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Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1978-79 Edition U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 1978 Bulletin 1955 pt. ( —5,5), S is pt. ( l , 1), and T is pt. (3,4). Containing the longer diagonal of a quadrilateral v pts. (2, 2), ( - 2 , -2 ) , (1, -1 ) , and (6, 4). Show that the equations y — 1 = + 3) and y are equivalent. An equation of the line containing pts. ( —2, 3) am written in the form y - 3 « - §(x + 2) or y + 1“ — — 4), depending upon which point (*i. ^i). Show that the two equations are equivalent. - Show th at th e eau atio n s nr Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1978-79 Edition U.S. Departm ent of Labor Ray Marshall, S ecretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Julius Shiskin, Commissioner 1978 Bulletin 1955 Material in this publication is in the public domain and may be reproduced w ithout permission of the Federal Government. Please credit the Bureau of Labor S tatistics and cite the name and number of this publication. For sale b y the Superintendent of Documents, U .S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D .C . 20402 (Cloth Cover) Stock N o. 029-001-02067-8 (Paper Cover) Stock N o. 029-001-02059-7 ■fr U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1978 0 -2 4 8 -0 2 4 Foreword The difficulties young people experience when making the transition from school to work has been recognized by leaders in governm ent and education as a serious national problem. One way to help ease this transition is to provide young people with accurate and com prehen sive career guidance inform ation. By acquiring specific knowledge o f the various occupations in our econom y, they can becom e aware of the opportunities and alternatives that are available to them , and can plan for careers suited to their abilities and aspirations. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a m ajor source of vocational guidance inform ation for hundreds of occupations. For each occupation, the Handbook describes what workers do on the jo b , the training or education needed, and m ost im portantly, some idea o f the availability of jobs in the years ahead. A lthough many people who need career guidance inform ation are young, such as students facing the transition from school to work, the Handbook also is a useful resource for those entering o r reentering the work force at later stages in their lives. The process of vocational choice and preparation may be accom panied by anxiety and uncertainty regardless of when in the life cycle it occurs. O ur hope in the D epartm ent of Labor is that this publication will continue to offer valuable assistance to all persons seeking satisfying and productive em ploy ment. Ray Marshall, Secretary of Labor iii Prefatory Note In o ur constantly changing econom y, inform ation on future career opportunities and educational requirem ents is necessary if w orkers are to be prepared for tom orrow ’s jobs. For m ore than 30 years, the Bureau of L abor Statistics has conducted research on occupations and industries for the purpose of providing this inform ation for use in vocational guidance. T he m ajor product o f this research is the Occupational Outlook Handbook, which contains inform ation on job duties, educational requirem ents, em ploym ent outlook, and earnings for several hundred occupations and 35 industries. The Handbook inform ation is based on data received from a variety of sources, including business firms, trade associations, labor unions, professional societies, educational institutions, and governm ent agencies, and represents the m ost cu rren t and com prehensive inform ation available. This edition of the Handbook has been revised to enhance its usefulness. Many statem ents contain expanded inform ation on occupational training; some include inform ation on the m ovem ent of workers from one occupation to another and typical paths of advancem ent within a career field. The new Handbook also contains a Dictionary o f Occupational Titles index, referenced to the third edition o f the Dictionary and cross referenced to the fourth, and m ost recen t edition. Julius Shiskin, Commissioner, Bureau of Labor Statistics IV Letter of Endorsement W ork can be one o f life’s m ost rewarding experiences. A jo b can offer pride in achieve m ent and an opportunity for personal growth, as well as the security of an adequate income. But finding work th at is satisfying seldom is easy. Many individuals m ake several different career choices over tim e as their job needs and aspirations change. C areer planning with the advice o f trained counselors can help a great deal. To assist individuals with their educational and vocational choices, counselors m ust have occupational inform ation that is current, accurate, and com prehensive. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a prim ary source of the inform ation needed for sound career planning. For several hundred occupations and 35 m ajor industries, the Handbook describes what w orkers do on the jo b , the training and education required, advancem ent possibilities, em ploym ent outlook, and earnings and working conditions. Most statem ents also list profes sional societies, trade associations, unions, and other organizations that can supply additional career inform ation. C ounselors in all work settings will find the new edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook an invaluable tool for helping clients plan a satisfying future in the working world. Dr. N orm an C. Gysbers, President A m erican Personnel and G uidance Association William B. Lewis A dm inistrator U.S. Em ploym ent Service U.S. D epartm ent o f Labor Thom as W. C arr D irector, Defense Education U.S. D epartm ent of Defense Max Cleland A dm inistrator V eterans A dm inistration Dr. Ernest Boyer Commissioner o f Education Office of Education U.S. D epartm ent of Health, Education, and W elfare R obert A. Derzon A dm inistrator Health C are Financing and Adm inistration U.S. D epartm ent o f Health, Education, and W elfare Contributors The Handbook was prepared in the Bureau o f Labor Statistics, Division of O ccupational O utlook, under the supervision of Russell B. Flanders and Neal H. R osenthal. G eneral direction was provided by Dudley E. Young, A ssistant Com m issioner for Em ploym ent Structure and Trends. The planning and coordination of the Handbook was done by M ichael J. Pilot. Constance B. DiCesare, Alan Eck, Susan C. Gentz, Daniel E. H ecker, and Anne Kahl supervised the research and preparation of individual Handbook sections. Max L. Carey supervised work on special projects connected with the Handbook. M em bers of the Division’s staff who contributed sections were Vance H. Anthony, Douglas J. Braddock, Charles A. Byrne III, Donald Clark, Lisa S. Dillich, Conley Hall Dillion, Jr., Lawrence C. Drake, Jr., John P. Griffin, Emily B. Hartnell, David B. Herst, H. Philip Howard, Chester Curtis Levine, Thom as N ardone, Jam es V. Petrone, John E. Reiber, Jr., Debra E. Rothstein, Shirley G. Rudney, Jon Q. Sargent, Joan M. Slowitsky, and Patrick Wash. Lois P. Terlizzi coordinated the com pilation and editing of charts. The gathering and editing of photographs was done by Kevin Kasunic. Jean F. Whetzel prepared the Index to O ccupations and Industries. W ord processing was handled by Gloria D. Blue, Brenda M arshall, and Beverly A. Williams. O ther typing support was provided by Sarah A. Biddix, Karen E. H arper, and Vidella H. Hubbard. VI Photograph Credits T he Bureau of Labor Statistics gratefully acknowledges the cooperation and assistance of the m any governm ent and private sources th at either contributed photographs or m ade their facilities available to the U.S. D epartm ent of Labor photographers for this edition o f the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Inclusion of photographs to illustrate Handbook statem ents does n o t necessarily m ean th at the photographs are free o f every possible safety o r health hazard. D epiction o f com panies o r trade nam e products in no way constitutes endorsem ent by the D epartm ent o f Labor. Government Sources Federal. A dm inistration on Aging; Bureau of the Census; Bureau o f Land M anagem ent; B ureau o f Mines; Bureau o f Prisons; D epartm ent o f Agriculture; D epartm ent of H ealth, E ducation, and W elfare; D epartm ent o f Labor; D epartm ent of the Navy; Em ploym ent and Training A d m inistration; Energy R esearch and D evelopm ent A d m inistration; Federal Aviation A dm inistration; Federal B ureau o f Investigation; G eneral Services A dm inistra tion; G eological Survey; G overnm ent Printing Office; N ational A eronautics and Space A dm inistration; N a tional Highway Traffic Safety A dm inistration; National Institutes o f H ealth; National O ceanographic and A tm o spheric Adm inistration; National Park Service; Office of Safety and Health A dm inistration; U.S. Postal Service; and V eterans Adm inistration. State and Local. D istrict o f Colum bia—D epartm ent of H um an R esources, Fire D epartm ent, Police D epart m ent, and Public Library; M ontgom ery County Public Schools (M d.); Virginia—D epartm ent o f State Police; and W ashington (D .C ) M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a T r a n s it A u thority. Private Sources Membership Groups. Aluminum Association; Am erican Chem ical Society; A m erican C hiropractors Association; A m erican D en tal A ssistants A ssociation; A m erican Dental Hygienists Association; A m erican Personnel and G uidance Association; A m erican Hom e Econom ics As sociation; Am erican Institute o f A rchitects; Am erican M edical R ecord Association; A m erican O ccupational T h erapy A ssociation; A m erican O ptom etric A ssoci ation; A m erican O steopathic A ssociation; A m erican Physical Therapy Association; A m erican Psychological A ssociation; A m erican Society o f Planning Officials; A m erican Textile M anufacturers Institute; A m erican Trucking Associations; Associated G eneral C ontractors o f Am erica; Association o f Am erican G eographers; As sociation o f A m erican Railroads; Association o f O perat ing Room Technicians; Forging Industry Association; Gypsum Drywall C ontractors, International; M otor V e hicle M anufacturer’s Association; Music Educators N a tio n al C o n feren ce ; N ational A ssociation o f B arber Schools; N ational Association o f Social W orkers; N a tional Electric Sign Association; Public Relations Soci ety of Am erica; Society of A m erican Florists and O rna m ental H orticulturists; Tile C ontractors Association of Am erica, Inc.; and United Auto W orkers. Industry and Business. A cacia M utual Life Insurance Co.; A m erican Airlines, Inc.; Am erican Telephone and Telegraph Co.; Arm co Steel Corp.; Associated Truck Lines, Inc.; A tlantic Richfield Co.; Bemar Service P har macy; Blake C onstruction Co.; C annelton Industries, Inc.; C a n te e n C o rp .; C a p ta in S ta n ’s B oat C en ter; Chessie System, Inc.; C inderella Shoe Shop; C larendon Bank and Trust; C onsolidated Edison Co. o f N.Y., Inc.; D eere and Co.; Del M onte C orp.; Garfinkle, Brooks B ros., M iller and R hoades, Inc.; G eneral Dynamics Corp.; G eneral Electric Co.; G eneral M otors Corp.; G et ty Oil Co. (E astern O perations), Inc.; Georgia-Pacific C o.; G irard Bank; G oodyear T ire and R ubber Co.; G rand Union Co.; G reyhound Corp.; Grum m an Corp.; Hilton Hotels C orp.; Hoffman Interiors, Inc.; Household Finance Corp.; Hyatt-Regency, W ashington, D.C.; In dustrial Publishing Co.; ITT Sheraton Corp.; Inland Steel Co.; International Business M achines Corp.; Jones O pti cians; Jordon Kitt Co.; Kaiser Industries Corp.; Lebow Bros. C o.; Lynchburg Foundry Co.; M arine M idland Bank, Inc.; M arriott Corp.; M cDonnell Douglas Corp.; M cNally Pittsburg Mfg. Co.; M elart Jewelers; M erck and C o., Inc.; M erkle Press, Inc.; M onsanto Co.; NCR C orp.; N ational B roadcasting C orp. Inc.; N orthw est Ford Co.; O ber Travel Agency; Orkin Exterm inating Co.; O ster Corp.; O ttenberg’s Bakery; Philadelphia Elec tric Co.; R ochester Gas and Electric Corp.; Royce TV R epair Services; Santa Fe Industries, Inc.; Southern Rail way Co.; Sun C o., Inc.; Thom pson and Litton, Inc.; T. I. Swartz Co.; Unilux, Inc.; U nited Air Lines, Inc.; V entura Jew elers C o.; W ashington Post Co.; W eb er’s W hite T rucks, Inc.; W eyerhaeuser Co.; and W oodward and Lothrop, Inc. Publications. Baltimore Jewish Times; Catholic Standard; Contractor M agazine; Farm and Power Magazine; Mar keting News; and Women's Wear Daily. County Public Schools (M d.); Towson State University (M d.); University o f Delaware; and University of M ary land. Schools. C alifornia Institute o f Technology; California College o f P ediatric M edicine; C ape F ear Technical Institute (N .C .); Carnegie-M ellon University; G eorge town University M edical C enter; Kansas State Universi ty; M iam i-D ade Ju n io r C ollege (F la.); M ontgom ery Other. C hildren’s M em orial Hospital of Chicago; Holy Cross Hospital (Silver Spring, M d.); L utheran Council in the U nited States o f Am erica; Peggy Kauders; United N atio n s; W ash in g to n H ospital C e n te r (D .C .); and W M AR-TV (Baltim ore, M d.). Note A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, and industrial organiza tions are able to provide career inform ation that is valuable to counselors and job seekers. For the convenience o f Handbook users, some of these organizations are listed at the end o f the statem ents on individual occupations and industries. A lthough these references were assem bled carefully, the BLS has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organizations listed. Also, because the Bureau does not preview all the inform ation or publications that may be sent in response to a request, it cannot guarantee the accuracy of such inform ation. The listing o f an organization, therefore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recom mendation by the Bureau or the U.S. Department o f Labor, either o f the organization and its activities or o f the information it may supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for w hatever inform ation it may issue. T he occupational inform ation contained in the Handbook presents a general, com posite description of jobs and industries and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishm ents or localities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide fo r determining wages, hours, the right o f a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or form al job evaluation systems. Comments about the contents of this publication and suggestions for improving it are welcome. Please address them to Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212. v iii Contents Page Page Guide to the Handbook HOW TO USE THE HAN DBOOK........................... 3 WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION ... 9 ASSUMPTIONS AND METHODS USED IN PREPARING THE EM PLOYM ENT PR O JE C T IO N S...................................................... 17 TOM ORROW ’S JO B S ................................................... 19 The Outlook for Occupations INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATION S..................................................... Foundry occupations.................................................. P atternm akers.......................................................... M olders...................................................................... C o rem ak e rs............................................................. M achining o ccu p atio n s............................................. All-round m ach in ists............................................. Instrum ent m akers (m e c h a n ic a l)...................... M achine tool o p e ra to rs........................................ Setup workers (m achine to o ls ).......................... Tool-and-die m akers.............................................. Printing o cc u p atio n s.................................................. C om positors............................................................. L ith o g rap h ers.......................................................... P hotoengravers........................................................ Electrotypers and stereotypers........................... Printing press operators and assistants............. Bookbinders and bindery w orkers..................... O ther industrial production and related o ccu p atio n s.......................................................... A ssem blers................................................................ Autom obile p ain ters.............................................. Blacksm iths............................................................... Blue-collar worker supervisors........................... Boilermaking o cc u p atio n s.................................... Boiler te n d e rs.......................................................... E lectro p laters.......................................................... Forge shop occupations........................................ Furniture uph o lsterers........................................... Inspectors (m an u facturing)................................. M illwrights................................................................ M otion picture p rojectionists.............................. Ophthalm ic laboratory tech n ic ia n s................... Photographic laboratory occupations................ Power truck o p erato rs........................................... Production p a in te rs............................................... 31 33 33 35 36 38 38 40 42 44 45 47 47 50 51 52 53 55 57 57 58 60 62 63 65 66 68 70 71 73 74 76 77 79 81 IX Stationary engineers.............................................. Waste w ater treatm ent plant o p erato rs............ W elders..................................................................... 82 84 85 OFFICE O C C U PA TIO N S............................................ Clerical occupations................................................... Bookkeeping w orkers............................................ C ashiers.................................................................... Collection w o rk e rs................................................ File clerk s................................................................. Hotel front office clerk s....................................... Office m achine o p erato rs.................................... Postal c le rk s ............................................................ R ecep tio n ists........................................................... Secretaries and stenographers............................ Shipping and receiving clerks............................. Statistical clerks...................................................... Stock c le rk s............................................................. T y p ists....................................................................... C om puter and related occupations........................ C om puter operating personnel........................... P ro g ram m ers........................................................... Systems an a ly sts..................................................... Banking occupations.................................................. Bank clerk s.............................................................. Bank officers and m anagers................................ Bank tellers............................................................... Insurance occupations............................................... A c tu a rie s.................................................................. Claim representatives............................................ U nderw riters............................................................ Adm inistrative and related o cc u p atio n s.............. A ccountants............................................................. Advertising w orkers............................................... B uyers........................................................................ City m anagers.......................................................... College student personnel w o rk e rs................... Credit m a n a g e rs..................................................... Hotel m anagers and assistants............................ Industrial traffic m anagers.................................... L aw yers..................................................................... M arketing research w orkers................................ Personnel and labor relations w o rk ers............. Public relations w o rk ers....................................... Purchasing ag en ts................................................... Urban p lan n ers....................................................... 89 90 91 92 94 95 97 98 99 101 102 104 106 108 109 111 Ill 113 115 118 118 120 121 123 123 125 128 130 130 133 135 137 139 141 142 143 145 148 150 153 156 158 SERVICE O C CUPATION S......................................... Cleaning and related occupations.......................... 160 162 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK X Page Page Building custodians................................................ Hotel housekeepers and assistan ts.................... Pest controllers........................................................ Food service occupations......................................... B arten d e rs................................................................ Cooks and c h e fs..................................................... Dining room attendants and dishw ashers........ Food counter w o rk e rs........................................... M eatcutters............................................................... W aiters and w aitresses......................................... Personal service o cc u p atio n s.................................. B arb e rs...................................................................... Bellhops and bell captains................................... Cosm etologists......................................................... Funeral directors and em balm ers...................... Private household service o ccu p atio n s................. Private household w o rk e rs.................................. Protective and related service o cc u p atio n s........ C orrection o ffic e rs................................................ FBI special agents................................................... F irefig h ters............................................................... G u a rd s....................................................................... Police officers.......................................................... State police officers............................................... C onstruction inspectors (G overnm ent)............ Health and regulatory inspectors (G o v e rn m e n t)................................................ O ccupational safety and health w o rk ers.......... O ther service occupations........................................ Mail c a rrie rs ............................................................ Telephone o p erato rs.............................................. 162 163 164 167 167 168 170 172 173 174 177 177 178 179 181 183 183 186 186 188 189 191 193 195 197 199 202 206 206 207 EDUCATION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS .. 210 Teaching o cc u p atio n s............................................... 211 Kindergarten and elem entary school te a c h e rs.. 211 Secondary school te a c h e rs .................................. 213 College and university teach ers.......................... 215 T eacher a id e s .......................................................... 217 Library o ccu p atio n s................................................... 220 L ib rarian s................................................................. 220 Library technicians and assistants..................... 223 SALES O C C U PA T IO N S.............................................. A utom obile parts counter w orkers.................... Autom obile sales w o rk e rs.................................... Autom obile service advisors................................ Gasoline service station a tte n d a n ts................... Insurance agents and b ro k ers.............................. M anufacturers’ sales w o rk ers.............................. M o d els................................................................. ..... Real estate agents and brokers........................... Retail trade sales w o rk e rs.................................... R oute d rivers........................................................... Securities sales w orkers........................................ Travel ag e n ts........................................................... W holesale trade sales w o rk e rs ........................... 226 227 229 231 232 234 236 238 240 242 244 246 248 250 CONSTRUCTION O C C U PA TIO N S......................... 252 Bricklayers, stonem asons, and marble setters... 255 C a rp e n te rs................................................................ 257 C em ent masons and terrazzo w orkers.............. C onstruction lab o rers............................................ Drywall installers and finishers........................... Electricians (c o n stru ctio n ).................................. Elevator c o n stru c to rs............................................ Floor covering installers....................................... G laziers...................................................................... Insulation w o rk e rs.................................................. Iro n w o rk ers.............................................................. L athers....................................................................... Operating engineers (construction m achinery o p e ra to rs)......................................................... Painters and p ap e rh an g e rs.................................. P la sterers.................................................................. Plumbers and pipefitters....................................... R o o fers...................................................................... S h eet-m etalw o rk ers.............................................. T ilesetters................................................................. OCCUPATIONS IN TRANSPORTATION ACTIVITIES............................................................ Air transportation o cc u p atio n s............................... Air traffic co n tro llers............................................ Airplane m echanics............................................... Airplane p ilo ts......................................................... Flight atten d a n ts..................................................... Reservation, ticket, and passenger ag en ts....... M erchant m arine o cc u p atio n s................................ M erchant m arine officers..................................... M erchant m arine sailors....................................... Railroad o cc u p atio n s................................................. Brake o p e ra to rs...................................................... C o n d u cto rs............................................................... Locom otive en g in eers........................................... Shop tra d e s............................................................... Signal departm ent w orkers.................................. Station a g e n ts.......................................................... Telegraphers, telephoners, and tower o p e ra to rs .......................................................... Track w o rk e rs......................................................... Driving o cc u p atio n s................................................... Intercity busdrivers................................................. Local transit busdrivers........................................ Local tru ck d riv e rs.................................................. Long distance truckdrivers.................................. Parking atten d a n ts.................................................. Taxicab d riv ers........................................................ SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL O C CUPATION S..................................................... C onservation o ccupations........................................ F o resters.................................................................... Forestry te c h n ic ia n s.............................................. Range m an ag e rs...................................................... Soil conservationists.............................................. E ngineers....................................................................... A erospace................................................................. A g ricu ltu ral.............................................................. B iom edical................................................................ 259 261 262 264 266 268 269 271 273 274 276 278 280 281 284 285 286 289 290 290 292 294 297 298 301 301 304 309 309 311 312 314 315 316 317 317 319 319 321 323 325 328 329 331 334 334 336 337 339 342 345 345 346 xi CONTENTS Page Page C era m ic.................................................................... C hem ical................................................................... C iv il........................................................................... E lec tric al.................................................................. Industrial................................................................... M echanical............................................................... M etallurgical............................................................ M in in g ....................................................................... P etro leu m ................................................................. Environm ental scien tists.......................................... G eologists................................................................. G eophysicists........................................................... M eteorologists......................................................... O ceanographers...................................................... Life science occupations.......................................... Biochem ists............................................................... Life scientists.................... ...................................... Soil scientists........................................................... M athem atics occupations......................................... M ath em atician s...................................................... Statisticians.............................................................. Physical scientists....................................................... A stronom ers............................................................ C h em ists................................................................... Food scientists......................................................... P hysicists.................................................................. O ther scientific and technical occupations.......... Broadcast technicians........................................... D rafters...................................................................... Engineering and science technicians................ Surveyors.................................................................. 346 347 348 348 350 351 351 352 353 355 355 357 359 361 364 364 365 368 370 370 372 375 375 377 379 380 383 383 384 386 390 MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS.............................. Telephone craft occupations................................... C entral office craft occupations......................... C entral office equipm ent in stallers................... Line installers and cable splicers....................... Telephone and PBX installers and repairers... O ther m echanics and rep airers............................... Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating m echanics......................................................... A ppliance re p a ire rs............................................... Autom obile body repairers.................................. Autom obile m ech anics......................................... Boat-engine m echanics......................................... Bowling-pin-machine m ech an ics........................ Business machine re p a ire rs................................. C om puter service tech n ic ia n s............................ Diesel m echanics.................................................... Electric sign rep airers............................................ Farm equipm ent m ech an ics................................ Industrial m achinery repairers............................ Instrum ent re p a ire rs.............................................. Jew elers..................................................................... L o ck sm ith s............................................................... M aintenance electricians...................................... M otorcycle m echanics........................................... Piano and organ tuners and re p a ire rs.............. 393 395 395 397 398 400 403 403 405 407 408 411 412 414 416 419 420 422 424 426 428 429 431 433 435 Shoe repairers.......................................................... Television and radio service technicians......... Truck m echanics and bus m echanics............... Vending m achine m echanics............................... W atch re p airers...................................................... 437 439 440 442 445 HEALTH O C C U PA TIO N S......................................... Dental o cc u p atio n s.................................................... D entists..................................................................... Dental assistants..................................................... Dental hygienists.................................................... Dental laboratory tech n ician s............................ M edical p ractitio n ers................................................ C hiropractors........................................................... O ptom etrists............................................................ Osteopathic physicians......................................... P hysicians................................................................. P odiatrists................................................................. V eterinarians........................................................... Medical technologist, technician, and assistant occupations.......................................................... Electrocardiograph technicians.......................... Electroencephalographic technologists and technicians....................................................... Emergency medical technicians......................... Medical laboratory w o rk e rs................................ Medical record technicians and clerks............. Operating room technicians................................ Optom etric assistants............................................. Radiologic (X-ray) technologists...................... Respiratory therapy w o rk ers............................... Nursing occupations................................................... Registered nurses.................................................. Licensed practical n u rse s.................................... Nursing aides, orderlies, and a tte n d a n ts......... Therapy and rehabilitation o ccu p atio n s.............. O ccupational therapists........................................ O ccupational therapy assistants......................... Physical th era p ists................................................. Physical therapist assistants and aides.............. Speech pathologists and audiologists............... O ther health occupations......................................... D ietitia n s.................................................................. Dispensing opticians.............................................. Health services adm inistrators............................ Medical record adm inistrators........................... P harm acists.............................................................. 447 449 449 451 453 455 458 458 459 461 463 466 467 472 473 476 478 480 482 483 485 488 488 490 492 495 495 497 498 500 502 505 505 506 508 510 512 SOCIAL SCIENTISTS................................................... A nthropologists...................................................... E co n o m ists............................................................... G e o g rap h ers............................................................ H istorians.................................................................. Political scien tists................................................... Psychologists............................................................ Sociologists............................................................... 516 517 519 521 524 526 528 531 470 470 SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATION S........................ 534 Counseling o cc u p atio n s............................................ 536 School counselors................................................... 536 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK xii Page Page Employment co u n selo rs....................................... 538 Rehabilitation co u nselors..................................... 