountants (D.O.T. 160 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Managers must have up-to-date financial information to make important decisions. Accountants prepare and analyze financial reports that furnish this kind of information. Three major fields are public, manage ment, and government accounting. Public ac countants have their own businesses or work for accounting firms. Management account ants, also called industrial or private ac countants, handle the financial records of their company. Government accountants ex amine the records of government agencies and audit private businesses and individuals whose dealings are subject to government regulations. Accountants often concentrate on one phase of accounting. For example, many public accountants specialize in auditing (ex amining a client’s financial records and re ports to judge their compliance with stan dards of preparation and reporting). Others specialize in tax matters, such as preparing income tax forms and advising clients of the advantages and disadvantages of certain business decisions. They often help develop estate plans that will have high benefits and low taxes. Still others specialize in manage ment consulting and give advice on a variety of matters. They might develop or revise an accounting system to serve the needs of cli - ........ Openings vary greatly among administrative and related occupations Average annual openings in selected occupations, 1978-90 (thousands) 40 60 Accountants Accountants staff the faculties of business and professional schools. As educators, they may teach accounting as well as finance, marketing, management, and related fields; some are primarily researchers or adminis trators. Many accountants teach part time, work as consultants, or serve on committees of professional organizations. For additional information, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty. Working Conditions Most accountants work in offices and have structured work schedules. Accounting teachers, on the other hand, with more flexi ble schedules, divide their time among teach ing, research, and administrative respon sibilities. Self-employed accountants, who may set up offices at home, work as many hours as the business requires. Tax accountants work long hours under heavy pressure during the tax season. Ac countants employed by large firms may travel extensively to audit or work for clients or branches of the firm. Over 980,000 people worked as account ants in 1978, including over 150,000 Certified Public Accountants (CPA), 17,000 licensed public accountants, and about 9,000 Certi fied Internal Auditors (CIA). Personnel and labor relations workers Purchasing agents Hotel managers and assistants Buyers Many persons with accounting back grounds work for the Federal Government as Internal Revenue Service agents or are in volved in financial management, financial in stitution examining, and budget administra tion. Places of Employment Lawyers Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Management accountants provide the fi nancial information executives need to make sound business decisions. They may work in areas such as taxation, budgeting, costs, or investments. Internal auditing, a specializa tion within management accounting, is ra pidly growing in importance. Accountants who work as internal auditors examine and evaluate their firm’s financial systems and management control procedures to ensure ef ficient and economical operation. I Growth J Deaths and retirements About 60 percent of all accountants do management accounting. An additional 25 percent are engaged in public accounting as proprietors, partners, or employees of inde pendent accounting firms. Other accountants work for Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies, and some teach in colleges and universities. Opportunities are plentiful ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/113 for part-time work, particularly in smaller firms. 30 additional semester hours. This trend is expected to continue in the coming years. Accountants are found in all business, in dustrial, and government organizations. Most, however, work in large urban areas where many public accounting firms and central offices of large businesses are concen trated, such as Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, and Washington, D.C. For a “public accountant” or “accounting practitioner” license or registration, some States require only a high school diploma while others require college training. Infor mation on requirements may be obtained di rectly from individual State boards of ac countancy or from the National Society of Public Accountants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training is available at colleges and uni versities, accounting and business schools, and correspondence schools. Although many graduates of business and correspondence schools are successful, most public account ing and business firms require applicants for accountant and internal auditor positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree in account ing or a closely related field. Many employers prefer those with the master’s degree in ac counting. A growing number of large em ployers prefer applicants who are familiar with computers and their applications in ac counting and internal auditing. For begin ning accounting positions, the Federal Gov ernment requires 4 years of college (including 24 semester hours in accounting or auditing) or an equivalent combination of education and experience. However, applicants face competition for the limited number of open ings in the Federal Government. For teach ing positions, most colleges and universities require at least the master’s degree or the Certified Public Accountant Certificate. Previous experience in accounting can help an applicant get a job. Many colleges offer students an opportunity to gain experi ence through summer or part-time internship programs conducted by public accounting or business firms. Such training is invaluable in gaining permanent employment in the field. Professional recognition through certifica tion or licensure also is extremely valuable. Anyone working as a “certified public ac countant” must hold a certificate issued by a State board of accountancy. All States use the four-part Uniform CPA Examination, prepared by the American Institute of Certi fied Public Accountants, to establish certifi cation. The CPA examination is very rigor ous and candidates are not required to pass all four parts at once. However, most States require candidates to pass at least two parts for partial credit. Although the vast majority of States require CPA candidates to be col lege graduates, some States substitute a cer tain number of years of public accounting experience for the educational requirement. Most States require applicants to have some public accounting experience for a CPA cer tificate. For example, bachelor’s degree hold ers most often need 2 years of experience while master’s degree holders often need no more than 1 year. Based on recommenda tions made by the American Institute of Cer tified Public Accountants, a few States now require or are considering requiring CPA candidates to have a bachelor’s degree plus 114/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The Institute of Internal Auditors, Inc., confers the Certified Internal Auditor (CIA) upon graduates from accredited colleges and universities who have completed 3 years’ ex perience in internal auditing and who have passed a four-part examination. The Na tional Association of Accountants (NAA) confers the Certificate in Management Ac counting (CMA) upon candidates who pass a series of uniform examinations and meet spe cific educational and professional standards. Persons planning a career in accounting should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able quickly to analyze, compare, and inter pret facts and figures, and to make sound judgments based on this knowledge. They must question how and why things are done and be able to clearly communicate the re sults of their work, orally and in writing, to clients and management. Accountants must be patient and able to concentrate for long periods of time. They must be good at working with systems and computers as well as with people. Accuracy and the ability to handle responsibility with limited supervision are important. Perhaps most important, because millions of financial statement users rely on the ser vices of accountants, the public expects ac countants to have the highest standards of integrity. A growing number of States require both CPA’s and licensed public account ants to complete a certain number of hours of continuing education before licenses can be renewed. Increasingly, accountants are studying computer programming so they can adapt accounting procedures to data processing. Although capable accountants should advance rapidly, those having inadequate academic preparation may be assigned routine jobs and find promotion difficult. Junior public accountants usually start by assisting with auditing work for several clients. They may advance to intermediate positions with more responsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within an other few years. Those who deal success fully with top industry executives often be come supervisors, managers, or partners, or transfer to executive positions in private firms. Some open their own public ac counting offices. Beginning management accountants often start as ledger accountants, junior internal auditors, or as trainees for technical account ing positions. They may advance to chief plant accountant, chief cost accountant, bud get director, or manager of internal auditing. Some become controllers, treasurers, finan cial vice-presidents, or corporation presi dents. Many corporation executives have backgrounds in accounting and finance. In the Federal Government, beginners are hired as trainees and usually are promoted in a year Accountants must be able to concentrate and work accurately on detailed matters for long periods of time. or so. In college and university teaching, those having minimum training and experi ence may receive the' rank of instructor with out tenure; advancement and permanent fac ulty status depend upon further education and teaching experience and are increasingly difficult to attain. Employment Outlook Employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s due to increasing pressure on busi nesses and government agencies to improve budgeting and accounting procedures. Be cause of the size of the occupation, however, even more job openings should result from deaths, retirements, and other separations from the labor force than from employment growth. Demand for skilled accountants will rise as managers rely increasingly on accounting in formation to make business decisions. For example, plant expansion, mergers, or for eign investments may depend upon the finan cial condition of the firm, tax implications of the proposed action, and other considera tions. On a smaller scale, small businesses are expected to rely more and more on the exper tise of public accountants in planning their operations. Government legislation to moni tor business activity also is expected to add to the demand for accountants. Legislation and regulations regarding pension reform, tax re form, revenue sharing, funding of elections, financial disclosure, and other matters should create many jobs for accountants. In addition, increases in investment and lending and the need for government to allocate lim ited funds also should spur demand for ac countants. College graduates will be in greater de mand for accounting jobs than applicants who lack this training. Opportunities for ac countants without a college degree will occur mainly in small businesses and accounting firms. Many employers prefer graduates who have worked part time in a business or ac counting firm while in school. In fact, experi ence has become so important that some em ployers in business and industry seek persons with 1 or 2 years’ experience for beginning positions. Earnings of experienced accountants ranged between $15,700 and $27,300, depending on their level of responsibility and the complex ity of the accounting system. Chief account ants who direct the accounting program of a company or one of its establishments earned between $23,700 and $39,900, depending upon the scope of their authority and size of professional staff. According to the same survey, beginning auditors averaged $13,200 a year in 1978, while experienced auditors’ earnings ranged between $15,700 and $23,100. In the Federal Government, the starting salary for junior accountants and auditors was $10,507 in early 1979. Candidates who had a superior academic record could begin at $13,014. Applicants with a master’s degree or 2 years’ professional experience began at $15,920. Accountants in the Federal Govern ment averaged about $24,300 a year in early 1979. According to a 1978 survey of State gov ernments, average annual salaries of begin ning accountants or auditors ranged from about $10,800 to $14,200; principal auditors (work at first level of full supervision), $15,900 to $21,300; accounting supervisors (work at first level of full supervision), $14,700 to $19,600; and chief fiscal officers (those who administer accounting and fiscal man agement programs of large State agencies), $20,800 to $27,400. Related Occupations Accountants design and control financial records and analyze financial data. Others for whom training in accounting is invalu able include appraisers, budget officers, loan officers, financial analysts, bank offic ers, actuaries, underwriters, FBI special agents, securities sales workers, and pur chasing agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in accounting and about aptitude tests administered in high schools, colleges, and public accounting firms may be obtained from: American Institute of Certified Public Account ants, 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. The increasing use of computers and elec tronic data processing systems in accounting should stimulate the demand for those trained in such procedures. Information on specialized fields of ac counting is available from: Earnings National Association of Accountants, 919 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. According to a 1978 College Placement Council Salary Survey, bachelor’s degree candidates in accounting received offers ave raging around $13,500 a year; master’s de gree candidates, $16,000. Public accounting firms offered bachelor’s degree candidates around $14,000 a year. National Society of Public Accountants, 1717 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. The starting salary of beginning account ants in private industry was about $12,800 a year in 1978, according to a national survey. Institute of Internal Auditors, 249 Maitland Ave., Altamonte Springs, Fla. 32701. For information on educational institu tions offering a specialization in accounting, contact: American Assembly o f Collegiate Schools of Busi ness, 1755 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Suite 320, Washington, D.C. 20036. Buyers_________ (D.O.T. 162.157-018 and -022; 185.167-034) Nature of the Work The Americans have been invited to a pri vate showing in Paris. Representing a major New York department store, they sit with a select group in an elegantly furnished room. They watch closely as graceful models float down the runway before them to display the latest creations by the world’s most famous designers. After some consultation, they make choices involving thousands, perhaps millions of dollars. All in a day’s work. The job of retail buyer often brings to mind the glamour of high fashion; indeed, many fashion buyers do lead exciting, fast-paced lives involving travel abroad. Not every buyer, however, deals in fashion. All mer chandise sold in a retail store—garden furni ture, automobile tires, toys, aluminum pots, and canned soups alike—appears in that store on the decision of a buyer. Although all, buyers seek to satisfy their stores’ customers and sell at a profit, the kind and variety of goods they purchase depend on the store where they work. A buyer for a small cloth ing store, for example, may purchase its com plete stock of merchandise, from sportswear to formal evening clothes. Buyers who work for larger retail businesses often handle one or a few related lines of goods, such as men’s wear, ladies’ sportswear, or children’s toys. Some, known as foreign buyers, purchase merchandise outside the United States. In order to purchase the best selection of goods for their stores, buyers must be famil iar with the manufacturers and distributors who handle the merchandise they need. They also must keep informed about changes in existing products and the development of new ones. To learn about merchandise, buy ers attend fashion and trade shows and visit manufacturers’ showrooms. They usually order goods during buying trips, and also place orders with wholesale and manufactur ers’ sales workers who call on them to display their merchandise. Buyers must be able to assess the resale value of goods after a brief inspection and make a purchase decision quickly. They are aware of their stores’ profit margins and try to select merchandise that will sell quickly at well above the original cost. Since most buyers work within a limited budget, they must plan their purchases to keep needed items always in stock but also allow for unexpected purchases when a “good buy” presents itself. Because buyers purchase merchandise for their firms to resell (unlike purchasing agents who buy goods for direct use by the firm— see the statement on purchasing agents else where in the Handbook), they must know what motivates customers to buy. Before or dering a particular line of merchandise, buy ers study market research reports and ana ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/115 lyze past sales records to determine what pro ducts are currently in demand. They also work closely with assistant buyers and sales clerks whose daily contact with customers furnishes information about consumer likes and dislikes. In addition, buyers read fashion and trade magazines to keep abreast of style and manufacturing trends; follow ads in newspapers and other media to check retail competitors’ sales activities; and watch gen eral economic conditions to anticipate con sumer buying patterns. Merchandise managers (D.O.T. 185.167034) plan and coordinate buying and selling activities for large and medium-sized stores. They divide the budget among buyers, decide how much merchandise to stock, and assign each buyer to purchase certain goods. Mer chandise managers may review buying deci sions to ensure that needed categories of goods are in stock, and help buyers to set general pricing guidelines. Buyers and merchandise managers usually have very busy schedules and deal with many different people in the course of a day. They work with manufacturers’ representatives, other store personnel including store execu tives and sales workers, and customers. As sisting with sales promotions and creating enthusiasm among sales personnel are part of the buyer’s job, and he or she may be asked to provide information, such as dress sizes and product descriptions, to the advertising department for a sales promotion, or to meet with floor sales workers before a new line of merchandise is introduced. Some buyers di rect assistants who handle routine aspects of purchasing such as verifying shipments; oth ers supervise department managers. job can provide more than make up for any emotional strain. statement on retail trade sales workers else where in the Handbook.) Buyers frequently work more than a 40hour week because of special sales, confer ences, and travel. The amount of traveling a buyer does varies with the type of merchan dise bought and the location of suppliers, but most spend 4 or 5 days a month on the road. More and more, however, employers pre fer applicants who have a college degree. Many colleges and universities offer associate degree or bachelor’s degree programs in mar keting and purchasing. Postsecondary train ing also is offered in vocational schools or technical institutes that prepare students for careers in fashion merchandising. While courses in merchandising or marketing may help in getting started in retailing, such train ing is not essential, as a rule. Most employers accept college graduates in any field of study and train them on the job. Places of Employment In 1978, approximately 115,000 buyers and merchandise managers worked for retail firms. Although jobs for buyers are found in all parts of the country, most jobs are in major metropolitan areas where retail stores are concentrated. Market representatives work for buying offices in major market areas such as New York, Chicago, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because familiarity with the merchandise and with the retailing business itself is such a central element in the buyer’s job, prior retailing experience sometimes provides suf ficient preparation. Many a successful buyer began in a stockroom or behind a sales counter and worked up the ladder. High school distributive education programs have launched careers in retailing that led, eventu ally, to a buyer’s position. (More information about distributive education appears in the In many stores, beginners who are candi dates for buying jobs start out in executive training programs. These programs usually last from 6 to 8 months and combine class room instruction in merchandising and pur chasing with short rotations to various jobs in the store. This training introduces the new worker to store operations The trainee’s first job is likely to be that of assistant buyer. The duties include supervis ing sales workers, checking invoices on mate rial received, and keeping account of stock on hand. Assistant buyers gradually assume purchasing responsibilities, depending upon their individual abilities and the size of the department where they work. Training as an assistant buyer usually lasts at least a year. Some buyers represent large stores or chains in cities where many manufacturers are located. The duties of these “market rep resentatives” vary by employer; some pur chase goods, while others supply information and arrange for store buyers to meet with manufacturers when they are in town. New technology has altered the buyer’s role in retail chainstores. In the past, firms employed a buyer for each store or group of stores in a local area. Now cash regis ters connected to a computer, known as point-of-sale terminals, allow retail chains to maintain centralized, up-to-the-minute inventory records. With these records, a single garden furniture buyer, for example, can purchase lawn chairs and picnic tables for the entire chain. Working Conditions Retailing is a highly competitive business, and buyers operate under considerable pres sure. Anticipating customers’ preferences and ensuring that goods are in stock when they are needed is far from easy, and mistakes can be costly. The buyer’s job calls for re sourcefulness and good judgment, as well as the self-confidence to make decisions and take risks. However, many successful buyers feel that the stimulation and excitement the 116/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Buyers must be able to assess the resale value of goods. After years of working as a buyer, those who show exceptional ability may advance to merchandise manager. A few find further promotion to top executive jobs such as gen eral merchandise manager for a retail store or chain. The length of time it takes to reach any of these levels depends not just on the indi vidual’s ability but on the store’s need for management personnel. The faster the com pany grows, the greater the opportunity for a worker to acquire responsibility. Buyers should be good at planning and decisionmaking and have an interest in mer chandising. They need leadership ability and communications skills to supervise sales workers and assistant buyers and to deal ef fectively with manufacturers’ representatives and store executives. Because of the fast pace and constant pressure of their work, buyers need physical stamina and emotional stabil ity. Employment Outlook Employment of buyers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. The rate of growth is expected to be slower than that projected for the retail trade industry as a whole, how ever. This mainly reflects the increased use of computerized systems to maintain invento ries and to order standard items of merchan dise through centralized buying. Such sys tems are gaining popularity among chainstores and are expected increasingly to dominate general merchandise retailing. Most job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Competition for buying jobs is expected to be keen, for merchandising attracts large numbers of college graduates every year. Prospects are likely to be best for qualified applicants who enjoy the competitive nature of retailing and work best in a demanding, fast-paced job. Earnings Buyers for discount department stores and other mass merchandising firms are among the most highly paid in the industry, as are those who buy centrally for large chain de partment stores. Most earned between $23,000 and $32,000 a year in 1978, though many earned salaries outside this range. Merchan dising managers earned considerably more. The actual income depends upon the product line purchased, the sales volume of the store, and the individual’s seniority. Buyers often earn large bonuses (cash gifts) for exceptional performance. In addi tion, many stores have incentive plans, such as profit sharing and stock options. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations need a knowledge of marketing and the ability to assess consumer demand; among them are comparison shoppers, manufacturers’ sales representatives, insurance sales agents, wholesale trade sales representatives, and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career in re tailing is available from: National Retail Merchants Association, 100 West 31st St., New York, N.Y. 10001. Information on schools that teach retailing is available from: U.S. Department of Education, Division of Vocational/Technical Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. National Association o f Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. City Managers ceive visitors, answer correspondence, and generally help to keep the city government functioning smoothly. Assistant city manag ers organize and coordinate city programs, supervise city employees, and act for the city manager on occasion. They also may assume responsibility for some projects, such as the development of a preliminary annual budget. Department head assistants generally are re sponsible for one activity, such as personnel, finance, or law enforcement, but they also may assist in other areas. Administrative as sistants, also called executive assistants or as sistants to the city manager, usually do ad ministrative and staff work in all departments under the city manager. For in stance, they may compile operating statistics or review and analyze work procedures. Management analysts study and recommend possible changes in organization or adminis trative procedures. Working Conditions (D .O .T. 188.117-114) Nature of the Work Population growth and industrial expan sion place increasing pressure on housing, transportation, and other facilities of cities. Problems associated with the growth of mod em communities, such as air and water pollu tion and rising crime rates, also demand at tention. To cope effectively with these problems, many communities hire a special ist in management techniques—the city man ager. A city manager usually is appointed by the community’s elected officials and is responsi ble directly to them. Although duties vary by city size, city managers generally administer and coordinate the day-to-day operations of the city. They are responsible for functions such as tax collection and disbursement, law enforcement, and public works. They also hire department heads and their staffs and prepare the annual budget to be approved by elected officials. In addition, they study cur rent problems, such as traffic congestion, crime, or urban renewal, and report their findings to the elected council. City managers must plan for future growth and development of cities and surrounding areas. To provide for an expansion of public services, they frequently appear at civic meet ings to advocate certain programs or to in form citizens of current government opera tions. City managers work closely with planning departments to coordinate new and existing programs. In smaller cities that have no per manent planning staff, coordination may be done entirely by the manager. To aid the city manager, many cities em ploy management assistants: assistant city managers, department head assistants, (D.O.T. 189.167-030), administrative assist ants (D.O.T. 169.167-010), and management analysts (D.O.T. 161.167-010). Under the manager’s direction, management assistants administer programs, prepare reports, re City managers generally work in well lighted and ventilated offices. They often work overtime at night and on weekends meeting citizens’ groups, attending civic functions, reading and writing reports, or fin ishing paperwork. When a problem arises or a crisis occurs, they may be called to work at any hour. Places of Employment About 3,000 city managers were employed in 1978. In addition, several times as many persons worked as administrative assistants, department head assistants, and assistant city managers. Most city managers worked for cities and counties that had a councilmanager form of government. Under this type of government, an elected council ap points a manager who is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the government as well as for the hiring and firing of assistants, department heads, and other staff. Many other city managers worked for municipali ties that had th e m ayor-coun cil form of gov ernment, in which the mayor appoints the city manager as his or her chief administra tive officer. A few city managers also worked for county governments, metropolitan or re gional planning organizations, and councils of governments. All types of local govern ments employed management assistants, but larger jurisdictions generally employed them in greater numbers. Although over three-fourths of all city managers work for small cities having fewer than 25,000 inhabitants, many larger cities also employ a city manager. About one-half of the cities having a population of between 10,000 and 500,000 have city managers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree, preferably in public or business administration, is becoming essen tial for those seeking a career in city manage- ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/117 managers should find jobs in other fields of public administration. Earnings Salaries of city managers and management assistants vary according to experience, job responsibility, and city size. In 1978, the av erage annual salary for all managers was more than $26,000, about two and one- half times the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In 1978, average annual salaries of city managers ranged from about $22,000 in small cities of 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants to about $40,000 in medium-sized cities of 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, according to the International City Management Association. City managers employed in large cities earned salaries of more than $50,000 a year. City managers in cities not having councilmanager governments received slightly less. City manager and management assistant prepare to brief the city council on the proposed city budget. ment. Although some applicants with only a bachelor’s degree may find employment, strong competition for positions, even among master’s degree recipients, will make the graduate degree a requirement for most entry level jobs. In some cases, employers may hire a person with a graduate degree in a field related to public administration, such as en gineering, social work, political science or law. In 1978, over 200 colleges and universities offered graduate degrees in public affairs or administration. Degree requirements in some schools include completion of an internship program in a city manager’s office. During this internship period, which may last from 6 months to a year, the degree candidate ob serves local government operations and does research under the direct supervision of the city manager. Nearly all city managers begin as manage ment assistants. Most new graduates work as management analysts or administrative as sistants to city managers for several years to gain experience in solving urban problems, coordinating public services, and applying management techniques. Others work in a government department such as finance, public works, or public planning. They may acquire supervisory skills and additional ex perience by working as assistant city man ager or department head assistant. City managers often are first employed in small cities, but during their careers they may work in several cities of increasing size. Persons who plan a career in city man agement should like to work with detail and to be a part of a team. They must have sound judgment, self-confidence, and the ability to perform well under stress. To handle emergencies, city managers must 118/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK quickly isolate problems, identify their causes, and provide a number of possible solutions. City managers should be tactful and able to communicate and work well with people. City managers also must be dedicated to public service since they often put in long, hard hours in times of crisis. Employment Outlook Employment of city managers and local government management assistants is ex pected to expand faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as man agement of our governments becomes more complex. Examples of more sophisticated management techniques include computer ized tax and utility billing, electronic traffic control, and application of systems analysis to urban problems. The demand for city managers also will increase as more cities convert to the council-manager form of gov ernment, currently the fastest growing form of city government. Furthermore, city managers and management assistants will be employed by other types of local government to help elected officials with day-to-day oper ations of government. Increased emphasis on regional solutions to urban problems should result in additional job opportunities for city managers and management assistants in councils of government. Persons who seek beginning management assistant jobs are expected to face keen com petition through the 1980’s. Competition also should be keen among the growing number of administrative assistants, department head assistants, and assistant city managers for the relatively few city manager positions. How ever, many of those unable to find employ ment as management assistants or city Salaries of management assistants ranged from about $12,000 in small cities to more than $20,000 in large ones. Salaries of assist ant city managers generally were higher than those of other management assistants. City managers often work more than 40 hours a week. Emergencies may require eve ning and weekend work and meetings with individuals and citizen’s groups consume ad ditional time. Related Occupations A variety of related careers are open to persons interested in managerial work. In the private sector, a wide range of managerial and executive carrers are possible in business and industry. In the public sector, related managerial occupations include: Program analysts, government program managers, management analysts, budget officers, school or hospital administrators, and airport managers. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in city man agement, contact: International City Management Association, 1140 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. College Student Personnel Workers (D.O.T. 045.107-010, -018, -026, -038; 090.107 through .167 exc. 117-022; 129.107-018; 166.167-014) Nature of the Work A student’s choice of a particular institu tion of higher education is influenced by many factors. Availability of a specific edu cational program, quality of the school, cost, and location all may play important roles. For many students, however, an equally important factor is the institution’s ability to provide for their housing, social, cultural, and recreational needs. Developing and ad ministering these services are the tasks of col lege student personnel workers. The admis sions officer, the registrar, the dean of students, and the career planning and place ment counselor are probably the best known among these. Other workers who make up this broad occupational field include student activities and college union personnel, stu dent housing officers, counselors in the col lege counseling center, financial aid officers, and foreign student advisers. Titles of student personnel workers vary from institution to institution, from program to program within a single school, and with the level of responsibility within a student personnel program. The more common titles include dean, director, officer, associate dean, assistant director, and counselor. The dean o f students, or the vice president for student affairs, heads the student person nel program at a school. Among his or her duties are evaluating the changing needs of the students and helping the president of the college develop institutional policies. For ex ample, to meet the needs of an increasing number of older, part-time students, colleges and universities have been changing their policies concerning areas such as student housing and student participation in deci sions on graduation requirements and course offerings. In addition, the dean of students generally coordinates a staff of associate or assistant deans who are in charge of specific programs that deal directly with the stu dents. Admissions counselors interview and eval uate prospective students and process their applications. They may travel extensively to recruit high school, junior college, and older students and to acquaint them with oppor tunities available at their college. They work closely with faculty, administrators, financial aid personnel, and public relations staffs to determine policies for recruiting and admit ting students. Personnel in the office of the registrar maintain the academic records of students and provide current enrollment statistics to those who require them both within the col lege and in the community. Student financial aid personnel help stu dents obtain financial support for their edu cation. Workers in this field must keep well informed about the sources and management of all forms of financial aid—scholarships, grants, loans, employment, fellowships, and teaching and research assistantships. They work closely with administrators and the ad missions, counseling, business, and academic office staffs. Career planning and placement counse lors, sometimes called college placement of ficers, assist students in career selections and also may help them get part-time and sum mer jobs. On many campuses, they arrange for prospective employers to visit the school to discuss their personnel needs and to inter view applicants. For further information on Financial aid personnel must be well informed about all sources of financial aid. this field, see the chapter on college career planning and placement counselors. The student personnel staff in charge of student activities work with members of pro posed and established student organizations, especially with student government. They help the student groups to plan, implement, and evaluate their activities. Often, the stu dent activities staff will assist in the orienta tion of new students. College union staff members work with students to provide intellectual, cultural, and recreational programs. Many college union staff members direct the operation of the physical facilities and services of the college union building, such as food and recreational services, building maintenance, fiscal plan ning, and conference facilities. Student housing officers sometimes live in the dormitories and, in general, help the stu dents to live together in harmony. They may serve as counselors to individual students with personal problems. Housing officers also may be involved in managing the fiscal, food service, and housekeeping operations of student residences. Counselors help students with personal, educational, and vocational problems. Stu dents may come to the counselors on their own or be referred by a faculty member, a residence hall counselor, or a friend. Coun seling needs may arise from lack of self-confi dence or motivation on the part of the stu dent, failure in academic work, desire to leave college or transfer to another college, inability to get along with others, loneliness, drug abuse, or marriage problems. In addi tion, there is a growing trend for counselors to try to reach more students by establishing group sensitivity sessions and telephone “hotlines.” Counselors often administer tests that indicate aptitudes and interests to stu dents having trouble understanding them selves. Some also teach in the college or assist with admissions, orientation, and training of residence hall staff. For further information on this field, see the chapter on psychologists that appears elsewhere in the Handbook. Foreign student advisers administer and coordinate many of the services that help to insure a successful academic and social expe rience for students from other countries. They usually assist with foreign student ad missions, orientation, financial aid, housing, English as a foreign language, academic and personal counseling, student-community re lationships, job placement, and alumni rela tions. In addition, they may work as an ad viser for international associations and nationality groups and for U.S. students in terested in study, educational travel, work, or service projects abroad. Working Conditions Students are not always available for con sultation or meetings during the day, so eve ning and weekend work is common. And since the workflow at a college may be irregu lar, college student personnel workers some times face hectic periods where they work more than 40 hours a week. Registrars, for example, are especially busy during the weeks immediately preceding and including registration, while admissions counselors at private institutions may work long hours in early spring, as the deadline for determining next year’s student body approaches. Places of Employment An estimated 55,000 college student per sonnel workers were employed in 1978. Every college and university, whether a 2year or a 4-year school, has a staff performing student personnel functions. They are not al ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/119 ways organized as a unified program. Large colleges and universities generally have spe cialized staffs for each personnel function. In many small colleges, a few persons may carry out the entire student personnel program. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity in duties, the edu cation and backgrounds of college student personnel workers vary considerably. Gener ally, however, a master’s degree is preferred and a doctoral degree may be necessary for advancement to toplevel positions. Schools often prefer persons who have a bachelor’s degree in a social science, such as economics or history, and a master’s degree in student personnel work. In 1978, over 100 colleges and universities offered graduate programs in this area. Other specialized training also may be required for some student personnel occupa tions. A master’s degree in clinical or coun seling psychology usually is required for work as a college counselor. This degree also is helpful in other student personnel fields such as career planning and placement. Fa miliarity with data processing is an asset, es pecially for work in admissions, records, or financial aid. Previous experience in college administra tion is desirable. Many graduate students ob tain this experience by working part time in residence halls or in financial aid or admis sions offices, sometimes as part of a work/study program. Participation in student gov ernment as an undergraduate also provides useful exposure. College student personnel workers must be interested in, and able to work with, people of all backgrounds and ages. They must have the patience to cope with conflicting view points of students, faculty, and parents. Peo ple in this field often deal with the unex pected and the unusual; therefore, emotional stability and the ability to function while under pressure are necessities. Entry level positions usually are those of student activities advisers, admissions counselors, financial aid counselors, resi dence hall directors, and assistants to deans. Persons who do not have graduate degrees may find advancement opportunities limited. A doctorate usually is necessary for the top student personnel positions. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for college stu dent personnel workers is likely to be some what competitive through the 1980’s. Tight ening budgets in both public and private colleges and universities are expected to limit growth in employment. Student personnel positions least likely to be affected if some reduction becomes necessary are those in ad missions and financial aid. Most openings will result from the need to replace personnel who transfer to other positions, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. 