539 College career planning and placem ent counselors......................................................... 541 C lergy.......................................... ,................................. 544 Protestant m inisters............................................... 544 R abbis........................................................................ 545 Roman Catholic p riests........................................ 547 O ther social service o c c u p atio n s........................... 550 C ooperative extension service w orkers............ 550 Home eco n o m ists................................................... 551 Hom em aker-hom e health aid es.......................... 553 Park, recreation, and leisure service w o rk e rs... 556 Social service aides................................................ 560 Social w o rk ers......................................................... 562 ART, DESIGN, AND COMMUNICATIONSRELATED OCCUPATION S............................... Perform ing artists........................................................ Actors and actresses.............................................. D ancers...................................................................... M usicians.................................................................. S in g ers....................................................................... Design o ccu p atio n s.................................................... A rc h ite cts................................................................. Com m ercial artists.................................................. Display w o rk ers...................................................... Floral d esig n ers...................................................... Industrial designers................................................ Interior designers.................................................... Landscape arch itects............................................. Photographers.......................................................... Com m unications-related o ccupations................... In terp reters............................................................... Newspaper re p o rte rs ............................................. Radio and television announcers........................ Technical w riters.................................................... 566 567 567 569 571 573 575 575 577 579 581 583 585 587 588 591 591 593 596 597 The Outlook for Industries A G R IC U L T U R E ............................................................ 603 MINING AND P E T R O L E U M .................................... 612 Coal m in in g............................................................. 614 Petroleum and natural gas production and gas processing.................................................. 618 C O N STR U C TIO N .......................................................... 622 M A N U FA CTU RIN G ..................................................... A ircraft, missile, and sp acecraft......................... A lum inum ................................................................. A p p arel...................................................................... 624 626 632 637 Baking........................................................................ D rug............................................................................ E lectronics................................................................ F oundries.................................................................. Industrial ch e m ic al................................................ Iron and steel........................................................... Logging and lum ber m ills..................................... M otor vehicle and eq u ip m en t............................ N uclear energy field .............................................. Office m achine and co m p u ter............................ Paper and allied products..................................... Petroleum refining.................................................. Printing and publishing......................................... Textile mill p ro d u c ts............................................. 642 646 652 657 661 665 674 679 685 692 696 701 705 709 TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND PUBLIC U TILITIES.................................. Civil av ia tio n ........................................................... Electric p o w e r........................................................ M erchant m a rin e .................................................... Radio and TV b ro adcasting................................ R ailroads................................................................... T elephone................................................................. T ru ck in g ................................................................... 714 716 719 727 730 735 738 742 W HOLESALE AND RETAIL T R A D E ................... 746 R estaurants.............................................................. 748 Retail food s to re s ................................................... 752 FINANCE, INSURANCE, AND REAL ESTATE ...756 Banking...................................................................... 758 In su ran ce.................................................................. 761 SERVICE AND MISCELLANEOUS IN D U STR IES.......................................................... 765 H o te ls........................................................................ 767 Laundry and drycleaning...................................... 770 G O V ERN M EN T............................................................. Federal civilian governm ent..................................... Postal S erv ice.......................................................... State and local governm ents................................... Arm ed F o rc e s ............................................................. 773 775 779 782 784 DICTIONARY OF OCCUPATIONAL TITLES (D .O .T.) IN D E X .................................................... 789 ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND IND USTRIES............................................... 800 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK R E PR IN T S ............................................................... 819 BLS MATERIALS USEFUL TO HANDBOOK R E A D E R S ................................................................ 824 Guide to the Handbook W hat’s in the Handbook? • Introductory sections that tell how to use the Handbook, where to go for more career information, how employment projections are made, and where tomorrow’s jobs will be. • 300 occupational briefs, grouped into 13 clusters of related jobs • 35 industry briefs • Index of job titles by tional Titles code Dictiof Occupa • Instructions for ordering Handbook reprints, the Occupational Outlook Quarterly, and other BLS publications that will keep you informed about the economy and the job market. HOW TO USE THE HANDBOOK How many kinds of jobs are there? Several hundred occupations are described in the Handbook, although the total num ber of occupations in the U.S. economy may be counted in the thousands. Most occupations re quiring long periods o f education or training are discussed, as are a num ber of small but growing fields of em ploym ent. A ltogether, the occupa tions in the Handbook account for about 95 percent of all salesworkers; ab o u t 90 p e rc e n t o f professional, craft, and service workers; 80 per cent of clerical workers; 50 percent of all operatives; and smaller propor tions of managerial workers and la borers. The main types of agricultur al occupations are described in the Handbook. The long-term job o u t look for the Nation as a whole is dis cussed, too. Where should I look first? Start with w hat you know about your own interests and abilities. Do you like frequent contact with other people or do you prefer to spend a lot of time alone? Are you a good fol lower or som eone whose greatest re wards com e from directing others in a work effort? The answers to these and similar questions can help you assess the personal traits and individ ual aptitudes that influence your job satisfaction and perform ance. It may be useful to discuss your personal needs and abilities with a counselor trained in exploring hum an behavior. He or she is familiar with tests and o th e r m e th o d s fo r m a k in g th is unique, personal assessment. The next step is to m atch your in dividual talents and goals with those dem anded by various fields of work. You may have discovered, for exam ple, that one of your strong needs is frequent interaction with people so that social service work seems ap pealing. To find out what kind o f jobs there are in that field, consult the Handbook's Table of C ontents under Social Service O ccupations. All o f the occupations in the Handbook are arran g e d in “ c lu s te rs ” o f re la ted jobs. There are 13 clusters altogeth er: Industrial production, office, ser vice, education, sales, construction, transportation, scientific and techni cal, m echanics and repairers, health, social science, social service, and art, design, and com m unications occupa tions. M ost ca re e r clusters in the Handbook describe a variety of jobs in a single field o f work. Training and skill requirem ents within a particular cluster often vary a great deal. If you are thinking about a future in health work, for example, you will find that a few jobs in the health occupations cluster require only a high school di ploma; others require a degree from a 2-year com m unity college or junior college; still others require a bache lo r’s degree; and a few require 4 years or m ore o f form al training fol lowing college graduation. If you know initially that the length or type of career training open to you is restricted by your own financial limitations or family obligations, you may want to narrow your job choices to those requiring high school or 2year college preparation. The Bureau of Labor Statistics has prepared sev eral pam phlets, based on inform ation in the Handbook, that classify and d e scribe selected jobs by the type and length of training required. Looking first a t th e a p p ro p ria te p am p h let from this series, such as Jobs fo r Which a High School Education is R e quired, may be an efficient way to narrow your career choices to those that are realistic for you. See the sec tion on BLS Publications Useful to H andbook Readers for a list of the pam phlets in the Jobs fo r Which Se ries and inform ation on how to o b tain them . You may already have a specific job or industry in mind. Or, if an im portant industry is located in your area, you may find it useful to read the Handbook industry statem ent to learn about the different jobs in that industry and their varied training re quirem ents and earnings potefitial. To find out where it is described, turn to the Index of O ccupations and Industries at the back o f the book. There are 36 industry statem ents in the Handbook, grouped according to m ajor divisions in the economy: Ag ric u ltu re , m ining, and petroleu m ; construction; m anufacturing; tran s portation, com m unications, and pub lic u tilities; w holesale and re ta il trade; finance, insurance, and real estate; services; and government. What will I learn? Once you have chosen a place to b eg in —an occu p atio n o r industry you’d like to learn m ore about—you can use the Handbook to find out what the job is like, what education and training are necessary, and what the advancem ent possibilities, earn ings, and em ploym ent outlook are likely to be. E ach section o f the Handbook follows a standard form at, making it easier to com pare different jobs. W hat follows is a description of the type of inform ation presented in each Handbook statem ent, with a few words of explanation. The num bers in parentheses that appear just below the title of m ost H andbook sta te m e n ts are D .O .T . code num bers. D.O.T. stands for Dic tionary o f Occupational Titles, now in its fourth edition, a U.S. D epartm ent o f L ab o r p u b lic a tio n w hich “ d e fines” each of about 20,000 jobs ac cording to a system that uses num bers to classify each job by the type o f w ork p e rfo rm e d , tra in in g r e quired, physical dem ands, and work ing conditions. Because many Hand book users have not yet received the recent fourth edition o f the D.O.T, 3 4 the D .O .T n um ber accom panying each statem ent in this Handbook re fers to the previous, third edition of th a t volum e. A co n v ersio n tab le showing the fourth edition num ber th at corresponds to th at from the third edition, used in the Handbook, appears in an Appendix. An index listin g H andbook o c c u p a tio n s by D.O.T. num ber precedes the alpha betical Index of Industries and O ccu pations. D.O.T. num bers are used primarily by public em ploym ent ser vice agencies for classifying appli cants and job openings, and for re p o rtin g an d o th e r o p e ra tin g purposes. They are included in the Handbook because career inform a tion centers and libraries frequently use them for filing occupational in formation. The Nature of the Work section describes the m ajor duties o f workers in the occupation. It tells what w ork ers do on the job and how they do it. A lth o u g h each jo b d esc rip tio n is typical of the occupation, duties are likely to vary by em ployer and size of em ploying organization, geographic location, and other factors. In some occupations, individual workers spe cialize in certain tasks. In others they perform the entire range of work in the occupation. O f course, job duties continually change as technology ad vances, new industrial processes are developed, and products or services change. The Places of Employment section provides inform ation on the num ber of workers in an occupation and tells w h eth er they are co n c en trate d in c e rta in in d u s trie s o r g eo g rap h ic areas. W h e th e r an o c c u p a tio n is larg e o r sm all is im p o rta n t to a jobseeker because large occupations, even th o se grow ing slowly, offer more openings than small ones be cause o f the many workers who retire or die each year. Some occupations are concentrat ed in p a rtic u la r in d u stries. M ost cooks and chefs, for exam ple, are employed in the restaurant and hotel industries while secretaries are em ployed in alm ost every industry. If an occupation is found primarily in ce r tain industries, this section lists them . A few occupations are concentrat ed in certain parts o f the country. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK A ctors and actresses, for exam ple, usually work in C alifornia or New York. This inform ation is included for the benefit of people who have strong preferences about where they live—because they do not wish to be sep arated from th eir fam ilies and friends, for example. For most occu p atio n s, how ever, em p lo y m en t is widely scattered and generally fol lows the same pattern as the distribu tion of the population. In addition, inform ation on parttim e em p lo y m en t is included b e cause it is im p o rtan t to students, hom em akers, re tire d persons, and others who may want to work part time. Knowing which occupations of fer good opportunities for part-tim e work can be a valuable lead. T he Training, Other Q ualifica tion s, and A dvancem ent se c tio n should be read carefully because the decisions you m ake concerning prep aration for an occupation represent a considerable investm ent of time and m oney. E arly and w ise p lan n in g toward a career goal can save you un w arran ted expenditures later. If you currently are in school, it’s a good idea to look closely at the list o f high school and college courses re garded as useful preparation for the career you have in mind. Nearly all H a n d b o o k s t a t e m e n t s lis t su c h courses. W orkers can qualify for jobs in a variety o f ways, including college study leading to a certificate or asso ciate degree; program s offered by p o stsecondary v o cational schools, both public and private; hom e study courses; governm ent training p ro gram s; ex perience or training o b tained in the Arm ed Forces; appren ticeship and o th er form al training offered on the job or in the classroom by e m p lo y e rs; an d h igh s c h o o l courses. F or each occupation, the Handbook identifies which of these routes of entry is preferred. In many cases, alternative ways of obtaining training are listed as well. It is worth rem em bering that the level at which you e n te r an o cc u p atio n and th e speed with which you advance often are d eterm in ed by th e am ount o f training you have. M any o c c u p a tio n s are n a tu ra l ste p p in g sto n e s to o th e rs . A fte r working for a time as a program m er, for example, many people advance to jobs as systems analysts. The world of work is dynam ic and few w orkers spend their lives in one or even two occupations. Some have several jobs o v er a lifetim e, changing ca ree rs when it is advantageous to do so. F re quently observed patterns of m ove m ent from one occupation to an oth e r , su c h as a d v a n c e m e n t fro m program m er to systems analyst, are discussed in the Handbook. This type of inform ation can be useful in sever al ways. It is helpful to know, for example, that skills gained working at one job can m ake you m ore employable in another—perhaps a job that is m ore desirable in term s o f earnings, w ork ing conditions, or scope for self-ex pression. On the other hand, it also is useful to know which jobs offer the most opportunity for transferring to other work of a similar nature. P er sons trained in electrical or chem ical engineering, for example, frequently can transfer to another engineering specialty where they can apply gen eral engineering knowledge in differ ent ways. In some cases moving from one o c cupation to another takes m ore than the training or experience acquired on the job. Before a hospital aide can advance to licensed practical nurse, for example, ye or she m ust com plete the year o f specialized training re quired for licensing. Many Handbook statem ents describe the possibilities fo r a d v a n c e m e n t a fte r a d d itio n al training, and note any in-service p ro grams th at allow em ployees to gain n ee d ed skills while co ntinuin g to work part time. C ertain occupations offer em ploym ent opportunities to persons w ith little or no previous work experience. The Handbook in cludes many statem ents on such en try level jobs, many in the office and service clusters. It usually is wise, how ever, to dis cuss the patterns of job transfer and advancem ent described in the Hand book with counselors, local em ploy ers, and others who know about the p a rtic u la r jo b m a rk e t w here you w ant to w ork. T ypical p attern s o f m ovem ent from one occupation to 5 HOW TO USE THE HANDBOOK another may not apply in every em ployment setting. All States have certification or li censing requirem ents for some occu pations. Physicians and nurses, ele m e n ta ry a n d s e c o n d a r y sc h o o l teachers, barbers and cosmetologists, electricians and plum bers are exam ples of occupations that are licensed. If you are considering occupations that require State licensing, be sure to check the req u irem en ts in the State in which you plan to work. An im p o rta n t fa c to r in c a re e r choice is the extent to which a par ticular job suits your personality. Al though it often is difficult for people to assess themselves, your counselor u ndoubtedly is fam iliar with tests that can help. Each statem ent in the H a ndbook p ro v id e s in fo rm a tio n which allows you to m atch your own unique p erso n al c h a ra c te ris tic s — your likes and d islik e s—w ith the characteristics of the job. For a par ticular job, you may need the ability to: —make responsible decisions. —motivate others. —direct and supervise others. —work under close supervision. —work in a highly competitive atmosphere. —enjoy working with ideas and solving prob lems. —enjoy working with people. —enjoy working with things—good coordina tion and manual dexterity are necessary. —work independently—initiative and self-dis cipline are necessary. —work as part of a team. —enjoy working with detail, either numbers or technical written material. —enjoy helping people. —use creative talents and ideas and enjoy hav ing an opportunity for self-expression. —derive satisfaction from seeing the physical results of your work. —work in a confined area. —perform repetitious work. —enjoy working outside, regardless of the weather. The Employment Outlook section discusses prospective job opportuni ties. Knowing whether or not the job m arket is likely to be favorable is im p o rtan t in deciding w hether to pursue a specific career. While your interests, your abilities, and your ca reer goals are significant, you also Figure I Description Projected 1976-85 change in employment requirements Much faster than the average for all occupations...................... Faster than the average for all occupations................................. About as fast as the average for all occupations 1...................... More slowly than the average for all occupations...................... Little change is expected................................................................ Expected to decline.......................................................................... 50.0 percent or greater 25.0 to 49.9 percent 15.0 to 24.9 percent 5.0 to 14.9 percent 4.9 to —4.9 percent —5.0 percent or greater 1 The average increase projected for all occupations for the 1976-85 period is 19.2 percent. need to know something about the availability of jobs in the fields that interest you most. The em ploym ent outlook section of most Handbook statem ents begins with a sentence about expected em ployment growth through 1985. The occupation or industry is described as likely to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations or indus tries; faster than the average; or more slowly than the average (figure I). Job opportunities in a particular occu pation or industry usually are favor able i f employment increases at least as rapidly as in the economy as a whole. Occupations or industries in which em ploym ent stays about the same or declines generally offer less favorable job prospects than those that are growing because the only openings are those due to deaths, retirements, and other separations from the labor force. Some Handbook statem ents take note 6f the effect of fluctuations in economic activity. This information is valuable to people looking into long-range career possibilities at a time when the economy is in a reces sion. Persons understandably w on der: W hat will the economy be like when I enter the labor m arket? Will it be harder to find a job 5 or 10 years from now than it is today? The Hand book gives in fo rm atio n , w herever feasible, on occupations and indus tries whose levels of em ploym ent fluctuate in response to shifts in the economic climate. It is im portant to bear in mind th at em ploym ent in many—but not all—occupations and industries is directly affected by an econom ic dow nturn. A sharp im provem ent in the outlook for these occupations and industries is likely as the economy picks up. However, o th er occupations and industries are less affected by short-term changes in economic activity. O ther factors in flu en c e th e ir grow th o r d ec lin e . These m atters are explored in a num ber of Handbook statem ents. For som e occupations, inform a tion is available on the supply of workers—that is, the num ber of peo ple pursuing the type of education or training needed and the num ber sub sequently entering the occupation. When such information is available, the Handbook describes prospective job opportunities in terms of the ex pected dem and-supply relationship. T he p r o s p e c t i v e j o b s i t u a t i o n is term ed “ excellent” when demand is likely to g re atly e x c e e d sup p ly ; “ keen com petition” when supply is likely to ex c eed d em an d . O th e r terms used in Handbook statem ents are shown in Figure II. W orkers who transfer in to one oc cupation from an o th er som etim es are a significant com ponent of sup ply; similarly, those who transfer out may have a substantial effect on de- Figure II Job opportunities Excellent Very good Good or favorable May face competition Keen competition Prospective demand-supply relationship Demand much greater than supply Demand greater than supply Rough balance between demand and supply Likelihood of more supply than demand Supply greater than demand 6 mand because their leaving usually creates a job opening. Although the inform ation currently available on transfers among occupations is limit ed, some statem ents in the Handbook discuss transfer patterns and their ef fect on the supply for certain occupa tions. The employm ent outlook for engineers, for exam ple, notes that transfers into the field are likely to constitute a substantial portion of supply if past trends continue. The inform ation in this section should be used carefully. Getting a job may be difficult if the field is so small that openings are few (actu ar ies and blacksmiths are examples) or so popular that it attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs (radio and television broadcasting, journal ism, the perform ing arts, and m odel ing). Getting a job also can be diffi cult in occupations and industries in which em ploym ent is declining (m er chant sailors, photoengravers, type setters), although this is not always the case. But even occupations that are small o r overcrow ded provide som e jo b s. So do o cc u p atio n s in which em ploym ent is growing very slowly or even declining, for there is a need to replace workers who leave the occupation. If the occupation is large, the num ber of job openings arising from replacem ent needs can be quite substantial. B ookkeepers, telephone operators, and machinists are exam ples of large occupations that provide a significant num ber of jo b o p en in g s ea ch y e a r b e c a u se workers leave. On the average, open ings re s u ltin g from re p la c e m e n t needs are expected to account for nearly two-thirds of all job openings. How reliable is the information on the outlook for em ploym ent over the next 10 years? No one can predict future labor m arket conditions with perfect accuracy. In every occupa tion and industry, the num ber o f job seekers and the num ber of job openings constantly changes. A rise or fall in the dem and for a product or service affects the num ber of w ork ers needed to produce it. New inven tions and technological innovations create some jobs and eliminate oth ers. Changes in the size or age distri bution o f the population, work atti OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tu d e s, tra in in g o p p o rtu n itie s , o r retirem ent program s determ ine the n u m b er o f w orkers available. As these forces in te ra c t in the labor m arket, som e occupations ex p eri ence a sh o rtag e , som e a surplus, some a balance between jobseekers and o p e n in g s. M e th o d s used by econom ists to develop inform ation on future occupational prospects dif fer, and judgm ents that go into any assessment of the future also differ. Therefore, it is im portant to under stand what underlies each statem ent on outlook. For every occupation and industry covered in the Handbook, an estim ate of future em ploym ent needs is devel oped. These estimates are consistent with a set of assumptions about the future of the economy and the coun try. For m ore detail, see the section entitled, Assumptions and M ethods Used In Preparing the Employment Projections. Finally, you should rem em ber that job prospects in your community or State may not correspond to the d e scription o f the em ploym ent outlook in the Handbook. For the particular job you are interested in, the outlook in y o u r a re a m ay be b e tte r , o r worse.The Handbook does not dis cuss the outlook in local areas b e cause the analysis is far too much for a centralized staff to handle. Such in fo rm atio n has b een d ev elo p ed , however, by many States and local ities. The local office of your State em ploym ent service is the best place to ask about local-area em ploym ent projections. Names and addresses of these S tate and local inform ation sources and suggestions for addition al inform ation on the job m arket are given in the following section, W here to Go for More Information. The Earnings section helps answer many of the questions that you may ask when choosing a career. Will the income be high enough to m aintain the standard of living I want and ju s tify my training costs? How much will my earnings increase as I gain experi ence? Do some areas of the country or some industries offer better pay than o th e rs for the sam e type o f work? Like m ost people, you probably think of earnings as money. But m on ey is only one type of financial re ward for work. Paid vacations, health insurance, uniform s, and discounts on clothing or o th er m erchandise also are part of total earnings. About 9 out of 10 workers receive money income in the form of a wage or salary. A wage usually is an hourly or daily rate of pay, while a salary is a weekly, m onthly, or yearly rate. Most craft workers, operatives, and lab o re rs are wage e a rn e rs, while m ost p ro fessio n al, tech n ic al, and clerical workers are salary earners. In addition to their regular pay, wage and salary workers may receive extra money for working overtim e, or on a night shift or irregular sched ule. In some occupations, w orkers also may receive tips or be paid a commission based on the am ount of sales or services they provide to cus tom ers. Factory workers are som e times paid a piece rate, which is an extra paym ent for each item they produce. For many w orkers, these types of pay am ount to a large part of their total earnings. The rem aining 10 percent o f all w orkers are in business for th em selves and earn self-employment in come instead of wages or salaries. This group includes w orkers in a wide variety of occupations:Physicians, shopkeepers, barbers, writers, photographers, and farmers are ex am ples of workers who frequently are self-employed. W orkers in some occupations earn self-employment income in addition to their wages or salaries. For exam ple, electricians and carpenters often do small repair or rem odeling jobs during evenings or w eekends, and college p ro fesso rs freq u en tly are paid for publishing articles based on independent research. Besides money incom e, most wage and salary workers receive a variety of fringe benefits as part of their earn ings on the job. Several are required by Federal and State law, including social security, w orkers’ com pensa tion, and unem ploym ent insurance. These benefits provide incom e to persons when they are not working because of old age, work-related in jury or disability, or lack of suitable jobs. HOW TO USE THE HANDBOOK 7 Among the most common fringe Table 1. Average weekly earnings of beginning computer programmers, 1976, by selected city benefits are paid vacations, holidays, and sick leave. In addition, many Average weekly earnings City workers are covered by life, health, $239.50 and accident insurance; participate Detroit.................................................................................................... 239.00 New York.............................................................................................. in retirem ent plans; and are entitled 238.00 Cleveland.............................................................................................. to s u p p le m e n ta l u n e m p lo y m e n t 230.00 Chicago.................................................................................................. benefits. All o f these benefits are San Francisco-Oakland....................................................................... 229.50 provided—in part or in full—through Greenville-Spartanburg, S.C............................................................... 201.50 th eir em ployers. Som e em ployers Baltimore............................................................................................... 193.00 also offer stock options and profit- Salt Lake City-Ogden.......................................................................... 190.00 185.50 sharing plans, savings plans, and bo Chattanooga.......................................................................................... nuses. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. W orkers in many occupations re ceive p art of their earnings in the form of goods and services, or pay east regions than in the W est and counselor or with local employers if ments in kind. Sales workers in de South, there are exceptions. You also you are interested in specific earn partm ent stores, for example, often should rem em ber th a t those cities ings information for occupations in receive discounts on m erchandise. which offer the highest earnings are your area. The Working Conditions section Workers in other jobs may receive often those in which it is most expen provides information on factors that free meals, housing, business expense sive to live. accounts, or free transportation on In addition, workers in the same can affect job satisfaction because company-owned planes. occupation may have different earn preferences for working conditions Which jobs pay the most? This is a ings depending on the industry in vary considerably among individuals. difficult question to answer because which they work. For example, sen Some people, for exam ple, prefer good information is available for only ior accounting clerks in 1975 aver o u td o o r work while others prefer one type o f ea rn in g s—wages and aged $206.50 a week in public utili working in an office. Some people salaries—and for some occupations ties, $181 a week in m anufacturing, like the variety of shift work, and even this is unavailable. N everthe $169.50 a week in wholesale trade, others want the steadiness of a 9-to-5 less, the Handbook does include some and $164 a week in services, but only jo b . Following is a list o f several c o m p a riso n s o f e a rn in g s am ong $150.50 in retail trade and $154 in w orking conditions th a t apply to occupations. M ost statem ents indi some of the occupations in the Hand finance, insurance, and real estate. cate whether earnings in an occupa book. Salaries also vary by the type of tion are greater than or less than the work a person performs. The salaries average earnings of workers who are of Ph. D. chemists, for example, vary Overtime work. When overtime is re not supervisors and work in private quired on a job, employees must give industry, but not in farm ing. This considerably depending on the spe up some of their free time and need cific nature of the job, as shown in group represented about 60 percent to be flexible in their personal lives. table 2. In 1976, chemists in m anage of all workers in 1976 and had the Overtime, however, does provide the m ent jobs earned $7,000 a year m ore most reliable earnings data currently than those in m arketing and techni opportunity to increase earning pow available for com parison purposes. Besides differences am ong occu cal services. C hem ists in research er. pations, m any levels o f pay exist and developm ent, however, earned within each occupation. Beginning $4,200 less than those in m arketing, Shift work. Evening or night work is workers almost always earn less than but $4,800 more than chemistry p ro part of the reqular work schedule in some jobs. Employees who work on those who have been on the job for fessors. some time because pay rates increase B eca u se o f th ese v aria tio n s in these shifts usually are working while as w orkers gain experience or do earnings, you should check with a most other people are off. Some permore responsible work. E arnings in an o ccu p atio n also Table 2. Average annual salaries of chemists, with Ph.D. degrees, by type of work, vary by geographic location. The av 1976 erage weekly earnings of beginning Type of work com puter program m ers, for exam Annual salaries ple, vary considerably from city to Management..................................................................................................... $36,500 city. (See table 1.) The highest earn Marketing and technical services................................................................. 29.500 ings o f the nine cities listed occurred Research and development............................................................................. 25,300 in Detroit, Mich., and the lowest in Teaching............................................................................................................ 20.500 C hattanooga, Tenn. Although it is 26,900 generally true that earnings are high SOURCE: American Chemical Society. er in the North C entral and N orth OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 8 sons prefer shift work, however, be cause they can pursue certain day tim e a c tiv itie s , su ch as h u n tin g , fishing, or gardening. E n viro n m en t. W ork settings vary from clean, air-conditioned offices to places that are dirty, greasy, or poor ly ventilated. By knowing the setting of jobs you find interesting, you can avoid an environm ent that you may find particularly unpleasant. O utdoor work. P ersons who work outdoors are exposed to all types of weather. This may be preferred to indoor work, however, by those who consider outdoor work more health ful. Hazards. In some jobs employees are subject to possible burns, cuts, falls, and other injuries and must be care ful to follow safety precautions. Physical demands. Some jobs require standing, stooping, or heavy lifting. You should be sure that you have the physical strength and stam ina re quired before seeking one o f these jobs. C onsidering w orking co nditio n s when you make up your mind about a career can help you choose a job that brings you satisfaction and en joym ent. WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION W hether you have questions about a particular job or are trying to com pare various fields, the Occupational Outlook Handbook is a good place to begin. The Handbook will introduce you to some of the im portant aspects of an occupation and answer many of your initial questions. But the Hand book is only one of many sources of information about jobs and careers. After reading a few Handbook state ments, you may decide that you want m ore detailed inform ation about a particular occupation. Or you may want to find out where you can find this kind of work in your community or where you can go for appropriate training. If you are willing to make an effort, you will discover a wealth of occupational inform ation—much of it available at little or no cost. Sources of Career Information M uch inform ation on careers is p u t o u t by go v ern m ent, industry, trade unions, schools, professional associations, private guidance serv ices, and other organizations. You should be careful in assessing any sin gle piece of career guidance m ateri al. Keep in mind the date and source, in particular. M aterial that is too old may contain obsolete or even mis leading inform ation. Be especially cautious ab o u t accepting inform a tion on em ploym ent outlook, earn ings, and training requirem ents if it is more than 5 years old. You also need to consider the source—and thus the intent—o f the career guidance m ate rial you obtain. Although some occupational m a terials are produced solely for the purpose of objective vocational guid ance, o th ers are p ro d u ced for re cruitm ent purposes. You should be wary o f biased inform ation, which may ten d to leave o u t im p o rtan t items, overglamorize the occupation, overstate the earnings, or exaggerate the dem and for workers. School counselors can be a very im portant source of guidance inform a tion. Counselors should be able to refer you to the different types o f ca ree r m aterials available in your school or community. They are likely to be familiar with the job m arket. They also can discuss entry require ments and costs of the schools, col leges, or training program s that offer preparation for the kind of work in which you are interested. Most im p o rtan t o f all, your counselor can help you consider the occupational inform ation you obtain in relation to your own abilities, personal aspira tions, and career goals. Guidance offices usually have col lections o f c a ree r inform ation. In fact, the copy o f the Handbook that you’re reading now may have come from the guidance office. Find out what else the office has to offer. Some schools have career centers; often, these are located in or near the library or media center. C areer cen ters provide a sam pling of printed and audiovisual career inform ation materials, and also may offer individ ual counseling, group discussions, guest speakers, and field trips. Libraries have books, brochures, magazines, and audiovisual m aterials that contain inform ation about jobs and careers. Check your school li brary or media center, of course— but d o n ’t forget the public library. Many libraries have pam phlet files d ev o ted to specific o c c u p a tio n s. Some libraries also have collections of filmstrips, records and tapes, and microfilms with occupational infor mation. The reference shelf undoubt edly contains one directory or m ore that you will find useful if you want to get the names of specific schools, colleges, or business concerns. The library staff can direct you to the in formation best suited to your needs. Trade unions, business firms, trade associations, professional societies, and educational institutions all pub lish career inform ation, and much of this is available for the asking. The Sources of Additional Infor m ation section at the end of most Handbook statem ents lists organiza tions you can write to. This is a good way to begin. For the names and ad dresses of other organizations, con sult the directories on your library’s reference shelf. There, you are likely to find directories that list: —trade associations. —professional associations. —business firms. —junior and community colleges. —colleges and universities. —home study and correspondence programs. —business, trade, and technical schools. —sources of scholarships and financial aid. Your school library or career cen ter may have one directory or more put out by com m ercial publishers that list sources of career inform a tion by occupation. A n o th er useful d irecto ry is the U.S. Office of E ducation’s Directory o f Postsecondary Schools with Occu pational Programs, 1973-74, which lists schools offering specific occupa tional training programs. The direc tory lists private business, trade, and technical schools as well as com m u nity and junior colleges and 4-year colleges and universities. Computer-assisted occupational in form ation systems have been in stalled in some schools and career centers. These systems allow users to obtain career inform ation stored in a co m p u ter by entering specific re quests and receiving im mediate an swers. Through the occupational in form ation systems, users are able to examine the ways in which different personal abilities, interests, and pref erences are related to different occu9 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 10 pations. The U.S. D epartm ent of La bor is currently providing funds for such systems in eight States. D on’t overlook the im portance of personal contacts. An interview with someone in a particular job can often tell you much more than a booklet or brochure can. By asking the right questions, you find out what kind of train in g is really im p o rta n t, how workers got their first jobs as well as the one they’re in now, and what they like and dislike about the work. State employment security agencies in many States publish career briefs for dozens of different occupations and industries. These briefs usually describe earnings and job outlook in formation for a particular State—and sometimes for a city or m etropolitan area. By contrast, the Handbook gives in fo rm a tio n fo r th e N atio n as a w hole. In ad d itio n , a n u m b er o f States publish brochures on writing resumes, finding job openings, p re paring for interviews, and other as pects of a job search. To find out what m aterials are available for your State, consult the U.S. Employment and Training A dm inistration’s 1976 Guide to Local Occupational Informa tion. Or write directly to the chief information officer in your State em ployment security agency. Following is a list of their titles and addresses: Alabama Public Information Officer, Department of In dustrial Relations, Industrial Relations Bldg., 649 Monroe St., Montgomery, Ala. 36130. Alaska Information Officer, Employment Security Di vision, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 37000, Juneau, Alaska 99811. Colorado Louisiana Public Information Officer, Division of Em ployment, Department of Labor and Em ployment, 251 East 12th Ave., Denver, Colo. 80203. Public Relations Director, Department of Em ployment Security, P.O. Box 44094, Ba ton Rouge, La. 70804. Connecticut Public Information Supervisor, Connecticut Employment Security Division, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Weatherfield, Conn. 06109. Maryland Delaware Secretary, Department of Labor, 801 West 14th St., Wilmington, Del. 19899. Arkansas Director o f Public Relations, Department of Employment and Social Services, Room 601, 1100 North Eutaw St., Baltimore, Md. 21201. District of Columbia Chief, Community Relations and Information Office, D.C. Department of Manpower, Room 601, 500 C St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20212. Florida Information Director, Florida Department of Commerce, Collins Bldg., Tallahassee, Fla. 32304. Georgia Chief of Public Relations and Information, Georgia Department of Labor, 254 Wash ington St. SW., Atlanta, Ga. 30334. Hawaii Information Specialist, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, 825 Mililani St., Honolulu, Hawaii 96813. Idaho Massachusetts Supervisor o f Information, Division of Em ployment Security, Hurley Bldg., Govern ment Center, Boston, Mass. 02114. Michigan Director, Information Services Division, Em ployment Security Commission, Depart ment of Labor Bldg., 7310 Woodward Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48202. Minnesota Director of Public Information, Department of Employment Services, 390 North Robert St., St. Paul, Minn. 55101. Mississippi Public Relations Representative, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, Miss. 39205. Public Information Coordinator, Department of Employment, P.O. Box 35, Boise, Ida ho 83707. Missouri Illinois Information Supervisor, Division of Employ ment Security, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, P.O. Box 59, Jeffer son City, Mo. 65101. Director, Communications and Public Infor mation, Illinois Department of Labor, State Office Bldg., Room 705, Springfield, 111. 62706. Indiana Director of Information and Education, Em ployment Security Division, 10 North Senate Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. Arizona Chief of Information and Education, Arizona State Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 6123, Phoenix, Ariz. 85005. Maine Chairman, Employment Security Commission, 20 Union St., Augusta, Maine 04330. Iowa Chief of Information Services, Employment Security Commission, 1000 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50319. Kansas Montana Information Officer, Employment Security Di vision, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59601. Nebraska Information Officer, Division of Employment, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, State House Station, Lincoln, Nebr. 68509. Nevada Public Information Officer, Employment Se curity Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, Ark. 72203. Public Relations Director, Department of Hu man Resources, 401 Topeka Ave., Tope ka, Kans. 66603. Public Information Officer, Employment Se curity Department, 500 East Third St., Carson City, Nev. 89701. California Kentucky New Hampshire Supervisor, Public Information, Department of Human Resources, 592 East Main St., Frankfort, Ky. 40601. Commissioner, Department of Employment Security, 32 South Maine St., Concord, N.H. 03301. Public Information Section, Employment De velopment Department, 800 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, Calif. 95814. 11 WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION New Jersey Tennessee Director of Public Information, Division of Employment Security, Department of La bor and Industry, John Fitch Plaza, Tren ton, N.J. 08625. Chief o f Public Relations, Department of Em ployment Security, 519 Cordell Hull Bldg., Nashville, Tenn. 37219. Texas New Mexico Information Officer, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquer que, N. Mex. 87103. New York Director, Division of Research and Statistics, Department of Labor, 2 World Trade Center, New York, N.Y. 10047. North Carolina Communications and Information Specialist, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, N.C. 27602. North Dakota Public Information Section, Employment Se curity Bureau, 145 South Front St., Bis marck, N. Dak. 58501. Ohio Public Information Officer, Texas Employ ment Commission, TEC Bldg., 15th and Congress Ave., Austin, Tex. 78778. Utah Public Relations Director, Department of Em ployment Security, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City, Utah 84111. Vermont Public Information Officer, Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt. 05602. Virginia Director, Information Services, Virginia Em ployment Commission, P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, Va. 23211. Washington Public Information Officer, Bureau of Em ployment Services, 145 South Front St., Columbus, Ohio 43216. Information Officer, Employment Security Department, P.O. Box 367, Olympia, Wash. 98504. Oklahoma West Virginia Information Director, Employment Security Commission, Will Rogers Memorial Of fice Bldg., Oklahoma City, Okla. 73105. Information Representative, Department of Employment Security, 4407 McCorkle Ave. SE., Charleston, W. Va. 25305. Oregon Wisconsin Information Officer, Employment Division, 875 Union St. NE., Salem, Oreg. 97310. Director of Information, Department of Indus try, Labor, and Human Relations, P.O. Box 2209, Madison, Wis. 53701. Pennsylvania Director of Public Relations, Bureau of Em ployment Security, Department of Labor and Industry Bldg., 7th and Forster Sts., Harrisburg, Pa. 17121. Puerto Rico Information Officer, Bureau o f Employment Security, 414 Barbosa Ave., Hato Rey, P.R. 00917. Rhode Island Information Officer, Department of Employ ment Security, 24 Mason St., Providence, R.I. 02903. South Carolina Public Information Director, Employment Se curity Commission, P.O. Box 995, Colum bia, S.C. 29202. South Dakota Public Information Director, Department of Labor, Office Bldg. No. 2, Pierre, S. Dak. Digitized for57501. FRASER Wyoming Information Officer, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, Wyo. 82601. Career Information for Special Groups C ertain groups of jobseekers face special difficulties in obtaining suit able and satisfying em ploym ent. All too o ften , veterans, youth, h an d i capped persons, m em bers of ethnic and racial m inorities, older workers, and women experience difficulty in the labor m arket. Choosing a career wisely and realistically is im portant for everyone, but it is doubly im por tan t for m em bers o f these groups. S pecial co u n se lin g , train in g , and p la c e m e n t are av ailab le in m any c o m m u n itie s—th ro u g h the public em ploym ent service, com m unity ser vice agencies, or other organizations. In addition, literatu re on career guidance and vocational training for special labor force groups is available from the Federal Governm ent. Most of these publications can be obtained free of charge. Following are select ed examples: Youth Employment and Training fo r Youth. (p ro g ra m fa c t s h e e t) , F e b ru a ry 1977. Office o f Information, Inquiries Section, Room 10225, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of La bor, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. A Message to Young Workers About the Fair Labor Standards A ct, As Amended in 1974. (W H Publication 1236), 1976. Office of Information, Room 4331, Employ ment Standards Administration, U.S. De partment of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Mentally handicapped These, Too, M ust Be Equal.America's Needs in Habilitation and E m ploy ment o f the Mentally Retarded, 1974. President’s Committee on Mental Retarda tion, Regional Office Building, 7th and D Sts. SW., Washington, D.C. 20201. Guide to Job Placement o f Mentally Retarded Workers. Preparing fo r Work, 1975. How to Get a Job. Jobs and M entally Retarded People, 1974. President’s Committee on Employment of the H andicapped, Room 600, Vanguard Building, 1111 20th St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. Affirm ative Action to Employ Handi capped People. Office of Information, Room 4331, Employ ment Standards Administration, U.S. De partment of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Physically handicapped Careers fo r the Homebound. People at Work:50 Profiles o f Men and Women With M S, 1975. President’s Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, Room 600, Vanguard Building, 1111 20th St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 12 Affirmative Action to Employ Handi capped People. Office of Information, Room 4331, Employ ment Standards Administration, U.S. De partment of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Older workers The Law Against Age Discrimination in E m ploym ent. (W H P ublication 1303). Office of Information, Room 4331, Employ ment Standards Administration, U.S. De partment of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Services fo r Older Workers, (program fact sheet), April 1977. Memo to Mature Jobseekers, 1977. Office o f Information, Inquiries Section, Room 10225, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of La bor, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. Employment and Volunteer Opportu nities fo r Older People. (AoA Fact Sheet), Revised 1976. National Clearinghouse on Aging, Room 4146, U.S. Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare, 330 Independence Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20201. Women Steps to Opening the Skilled Trades to Women, June 1974. Why Not be an Apprentice and Be come a Skilled Craft Worker, (leaflet 52), 1974. Publications o f the Women's Bureau, January 1977. Selected Sources o f Career Inform a tion, 1974. Women’s Bureau, Employment Standards Ad ministration, U.S. Department of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Veterans Out o f the Service and Looking fo r a Job? Here's Help!, 1976. Veterans fo r Hire: Good Business, 1976. Office o f Information, Inquiries Section, Room 10225, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department o f La bor, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. V etera n s R e a d ju s tm e n t A p p o in t m e n t s — Q u e s t i o n s a n d A n5 w rj.