120/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Any employment growth that does occur is expected to be in junior and community colleges. Enrollment at this level of education has been rising and many new schools have opened. If this trend continues, some addi tional student personnel workers will be needed in 2-year institutions. Earnings In 1978, annual salaries averaged $37,800 for presidents and chancellors, $28,100 for deans, $20,600 for counseling directors, $20,300 for admissions directors, $18,000 for reg istrars, $17,900 for placement directors, $16,800 for financial aid directors, and $16,700 for housing directors, according to a survey by the National Center for Education Statis tics. Salaries vary greatly, however, depend ing on geographic location and the size of the school. Employment in these occupations usually is on a 12-month basis. In many schools, col lege student personnel workers are entitled to retirement, group medical and life insurance, and sabbatical and other benefits. Related Occupations Secondary and elementary schools also need a variety of administrative workers to operate effectively. Included in this group are superintendents, principals, deans, guidance counselors, and school psychologists. Credit Managers (D.O.T. 168.167-054) Nature of the Work Over the years, buying on credit has be come a customary way of doing business. Consumers use credit extensively to buy houses, cars, refrigerators, and many other goods and services. The vast majority of busi ness purchases, such as raw materials used in manufacturing and merchandise to be sold in retail stores, also are bought on credit so that businesses do not have to tie up their cash in inventories. For most forms of credit, a credit manager has final authority to accept or reject a credit application. In extending credit to a business (commercial credit), the credit manager or an assistant analyzes detailed financial re ports submitted by the applicant, interviews a representative of the company about its management, and reviews credit agency re ports to determine the firm’s record in repay ing debts. The manager also checks at banks where the company has deposits or previ ously was granted credit. In extending credit to individuals (consumer credit), detailed fi nancial reports usually are not available. The credit manager must rely more on personal interviews, credit bureaus, and banks to pro vide information about the person applying for credit. Particularly in large organizations, execu tive level credit managers work with other top managers to formulate a credit policy. They establish financial standards to be met by applicants and thereby determine the amount of risk that their company will ac cept when offering its products or services for sale on credit. Managers must cooperate with the sales department in developing a credit policy liberal enough to allow the company’s sales to increase and yet strict enough to deny credit to customers whose ability to repay their debts is questionable. Many credit managers establish office procedures and su pervise workers who gather information, an alyze facts, and perform general office duties in a credit department; they include applica tion clerks, collection workers, bookkeepers, and secretaries. In small companies that handle a limited number of accounts, credit managers may do much of the work of granting credit them selves. They may interview applicants, ana lyze the information gained in the interview, and make the final approval. They frequently must contact customers who are unable or refuse to pay their debts. They do this through writing, telephoning, or personal contact. If these attempts at collection fail, credit managers may refer the account to a collection agency or assign an attorney to take legal action. Working Conditions Credit managers normally work the stan dard 35-40 hour workweek, but some may work longer hours. In wholesale and retail trade, for example, a seasonal increase in credit sales can produce a greater work vol ume. Credit managers usually spend most of their time in the office. However, they may travel occasionally. Some credit managers, for example, attend conferences sponsored by industry and professional organizations in which they develop and discuss new tech niques for credit department management. Places of Employment About 49,000 persons worked as credit managers in 1978. About one-half were em ployed in wholesale and retail trade, but many others, about 40 percent of the total, worked for manufacturing firms and finan cial institutions. Although credit is granted throughout the United States, most credit managers work in urban areas where many financial and busi ness establishments are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree is becoming increasingly important for entry level jobs in credit man agement. Employers usually seek persons who have a degree in business administra tion, but they may also hire graduates hold ing liberal arts degrees. Courses in account ing, economics, finance, computer pro graming, statistics, and psychology all are National Consumer Finance Association, 1000 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Employment Outlook Employment of credit managers is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. De spite this relatively slow growth, many jobs will become available each year due to the need to replace persons who leave the occu pation. Although there will be opportunities throughout the country, employment pros pects should continue to be best for wellqualified jobseekers in metropolitan areas. The volume of credit extended rose very rapidly during the past decade. In the years ahead, businesses can be expected to require increasing amounts of credit to secure raw materials for production and obtain finished goods for eventual resale. It is in the area of business credit where demand for credit managers will be strongest. Credit managers must be able to analyze de tailed information in order to make a sound deci sion on granting credit. valuable in preparing for a career in credit management. Some employers may promote high school graduates to credit manager posi tions if they have experience in credit collec tion or processing credit information. Newly hired workers normally begin as management trainees and work under the guidance of more experienced personnel in the credit department. Here they gain a thor ough understanding of the company’s credit procedures and policies. They may analyze previous credit transactions to learn how to recognize which applicants should prove to be good customers. Trainees also learn to deal with credit bureaus, banks, and other businesses that can provide information on the past credit dealings of their custom ers. Many formal training programs are available through the educational branches of the associations that service the credit and finance field. This training includes home study, college and university pro grams, and special instruction to improve beginners’ skills and keep experienced credit managers aware of new develop ments in their field. A person interested in a career as a credit manager should be able to analyze detailed information and draw valid conclusions based on this analysis. Because it is necessary to maintain good customer relationships, a pleasant personality and the ability to speak and write effectively also are characteristics of the successful credit manager. The work performed by credit managers allows them to become familiar with almost every phase of their company’s business. Highly qualified and experienced managers can advance to top-level executive positions. However, in small and medium-sized compa nies,for such opportunities are limited. Digitized FRASER Consumers, whose personal incomes have risen, are expected to finance greater num bers of high-priced items. In addition, the use of credit for everyday purchases is expected to grow as demand increases for recreation and household goods as well as for consumer services. Despite increases in consumer debt, the use of computers for storing and retriev ing information will enable this greater vol ume of information to be processed more effi ciently. The use of telecommunications networks enables retail outlets to have imme diate access to a central credit office, regard less of distance. Another factor that is expected to slow the growth in the number of credit managers is the increased use of bank credit cards for consumer purchases. As stores substitute bank credit cards for their own charge ac counts, retail store credit departments may be reduced or eliminated. Earnings In 1978, credit manager trainees who had a college degree earned annual salaries that ranged from about $11,000 to $12,000, de pending on the type of employer and the geo graphic location of the job. Assistant credit managers averaged about $13,000 to $16,000 a year and credit manag ers had average earnings of about $20,000. Individuals in top-level positions often earn over $40,000 a year. Related Occupations Other managerial occupations in banks, investment companies, and credit agencies include loan officers, credit card operations managers, credit union managers, risk and insurance managers, controllers, financial in stitution managers, letter of credit negotia tors, and dealer accounts credit officers. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career in consumer credit may be obtained from: International Consumer Credit Association, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St Louis, Mo. 63141. For information about training programs available in commercial credit, write: National Association of Credit Management, 475 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10016. Hotel Managers and Assistants__________ (D.O.T. 163.117-018; 187.117-038, .167-078, -110, -122, -126) Nature of the Work Hotel managers are responsible for operat ing their establishments profitably and satis fying guests. They determine room rates and credit policy, direct the operation of the foodservice operation, and manage the housekeeping, accounting, security, and maintenance departments of the hotel. Han dling problems and coping with the unex pected are important parts of the job. A small hotel or motel requires only a lim ited staff, and the manager may have to fulfill various front office duties, such as taking reservations and assigning rooms. When management is combined with ownership, these activities may expand to include all as pects of the business. General managers of large hotels usually have several assistants or department heads who manage various parts of the operation. Because the hotel restaurant and cocktail lounge are important to the success of the entire establishment, they almost always are operated by managers with experience in the restaurant field. Other areas that usually are handled separately are advertising, rental of banquet and meeting facilities, marketing and sales, personnel, and accounting. Large hotel and motel chains often central ize some activities, such as purchasing and advertising, so that individual hotels in the chain may not need managers for these de partments. Managers who work for chains may be assigned to organize a newly built or purchased hotel or to reorganize an existing hotel or motel that is not operating success fully. About 168,000 hotel and motel managers worked in 1978. More than a third were selfemployed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement' Experience generally is the most important consideration in selecting managers. How ever, employers increasingly are emphasizing college education. A bachelor’s degree in hotel and restaurant administration provides particularly strong preparation for a career in hotel management. In 1979, about 50 col leges and universities offered 4-year pro grams in this field. Applicants to these pro grams may face increasing competition in the ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/121 Sources of Additional Information See the chapter on the hotel industry else where in the Handbook for information on earnings and working conditions, sources of additional information, and more informa tion on employment outlook. Lawyers (D.O.T. 110 and 090.227-010) Laws permeate every aspect of our society. They regulate the entire spectrum of relation ships among individuals, groups, businesses, and governments. They define rights as well as restrictions, covering such diverse human activities as judging and punishing criminals, granting patents, drawing up business con tracts, paying taxes, settling labor disputes, constructing buildings, and administering wills. In small hotels, managers may have to fulfill various front office duties. coming years, however. Many junior col leges, technical institutes, and the Educa tional Institute of the American Hotel & Motel Association also have courses in hotel work that provide a good background. Included in many college programs in hotel management are courses in hotel ad ministration, accounting, economics, data processing, housekeeping, food service man agement and catering, and hotel maintenance engineering. Part-time or summer work in hotels and restaurants is encouraged because the experience gained and the contacts with employers may benefit students when seeking a job after graduation. Managers should have initiative, self-dis cipline, and the ability to organize and di rect the work of others. They must be able to solve problems and concentrate on de tails. Sometimes large hotels sponsor special ized, on-the-job management training pro grams which enable trainees to rotate among various departments and receive a thorough knowledge of the hotel’s operation. Other ho tels may help finance outstanding employees in acquiring the necessary training in hotel management. Most hotels promote employees who have proven their ability, usually front office clerks, to assistant manager and eventually to general manager. Newly built hotels, particu 122/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK larly those without well-established on-thejob training programs, often prefer ex perienced personnel for managerial positions. Hotel and motel chains may offer better opportunites for advancement than indepen dent properties, because employees can transfer to another hotel or motel in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Employment Outlook Employment of hotel managers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Some job openings will occur as additional hotels and motels are built and chain and franchise op erations spread. However, most openings will occur as experienced managers die, retire, or leave the occupation. Applicants who have college degrees in hotel administration will have an advantage in seeking entry positions and later advancement. Related Occupations Hotel managers and assistants are not the only workers concerned with organiz ing and directing a business where pleasing people is very important. Other workers with similar responsibilities include apart ment managers, food service managers, de partment managers, office managers, and sales managers. Because social needs and attitudes are con tinually changing, the legal system that regu lates our social, political, and economic rela tionships also change. Keeping the law responsive to human needs is the work of lawyers. Also called attorneys, lawyers link the legal system and society. To perform this role, they must understand the world around them and be sensitive to the numerous as pects of society that the law touches. They must comprehend not only the words of a particular statute, but the human circum stances it addresses as well. As our laws grow more complex, the work of lawyers takes on broader significance. Laws affect our lives in new ways as the legal system takes on regulatory tasks in areas such as transportation, energy conservation, consumer protection, and social welfare. Lawyers interpret these laws, rulings, and regulations for individuals and businesses. Nature of the Work Certain activities are common to nearly every attorney’s work. Probably the most fundamental is interpretation of the law. Every attorney, whether representing the de fendant in a murder trial or the plaintiff (suing party) in a lawsuit, combines an un derstanding of the relevant laws with knowl edge of the facts in the case to determine how the first affects the second. Based on this de termination, the attorney decides what action would best serve the interests of the client. To interpret the law, lawyers do research. They must stay abreast of their field, in both legal and nonlegal matters. An attorney representing electronics manufacturers, for example, must follow trade journals and the latest Federal regulations affecting his or her clients. Attorneys in the State Department must remain well versed in current events and international law, while divorce lawyers read about the changing role of the family in modern society. demic settings and teach part time. (For ad ditional information, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty.) Some attorneys use their legal background in administrative or managerial positions in various departments of large corporations. A transfer from a corporation’s legal depart ment to another department often is viewed as a way to gain administrative experience and rise in the ranks of management. People may use their legal background as journalists, management consultants, finan cial analysts, insurance claim adjusters, real estate appraisers, lobbyists, tax collectors, probation officers, and credit investigators. A legal background also is an asset to office seekers. Working Conditions Lawyers do most of their work in offices and courtrooms. They sometimes meet in cli ents’ homes or places of business and, when necessary, in hospitals or prison cells. They frequently travel to attend meetings, to gather evidence, and to appear before courts, legislative bodies, and other authorities. A lawyer consults with clients to deter mine the details of problems, advise them of the law, and suggest action that might be taken. To be effective, a lawyer must deal with people in a courteous, efficient manner and not disclose personal matters. Lawyers serve as models for conduct and their prac tice is governed by strict rules of ethics. Finally, most lawyers write reports or briefs which must be communicated clearly and precisely. The more detailed aspects of a lawyer’s job depend upon his or her field and position. A significant number specialize in one branch of law, such as corporate, criminal, labor, patent, real estate, tax, admiralty, pro bate, or international law. Communications lawyers, for example, may represent radio and television stations in their dealings with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). They help established stations pre pare and file license renewal applications, employment reports, and other documents required by the FCC on a regular basis. They also keep their clients informed of changes in FCC regulations. Communications lawyers help individuals or corporations buy or sell a station or establish a new one. Other lawyers representing public utilities before the Federal Power Commission (FPC) and other regulatory agencies handle matters involving utility rates. They develop strategy, arguments, and testimony; prepare cases for presentation; and argue the case. These law yers also inform clients about changes in regulations and give advice about the legality of their actions. Still other lawyers advise insurance com panies about the legality of insurance tran sactions. They write insurance policies to conform with the law and to protect compa nies for from unwarranted claims. They review Digitized FRASER claims filed against insurance companies and represent companies in court. Private practitioners specializing in other areas deal with wills, trusts, contracts, mort gages, titles, and leases. Some manage a per son’s property as trustee or see that provi sions of a client’s will are carried out as executor. A small number of lawyers work entirely in the courtroom. An increasing number handle only public interest cases— civil or criminal—which have a potential im pact extending well beyond the individual cli ent. Attorneys hope to use these cases as a vehicle for legal and social reform. A single client may employ a lawyer full time. Known as house counsel, this lawyer usually advises a company about legal ques tions that arise from business activities. Such questions might involve patents, government regulations, a business contract with another company, or a collective bargaining agree ment with a union. Attorneys employed at the various levels of government constitute still another cate gory. Criminal lawyers may work for the State attorney general, a prosecutor or public defender, or the court itself. At the Federal level, attorneys may investigate cases for the Justice Department or other agencies. Law yers at every government level help develop laws and programs; draft legislation; estab lish enforcement procedures; and argue cases. Other lawyers work for legal aid societies —private, nonprofit corporations established to serve poor people in particular areas. These lawyers generally handle civil rather than criminal cases. A relatively small number of attorneys work in law schools. Most specialize in one or more subjects, while others serve as ad ministrators. Some work full time in nonaca Salaried lawyers in government and pri vate firms generally have structured work schedules. Law teachers, on the other hand, whose schedules are more flexible, divide their time among teaching, research, and ad ministrative responsibilities. Independent lawyers may work irregular hours while con ducting research, conferring with clients, or preparing briefs during nonoffice hours. Lawyers generally work long hours and are under particularly heavy pressure when a case is being tried. Preparation for court in cludes keeping abreast of the latest laws and judicial decisions. Although work generally is not seasonal, the work of tax lawyers may be an exception. Since lawyers in private practice can deter mine their own workload, many stay in prac tice well beyond the usual retirement age. Places of Employment Over 480,000 persons worked as lawyers in 1978. About 70 percent of them practiced privately. Many worked in law firms; others had solo practices. Most of the remaining 30 percent held positions in Federal, State, and local government. Others were employed as house counsel by public utilities, transporta tion firms, banks, insurance companies, real estate agencies, manufacturing firms, welfare and religious organizations, and other busi ness firms and nonprofit organizations. About 8,000 lawyers taught full or part time in law schools. Some salaried lawyers also have independent practices; others do legal work part time while in another occupation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To practice law in the courts of any State, a person must be admitted to its bar. Appli cants for admission to the bar must pass a ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/123 written examination; however, a few States drop this requirement for graduates of their own law schools. Lawyers who have been admitted to the bar in one State occasionally may be admitted in another without taking an examination if they meet that State’s stan dards of good moral character and have a specified period of legal experience. Federal courts and agencies set their own qualifica tions for those practicing before them. To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an applicant must complete at least 3 years of college and graduate from a law school approved by the American Bar Asso ciation (ABA) or the proper State authori ties. (ABA approval signifies that the law school meets certain standards developed by the Association to promote quality legal edu cation. With certain exceptions, graduates of nonapproved schools generally are restricted to taking the bar examination and practicing in the State in which the school is located.) A few States accept the study of law in a law office or in combination with study in a law school; only California accepts the study of law by correspondence as qualification for taking the bar exam. Several States require registration and approval of students by the State Board of Examiners, either before they enter law school or during the early years of legal study. Although there is no nationwide bar exam, 43 States and the District of Columbia partic ipate in the Multistate Bar Examination (MBE). The MBE, covering issues of broad interest since the early 1970’s, is given in ad dition to the State bar exam. States vary in their treatment of MBE scores. The required college and law school educa tion usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate study followed by 3 years in law school. Al though some law schools accept a very small number of students after 3 years of college, an increasing number require applicants to have a bachelor’s degree. To meet the needs of students who can attend only part time, a number of law schools have night or parttime divisions which usually require 4 years of study. In 1977 about one-seventh of all graduates of ABA-approved schools were part-time students. Competition for admission to law school has become intense in recent years. Enroll ments have risen very rapidly, with appli cants outnumbering available seats by about 2 to 1. Competition is even stiffer in more prestigious law schools. Although the in crease in enrollments may slow during the 1980’s, admission to law school will remain the first of several hurdles for prospective lawyers. Preparation for a career as a lawyer really begins in college. Although there is no such thing as a “prelaw major, ” the undergradu ate program almost always makes a differ ence. Certain courses and activities are desir able because they give the student the skills needed to succeed both in law school and in the profession. Essential skills—the ability to 124/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK write, to read and analyze, to think logically, and to communicate verbally—are learned during high school and college. An under graduate program that cultivates these skills while broadening the student’s view of the world is best. Majors in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities all are suit able, as long as the student does not special ize too narrowly. Regardless of one’s major, English, foreign language (particularly Latin), public speaking, government, philos ophy, history, economics, and mathematics, among others, are highly recommended. Students interested in a particular aspect of law may find related courses helpful; for example, engineering and science courses for the prospective patent attorney, and account ing for the future tax lawyer. In addition, typing is advisable simply for convenience in law school. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good grades and the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), administered by the Educa tional Testing Service. In 1978, the American Bar Association approved 167 law schools. Others were approved by State authorities only. During the first year or year and a half of law school, students generally study funda mental courses such as constitutional law, contracts, property law, and judicial proce dures. In the remaining time, they may elect specialized courses in fields such as tax, labor, or corporation law. Practical experi ence often is acquired by participation in school-sponsored legal aid or legal clinic ac tivities, in the school’s moot court where stu dents conduct practice trials under the super vision of experienced lawyers and judges, and through writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. A number of law schools have clinical pro grams where students gain legal experience in “lawyering” through practice trials and law school projects under the supervision of practicing lawyers and law school faculty. Law school clinical programs might include work in legal aid clinics, for example, or on the staff of legislative committees. Part-time or summer clerkships also provide experi ence that can be extremely valuable later on. Such training can provide references or lead directly to a job after graduation, and can help students decide what kind of practice best suits them. Clerkships also may be an important source of financial aid. Graduates receive the degree of juris doctor (J.D.) or bachelor o f law (LL.B.) as the first professional degree. Advanced study is desir able for those planning to specialize, do re search, or teach. Some law students pursue joint degree programs, which generally re quire an additional year or more. Joint de gree programs are offered in a number of areas, including law and business administra tion; law and public administration; and law and social work. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Persons planning careers in law should like to work with people and be able to win the respect and confidence of their clients, associates, and the public. Integ rity and honesty are vital personal qualities. Intellectual capacity and reasoning ability are essential to analyze complex cases and reach sound conclusions. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions. Newly hired salaried attorneys usually act as research assistants (law clerks) to experienced lawyers or judges. After sev eral years of progressively responsible sala ried employment, many lawyers go into prac tice for themselves. Some lawyers, after years of practice, become judges. Employment Outlook Employment of lawyers grew very rapidly during the late 1970’s. Faster-than-average growth is expected to continue through the 1980’s as increased population, business ac tivity, and government regulation help sus tain the strong demand for attorneys. Em ployment growth also will be spurred by Supreme Court decisions extending the right to counsel for all persons accused of crimes, an increase in publicly funded legal services for low-income persons, the growth of legal action in such areas as consumer protection, the environment, and safety, and an an ticipated increase in the use of legal services by middle-income groups through prepaid legal service programs. As colleges and uni versities add law courses to their liberal arts, business, and other curriculums, additional lawyers may be needed to teach part time. Most jobs, however, will be created by the need to replace lawyers who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Despite very strong employment growth in this occupation, the sizable number of law school graduates entering the job market each year has created keen competition for jobs. While the number of graduates is ex pected to level off during the 1980’s, competi tion for jobs will remain intense. Employers will continue to be selective in hiring new lawyers. Graduates of prestigious law schools and those who rank high in their classes should find salaried positions with law firms, on the legal staffs of corporations and government agencies, and as law clerks for judges. Graduates of less prominent schools and those with lower scholastic rat ings will experience some difficulty in finding salaried jobs. An increasing proportion will enter fields where legal training is an asset but not normally a requirement. For exam ple, banks, insurance firms, real estate com panies, government agencies, and other or ganizations seek law graduates to fill many administrative, managerial, and business po sitions. With increasing competition for jobs, a law graduate’s geographic mobility and experi ence assume greater importance. The willing ness and ability to relocate may be an advan- tage in getting a job. In addition, employers increasingly seek graduates who have train ing and experience in a particular field such as tax, patent, or admiralty law. Establishing a new practice probably will continue to be best in small towns and ex panding suburban areas, as long as an active market for legal services already exists. In such communities, competition is likely to be less than in big cities and new lawyers may find it easier to become known to potential clients; also, rent and other business costs are somewhat lower. Nevertheless, starting a new practice will remain an expensive and risky proposition that should be weighed carefully. Salaried positions will continue largely in urban areas where government agencies, law firms, and big corporations are concentrated. Earnings Starting salaries offered to 1978 law school graduates varied from a low of $8,000 a year offered by small firms to a high of $29,000 offered by a large corporation. Beginning at torneys in private industry averaged around $18,000. In the Federal Government, annual starting salaries for attorneys in early 1979 were $15,920 or $19,263, depending upon ac ademic and personal qualifications. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new gradu ates include: Academic record; type, size, and location of employers; and the desired specialized educational background. The field of law makes a difference, too. Patent lawyers, for example, generally are among the highest paid attorneys. Salaries of experienced attorneys also vary widely according to the type, size, and loca tion of the employers. The average salary of the most experienced lawyers in private in dustry in 1978 was over $50,000. The median annual salary of nonsupervisory lawyers em ployed by business corporations in 1977 ex ceeded $31,000, while some heads of law de partments earned over $70,000. General attorneys in the Federal Government ave raged around $30,400 a year in 1978; the relatively small number of patent attorneys averaged around $37,400. Although lawyers are concentrated in the Departments of Jus tice, Defense, and Treasury, significant num bers work in many other Federal agencies. Lawyers starting their own practice may need to work part time in other occupations during the first years. Lawyers on salary re ceive increases as they assume greater re sponsibility. Incomes of lawyers in private practice usually grow as their practices de velop. Private practitioners who are partners in law firms generally earn more than those who practice alone. Related Occupations Legal training is invaluable in many other occupations. Some of these are abstractors, arbitrators, conciliators, hearing officers, patent agents, title examiners, legislative as sistants, and FBI special agents. Sources of Additional Information Persons considering law as a career will find information on law schools and prelaw study in the Prelaw Handbook, published an nually (Law School Admission Services, Box 944, Princeton, N.J. 08540). Copies may be available in public or school libraries. In ad dition, many colleges and universities have a prelaw advisor who counsels undergraduates about their course work, the LSAT, law school applications, and other matters. Information on law schools, financial aid for law students, and law as a career is availa ble from: American Bar Association, Information Services, 1155 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. (There may be a slight charge for publications.) For information on the placement of law graduates and the legal profession in general, contact: National Association for Law Placement, 3200 Fifth Avenue, Sacramento, California 95817. Information on legal education is available from: Association of American Law Schools, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 370, Washington, D.C. 20036. For advice on financial aid, contact a law school financial aid officer. The specific requirements for admission to the bar in a particular State may be obtained at the State capital from the clerk of the Su preme Court or the Secretary of the Board of Bar Examiners. Marketing Research Workers (D.O.T. 050.067-014) Nature of the Work If a business is to be successful, it must provide a product or service people will buy. Yet, persuading people to spend their money requires more than simply offering a useful or desirable item. People try a product for many reasons in addition to basic utility. They consider price, of course, as well as convenience, appearance, and a trusted name. For some products, reliability and ease of maintenance are most important. Very often, it is the product’s image—created by advertisements, sales promotion, and the type of store in which it is sold—that influ ences people. Business executives have to make decisions concerning all these areas when they put a product or service on the market. Other or ganizations, whether they are asking the pub lic to volunteer their time, contribute to a charity, or even spend a vacation in their State, must make similar decisions. Marketing research workers analyze the buying pub lic and its wants and needs, thus providing the information on which these marketing decisions can be based. Most marketing research starts with a col lection of data and information about pro ducts or services and the people who are likely to buy the product or service. For ex ample, if the researcher’s task is to find out why a company’s frozen foods are not selling well in a certain city, he or she may start by studying the company’s current marketing strategy to see if it matches consumers’ needs. Is the company shipping foods that suit the tastes of most people in the city? Is the price reasonable for the income of most people in the area? Does the distributor de liver the food to the stores in good condition? Is the company advertising its products and are the ads seen by the people most likely to buy them? Is the company’s sales force well trained and actively promoting the product to the stores? Are the stores providing good shelf space or are the boxes of food in a cor ner of the freezer where they may be over looked? By investigating these and other is sues, marketing research workers determine what actions should be taken. They may con clude, for example, that sales would improve substantially with an increased newspaper advertising campaign, or perhaps that the company should pull out completely and concentrate its efforts in other sections of the country where the product is more success ful. Since the goal of marketing is to satisfy the consumer, research workers often are con cerned with finding out customers’ opinions and tastes. They conduct telephone, per sonal, or mail surveys, and sometimes offer samples of a product to find out whether po tential customers are pleased with the design and satisfied with the price. Marketing researchers employed by large organizations often work with statisticians who help them select a group of people to be interviewed who will accurately represent prospective customers, and “motivational re search” specialists who design survey ques tions that produce in depth reliable informa tion. Trained interviewers then conduct the survey, and office workers tabulate the re sults under the direction of marketing re search workers. In contrast to surveys for consumer goods, researchers for business and industrial firms often conduct the interviews themselves to gather opinions of the products. They also may speak to company officials about new uses for it. Therefore, they must have a thor ough knowledge of both marketing tech niques and the industrial uses of the product. Working Conditions Marketing research workers usually work in modern, centrally located offices. Some, especially those employed by independent re search firms, may travel for their work. Also, they may have to work long hours, including nights and weekends, when working to meet deadlines. ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/125 ments in business firms or advertising agen cies. Bachelor’s programs in marketing and related fields, including courses in statistics, English composition, communications, psy chology, sociology, and economics, are valu able preparation for work in marketing re search. Some marketing research positions require specialized skills such as engineering, or substantial sales experience and a thor ough knowledge of the company’s products. Knowledge of data processing is helpful for sales forecasting, distribution, and cost anal ysis. College graduates may find their first job in any of a number of places: The market research department of a large company, a research firm, an advertising agency, a gov ernment planning agency, or even a univer sity marketing department. Trainees usually start as research assist ants or junior analysts. At first, they may do considerable clerical work, such as copying data from published sources, editing and cod ing questionnaires, and tabulating survey re turns. They also learn to conduct interviews and write reports on survey findings. As they gain experience, assistants and junior ana lysts may assume responsibility for specific marketing research projects, or advance to supervisory positions. An exceptionally able worker may become marketing research di rector or vice president for marketing or sales. Either alone or as part of a team, market ing research workers must be able to analyze problems objectively and apply various tech niques to their solution. As advisers to man agement, they should be able to write clear reports informing company officials of their findings. Employment Outlook Places of Employment About 24,000 full-time marketing research workers were employed in 1978. Most jobs for marketing research workers are found in manufacturing companies, advertising agen cies, and independent research organizations. Large numbers are employed by stores, radio and television firms, and newspapers; others work for university research centers and gov ernment agencies. Marketing research organ izations range in size from one-person enter prises to firms with a hundred employees or more. A large number of marketing research workers are employed in New York City where major advertising agencies, indepen dent marketing organizations, and central of fices of large manufacturers are located. Chi cago has another large concentration. 126/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK However, marketing research workers are employed in many other cities as well— wherever there are central offices of large manufacturing and sales organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a bachelor’s degree usually is sufficient for trainees, graduate education is necessary for many specialized positions in marketing research. Graduate study usually is required for advancement, and a sizable number of market researchers have a mas ter’s degree in business administration or other graduate degree in addition to a bache lor’s degree in marketing. Some people qual ify for jobs through previous experience in other types of research; university professors of marketing or statistics, for example, may be hired to head marketing research depart Opportunities should be best for applicants with graduate training in marketing research or statistics. The growing complexity of mar keting research techniques also may expand opportunities in this field for psychologists, economists, and other social scientists. Marketing research employment rises as new products and services are developed, particularly when business activity and per sonal incomes are expanding rapidly. In peri ods of slow economic growth, however, the reduced demand for marketing services may limit the hiring of research workers. Over the long run, population growth and the increased variety of goods and services that businesses and individuals will require are expected to stimulate a high level of mar keting activity. As a result, employment of marketing reserch workers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Competition among manufacturers of both consumer and industrial products will make the appraising of marketing situations in creasingly important. As techniques improve and statistical data accumulate, company of ficials are likely to turn more often to market ing research workers for information and ad vice. Earnings Salaries of beginning marketing research ers were about $14,(XX) a year in 1978, ac cording to the limited information available. Persons with master’s degrees in business ad ministration and related fields usually started with salaries of about $18,000 a year. Starting salaries varied according to the type, size, and location of the firm as well as the exact nature of the position. Generally, though, starting salaries were somewhat higher but promotion somewhat slower than in other occupations requiring similar training. Experienced workers such as senior ana lysts received salaries of over $24,000 a year. Earnings were highest, however, for workers in management positions of great responsibil ity. Directors of marketing research earned well over $35,000 a year in 1978. Related Occupations Besides marketing research workers, many others are involved in social research—in cluding the planning, implementation, and analysis of surveys to learn more about peo ple’s wants and needs. Some of these workers include economists, employment research and planning directors, social welfare re search workers, political scientists, urban planners, sociologists, developmental psy chologists, and experimental pyschologists. workers concentrate on different aspects of employer-employee relations. Personnel workers interview, select, and recommend applicants to fill job openings. They handle wage and salary administration, training and career development, and employee benefits. “Labor relations” usually means union-man agement relations, and people who specialize in this field work mostly in unionized busi nesses and government agencies. They help officials prepare for collective bargaining ses sions, participate in contract negotiations with the union, and handle labor relations matters that come up every day. In a small company, personnel work con sists mostly of interviewing and hiring, and one person usually can handle it all. By con trast, a large organization needs an entire staff, which might include recruiters, inter viewers, counselors, job analysts, wage and salary analysts, education and training spe cialists, and labor relations specialists, as well as technical and clerical workers. Personnel work often begins with the per sonnel recruiter or employment interviewer (D.O.T. 166.267-010), who travels around the country, often to college campuses, in the search for promising job applicants. These workers talk to applicants, and select and recommend those who appear qualified to fill vacancies. They often administer tests to ap plicants and interpret the results. Hiring and placement specialists need to be thoroughly familiar with the organization and its person nel policies, for they must be prepared to discuss wages, working conditions, and pro motional opportunities with prospective and newly hired employees. They also need to keep informed about equal employment op portunity (EEO) and affirmative action guidelines. Special EEO counselors or coor dinators handle this complex and sensitive area in some large organizations. The work of employment counselors, which is similar in a number of ways, is described in a sepa rate chapter of the Handbook. Job analysts (D.O.T. 166.067-010) and sal ary and wage administrators (D.O.T. 166.167-022) do very exacting work. Job analysts collect and examine detailed information on jobs, including job qualifications and worker characteristics, in order to prepare job de scriptions. These descriptions, sometimes called position classifications, explain the du ties, training, and skills each job requires. Whenever a government agency or large business firm introduces a new job or evalu ates existing ones, it calls upon the expert knowledge of the job analyst. Accurate infor mation about job duties also is required when a firm evaluates its pay system and considers changes in wages and salaries. Establishing and maintaining pay systems is the principal job of wage administrators. They devise ways to ensure that pay rates within the firm are fair and equitable, and conduct surveys to see Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet, “Careers in Marketing’’ (Monograph Series No. 4), may be obtained from: American Marketing Association, 222 South Riv erside Plaza, Chicago, 111. 60606. Personnel and Labor Relations Workers (D.O.T. 166 and 169.207-010) Nature of the Work Attracting the best employees available and matching them to the jobs they can do best is important for the success of any orga nization. Today, many enterprises have be come too large to permit close con tact, be tween management and employees. Instead, personnel and labor relations workers pro vide this link—assisting management to make effective use of employees’ skills, and helping employees to find satisfaction in their jobs and working conditions. Although some jobs in this field require only limited contact with people outside the office, most involve frequent contact with others. Dealing with people is an essential part of the job. Personnel workers and labor relations Personnel workers interview and select applicants to fill job openings. ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/127 how their pay rates compare with others. Being certain that the firm’s pay system com plies with laws and regulations is another part of the job, one that requires knowledge of compensation structures and labor law. Training specialists supervise or conduct training sessions, prepare manuals and other materials for these courses, and look into new methods of training. They also counsel em ployees on training opportunities, which may include on-the-job, apprentice, supervisory, or management training. Employee-benefits supervisors and other personnel specialists handle the employer’s benefits program, which often includes health insurance, life insurance, disability in surance, and pension plans. These workers also coordinate a wide range of employee ser vices, including cafeterias and snack bars, health rooms, recreational facilities, newslet ters and communications, and counseling for work-related personal problems. Counseling employees who are approaching retirement age is a particularly important part of the job. Occupational safety and health programs are handled in various ways. In small compa nies especially, accident prevention and in dustrial safety are the responsibility of the personnel department—or of the labor rela tions specialist, if the union has a safety rep resentative. Increasingly, however, there is a separate safety department under the direc tion of a safety and health professional, gen erally a safety engineer or industrial hygien ist. (The work of occupational safety and health workers is discussed in another chap ter of the Handbook.) Labor relations specialists (D.O.T. 166.167-034) advise management on all aspects of union-management relations. When a com pany’s contract is up for negotiation, they provide background information and techni cal support, a job that requires extensive knowledge of economics, labor law, and col lective bargaining trends. Actual negotiation of the agreement is conducted at the top level, with the director of labor relations or another top-ranking official serving as the employer’s representative, but members of the company’s labor relations staff play an important role throughout the negotiations. Much of the everyday work of the labor relations staff concerns interpretation and administration of the contract, the grievance procedures in particular. Members of the labor relations staff might work with the union on seniority rights under the layoff procedure set forth in the contract, for exam ple. Later in the day, they might meet with the union steward about a worker’s griev ance. Doing the job well means staying abreast of current developments in labor law, including arbitration decisions, and main taining continuing liaison with union offi cials. Personnel workers in government agencies generally do the same kind of work as those in large business firms. There are some differ ences, however. Public personnel workers http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 128/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis deal with employees whose jobs are governed by civil service regulations. Civil service jobs are strictly classified as to duties, training, and pay. This requires a great deal of empha sis on job analysis and wage and salary clas sification; many people in public personnel work spend their time classifying and evalu ating jobs, or devising, administering, and scoring competitive examinations given to job applicants. Knowledge of rules and regulations per taining to affirmative action and equal oppor tunity programs is important in public per sonnel work. In 1972, the U.S. Civil Service Commission—now the Office of Personnel Management—established a specialization for Federal personnel workers concerned with promoting equal opportunity in hiring, training,' and advancement. Similar emphasis is evident in State and local government agencies. Labor relations is an increasingly impor tant specialty in public personnel administra tion. Labor relations in this field have changed considerably in recent years, as union strength among government workers has grown. This has created a need for more and better trained workers to handle negotia tions, grievances, and arbitration cases on be half of Federal, State, and local government agencies. Working Conditions Since personnel offices generally are located where outside visitors and prospec tive employees gain an initial impression of the organization, they tend to be modern and pleasant places to work. Personnel employees usually work a standard 35 to 40 hour work week. Labor relations workers, however, may work longer hours—particularly when contract agreements are being prepared and negotiated. Although most of their time is spent in the office, personnel workers may be required to do some traveling. They may attend profes sional conferences, for example, or visit a university to recruit prospective employees. Places of Employment In 1978, about 405,000 people were per sonnel and labor relations workers. Nearly 3 out of 4 worked in private industry, for manufacturers, banks, insurance companies, airlines, department stores, and other busi ness concerns. Some worked for private em ployment agencies, including executive jobsearch agencies, “office temporaries” agencies, and others. A large number of personnel and labor re lations workers, over 100,000 in 1978, worked for Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies. Most of these were in person nel administration; they handled recruit ment, interviewing, testing, job classification, training, and other personnel matters for the Nation’s 15 million public employees. Some were on the staff of the U.S. Employment Service and State employment agencies. Still others worked for agencies that oversee com pliance with labor laws. Some, for example, were wage-hour compliance officers; their work is described in another part of the Handbook, in the section on health and regulatory inspectors (Government). Other public employees in this field carried out re search in economics,. labor law, personnel practices, and related subjects, and sought new ways of ensuring that workers’ rights under the law are understood and protected. Compared with private industry, labor un ions employ few professionally trained labor relations workers. An elected union official generally handles labor relations matters at the company level. At national and interna tional union headquarters, however, the re search and education staff usually includes specialists with a degree in industrial and labor relations, economics, or law. A few personnel and labor relations work ers are in business for themselves as manage ment consultants or labor-management rela tions experts. In addition, some teach college or university courses in personnel adminis tration, industrial relations, and related sub jects. Most jobs for personnel and labor relations workers are located in the highly industrial ized sections of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most beginning positions in personnel and labor relations are tilled by with college grad uates. Some employers look for graduates who have majored in personnel administra tion or industrial and labor relations, while others prefer college graduates with a general business background. Still other employers feel that a well-rounded liberal arts education is the best preparation. A college major in personnel administration, political science, or public administration can be an asset in looking for a job with a government agency. Approximately 200 colleges and universi ties offer undergraduate courses in personnel or labor relations. In addition, 30 schools offer a master’s degree in labor or industrial relations. (While personnel administration is widely taught, the number of programs that focus primarily on labor relations is quite small.) In addition, many schools offer course work in closely related fields. An in terdisciplinary background is appropriate for work in this area, and a combination of courses in the social sciences, behavioral sciences, business, and economics is useful. Prospective personnel workers might in clude courses in personnel management, business administration, public administra tion, psychology, sociology, political science, economics, and statistics. Courses in labor law, collective bargaining, labor economics, labor history, and industrial psychology pro vide valuable backgound for the prospective labor relations worker. Graduate study in industrial or labor rela- tions is often required for work in labor rela tions. Although a law degree seldom is re quired for entry level jobs, most of the people who are responsible for contract negotiations are lawyers, and a combination of industrial relations courses and a law degree is becom ing highly desirable. A college education, though highly impor tant, is not the only way to enter personnel work. Some clerks advance to professional positions through experience. However, parttime college courses are useful. New personnel workers usually enter for mal or on-the-job training programs to learn how to classify jobs, interview applicants, or administer employee benefits. Next, new workers are assigned to specific areas in the employee relations department, to gain expe rience. Later, they may advance within their own company, transfer to another employer, or move from personnel to labor relations work. A growing number of people enter the labor relations field directly, as trainees. They usually are graduates of master’s degree programs in industrial relations, or may have a law degree. Quite a few people, however, begin in personnel work, gain experience in that area, and subsequently move into a labor relations job. Workers in the middle ranks of a large organization often transfer to a top job in a smaller one. Employees with exceptional ability may be promoted to executive posi tions, such as director of personnel or direc tor of labor relations. Personnel and labor relations workers should speak and write effectively and be able to work with people of all levels of education and experience. They also must be able to see both the employee’s and the employer’s points of view. In addition, they should be able to work as part of a team. They need supervisory abilities and must be able to ac cept responsibility. Integrity, fairmindedness, and a persuasive, congenial personality are all important qualities. Employment Outlook The number of personnel and labor rela tions workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, as employers, increasingly aware of the benefits to be derived from good labormanagement relations, continue to support sound, capably staffed employee relations programs. In addition to new jobs created by growth of the occupation, many openings will occur as workers die, retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Legislation setting standards for employ ment practices in areas of occupational safety and health, equal employment opportunity, and pensions has stimulated demand for per sonnel and labor relations workers. Con tinued growth is foreseen, as employers throughout the country review existing pro grams in each of these areas and, in many cases, establish entirely new ones. This has created job opportunities for people who have appropriate expertise. The effort to end discriminatory employment practices, for ex ample, has led to scrutiny of the testing, se lection, placement, and promotion proce dures in many companies and government agencies. The findings are causing a number of employers to modify these procedures, and to take steps to raise the level of professional ism in their personnel departments. Substantial employment growth is fore seen in public personnel administraton. Opportunities probably will be best in State and local government. By contrast, Federal employment will grow slowly. Moreover, as union strength among public employees continues to grow, State and local agencies will need many more work ers qualified to deal with labor relations. Enactment of collective bargaining legisla tion for State and local government em ployees could greatly stimulate demand for labor relations workers knowledgeable about public sector negotiations. nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Wage and salary administra tors earned about $22,100 and personnel managers averaged $23,600, according to a survey conducted by the Administrative Management Society. Top personnel and labor relations executives in large corpora tions earned considerably more. Average salaries for personnel specialists employed by State governments ranged from $11,000 to $14,500 a year in 1978, according to a survey conducted by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Personnel special ists who had supervisory responsibilities ave raged from $16,200 to $21,600 and State di rectors of personnel earned average salaries ranging from $31,000 to $36,000. In the Federal Government, new gradu ates with a bachelor’s degree generally started at about $10,000 a year in 1978. Those with a master’s degree started at about $15,300. Average salaries of Federal em ployees in several different areas of personnel and labor relations work ranged from about $21,400 to $33,800 in 1978, as shown in the accompanying table. Related Occupations All of the personnel and labor relations occupations are, of course, closely related to each other. Other workers who help people find satisfactory jobs or help to make the work environment safe and pleasant in clude health and regulatory inspectors, occu pational safety and health workers, lawyers, employment counselors, rehabilitation counselors, college career planning and placement counselors, industrial engineers, Although the number of jobs in both per psychologists, and sociologists. All of these sonnel and labor relations is projected to in occupations are described in other chapters crease over the next decade, competition for of the Handbook. these jobs also is increasing. Particularly keen competition is anticipated for jobs in Sources of Additional Information labor relations. A small field, labor relations For general information on careers in per traditionally has been difficult to break into, and opportunities are best for applicants with sonnel and labor relations work, write to: a master’s degree or a strong undergraduate American Society for Personnel Administration, major in industrial relations, economics, or 30 Park Dr., Berea, Ohio 44017. business. A law degree is an asset. For information concerning a career in employee training and development, contact: Earnings American Society for Training and Development, Beginning job analysts in private industry P.O. Box 5307, Madison, Wis. 53705. started at about $12,OCX) a year in 1978, ac A brochure describing a career in laborcording to a Bureau of Labor Statistics sur management relations as a field examiner is vey. Experienced job analysts earned $22,600, about twice the average for all available from: Director o f Personnel, National Labor Relations Board, 1717 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, Table 1. Average salaries of Federal personnel and labor relations workers in selected D.C., 20570. specialties, 1978 Specialty M e d ia to r .................................................................................................................................... Personnel management specialist......................................................................................... Employee development s p e c ia lis t...................................................................................... Position classifier....................................................................................................................... Occupational analyst................................................................................................................ Salary and wage adm inistrator............................................................................................. Staffing specialist....................................................................................................................... SO U R CE: U.S. Office o f Personnel M anagem ent. Annualsalary $33,892 24,174 23,796 22,777 22,578 21,843 21,447 Purchasing Agents (D.O.T. 162.157-038) Nature of the Work If materials, supplies, or equipment are not on hand when they are needed, the entire production process or work flow in an orga nization could be interrupted or halted. ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/129 Maintaining an adequate supply of necessary items is the purchasing agent’s responsibility. This includes more than just buying goods and services, however. Market forecasting, production planning, and inventory control all are a part of the job. Purchasing agents, also called industrial buyers, obtain goods and services of the qual ity required at the lowest possible cost, and see that adequate supplies always are availa ble. Agents who work for manufacturing firms buy machinery, raw materials, product components, services, and maintenance and repair supplies; those working for govern ment agencies purchase office supplies, furni ture, business machines, and vehicles. Infor mation on retail buyers, who purchase merchandise for resale in its original form, is presented in the chapter on buyers elsewhere in the Handbook. Purchasing agents buy supplies when the stocks on hand reach a predetermined reorder point, or when a department in the organization requisitions items it needs. Be cause agents often can purchase from many sources, their main job is selecting the seller who offers the best value. Purchasing agents use a variety of means to select among suppliers. They compare list ings in catalogs and trade journals and tele phone suppliers to get information. They also meet with salespersons to examine samples, attend demonstrations of equipment, and dis cuss items to be purchased. Frequently, agents invite suppliers to bid on large orders, and then select the lowest bidder among those who meet the organization’s require ments for quality of goods and delivery date. New products are researched through trade journals, catalogs, and discussions with supp liers. Sometimes purchasing agents must deal directly with a manufacturer to obtain spe cially designed items made exclusively for their organization. To insure that all product specifications are met, agents must have a thorough understanding of the particular product and its applications. In some cases, such as when buying computer equipment, this means agents must have considerable technical knowledge. Because purchasing agents can buy from many sources, their main job is to choose the supplier who offers the best value. ally is designated as a separate responsibility within an organization. In a large firm or government agency, purchasing agents usu ally specialize in one or more specific com modities or groups of commodities—for ex ample, steel, lumber, cotton, or petroleum products. Agents are divided into sections, headed by assistant purchasing managers, that are responsible for a group of related commodities. In smaller organizations, agents generally are assigned certain catego ries of goods, such as all raw materials or all office supplies, furniture, and business ma chines. It is important that purchasing agents de velop a good business relationship with their suppliers as this can result in cost savings, favorable payment terms, and quick delivery on emergency orders or help in obtaining materials in short supply. Agents also work closely with other employees in various de partments of their own organization. For ex ample, they may discuss product design with company engineers or shipment problems with workers in the traffic department. Working Conditions Once an order has been placed with a sup plier, the purchasing agent checks periodi cally to insure prompt delivery. When an order arrives, it is inspected before the pur chasing agent authorizes payment to the sup plier. Places of Employment Because of its importance, purchasing usuDigitized 130/O for FRASER CCUPATIO NAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Purchasing agents generally work a stan dard 35 to 40 hour week. Some overtime may be necessary, for example, if the supply of materials or equipment needed to maintain the production schedule runs short. Al though they spend most of their time in the office, some travel usually is required to at tend educational seminars and sales conven tions, or to visit suppliers. About 185,000 persons worked as pur chasing agents in 1978. Over half worked in manufacturing industries. Large numbers also were employed by government agencies, construction companies, hospitals, and schools. About half of all purchasing agents work in organizations that have fewer than five employees in the purchasing department. Many large business firms and government agencies, however, have much larger pur chasing departments; some employ as many as 100 specialized buyers or more. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no universal educa tional requirements for entry level jobs, most large organizations now require a college de gree, and prefer applicants who have a mas ter’s degree in business administration or management. Training requirements vary with the needs of the firm. For example, com panies that manufacture complex machinery or chemicals may prefer applicants whose backgrounds are in engineering or science, while other companies hire persons who have majored in business administration or a tech nical discipline for trainee jobs. Courses in purchasing, accounting, economics, and sta tistics are very helpful. Familiarity with the computer and its uses also is desirable in un derstanding the systems aspects of the pur chasing job. Small companies generally have less rigid educational requirements because they often purchase less complex goods and order much smaller quantities. Some require a bachelor’s degree; many others, however, hire graduates of associate degree programs in purchasing for entry level jobs. Also, small organizations more frequently promote clerical workers or technicians into purchasing jobs. Regardless of the size of an organization, however, a college, degree is becoming increasingly im portant for advancement to management po sitions. Whatever their educational background, beginning purchasing agents spend consider able time learning about company operations and purchasing procedures. They may be as signed to the production planning section to learn about the purchasing system, inventory records, and storage facilities. They work with experienced buyers to learn about com modities purchased, prices, suppliers used, and negotiating techniques. Following the initial training period, jun ior purchasing agents usually are given the responsibility for purchasing standard and catalog items. As they gain experience and develop expertise in their assigned areas, they may be promoted to purchasing agent, then senior purchasing agent. Purchasing agents must be able to analyze the technical data in suppliers’ proposals in order to make buying decisions and spend large amounts of money responsibly. The job requires the ability to work independently and a good memory for details. In addition, a purchasing agent must be able to get along well with people in order to balance the needs of personnel in his or her organization with budgetary constraints, and negotiate with suppliers. Workers with proven ability can move into a job as assistant purchasing manager in charge of a group of purchasing agents and then advance to manager of the entire pur chasing department. Many purchasing managers move into executive positions as director of purchasing or director of materi als management. Continuing education is essential for pur chasing agents who want to advance in their careers. Purchasing agents are encouraged to participate in frequent seminars offered by professional societies and to take courses in purchasing at local colleges and universities. The recognized mark of experience and pro fessional competence in private industry is the designation Certified Purchasing Man ager (CPM). This designation is conferred by the National Association of Purchasing Management, Inc., upon candidates who have passed four examinations and who meet educational and experience requirements! In government agencies, the indications of pro fessional competence are the designations Professional Public Buyer (PPB) and Certi fied Public Purchasing Officer (CPPO), which are conferred by the National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc. The PPB is earned by passing two written examina tions and meeting certain educational and ex perience requirements. A candidate must have met a more stringent set of basic re quirements, pass two different written exams, and pass an oral exam as well in order to earn the CPPO. Employment Outlook Employment of purchasing agents is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Several thousand jobs will be open each year as de mand for purchasing agents increases and as workers die, retire, or transfer to other work. Demand for purchasing agents is expected to rise as their importance in reducing costs is increasingly recognized. In large industrial organizations, the purchasing department will be expanded in order to handle the grow ing complexity of manufacturing processes. Companies that manufacture complex items such as industrial engines and turbines, elec tronic computer equipment, and communi cations equipment, there will be a growing need for persons with a technical background to select highly technical goods. Many opportunities also should arise in firms providing personal, business, and pro fessional services. Strong growth is expected for this sector of the economy, as a growing number of hospitals, school districts, and other relatively small employers are recog nizing the importance of professional pur chasers in reducing their operating costs. Opportunities will be excellent for persons who have a master’s degree in business ad ministration. Persons with a bachelor’s de gree in engineering, science, or business ad ministration whose college program included one course or more in purchasing also should have bright prospects. Graduates of 2-year programs in purchasing should continue to find ample opportunities, although they will probably be limited to small firms. Earnings and Working Conditions College graduates hired as junior purchas ing agents in large firms earned about $12,900 a year in 1978, according to surveys con ducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Experienced agents purchasing standard items averaged about $16,200 a year; senior purchasing agents specializing in complex or technical goods averaged about $19,600. As sistant purchasing managers received aver age salaries of about $23,900 a year, while managers of purchasing departments re ceived about $29,500. Many corporate direc tors of purchasing or materials management earned well over $50,000 a year. Salaries gen erally are higher in large firms where respon sibilities often are greater. In 1978, purchas ing agents earned almost twice as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government, beginning purchasing agents who had college degrees earned $10,096 or $12,505 in 1978, depend ing on scholastic achievement and relevant work experience. The average salary for all purchasing agents in the Federal Service was $22,239. Salary levels vary widely among State governments; average earnings range from $11,549 to $15,235 for purchasers of standard items, from $15,856 to $21,028 for senior buyers purchasing highly complex items, and from $23,293 to $29,781 for State purchasing directors. Related Occupations Other workers who negotiate and contract to purchase equipment, supplies, or other merchandise include retail buyers, purchaseprice analysts, grain buyers, procurement services managers, livestock commission agents, traffic managers, and wholesalers. Sources of Additional Information Further information about a career in pur chasing is available from: National Association of Purchasing Management, Inc., 11 Park Place, New York, N.Y. 10007. National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc., 1001 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 922, Washington, D.C. 20036. Urban and Regional Planners__________ (D.O.T. 199.167-014) Nature of the Work Urban and regional planners, often called community or city planners, develop pro grams to provide for future growth and revi talization of urban, suburban, and rural com munities. They help local officials make decisions to solve social, economic, and envi ronmental problems. Planners examine community facilities such as health clinics and schools to be sure these facilities can meet the demands placed upon them. They also keep abreast of the legal issues involved in community develop ment or redevelopment and changes in hous ing and building codes. Because suburban growth has increased the need for better ways of traveling to the urban center, the planner’s job often includes designing new transporta tion and parking facilities. Urban and regional planners prepare for situations or needs that are likely to de velop as a result of population growth or social and economic change. They esti mate, for example, the community’s longrange needs for housing, transportation, and business and industrial sites. Working within a framework set by the community government, they analyze and propose al ternative ways to achieve more efficient and attractive urban areas. Before preparing plans for long-range community development, urban and regional planners prepare detailed studies that show the current use of land for residential, busi ness, and community purposes. These re ports present information such as the ar rangement of streets, highways, and water and sewer lines, and the location of schools, ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/131 quired to work in a planning office part time or during the summer. Candidates for jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies usually must pass civil service examinations to become eligible for appointment. Planners must think in terms of spatial re lationships and visualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should be flexible and able to reconcile different viewpoints to achieve constructive policy recommenda tions. Urban and regional planners map current and proposed future land uses when planning community growth. libraries, and playgrounds. They also provide information on the types of industries in the community, characteristics of the popula tion, and employment and economic trends. With this information, urban and regional planners propose ways of using undeveloped land and design the layout of recommended buildings and other facilities such as sub ways. They also prepare materials that show how their programs can be carried out and the approximate costs. Urban and regional planners often confer with private land developers, civic leaders, and officials of public agencies that do spe cialized planning. They may prepare materi als for community relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legisla tive committees to explain and defend their proposals. In small organizations, planners must be able to do several kinds of work. In large organizations, planners usually specialize in areas such as physical design, community re lations, or the reconstruction of rundown business districts. Working Conditions Like other administrative workers, urban and regional planners spend most of their time in offices behind desks. To be familar with areas that they are developing, however, they occasionally must spend time outdoors examining the features of the land under con sideration for development, its current use, and the types of structures existing on it. Planners rarely work outdoors in bad weather, however. Although most planners have a scheduled 40-hour workweek, they sometimes must attend evening or weekend meetings or public hearings with citizens’ groups. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 132/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Places of Employment About 17,000 persons were urban and re gional planners in 1978. Most work for city, county, or regional planning agencies. A growing number are employed by States or by the Federal Government in agencies deal ing with housing, transportation, or environ mental protection. Many planners do consulting work, either part time in addition to a regular job, or full time for a firm that provides services to pri vate developers or government agencies. Planners also work for large land developers or research organizations and teach in col leges and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers often seek workers who have advanced training in urban or regional plan ning. Most entry jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies require 2 years of graduate study in urban or regional planning, or the equivalent in work experience. Al though the master’s degree in planning is the usual requirement at the entry level, some people who have a bachelor’s degree in city planning, architecture, landscape architec ture, or engineering may qualify for begin ning positions. In 1978, over 70 colleges and universities gave a master’s degree in urban or regional planning. Although students holding a bach elor’s degree in architecture or engineering may earn a master’s degree after 1 year, most graduate programs in planning require 2 or 3 years. Graduate students spend considerable time in workshops or laboratory courses learning to analyze and solve urban and re gional planning problems, and often are re After a few years’ experience, urban and regional planners may advance to assign ments requiring a high degree of independent judgment, such as outlining proposed stud ies, designing the physical layout of a large development, or recommending policy, pro gram, and budget options. Some are pro moted to jobs as planning directors, and spend a great deal of time meeting with offi cials in other organizations, speaking to civic groups, and supervising other professionals. Further advancement is more difficult at this level and often may only occur through a transfer to a large city, where the problems are more complex and the responsibilities greater. Employment Outlook Employment of urban and regional plan ners is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Land-use planning activities are expected to increase in suburban and nonmetropolitan areas as populations grow. Opportunities also are expected to arise in fields, such as environmental or economic development planning in which planners have not been employed traditionally. In addition, some jobs will open up because of the need to re place planners who will die, retire, or transfer to other occupations In recent years, qualified applicants have exceeded openings in urban or regional plan ning, and the situation is expected to persist unless fewer degrees are awarded through the 1980’s than in recent years. As a result, some persons trained as planners will have to ac cept jobs in other areas of public administra tion. Earnings Urban and regional planners earned a me dian salary of about $20,500 a year in early 1978—about twice as much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Planners with master’s degrees in urban or regional planning started at about $13,500 a year in early 1978. Planners with a master’s degree were hired by the Federal Government at $15,920 a year in early 1979. In some cases, persons having less than 2 years of graduate work could enter Federal service as interns at yearly salaries of either $10,507 or $13,014. Salaries of urban and regional planners em ployed by the Federal Government averaged $27,450 a year in early 1979. State governments paid urban and re gional planners average beginning salaries of about $12,150 a year in mid-1978, al though planners started at more than $14,000 in some States. Salaries of experienced State planners ranged from an average minimum of nearly $17,700 a year to an average maximum of more than $23,500 a year. Salaries of State planning directors ranged from an average minimum of about $26,000 to an average maximum of nearly $32,000 in mid-1978. City, county, and other local governments paid urban and regional planners median sal aries of more than $19,000 a year in early 1978. Planning directors earned median salaries of more than $23,000 a year. Most planners have sick leave and vacation benefits and are covered by retirement and health plans. Related Occupations Urban and regional planners develop plans for the orderly growth of urban and rural communities. A number of related occupa tions also engage in planning. Architects plan and design buildings for construction or al teration. Landscape architects lay out parcels of land for development or recreation. City managers plan and administer community public services. Planning engineers design in dustrial plants for maximum efficiency. Transportation planning engineers plan transportation systems. Sources of Additional Information Facts about careers in planning and a list of schools offering training and job referrals are available from: American Planning Association, 1313 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/133 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS ployed in personal service jobs. Workers in service occupations perform a wide variety of tasks ranging from policing streets and fighting fires to serving food and cleaning buildings. In 1978, almost 13 mil lion people were employed in service jobs. The major groups of service occupations are discussed below: Protective and related service occupations. Almost 1.4 million persons were employed to safeguard lives and property in 1978. The majority were police officers, guards, or fire fighters. Most police officers and detectives were government employees, but some worked for hotels, stores, and other busi nesses. Guards, another large group of pro tective service employees, worked chiefly for private companies to protect company prop erty and enforce company rules and regula tions. Firefighters worked mainly for city governments. The remaining protective ser vice workers were sheriffs and bailiffs, cross ing guards and bridge tenders, and marshals and constables. Food service occupations. The largest group of service workers, almost 4.3 mil lion persons in 1978, prepared and served food in restaurants, cafeterias, schools, hos pitals, and other institutions. Workers in this group included cooks and chefs, wait ers and waitresses, bartenders, and kitchen workers. Cleaning and related occupations. Work ers in these occupations clean and maintain buildings such as apartments, houses, schools, and offices. More than 2.4 million persons were employed in these jobs in 1978. The group included janitors, building cus todians, and pest controllers. Private household service occupations. Most of the almost 1.2 million private house hold workers employed in 1978 were domes tic workers who cleaned their employers’ homes, prepared meals, and cared for chil dren. Some worked as launderers, caretakers, and companions. Health service occupations. More than 1.8 million persons were employed as health ser vice workers in jobs such as practical nurses or hospital attendants. Most of these workers were employed in hospitals, but some worked in doctors’ or dentists’ offices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training and skill requirements differ greatly among the various service occupa tions. FBI special agents, for example, must have a college degree. Barbers and cos metologists need specialized vocational Personal service occupations. Workers in this group range from barbers and cos metologists to ski instructors and theater ushers. Almost 1.8 million persons were em More than one-third of all service workers are employed food service occupations . Employment, 1978 (milii< 0 1 2 Y 3 ^ SQrv|^^ Health service 134/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pe |j ^ > SiI j f f t i i if p 4 5 training. Still other occupations—household workers, building custodians, and hotel bell hops, for example—have no specific educa tional requirements for entry, although a high school diploma is always an advantage. For many service occupations, personality traits and special abilities may be as impor tant as formal schooling. Thus, physical strength and endurance are a necessity for work as a porter, lifeguard, or window cleaner; and a pleasing manner and appear ance are especially important for a waiter or waitress, elevator operator, or usher. Other service workers, such as store and hotel de tectives and travel guides, need good judg ment and should be skillful in dealing with people. Some service workers eventually go into business for themselves as caterers or res taurant operators, for example, or proprie tors of barber or beauty shops. Advance ment from service occupations that require little training or skill may be difficult for people without a good basic education and some knowledge of the business in which they work. Employment Outlook Employment in the service occupations is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Health services occupations will grow much faster than the average for all occupations, as pop ulation growth and the aging of the popula tion will create more demand for all health care occupations. More police officers and guards will be needed in the future as popu lation increases and the need for protection against crime, theft, and vandalism contin ues to grow. Rising incomes, increasing lei sure time, and the growing number of women who combine family responsibilities and a job are likely to cause the demand for most food service workers to grow as more people eat out. Employment of private household workers is expected to experience little change, despite a strong demand for these workers. The following sections of the Handbook contain detailed information on most of the service occupations mentioned here. Others are described in the industry statements on government; transportation, communica tions, and public utilities; wholesale and re tail trade; and service and miscellaneous in dustries. The health service occupations are included in the section on health care occu pations. Cleaning and Related Occupations Every public building and apartment house needs to be kept clean and in good condition for the comfort and safety of the people who work or live there. Much of this work is done by persons in cleaning and related occupations. These workers may clean floors and windows in hospitals, change linens in hotels, repair broken faucets in apartments, or exterminate insects and ro dents in office buildings. Workers in these occupations usually learn their skills on the job, but other training sometimes is available. Building custodians, for example, may attend training programs offered by unions and government agencies. Hotel housekeepers may take homestudy or classroom courses in housekeeping proce dures offered by their employer, junior col leges, or technical institutes. Workers who learn their jobs thoroughly and show that they can handle responsibility may advance to supervisory positions. Besides a knowledge of their job, these workers must be courteous, tactful, and neat if their job requires contact with the public. They should be able to follow instructions and work well on their own. Some of these workers perform monotonous and tiring tasks, such as scrubbing and waxing floors or making up beds, and must be able to tolerate the boredom of the job. Schools employ many custodians. This section describes three cleaning and related occupations: Building custodians, pest controllers, and hotel housekeepers and assistants. equipment have made many tasks easier and less time consuming, but custodians must know how to use them properly to avoid harming floors and fixtures. Building Custodians Some custodians supervise a group of cus todial workers and are responsible for main taining a section of a building or an entire building. They assign tasks t o each w o r k e r , give instructions, and see that jobs, such as floor waxing or window washing, are done well. (D.O.T. 187.167-190; 381.137-010, .687-014, -018, -022; 382.664-010; and 891.137-010) Nature of the Work Building custodians, sometimes called janitors or cleaners, keep office buildings, hospitals, stores, and apartment houses clean and in good condition. Their routine includes necessary maintenance tasks such as fixing leaky faucets, emptying trash, minor painting and carpentry, replenishing bathroom sup plies, and mowing lawns. They also see that heating and air-conditioning equipment works properly. On a typical day, a custodian may wet- or dry-mop floors, vacuum carpets, dust furniture, make minor repairs, and ex terminate insects and rodents. Custodians use many different tools and cleaning materials. For one job they may need a mop and bucket; for another an elec tric polishing machine and a special cleaning solution. Chemical cleaners and power Working Conditions Because most office buildings are cleaned while they are empty, custodians often work evening hours. Some jobs, however, such as school custodian, call for daytime work. In buildings requiring 24-hour maintenance, custodians may work on shifts. Although custodians usually work inside heated, well-lighted buildings, they some times work outdoors sweeping walkways, mowing lawns, or shoveling snow. Work ing with machines can be noisy and some tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms and trash rooms, can be dirty. Custodial work ers may suffer minor cuts, bruises, and burns from machines, handtools, and chemicals. Building custodians spend most of their time on their feet, sometimes lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equipment. Many tasks, such as dusting or sweeping, require constant bending, stooping, and stretching. Places of Employment In 1978, almost 2.3 million people worked as building custodians. One-third worked part time. Most custodians worked in office buildings and factories, but many others were em ployed in schools, apartment houses, hospi tals, and recreation facilities, such as theaters and stadiums. Some worked for firms supply ing building maintenance services on a con tract basis. Although custodial jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are located in highly populated areas where there are many office buildings, stores, and apart ment houses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No special education is required for most custodial jobs, but the beginner should know simple arithmetic and be able to follow in structions. High school shop courses are CLEANING AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/135 helpful for minor plumbing or carpentry work. Most building custodians learn their skills on the job. Usually, beginners do routine cleaning and are given more complicated du ties as they gain experience. In some cities, unions and government agencies have developed programs to teach custodial skills. Students learn how to clean buildings thoroughly and efficiently, and how to operate and maintain machines, such as wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polish ers, that they will use on the job. Instruction in minor electrical, plumbing, and other re pairs also is given. As part of their training, students learn to plan their work, to follow safety and health regulations, to deal with people in the buildings they clean, and to work without supervision. Related Occupations Custodians are not the only workers who clean and maintain buildings. Some workers who have similar skills and job duties are trash collectors, floor waxers, sweepers, win dow cleaners, private household workers* sextons, gardeners, boiler tenders, hotel housekeepers, and pest controllers. Sources of Additional Information Information about custodial jobs and training opportunities may be obtained from the local office of your State employment ser vice. For general information on job opportuni ties in local areas, contact: Service Employees International Union, 2020 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. H otel Housekeepers and Assistants_____ (D.O.T. 321 and 323 except 323.687-010) Nature of the Work A hotel or motel’s reputation depends on how well it serves its guests. Although some offer economical accommodations and oth ers stress luxurious surroundings and atten tive service, all are concerned with their guests’ comfort. Hotel housekeepers are re sponsible for keeping hotels and motels clean and attractive and providing guests with the necessary furnishings and supplies. It is their job to hire, train, schedule, and supervise the housekeeping staff, including linen and laun Building custodians usually find work by answering newspaper advertisements or ap plying directly to a company or a building maintenance service where they would like to work. They also get jobs through State em ployment offices. Custodial jobs in the gov ernment are obtained by applying to the civil service personnel headquarters. Advancement opportunities for custodial workers usually are limited because the cus todian is the only maintenance worker in many buildings. Where there is a large main tenance staff, however, custodians can be promoted to supervisory jobs. A high school diploma improves the chances for advance ment. Some custodians go into the mainte nance business for themselves. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities in this occupa tion are expected to be good through the 1980’s. The need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation will create many jobs each year. Construction of new office buildings, hospitals, and apartment houses will cause employment of custodians to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Persons seeking part-time or evening work can expect to find many opportunities. Earnings In 1978, building custodians averaged $4.21 an hour, which is about three-fourths as much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Earnings, however, vary by in dustry and area of the country. Workers in large cities of the Northeast, North Central, and Western regions usually earn the highest wages. Custodians working in the Federal Gov ernment are paid at the same rates offered by private industries in the local area. Most building service workers receive paid holidays and vacations, and health insur ance.for FRASER Digitized http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 136/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Housekeepers who work in small or middle-sized establishments may perform some household duties themselves. dry workers, and repairers. They also keep employee records and order supplies. About 19,500 persons worked as hotel housekeepers in 1978. Housekeepers who work in small or mid dle-sized establishments may not only super vise the housekeeping staff, but perform some of these duties themselves. In contrast, the work of housekeepers in large or luxury hotels is primarily administrative, and they are usually called executive or head housekeepers. Besides supervising a staff that may num ber in the hundreds, executive housekeepers prepare the budget for their departments; submit reports to the general manager on the condition of rooms, needed repairs, and sug gested improvements; and purchase supplies and furnishings. Executive housekeepers are assisted by floor housekeepers, who supervise the cleaning and maintenance of one or sev eral floors in the hotel, and assistant execu tive housekeepers, who help with the ad ministrative work. Some larger hotel and motel chains as sign executive housekeepers to special jobs, such as reorganizing housekeeping proce dures in an established hotel or setting up the housekeeping department in a new motel. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Housekeeping positions require little or no specialized educational training, but most employers prefer applicants who have a high school diploma. Likewise, experience or training in hotel housekeeping also is helpful in getting a job. Several colleges, junior colleges, and tech nical insititutes offer instruction in hotel ad ministration that includes courses in housekeeping; some of these courses are of fered in summer or evening classes. Many schools have developed programs under the guidance and approval of the National Ex ecutive Housekeepers Association, an orga nization that confers certified membership status upon those members who complete certain education and experience require ments. In addition, the Educational Insti tute of the American Hotel & Motel Associ ation offers courses for either classroom or home study. Most helpful are courses on housekeeping; personnel management; bud get preparation; recordkeeping; interior dec oration; safety practices; environmental con trols; and the purchase, use, and care of different types of equipment and fabrics. While executive housekeepers should be good at planning and organizing, they also should be able to deal effectively with people, especially the housekeeping personnel. Housekeepers also should be able to work independently, keep records, and analyze numbers. Although assistant housekeepers may be promoted to executive housekeepers after several years of experience, opportunities are limited because only one executive housekeeper job is available in any hotel or motel. Those who have degrees or have taken courses in institutional housekeeping man agement may have the best advancement op portunities. Employment Outlook Employment of hotel housekeepers is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Many open ings will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupa tion. Because established hotels usually fill va cancies by promoting assistant housekeepers to executive housekeepers, beginners will find their best job opportunities in newly built motels or hotels. Related Occupations Hotel housekeepers and assistants are not the only workers concerned with hiring, training, scheduling, and supervising work ers when pleasing customers and providing service is important. Other occupations in volving similar responsibilities include apart ment superintendents, janitorial service oper ators, pursers, and supervisory maintenance engineers. Sources of Additional Information See the chapter on the hotel industry else where in the Handbook for information on earnings and working conditions, sources of additional information, and more informa tion on the employment outlook. Pest Controllers (D .O .T. 383.361-010, .364-010, .367-010; and 389.684-010) Nature of the Work Rats, mice, and common household in sects such as flies and roaches contaminate food and spread sickness; termites eat wood. Protecting us and our property from these pests is the job of professional pest controll ers, who are classified either as pest control route workers or termite specialists. Al though these fields of work are separate, many controllers do both. Often working alone, a pest control route worker usually begins the day by making sure the route truck has the necessary pesti cides, sprayers, traps, and other supplies for servicing customers’ facilities. With the su pervisor’s instructions, the route worker starts out to visit the 5 to 15 customers on the route list. A route worker generally services restau rants, hotels, food stores, homes, and other facilities that have problems with rats, mice, or insects. Commercial customers commonly have service contracts calling for regular vi sits, such as once a month. Service to homes usually is less frequent, or as required. A route worker, who must know pests’ habits and hiding places, carefully inspects the facility to determine the extent of the pest problem. To eliminate pests and prevent their return, the route worker sprays pesticides in and around areas such as cabinets and sinks where insects usually live, and sets traps and poisonous bait near areas where rats or mice nest and along paths they travel. Although regular visits are helpful, the route worker may suggest to customers ways to eliminate conditions that attract pests. They may, for example, recommend replac ing damaged garbage containers, sealing open food containers, and repairing cracks in walls. Termite specialists are pest controllers who work to eliminate termites and pre vent them from reaching wood structures. If not controlled, these insects can go vir tually unnoticed until they severely under mine the wood structure of a home, or other building. Termite specialists, usually working in pairs, can effectively control termites by pro viding a poison barrier between the termites’ underground colonies and the wood struc ture. To provide a barrier, these workers insert a steel nozzle with holes into the ground and pump in termite poison through a hose at tached to the nozzle. They repeat the process at numerous points around the foundation. To reach soil beneath or behind cement or other surfaces, they drill holes through the surface, insert the nozzle into the soil, and pump in the poison. They then seal these holes with cement. Specialists also may spray poison directly on to the wood’s surface, es pecially on older, all-wood structures. Since termites will not cross poisonous areas, those in the ground must find food elsewhere or starve while those trapped in the wood structure die from lack of moisture. Because barriers last for years, termite spe cialists seldom revisit a treated facility. Termite specialists sometimes have to alter buildings to prevent pests from returning. For example, they may remove and rebuild foundations or insulate wood-to-earth con tacts with concrete. Helpers assist termite specialists by dig ging around and underneath houses, helping set up and operate equipment, mixing ce ment, and doing general cleanup work. Some highly experienced specialists in spect houses for termites, estimate costs, and explain the proposed work to customers. In most exterminating firms, however, manag ers, supervisors, or pest control sales workers do these jobs. Working Conditions Generally, pest controllers work 40 to 44 hours a week. During spring and summer, CLEANING AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/137 becoming route workers also may benefit from courses in sales. Those interested in becoming termite specialists can gain valu able experience by taking courses related to building construction such as carpentry. Certification indicates competence in the field. To become certified, the pest controller must demonstrate in a written examination knowledge of pesticides and their safe use. Most States require pest control firms to have at least one certified pest controller available for consultation to noncertified workers. Experienced workers with ability can ad vance to higher paying positions, such as ser vice manager or pest-control sales worker. Employment Outlook Pest controllers know the habits and hiding places of different insects. however, hours may be longer because pests are more prevalent. Most work is done dur ing the day. Route workers, however, occa sionally work nights because many restau rants and stores do not want them to work while customers are present. Pest controllers work both indoors and outdoors in all kinds of weather. They fre quently lift and carry equipment and materi als, but usually these items weigh less than 50 pounds. Route workers also do a great deal of walking and driving. Termite specialists occasionally must crawl under buildings and work in dirty, cramped spaces. Workers in these occupations are subject to some haz ards. Although most pesticides are not harm ful to humans, some can cause injury if they are inhaled or left on the skin. Such injuries, however, are avoided if safety precautions are followed. Termite specialists risk injury from power tools and sharp or rough materials in buildings. Pest controllers are on their own to a great extent and may decide, within limits, how they will handle a job. Places of Employment More than half of the estimated 31,500 pest controllers employed in 1978 were route workers; the rest were termite specialists and combination route worker-termite special ists. Most pest controllers work for or own firms that specialize in this service. A small number work for Federal, State, and local governments. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 138/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Jobs in this field can be found throughout the country. Employment, however, is con centrated in major metropolitan areas and large towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Beginning pest controllers are trained by supervisors and experienced workers. Many large firms also provide several weeks of training, which includes classes on the char acteristics of termites or other pests, the safe and effective use of pesticides, customer rela tions, and the preparation of work records. To aid beginners, many employers provide training manuals. Beginners gain practical experience by helping pest control route workers or termite specialists on the job. After a week or two of on-the-job training, and 2 or 3 months of detailed follow-up in spections, new employees can work alone. Employers prefer trainees who are high school graduates, have safe driving records, and are in good health. Many firms require employees to be bonded; applicants must have a record of honesty and respect for the law. Because route workers frequently deal with customers, employers look for appli cants who are courteous, tactful, and wellgroomed. Termite specialists need manual dexterity and mechanical ability. Some firms give aptitude tests to determine an appli cant’s suitability for the work. High school courses in chemistry and busi ness arithmetic provide a helpful background for pest controllers. Students interested in Employment of pest controllers is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to the jobs resulting from growth in the de mand for pest control, the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations also will create many job openings. Because pests reproduce rapidly and tend to develop resistance to pesticides, their con trol is a never-ending problem. Population growth and further congestion of metropoli tan areas will add to the need for more pest controllers. Older buildings which are more prone to infestation also increase the need for these workers. Earnings The starting pay for inexperienced trainees ranged from $3.50 to $4 an hour in 1978, based on the limited information available. Earnings of experienced pest controllers ranged from $5 to $9 an hour. Some route workers are paid an hourly rate or weekly salary. Others receive a com mission based upon charges to customers. Nearly all termite specialists are paid an hourly rate or weekly salary. Related Occupatons Pest controllers spend much of their work day covering a route by truck to service cus tomers. Other workers with similar duties in clude sales route drivers, carpet installers, glass installers, and household appliance in stallers. Sources of Additional Information Further information about opportunities in this field is available from local exter minating companies and the local office of the State employment service. General infor mation about the work can be obtained from: National Pest Control Association, Inc., 8150 Leesburg Pike, Vienna, Va. 22180. Food Service Occupations Food service workers make up one of the largest and fastest growing occupational groups in the Nation’s labor force. More than four times as many persons work in food ser vice as in automobile manufacturing and steel manufacturing combined. In 1978, about 4.3 million persons were employed in food service, mostly in restaurants, hotels, factory and school cafeterias, and catering firms. Job opportunities exist almost every where and for almost any interested person, including those who have limited skills or little formal education. There are no specific educational require ments for most food service work and skills usually are learned through on-the-job train ing. Many restaurants hire inexperienced persons as dining room attendants, dish washers, food counter workers, waiters and waitresses, and bartenders. Experience some times is necessary, however, to obtain one of these positions in a large restaurant or ca tering firm. Previous employment in a food service occupation, such as kitchen helper or assistant cook, often is necessary to get a job as a cook. Experienced workers may advance to food service manager, maitre d’hotel, head cook, or chef. Vocational schools, both public and pri vate, offer courses in cooking, catering, and bartending. Employment of food service workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The demand for these workers will increase as new restaurants, cafeterias, and bars open in response to population growth and increased spending for food and bever ages outside the home. Higher average in comes and more leisure time will allow peo ple to eat out more often. Also, as more wives work, families are finding dining out a wel come convenience. Detailed discussions of the work, training, outlook, and earnings of dining room attendants and dishwashers, food counter workers, waiters and waitresses, cooks and chefs, and bartenders are pre sented in the statements that follow. suit a customer’s taste. Most bartenders must know dozens of drink recipes and be able to mix drinks accurately by sight alone so they can serve drinks quickly, without wasting anything, even during the busiest periods. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartend ers also serve limited food items or snacks to customers seated at the bar, collect payment, operate the cash register, and clean up after customers who have left. Bartenders Bartenders usually are responsible for or dering and maintaining an inventory of li quor, mixes, and other bar supplies. They also arrange the bottles and glassware into attractive, geometric displays, and often wash glassware. (D .O .T . 312.474 and .477) Nature of the Work Screaming Zombies, Harvey Wallbangers, Gold Cadillacs, and Singapore Slings are just a few of the exotic cocktails embodied in the art of mixology, or bartending. Bartenders make these concoctions by combining, in exact proportion, ingredients selected from what may seem a bewildering variety of liq uors and mixers. A well-stocked bar contains dozens of types and brands of liquor plus soft drinks, fruit juices, cream, and soda and tonic water. In addition, bartenders serve beer, wine, and a wide variety of nonalcoholic bev erages. Bartenders take drink orders from waiters and waitresses serving customers seated in the restaurant or lounge, as well as from cus tomers seated at the bar. Because some peo ple like their cocktails made a certain way, bartenders often are asked to mix drinks to Bartenders who work in large restaurants or hotels usually have bartender helpers (D.O.T. 312.687-010) to assist them with their duties. Helpers keep the bar supplied with liquor, mixes, and ice; stock refrigera tors with beer and wine; and replace empty beer kegs with full ones. They also keep the area behind the bar clean and remove empty bottles and trash. Many bartenders own their own tavern or bar and, therefore, also must keep their own business records and hire, train, and direct staff. Working Conditions Many bartenders work more than 40 hours a week, and night and weekend work and split shifts are common. For many bartend ers, however, the opportunity for friendly conversation with customers and the possi bility of someday managing or owning a bar or restaurant more than offset these disad vantages. For others, the opportunity to get part-time work is important. Better than average strength sometimes is necessary to lift heavy cases of liquors or mixes. Also, bartenders have to work quickly and under pressure in a popular bar during busy periods. Places of Employment Most of the 282,000 bartenders employed in 1978 worked in restaurants and bars; oth ers had jobs in hotels and private clubs. Roughly one-fifth were self-employed. Several thousand people, many of whom work in other occupations or attend college, tend bar part time. Often they serve at ban quets and private parties which are held at restaurants, hotels, or even private homes. Most bartenders work in the urban popu lation centers of New York, California, and other large States, but many are employed in small communities. Seasonal employment is CLEANING AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS/139 Related Occupations Bartenders’ duties include taking orders, serving drinks, and collecting payment from customers. Other workers who serve custom ers include short-order cooks, restaurant and coffee shop managers, sales clerks, and wait ers and waitresses. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from the State employment ser vice. For general information on job opportuni ties in bartending, write to: American Hotel and Motel Association, 888 7th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. Culinary Institute of America, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Park, N.Y. 12538. Cooks and Chefs (D.O.T. 187.161-010, 313, and 315) Bartenders often are asked to mix drinks to suit a customer’s taste. Nature of the Work available in vacation resorts, and some bar tenders migrate between summer and winter resorts rather than remain in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bartenders learn their trade on the job. Although preparing drinks at home can be good practice, it does not qualify a person to be a bartender. Besides knowing a variety of cocktail recipes, bartenders must know how to stock a bar properly and be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Persons who wish to become bartenders can get good experience by working as bar tender helpers, dining room attendants, wait ers, or waitresses. By watching a bartender at work, they can learn how to mix drinks and do other bartending tasks. Some schools offer short courses in bartending that include instruction on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail recipes, attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Since they deal with the public, bartenders should have a pleasant personality and a neat and clean appearance. Physical stamina also is necessary, because they stand while work ing and must lift heavy kegs of beer or cases of beverages. Generally, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, although some employers prefer those who are 25 or older. Some States re quire bartenders to have health certificates assuring that they are free from contagious diseases. In some instances, they must be bonded. Small restaurants, neighborhood bars, and http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 140/O CCUPATIO NAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis resorts usually offer a beginner the best entry opportunities. After gaining experience, a bartender may wish to work in a large restau rant or cocktail lounge where pay is higher and promotion opportunities are greater. Al though promotional opportunities in this field are limited, it is possible to advance to head bartender, wine steward, or beverage manager. Some bartenders open their own businesses. Employment Outlook Employment of bartenders is expected to increase faster than the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s. In addition to the job openings caused by employment growth, several thousand will arise annually from the need to replace experienced bartenders who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. A reputation for serving fine food is an asset to any restaurant, whether it prides itself on “home cooking” or exotic foreign cuisine. Cooks and chefs are largely re sponsible for the reputation a restaurant acquires. Many chefs have earned fame for both themselves and the restaurants and hotels where they work because of their skill in creating new dishes and improving familiar ones. A cook’s duties depend partly on the size and kind of restaurant. Smaller restaurants usually feature a limited number of easy-toprepare, short order specialties, and ready made desserts from a nearby bakery. Typi cally, one cook prepares all of the food with the help of a short order cook and one or two kitchen helpers. Higher average incomes and more leisure time will allow people to go out for dinner or cocktails more often, and to take more vaca tions. Also, with both spouses working, fami lies are finding dining out a welcome con venience. Large eating places usually have more varied menus and prepare more of the food they serve. Kitchen staffs often in clude several cooks, sometimes called as sistant or apprentice cooks, and many kitchen helpers. Each cook usually has a special assignment and often a special job title—pastry, fry, or sauce cook, for exam ple. Head cooks or chefs coordinate the work of the kitchen staff, and often direct certain kinds of food preparation. They de cide the size of servings, sometimes plan menus, and buy food supplies. Earnings Working Conditions Hourly earnings of bartenders ranged from $3.34 to $6.53 in 1978, according to limited data from union contracts in the restaurant industry. Besides wages, bartenders usually receive tips that increase their earnings. Many kitchens have modem equipment, convenient work areas, and air-conditioning, but others, particularly in older and smaller eating places, are frequently marginally equipped and poorly ventilated. Other varia tions in working conditions depend on the type and quantity of food being prepared and the local laws governing food service opera tions. In most kitchens, however, cooks must The demand for bartenders will increase as new restaurants, hotels, and bars open in re sponse to population growth and as spending on food and beverages outside the home in creases. Bartenders usually receive free meals at work and may be furnished bar jackets or complete uniforms. Little experience is required to become an assistant or fry cook, but many years of train ing and experience are necessary to achieve the level of skill required of an executive chef or cook in a fine restaurant. Even though a high school diploma is not required for begin ning jobs, it is recommended for those plan ning a career as a cook or chef. High school or vocational school courses in business arithmetic and business administration are particularly helpful. To get experience, high school students can work part time in fastfood or other restaurants. Persons who have had courses in commer cial food preparation will have an advantage when looking for jobs in large restaurants and hotels where hiring standards often are high. Some vocational programs in high schools offer this kind of training to students. But usually these courses, ranging from a few months to 2 years or more and open in some cases only to high school graduates, are given by trade schools, vocational centers, junior colleges, universities, professional associa tions, hotel management groups, and trade unions. The Armed Forces also are a good source of training and experience in food ser vice work. Although curricula may vary, students usually spend most of their time learning to prepare food through actual practice. They learn to bake, broil, and prepare food, and to use and care for kitchen equipment. Training programs often include courses in selection and storage of food, use of leftovers, determi nation of portion size, menu planning, food cost control, and purchasing food supplies in quantity. Students also learn hotel and res taurant sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Training in supervisory and management skills sometimes is emphasized in courses offered by private vocational schools, professional associations, and uni versity programs. stand most of the time, lift heavy pots and kettles, and work near hot ovens and ranges. Hours in restaurants may include late eve ning, holiday, and weekend work, and range from 37 1/2 to 48 hours a week. Cooks em ployed in public and private schools work during the school year only, usually for 9 months. Places of Employment About 1,186,000 cooks and chefs were em ployed in 1978. Most worked in restaurants and hotels, but many worked in schools, col leges, airports, and hospitals. Government agencies, factories, private clubs, and many other kinds of organizations also employed cooks and chefs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most cooks start work in an unskilled posi tion such as kitchen helper and acquire their skills on the job; however, an increasing num ber are obtaining their training through high school and post-high school vocational pro grams. Cooks may also be trained in appren ticeship programs offered by professional as sociations and trade unions, or in a 3-year apprenticeship program administered by local offices of the American Culinary Feder ation in cooperation with local employers and junior colleges or vocational education institutions. In addition, some large hotels and restaurants operate their own training programs for new employees. Many school districts, in cooperation with school food services divisions of State depart ments of education, provide on-the-job train ing and sometimes summer workshops for cafeteria workers who wish to become cooks. Some junior colleges, State departments of education, and school associations also offer training programs. Cafeteria employees who have participated in these training programs often are selected for jobs as cooks. Persons who want to become cooks or chefs should be able to work as a team and to withstand the pressure and strain of work ing in close quarters during busy periods. A keen sense of taste and smell, the physical stamina to stand for hours at a time, and personal cleanliness also are important qualifications. Most States require health cer tificates indicating that cooks and chefs are free from contagious diseases. Advancement opportunities for cooks are better than for most other food service occu pations. Many cooks acquire higher paying positions and new cooking skills by moving from one operation to another. Others gradu ally advance to chef positions or supervisory FOOD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/141 or management positions, particularly in ho tels, clubs, or the larger, more elegant restau rants. Some eventually go into business as caterers or restaurant owners; others may be come instructors in vocational programs in high schools, junior and community colleges, and other academic institutions. Employment Outlook Employment of cooks and chefs is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addi tion to employment growth, thousands of job openings will arise annually from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Small res taurants, school cafeterias, and other eating places with simple food preparation will pro vide the greatest number of starting jobs for cooks. The demand for cooks and chefs will in crease as population grows and people eat out more. Higher personal incomes and more leisure time will allow people to go out for dinner more often and to take more vaca tions. Also, as more wives work, families are finding dining out a welcome convenience. Earnings In 1978, hourly pay rates ranged from $3.68 to $7.15 for chefs, from $2.90 to $6.36 for cooks of various types, and from $2.54 to $4.97 for assistant cooks, according to lim ited data from union contracts in several large metropolitan areas. Wages of cooks and chefs vary depending on the part of the country and the type of establishment in which they work. Wages generally are higher in the West and in large, well-known restaurants and hotels. Cooks and chefs in famous restaurants earn much more than the minimum rates, and several chefs with national reputations earn more than $40,000 a year. The principal union organizing cooks and chefs is the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bartenders International Union. Related Occupations Culinary Institute of America, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Park, N.Y. 12538. National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606. The American Hotel and Motel Association, 888 7th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. For information on the American Culi nary Federation’s apprenticeship program for cooks and chefs, write to: American Culinary Federation, Educational Insti tute, 920 Long Blvd., Suite One, Lansing, Mich. 48910. Dining Room Attendants and Dishwashers_____ may have to make minor adjustments to keep machines operating properly. Dishwashers might clean large pots and pans by hand, or operate a mechanical pot and pan washer. In addition, they may clean refrigerators and other kitchen equipment, sweep and mop floors, and carry out trash. Working Conditions Most attendants and dishwashers work less than 30 hours a week. Some are on duty only a few hours a day during either the lunch or dinner period. Others work both periods but may take a few hours off in the middle of the day. Weekend and holiday work often is required. (D.O.T. 311.677 except -014; and 318.687-010) Job hazards include the possibility of falls, cuts, and bums, but injuries are seldom seri ous. The work is strenuous, however, as these workers have to lift heavy trays filled with dishes, and large pots and pans. Nature of the Work Places of Employment Clean and attractive table settings are as important to a restaurant’s reputation as the quality of food it serves. An egg-stained fork, a soiled tablecloth, or an empty salt shaker can make a customer unhappy. Dining room attendants and dishwashers provide the quick hands and sharp eyes needed to pre vent such problems. About 240,000 dishwashers and 215,000 attendants were employed in 1978. Many worked only part time. Attendants do many jobs that otherwise waiters and waitresses would have to do. They clear and reset tables, carry soiled dishes to the dishwashing area and bring in trays of food, and clean up spilled food and broken dishes. By taking care of these details, attendants give waiters and waitresses more time to serve customers. Dining room attendants help waiters and waitresses in some restaurants, by serving water and bread and butter to customers. In addition, when business is light, they do vari ous jobs such as refilling salt and pepper shakers and cleaning coffee pots. Dishwashers pick up where the attendants leave off—with the soiled dishes. They oper ate special machines that clean tableware quickly and efficiently. Occasionally, they Most attendants and dishwashers work in restaurants, bars, and hotels. Dishwashers also work in schools, hospitals, and other in stitutional feeding operations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school education is not needed to qualify for jobs as dining room attendants and dishwashers, and many employers will hire applicants who do not speak English. Attendants and dishwashers must be in good physical condition and have physical stamina because they stand most of the time, lift and carry trays, and work at a fast pace during busy periods. State laws often require them to obtain health certificates to show that they are free of contagious diseases. Because of their close contact with the public, attend ants should be neat in appearance, have good personal hygiene, and get along well with people. Promotions for dining room attendants Cooks and chefs are not the only workers who create and then display a product to its best advantage. Other workers similarly in volved include artists, bakers, clothes de signers, and decorators. In addition, cooks and chefs may manage facilities ranging in size from a two person sandwich shop to a large restaurant’s kitchen employing dozens of people. Other workers with similar man agement responsibilities include food service directors, executive housekeepers, and purs ers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. General information about restaurant cooks and chefs is available from: http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 142/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dishwashers pick up where attendants leave off— with the dirty dishes. and dishwashers are limited. Attendants sometimes advance to positions as waiter or waitress, and dishwashers occasionally ad vance to cook’s helper or short-order cook. The ability to read, write, and do simple arithmetic is required for promotion. Oppor tunities for advancement generally are best in large restaurants. Employment Outlook Job openings for dining room attendants and dishwashers are expected to be plentiful in the years ahead. Many openings will result from the need to replace workers who find jobs in other occupations, retire, or die. Turnover is particularly high among parttime workers. About one-half of the attend ants and dishwashers are students, most of whom work part time while attending school. Additional openings will result from em ployment growth. Employment of dining room attendants and dishwashers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as popula tion growth and higher incomes create more business for restaurants. Earnings Dining room attendants and dishwashers have relatively low earnings. Limited data from union contracts that cover restaurants and bars in several large cities indicate that hourly rates for these workers ranged from $1.54 to $4.28 in 1978. These amounts were below the average earnings of most other nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In addition to wages, however, attendants may receive a percentage of waiters’ and wai tresses’ tips. Patrons usually tip their waiter or waitresses between 10 and 20 percent of their checks, but locale and custom fre quently determine the amount. Food Counter Workers__________ (D.O.T. 311.137-010, .477-014, .674-010, .677-014; 319.474-010) Nature of the Work Counter workers serve customers in eating places that specialize in fast service and inex pensive food, such as hamburger and fried chicken carryouts, drugstore soda fountains, and school and public cafeterias. About 463,000 persons, most of whom worked part time, had food counter jobs in 1978. Typical duties of counter workers include taking customers’ orders, serving food and beverages, making out checks, and taking payments. At drugstore fountains and in din ers, they also may cook, make sandwiches and cold drinks, and prepare sundaes and other ice cream dishes. In hamburger carry outs, where food is prepared in an assembly line manner, counter workers may take turns waiting on customers, making french fries, toasting buns, and doing other jobs. Counter workers in cafeterias supply serv ing lines with desserts, salads, and other dishes, in addition to filling customers’ plates with meats and side orders. Cafeterias usu ally employ central cashiers to take payments and make change. Counter workers also do odd jobs, such as cleaning kitchen equipment, sweeping and mopping floors, and carrying out trash. Working Conditions Since most counter workers are on duty less than 30 hours a week, some work only a few hours a day. Many others may work split lunch-dinner shifts and have a few hours off in the middle of the day. This flexible sched ule enables students to fit working hours around classes. Weekend and holiday work often is required. During busy periods, food counter work ers must work quickly and effectively under pressure. Other job requirements include the ability to stand for long periods of time and to perform tasks within a restricted area. Un like waiters, food counter workers do not handle heavy trays, but are exposed to minor injuries from sharp implements or flatware, wet floors, or hot utensils or grease. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For counter jobs that require totaling bills and making change, employers prefer to hire persons who are good in arithmetic and have attended high school, although a diploma usually is not necessary. Managers of fastfood restaurants often hire high school stu dents as part-time counter workers. Counter jobs in cafeterias have no specific educational requirements. Most counter workers learn their skills on the job by observing and working with more experienced workers. Some employers, in cluding some fast-food restaurants, use selfstudy instructional booklets and audiovisual aids to train new employees. Because counter workers deal with the public, a pleasant personality and neat ap pearance are important. Good health and physical stamina also are needed to stand most of the time and work at a fast pace during busy periods. State laws often require counter workers to obtain health certificates to show that they are free of contagious dis ease. Opportunities for advancement are lim- Employers usually furnish uniforms and a free meal. In addition, most attendants and dishw ashers receive paid vacations and vari ous types of health insurance and pension plans. Related Occupations Other jobs which require little formal edu cation but provide comfort and convenience to people are bell captains, building custodi ans, hospital attendants, and porters. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. For general information about dining room attendants and dishwashers, write to: National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606. Culinary Institute of America, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Park, N.Y. 12538. The American Hotel and Motel Association, 888 7th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. FOOD SERVICE WORKERS/143 ited, especially in small eating places. Some counter workers move into higher paying jobs and learn new skills by transferring to a larger restaurant. Advancement can be to cashier, cook, waiter or waitress, counter or fountain supervisor, or, for counter workers in cafeterias, to line supervisor or merchan diser (person in charge of stocking food). Many large companies, such as the nation wide hamburger chains, operate formal man agement training programs, while others offer informal on-the-job training. Counter workers who show leadership ability may qualify for these programs. Employment Outlook Job openings for food counter workers are expected to be plentiful in the years ahead. Most openings will result from the need to replace workers who find jobs in other occu pations, retire, or die. Because many counter workers are students who work part time and leave the occupation after graduation, turn over is high. Employment of counter workers is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, as popu lation growth and higher incomes create more business for eating places. In addition, expansion of the restaurant industry, particu larly the fast-food segment, will create many job openings. Thus, jobs should be relatively easy to find. Earnings Hourly rates for food counter workers ranged from $1.70 to $3.73 in 1978, based on limited data from union contracts that cov ered eating places in several large cities. These amounts were well below the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. However, some counter workers, such as those in drug stores and diners, receive tips, which can be greater than hourly wages. Tips usually aver age between 10 and 20 percent of patrons’ checks. Counter workers usually receive free meals at work, and may be furnished with uniforms. Related Occupations Most food counter workers are employed in small restaurants and fast food places and often are rushed to take care of customers. Other workers who have similar jobs include sales clerks, waiters and waitresses, car hops, and bartenders. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. For general information counter workers, write to: about food Educational Director, National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chi cago, 111. 60606. Culinary Institute of America, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Park, N.Y. 12538. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 144/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The American Hotel and Motel Association, 888 7th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. of meat, demands physical strength and stamina. Meatcutters also must be careful when working with sharp tools, especially those that are powered. Meatcutters Health and safety standards require clean and sanitary work areas. (D O T. 316) Nature of the Work Meatcutters prepare meat, fish, and poul try in supermarkets or wholesale food out lets. When the animal quarters and carcasses arrive from a meatpacking plant or central distribution center, meatcutters divide quar ters into primal cuts, such as round, loins, and ribs, with a band saw. Then they use knives to separate these large cuts into serv ing-size portions, such as steaks, roasts, and chops. Boneless cuts are divided by knives, slicers, or power cutters while band saws are used on bony pieces. Meat trimmings are ground into hamburger. They also may pre pare sausage and corned beef. In addition, cutters in retail foodstores may be required to stock meat display cases and assist custom ers. Working Conditions Meatcutters work in coldrooms designed to prevent meat from spoiling. The low tem perature, combined with the need to stand for long periods of time and lift heavy pieces Places of Employment About 204,000 persons worked as meat cutters in 1978. They had jobs in almost every city and town in the Nation. Most meatcutters worked in retail foodstores, al though a few worked in wholesale stores, res taurants, hotels, hospitals, and other institu tions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most meatcutters acquire their skills on the job. Although many are informally trained, most learn through apprenticeship programs. A few meatcutters learn their skills by attending private schools specializ ing in this trade. Generally, on-the-job trainees begin by doing odd jobs, such as removing bones and fat from retail cuts. Under the guidance of skilled meatcutters, they learn about the various cuts and grades of meats and the proper use of tools and equipment. After demonstrating skill with tools, they learn to divide quarters into primal cuts and to di- vide primal cuts into individual portions. Trainees may learn to cut and prepare fish and poultry, roll and tie roasts, prepare sau sage, and cure and corn meat. Later, they may learn marketing operations such as in ventory control, meat buying and grading, and recordkeeping. Meatcutters who learn the trade through apprenticeship programs generally complete 2 years of supervised on-the-job training that may be supplemented by classroom work. At the end of the training period, apprentices are given a meatcutting test which is observed by their employer. In union shops, a union member also is present during the exam. Ap prentices who pass the test qualify as meatcutters. Those who fail the exam may repeat it at a later time. In some areas, apprentices may become meatcutters without completing the entire training program if they can pass the test. Besides training requirements, most em ployers prefer applicants who have a high school diploma and the potential to develop into meat department managers. Other skills important in meat cutting are manual dexterity, good depth perception, color dis crimination, and good eye-hand coordina tion. A pleasant personality, a neat appear ance, and the ability to communicate clearly are important qualifications when cutters wait on customers. Also, better-than-average strength is needed to lift heavy pieces of meat. A health certificate may be required for employment. Meatcutters may progress to supervisory jobs, such as meat department managers in supermarkets. A few become meat buyers for wholesalers and supermarket chains. Some cutters become grocery store managers or open their own meat markets. Employment Outlook The number of meatcutters is expected to decline slightly through the 1980’s. Never theless, thousands of entry jobs will be availa ble as experienced workers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment of meatcutters in food stores will be limited by central cutting—the prac tice of cutting and wrapping meat for sev eral stores at one location. Central cutting, which permits meatcutters to specialize in both a type of meat and a type of cut, in creases efficiency. In addition, more central cutting is expected to be done in meatpack ing plants, thus reducing the amount of meat cut—and the need for meatcutters—in food stores. Earnings Hourly earnings of most meatcutters ave raged $8.32 in 1978, according to a 1978 sur vey of union wage rates for grocery store em ployees in cities of 100,000 inhabitants or more. Meatcutters working in cities with 500,000 inhabitants or more tended to earn more for than those in smaller cities. Among Digitized FRASER grocery store occupations, meatcutters have the highest wages. Beginning apprentices usually receive be tween 60 and 70 percent of the experienced cutter’s wage and generally receive increases every 6 months. Many cutters are members of the United Food and Commerical Workers Interna tional Union. Related Occupations Meatcutters must be able to do both skilled hand and machine work and have some knowledge of processes and techniques in volved in preparing food. Other occupations in food preparation which require similar skills are bakers; cooks; butchers, chicken and fish; salad makers, and kitchen supervi sors. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportunities can be obtained from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For information on training and other aspects of the trade, contact: United Food and Commerical Workers Interna tional Union, 2800 North Sheridan Rd., Chicago, 111. 60657. Waiters and Waitresses__________ (D .O T . 311.137-014 through .137-022; 311.477-018 through .477-038; and 311.674-018) Nature of the Work Whether they work in small lunchrooms or fashionable restaurants, all waiters and waitresses have jobs that are essentially the same. They take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, make out checks, and sometimes take payments. The manner in which waiters and waitresses go about their work may vary considerably, however. In diners, coffee shops, and other small restau rants, they are expected to provide fast, effi cient service. In eating places where meals are served elaborately and a great deal of emphasis is placed on the satisfaction and comfort of each guest, waiters and waitresses serve food at a more leisurely pace and offer more personal service to their customers. For example, they may suggest wines and explain the preparation of items on the menu. Depending on the type of restaurant, waiters and waitresses may perform duties other than waiting on tables. These tasks may include setting up tables and clearing and carrying soiled tableware to the kitchen. Although very small restaurants usually combine waiting on tables with counter service or cashiering, larger or more formal restaurants frequently relieve their waiters and waitresses of these addi tional duties. Working Conditions Some waiters and waitresses work split shifts—that is, they work for several hours during the middle of the day, take a few hours off in the afternoon, and then return to their jobs for the evening hours. Most are expected to work on holidays and weekends. The wide range in dining hours creates a good opportunity for part-time work. Wait ers and waitresses stand most of the time and often have to carry heavy trays of food. Dur ing dining hours, they may have to rush to serve several tables at once. The work is rela tively safe, but they must be careful to avoid slips or falls and bums. Places of Employment About 1,383,000 waiters and waitresses were employed in 1978. More than half worked part time (less than 35 hours a week). Most worked in restaurants; some worked in hotels, colleges, and factories that have res taurant facilities. Jobs are located throughout the country but are most plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment, and some waiters and waitresses alternate between summer and winter resorts instead of remaining in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire applicants who have had at least 2 or 3 years of high school. A person may start as a waiter or waitress, or advance to that position after working as a dining room attendant, car hop, or food counter worker. Although most wait ers and waitresses pick up their skills on the job, at least 3 months’ experience is preferred by larger restaurants and hotels. Some public and private vocational schools, restaurant as sociations, and large restaurant chains pro vide classroom training. Other employers use self-instruction programs to train new em ployees. In these programs, an employee learns food preparation and service skills by observing film strips and reading instruc tional booklets. Because people in this occupation are in close and constant contact with the public, a neat appearance and an even disposition are important qualifications. Physical stamina also is important, as waiters and waitresses are on their feet for hours at a time, lifting and carrying trays of food from kitchen to table. Waiters and waitresses also should be good at arithmetic and, in restaurants spe cializing in foreign foods where some cus tomers may not speak English, knowledge of a foreign language is helpful. State laws often require waiters and waitresses to obtain health certificates showing that they are free of contagious diseases. Due to the small size of most food-serving establishments, opportunities for promotion in this area are limited. After gaining some experience, however, a waiter or waitress may transfer to a larger restaurant where FOOD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/145 dents, most of whom work part time while attending school and then find other jobs after graduation. In addition to the job open ings from turnover, many will result from employment growth. Employment of waiters and waitresses is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, as population growth and higher incomes create more business for restaurants. Higher in comes and more leisure time will permit peo ple to eat out more often. Also, as more wives work, families may find dining out a welcome convenience. Beginners will find their best opportunities for employment in the thousands of informal restaurants. Those who seek jobs in expensive restaurants may find keen competition for the jobs that become available. Earnings Hourly rates for waiters and waitresses (excluding tips) ranged from $1.31 to $3.54 in 1978, according to limited data from union contracts that covered eating and drinking places in several large cities. For many wait ers and waitresses, however, tips are greater than hourly wages. Tips generally average between 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks. Most waiters and waitresses receive meals at work, and many are furnished with uniforms. The principal union organizing waiters and waitresses is the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bartenders International Union. Related Occupations Other workers whose jobs involve serving customers and helping them feel at ease and enjoy themselves include flight attendants, butlers, counter workers, hosts and hostesses, and bellhops. Sources of Additional Information In luxury restaurants, waiters and waitresses may suggest wines and explain the preparation of items on the menu. earnings and prospects for advancement are better. Successful waiters and waitresses are those who genuinely like people, offer good service, and possess the ability to sell rather than just take orders. Advancement can be to cashier or supervisory jobs, such as host or hostess, maitre d’hotel, or dining room super visor. Some supervisory workers advance to jobs as restaurant managers. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 146/OCCUPATIONAL HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. OUTLOOK Louis Employment Outlook Job openings are expected to be plentiful in the years ahead, mainly due to the need to replace the waiters and waitresses who find other jobs or who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. Turnover is particularly high among part-time workers. About onefourth of the waiters and waitresses are stu Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Gen eral information on waiter and waitress jobs is available from: National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, 111. 60606. The American Hotel and Motel Association, 888 7th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. Culinary Institute of America, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Park, N.Y. 12538. American Culinary Federation, Educational Insti tute, 920 Long Blvd., Suite One, Lansing, Mich. 48910. Personal Service Occupations Personal service workers perform a variety of tasks for people, such as styling or cutting hair, conducting tours, carrying baggage, or arranging funerals. Some of these tasks re quire special skills that must be learned through formal training. Others require skills that can be learned on the job. For some personal service jobs, workers must obtain a State license after completing a training pro gram or apprenticeship. Neatness, tactfulness, and the ability to deal effectively with people are necessary in the personal service field because success de pends on the impression personal service workers make on their customers. Physical stamina is necessary for those jobs that in volve lifting heavy objects or standing for long periods of time. Personal service workers may receive sala ries, commissions or both. In many cases they also receive tips that add substantially to their income. Employers often furnish uni forms for jobs that require them. Workers like barbers and cosmetologists must provide their own tools. ordering supplies, paying bills, keeping rec ords, and hiring employees. than half of all barbers operated their own businesses. Working Conditions Almost all cities and towns have barber shops, but employment is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. Hairstylists usually work in large cities where the greatest demand for their services exists. Barbers usually work in clean, pleasant surroundings, with good lighting and ventila tion. Good health and stamina are important because barbers must stand a great deal and work with both hands at shoulder level—a position that can be tiring. Most full-time barbers work more than 40 hours a week, and a workweek of over 50 hours is not uncommon. Although Saturdays and lunch hours are generally very busy, a barber may have some time off during slack periods. To assure an even workload, some barbers ask customers to make appoint ments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Places of Employment All States require barbers to be licensed. The qualifications necessary to get a li cense vary from one State to another, how ever. Generally a person must be a gradu ate of a State-approved barber school and be at least 16 (in some States 18) years old. In addition, States have varying edu cation requirements—some require gradua tion from high school, while others have no requirement at all. Most of the 121,000 barbers in 1978 worked in barbershops. Some worked in uni sex salons, and a few worked for government agencies, hotels, or department stores. More Many States require a beginner to take an examination for an apprentice license, and serve 1 or 2 years as an apprentice before taking the examination required for a license This section describes four personal ser vice occupations: Barbers, cosmetologists, funeral directors and embalmers, and bell hops and bell captains. Barbers________ (D.O.T. 330.371-010 and 014; 332.271-018) Nature of the Work Although most men go to a barber for just a haircut, other services such as hairstyling and permanents have become increasingly popular. Barbers trained in these areas are called “hairstylists” and work in styling sa lons, “unisex” salons, and some barbershops. They cut and style hair to suit each customer and may color or straighten hair and fit hair pieces. Most barbers offer hair and scalp treatments, shaves, facial massages, and shampoos. A small but growing number of barbers cut and style women’s hair. They usually work in unisex salons—shops that have male and fe male customers. Some States require a cos metologist’s license as well as a barber’s li cense, however, to permanent wave or color women’s hair. As part of their responsibilities, barbers keep their scissors, combs, and other instru ments sterilized and in good condition. They clean their work areas and may sweep the shop as well. Those who own or manage a shop have additional responsibilities such as Barbers need steady, agile hands. FOOD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/147 as a registered barber. In the examinations, the applicant usually is required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform the basic services. Fees for these ex aminations range from $5 to $85. who offer conventional services. This trend is expected to continue, and employment op portunities should be better for hairstylists than for regular barbers. Because some States do not recognize training, apprenticeship work, or licenses ob tained in another State, persons who wish to become barbers should review the laws of the State in which they want to work before en tering a barber school. Earnings Barber training is offered in about 300 schools; 3 out of 4 barber schools are private. Some public high schools offer barbering in their vocational programs. Barber school programs usually last 9 to 12 months. Stu dents buy their own tools, which cost about $200. They study the basic services—haircut ting, shaving, facial massaging, and hair and scalp treatments—and, under supervision, practice on customers in school “clinics.” Be sides attending lectures on barber services and the use and care of instruments, students take courses in sanitation and hygiene, and learn how to recognize certain skin condi tions. Instruction also is given in selling and general business practices. Advanced courses are available in some localities for barbers who wish to update their skills or specialize in hairstyling, coloring, and the sale and ser vice of hairpieces. Dealing with customers requires patience and a better than average disposition. In ad dition, good eye-hand coordination is re quired. Barbers also should have sound judg ment about what hair style is most flattering. Beginners usually get their first jobs through the barber school they attended. Some experienced barbers advance by becoming managers of large shops or by opening their own shops. A few may teach at barber schools. Barbers who go into business for themselves must have the capital to buy or rent a shop and install equipment. New equipment for a one-chair shop averaged about $3,000 in 1978. Some shopowners buy used equipment and fixtures at reduced prices, however. Employment Outlook The employment decline of the last decade is not expected to continue as population growth and the increasing popularity of hairstyling offset the effect of the fashion for longer hair. The occupation is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s. Besides openings due to growth in the demand for barbers’ services, several thousand job openings for barbers will occur each year because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other kinds of work. Replacement needs in barbering are high, compared with many other occupations. The shift in consumer preferences from regular haircuts to more personalized and in tensive services has greatly affected the occu pation. Barbers who specialize in hairstyling have been much more successful than those 148/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Barbers receive income from commissions or wages and tips. Most barbers who are not shopowners normally receive 60 to 70 per cent of the money they take in; a few are paid straight salaries. Weekly earnings (including tips) of ex perienced barbers generally ranged between $230 and $290 in 1978, according to lim ited information available. Hairstylists usu ally earned $360 to $460 a week, because the services they provide are more person alized and therefore more expensive. Some hairstylists and a few barbers who operated their own shops earned more than $500 a week. Beginning barbers usually earn about $200 to $230 a week, hairstylists $230 to $290 a week. Earnings depend on the size and location of the shop, customers’ tipping habits, com petition from other barbershops, and the bar ber’s ability to attract and hold regular cus tomers. Some barbers receive 1- or 2-week paid vacations, insurance, and medical bene fits. The principal union that organizes barbers —both employees and shopowners—is the Barbers, Beauticians, and Allied Industries International Association. The principal as sociation that represents and organizes shopowners, managers, and employees is the As sociated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity con sists of using special knowledge, techniques, and tools, along with personal judgment, to improve a person’s physical appearance in clude cosmetologists, electrologists, embalmers, makeup artists, and manicurists. Sources of Additional Information Lists of barber schools, by State, are availa ble from: National Association of Barber Schools, Inc., 304 South 11th St., Lincoln, Nebr. 68508. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 K St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Every State maintains information on State licensing requirements and approved barber schools. For details, contact the State board of barber examiners or the equivalent authority at your State capital. Additional information on this occupation is available from: National Barber Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd., Bronx, N.Y. 10467. Barbers, Beauticians, and Allied Industries Inter national Association, 7050 West Washington St., Indianapolis, Ind. 46241. Bellhops and Bell Captains________ (D.O.T. 324.137, .477, and .677-010) Nature of the Work Bellhops carry baggage for hotel and motel guests and escort them to their rooms on arrival. When showing new guests to their rooms, bellhops make sure everything is in order and may offer information about valet services, restaurant hours, or other hotel ser vices. Bellhops also run errands for guests and may relieve elevator operators or switch board operators in smaller properties. Large and medium-sized hotels employ bell captains to supervise the service staff. They plan work assignments, record the hours each bellhop is on duty, and train new employees. Bell captains take care of any unusual requests guests may make and han dle any complaints regarding the depart ment. Sometimes, they help arriving or de parting guests, if a bellhop is unavailable. In 1978, more than 20,000 persons worked as bellhops and bell captains. A few hotels have large service depart ments and employ superintendents of service to supervise bell captains and bellhops, eleva tor operators, doorkeepers, and washroom attendants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school education is not essential for work as a bellhop, but it does increase the chances for promotion to a job as desk clerk or reservation clerk. Frequently, ho tels promote elevator operators to bellhop positions. Because bellhops have frequent contact with guests, they must be neat, tactful, and courteous. A knowledge of the local area is an asset because guests often ask about local tourist attractions, restaurants, and transpor tation services. Bellhops also must be able to stand for long periods, carry heavy baggage, and work independently. Bellhops can advance to bell captain and then to superintendent of service, but oppor tunities are limited. Employment Outlook Employment of bellhops is expected to de cline through the 1980’s. Most openings will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Although many motels now offer services similar to those of a hotel and employ bell hops, the growing popularity of economy motels that offer only basic services is ex pected to limit employment growth. New workers will have better opportunities in mo tels and small hotels because the large luxury hotels prefer to hire experienced workers. Opportunities also will be available in resort Places of Employment Most of the more than 542,000 cosmetolo gists employed in 1978 worked in beauty sa lons. Some worked in “unisex” shops, bar ber-styling shops, or department stores, and a few were employed by hospitals and hotels. About one-third operated their own busi nesses. All cities and towns have beauty salons, but employment is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. Those cosmetolo gists who set fashion trends with their hair styles usually work in New York City, Los Angeles, and other centers of fashion and the performing arts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although all States require cosmetologists to be licensed, the qualifications necessary to obtain a license vary. Generally, a person must have graduated from a State-approved cosmetology school, pass a physical examina tion, and be at least 16 years old. In addition, States have varying education requirements —some have no requirement, while others require graduation from high school. In some States completion of an apprentice training program can substitute for graduation from a cosmetology school, but very few cos metologists learn their skills in this way. areas where hotels and motels are open only part of the year. Related Occupations Bellhops and bell captains do most of their work in a fast paced, hectic setting; usually in large hotels or resorts. Other workers who perform similar jobs are baggage porters, skycaps, and doorkeepers. Sources of Additional Information See the statement on the hotel industry elsewhere in the Handbook for information on earnings and working conditions, sources of additional information, and more informa tion on employment outlook. Cosmetologists (D .O .T. 331.674-010; 332.271-010, -014, and -018; 332.361-010; 339.371-014) Cosmetologists, who also are called beauty operators, hairstylists, or beauticians, sham poo, cut, and style hair, and advise patrons on how to care for their hair. Frequently they straighten or permanent wave a patron’s hair to keep the style in shape. Cosmetologists may also lighten or darken the color of the hair. Cosmetologists may give manicures, scalp and facial treatments; provide makeup analysis for women; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. Most cosmetologists make appointments and keep records of hair color formulas and permanent waves used by their regular pa trons. They also keep their work area clean and sanitize their hairdressing implements. Those who operate their own salons also have managerial duties which include hiring and supervising workers, keeping records, and ordering supplies. Working Conditions Cosmetologists generally work in clean, pleasant surroundings, with good lighting Hair has been a center of attention since and ventilation. They must be on their feet people first began to care about their appear for hours at a time, and work with their ance. Throughout history a great deal of ef hands at shoulder level. Many full-time cos fort has gone into acquiring a fashionable metologists work more than 40 hours a week, hairstyle or a perfectly trimmed beard. Al including evenings and Saturdays when though styles change from year to year, the beauty salons are busiest. About one-quarter cosmetologist’s task remains the same—to •of all cosmetologists work part time, usually help people look attractive. during these busy hours. Nature of the Work Cosmetology instruction is offered in both public and private vocational schools, in ei ther daytime or evening classes. A daytime course usually takes 6 months to 1 year to complete; an evening course takes longer. Many public school programs include the ac ademic subjects needed for a high school di ploma and last 2 to 3 years. An apprentice ship program usually lasts 1 or 2 years. Both public and private programs include classroom study, demonstrations, and practi cal work. Most schools provide students with the necessary hairdressing implements, such as manicure implements, combs, scissors, ra zors, and hair rollers, and include their cost in the tuition fee. Sometimes students must purchase their own. A good set of imple ments costs over $50. Beginning students work on manikins or on each other. Once they have gained some experience, students practice on patrons in school “clinics.” After graduating from a cosmetology pro gram, students take the State licensing exam ination. The examination consists of a writ ten test and a practical test in which applicants demonstrate their ability to pro vide the required services. In some States, an oral examination is included and the appli cant is asked to explain the procedures he or she is following while taking the practical test. In some States, a separate examination is given for persons who want only a mani curist’s license. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow a cosmetologist li censed in one State to work in another with out reexamination. Persons who want to become cosmetoloPERSONAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/149 a week. Beginners usually earned $110 to $145 a week. Earnings also depend on the size and loca tion of the salon, patrons’ tipping habits, competition from other beauty salons, and the individual cosmetologist’s ability to at tract and hold regular patrons. A few large salons and department stores offer group life and health insurance and other benefit plans. Nearly all employers pro vide annual paid vacations of at least 1 week after a year’s service. Sometimes cosmetologists help customers with makeup. gists must have finger dexterity and a sense of form and artistry. They should enjoy deal ing with the public and be willing and able to follow patrons’ instructions. Because hair styles are constantly changing, cosmetolo gists must keep abreast of the latest fashions and beauty techniques. Business skills are im portant for those who plan to operate their own salons. Many schools help their students find jobs. During their first months on the job, new cosmetologists are given relatively simple tasks, such as giving manicures or shampoos, or are assigned to perform the simpler hairs tyling patterns. Once they have demon strated their skills, they are gradually permit ted to perform the more complicated tasks such as hair coloring and permanent waving. Advancement usually is in the form of higher earnings as cosmetologists gain expe rience and build a steady clientele, but many manage large salons or open their own after several years of experience. Some teach in cosmetology schools or use their knowledge and skill to demonstrate cosmetics in depart ment stores. A few work as examiners for State cosmetology boards. face keen competition for the position of their choice. If current trends continue, trained cosmetologists will outnumber job openings by almost 2 to 1. However, numerous open ings should be available for part-time work. Earnings Cosmetologists receive income from com missions or wages, and from tips. Those who are not salon owners receive a percentage of the money they take in, usually 50 percent; a few are paid straight salaries. Weekly earnings (including tips) of ex perienced cosmetologists generally ranged between $330 and $390 in 1978, according to limited information available. After 10 years of experience, they can earn more than $500 The principal union which organizes cos metologists—both employees and salon own ers—is the Barbers, Beauticians, and Allied Industries International Association. The principal trade association which represents and organizes salon owners, managers, and employees is the Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America. Other organiza tions include the National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists Association, Inc.; the Na tional Association of Cosmetology Schools, Inc., which represents school owners and teachers; and the National Beauty Culturists’ League, representing black cosmetologists, teachers, managers, and salon owners. Related Occupations Other occupations whose main activity consists of using special knowledge, tech niques, and tools, along with personal judg ment, to improve a person’s physical appear ance include barbers, electrologists, embalmers, makeup artists, and manicurists. Sources of Additional Information A list of approved training schools and lic ensing requirements can be obtained from State boards of cosmetology or from: Cosmetology Accrediting Commission, 1735 K St. NW„ Suite 1108, Washington, D.C. 20006 Additional information about careers in for all occupations, a large proportion of cosmetologists are self-employed 50 Employment Outlook Employment of cosmetologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as the popu lation increases and the number of working women rises. The trend to hairstyling for men also creates a demand for these workers because many men go to unisex shops or beauty salons for styling services. In addition to openings due to growth in the demand for cosmetologists, thousands of cosmetologists will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation. rising demand, jobseekers may DigitizedDespite for FRASER http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 150/O CCUPATIO NAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis II *■ B ill National Beauty Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd„ Bronx, N.Y. 10467. for social security, insurance, and other bene fits. Directors may serve a family for several months following the funeral until such mat ters are satisfactorily completed. National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists Associ ation, 3510 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo. 63103. Working Conditions For general information about the occupa tion, contact: Funeral directors and embalmers often work long hours and may be required to be “on call” and within quick traveling distance of the funeral home. Some employees work shifts; for example, nights 1 week, and days the next. cosmetology and State licensing require ments is available from: Barbers, Beauticians, and Allied Industries Inter national Association, 7050 West Washington St., Indianapolis, Ind. 46241. National Association of Cosmetology Schools, 808 Main St., Boonton, N.J. 07005. Funeral Directors and Embalmers (D.O.T. 187.167-030 and 338.371-014) Nature of the Work Few occupations require the tact, discre tion, and compassion called for in the work of funeral directors and embalmers. The fam ily and friends of the deceased may be under considerable emotional stress and may be bewildered by the many details of the occa sion. The funeral director (D.O.T. 187.16730) helps them to make the personal and business arrangements necessary for the ser vice and burial. The embalmer (D.O.T. 338.371-014) prepares the body for viewing and burial. In many instances, one person per forms both functions. The director’s duties begin when a call is received from a family requesting services. After arranging for the deceased to be removed to the funeral home, the director obtains the information needed for the death certificate, such as date and place of birth and cause of death. The director makes an ap pointment with the family to discuss the de tails of the funeral. These include time and place of service, clergy and organist, selection of casket and clothing, and provision for burial or cremation. Directors also make ar rangements with the cemetery, place obitu ary notices in newspapers, and take care of other details as necessary. Directors must be familiar with the funeral and burial customs of various religious faiths and fraternal or ganizations. Embalming is a sanitary, preservative and cosmetic measure. Embalmers, perhaps with the help of resident trainees (apprentices), first wash the body with germicidal soap. The embalming process itself replaces the blood with a preservative fluid. Embalmers apply cosmetics to give the body a natural appear ance and, if necessary, restore disfigured fea tures. Finally, they dress the body and place it in the casket selected by the family. On the day of the funeral, directors pro vide cars for the family and casketbearers, receive and usher guests to their seats, and organize the funeral procession. After the service they may help the family file claims Occasionally embalmers may come into contact with contagious diseases, but the pos sibility of their becoming ill is remote, even less likely than for a doctor or nurse. Places of Employment About 45,000 persons were licensed as fu neral directors and embalmers in 1978. A substantial number of the directors were fu neral home owners. niques and restorative art. Community col leges offer 2-year programs, and a small number of colleges and universities offer 2and 4-year programs in funeral service. These programs included liberal arts and manage ment courses as well as mortuary science. All programs offered courses in psychology, ac counting, and funeral law. State board examinations consist of writ ten and oral tests and actual demonstration of skills. After passing the examination and meeting other requirements, resident trainees receive a license to practice. If they want to work in another State, they may have to pass its examination, although many States have mutual agreements that make this unneces sary. Important personal traits for funeral direc tors are composure, tact, and the ability to communicate easily with the public. They also should have the desire and ability to comfort people in their time of sorrow. Most of the 22,000 funeral homes in 1978 had 1 to 3 directors and embalmers, includ ing the owner. Many large homes, however, had 20 or more. Besides the embalmers em ployed by funeral homes, several hundred worked for morgues and hospitals. Advancement opportunities are best in large funeral homes where directors and em balmers may earn promotion to higher pay ing positions such as personnel manager or general manager. Some workers eventually acquire enough money and experience to es tablish their own businesses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment Outlook A license is needed to practice embalm ing. State licensing standards vary, but generally an embalmer must be 21 years old, have a high school diploma or its equivalent, graduate from a funeral service college, serve a 1- or 2-year resident traineeship, and pass a State board exami nation. One-half of the States require a year or more of college in addition to training in mortuary science. All but six States also require funeral di rectors to be licensed. Qualifications are simi lar to those for embalmers, but directors may have to take special apprenticeship training and board examinations. Most people enter ing the field obtain both licenses, however some States issue a single license to embalmer/funeral directors. Information on licens ing requirements is available from the State office of occupational licensing. High school students can start preparing for a career in this field by taking courses in biology, chemistry, and speech. Students may find a part-time or summer job in a fu neral home. Although these jobs consist mostly of maintenance and clean-up tasks, such as washing and polishing funeral coaches, they can be helpful in gaining fa miliarity with the operation of funeral homes. In 1978, 35 schools had mortuary science programs accredited by the American Board of Funeral Service Education. About onehalf were private vocational schools that offer 1-year programs emphasizing basic sub jects such as anatomy and physiology as well as practical skills such as embalming tech Little change in the employment of funeral directors and embalmers is expected through the 1980’s. Demand for funeral services will rise as the population grows and deaths in crease. Most funeral homes, however, will be able to meet the demand without expanding their employment. The average funeral home conducts only one or two funerals each week and is capable of handling several more with out hiring additional employees. In recent years, the number of funeral ser vice college graduates has approximately equaled the number of jobs available due to retirements, deaths, and transfers to other occupations. Because there are a limited number of employers in any geographical area, many students should secure a promise of employment before entering a program. However, barring any significant growth in enrollments, future graduates should find job opportunities available. Earnings In 1978, funeral directors and embalmers generally earned from $11,000 to $17,000 a year. Resident trainees earned between $135 and $220 a week. Managers generally earned between $13,000 and $24,500 a year, and many owners and officers of homes earned more than $35,000. In addition, the majority of funeral homes have health or life insurance programs, and many homes provide directors with clothing allowances. In large funeral homes, employees usually have a regular work schedule. Typically they put in 8 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week. Occasionally, however, overtime may be nec essary. PERSONAL SERVICES OCCUPATIONS/151 Sources of Additional Information United States, Inc., 135 W. Wells St., Milwaukee, Wise. 53203. Information about job opportunities in this field is available from local funeral homes and from: science and information about scholarship opportunities, contact: National Selected Morticians, 1616 Central St., Evanston, 111. 60201. The American Board of Funeral Service Educa tion, Inc., 201 Columbia St., Fairmont, W. Va. 26554. National Funeral Directors Association of the For a list of accredited schools of mortuary 152/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Private Household Service Occupations About 1.4 million workers were employed in private households in 1978. The majority were domestic workers who performed household tasks such as cooking, cleaning, or caring for children, but workers in other oc cupations also were employed by private households. Gardeners keep the grounds of large estates looking attractive by planting shrubs and flowers and cutting the lawn. Chauffeurs drive their employers’ cars and keep the vehicles clean and in good running condition. Carpenters, painters, and other craft workers maintain and redecorate homes. Private nurses, secretaries, and cura tors or librarians are employed in some households. The following chapter discusses the do mestic occupations most frequently found in private households, including general housekeeper, mother’s helper, and compan ion. Private Household Workers___________ (D .O .T. 099.227-010, 301., 302., 305., and 309., except 309.345) Nature of the Work Thousands of people employ private household workers to help care for children, clean and maintain the house and yard, cook meals, or serve the family. Some household workers specialize in one of these jobs, but the duties of m ost w orkers change from day to day. Frequently, workers who specialize live in their employer’s house. Most private household workers are em ployed as general houseworkers or mothers' helpers. These workers clean the house and may also be responsible for preparing meals, doing the laundry, or caring for children. When hired by the day or hour, they are called day workers. Heavy household tasks and yard mainte nance usually are performed by caretakers. Their work includes jobs such as washing windows, painting fences, and mowing the lawn. In some households, meals are prepared by cooks. Depending on their training or the wishes of their employer, a cook’s du ties may range from planning menus and buying food to serving meals and cleaning the kitchen. In some households, cooks may be assisted by a cook's helper, who is less skilled than a cook and performs sim ple tasks, such as peeling vegetables and cleaning the kitchen. A few households employ launderers to wash, iron, and fold the laundry. Some private household workers specialize in performing personal services for members of the family. Personal attendants keep their employers’ clothes pressed and hung, make their beds, help them dress, and run errands. Companions do similar work, but they also act as a friend or aide to the convalescent, elderly, or handicapped person who employs them. The most rapidly growing type of private household worker is the person whose sole job is child care. Unlike mothers’ helpers whose duties generally include some light housekeeping, these workers’ sole responsi bility is caring for children. They bathe the children, prepare their meals, launder their clothes, and supervise their play. Those who care for very young children are responsible for sterilizing bottles, preparing formulas, and changing diapers. Some households em ploy tutors to take charge of school-age chil dren. These workers supervise their recrea tion, diet, and health, as well as their education. They also are responsible for dis ciplining the children. A household with a large staff of workers may employ a home housekeeper or a butler to supervise the staff and the operation of the household. These workers usually are re sponsible for hiring and firing the other household employees. In addition to these duties, butlers receive and announce guests, answer telephones, serve food and drinks, and may act as gentleman’s attendants. Housekeepers order food and cleaning sup plies and keep a record of expenditures. Working Conditions Most private household workers receive instructions from their employers but are free to work on their own. Frequently, they have a key to the house or apartment. Household work is often tedious, especially for day workers who generally are given less desir able tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms or de frosting the refrigerator. Long or irregular working hours can isolate workers who “live in’’ from their families and friends, and, if they are the sole employees in the households, they are likely to be alone most of the time. Places of Employment Nearly 1.2 million persons were employed as private household workers in 1978. Most are employed part time, working half-days or only 2 or 3 days a week. Those who live in their employer’s house often work more than 40 hours a week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most household jobs, experience and an ability to cook, clean, or care for a yard is more important than formal education. Em ployers prefer workers who know how to op erate vacuum cleaners, floor waxers, and lawnmowers, but most young people can learn these skills while helping with the house and yard work at home. Some house hold workers acquire skills by spending a year working as a mother’s helper under the supervision of either an experienced house hold worker or their employer. Home economics courses in high schools, vocational schools, and junior colleges offer training in child development and meal preparation that can be very useful to persons interested in becoming cooks or child care workers. Training programs sponsored by Federal agencies, State employment service offices, and local welfare departments also teach many of the skills needed for household work. For a person wishing a job serving as a companion or caring for children, educa tional and cultural background is more im portant than work experience. Generally a companion’s background, interests, and age should be similar to the employer’s, and prac tical nursing experience is useful if the em ployer is an invalid. Being able to read well or carry on an interesting conversation is helpful. A well-rounded education and teach ing skills are important for persons interested in caring for children. Private household workers must have physical stamina because they are on their feet most of the time and sometimes must do some heavy lifting. The desire to do a job carefully and thoroughly is important. Household workers should be able both to get along well with people and to work inde pendently. Some workers, particularly cooks and infant’s nurses, need a health certificate showing that they are free of contagious dis eases. Many employers arrange and pay for the necessary physical examination. Advancement other than an increase in wages generally is not possible in private household work. Few households require live- in workers, and even fewer require so many workers that a butler or home housekeeper is needed as a supervisor. WorkPERSONAL SERVICES OCCUPATIONS/153 Earnings Private household workers are covered by Federal and State minimum wage laws. In 1978, the minimum wage was $2.65. Some Some private household workers earn more than the minimum wage, as wages vary ac cording to the work performed, employer’s income, and the custom of the local area. Earnings are highest in large cities, especially in the North. Related Occupations Many private household workers use their training and experience to transfer to related jobs—in child-care or day-care facilities, or as kitchen workers in restau rants. Some may go to work as building cleaners, employed by commerical cleaning services. Others may go to work as nursing aides in hospitals or nursing homes, or as homemaker-home health aides in health agencies, public welfare departments, or commerical firms. Child care workers are the fastest growing group of private household workers. Sources of Additional Information ers can transfer to better paying and more highly skilled household jobs, such as cook or lady’s or gentleman’s attendant, but job openings in these occupations are limited. Employment Outlook Although the number of private household workers is expected to decline through the 1980’s, thousands of openings will result each year from the need to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation. The demand for household workers has exceeded supply for some time, as more women, especially http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 154/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis those with young children, enter the labor force. Low wages, the tedious nature of some household tasks, and the lack of advance ment opportunities discourage many persons from entering the occupation, however, and some prospective employers are turning to child-care centers and commerical cleaning services for help. Job openings for domestic workers, partic ularly for general housekeepers and mothers’ helpers, will be plentiful through the 1980’s. Many opening will be available for part-time work. Facts about employment opportunities and training programs in private household work are available from local offices of State employment agencies. Information on laws affecting household workers and guidelines for work is available from: National Committee on Household Employment, 7705 Georgia Ave. NW., Suite 208, Washington, D C. 20012. Household Employment Program, National Urban League, Inc., 500 E. 62d St., New York, N.Y. 10021. Protective and Related Service Occupations The growth of our Nation’s population and economy has put an increasing emphasis on protective services. Each city, suburban area, and national port of entry requires pro tective and related service workers to check crime, minimize loss of life and property, and enforce regulations that protect the health and safety of our citizens at home and on the job. Careers in protective and related service occupations require varied combinations of education and experience. Workers such as FBI special agents and some Federal Gov ernment inspectors must have at least a bach elor’s degree, while guards may have less than a high school education. Most occupa tions in this group, however, require a high school diploma. In many cases, a college de gree is an asset for advancement to higher level positions. In addition to educational requirements, most workers in protective and related ser vices must undergo formal training programs and get on-the-job experience before they are fully qualified. Training programs last from several days to a few months and emphasize specific job-related skills. Personal qualifications such as honesty and an understanding of human nature are important. Persons seeking careers in protec tive and related service occupations should desire to serve the community and be able to exercise proper judgment under a variety of conditions. This section describes the work of several occupations in protective and related ser vices: Correction officers, FBI special agents, firefighters, guards, police officers, State po lice officers, occupational safety and health workers, and health, regulatory, and con struction inspectors. Correction Officers (D.O.T. 372.137, .367-014, .667-018, and .677; and 375.367) Nature of the Work Correction officers are charged with the safekeeping of persons who have been ar rested, are awaiting trial, or who have been tried and convicted of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a correctional institution. They maintain order within the institution, enforce rules and regulations, and often counsel inmates. To make sure inmates are orderly and obey rules, correction officers keep a close watch on everything the immates do— working, exercising, eating, and bathing. They give and oversee work assignments for inmates, as well as instruct and help them on specific tasks. Sometimes it is necessary to search inmates for forbidden items, such as weapons or drugs, to settle disputes be tween inmates, and to enforce discipline. They cannot show favoritism to any inmate and must report all who violate rules. To prevent escapes, officers serve as guards on towers and at gates. They count inmates to make sure all are present during transfers and activities. Correction officers examine facilities to as sure the safety and security of prisoners. They check cells and other areas of the insti tution for unsanitary conditions, fire haz ards, and evidence of infraction of rules by inmates. Periodically, they inspect locks, window bars, grill doors, and gates for tam pering. Correction officers report orally and in writing on inmate conduct and on the quality and quantity of work done by inmates. Offic ers also report disturbances, violations of rules, and any unusual occurrences. They keep a record of their activities. Correction officers escort inmates to and from cells and other areas and admit and accompany authorized visitors within the fa cility. From time to time, they may inspect mail for contraband, administer first aid, or assist police authorities by investigating crimes committed within the institution and by searching for escaped inmates. Counseling and helping inmates with problems also is an important part of the correction officer’s job. Officers play a key role in rehabilitation by helping inmates ad just to institutional life, prepare for later ci vilian life, and avoid future criminal behav ior. In some institutions, officers lead or participate in group counseling sessions. M ore often, how ever, the counseling is infor mal. Officers may arrange a change in a daily schedule so that an inmate has an opportu nity to visit the library, help inmates get news of their families, talk over personal problems that may have led to committing a crime, or suggest where to look for a job after release from prison. Correction sergeants directly supervise correction officers. They usually are respon sible for maintaining security and directing the activities of a group of inmates during an assigned watch. Working Conditions Correction officers may work indoors or outdoors, depending on their duties. Some indoor areas are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, but others are overcrowded, hot, and noisy. Outdoors, they may be subject to disagreeable weather conditions. Working in a correctional institution can be hazardous, and in the past correction officers occasionPRIVATE HOUSEHOLD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/155 Employment Outlook Employment of correction officers is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Expan sion of correctional facilities together with a likely growth in the inmate population is ex pected to create many new jobs for correction officers. Many additional job openings will result from job turnover and the need to re place workers who die or retire. Earnings In 1978, salaries for correction officers var ied widely by level of government. At the Federal level, the starting salary was $10,500 per year; correction sergeants and other su pervisory officers could advance to maxi mum salaries of more than $20,000 per year. The ayerage salary for all Federal correction officers and correction sergeants was $14,900 per year. At the State level, correction officers ave raged a starting salary of $10,000 per year in 1978 and a maximum salary of $13,000 a year, although they could earn maximum sal aries of more than $16,000 in some States. Correction sergeants averaged from mini mum of $11,600 to maximum of $15,300 at the State level, although they could earn more than $19,000 in some States. At the local level, starting salaries in 1978 averaged $7,900 a year for correction officers and $9,800 a year for supervisors. Correction officers oversee work assignments of inmates and instruct them in specific tasks. ally have been injured or killed during dis turbances. Correction officers usually work an 8-hour day, 40-hour week. Prison security must be provided around the clock, which means some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. During emergencies, officers may work overtime, for which they receive straight time, time-and-one-half, or equal time off. Places of Employment There were about 100,000 correction offic ers in 1978. More than half worked at State correctional institutions such as prisons, prison camps, and reformatories. Most of the remainder worked at city and county jails or other institutions run by local governments. A few thousand correction officers worked at Federal correctional institutions. Most correction officers work in relatively large institutions located outside metropoli tan areas, although a significant number work in jails and other smaller facilities located in cities and towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Federal Government, as well as al most every State and a few localities, pro vides training for correction officers. Some States—Maryland and New York are two— 156/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK have special training academies. Most States, however, provide informal on-the-job train ing. Academy trainees generally receive 4 to 8 weeks of instruction on institutional policies, regulations and procedures, the behavior and custody of inmates, writing reports, and se curity. On-the-job trainees receive 2 to 6 months of similar training in an actual job setting under the guidance of an experienced officer. Experienced officers sometimes re ceive inservice training to keep abreast of new ideas and procedures. Most penal systems require that correction officers be at least 21 years old and have a high school education or its equivalent, or else work experience that qualifies them. They must be in good health. Many States require candidates to meet formal standards of height, weight, vision, and hearing. Strength, good judgment, and the ability to think and act quickly are assets. Some States require candidates to have 1 or 2 years of experience in corrections or related police work. A few States require candidates to pass a written examination. With additional education, experience, and training, qualified officers may advance to correction sergeant or other supervisory or administrative positions. Officers sometimes transfer to related areas, such as probation and parole. Most officers get paid vacation and sick leave as well as a pension upon retirement. They usually are given uniforms or an allow ance to purchase their own. Most correction officers are provided or can participate in hospitalization or major medical insurance plans; many officers can get disability and life insurance. Officers employed by the Federal Government and most State governments are covered by civil service systems or merit boards. Related Occupations A number of related careers are open to high school graduates who are interested in the protective services and the field of secu rity. Bailiffs guard offenders and maintain order in court rooms during proceedings. Bodyguards escort and protect people from injury or invasion of privacy. Border and im migration guards take into custody persons attempting to enter the country illegally. House or store detectives patrol business es tablishments to protect against theft and van dalism and to enfore standards of good be havior. Security guards protect government, commercial, and industrial property against theft, vandalism, illegal entry, and fire. Police officers and deputy sheriffs maintain law and order, prevent crime, and arrest offenders. Other careers open to persons interested in working with offenders, may require college education. Probation and parole officers counsel offenders, process their release from correctional institutions, and evaluate their progress in becoming productive members of society. Recreation leaders organize and in struct offenders in sports, games, arts, and crafts. Many related occupations are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements, training, and career opportunities for correc tion officers may be obtained from Federal and State civil service commissions, State de partments of correction, or nearby correc tional institutions and facilities. Information on a career as a correction officer and other corrections careers, as well as information about schools that offer crimi nal justice education, financial assistance, and job listings is available from: CONtact, Inc., P.O. Box 81826, Lincoln, Neb. 68501. Additional information on careers in cor rections is also available from: The American Correctional Association, 4321 Hartwick Rd., College Park, Md. 20740. Newly appointed FBI special agents receive intensive training in the use of firearms. ----------- = FBI Special Agents (D.O.T. 375.167-042) Nature of the Work Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) spe cial agents investigate violations of Federal laws in connection with bank robberies, kid nappings, white-collar crime, thefts of Gov ernment property, organized crime, espio nage, and sabotage. The FBI, which is part of the U.S. Department of Justice, has jurisdic tion over many different Federal investiga tive matters. Special agents, therefore, may be assigned to any type of case, although those with specialized training usually work on cases related to their background. Agents with an accounting background, for example, may investigate white-collar crimes such as bank embezzlements or fraudulent bankrupt cies or land deals. Because the FBI is a fact-gathering agency, its special agents function strictly as investigators, collecting evidence in cases in which the U.S. Government is or may be an interested party. In their casework, special agents conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of suspects, and partici pate in raids. Because the FBI’s work is highly confidential, special agents may not disclose any of the information gathered in the course of