(B R E -3 6 ), revised 1977. Bureau o f Recruiting and Examining, Room 6552, Civil Service Commission, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. T h e follow ing p u b lic a tio n s are available from VA regional offices (listed in the telephone directory un der “ U nited States G o vernm ent— Veterans A dm inistration” ) or from: Department of Veterans Benefits - 232A, Vet erans Administration Central Office, 810 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20420. A p p re n tic e sh ip or O th e r O n-Job Training Benefits fo r Veterans With Service Since January 31, 1975. (VA pam phlet 20-69-4), M arch 1975. A Sum m ary o f Employment Benefits and Opportunities fo r Vietnam Era Veterans. (V A pam phlet 20-69-6), D ecem ber 1974. Information on Finding a Job Do you need help in finding a job? For inform ation on job openings, fol low up as many leads as possible. P are n ts, neighbors, te a c h e rs, and counselors may know o f jobs. Check the w ant ads. Investigate the local office of your State em ploym ent ser vice. And find out w hether private or nonprofit em ploym ent agencies in your com m unity can help you. The following section will give you some idea of where you can go to look for a job and what sort of help to expect. Informal job search methods. Infor mal m ethods of job search are the most popular, and also the most ef fective. Informal m ethods include di rect application to employers with or w ithout referral by friends or rela tives. Jobseekers locate a firm that might employ them and file an appli cation, often w ithout certain knowl edge that an opening exists. You can find targets for your infor mal search in several ways. The Y el low P ages and local cham bers o f com m erce will give you the nam es and addresses of appropriate firms in the com m unity w here you wish to work. Y ou can also get listings o f m ost firms in a specific industry— banking, insurance, m anufacturing, and new spaper publishing, for exam ple—by consulting one of the direc tories on the reference shelf of your public library. Friends and relatives may suggest places to apply for a job, and people you m eet in the course o f your job search are also likely to give you ideas. Want ads. The “ Help W anted” ads in a m ajor new spaper contain hundreds o f job listings. As a job search tool, they have two advantages: They are cheap and easy to acquire, and they often result in successful placem ent. T h e re are d isad v an ta g es as w ell. W ant ads give a distorted view o f the local labor m arket, for they tend to u n d e rre p re se n t sm all firm s. T hey also tend to o v errep resen t certain o cc u p atio n s, such as clerical and sales jobs. How helpful they are to you will depend largely on the kind of job you seek. Bear in mind that want ads do not provide com plete inform ation; many ads give little or no description of the jo b , w orking conditions, and pay. Some ads om it the identity o f the em ployer. In addition, firms often run multiple listings. Some ads offer jobs in o th er cities (w hich do not help the local w orker); others adver tise em ploym ent agencies rather than employment. If you use the want ads, keep the following suggestions in mind: * D o n ’t rely exclusively on the want ads; follow up other leads, too. * Answer ads prom ptly. The open ing may be filled before the ad stops running. * Follow the ads diligently. C heck ing them every day as early as possi ble gives you the best advantage over other applicants, which may m ean the difference betw een a job and a rejection. * D o n ’t ex p ect to o m uch from “ blind ad s” th at do not reveal the em ployer’s identity. Em ployers use blind ads to avoid being swam ped with applicants, or to fill a particular vacancy quietly and confidentially. The chances of finding a job through blind ads tend to be slim. * Be cautious about answering “ no experience necessary” ads. Most em ployers are able to fill job openings that do not require experience w ith o u t advertising in the new spaper. This type of ad may m ean th at the jo b is h ard to fill because o f low wages or poor working conditions, or becau se it is straig h t com m ission work. Public employment service. The p u b lic em ploym ent service, also called 13 WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION the Job Service, can be a good source of information about job openings in your community. Em ployment secu rity (ES) agencies in each of the 50 States and the D istrict of Columbia are affiliated with the U.S. Employ m ent Service, and provide their ser vices w ith o u t c h a rg e . O p e ra tin g through a network o f 2,500 local of fices, State agencies help jobseekers find em ploym ent and help employers find qualified workers. To find the office nearest you, look in the State government telephone listings under “ Job Service” or “ Em ploym ent.” If the local office does not provide the information or services you are look ing for, write to the inform ation offi cer in your State capital. Addresses are given in the first section of this chapter. General services. Assuming you come to your local em ploym ent service of fice because you’re looking for a job, the first step is to fill out an applica tion that asks for general background and work history. To speed up the process, you should bring along com plete inform ation on previous jobs, in c lu d in g d a te s o f e m p lo y m e n t, names and addresses of employers, and pay levels. After completing the application, you will talk briefly with an inter viewer in order to be classified into a particular jo b clu ster—professional and m anagem ent, sales, clerical, and so forth. This process, although cru cial, takes very little time. If you have specific training and experience and know exactly what you want, the ini tial interview may suffice. Most ap plicants, however, can benefit from additional guidance services, which are available on request. The un skilled and inexperienced may take a gen eral ap titu d e test b attery th at measures their abilities, and a voca tional interest questionaire that m ea sures th eir o ccu p atio n al interests. Specific tests in typing and shorthand may also be given. You may also talk at length with o c c u p a tio n a l c o u n s e lo r s . T h ese counselors, or interviewers, can as sist in a wide range of areas. They can help you pinpoint a suitable field of interest, suggest training programs and other means of preparing for a particular occupation, or simply ad vise you on compiling a resume. One other aspect of your local of fice’s services deserves particular a t ten tio n —the occupational registers. E m ploym ent service offices often maintain files of resumes of qualified workers in professional, clerical, and craft occupations, for use by em ploy ers seeking such w orkers. Ask to have your resume filed in the appro priate register. Job Information Service. The Job In formation Service (JIS) plays an im portant role in m atching workers and jobs. JIS provides a self-service list ing of job openings, as well as a li brary of occupational and job search literature. Em ployment service offic es in m ost large cities have a Job Bank as well—a com puterized file o f job openings, revised and printed out daily. Because it is self-service, the JIS unit is m eant for applicants who know w hat kind of work they are qualified to do. Those applicants can look over Job Bank listings and select the openings they want to apply for. This gives them quick access to job inform ation and frees em ploym ent service staff to spend m ore time with clients who need personal assistance. The JIS may include the Job Bank Openings Summary (JBOS) and the Job Bank Frequently Listed O pen ings R eport (JOB-FLO). JBOS is a monthly report that provides infor m ation on job opportunities listed during th e previous m onth in Job Banks across the Nation. JOB-FLO provides similar inform ation, but fo cuses on the “ high volum e” occupa tions—those with the greatest num ber of openings. JBOS and JOB-FLO may not help you find a particular opening, but they can describe em ployment trends in a particular city or pinpoint the cities that have the greatest num bers of openings in a particular occupation. The JIS also includes a m onthly publication, entitled “ O ccupations in D em and,” that reports the num ber and locations o f openings in highdem and occupations during the p re vious m onth. It is designed to be eas ily read by the average jobseeker and can be found in libraries and counsel ing offices as well as at the em ploy m ent service. Special services. Serving people with job m arket disadvantages is an im portant function of the em ploym ent service, and many local offices have specially trained counselors who ad vise veterans, youth, handicapped, or older workers. By law, veterans are entitled to pri ority in interview ing, counselin g , testing, job developm ent, and jo b placement. Special counselors called veterans reem ploym ent represen ta tives are trained to deal with the p ar ticular problem s of veterans, many of whom find it difficult to readjust to civilian life. While such veterans of ten face multiple problem s, jobless ness alone is a m ajor barrier to re suming an ordinary life. Special help for disabled veterans begins with o u t reach units in each State, whose job it is to identify jobless disabled veter ans and m ake them aw are o f the many kinds of assistance available to them. As part of the effort to reduce ex cessive youth unem ploym ent, local em ploym ent service offices test and co u n sel young p e o p le , and re fer them to training program s or jobs whenever possible. These offices also m anage sum m er youth program s. Youthful jobseekers from very poor families receive inform ation on the various kinds of federally funded job programs for young people, includ ing part-tim e and w ork-experience projects and the Job Corps. For people with m ental or physical disabilities, the em ploym ent service provides assistance in making realis tic job choices, and in overcoming problem s related to getting and hold ing jobs. Job openings for h an d i capped workers are listed as well. Of t e n , t h e s e o p e n i n g s a r e w ith governm ent co n tracto rs and o th er firms that are making a positive ef fort to employ handicapped workers. Older worker specialists in many local em ploym ent service offices as sist middle-aged and older workers, whose jo b search generally differs from that of younger workers. Both counseling and placem ent services are tailored to the unique needs of older w orkers. Jobseekers over 55 who have very low incomes may be referred to one of the thousands of part-tim e, com m unity service jobs OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 14 for the elderly funded by the Federal Governm ent. Private employment agencies. In the appropriate section of the classified ads or the telephone book you can find num erous ad v ertisem ents for private em ploym ent agencies. All are in business to make money, but some offer higher quality service and b et ter chances of successful placem ent than others. The th ree main places in which private agencies advertise are news paper want ads, the Yellow Pages, and trade journals. T elephone list ings give little m ore than the nam e, address, phone num ber, and special ty of the agency, while trade journals only list openings for a particular o c cupation, such as accountant or com puter program mm er. W ant ads, then, are the best source o f general listings of agencies. These listings fall into two catego ries—those offering specific open ings and those offering general prom ise o f e m p lo y m e n t. Y ou sh o u ld concentrate on the form er, using the latter only as a last resort. With a specific opening m entioned in the ad, you have g reater assurance o f the agency’s desire to place qualified in dividuals in suitable jobs. W hen responding to such an ad, you may learn m ore about the job over the phone. If you are interested, visit the agency, fill out an applica tion, present a resume, and talk with an interviewer. The agency will then arrange an interview with the em ployer if you are qualified, and p er haps suggest alternative openings if you are not. Most agencies operate on a com mission basis, with the fee contingent upon a successful m atch. Agencies advertising “ no fees, no contracts” are paid by the em ployer and charge the applicant nothing. Many other agencies, however, do charge their applicants. You should find out be fore using them exactly what the ser vices will cost you. Com m unity agencies. A grow ing num ber o f n onprofit organizations throughout the Nation provide coun seling, career developm ent, and job placem ent services. These agencies generally concentrate on services for a p a rtic u la r la b o r fo rc e g ro u p — women, the elderly, youth, m inori ties, or ex-offenders, for example. Com munity em ploym ent agencies serve an im portant function in p ro viding the extensive counseling that many disadvantaged jobseekers re quire. They often help their clients resolve p erso n al, fam ily, or o th er fu n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m s th a t m ay stand in the way o f finding a suitable job. Some agencies provide neces sary job training, while others refer th eir clients to train in g program s elsewhere. For the m ost part, these com m unity agencies take a strong active interest in their clients, and provide an array of services designed to help people find and keep jobs. It’s up to you to discover w hether there are such agencies in your com m unity—and whether they can help you. The State em ploym ent service should be able to tell you w hether such an agency has been established in your community. If the local office cannot help, write the State inform a tion o ffic e r. Y o u r c h u rc h , sy n a gogue, or local library may have the inform ation, too. The U.S. D epart m ent o f L abor is another possible source of inform ation, for many o f these agencies receive some or all of their funding from the Federal Gov ernm ent, through the C om prehen sive Em ploym ent and Training A ct (CETA ). Among its many and varied provisions, CETA authorizes Federal m oney for local organizations th at offer job counseling, training, and placem ent help to unem ployed and disadvantaged persons. For further inform ation, write: Office of Comprehensive Employment Devel opment, Employment and Training Ad ministration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room 6000, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20213; or the Office of Information, Room 10406, at the same address. A nother likely source of inform a tion is the U.S. D epartm ent of L a b o r’s Directory fo r Reaching Minority Groups. Although the 1973 directory is out of print, a revised edition is being prepared, and will list organi zations th at provide job inform ation, training, and other services to m inor ities. For inform ation, write to: Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department o f Labor, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. A directory that lists em ploym ent counseling and advocacy organiza tions for women is available for a nominal charge from: Wider Opportunities for Women (WOW), 1649 K St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20006. College career planning and place ment offices. For those who have ac cess to them , ca ree r planning and p lacem en t offices a t colleges and universities offer the jobseeker many valuable services. Like the com m uni ty agencies that serve disadvantaged jo b se e k e rs by offering suppo rtiv e services, college placem ent offices function as more than just em ploy m ent agencies. In addition to coun seling, they teach students to acquire jo b seek in g skills. They em phasize writing resumes and letters of appli cation, making a list of possible em ployers, preparing for interviews, and other aspects of job searching. C ol lege placem ent offices offer o th er services, too. A t larg er cam puses they bring students and em ployers together by providing schedules and facilities for interviews with industry recruiters. Many offices also m ain tain lists of local part-tim e and tem porary jobs, and some have files of summer openings. Labor Market Information A ll S ta te em p lo y m en t se c u rity agencies develop detailed labor m ar ket data needed by em ploym ent and train in g specialists and ed u c ato rs who plan for local needs. Such infor m ation helps policym akers decide w hether or not to expand a vocation al training program , for exam ple—or drop it altogether. Jobseekers and counselors also may find these stud ies helpful. Typically, State agencies publish reports that deal with future occupational supply, characteristics of the work force, changes in State and area econom ic activities, and the em ploym ent structure of im portant industries. For all S tates, and for nearly all Standard M etropolitan Sta tistical Areas (SM SA ’s) of 50,000 in habitants or m ore, d ata are available th a t show cu rre n t em ploym ent as WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION well as estimated future needs. This information is very detailed; general ly, each State issues a report covering current and future employm ent for as many as 200 industries and 400 occupations. In addition, major sta tistical indicators of labor m arket ac tivity are released by all of the States on a monthly, quarterly, and annual basis. For information on the various labor m arket studies, reports, and analyses available in a specific State, co n tact the chief o f research and analysis in the State employm ent se curity agency. Titles and addresses are as follows: 15 District of Columbia Maryland Chief, Division of Manpower Reports and Analysis, Office of Administration and Management Services, D.C. Department 6f Manpower, 605 G St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20001. Acting Director, Research and Analysis, De partment o f Human Resources, 1 100 North Eutaw St., Baltimore, Md. 21201. Florida Director, Research and Statistics, Division of Employment Security, Florida Depart ment of Commerce, 1720 South Gadsden St., Tallahassee, Fla. 32304. Georgia Director, Information Systems, Employment Security Agency, Department of Labor, 254 Washington St. SW., Atlanta, Ga. 30334. Massachusetts Assistant Director, Research and Information Service, Division of Employment Securi ty, Hurley Bldg., Government Center, Boston, Mass. 02114. Michigan Director, Research and Statistics Division, Employment Security Commission, De partment of Labor Bldg., 7310 Wood ward Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48202. Minnesota Alabama Hawaii Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Industrial Relations, Industrial Relations Bldg., 649 Monroe St., Montgomery, Ala. 36130. Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, 825 Mililani St., Honolulu, Hawaii 96813. Idaho Alaska Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Security Division, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 3-7000, Juneau, Alaska 99811. Arizona Manager, Labor Market Information, Re search and Analysis, Department of Eco nomic Security, P.O. Box 6123, Phoenix, Ariz. 85005. Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Employment, P.O. Box 35, Boise, Idaho 83707. Illinois Manager, Research and Analysis Division, Bu reau of Employment Security, Depart ment of Labor, 910 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. Director, Research and Planning, Department of Employment Services, 390 North Rob ert St., St. Paul, Minn. 55101. Mississippi Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, Miss. 39205. Missouri Chief, Research and Analysis, Division of Em ployment Security, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, P.O. Box 59, Jef ferson City, Mo. 65101. Indiana Montana Chief of Research, Employment Security Divi sion, 10 North Senate Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Security Division, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59601. Iowa Nebraska California Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Commission, 1000 East Grand Ave., Des Monies, Iowa 50319. Chief, Employment Data and Research Divi sion, Employment Development Depart ment, 800 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, Calif. 95814. Chief, Research and Statistics, Division of Em ployment, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, State House Station, Lincoln, Nebr. 68509. Kansas Arkansas Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, Ark. 72203. Colorado Chief, Research and Analysis, Division of Em ployment, Department of Labor and Em ployment, 251 East 12th Ave., Denver, Colo. 80203. Connecticut Director, Research and Information, Con necticut Employment Security Division, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Weatherfield, Conn. 06109. Delaware Chief, Office of Research, Planning, and Evaluation, Department of Labor, 801 Digitized forWest FRASER 14th St., Wilmington, Del. 19899. Nevada Chief, Research and Analysis Department, Employment Security Division, Depart ment of Labor, 401 Topeka Ave., Tope ka, Kans. 66603. Chief, Manpower Information and Research, Employment Security Department, 500 East Third St., Carson City, Nev. 89701. Kentucky New Hampshire Director, Research and Special Projects, De partment of Human Resources, State Of fice Building Annex, Frankfort, Ky. 40601. Supervisor, Economic Analysis and Reports, Department of Employment Security, 32 South Main St., Concord, N.H. 03301. Louisiana New Jersey Acting Chief, Research and Statistics, Depart ment of Employment Security, P.O. Box 44094, Baton Rouge, La. 70804. Director, Division of Planning and Research, Department of Labor and Industry, John Fitch Plaza, Trenton, N.J. 08625. Maine New Mexico Director, Manpower Research Division, Em ployment Security Commission, 20 Union St., Augusta, Maine 04330. Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1928, Al buquerque, N. Mex. 87103. 16 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK New York Pennsylvania Utah Director, Division of Research and Statistics, Department of Labor, 2 World Trade Center, New York, N.Y. 10047. Assistant Director, Research and Statistics, Bureau of Employment Security, Depart ment of Labor and Industry, 7th and For ster Sts., Harrisburg, Pa. 17121. Director, Reports and Analysis, Department o f Employment Security, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City, Utah 84111. North Carolina Puerto Rico Manager, Bureau of Employment Security Re search, Employment Security Commis sion, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, N.C. 27602. Chief of Research and Statistics, Bureau of Employment Security, 427 Barbosa Ave., Hato Rey, P.R. 00917. North Dakota Chief, Reports and Analysis, Employment Se curity Bureau, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, N. Dak. 58501. Ohio Director, Division of Research and Statistics, Bureau o f Employment Services, 145 South Front St., Columbus, Ohio 43216. Oklahoma Chief, Research and Planning Division, Em ployment Security Commission, Will Rog ers Memorial Office Bldg., Oklahoma City, Okla. 73105. Oregon Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Division, 875 Union St. NE., Salem, Oreg. 97310. Vermont Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt. 05602. Rhode Island Virginia Supervisor, Employment Security Research, Department o f Employment Security, 24 Mason St., Providence, R.I. 02903. Chief, Manpower Research, Virginia Employ ment Commission, P.O. Box 1358, Rich mond, Va. 23211. South Carolina Washington Director, Manpower Research and Analysis, Employment Security Commission, 1550 Gadsden St., Columbia, S.C. 29202. Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Department, P.O. Box 367, Olympia, Wash. 98504. South Dakota West Virginia Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Department, 607 North Fourth St., Box 730, Aberdeen, S. Dak. 57401. Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Employment Security, 112 California Ave., Charleston, W. Va. 25305. Tennessee Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Employment Security, 519 Cordell Hull Bldg., Nashville, Tenn. 37219. Texas Chief, Manpower Data Analysis and Research, Texas Employment Commission, TEC Bldg., 15th and Congress Ave., Austin, Tex. 78778. Wisconsin Director Research and Statistics, Department o f Industry, Labor and Human Relations, P.O. Box 2209, Madison, Wis. 53701. Wyoming Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, Wyo. 82601. ASSUMPTIONS AND METHODS USED IN PREPARING EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS Although the discussions of future job prospects contained in the Hand book are written in qualitative term s, the analyses upon w hich they are based begin with quantitative esti mates of projected em ploym ent, re placem ent openings, and—in a few cases—supply. These projections were developed using the m ost recent data available on population, industry and occupa tio n al em p lo y m en t, p ro d u c tiv ity , consum er expenditures, and other factors expected to affect em ploy ment. The B ureau’s research offices provided m uch o f these d ata, but many other agencies o f the Federal G o v ern m en t w ere im p o rtan t co n trib u to rs, including the B ureau of Apprenticeship and Training and the U.S. Em ploym ent Service, both in the Em ploym ent and Training A d m inistration o f the D epartm ent o f Labor; the Bureau o f the Census of the D epartm ent of C om m erce; the Office o f Education and the R eha bilitation Services Adm inistration of the D ep artm en t o f H ealth, E duca tion, and W elfare; the V eterans A d ministration; the Civil Service Com m ission; th e In tersta te C om m erce Commission; the Civil Aeronautics Board; the Federal Com m unications C o m m issio n ; th e D e p a rtm e n t o f Transportation; and the National Sci ence Foundation. In addition, experts in industry, unions, professional societies, and trade associations furnished data and supplied inform ation through inter views. Many of these individuals also reviewed prelim inary drafts o f the statements. The inform ation present ed in each statem ent thus reflects the knowledge and judgm ent not only of the Bureau of Labor Statistics staff, but also o f leaders in the fields dis cu sse d , alth o u g h th e B u rea u , o f course, takes full responsibility. After the inform ation from these sources was com piled, it was a n a lyzed in conjunction with the B u r e a u ’s m od el o f th e econom y in 1985. Like other m odels used in eco nom ic forecasting, it encom passes the major facets of the economy and represents a com prehensive view of its projected structure. The B ureau’s model is com prised of internally con sistent projections of gross national p r o d u c t (G N P ) an d its c o m p o nents—consum er expenditures, busi ness investm ent, governm ent expen ditures, and net exports; industrial output and productivity; labor force; average weekly hours of work; and em ploym ent for detailed industry groups and occupations. The m eth ods used to develop the em ploym ent p ro jec tio n s in this ed itio n o f th e Handbook are the same as those used in other Bureau of Labor Statistics studies o f the economy. Detailed d e scriptions of these m ethods appear in The U.S. Economy in 1985, BLS Bul letin 1809, and the B L S Handbook o f Methods fo r Surveys and Studies, Bul letin 1910. Assumptions. The B ureau’s projec tions to 1985 are based on the fol lowing general assumptions: —The institutional framework o f the U.S. economy will not change radically. —Current social, technological, and scientific trends will continue, including values placed on work, education, income, and leisure. —The economy will gradually recover from the high unemployment levels of the mid1970’s and reach full employment (de fined as an unemployment rate of 4 per cent) in the mid-1980’s. —No major event such as widespread or longlasting energy shortages or war will signif icantly alter the industrial structure of the economy or alter the rate of economic growth. —Trends in the occupational structure of in dustries will not be altered radically by changes in relative wages, technological changes, or other factors. Methods. Beginning with popula tion projections by age and sex devel oped by the Bureau of the Census, a projection of the total labor force is derived using expected labor force participation rates for each of these groups. In developing the participa tion rates, the Bureau takes into ac count a variety of factors that affect a person’s decision to enter the labor force, such as school attendance, re tirem en t p ractices, and family re sponsibilities. The labor force projection then is translated into the level of GNP that would be produced by a fully em ployed labor force. Unemployed per sons are subtracted from the labor force estim ate and the result is m ulti plied by a projection of output per worker. The estimates of future o u t p u t p er w o rk er are based on an analysis o f tren d s in productiv ity (output per work hour) among in dustries and changes in the average weekly hours of work. Next, the projection of GNP is di vided among its m ajor com ponents: Consum er expenditures, business in v e s tm e n t, g o v e rn m e n t e x p e n d i tu re s—F ederal, S tate, and lo cal— and net exports. Each of these com ponents is broken down by produc ing industry. Thus, consum er expen d itu res, for exam ple, are divided am ong industries producing goods and services such as housing, food, autom obiles, m edical care, and edu cation. Once estimates are developed for these products and services, they are translated into detailed projections of industry output, not only for the industries producing the final prod uct, but also for the interm ediate and basic industries that provide the raw m aterials, electric power, transporta tion, com ponent parts, and other in puts required in the production p ro cess. To facilitate this translation, the 17 18 D epartm ent of Com m erce has devel oped input-output tables that indi cate the am ount of output from each industry—steel, glass, plastics, etc.— that is required to produce a final product, automobiles for example. By using estimates of future output per w ork-hour based on studies of p r o d u c tiv ity an d te c h n o lo g ic a l trends for each industry, industry employm ent projections are derived from the output estimates. These projections are then com pared with em ploym ent projections derived using reg ression analysis. This analysis develops equations that relate em ploym ent by industry to com binations of econom ic variables, such as population and incom e, that are considered determ inants of longrun changes in employm ent. By com paring projections resulting from in p u t-o u tp u t analysis and regression analysis, areas may be identified where one m ethod produces a pro jection inconsistent with past trends or with the B ureau’s econom ic m od el. The projections are then adjusted accordingly. Occupational employment projec tions. Projections of industry em ploy m en t are tra n sla te d into o c c u p a tional em ploym ent projections using an industry-occupation matrix. This matrix, which is divided into 200 in dustry sectors and 400 occupation sectors, describes the cu rren t and projected occupational structure of each industry. By applying the pro je c te d o c c u p a tio n a l stru c tu re for each industry to the industry employ m ent projection and aggregating the resulting estim ates, em ploym ent pro jections for each o f the 400 occupa tions contained in the matrix are ob ta in e d . T h e g ro w th r a te o f an occupation, thus, is determ ined by 1) changes in the proportion of workers in the occupation to the total work OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK force in each industry, and 2) the men and women by age group and growth rate of industries in which an used to com pute an overall separa occupation is concentrated. An o c tion rate for the occupation. These cupation that is projected to increase rates are used to estim ate average as a proportion of the work force in annual replacem ent needs for each each industry, for example, or one occupation over the projection peri that is concentrated in industries p ro od. jected to grow more rapidly than the The Bureau is currently analyzing average for all industries, would be data from the 1970 Census to d eter projected to grow faster than the av m ine th e e ffe c t o f o c c u p a tio n a l erage for all occupations. tran sfers on jo b openings. T hese In some cases em ploym ent is relat transfers have not been taken into ed directly to one of the com ponents account in calculating replacem ent of the B ureau’s m odel—for example, needs. Some d ata on occupational the num ber of cosmetologists is relat transfers have been published in two ed to c o n su m e r ex p e n d itu res fo r M o n th ly L a b o r R ev iew a r tic le s , beauty shop services. In others, em “ O c c u p a tio n a l M o b ility in th e ploym ent is related to an indepen American Labor F o rce” and “ O ccu dent variable not explicitly projected pational M obility of H ealth W ork in the m odel, but believed to be a ers,” January and May 1977, respec primary determ inant o f em ploym ent tively. in that occupation. The projection o f Supply. Supply estim ates used in autom obile m echanics, for example, analysis of certain Handbook occupa is based on the expected stock of m o tions represent the num bers of work tor vehicles. Projections that are d e ers who are likely to seek entry to a veloped independently are com pared particular occupation if past trends with those in the m atrix and revised, of entry to the occupation continue. if necessary, to assure consistency. These estim ates are developed in Replacement needs. In addition to d e p e n d e n tly o f the d em and e s ti a projection of em ploym ent for each mates. Thus, supply and dem and are occupation, a projection is made o f the num ber of workers who will be not discussed in the usual econom ic needed as replacem ents. Separations sense in which wages play a m ajor c o n stitu te a significant source o f role in equating supply and dem and. openings. In most occupations, m ore Statistics on college enrollm ents and workers are needed to replace those graduations by field are the ch ief who retire, die, or leave the occupa sources of inform ation on the poten tion than are needed to fill jobs creat tial supply of personnel in profession ed by grow th. C onsequently, even al, technical, and other occupations som e declining o cc u p atio n s offer req u irin g extensive form al e d u c a tion. D ata on persons completing ap em ploym ent opportunities. To estim ate replacem ent openings, prenticeship program s provide some the Bureau has developed tables o f inform ation on new e n tra n ts into working life based on actuarial expe skilled trades. A Bureau publication, rience for deaths and on decennial Occupational Supply: Concepts and census data for general patterns of Sources o f Data fo r Manpower Analy labor force participation by age and sis (BLS Bulletin 1816, 1974), ex sex. W ithdrawals from each occupa plores several aspects o f o c c u p a tion are calcu lated separately for tional supply. TOMORROW’S JOBS Early in human history, people en tered occupations by simply follow ing their parents into one of the rela tively few occupations that existed. Boys becam e farm ers, shepherds, priests, artisans, or traders. Girls gen erally becam e housewives, helping their husbands in their work, but hav ing no paid occupations. Not until the In d u strial R ev olution did the num ber of possible choices begin to expand. But as the choices have increased, so has the difficulty o f making a deci sion. Today there are thousands of occupations—the newest Dictionary o f Occupational Titles lists 20,000 separate titles—and a variety of edu cation and training program s from w hich to choose. M any questions m ust be co n sid ered : W hat fields m atch o n e ’s interests and abilities? W hat types of education and training are required to enter particular jobs? W hat fields are expected to offer good p ro sp e c ts for em ploym ent? How do earnings com pare am ong occupations requiring similar train ing? W hat types of employers pro vide which kinds of jobs? Does a par ticular job offer steady, year-round employm ent or is it affected by mi nor swings in the economy? T he answ ers to th ese questions change as o u r eco n o m y changes. C urrent inform ation therefore is a necessity. While the individual occu pation and industry chapters in the Handbook answer m ost of the ques tions raised here, two areas of par ticular concern, to educators and vo c a tio n a l p la n n e rs as w ell as to individuals who are choosing their careers, require a broader perspec tive. One concerns em ploym ent pro jections, the other, the relationship betw een jo b prospects and educa tion. This section focuses on these two aspects of choosing a career. Employment Projections in a Changing Economy The dem and for workers in any o c cupation depends ultimately on the tastes and desires of consum ers. If a p ro d u c t o r serv ice is u n w a n te d , w hether by private o r public p u r chasers, no workers will be needed to produce or provide it. Barbers would becom e unnecessary if people decid ed to cut their own hair, as would astro n a u ts if the F ederal G o v ern m ent abandoned its space program . Closely interw oven with the d e mand for products or services is tech nological innovation. In the 20th century, technology has both created and elim inated hundreds o f th o u sands of jobs. The telephone, for ex ample, gave birth to an entire indus try at about the same time that the autom obile put stable ow ners and carriage m anufacturers out o f busi ness. Changes in the way businesses are organized and m anaged have had similar effects; the rise of superm ar ket chains has drastically reduced the num ber o f self-employed grocers. F ortunately, m ost o f the factors that alter the dem and for workers in various occupations do not change overnight. Shifts in the state of the econom y, the introduction o f new technology, and the developm ent of new organization and m anagem ent techniques generally occur in an o r derly, fairly predictable fashion. Al though no one can forecast the fu ture with certainty, it is possible to m ake industry and occupation em ployment projections that are useful to educators, vocational planners, and individuals who are planning their careers. The econom ic and sta tistical analysis used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics to develop its projec tions is described in some detail in a separate introductory section. In 1985, approximately 104.3 mil lion persons will be in the civilian labor force. This is an 19-percent in crease over