their official duties to unauthor ized persons, including members of their families. Frequently agents must testify in court about cases that they investigate. Although they work alone on most assign ments, agents communicate with their super visors by radio or telephone as the circum stances dictate. In performing potentially dangerous duties, such as arrests and raids, two agents or more are assigned to work to gether. Working Conditions Although FBI special agents work out of clean, well lighted offices, they spend a great deal of their time away from their desks con ducting investigations. They may visit homes, offices, or industrial plants and inter view persons from all walks of life. Their work requires use of automobiles and fire arms and occasionally involves some risk of personal injury. Special agents are subject to call 24 hours a day and must be available for duty at all times. Their duties require some travel, and occasionally they may be transferred to an other location. Places of Employment About 8,000 persons were special agents in 1978. Most agents were assigned to the FBI’s 59 field offices located throughout the Na tion. They worked in cities where field office headquarters are located or in resident agen cies (suboffices) established under field office supervision to provide prompt and efficient handling of investigative matters arising throughout the field office territory. Some agents are assigned to the Bureau headquar ters in Washington, D.C., which supervises all FBI activities. have a 4-year college degree with a physical science major or fluency in a foreign lan guage, or who have 3 years of professional, executive, complex investigative, or other specialized experience. Applicants for the position of FBI special agent must be citizens of the United States, be at least 23 years old, but less than 35 be fore they begin duty, and be willing to serve anywhere in the United States or Puerto Rico. They must be capable of strenuous physical exertion, and have excellent hearing and vision, normal color perception, and no physical defects that would prevent their using firearms or participating in dangerous assignments. All applicants must pass a rigid physical examination, as well as written and oral examinations testing their aptitude for meeting the public and conducting investiga tions. All of the tests except the physical examinations are given by the FBI at its facilities. Background and character investi gations are made of all applicants. Appoint ments are made on a probationary basis and become permanent after 1 year of satisfactory service. To be considered for appointment as an FBI special agent, an applicant usually must be a graduate of a State-accredited law school or a college graduate with a major in ac counting. The law school training must have been preceded by at least 2 years of under graduate college work. Each newly appointed special agent is given about 15 weeks of training at the FBI Academy at the U.S. Marine Corps Base in Quantico, Va., before assignment to a field office. During this period, agents receive in tensive training in defensive tactics and the use of firearms. In addition, they are thoroughly schooled in Federal criminal law and procedures, FBI rules and regulations, fingerprinting, and investigative work. After assignment to a field office, the new agent usually works closely with an experienced agent for about 2 weeks before handling any assignments independently. From time to time, as the need arises, the FBI accepts applications from persons who All administrative and supervisory jobs are filled from within the ranks by selecting those Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/157 FBI special agents who have demonstrated the ability to assume more responsibility. Employment Outlook The jurisdiction of the FBI has expanded greatly over the years. Although it is impossi ble to forecast special agent personnel re quirements, employment may be expected to increase with growing FBI responsibilities. The FBI provides a career service and its rate of turnover is traditionally low. Never theless, the FBI is always interested in ap plications from qualified persons. Earnings The entrance salary for FBI special agents was $17,532 in late 1978. Special agents are not appointed under Federal Civil Service regulations, but, like other Federal em ployees, they receive periodic within-grade salary raises if their work performance is sat isfactory; they can advance in grade as they gain experience. Salaries of supervisory agents start at $32,442 a year. Agents frequently work longer than the customary 40-hour week and, under specified conditions, receive overtime pay up to $4,400 a year. Agents are required to retire at age 55 if they have served at least 20 years. Related Occupations FBI special agents conduct investigations and apprehend lawbreakers. Other related in vestigative and law enforcement occupations include: Detectives, private investigators, po lice officers, deputy sheriffs, Secret Service agents, Internal Revenue Service Agents, Border Patrol agents, fire marshals, and fish and game wardens. Sources of Additional Information The Federal Bureau o f Investigation, U.S. Depart ment o f Justice, Washington, D.C. 20535. Firefighters (D O T. 373) Nature of the Work Every year, fires destroy thousands of lives and property worth millions of dol lars. Firefighters help protect the public against this danger. This statement gives information only about paid career fire fighters; it does not cover the many thou sands of volunteer firefighters in communi ties across the country. During duty hours, firefighters must be prepared to respond to a fire and handle any emergency that arises. Because fire fighting is dangerous and complicated, it requires organization and teamwork. At every fire, firefighters perform specific du ties assigned by a company officer such as lieutenant, captain, or other department of ficer: They may connect hose lines to hy 158/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK drants, operate a pump, or position lad ders. Because their duties may change several times while the company is in ac tion, they must be skilled in many different firefighting activities, such as rescue, venti lation, and salvage. Some firefighters oper ate fire apparatus, emergency rescue vehi cles, and fire-boats. In addition, they help people to safety and administer first aid. Most fire departments also are responsible for fire-prevention activities. They provide specially trained personnel to inspect public buildings for conditions that might cause a fire. They may check building plans, the number and working condition of fire es capes and fire doors, the storage of flamma ble materials, and other possible hazards. In addition, firefighters educate the public about fire prevention and safety measures. They frequently speak on this subject before school assemblies and civic groups, and, in some communities, they inspect private homes for fire hazards. Between alarms, they have practice drills, classroom training, and clean and maintain equipment. Working Conditions Firefighters spend much of their time at fire stations which usually have facilities for dining and sleeping. When an alarm comes in, firefighters must rapidly respond, regard less of the weather or hour. They may spend long periods outdoors fighting fires in ad verse weather. Firefighting is among the most hazardous occupations. The job of a firefighter involves risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors or toppling walls and danger from exposure to flames and smoke. Firefighters also may come in contact with poisonous, flammable, and explosive gases and chemi cals. In some cities, firefighters are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In other cities, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. Although in many large cities, particularly in the East, firefighters work a standard 40 hour week, many fire fighters average as many as 56 hours a week. In ad dition to scheduled hours, firefighters often must work extra hours when they are bring ing a fire under control. Fire lieutenants and fire captains work the same hours as the firefighters they supervise. Duty hours may include some time when firefighters are free to read, study, or pursue other personal in terests. Places of Employment More than 220,000 persons worked as fire fighters in 1978. Nine out of ten worked in municipal fire departments. Some very large cities have several thousand firefighters on the payroll while many small towns have fewer than 25. Some firefighters work in fire departments on Federal installations; others work at airports and in large manufacturing plants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs must pass a written test, a medical examina tion, and tests of strength, physical stamina, and agility, as specified by local regulations. These examinations are open to persons who are at least 18 years of age, meet certain height and weight requirements, and have a high school education or the equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores on the examinations have the best chances for ap pointment. Extra credit usually is given for military service. Experience gained as a vol unteer firefighter or through training in the Armed Forces also may improve an appli cant’s chances for appointment. As a rule, beginners in large fire depart ments are trained for several weeks at the city’s fire school. Through classroom instruc tion and practice drills, the recruits study firefighting techniques, fire prevention, local building codes, and first aid; also, they learn how to use axes, chemical extinguishers, lad ders, and other equipment. After completing this training, they are assigned to a fire com pany where they are evaluated during a pro bationary period. A small but growing number of fire depart ments have accredited apprenticeship pro grams lasting 3 to 4 years. These programs combine formal, technical instruction with on-the-job training under the supervision of experienced firefighters. Technical instruc tion covers subjects such as firefighting tech niques and equipment, chemical hazards as sociated with various combustible building materials, first aid, and fire prevention and safety. Experienced firefighters often continue to study to improve their job performance and prepare for promotional examinations. To progress to higher level positions, firefighters must acquire a great deal of expertise related to firefighting, building construction, emer gency first aid, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting procedures, and labor relations. Fire departments frequently conduct training programs, and many col leges and universities offer courses such as fire engineering and fire science that are help ful to firefighters. Among the personal qualities firefighters need are mental alertness, courage, mechani cal aptitude, endurance, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judgment are ex tremely important because firefighters often must make quick decisions in emergency situations. Because members of a crew eat, sleep, and work closely together under condi tions of stress and danger, they should be dependable and able to get along well with others in a group. Leadership qualities are assets for officers who must establish and maintain a high degree of discipline and effi- budgets. This means that in some financially troubled cities, firefighter employment prob ably will remain at current levels or decline, while in other cities, employment is likely to increase substantially to meet the needs of an expanding population. The number of people who qualify for fire fighter jobs in large cities usually is greater than the number of job openings, even though the written examination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. Therefore, competition among candidates in urban areas is apt to remain keen. Opportuni ties should be much better in smaller com munities. Earnings In 1978, entrance salaries for beginning full-time firefighters averaged $12,700 a year, ranging from about $11,000 to $14,500 a year, depending on city size and region of the country. Maximum salaries averaged $15,800 and varied from $14,200 to $18,000 an nually. Earnings for firefighters are lowest in the South and highest in the West, and gener ally are higher in large cities than in small ones. Average earnings of all firefighters are about one and one-half times as much as the average of all nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. Practically all fire departments provide protective clothing (helmets, boots, and coats) and many also provide dress uniforms. Firefighters generally are covered by lib eral pension plans that often provide retire ment at half pay at age 50 after 25 years of service or at any age if disabled in the line of duty. About 8 out of 10 firefighters are members of the International Association of Fire fight ers (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Operation of complicated fire apparatus requires organization and teamwork. ciency as well as direct the activities of the firefighters in their companies. Opportunities for promotion are good in most fire departments. As firefighters gain experience, they may advance to a higher rank. After 3 to 5 years of service, they may become eligible for promotion to the grade of lieutenant. The line of further promotion usually is to captain, then battalion chief, as sistant chief, deputy chief, and finally to chief. Chances for advancement generally de pend upon each candidate’s position on the promotion list, as determined by the score on a written examination, his or her supervisor’s rating, and seniority. Employment Outlook Employment of firefighters is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s to meet the growing need for fire protection. Thousands of jobs will become available each year due to growth and the need to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Employ ment should rise as new fire departments are formed and as others enlarge their fire pre vention sections. Much of the expected in crease will occur in smaller communities as volunteer firefighters are replaced by profes sionals. Additional firefighters also may be required as more cities shorten the workweek for firefighters. The number of firefighters in a community ultimately depends upon the availability of funds from the municipal government for sal aries and equipment. Fire protection is an essential service, and citizens are likely to exert considerable pressure on city officials to expand fire-protection coverage. However, local governments must live within their Firefighters work to prevent fires, and when fire emergencies occur, firefighters quickly respond so that destruction and loss of life are minimized. Related fire protection occupations include fire rangers, forest-fire fighters, and smoke jumpers who work to prevent and supress forest fires; and fire-pro tection engineers who identify fire hazards in the Nation’s homes and workplaces and de sign fire prevention programs and automatic fire detection and extinguishing systems. Other related occupations in which workers must respond to emergencies include police officers and emergency medical technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information on obtaining a job as a fire fighter is available from local civil service commission offices or fire departments. Information about a career as a firefighter may be obtained from: International Association of Fire Chiefs, 1329 18th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. National Fire Protection Association, 470 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass. 02210. PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/159 International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Additional information on the salaries and hours of work of firefighters in various cities is published annually by the International City Management Association in its Munici pal Yearbook, which is available in many li braries. a watch clock—a device that indicates the time at which they reach various check points. Correction officers, guards who work in prisons and other correctional institutions, are discussed separately in the section on pro tective service occupations Working Conditions Guards_______ (D O T. 372 except .667-022 and -026.) Nature of the Work Guards patrol and inspect property to pro tect it against fire, theft, vandalism, and il legal entry. The specific duties of these work ers, however, vary with the size, type, and location of their employer. In office buildings, banks, hospitals, and department stores, guards protect records, merchandise, money, and equipment. In de partment stores they often work with under cover detectives watching for theft by cus tomers or store employees. At ports and railroads, guards protect merchandise in shipment as well as property and equipment. They insure that nothing is stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires, prowlers, and trouble among work crews. Sometimes they direct traffic. Guards who work in public buildings, such as museums or art galleries, protect paintings or exhibits from fire, theft, or damage. They also answer routine questions from visitors and sometimes guide traffic. In large factories, aircraft plants, and de fense installations where valuable informa tion must be protected, some guards check the credentials of persons and vehicles enter ing and leaving the premises. University, park, or recreation guards perform similar duties and also may issue parking permits and direct traffic. At social affairs, sports events, conven tions, and other public gatherings, guards maintain order, give information, and watch for persons who may cause trouble. In a large organization, a security officer often is in charge of the guard force; in a small organization, a single worker may be responsible for security. Patrolling usually is done on foot; but if the property is large, guards may make their rounds by car or motor scooter. As they make their rounds, guards check all doors and windows, see that no unauthor ized persons remain after working hours, and insure that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprin kler systems, furnaces, and various electrical and plumbing systems are working properly. They sometimes set thermostats or turn on machines for janitorial workers. Guards usually are uniformed and often carry a nightstick or gun. They also may carry a flashlight, whistle, 2-way radio, and Digitized160/OCCUPATIONAL for FRASER OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Guards work both indoors and outdoors patrolling buildings, industrial plants, and their grounds. Indoors, they may be sta tioned at a guard desk to monitor electronic security and surveillance devices or check the credentials of persons entering or leaving the premises. They also may be stationed at gate shelters or may patrol grounds in all weather. Since guards often work alone, no one is nearby to help if an accident or injury occurs. Some large firms, therefore, use a reporting service that enables guards to be in constant contact with a central station outside the plant. If they fail to transmit an expected signal, the central station investigates. Guard work is usually routine, but guards must be constantly alert for threats to themselves and to the property that they are protecting. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other employees and members of the public. Many guards work at night; the usual shift lasts 8 hours. Some employers have three shifts where guards rotate to divide daytime, weekend, and holiday work equally. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular lunch break. Places of Employment In 1978, almost 550,000 persons worked as guards. Most work in office buildings, gov ernment installations and buildings, stores, hotels, banks, schools, and manufacturing plants. Industrial security firms and guard agencies employ about 30 percent of all guards; agency guards work under contract in private business establishments and in some government facilities. Although guard jobs are found throughout the country, most are located in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer guards who are high school graduates. Applicants with less than a high school education usually are tested for their reading and writing abilities and their competence in following written and oral instructions. Employers also seek people who have had experience in the mili tary police or in State and local police depart ments. Most persons who enter guard jobs have prior work experience, although it is usually unrelated. Some have retired from military careers or other protective services, and guard employment is a second career. Candidates for guard jobs in the Federal Government must be veterans, have some ex- Guard checks the credentials of plant visitor. perience as guards, and pass a written exami nation. For most Federal guard positions, ap plicants must qualify in the use of firearms. Some jobs require a driver’s permit. Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and also provide several weeks of on-the-job training. Guards may be taught to use firearms, to administer first aid, to handle various emer gencies, to operate alarm systems and elec tronic security equipment, and to spot and deal with security problems. Applicants are expected to have good character references, no police record, good health—especially in hearing and vision— and good personal habits such as neatness and dependability. They should be mentally alert, em otionally stable, and physically fit to cope with emergencies. Some employers re quire guards to meet height and weight specifications or to be within a certain age range. Although guards in small companies re ceive periodic salary increases, advancement is likely to be limited. However, most large organizations use a military type of ranking that offers advancement in position and sal ary. Guard experience enables some persons to transfer to police jobs that offer higher pay and greater opportunities for advancement. Guards with some college education may ad vance to jobs that involve administrative du ties or the prevention of espionage and sabo tage. Employment Outlook Employment of guards is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Increased concern for crime and vandalism will heighten the need for security in and around plants, stores, and recreation areas and is expected to cause rapid growth of agency guard employment. Additional guards will be needed by banks, manufacturing plants, and Federal, State, and local governments to provide better secu rity and monitor remote cameras, alarm sys tems, and other electronic surveillance equip ment. Many openings also will arise as guards retire, die, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Opportunities will be most plentiful for persons seeking work on night shifts. Earnings Guards working in 36 urban areas were estimated to average $3.63 an hour in 1978, about two-thirds as much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Those working in the North Central States earned more than the average while guards em ployed in the South earned somewhat less. Hourly wages of guards were estimated -to average $5.04 in manufacturing; $5.29 in transportation and public utilities; $4.10 in banking, finance, insurance, and real estate; $4.22 in wholesale trade; $3.70 in retail trade; and $2.61 in the various service industries, including security and guard agencies. Guards employed by industrial security and guard agencies generally earned less than those employed directly by business. Depending on their experience, newly hired guards in the Federal Government earned between $8,366 and $9,391 a year in early 1979. Guards employed by the Federal Government averaged $11,500 a year. These workers usually receive overtime pay as well as a wage differential for the second and third shifts. Guards generally have paid vacations, sick leave, and insurance and pension plans. Related Occupations Guards protect property, maintain secu rity, and enforce standards of conduct. Other related security and protective service occu pations include: bailiffs, border guards, bouncers, deputy sheriffs, fish and game wardens, house or store detectives, life guards, police officers, and private investiga tors. Police officers and sheriffs’ deputies who work in small communities and rural areas have many duties. In the course of a day’s work, they may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a housebreaking, and give first aid to an accident victim. In a large po lice department, by contrast, officers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Most officers are detailed either to patrol or to traf fic duty; smaller numbers are assigned to spe cial work such as accident prevention or op eration of communications systems. Others work as detectives (plainclothes officers) as signed to criminal investigation; still others, as experts in chemical and microscopic anal ysis, firearms identification, and handwriting and fingerprint identification. In very large cities, a few officers may work with special units such as mounted and motorcycle po lice, harbor patrols, helicopter patrols, ca nine corps, mobile rescue teams, and youth aid services. Most new recruits begin on patrol duty. Recruits may be assigned to such varied areas as congested business districts or outlying residential areas. They may cover their beats alone or with other officers. They may ride in a police vehicle or walk on “foot” patrol. In any case, they become thoroughly familiar with conditions throughout their area and, while on patrol, remain alert for anything unusual. They note suspicious circum stances, such as open windows or lights in vacant buildings, as well as hazards to public safety such as burned-out street lights or fallen trees. Officers also watch for stolen au tomobiles and enforce traffic regulations. At regular intervals, they report to police headquarters through call boxes, by radio, or by walkie-talkie. They prepare reports about their activities and may be called on to testify in court when cases result in legal action. Working Conditions The scheduled workweek for police offic ers usually is 40 hours. Because police protec tion must be provided around the clock in all but the smallest communities, some officers are on duty over weekends, on holidays, and at night. Police officers are subject to call any time their services are needed and may work overtime in emergencies. Police officers may have to work outdoors for long periods in all kinds of weather. The injury rate is higher than in many occupa tions and reflects the risks officers take in pursuing speeding motorists, capturing law breakers, and dealing with public disorder. Places of Employment About 450,000 full-time officers worked for local police departments in 1978. Some cities have very large police forces. For exam ple, New York has about 25,000 police offic ers and Chicago has nearly 13,000. Hundreds of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Local civil service regulations govern the appointment of police officers in practically all large cities and in many small ones. Can didates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 21 years of age, and must meet certain height and weight standards. Eligibility for appoint ment depends on performance in competitive examinations as well as on education and ex perience. The physical examinations often in clude tests of strength and agility. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, good judgment, and a sense of re sponsibility are especially important in police work, candidates are interviewed by a senior Sources of Additional Information Further information about work oppor tunities for guards is available from local em ployers and the nearest State employment service office. Police Officers (D.O.T. 375 except .167-026, -042, .263-018, and .363-010; and 377 except 377.667-010) Nature of the Work The security of our Nation’s cities and towns greatly depends on the work of local police officers and sheriffs’ deputies whose jobs range from controlling traffic to prevent ing and investigating crimes. Whether on or off duty, these officers are expected to exer cise their authority whenever necessary. Police officers on traffic duty investigate accidents and enforce traffic regulations. PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/161 officer at police headquarters, and their char acter traits and background are investigated. In some police departments, candidates also may be interviewed by a psychiatrist or a pyschologist, or be given a personality test. Although police officers work independently, they must perform their duties in line with laws and departmental rules. They should enjoy working with people and serving the public. In large police departments, where most jobs are found, applicants usually must have a high school education. A few cities require some college training and some hire law en forcement students as police interns. A few police departments accept applicants who have less than a high school education as recruits, particularly if they have worked in a field related to law enforcement. More and more, police departments are encouraging applicants to take post-high school training in sociology and psychology. In 1978, more than 800 junior colleges, col leges, and universities offered programs in law enforcement or criminal justice. Other courses helpful in preparing for a police ca reer include English, American history, civ ics and government, business law, and phys ics. Physical education and sports are especially helpful in developing the stamina and agility needed for police work. In some large cities, young persons who have completed high school can enter police work as police cadets, or trainees, while still in their teens. As paid civilian employees of the police department, they attend classes to learn police skills and do clerical work. They may be appointed to the regular force at age 21 if they have all the necessary qualifica tions. Before their first assignments, officers usu ally go through a period of training. In small communities, recruits learn by working for a short time with experienced officers. Train ing provided in large city police departments is more formal and may last several weeks or a few months. This training includes class room instruction in constitutional law and civil rights; in State laws and local ordi nances; and in accident investigation, patrol, and traffic control. Recruits learn how to use a gun, defend themselves from attack, admin ister first aid, and deal with emergencies. Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a specified length of service. In a large department, promotion may allow an officer to specialize in one type of police work such as laboratory work, traffic con trol, communications, or work with juve niles. Promotions to the rank of sergeant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made ac cording to a candidate’s position on a promo tion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job performance. Many types of training help police officers improve their performance on the job and prepare for advancement. Through training given at police department academies and colleges, officers keep abreast of crowd-con 162/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK trol techniques, civil defense, legal develop ments that affect their work, and advances in law enforcement equipment. Many police de partments encourage officers to work toward college degrees, and some pay all or part of the tuition. Employment Outlook Employment of police officers is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as the Nation’s population and police protec tion needs increase. Employment growth will be tempered by increased use of civil ian police department employees in traffic control, parking enforcement, administra tion, and other routine, nonhazardous areas of police work. Police work is attractive to many. The job frequently is challenging and involves much responsibility. Furthermore, layoffs are rare. Although the written examina tions and strict physical requirements al ways eliminate many applicants, competi tion is expected to be keen for job openings through the 1980’s. The outlook should be good for persons having some college training in law enforcement. Earnings In early 1978, entry level salaries for police officers employed in medium- and large-sized cities averaged nearly $13,200 a year, al though they varied widely from city to city. In some smaller communities, officers started at less than $9,000 a year, while some major cities offered over $15,000 a year to new employees. Most officers receive regular salary increases during the first few years of employment until they reach a set maximum for their rank. Maximum earnings averaged $16,650 a year in early 1978, and exceeded $18,000 a year in some areas. Promotion to a higher rank brings a higher basic salary. In general, police officers were paid about one and one-half times as much as nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Police departments usually provide offic ers with special allowances for uniforms and furnish revolvers, night sticks, handcuffs, and other required equipment. Because po lice officers generally are covered by liberal pension plans, many retire at half pay after 20 years of service. Related Occupations Police officers maintain law and order in the Nation’s cities, towns, and rural areas. Other related law enforcement occupations include State police officers, FBI special agents, Internal Revenue Service agents, Se cret Service agents, Border Patrol agents, fire marshals, and fish and game wardens. Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from local civil service com missions or police departments. State Police Officers (D.O.T. 375.163-010 and -014, .167-018 and .263-018) Nature of the Work The laws and regulations that govern the use of our Nation’s roadways are designed to insure the safety of all citizens. State police officers (sometimes called State troopers or highways patrol officers) patrol our high ways and enforce these laws. State police officers issue traffic tickets to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of an accident, they direct traffic, give first aid, call for emergency equipment including ambulances, and write reports to be used in determining the cause of the ac cident. In addition, State police officers provide services to motorists on the highways. For example, they radio for road service for drivers with mechanical trouble, direct tou rists to their destination, or give informa tion about lodging, restaurants, and tourist attractions. State police officers also provide traffic as sistance and control during road repairs, fires, and other emergencies, as well as dur ing special occurrences such as parades and sports events. They sometimes check the weight of commercial vehicles, conduct driver examinations, and give information on highway safety to the public. In addition to highway responsibilities, State police in some States also investigate crimes such as burglary or assault, particu larly in areas that do not have a local police force. They sometimes help city or county police catch lawbreakers and control civil disturbances. State highway patrols, how ever, normally are restricted to vehicle safety and traffic matters on state highway. Some officers work with special State po lice units, such as the mounted police, canine corps, and marine patrols. Others instruct trainees in State police schools, pilot police aircraft, or specialize in fingerprint classifica tion or chemical and microscopic analysis of criminal evidence. State police officers also write reports and maintain police records. Some officers, in cluding division or bureau chiefs responsible for training or investigation and those who command police operations in an assigned area, have administrative duties. Working Conditions Although the work of State police offic ers is usually routine, it sometimes is dan gerous. They always run the risk of an au tomobile accident while pursuing speeding motorists or fleeing criminals. Officers also face the risk of injury while apprehending criminals or controlling disorders. In addi tion, they must be on patrol in all kinds of weather. cans have been using the motor vehicle as a means of transportation and a source of rec reation. This growth probably will continue, requiring additional officers to control traffic and maintain highway safety. Because law enforcement work is becom ing more complex, specialists will be needed in crime laboratories and electronic data processing centers to develop administrative and criminal information systems. However, in many departments, these jobs will be filled by civilian employees rather than uniformed officers. Earnings State police officers issue traffic tickets to motorists who violate the law. Places of Employment About 47,000 State police officers were employed in 1978. The size of State police forces varies considerably. The largest force (in California) has over 5,000 officers; the smallest (in North Dakota) has about 100. One State (Hawaii) does not maintain a po lice force. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement State civil service regulations govern the appointment of State police officers. All can didates must be citizens of the United States. Other entry requirements vary, but most States require that applicants have a high school education or an equivalent combina tion of education and experience and be at least 21 years old. Officers must pass a competitive examina tion and meet physical and personal qualifi cations. Physical requirements include stan dards of height, weight, and eyesight. Tests of strength and agility often are required. Be cause honesty and a sense of responsibility are important in police work, an applicant’s character and background are investigated. Although State police officers work inde pendently, they must perform their duties in line with department rules. In all States, recruits enter a formal train ing program for several months. They receive classroom instruction in State laws and juris dictions, and they study procedures for acci dent investigation, patrol, and traffic control. Recruits learn to handle firearms, defend themselves from attack, handle an automo bile at high speeds, and give first aid. Some experienced officers take advanced training in police science, administration, law en forcement, or criminology at junior colleges, colleges and universities, or special police in stitutions such as the National Academy of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. High school and college courses in En glish, government, psychology, sociology, American history, and physics help in pre paring for a police career. Physical education and sports are useful for developing stamina and agility. Driver education courses and military police training also are helpful. Police officer recruits serve a probationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. After a specified length of time, officers be come eligible for promotion. Most States have merit promotion systems that require officers to pass a competitive examination to qualify for the next highest rank. Although the organization of police forces varies from State to State, the typical avenue of advance ment is from private to corporal, to sergeant, to first sergeant, to lieutenant, and then to captain. In some States, high school graduates may enter State police work as cadets. These paid civilian employees of the police organization attend classes on aspects of police work and are assigned nonenforcement duties. Cadets who qualify may be appointed to the State police force at age 21. Employment Outlook State police employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s. Some openings will also be created as officers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Although some State police will be needed in criminal investigation and other nonhigh way functions, the greatest demand will con tinue to be for officers to work in highway patrol. In ever-increasing numbers, Ameri In 1978, beginning salaries for State po lice officers averaged about $13,200 a year. Officers generally receive regular salary in creases, based on experience and perform ance, until a specified maximum is reached. Maximum salaries averaged $17,000 a year, but ranged to nearly $19,000 a year in some States. Salaries are normally higher than average in the West and lower in the South. State police officers on the average earn about one and one-half times as much as nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. Starting salaries of State police sergeants averaged $15,450 a year in 1978; maximum salaries averaged $19,300. Starting salaries of lieutenants averaged $17,900 a year; maxi mum salaries, $22,100. State police agencies usually provide of ficers with uniforms, firearms, and other necessary equipment, or give special allow ances for their purchase. State police offic ers usually are covered by liberal pension plans. Paid vacations, sick leave, medical insurance, and life insurance plans fre quently are provided. In most States, the scheduled workweek for police officers is 40 hours. Although the workweek is longer in some States, the trend is toward a 40-hour week. Since po lice protection must be provided around the clock, some officers are on duty over weekends, on holidays, and at night. Police officers also are subject to emergency calls at any time. Related Occupations State police officers patrol the Nation’s highways and enforce its laws, apprehending speeders and more dangerous lawbreakers. Related law enforcement occupations incude local police officers, deputy sheriffs, detec tives, FBI special agents, Secret Service agents, Internal Revenue Service agents, Bor der Patrol agents, fire marshals, and fish and game wardens. Sources of Additional Information Information about specific entrance re quirements may be obtained from State civil service commissions or State police head quarters, usually located in each State capi tal. PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/163 Construction Inspectors (Government)_______ (D .O .T . 168.167-030, -034, -038, -046, and -050) Nature of the Work Federal, State, and local government con struction inspectors examine the construc tion, alteration, or repair of highways, streets, sewer and water systems, dams, bridges, buildings, and other structures to in sure compliance with building codes and or dinances, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. Construction inspectors gen erally specialize in one particular type of con struction work. Broadly categorized, these are building, electrical, mechanical, and pub lic works. Inspectors usually work alone on small jobs, but several may be assigned to a large, complex project. Building inspectors inspect the structural quality of buildings. Some may specialize— for example, in structural steel or reinforced concrete buildings. Before construction, in spectors determine whether the plans for the building or other structure comply with local zoning regulations and are suited to the engi neering and environmental demands of the building site. They visit the worksite before the foundation is poured to inspect the posi tioning and depth of the footings. They in spect the foundation after it has been comp leted. The size and type of structure and the rate of completion determine the number of other visits they must make. Upon comple tion of the project, they conduct a final com prehensive inspection. Electrical inspectors inspect the installa tion of electrical systems and equipment to insure that they work properly and are in compliance with electrical codes and stan dards. They visit worksites to inspect new and existing wiring, lighting, sound and secu rity systems, and generating equipment. They also may inspect the installation of the electrical wiring for heating and air-condi tioning systems, kitchen appliances, and other components. Mechanical inspectors examine plumbing systems including septic tanks, plumbing fix tures and traps, and water, sewer, and vent lines. They also inspect the installation of the mechanical components of kitchen appli ances, heating and air-conditioning equip ment, gasoline and butane tanks, gas piping, and gas-fired appliances. Some specialize in inspecting boilers, mechanical components, or plumbing. Public works inspectors insure that Fed eral, State, and local government construc tion of water and sewer systems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to de tailed contract specifications. They inspect excavation and fill operations, the placement of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and 164/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK An inspector making sure the methods and materials used in the construction of this house meet the local building code. pouring, and asphalt paving. They also re cord the amount of work performed and materials used so that contract payment cal culations can be made. Public works inspec tors may specialize in inspection of highways, reinforced concrete, or ditches. While inspections are primarily visual, in spectors often use tape measures, metering devices, concrete strength measurers, and other test equipment during inspections. They often keep a daily log of their work, take photographs, file written reports, and, if necessary, act on their findings. For example, construction inspectors notify the construc tion contractor, superintendent, or supervi sor when they discover a detail of a project that is not in compliance with the appropri ate codes, ordinances, or contract specifica tions. If the deficiency is not corrected within a reasonable period of time, they have au thority to issue a “stop-work” order. Many inspectors also investigate reported incidents of “bootlegging,” construction or alteration that is being carried on without proper permits. Violators of permit laws are directed to obtain permits and submit to in spection. Working Conditions Construction inspectors work indoors and out. They spend about half their time in an office reviewing blueprints, answering letters or telephone calls, writing reports, and sche duling inspections. The rest of their time is spent traveling to construction sites—usually in a government car—and making inspec tions. Inspection sites may be dirty, and cluttered with tools, materials, or debris. Inspectors may have to climb ladders or several flights of stairs, or may have to crawl beneath build ings to make inspections. However, the work is not considered hazardous. Inspectors normally work regular hours. However, in case of an accident at the con struction site, such as a partially collapsed concrete structure, inspectors must respond immediately, and may be expected to work irregular hours until a report has been comp leted. Inspection work tends to be steady and year round, unlike the seasonal and intermit tent nature of employment in many of the occupations associated with the construction industry. Places of Employment About 20,000 persons worked as govern ment construction inspectors in 1978. More than three-fourths worked for municipal or county building departments. Public works construction inspectors were employed pri marily at the Federal and State levels. The employment of local government con struction inspectors is concentrated in cities and in suburban areas undergoing rapid growth. These governments employ large in spection staffs, including most of the inspec tors who specialize in structural steel, rein forced concrete, and boiler inspection. About one-half of the 3,500 construction inspectors employed by the Federal Govern ment in 1978, worked for the Department of Defense, primarily for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become a construction inspector, sev eral years of experience as a construction contractor, supervisor, or craft worker are generally required. Federal, State, and most local governments also require an applicant to have a high school diploma. High school preparation should include courses in draft ing, algebra, geometry, and English. Workers who want to become inspectors should have a thorough knowledge of con struction materials and practices in either a general area like structural or heavy con struction, or in a specialized area such as electrical or plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or structural steel; a significant number of construction inspectors have re cent experience as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or pipefitters. Many employers prefer inspectors to be graduates of an apprenticeship program, to have studied at least 2 years toward an engi neering or architectural degree, or to have a degree from a community or junior college, with courses in construction technology, blueprint reading, technical mathematics, English, and building inspection. Construction inspectors must be in good physical condition in order to walk and climb about construction sites. They also must have a motor vehicle operator’s li cense. In addition, Federal, State, and many local governments usually require that construction inspectors pass a civil service examination. Construction inspectors receive most of their training on the job. During the first couple of weeks, working with an ex perienced inspector, they learn about inspec tion techniques; codes, ordinances, and regu lations; contract specifications; and recordkeeping and reporting duties. They begin by inspecting less complex types of construction such as residential buildings. The difficulty of their assignments is gradu ally increased until they are able to handle complex assignments. An engineering degree is frequently needed in order to advance to supervisory inspector. Since they advise representatives of the construction industry and the general public on matters of code interpretation, construc tion practices, and technical developments, construction inspectors must keep abreast of new building code developments. The Fed eral Government and most State and large city governments conduct formal training programs for their construction inspectors to broaden their knowledge of construction materials, practices, and inspection tech niques and to acquaint them with new materials and practices. Inspectors who work for small agencies that do not conduct train ing programs frequently can broaden their knowledge of construction and upgrade their skills by attending State-conducted training programs or by taking college or correspon dence courses. Sources of Additional Information Persons seeking additional information on a career as a State or local government con struction inspector should contact their State or local employment service or: International Conference of Building Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Rd., Whittier, Calif. 90601. Persons interested in a career as a con struction inspector with the Federal Govern ment can get information from: U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1900 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20415. Employment Outlook Employment of government construction inspectors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Because of the increasing complexity of construction technology and the trend to ward the establishment of professional stan dards for inspectors by State governments, job opportunities should be best for those who have some college education or who are currently employed as carpenters, electri cians, or plumbers. In addition to growth needs, job openings for construction inspectors will occur each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. The number of new positions for construc tion inspectors will be largely affected by the level of new housing and commercial build ing activity. Because construction activity is sensitive to ups and downs in the economy, the number of job openings may fluctuate from year to year. The demand for construction inspectors also should increase as they are given more responsibility for insuring safe construction of prefabricated buildings mass-produced in factories and assembled on the construction site. Earnings In 1978, most construction inspectors working for the Federal Government earned between $13,000 and $19,000 a year, with the average about $15,000. According to limited information, salaries for inspectors working for State or local gov ernments ranged from $10,000 to $20,000 a year, with top supervisors earning somewhat more than $20,000 a year. Salaries in the North and West are slightly higher than sala ries in the South. Related Occupations Construction inspectors combine a knowl edge of law with their abilities to coordinate data, diagnose problems, and communicate with people to provide accurate inspections of construction sites. Other occupations in volving a combination of some similar skills are drafters, estimators, industrial engineer ing technicians, surveyors, and technical il lustrators. Health and Regulatory Inspectors (Government)_______ (D.O.T. 168.167-010, -022, and -062; .264-010; .267-018 and -022; .267-042 through -066, -074, and -078; and .287) Nature of the Work Protecting the public from health and safety hazards, prohibiting unfair trade and employment practices, and raising revenue are included in the wide range of responsibili ties of government. Health and regulatory inspectors help insure observance of the laws and regulations that govern these respon sibilities. For discussion of a third type of inspector, see the statement on construction inspectors (Government) elsewhere in the Handbook. The duties, titles, and responsibilities of Federal, State, and local health and regula tory inspectors vary widely. Some types of inspectors work only for the Federal Govern ment while others also are employed by State and local governments. Many accountants, agricultural cooperative extension service workers, and other agricultural professionals also have inspection duties. Health Inspectors. Health inspectors work with engineers, chemists, microbiologists, and health workers to insure compliance with public health and safety regulations gov erning food, drugs, and various other con sumer products. They also administer regula tions that govern the quarantine of persons and products entering the United States from foreign countries. The major types of health inspectors are: consumer safety, food, agri cultural quarantine, and environmental health inspectors. In addition, some inspec tors work in a field that is closely related to food inspection—agricultural commodity grading. Most consumer safety inspectors specialize in one area of inspection such as food, feeds and pesticides, weights and measures, or drugs and cosmetics. Some, especially those who work for the Federal Government, may PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/165 be proficient in several of these areas. Work ing individually or in teams under the direc tion of a senior or supervisory inspector, they periodically check firms that produce, han dle, store, and market food, drugs, and cos metics. They look for evidence of inaccurate product labeling, decomposition, chemical or bacteriological contamination, and other fac tors that could result in a product becoming harmful to health. They assemble evidence of violations, using portable scales, cameras, ul traviolet lights, container sampling devices, thermometers, chemical testing kits, and other types of equipment. They also check to see that products are la beled correctly and that proper sanitation is maintained in slaughtering and processing operations. Agricultural quarantine inspectors protect American agricultural products from the in troduction and spread of foreign plant pests and animal diseases. To safeguard crops, for ests, and gardens, they inspect ships, aircraft, railroad cars, and motor vehicles entering the United States for the presence of restricted or prohibited plant or animal materials. Product samples collected as part of their examinations are sent to laboratories for analysis. After completing their inspection, inspectors discuss their observations with the management of the plant and point out any areas where corrective measures are needed. They prepare written reports of their find ings, and, when necessary, compile evidence that may be used in court if legal actions must be taken to effect compliance with the law. Environmental health inspectors, or sanitarians, work primarily for State and local governments. These inspectors perform a variety of inspection duties to help insure that food water, and air meet government standards. They check the cleanliness and safety of food and beverages produced in dai ries and processing plants, or served in res taurants, hospitals, and other institutions. They often examine the handling, processing, and serving of food for compliance with sani tation rules and regulations. Federal and State laws empower food in spectors to inspect meat, poultry, and their byproducts to insure that they are whole some and safe for public consumption. Working as part of a constant onsite team under the general supervision of a veterinar ian, they inspect meat and poultry slaughter ing, processing, and packaging operations. Environmental health inspectors con cerned with waste control oversee the treat ment and disposal of sewage, refuse, and gar bage. They examine places where pollution is a danger, perform tests to detect pollutants, and collect air or water samples for analysis. They determine the nature and cause of the pollution, then initiate action to stop it. In large local and State health or agricul ture departments, environmental health in spectors may specialize in areas of work such as milk and dairy products, food sanitation, waste control, air pollution, institutional san itation, and occupational health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsi ble for a wide range of environmental health activities. Agricultural commodity graders apply quality standards to various commodities to insure that retailers and consumers receive good and reliable products. They generally specialize in an area such as eggs and egg products, processed or fresh fruits and vege tables, grain, or dairy products. They inspect samples of a particular product to determine its quality and grade, and issue official grad ing certificates. Graders also may inspect the plant and equipment to insure that adequate sanitation standards are maintained. Regulatory Inspectors. Regulatory inspec tors insure compliance with various laws and regulations that protect the public welfare. Important types of regulatory inspectors are: Immigration; customs; air safety; mine; wage-hour compliance; and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors. Immigration inspectors interview and ex amine people seeking admission, readmis sion, or the privileges of passing through or residing in the United States. They inspect the passports of those seeking to enter the United States to determine whether they are legally eligible to enter and to verify their citizenship, status, and identity. Immigration inspectors also prepare reports, maintain rec ords, and process applications and petitions by aliens for privileges such as immigrating to or living temporarily in the United States. Customs inspectors enforce the laws gov erning U.S. imports and exports. Stationed at airports, seaports, and border crossing points, they count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample commercial cargoes entering and leaving the United States to determine the amount of tax that must be paid. They also inspect baggage and articles worn or carried by the passengers and crew of ships, aircraft, and motor vehicles to insure that all mer chandise being brought through ports of entry is declared and the proper taxes paid. Air safety inspectors insure that Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations that govern the quality and safety of aircraft equipment and personnel are maintained. Air safety inspectors may inspect aircraft manu facturing, maintenance, or operations proce dures. They usually specialize in inspecting either commercial or general aviation air craft. They are responsible for the inspection of aircraft manufacturing and of major re pairs. They also certify aircraft pilots and schools, pilot examiners, flight instructors, and instructional materials. Consumer safety inspectors check food for evidence of inaccurate labeling, decomposition, or contamination. 166/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Mine inspectors work to insure the health and safety of miners and to promote good mining practices. To insure compliance with safety laws and regulations, mine inspectors visit mines and related facilities to obtain in formation on health and safety conditions. Mine inspectors discuss their findings with the management of the mine, prepare written reports that incorporate their findings and decisions, and issue notices of findings that describe violations and hazards that must be corrected. They also investigate and prepare reports on mine accidents and direct rescue and firefighting operations when fires or ex plosions occur. Wage-hour compliance inspectors inspect the employer’s time, payroll, and personnel records to insure compliance with the provi sions of various Federal laws on minimum wages, overtime, pay, employment of minors, and equal employment opportunity. They often interview employees to verify the em ployer’s records and to check for any com plaints. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors insure that the industries which manufacture these products comply with the provisions of revenue laws and other regulations on oper ating procedures, unfair competition, and trade practices. They spend most of their time inspecting distilleries, wineries, and breweries; cigar and cigarette manufacturing plants; wholesale liquor dealers and import ers; firearms and explosives manufacturers, dealers, and users; and other regulated facili ties. They periodically audit these establish ments to determine that appropriate taxes are correctly determined and paid. Working Conditions Most health and regulatory inspectors live an active life, meeting many people and working in a variety of environments. Many travel frequently and are usually furnished with an automobile or reimbursed for travel expenses. At times, inspectors have unfavorable working conditions. For example, food, and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors fre quently come in contact with strong, un pleasant odors. Mine inspectors often spend a great deal of time in mines where they are exposed to the same hazards as miners. Many inspectors work long and often irregular hours. Places of Employment About 100,000 persons worked as health and regulatory inspectors in 1978. Nearly two-thirds of all health and regulatory in spectors work for the Federal Government, although State and local governments also employ large numbers. The largest single em ployer of consumer safety inspectors is the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but the majority work for State governments. Food inspectors and agricultural commodity grad ers who work in processing plants are em ployed mainly by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural quarantine inspec tors work either for the U.S. Public Health Service or the U.S. Department of Agricul ture. Environmental health inspectors work primarily for State and local governments. Regulatory inspectors work for various agencies within the Federal Government, mainly in regional and district offices throughout the United States. Air safety in spectors work for the Federal Aviation Ad ministration; wage-hour compliance officers and mine inspectors, for the Department of Labor; and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms in spectors, for the Treasury Department. Im migration, customs, and agricultural quaran tine inspectors work at U.S. airports, seaports, border crossing points, and at for eign airports and seaports. They are em ployed by the Justice and Treasury Depart ments. Training, Advancement, and Other Qualifications Because inspectors perform such a wide range of duties, qualifications for employ ment vary greatly. The Federal Government requires a passing score on the Professional and Administrative Career Examination (PACE) for several inspector occupations, including immigration; customs; wage-hour compliance; alcohol, tobacco, and firearms; occupational safety; and consumer safety in spectors. To take this examination, a bache lor’s degree or 3 years of responsible work experience, or a combination of the two, are required. In most cases, agencies will give preference to an applicant whose course work or experience is related to the field of employment. Food inspectors must pass an examination based on specialized knowledge, in addition to having experience in related fields. Air safety inspectors must have considera ble experience in aviation maintenance, and an FAA Air Frame and Power Plant certifi cate. In addition, various pilot certificates and considerable flight experience are re quired, with the type dependent on the in- ( spection duties. Many air safety inspectors receive both flight training and mechanical training in the Armed Forces. No written examination is required. Applicants for mine safety inspector posi tions generally must have specialized work experience in mine safety, management, or supervision, or possess a skill such as electri cal engineering (for mine electrical inspec tors). In some cases, a general aptitude test may be required. Some Civil Service registers, including those for agricultural quarantine inspectors and agricultural commodity graders, rate ap plicants solely on their experience and educa tion and require no written examination. Qualifications for inspectors at the State and local level usually are similar to those for Federal employees. However, this may vary among government employers, particularly at the local level. Environmental health in spectors, called sanitarians in many States, usually must have a bachelor’s degree in envi ronmental health or the physical or biologi cal sciences. In 35 States, they are licensed and their qualifications regulated by examin ing boards. All inspectors are trained in the laws and inspection procedures related to their specific field through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training. In gen eral, people who want to become health and regulatory inspectors should be able to accept responsibility and like detailed work. They should be neat and personable and able to express themselves well orally and in writing. All Federal Government inspectors are promoted on a Civil Service “career ladder.” This means that, assuming satisfactory work performance, workers will advance automat ically, usually at 1-year intervals, to a speci fied maximum level. Above this level (usually supervisory positions), advancement is com PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/167 petitive, based on needs of the agency and individual merit. Employment Outlook Employment of health and regulatory in spectors as a group is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. The growth in em ployment of health and regulatory inspectors is expected to be rapid at the Federal and local levels. In addition to job opportunities stemming from growth in the need for in spectors, many inspectors will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Increased food consumption caused by population growth and greater public con cern over potential health hazards should create additional jobs for food, consumer safety, and environment health inspectors, as well as for agricultural commodity graders. Public concern for improved quality and safety of consumer products also may result in new legislation in these areas, requiring additional inspectors to insure compliance. Aviation industry growth, increased inter national travel, and increases in the volume of U.S. imports and exports should continue to create new openings for air safety, agricul tural quarantine and immigration inspectors, and customs inspectors. Increasing coal min ing activity and concern over mine safety should create additional mine inspector jobs. Continued public pressure for equal employ ment rights should cause a growing need for wage-hour compliance officers. Related Occupations Health and regulatory inspectors are re sponsible for seeing that government laws and regulations are obeyed. Related occupa tions with similar law enforcement respon sibilities include bank examiners, revenue agents, construction inspectors, State and local police officers, and fish and game ward ens. Sources of Additional Information Information on inspector careers in the Federal Government is available from State employment service offices or from U.S. Of fice of Personnel Management area offices or Federal Job Information Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. For information on a career as a specific type of inspector, the Federal department or agency that employs them may also be con tacted directly. Information about career opportunities as inspectors in State and local governments is available from State civil service commis sions, usually located in each State capital, or from local government offices. Occupational Safety and Health Workers (D.O.T. 010.061-026; 012.061-014, .167-022, -026, -034, and -058, and .261-010; .079.021-010 and .161-010; 168.167-078, .264-014, and .267-074; 373.167-018 and .367-010; and 821.367-014) Earnings Nature of the Work With the exception of mine inspectors and aviation safety officers, the Federal Govern ment paid health and regulatory inspectors and graders starting salaries of $10,507 or $13,014 a year in 1979, depending on the type of position and the qualifications of the appli cant. Aviation safety officers and mining in spectors usually received starting salaries of $15,920. People in the occupational safety and health field have the challenging job of insur ing a safe and healthful environment for workers and safe products for consumers. Safety and health workers in a number of different occupations strive to control occu pational accidents and diseases, property losses, and injuries from unsafe products. Workers employed in safety and health occu pations peculiar to government are discussed in the statement on health and regulatory inspectors elsewhere in the Handbook. Salaries of experienced food inspectors, agricultural guarantine inspectors, alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors, and cus toms and immigration inspectors were over $16,000 a year in 1979. Experienced con sumer safety inspectors, mine inspectors, and wage-hour compliance officers usually received salaries of more than $20,000 from the Federal Government in 1979. Ex perienced aviation safety officers averaged over $23,000 a year. Nonsupervisory environmental health in spectors working for selected U.S. cities and counties received average starting salaries of about $12,500 in 1978; those working for State governments started at about $1,500 less. Experienced environmental health in spectors working for State governments earned between $12,700 and $16,800 but those in top supervisory and administrative positions had salaries between $18,200 and $24,300 in 1978. 168/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The largest group of safety workers is safety engineers. Although all of them are concerned with preventing accidents, their specific tasks depend on where they work. For example, the safety engineer working in a large manufacturing plant (D.O.T. 012.061-014) may develop a comprehensive safety program covering several thousand employees. This usually entails detailed anal ysis of each job in the plant to identify poten tial hazards so that preventive measures can be taken. When accidents do occur, safety engineers in manufacturing plants investigate to determine the cause. If poor design, im proper maintenance, or mechanical failure is involved, they use their technical skills to correct the situation and prevent its recur rence. When human error is the cause of an accident, safety engineers may establish training courses for plant workers and super visors or reemphasize existing ones. Safety engineers who work for trucking companies (D.O.T. 909.127-010) study schedules, routes, loads, and speeds to deter mine their influence on trucking accidents. They also inspect heavy rigs, such as trucks and trailers, to suggest ways of safer opera tion. In the mining industry, safety engineers (D.O.T. 010.061-026) may inspect under ground or open-pit areas to insure compli ance with State and Federal laws, design pro tective equipment and safety devices for mine machinery, or lead rescue activities during emergencies. Many safety engineers are directly con cerned with the safety of their company’s product. They work closely with design engi neers to develop models that meet all safety standards, and they monitor the manufactur ing process to insure the safety of the finished product. Safeguarding life and property against loss from fire, explosion, and related hazards is the job of the fire protection engineer (D.O.T. 012.167-026). Those who specialize in re search investigate problems such as fires in high-rise buildings or the manufacture, han dling, and storage of flammable materials. Fire protection engineers in the field use these research findings to identify hazards and devise ways to correct them. For exam ple, new findings concerning flashpoints (the temperatures at which different materials will ignite) are valuable to the engineer de signing storage facilities in a chemical plant. Like safety engineers, fire protection engi neers may have different job duties depend ing on where they work. One who works for a fire equipment manufacturing company may design new fire protection devices, while engineers in consulting firms work with ar chitects and others to insure that fire safety is built into new structures. In contrast, fire protection engineers working for insurance rating bureaus (organizations that calculate basic costs of insurance coverage in particu lar areas) inspect private, commercial, and industrial properties to evaluate the ade quacy of fire protection for the entire area. Many fire protection engineers have special expertise in one area or more of fire protec tion, such as sprinkler or fire detection sys tems. Losses in the workplace cannot be reduced without measures to eliminate hazards to workers’ health. Designing and maintaining a healthful work environment are the respon sibilities of industrial hygienists (D.O.T. 079.161-010). These health professionals are concerned with how noise, dust, vapors, and other hazards common to the industrial set ting affect workers’ health. After a problem is detected, perhaps by analyzing employee medical records, the industrial hygienist at the job site may take air samples, monitor noise levels, or measure radioactivity levels in the areas under investigation. Other industrial hygienists work in private industrial safety, mechanical or chemical en gineering, or fire protection engineering, often is helpful in getting a good job. Many employers prefer applicants with a graduate degree in areas such as industrial hygiene, public health, safety engineering, or occupa tional safety and health engineering, or those with prior industrial work experience. Some employers will hire graduates of 2-year col lege curriculums as technicians, particularly if they have work experience related to the job. Safety engineers inspect plant machinery for potential hazards. laboratories or in those maintained by large insurance companies or industrial firms. Laboratory hygienists analyze air samples, do research on the reliability of health equip ment such as respirators, or investigate the effects of exposure to chemicals or radiation. Some hygienists specialize in problems of air and water pollution. For example, these health professionals may work with govern ment officials, environmental groups, labor organizations, and plant management to de velop a system to screen harmful substances before they enter and pollute a river. Loss control and occupational health con sultants (D.O.T. 168.167-078) in propertyliability insurance companies perform many services for their clients. These range from correcting a single hazard in a small business to devising a program to eliminate or reduce all losses arising out of a large firm’s opera tion. When dealing with a new account, the consultant makes a thorough inspection of the plant and then confers with management to formulate a program that meets the com pany’s needs. The consultant may, for exam ple, help set up plant health programs and medical services, assist plant personnel to in sure that a new facility meets all safety re quirements, or train plant safety people. Safety and health consultants also help their company’s underwriters determine whether a risk is acceptable and the amount of premium to charge. Working Conditions Although occupational safety and health workers are based in offices, much of their time is spent at work sites inspecting or studying safety hazards, talking to workers, or taking air or dust samples. Safety and health workers may have to travel a great deal if they don’t work exclusively at a single plant. The amount of travel required depends upon job specialty and geographic location. For example, the plant safety engineer may travel only to seminars and conferences, while the insurance consultant may spend about half the time traveling between work sites. Usually, a car is furnished or workers are reimbursed for the expenses of using their own vehicles. Places of Employment An estimated 80,000 persons were engaged in occupational safety and health work in 1978. About half of them were safety engi neers, and most of the rest were fire protec tion engineers, industrial hygienists, or work ers who divided their time between two or more of these areas. A relatively small num ber of occupational safety and health workers were employed as technicians. The largest numbers of occupational safety and health workers were employed by manu facturing firms, although they were em ployed by firms in most other industries as well. Property and liability insurance compa nies employ many safety and health workers to provide engineering, consulting, and in spection services to their clients. Others worked for a variety of industrial, manufac turing, and commercial concerns. Occupational safety and health workers are generally employed in population and in dustrial centers. Insurance consultants gen erally have their headquarters in a region’s major city and travel to and from the sites they visit. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry level safety and health professionals generally need at least a bachelor’s degree in engineering or science. A more specialized degree, such as one in safety management, Continuing education is necessary to stay abreast of changing technologies, new ideas, and emerging trends. Many insurance com panies offer training seminars and correspon dence courses for their staffs. The Occupa tional Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) conducts courses for safety and health workers on topics such as occupa tional injury investigation and radiological health hazards. The recognized marks of achievement in the field are the designations Certified Safety Professional; Certified In dustrial Hygienist; and Member, Society of Fire Protection Engineers. Certification is conferred by the Board of Certified Safety Professionals and the American Board of In dustrial Hygiene, after the candidate com pletes the required experience and passes an examination. A small number of States re quire that occupational safety and health professionals be licensed. In addition to possessing technical compe tence, safety and health workers must be able to communicate well and motivate others. They should be able to adapt quickly to dif ferent situations, being equally at ease with a representative of a local union, a supervisor in the welding shop, or a corporate executive. Because physical activity is basic to the job, good physical condition is necessary. In the insurance industry, safety and health workers can be promoted to depart ment manager in a small branch office, move up to larger branch offices, and finally take an executive position in the home office. In industrial firms, they can advance to plant safety and health manager or corporate man ager over several plants. Although extensive experience is required, technicians can ad vance to professional safety and health posi tions. Employment Outlook Employment of safety and health workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as con cern grows for occupational safety and health and consumer safety. Many openings will arise also to replace workers who die, retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Much of the employment growth is ex pected to occur in industrial and manufactur ing firms. Many firms now without a safety and health program are expected to establish one, and others will upgrade and expand ex isting programs in response to government requirements, union interest, and rising in PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/169 surance costs. The number of safety and health workers in casualty insurance compa nies also will increase as more small employ ers request the services of their insurer’s en gineering or loss control department. Pros pects should be best for graduates of occupa tional safety or health curriculums and persons with graduate degrees in related areas. Related Occupations Occupational safety and health workers are responsible for seeing that industrial production is carried out in a manner that is safe for workers. Related occupations also concerned with the technology of pro duction include mechanical, chemical, product safety, industrial, and pollutioncontrol engineers. Career information concerning fire protec tion engineering may be obtained from: Sources of Additional Information The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the U.S. Public Health Service provides general information on re quirements for various careers in the occupa tional safety and health field, as well as lists of college and universities that award degrees in the various occupational safety and health disciplines. This information is available from: Earnings Occupational safety and health workers had median salaries of $27,000 a year in 1978, more than twice the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. Safety and health work ers were paid average starting salaries of $14,500 a year in 1978. Those with a gradu ate degree usually received higher starting salaries, and technicians somewhat lower ones. Many safety and health workers with supervisory responsibilities earned more than $30,000 a year. 170/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK American Industrial Hygiene Association, 475 Wolf Ledges Pkwy., Ohio 44311. For general information about safety ca reers, write to: American Society of Safety Engineers, 850 Busse Hwy., Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Information is also available from the Soci ety on colleges and universities offering de gree programs in the occupational safety and health field. Information concerning a career in indus trial hygiene is available from: Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 60 Batterymarch St., Boston, Mass. 02110. Career information on insurance loss con trol consulting is available from the home offices of many property-liability insurance companies. Division of Training and Manpower Development, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Robert A. Taft Laboratories, 4676 Co lumbia Pkwy., Cincinnati, Ohio 45226. Other Service Occupations Mail Carriers (D.O.T. 230.363-010 and .367-010) Nature of the Work Most mail carriers travel planned routes delivering and collecting mail. Carriers start work at the post office early in the morning, where they spend a few hours arranging their mail for delivery and taking care of other details. A carrier may cover the route on foot, by vehicle, or by a combination of both. On foot, carriers tote a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it in a cart. In outlying suburban or rural areas, a car or small truck is used to deliver mail. Residential carriers cover their routes only once a day, but carriers assigned to a business district may make two trips a day. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to roadside mailboxes, and to large buildings, such as apartments, which have all the mail boxes on the first floor. Besides making deliveries, carriers col lect postage-due and c.o.d. cash on deliv ery fees and obtain signed receipts for reg istered, certified, and, sometimes, insured mail. If a customer is not home the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, carriers return to the post office with mail gathered from street collection boxes and homes. They turn in the mail receipts and money collected during the day and may separate letters and parcels so that they can be can celed easily. Many carriers have more specialized du ties. Some deliver only parcel post while oth ers collect mail from street boxes and office mail chutes. In contrast, rural carriers pro vide a wide variety of postal services. In addi tion to delivering and picking up mail, they sell stamps and money orders and accept par cels and letters to be registered or insured. All carriers answer customers’ questions about postal regulations and service and pro vide change-of-address cards and other postal forms when requested. Working Conditions Most carriers begin work early in the morning, in some cases as early as 4 a.m. if they have routes in the business district. Car riers spend most of their time outdoors in all kinds of weather delivering mail. Even those who drive often must walk when making deliveries and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post when loading their vehicles. Mail carriers often tote mail in a heavy satchel when making deliveries on foot. The job, however, has its advantages. Car riers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon. They are also free to work at their own pace as long as they cover their routes within a certain period of time. Places of Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed 245,000 mail carriers in 1978, three-quarters of them full time. Although about 50,000 were rural carriers, most worked in cities and suburban communities throughout the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Mail carriers must be U.S. citizens and at least 18 years old. They must qualify on a written examination that tests their clerical accuracy and abilities to memorize mail dis tribution systems, read, and do simple arith metic. If the carrier job involves driving, appli cants must have a driver’s license, a good driving record, and pass a road test. Before appointment, mail carriers must pass a physi cal examination and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants for mail carrier jobs should apply at a post office in the general area where they wish to work. Applicants’ names are listed in order of their examination scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran, and ten points to the score of a veteran wounded in combat or disabled. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future open ings. Mail carriers are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casual workers are not career em ployees, but are hired to help deliver mail during peak mailing periods of the year. Part-time flexible carriers are career em ployees who do not have a regular work schedule, but replace absent workers and help with extra work as the need arises. Part-time flexible carriers sometimes work as many as 40 hours per week. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule—for ex ample, 4 hours a day. Full-time carriers usually work a 40-hour week. New carriers are trained on the job. They may begin as part-time flexible city carriers and become regular or full-time carriers in order of seniority as vacancies occur. Advancement possibilities are lim ited, but carriers can look forward to ob taining preferred routes or higher level jobs such as carrier technician as their seniority increases. Employment Outlook Employment of mail carriers is expected to increase more slowly than the average OTHER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/171 for all occupations through the 1980’s. Al though the number of homes and business establishments is expected to increase along with growth in population and busi ness activity, anticipated cutbacks in the frequency of mail delivery should limit the need for additional carriers. Nevertheless, thousands of job openings will result from the need to replace experienced carriers who retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. Openings will be concentrated in metropolitan areas. Earnings In 1978, experienced full-time mail carri ers earned an average salary of $17,168 a year, about one and one-half times as much as average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Full-time carriers started at a rate of $14,603 a year and could rise to a maximum of $17,188 after 8 years. They also received 10 per cent additional pay for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Part-time flexible carriers began at $7.27 an hour in 1978, with provision for periodic increases up to $8.56 an hour after 8 years of satisfactory service. The earnings of rural carriers are deter mined through an evaluation of the amount of work required to service their particular routes. Carriers with longer, more populated routes generally earned more than those with shorter routes that served fewer homes. Rural carriers also received an equipment maintenance allowance for the use of their automobiles. They work either a 5-or a 6-day week. For information on fringe benefits, see the statement on postal service occupations elsewhere in the Handbook. Related Occupations Although mail carriers play an impor tant role in moving the Nation’s mail, postal clerks and mailhandlers also provide necessary services, and their work and qualifications are closely related to those of mail carriers. Other related delivery occu pations include messengers, merchandise delivers, delivery-route truck drivers, news paper delivery drivers, and newspaper car riers. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment service offices can supply details about en trance examinations and employment oppor tunities for mail carriers. Telephone Operators Nature of the Work Although millions of telephone numbers are dialed directly each day, making a call sometimes requires the assistance of a tele phone operator. Often an operator is needed because a caller wants to reverse long-dis http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 172/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In many telephone company central offices, manual switchboards have been replaced with sophisticated computerized equipment. tance charges, find out a telephone number in another city, or know the cost of a call. Oper ators also may be needed to contact the police or fire departments in an emergency or ar range a conference call for business execu tives. Providing these services are two groups of telephone operators. The operators who work in telephone company central offices probably are the most familiar. But many business and large organizations receive so many calls that they employ operators to run their private branch exchange (PBX) switchboards. Sometimes operators place calls by inserting and removing plugs that make switchboard connections and by lis tening and speaking into their headsets. However, many switchboards, especially those in telephone company central offices, are now operated by pushbuttons or dials. Telephone company operators may be as signed either to handle long-distance calls or to give directory assistance. Long-distance operators (D.O.T. 235.462-010) obtain the information needed to complete the call, make the necessary connections, and record the details for billing. Directory assistance op erators (D.O.T. 235.662-018) look up and provide telephone numbers. Service assist ants train and help new operators to com plete difficult calls. PBX operators (D.O.T. 235.662-022) run switchboards for business offices and other establishments. They connect interoffice or house calls, answer and relay outside calls, assist company employees in making out going calls, supply information to callers, and record charges. In many small estab lishments, PBX operators work at switch boards that serve only a limited number of telephones. These operators may do other office work such as typing or sorting mail and many also act as receptionists or infor mation clerks. (The work of receptionists is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Most telephone company and PBX oper ators work between 35 and 40 hours a week. Often, their scheduled hours are the same as those of other office clerical work ers. In telephone companies, however, and in hotels, hospitals, and other places where telephone service is needed on a 24-hour basis, operators work on shifts and on holidays and weekends. Some operators work split shifts—that is, they are on duty during the peak calling periods in the late morning and early evening and have time off in between. Operators usually work in pleasant, welllighted, air-conditioned surroundings. The job of a telephone operator requires little physical exertion; however, during the peak calling periods, the pace at the switchboard may be very hectic. Often op erators are unable to leave their seats dur ing these periods. Places of Employment About 310,000 telephone operators were employed in 1978. More than one-half worked as PBX operators in manufacturing plants, hospitals, department stores, or busi nesses. The remainder worked in telephone companies. About one-fourth of all operators work only part time. Both telephone company and PBX opera tors are concentrated in heavily populated areas. Nearly one-fifth work in the New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons planning to become telephone op erators should like to serve the public, be pleasant and courteous, and not mind sitting for long periods. A clear and pleasing voice and good hearing also are important. Many telephone companies and business firms re quire applicants, including operators, to pass a physical examination. High school courses in speech, office practices, and business math provide a helpful background for persons in terested in this occupation. New operators are taught on the job how to use the equipment and keep records of calls. Once they have learned the procedure, they put through practice calls. Instruction and practice usually last from 1 to 3 weeks. Operators then are assigned to regular opera tor jobs and receive further instruction from supervisors. PBX operators who handle routine calls may have a somewhat shorter training period than telephone company operators. In large businesses, an instructor from the local tele phone company may train new employees. Experienced telephone company operators may be promoted to supervisory jobs or transfer to clerical occupations such as secre tary or bookkeeper. They also may have the opportunity to advance to craft jobs such as telephone installers and repairers. PBX oper ators in large firms may advance to more responsible clerical positions; however, in many small businesses, opportunities for ad vancement usually are limited. Employment Outlook Employment of telephone and PBX opera tors as a group is expected to decline slightly through the 1980’s. Nevertheless, thousands of full-time and part-time workers will be hired each year to replace experienced opera tors who die, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Many other openings will result from the need to replace operators who ad vance to other occupations. Employment of telephone company opera tors is expected to decline more than employ ment of PBX operators. As more telephone companies start charging customers for di rectory assistance and information calls, more people will dial numbers directly and use telephone directories to locate unknown numbers, thus reducing the need for opera tors. Also, technological improvements will limit the employment of operators. For ex ample, more telephone companies are install ing electronic switching systems in their cen tral offices, thus reducing the need for manual switching of calls. In addition, traffic service position systems are being added, which automatically feed data about each tel ephone connection, such as the length and cost of the call, into a computer that pro cesses the billing statements. Formerly this information was tabulated by an operator and then transferred to the statement. Even though more small businesses will require PBX services, employment growth of PBX operators will be limited as many large businesses convert to Central Exchange (CENTREX). With CENTREX, incoming and outgoing calls can be dialed directly without an operator’s assistance. Earnings Telephone company operators in training averaged $4.31 an hour in 1978; experienced operators, $6.24; service assistants, $7.25; and supervisors or chief operators, $10.20. Contracts between unions and telephone companies generally provide for periodic pay increases and extra pay for work on evenings, Sundays, and holidays. Earnings of ex perienced telephone operators are about the same as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Insurance, pension programs, holidays, vacations, and other benefits are much the same as those for other types of clerical em ployees. For specific information about bene fits for telephone company operators, see the statement on the telephone industry else where in the Handbook. Many operators employed by telephone companies are members of the Communica tions Workers of America, the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, and the Telecommunications International Union. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity con sists of orally providing information and ser vices to the general public include customer service representatives, dispatchers, hotel clerks, information clerks, police aides, receptionists, reservations agents, taxicab starters, and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment op portunities, contact the telephone company in your community or local offices of the unions that represent telephone workers. For general information on telephone operator jobs, write to: Telecommunications International Union, P.O. Box 5462, Hamden, Conn. 16518. United States Independent Telephone Association, 1801 K St. NW„ Suite 1201, Washington, D.C. 20006. OTHER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/173 EDUCATION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS The importance of an education has grown considerably since the birth of our Nation. Once primarily an agrarian economy, we have evolved into a highly sophisticated, technical, and urban society. Machinery and products never envisioned before are con stantly being invented, calling for new jobs and skills to produce and use them. As a result, more educated workers are needed to 174 fill a variety of positions at all levels of soci ety. In addition, as our economy has pros pered, it has allowed people more time for personal development and leisure. No longer required to labor from early morning until dusk, workers have sought new avenues for personal enrichment. Adult education and craft courses, for example, draw increasingly larger numbers of interested students. Teachers, teacher aides, and librarians play vital roles in the education of people of all ages. In large urban classrooms or rural county libraries, teachers and librarians are the people we turn to for information. These occupations are discussed in the following sections. Teaching Occupations Most people would agree that education is a life-long process. At every age we learn from our friends, family, and associates. We also teach others along the way, often unwit tingly. But perhaps our most influential edu cational experiences occur during the years of formal education. During those years, stu dents learn the skills to function in the world around them. They learn about their own interests and goals as they explore many sub jects. They also make career decisions and train for productive work. Most significantly, they learn to think for themselves. Today, about 3 million teachers are in volved at all levels of this educational pro cess. Teachers work with people of all ages in a variety of different subjects. Some teach youngsters in their first years away from home, while others work primarily with adults who are taking courses for recreation, personal fulfillment, or to increase their jobrelated skills. Some teachers are members of other professions and instruct part time. Detailed information on teaching occupa tions and the outlook for teachers through the 1980’s is presented in the following state ments. Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers_________ (D.O.T. 092.227-010 and -014) Nature of the Work Kindergarten and elementary school teachers play a vital role in the development of children. What is learned or not learned in these early years can, to a large measure, shape students’ views of themselves, the world, and the process of education. Kindergarten and elementary school teachers must introduce children to the basic concepts of mathematics, language, science, and social studies to provide a sound founda tion for more advanced study in the higher grades. They also try to instill good study and work habits and an appreciation for learning, while closely watching and evaluating each child’s performance and potential. Elementary school teachers often devise creative means to present specific subject matter. They may use films, slides, comput ers, or develop instructional games. They also arrange class trips, speakers, and class projects. All of this work takes much time and effort, often after the regular school day. Teachers also are concerned with the so cial development and health of their stu dents. They study each child’s interactions with classmates and discuss any problems with the parents. Teachers may, for example, meet with the parents of a child who habitu ally resists authority to discover the cause and work out a solution. Teachers also report any possible health problems to parents and school health officials. The teacher’s primary concern is to insure that each child receives as much personalized help as possible. Most elementary school teachers instruct a single group of children in several subjects. In some schools, two or more teachers team teach and are jointly responsible for a group of students or for a particular subject. An increasing number of elementary school teachers specialize in one or two subjects and teach these subjects to several classes. Some teach special subjects such as music, art, or physical education, while others teach basic subjects such as English, mathematics, or so cial studies. Teachers participate in many activities outside the classroom. They generally must attend regularly scheduled faculty meetings and may serve on faculty committees, such as those to revise curricula, or to evaluate the school’s objectives and the student’s perform ance. Teachers also may supervise after school activities such as glee clubs, drama clubs, or arts and crafts classes. To stay upto-date on educational materials and teach ing techniques, they participate in workshops and other in-service activities and take courses at local colleges and universities. A growing number of elementary school teachers have aides to do secretarial work and help supervise lunch and playground ac tivities. As a result, teachers can be free from routine duties to give more individual atten tion to students. Working Conditions In addition to hours spent with classes, teachers must spend time preparing lessons, grading papers, making reports, attending meetings, and supervising extracurricular ac tivities. As a result, most teachers end up working well over 40 hours a week. Because the individual needs of each student put many demands on a teacher’s time, teaching can be both physically and emotionally ex hausting. In addition to their regular assignments, some elementary school teachers teach sum mer sessions, take courses, or work at other jobs, such as camp counseling. Most elemen tary school teachers work a traditional 2semester, 10-month school year. Some, how ever, work in year-round schools where they work 8-week sessions, are off 1 week between sessions, and have a longer midwinter break. This type of schedule may make finding addi tional employment ouside the school system difficult. Teachers spend much of their time stand ing, walking, kneeling, or even sitting on the floor. For example, kindergarten teachers may join their students on the floor to finger paint, cut out pictures, or do other crafts. Employment in teaching is fairly steady. EDUCATION AND RELATED O C C U P A TIO N S/175 Population trends rather than business con ditions affect the market for teachers. Most States have tenure laws—laws that ensure the jobs of teachers who have taught successfully for a certain number of years. In 25 States, tenure status is achieved automati cally if the probationary period is completed and the teacher’s contract has not been ter minated. In States where tenure status is not achieved automatically, teachers who have completed a probationary period are re quired to negotiate a new contract. Places of Employment Over 1.3 million people worked as elemen tary school teachers in 1978. Most elemen tary school teachers work in public schools that have six grades; however, some teach in middle schools which cover the 3 or 4 years between the lower elementary grades and 4 years of high school. Only about 12 percent of elementary school teachers work in non public schools. A large proportion of all public elementary school teachers teach in urban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public elementary school teachers to be certified by the department of education in the State in which they work. Some States also require teachers in private and parochial schools to be certified. To qualify for certification, a teacher must have a bachelor’s degree from an institution with an approved teacher education pro gram. Besides a bachelor’s degree, which provides the necessary liberal arts back ground, States require that prospective teach ers have student-teaching and other educa tion courses. In 1978, 23 States rqguired teachers to have graduate degrees. However, this requirement was often coupled with provisions concerning continuing education. Thirty States had continuing education re quirements for teachers in 1978. Some States required U.S. citizenship; some an oath of allegiance; and several a health certificate. Only one State, Florida, had a residency re quirement. Local school systems sometimes have ad ditional requirements for employment. Stu dents should write to the local superinten dent of schools and to the State department of education for information on specific re quirements in the area where they want to teach. In addition to meeting educational and certification requirements, teachers should be creative, dependable, and patient. Most important, they should want to be directly involved in the educational and emotional development of children. Competence in handling classroom situations also is impor tant. As a teacher gains experience, he or she may advance within a school system or trans fer to another which recognizes experience and has a higher salary scale. Some teachers may advance to supervisory, administrative, or specialized positions. Often, however, these positions require additional training and certification. As a result, for most teach ers, advancement consists of higher pay rather than more responsibility or a higher position. Employment Outlook Kindgergarten and elementary school teachers may face competition for jobs of their choice through the 1980’s. If the pattern continues in line with past trends, the num ber of persons qualified to teach in elemen tary schools will approximate the number of openings. The basic sources of teacher supply are recent college graduates qualified to teach at the elementary level and teachers seeking reentry to the profession. Reentrants, al though more experienced, will face increas ing competition from new graduates, who command lower salaries and have more re cent training. Pupil enrollment is the basic factor under lying the need for teachers. Because of fewer births in the 1960’s, elementary enrollments have been on the decline since 1967, when they peaked at nearly 32 million. The Na tional Center for Education Statistics pro jects that, by 1983, the downward enrollment trend will halt at a level of 27 million. There after, enrollments will advance to nearly 32 million by 1990. Teachers often must give students individual attention. 176/O CCUPATIO NAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Teachers will be needed to fill new posi tions created by larger enrollments; to re place those who are not now certified; to meet the expected pressure for an improved pupil-teacher ratio; and to fill positions vacated by teachers who retire, die, or leave the profession for other reasons. A decline in the projected number of chil dren bom over the next decade could lessen the demand for teachers. While the trend has not been clearly established, since 1970 women have continued to have fewer chil dren, and according to a recent survey, they expect to continue having smaller families than were common 10 years ago. However, the number of births is expected to rise as a result of the growing number of women en tering the childbearing years. Several factors could alter the outlook for teachers. Increased emphasis on early child hood education, on special programs for disadvantaged children, and on individual in struction may result in larger enrollments, smaller student-teacher ratios, and conse quently an increased need for teachers. Possi ble budget contraints, on the other hand, might limit expansion of educational ser vices. Earnings According to the National Education As sociation, public elementary school teachers averaged $14,669 a year in 1978-79. Average earnings in 1978 were about one and onethird times the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Generally, States in the Northeast and in the West paid the highest salaries. Collective bargaining agreements cover an increasingly large number of teachers. In 1978, 31 States had enacted laws that re quired collective bargaining in teacher con tract negotiations. Most public school sys tems that enroll 1,000 students or more bargain with teacher organizations over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. Related Occupations Kindergarten and elementary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including organizational and ad ministrative abilities, a talent for working with children, communication skills, the power to influence, motivate, and train oth ers, recordkeeping expertise, creativity, and leadership ability. Other occupations that make use of some or all of these aptitudes include administrative officers; child care at tendants; education and training managers for government or private industry; employ ment interviewers; encyclopedia research workers; lawyers; librarians; newswriters; personnel managers; public relations repre sentatives; records managers; sales repre sentatives; social workers; and career, voca tional, or school counselors. systems and State departments of educa tion. For information on the Teacher Corps, contact: Teacher Corps, U.S. Department of Education, 400 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20202. Other sources of general information are: American Federation of Teachers, 11 Dupont Cir cle, Fifth Floor, Washington, D.C. 20036. National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. meetings with parents and school personnel. Often they work with student groups outside of class to help solve specific problems. Teachers also participate in workshops and college classes to keep up-to-date on their subject specialty and on current trends in ed ucation. In recent years, teachers have been able to spend more time teaching due to the in creased availability of teacher aides who per form secretarial work, grade papers, and do other routine tasks. Working Conditions Secondary School Teachers________ (D.O.T. 091. except -107) Nature of the Work The high school years are the years of tran sition from childhood to young adulthood. They are the years when students delve more deeply into subject matter introduced in ele mentary school and learn more about them selves and the world. It is also a time of preparation for their future lives as citizens and jobholders. Secondary school teachers have a direct role in this process. The primary function of the secondary school teacher is to instruct students in a specific subject, such as English, mathemat ics, social studies, or science. Within a teacher’s specialized subject area, he or she may teach a variety of courses. A social stud ies teacher, for example, may instruct two 9th grade classes in American History, two 12th grade classes in Contemporary Ameri can Problems, and another class in World Geography. For each class, the teacher devel ops lesson plans, prepares and gives examina tions, and arranges other activities, such as a class project to devise an urban redevelop ment plan for the city. T eachers also m ust design their classroom presentations to meet the individual needs and abilities of their students. They may ar range tutoring for students, or give advanced assignments for highly motivated pupils. Recognizing the needs of each student can be difficult because most teachers conduct five separate classes a day. Teachers use a variety of instructional materials including films, slides, and com puter terminals. They also may arrange for speakers or trips to supplement their class room lectures, such as a visit to the planetar ium after a discussion of the earth’s rotation. In addition to hours spent with their classes, teachers must spend time preparing lessons, grading papers, making reports, at tending meetings, and supervising extracur ricular activities. As a result, most teachers end up working well over 40 hours a week. Teaching involves long periods of standing and talking and can be both physically and mentally tiring. Dealing with disruptive stu dents can also be emotionally exhausting. While many teachers work the traditional 10-month school year with a 2-month vaca tion, some school districts have converted to a year-round schedule. Teachers on this type of schedule may work 8 weeks, be on vaca tion for 1 week, and have a 5-week midwinter break. The District of Columbia and most States have tenure laws—laws that ensure the jobs of teachers who have taught successfully for a certain number of years. In 25 States, ten ure status is achieved automatically if the probationary period is completed and the teacher’s contract has not been terminated. In States where tenure status is not achieved automatically, teachers who have completed a probationary period are required to negoti ate a new contract. Places of Employment In 1978, more than 1 million teachers taught in secondary schools. More than 90 percent of them taught in public schools. Al though they work in all parts of the country, teachers are concentrated in cities and in sub urban areas. According to a recent survey, slightly more than one-half of all public secondary school teachers teach in senior high schools; about one-third teach at the junior high level. About one-tenth teach in junior-senior high schools, and a very small number are elemen tary-secondary combination teachers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sources of Additional Information Some teachers teach courses, such as weld ing, auto mechanics, or distributive educa tion, which train students for specific jobs after graduation. These teachers instruct with the actual tools of the trade, whether they be adding machines or an 8-cylinder car engine. All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public secondary school teachers to be certified. Many States also require certifi cation of secondary teachers in private and parochial schools. Information on schools and certification requirements is available from local school Secondary school teachers also supervise study halls and homerooms, and attend In 1978, 23 States required graduate de grees for initial certification. However, this TEACHING OCCUPATIONS/177 requirement was often coupled with provi sions concerning continuing education. Thirty States required continuing education of teachers in 1978. The educational requirements for second ary school teachers vary by State and by school system. Approved colleges and uni versities in every State offer programs that include the education courses and the stu dent-teaching that States require. They also offer the academic courses that are necessary to qualify teachers in the various subject spe cialties taught at the secondary level. increasing proportion of prospective teachers will have to consider alternatives to second ary school teaching. Although the overall outlook for second ary teachers indicates a highly competitive market, employment conditions may be more favorable in certain fields. Education of the gifted and talented, special and vocational education, mathematics, natural sciences, and physical sciences should not experience as large an oversupply as some other subjects. Earnings States and local jurisdictions often have general requirements for teachers, such as the recommendation of the college, a certifi cate of health, and U.S. citizenship. Prospec tive teachers may get complete information on educational and general requirements from each State department of education and from the superintendent of schools in each community. According to the National Education As sociation, public secondary school teachers averaged $15,474 per year in 1979. This is one and one-half times the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Generally, salaries were higher in the Northeast and in the West than they were in the Southeast and in the Midwestern States. Aside from educational requirements, a secondary school teacher must want to work with young people, have an interest in a spe cial subject, and have the ability to motivate students and to relate knowledge to them. Collective bargaining agreements cover an increasingly large number of teachers. In 1978, 31 States had enacted laws that re quired collective bargaining in teacher con tract negotiations. Education and experience provide the pri mary basis for advancement, usually in the form of higher salaries rather than a different job. Advancement to supervisory and ad ministrative positions usually requires at least 1 year of professional education beyond the bachelor’s degree and several years of successful classroom teaching. Only a small proportion of secondary school teachers, however, advance to administrative posi tions. In some schools, teachers receive supple mentary pay for such school-related activi ties as coaching sports and working with stu dents in extracurricular activities, such as music, dramatics, or school publications. Some public school teachers also work in their school systems during the summer. Others hold summer jobs outside the school system. Related Occupations Secondary school teaching requires a wide variety of skills and aptitudes, including or ganizational and administrative talents; re search abilities; communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train oth ers; recordkeeping expertise; creativity; help fulness; and leadership ability. Other occupa tions which make use of some or all of these aptitudes include: Administrative officers; career, vocational, or school counselors; edu cation and training managers for government or private industry; employment interview ers; encyclopedia research workers; lawyers; librarians; newswriters; personnel managers; public relations representatives; records managers; sales representatives; and social workers. Other related occupations include those in the particular subject field in which the teacher is trained. Sources of Additional Information Information on schools and certification requirements is available from local school systems and State departments of education. For information on the Teacher Corps, contact: Some experienced teachers with specific preparation may work as special school ser vice personnel, such as school psychologists, reading specialists, or guidance counselors. Often these jobs require special certification as well as special education. Employment Outlook The supply of secondary school teachers through the 1980’s will greatly exceed an ticipated requirements, if past trends con tinue. As a result, prospective teachers are likely to face keen competition for jobs. The prime sources of teacher supply are recent college graduates qualified to teach secondary school and teachers seeking to re enter the profession. Although reentrants have experience in their favor, many schools may prefer to hire new graduates who com mand lower salaries and whose training is more recent. Pupil enrollment is the basic factor under lying the demand for teachers. The National Center for Education Statistics projects that enrollment in secondary schools will decline and, in turn, reduce the demand for teachers. As a result, over the 1978-90 period, nearly all teaching positions will stem from the need to replace teachers who die, retire, or leave the profession for other reasons. Thus, an 178/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In addition to hours spent in the classroom, teachers must spend time preparing lessons, grading papers, and supervising extracurricular activities. Teacher Corps, U.S. Department of Education, 400 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20202. Other sources of general information are: American Federation of Teachers, 11 Dupont Cir cle, Fifth Floor, Washington, D.C. 20036. National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. College and University Faculty (D.O.T. 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Each year thousands of Americans enter college. People attend college for a variety of reasons. Some view it primarily as an oppor tunity for personal enrichment. Many others seek higher education to obtain the skills they need for a job. To meet all these needs, col leges and universities hire faculty to provide instruction in many different subjects. The primary function of the college or uni versity faculty member is to present an indepth analysis of a paricular field of study. Many faculty members conduct several dif ferent courses in the same field—freshman composition and 18th century English litera ture, for example. Many instruct under graduates only, while some instruct both un dergraduates and graduate students. Still fewer instruct only graduate students. Usu ally, the more experienced and educated fac ulty members conduct the higher level classes. College and university faculty members use various methods to present information, depending on the subject, interest, and level of their students. Some conduct lectures in classrooms that seat hundreds of students while others lead seminars for only a few students. Still others work primarily in laboratories for subjects such as biology, en gineering, or chemistry. Some have the aid of teaching assistants who may lead discussion sections or grade exams. Closed-circuit tele vision, tape recorders, computers, and other teaching aids frequently are used. College faculty members must keep up with developments in their field by reading current literature, participating in profes sional activities, and conducting scholarly re search. Writing books or journal articles can be very important, and some college faculty members experience a serious conflict be tween their responsibilities to their students and the pressure to “publish or perish.” The importance of research and publication var ies, however. Research usually is stressed more at major colleges and universities than at junior and community colleges. A recent survey indicated that as many as one-fourth of the faculty in science and engineering de partments that offered doctoral degrees were primarily involved in research and develop ment activities. In addition to teaching, many college teachers participate in professional activities and research. In addition to time spent on preparation, instruction, evaluation, and research, college and university faculty members work with student organizations and act as student ad visors; work with the college administration; and in other ways serve the institution and the community. Those who are department chairpersons have supervisory and adminis trative duties. which faculty members may work, travel, study, or pursue hobbies, they also have breaks during other school holidays. Working Conditions Places of Employment College faculty members generally have flexible schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, and administrative re sponsibilities. The normal teaching load usu ally is heavier in junior and community col leges where less emphasis is placed on scholarly research and publication than in major universities. In 1978, about 673,000 faculty members worked in about 3,200 colleges and universi ties. An estimated 441,000 faculty members were full-time senior staff; about 204,000 were part-time senior staff; and 28,000 were full-time junior instructors. In addition, there were thousands of part-time assistant in structors, teaching fellows, teaching assist ants, or laboratory assistants who aided these faculty members while studying for their ad vanced degrees. Over 90 percent of all full-time college and university faculty work in institutions that have tenure systems (the assurance of con tinuing employment with freedom from dis missal without cause). Over three-fifths of those faculty members are tenured. Under a tenure system, a faculty member usually re ceives 1-year contracts during a probationary period lasting at least 3 years and ordinarily no more than 7 years; some universities award 2- or 3-year contracts. After the pro bationary period, institutions consider fac ulty members for tenure. Due to declining enrollments and budgetary constraints, how ever, faculty members now find it increas ingly difficult to gain tenure. Some colleges and universities are turning more and more to short-term contracts and to part-time fac ulty members to save money and avoid long term commitments. Few professions offer vacation arrange ments as attractive as those in college teach ing. In addition to summer months during College faculty share in the growth and development of students and are constantly exposed to new ideas. Many persons pursue teaching careers because of the intangible re wards from working in an academic environ ment. Public institutions, which amount to less than one-half of all colleges and universities, employ over 70 percent of all full-time fac ulty. They employ about two-thirds of the full-time faculty in all universities and 4-year colleges, and over 90 percent in all 2-year institutions. Nearly one-third of full-time faculty teach in universities; almost one-half work in 4year colleges; and over one-fifth teach in 2year colleges. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The overwhelming majority of full-time college and university faculty are classified in four academic ranks: Instructors, assistant professors, associate professors, and profes sors. The top three ranks comprise about TEACHING OCCUPATIONS/179 three-fourths of full-time faculty. A small proportion of faculty are classified as lectur ers. Most full-time junior and community college faculty are in institutions that do not use academic ranks. Most college faculty enter the profession as instructors and must have at least a master’s degree. Because competition for positions is so keen, however, some colleges and universi ties consider only doctoral degree holders for entry level academic appointments. Doctoral programs usually require 3-5 years of study beyond the bachelor’s degree, including intensive research for a doctoral dissertation which makes an original contri bution to the candidate’s field of study. A working knowledge of one or more foreign languages and in scientific fields, advanced mathematical and statistical techniques, often is required as well. Students should carefully consider their academic potential and motivation before beginning doctoral studies. Advancement through the academic ranks usually requires a doctorate plus college teaching experience, even in institutions that hire master’s degree holders as instructors. Assistant professors usually have a few years of prior experience as an instructor, while an appointment as associate professor fre quently requires 3 years or more of experi ence as an assistant professor. For a profes sorship, extensive teaching experience and published books and articles that evidence expertise in one’s discipline usually are essen tial. Academic, administrative, or professional contributions affect advancement opportuni ties in this field. Research, publication, con sulting work, and other forms of professional recognition all have a bearing on a college faculty member’s chances of rising through the academic ranks. A special zeal for learning and the desire and skill to help others learn are necessary for success. College faculty must have inquir ing, analytical minds in order to devote their lives to the pursuit and dissemination of knowledge. Since they function both as teachers and researchers, they must be good at communicating information and ideas both orally and in writing. As models for their students, they must exhibit dedication to the principles of academic integrity and intellectual honesty. College faculty must al ways be open to new ideas—from their stu dents, their peers, and the nonacademic com munity. Employment Outlook The basic factor underlying the demand for college faculty is enrollment. During the 1960’s and most of the 1970’s, enrollments rose and employment of college faculty in creased. The steady rise in the number of persons attending college reflected not only growth in the number of 18- to 21-year-olds, but an increase in the proportion of collegeage persons who actually went to college. In http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 180/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis recent years, a growing number of adults have entered college. Although the outlook for college enrollments during the 1980’s is uncertain, they are likely to decline. Com pared to the recent past, there will be many fewer people of college age, and enrollments by adults are not expected to make up the difference. Fewer students during the 1980’s almost certainly would mean some decrease in employment of college faculty over the period. As a result, job openings for college faculty will result almost entirely from replacement needs. In any given academic institution, the number of vacancies will be influenced by the age of current faculty, tenure patterns and policies, and retirement practices. Competition for these openings will be ex tremely keen, particularly for faculty posi tions in the largest and most outstanding in stitutions. The number of Ph. D. recipients alone will exceed greatly the number of open ings for college faculty through the 1980’s. Many graduates who succeed in finding aca demic jobs may have to accept appointments that offer little or no hope of gaining tenure. Preference for faculty candidates with a doctorate will continue to be much stronger in 4-year institutions than in 2-year institu tions. Because of possible enrollment declines and budgetary constraints, however, some 4year institutions may find it more economical to hire some new faculty members at the master’s degree level. At 2-year institutions, the education and training required for at tainment of the doctorate often is not consid ered advantageous for a person whose pri mary task will be teaching undergraduates. Throughout the 1980’s, an increasing pro portion of prospective college faculty mem bers will have to seek nonacademic jobs. Government and private industry will pro vide such positions, for the most part. How ever, some persons holding graduate degrees may find it necessary to enter occupations that have not traditionally required a mas ter’s degree or a Ph. D. Earnings Earnings vary widely according to faculty rank and type of institution. In general, faculty members in 4-year institutions average higher salaries than those in 2-year schools. According to a 1977-78 survey, salaries for all full-time faculty on 9-month contracts averaged around $18,700; professors, $25,100; associate professors, $19,000; assistant professors, $15,500; and instructors, $12,500. Many institutions pay according to salary schedules determined by rank. On the aver age, more faculty in public than in private institutions are covered by these schedules. In institutions without schedules, a college senate often determines salaries according to a general set of criteria. / Since almost 90 percent of full-time faculty members have 9-month contracts, many have additional summer earnings from teach ing, research, writing for publication, or other employment. Royalties and fees for speaking engagements may provide addi tional earnings. Some faculty members also undertake additional teaching or research projects or work as consultants. Some college and university faculty mem bers also may enjoy certain benefits offered by few other professions, including tuition waivers for dependents, housing allowances, travel allowances, and paid leaves of absence. In many institutions, faculty members are eligible for a sabbatical leave after 6 or 7 years of employment. Related Occupations College and university faculty assist stu dents in their academic pursuits. Others who assist college students in a variety of ways and whose jobs generally require advanced training include college presidents, deans of students, academic deans, directors of admis sions, directors of athletics, financial aid of ficers, foreign student advisors, college stu dent personnel workers, college career planning and placement counselors, and aca demic librarians. Sources of Additional Information General information on teaching as a ca reer is available from: American Federation of Teachers, 11 Dupont Cir cle NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Professional societies in the various subject fields will generally provide information on teaching requirements and employment op portunities in their particular fields. Names and addresses of societies are given in the statements on specific professions elsewhere in the Handbook. Teacher Aides (D.O.T. 099.327, 249-367-074) Nature of the Work Teacher aides free teachers from routine tasks that persons without extensive training in teaching can handle. They support teach ers directly in work involved with teaching students and, indirectly, in nonteaching ac tivities. Aides may work in the classroom under the teacher’s supervision or have du ties assigned outside the learning environ ment. may spend much of their time standing, walking, or kneeling. Working closely with the students can be both physically and emo tionally tiring. Places of Employment In 1978, about 342,0000 persons worked as teacher aides. While aides work in both ele mentary and secondary schools, they are concentrated in the early grades. Large city schools or schools in metropolitan areas sur rounding large cities employ a large propor tion of aides. Schools with large enrollments are more likely than small schools to employ teacher aides, and they more often hire them on a full-time, regular basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for teacher aides vary widely. Some schools hire beginning aides with a high school diploma; some do not require even a high school education. Other employers may want aides to have some college training or a bachelor’s degree. Areas that delegate a significant amount of classroom responsibility to aides usually re quire more training than those districts which primarily assign aides to clerical or monitor jobs. Teacher aides may receive their training for classroom work in a preservice program or on the job. A growing number of junior and community colleges offer teacher aide programs. Upon completion of one of these programs, the student is awarded an associ ate degree and is prepared to work directly in the classroom. In 1978, there were about 400 such programs. In training programs, teacher aides learn how to help the classroom teacher work with students. Aides are taught to operate audiovi sual equipment, administer first aid, and han dle recordkeeping activities. They also learn to make charts and other instructional materials and practice techniques for making bulletin boards and working with other art media. In addition, teacher aides are made familiar with the organization and operation of a school, and they learn about the methods used to teach handwriting, reading, math, science, and other school subjects. Personal traits are among the most impor tant qualifying factors for the teacher aide’s job. Aides should be able to work with chil dren and to handle classroom situations with fairness and patience. Preference may be given in hiring to those with previous experi ence working with children. Aides also must demonstrate initiative and a willingness to follow the classroom teacher’s directions. They must have basic speech and writing Aides’ responsibilities vary greatly by school district. In some areas, aides work di rectly in the instruction of children. Under the supervision and guidance of the teacher, they help students individually or in small groups. An aide might listen to one student read, for example, or help another find infor mation needed for a report, or watch a third practice or demonstrate a skill. Sometimes, the teacher has an aide take charge of a spe cial project for a group of students, such as preparing equipment for a science demon stration. In other areas, teacher aides primarily handle many of the routine tasks that other wise would be left to the teacher. They may grade tests and papers, check homework, and keep health and attendance records. Also, secretarial duties such as typing, filing, and duplicating materials for the teacher’s use may be part of the aide’s job. Sometimes, the duties of teacher aides include stocking sup plies, preparing materials for use by students, and operating audiovisual equipment. They also may supervise students during lunch and recreation periods and school bus loading and help keep the classroom in order. Working Conditions Teacher aides may work full time or part time. They may work inside or outdoors and In some areas, teachers aides work directly in the instruction of children. TEACHING OCCUPATIONS/181 skills and be able to communicate effectively with students and teachers. Clerical skills may be necessary also. Some schools have regulations regarding the hiring of teacher aides. Applicants may be required to have a family income below a certain level or to be a parent of children in the school district. Sometimes, persons living in the school community are given preference in hiring. In addition, health regulations may require that teacher aides pass a physical ex amination. Thirty-two States either require or authorize teacher aides to have teacheraide certification. In other areas, the city or county board of education may set standards for employment of aides. The local superin tendent of schools and the State department of education can provide information on spe cific requirements for employment in a par ticular area. Advancement for teacher aides, usually in the form of higher earnings or increased re sponsibility, comes primarily with experi ence. Some school districts provide release time so that aides may take courses. In this way, aides eventually can earn bachelor’s de grees and become certified teachers. 182/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Employment of teacher aides is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. If past trends continue, the proportion of teacher aides in relation to teachers being hired is expected to increase. Actual job prospects, however, will vary by district. Budget con straints may adversely affect demand for these workers in some areas, while other dis tricts, unable to afford additional more highly paid teachers, may hire aides to lessen teachers’ clerical duties. In addition, more aides will be needed to fill openings as work ers die, retire, or transfer to other occupa tions. region and also by the work experience and academic qualifications of the aide. Most aides, usually those covered by col lective bargaining agreements, have health and welfare benefits similar to those of the teachers in their schools. Related Occupations The educational support activities that teacher aides perform demand organizational skills, cooperativeness, recordkeeping abili ties, and a talent for getting along with peo ple. Other occupations requiring some or all of these skills include childcare attendants, career guidance technicians, guides, home health aides, library attendants, medical rec ords technicians, nurse aides, receptionists, records custodians, and retail sales clerks. Earnings In 1978-79, teacher aides involved in teaching activities earned an average of $3.70 an hour, with the majority earning between $3 and $4.25 an hour. Those per forming nonteaching activities averaged $3.50 an hour, with most earning between $2.75 and $4 an hour. Earnings varied by Sources of Additional Information Additional information on teacher aides may be obtained from: National Education Association, 120116th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Federation o f Teachers, 11 Dupont Cir cle, Fifth Floor, Washington, D.C. 20036. Library Occupations Libraries came into being in response to the need for access to recorded knowledge. As the volume of materials grows, the task of acquiring, organizing, and providing access to them becomes more and more complex. Information now takes many forms—books, periodicals, microfilms, slides, cassettes, mo tion pictures, recordings, and computer tapes, to name a few. Four distinct kinds of libraries have evolved: Public libraries, school libraries, col lege and university libraries, and special li braries. Public libraries, long thought of as centers for recreational reading, are enlarging the scope of their activities and finding addi tional ways to serve the community—as in formation and referral services, cultural cen ters, and learning centers or “open universities.’^ School libraries, also called media centers because such a large part of their collection is usually in nonprint form, have become an integral part of the elementary and secondary school educational experience. College and university libraries have a dual role of providing reference collections for col lege students and supporting the highly spe cialized research conducted in the academic setting. Contributing to the evolution in the special library field are advances in science and tech nology and an emphasis on information and documentation as the basis for decisionmak ing. Special libraries, which tailor their ser vices to a single group of users—lawyers, physicians, or engineers, for example—are found in government agencies, law offices, hospitals and medical centers, scientific re search laboratories, banks and other financial institutions, museums and art collections, historical societies, and industrial firms of all kinds. Librarians and library support staff take care of recorded knowledge and help users find needed information. The growing com plexity of the field demands that the library staff have specialized knowledge. Computer technology, for example, is integral to the operation of more and more libraries, and increasingly, librarians must be able to use automated systems or equipment. Information-handling skills are in demand both in libraries and in other settings. Today’s volume of documentation and re cordkeeping, combined with new possibilities in information-handling by computers, has produced a growing demand for appropri ately trained librarians outside the traditional setting. New roles are emerging particularly in theforrapidly developing commercial “infor Digitized FRASER mation industry” that could enlarge oppor tunities for library school graduates in the future. The following statements describe the work of librarians and library technicians and assistants in greater detail, and discuss training requirements and job prospects in these occupations. Librarians (D.O.T. 100 except 100.367-018) Nature of the Work Librarians make information available to people. They serve as a link between the pub lic and the millions of sources of information by selecting and organizing materials and making them accessible. Library work is divided into two areas: user services and technical services. Librari ans in user services—for example, reference and children’s librarians—work directly with the public helping them find the information they need. Librarians in technical services— such as acquisitions librarians—are primar ily concerned with acquiring and preparing materials for use and deal less frequently with the public. The size of the library affects the scope of a librarian’s job. In small libraries, librarians generally handle both user and technical ser vices. They select, purchase, and process li brary materials; publicize services; provide reference help to groups and individuals; su pervise the support staff; prepare the budget; and oversee other administrative matters. In large libraries, librarians work in a single area, such as acquisitions, cataloging, bibli ography, reference, circulation, or adminis tration. Or they may handle special collec tions. Building and maintaining a strong collec tion is essential in any library, large or small. Acquisitions librarians (D.O.T. 100.267-010) select and order books, periodicals, films, and other materials that suit users’ needs. To keep abreast of current literature, they read book reviews, look over publishers’ an nouncements and catalogs, confer with book sellers, and seek advice from library users. A knowledge of book publishing and business acumen are important, for these librarians are under pressure to get as much for their money as possible. After library materials have been received, other librarians prepare them for use. Clas sifiers (D.O.T. 100.367-014) classify library materials by subject matter. They may skim through a book quickly to be sure what it is about, then assign a classification number. Catalogers (D.O.T. 100.387-010) then super vise assistants who prepare cards that indi cate the book’s title, author, subject, pub lisher, and date of publication. The cards are then filed in the card catalog. Bibliographers (D.O.T. 100.367-010), who usually work in research libraries, compile lists of books, periodicals, articles, and audio visual materials on particular subjects. They t half of all cians and assistants, work in media centers sixth of ali Employment, 1978 ...... _ Academic libraries Librarians Technicians and assistants Source! Bureau of Labor Statistics TEACHING OCCUPATIONS/183 also recommend materials to be acquired in subject areas with which they are familiar. Special collections librarians (D.O.T. 100.267-014) collect and organize books, pam phlets, manuscripts, and other materials in a specific field, such as rare books, genealogy, or music. From time to time, they may pre pare reports to inform scholars about impor tant additions to the collection. Librarians are also classified according to the type of library in which they work: Public libraries, school library media centers, aca demic libraries, and special libraries. Public librarians serve people of all ages and from all walks of life. Increasingly, pub lic librarians provide special materials and services to culturally and educationally de prived persons, and to persons who, because of physical handicaps, cannot use conven tional print. The professional staff of a large public li brary system may include the chief librarian, an assistant chief, and division heads who plan and coordinate the work of the entire system. The system also may include librari ans who supervise branch libraries and spe cialists in areas such as acquisitions, catalog ing, and special collectons. Some public librarians work with specific groups of readers. Children's librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-018) serve young people by finding books they will enjoy and showing them how to use the library. They may plan and conduct special programs such as story hours or film programs. In serving children they often work with school and community organizations. Adult services librarians sug gest materials suited to the needs and inter ests of adults. They may cooperate in plan ning and conducting education programs, such as community development, public af fairs, creative arts, problems of the aging, and home and family. Young adult librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-034) help junior and senior high school students select and use books and other materials. They may organize pro grams of interest to young adults, such as book or film discussions or concerts of re corded music. They also may coordinate the library’s work with school programs. Com munity outreach librarians and bookmobile librarians (D.O.T. 100.167-014) develop li brary services to meet the
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