the 1976 level of 87.5 million. As shown in chart 1, the size of the civilian labor force increased sharply after 1960, largely due to the increase in the num ber of women en- Civilian labor force growth, 1950-76 and projected 1980 and 1985 Persons 16 years and over (in millions) 120 100 II 80 60 IIII 1950 1955 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics III I 1960 1965 1970 1976 1980 Men 1985 Women 19 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 2 0 The percent of women who are in the labor force has been increasing, while the percent of men has been declining 2 local governm ent services, and rising incomes and living standards that re sulted in a dem and for im proved health and education services. These factors are expected to continue to cause th e dem and for services to grow. Percent of persons 16 and over in the civilian labor force 1950-85 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics tering the labor m arket. The labor force participation rate for women has continued to rise even while the rate for men has declined. (See chart 2 .) Industrial Profile Economists custom arily divide our economy into nine industry catego ries under two broad groups—goods pro d u cin g and service producing. M ost of the N atio n ’s workers cu r rently are em ployed in industries that provide services, such as education, health care, trade, repair and m ainte nance, governm ent, transportation, banking, and insurance. The produc tion of goods through farming, co n struction, mining, and m anufacturing requires only about one-third of the country’s work force. (See chart 3.) As shown in chart 4, em ploym ent in the goods-producing industries has rem ained relatively co n stan t since World W ar II, whereas the serviceproducing industries have expanded rapidly. Among the factors contrib uting to this rapid growth were the migration from rural to urban areas and the accom panying need for m ore Where people work, 1976 Wage and salary workers except agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers Agriculture Government Mining and petroleum 1 % Contract construction Services Manufacturing □ Goods producing Service producing Transportation and public utilities Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Finance, insurance, and real estate Wholesale and retail trade Service-Producing Industries. E m ploym ent in the service-producing industries is ex p ected to increase from 56.1 million workers in 1976 to 71.0 million in 1985, an increase of 26 percent. O f course, growth rates will vary among the industries within this group. (See chart 5.) Trade, the largest o f the service in d u strie s, is e x p e c te d to grow by about 20 percent between 1976 and 1985, from 17.7 million to 21.3 mil lion workers. B oth w holesale and retail trad e have in cre ased as p o p u latio n has grown and as rising incom es have en abled people to buy a greater num ber and variety o f goods. Retail trade has grown m ore rapidly than wholesale trade as the expansion of the suburbs has created a dem and for m ore shop ping centers. Although self-service is expected to become m ore prevalent, em ploym ent in retail trade nonethe less will continue to grow faster than in wholesale trade. Government has been the second fastest growing service industry. Em ploym ent in State and local govern m ents doubled betw een 1960 and 1976. G row th has been greatest in agencies providing education, health, sanitation, welfare, and police and fire protection. Federal G overnm ent em ploym ent has increased only 20 percent during the same period. Between 1976 and 1985, em ploy m ent in governm ent is expected to rise 22 percent, from 14.9 million to 18.3 m illion w orkers. This grow th rate is less than th a t expected for services as a whole. Although State and local governments will continue to be the m ajor source of jobs, the budget problem s many local govern ments now face are expected to re tard the expansion o f some govern m ent program s. Service industries have been the fastest growing group in the serviceproducing category, nearly doubling in em ploym ent betw een 1960 and 1976. The growing need for health TOMORROW’S JOBS 21 growing industries have been bank ing and credit agencies. Em ployment in banking nearly doubled between 1960 and 1976, reflecting a growing population that increasingly pays its bills by check. Em ploym ent require ments also grew as banks began to provide m ore services, particularly the bank credit cards, and rem ained o p e n lo n g e r h o u rs . P o p u la tio n growth also m eant an increased de m and fo r the services o f finance companies, savings and loan associ ations, and o th e r c red it agencies. These trends are expected to contin ue through the m id-1980’s. Industries providing services offer more jobs than those providing goods Workers (in millions)^ Goods producing Manufacturing Agriculture Contract construction Mining 80 Service producing Trade Government Services Transportation and public utilities Finance, insurance and real estate Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics J/W age and salary workers, except agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. care, m aintenance and repair, adver tising, and com m ercial cleaning ser vices has been the prim ary force be hind this growth. In the future, service industries are ex p e cted to c o n tin u e th e ir rapid growth—em ploym ent is projected to increase from 14.6 million workers in 1976 to 20.6 million in 1985. This projected growth rate o f 40 percent is nearly twice as rapid as that of the serv ice-p ro d u cin g in d u stries as a group. Em ployment requirem ents in health care are expected to grow rap idly due to population grow th—in particular the growth in the num ber o f elderly p erso n s— and rising in comes that increase p eople’s ability to pay for medical care. Business ser vices, in clu d in g ac c o u n tin g , d ata processing, and m ain tenance, also are expected to grow rapidly. Transportation and public utility in dustries experienced a m uch slower growth rate between 1960 and 1976 than any o f the other service-produc ing industries. This has largely been due to em ploym ent declines in the railroad and water transportation in dustries. Although em ploym ent in the rail road and w ater transportation indus tries is expected to continue to de cline (b u t a t a slo w er ra te than before), oth er industries in this group will ex p erien ce increases. The air transportation industry, which nearly doubled in size betw een 1960 and 1976, will continue to grow at a m od erate pace. Between 1976 and 1985, em ploy m ent in tran sp o rtatio n and public utilities industries is expected to rise from 4.5 million to 5.2 million w ork ers, an increase of 16 percent. Finance, insurance, and real estate will grow faster than services as a whole. Em ploym ent is expected to increase from 4.3 million to 5.6 mil lion w o rk e rs b e tw e e n 1976 an d 1985, an increase of 30 percent. Within this group, the two fastest G o ods-P roducing In d u strie s. E m ploym ent in the goods-producing in dustries—agriculture, m ining, co n struction, and m anufacturing—has changed very little since 1960. Sig nificant gains in productivity result ing from autom ated production, im p ro v e d m a c h in e ry , an d o th e r tech n o lo g ical b re ak th ro u g h s have perm itted large increases in output without additional workers. Between 1976 an d 1985, e m p lo y m e n t in goods-producing industries is expect ed to increase by about 17 percent, from 26.6 m illion to 31.1 million workers. Growth rates will vary from indus try to industry within this group. Em ploym ent in agriculture, which has long been declining, stabilized at about 3.5 million workers between Through the mid-1980’s employment growth will vary widely by industry Percent change, 1976-85 projected Services Mining Contract construction Finance, insurance and real estate Trade Manufacturing Transportation and public utilities Agriculture Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics | 5 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 22 1970 and 1975, but dropped again to 3.3 million in 1976. Since the 1950’s, the tren d tow ard few er but larger farms and the use of more and better m achinery has reduced the need for farmers and farmworkers. So too has the developm ent of improved hybrid crops. Recently, for example, a hy brid tom ato was developed that has a harder skin and can be m achine h ar vested. A lthough em ploym ent on farm s has declined, rapid m echanization c o m b in ed w ith b e tte r fe rtiliz e rs, feeds, pesticides, and hybrids have created large increases in outp u t. The worldwide dem and for food is risin g ra p id ly as p o p u la tio n in creases, but production is expected to continue to rise w ithout reversing the em ploym ent decline in agricul ture. Between 1976 and 1985, em ployment is expected to drop about 29 percent, from 3.3 million to 2.3 million workers. Mining, once declining in em ploy m ent, in creased ab ruptly betw een 1970 and 1976, experiencing a 26percent growth rate during this peri od and m atching the growth rate of the fastest growing industry group, services. M ost of this growth was a direct result of our need for addition al energy. Employment in the oil and gas extraction industry rose 33 p er cent between 1970 and 1976, and is expected to rise another 70 percent by 1985. Coal, the m ost commonly used alternative energy source, has been and will continue to be in great demand. Em ployment in mining is expected to grow 39 percen t betw een 1976 and 1985, from 0.8 to 1.1 million workers. Contract construction, which grew fairly rap id ly b etw e en 1960 and 1968, stagnated betw een 1968 and 1976. The earlier growth, which re fle c te d an in c re a s in g n e e d fo r houses, apartm ent and office build ings, highways, and shopping centers, was d a m p e n e d by th e ec o n o m ic d o w n tu rn th a t b eg an in th e late 1960’s. Buildings that had been vacant are now filling up, however, and as our econom y recovers, em ploym ent in construction is expected to increase, rising by 38 percent between 1976 and 1985, or from 3.6 million to 4.9 million workers. M anufacturing em ploym ent, also adversely affected by the econom ic conditions of the early 1970’s, is ex pected to grow from 18.9 million to 22.8 million between 1976 and 1985, an increase of 20 percent. M anufacturing is divided into two b ro a d c a te g o rie s , d u ra b le goods m a n u f a c tu r in g a n d n o n d u r a b le goods m anufacturing. Em ploym ent in durable goods m anufacturing is expected to increase by about 25 percent, from 11.0 million to 13.8 million w orkers, while em ploym ent in nondurable goods m anufacturing is expected to increase by only 13 percent, from 7.9 million to 9.0 mil lion workers. Growth rates will vary among indi vidual industries within each of these categories. In nondurable goods in dustries, for example, em ploym ent in tobacco m anufacturing is expected to decline, while a m oderate rise in em ploym ent is projected for the syn thetic fiber industry. Among durable g o ods m a n u fa c tu rin g in d u s trie s , medical instrum ent m anufacturing is expected to undergo a rapid em ploy m ent increase; m otor vehicle m anu facturing will employ about the same num ber o f workers in 1985 as it did in 1976. Occupational Profile Customarily, occupations also are divided into several groups. W hite- collar w orkers are those in profes sional and technical, clerical, sales, an d m an ag e rial jo b s. B lu e-co llar workers are those in craft, operative, and lab o rer jobs. Service w orkers and farm workers constitute separate groups. C hart 6 illustrates the occu pational profile in 1976. G row th rates among these groups have differed m arkedly, as shown in chart 7. Once a small proportion of the to tal labor fo rce, w hite-collar w orkers have steadily increased in im portance until they now represent about half o f the total. The num ber of service workers also has risen rap idly, while the blue-collar work force has grown only slowly and the num ber of farm workers has declined. Most of these changes in occupa tional em ploym ent have been due to variations in the growth rates of in dustries. Every industry group has a unique occupational p attern. (S ee chart 8.) Construction, for example, employs mostly blue-collar workers, while finance, insurance, and real es tate is predom inantly a white-collar industry group. Growth in the co n struction industry would result in an increase in em ploym ent of blue-col lar workers. The same would be true for growth in mining, m anufacturing, o r tra n s p o rta tio n —in d u stries th a t also employ mostly blue-collar w ork ers. The m agnitude o f the change Employment in major occupational groups g Workers, 1976 (in millions) 0 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 TOMORROW’S JOBS 23 would depend on both the rate of growth and the size of the industry. T he follow ing sections describe the changes that are expected to oc cur am ong the broad occupational groups between 1976 and 1985. (See also chart 9.) Professional and technical workers include a wide range o f w orkers, many of them highly trained. Among this group are scientists and engi neers, m edical practitioners, teach ers, entertainers, pilots, and account ants. Em ploym ent in this group is expected to grow by about 18 per cent between 1976 and 1985, rising from 13.3 m illion to 15.8 m illion workers. G reater efforts in energy produc tion, tra n sp o rta tio n , and en v iro n m ental protection will contribute to a growing dem and for scientists, engi neers, and technicians. The medical professions can be expected to grow as the health services industry ex pands. The dem and for professional workers to develop and utilize com puter resources also is projected to grow rapidly. Some occupations will offer less 8 Industries differ in the kinds of workers they employ Percent distribution of employment, 1976 Finance, insurance, and real estate Services Trade Service White-collar Transportation and public utilities Manufacturing Mining Contract construction 100 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics favorable jo b p ro sp e cts, in m any cases because the supply of workers e x c e e d s th e a v a ila b le o p en in g s. Teachers will continue to face com petition, as will artists and entertain ers, airline pilots, and ocean o g ra phers. M anagers and adm inistrators in clude workers such as corporate ex ecutives, school and health services a d m in istra to rs, d e p a rtm e n t sto re m anagers, and self-em ployed busi ness operators. This group is expect ed to grow from 9.3 million to 11.3 million workers, an increase of 21 percent. The rapidly expanding ser vice industries are expected to offer m ore jo b s for m anagers than the slowly growing m anufacturing indus tries. Changes in business size and o r ganization have resulted in differing trends for self-employed and salaried m anagers. The num ber of self-em ployed managers will continue to de cline as many areas of business are increasingly dom inated by large cor p o ra tio n s an d c h a in o p e ra tio n s . Some kinds of small businesses, such as quick-service groceries and fastfood restaurants, still will provide op p o rtu n itie s fo r se lf-e m p lo y m e n t, however. The dem and for salaried managers will continue to grow rap idly as firms increasingly depend on trained m anagem ent specialists, par ticularly in highly technical areas of operation. Clerical workers co n stitu te both the largest and the fastest growing occupational group. Em ployment in th ese o c c u p a tio n s is ex p ected to grow about 29 percent between 1976 and 1985, rising from 15.6 million to 20.0 million workers. New developm ents in com puters, office m achines, and dictating equip m ent will greatly affect em ploym ent in m any o c c u p a tio n s w ithin th is group. As com puters are used m ore extensively to store inform ation and perform billing, payroll, and o ther c a lc u la tio n s, em p lo y m en t o f file clerks and many types of office m a chine operators will level off or de cline. At the same time, however, the need for com puter and peripheral equipm ent operators will increase. D ic ta tio n m a c h in e s, w hich have sharply reduced the need for stenog raphers, will continue to adversely 24 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK out co u n ters, suburban expansion nology, very little growth is anticipat and longer operating hours will cause ed in printing crafts. Operatives are the largest blue-col em ploym ent to increase. Craft workers include a wide vari lar group, including workers such as ety of highly skilled workers, such as assem blers, packers, truck and bus carpenters, tool-and-die makers, in drivers, and many types o f m achine strum ent makers, all-round m achin operators. Em ploym ent of operatives ists, electricians, and autom obile m e is tied closely to the production of chanics. Between 1976 and 1985, goods, because the majority of these em ploym ent of this group is expected w orkers are em ployed in m anufac to increase 22 percent, from 11.3 turing industries. The projected slow growth o f m anufacturing, along with million to 13.7 million workers. C o n stru c tio n w o rk e rs and m e improved production processes, will chanics, the two largest occupations hold dow n the dem and for these within this group, are expected to ac workers. Textile operatives, such as count for about two-thirds of the em spinners, knitters, and weavers, are ployment gain for craft workers, and expected to decline due to increasing blue-collar w orker supervisors and use of machinery in the textile indusm etalcraft workers for most of the try. Outside of m anufacturing, em ploy rem ainder. m ent o f most transportation o p era Nearly all construction trades are expected to grow, but particularly tives, such as truckdrivers and bus rapid increases are anticipated for drivers, will increase as the transpor heavy equipm ent operators, plum b tation industry grows. An exception ers, ironw orkers, roofers, and c e will be brake and switch operators; m ent masons. Among m echanics and these occupations are expected to repairers, the m ost rapid increases decline along with the railroad indus will be for workers who repair com try. Em ploym ent o f operatives is ex puters, office m achines, air condi pected to rise from 13.4 million to tioners, and industrial machinery. 15.6 million workers between 1976 In contrast, a continuation of the and 1985, an increase of 17 percent. long-run em ploym ent decline in the Laborers, (ex cep t farm ) include railroad industry will lead to the d e workers such as garbage collectors, cline of some craft occupations co n centrated in that industry, such as co n stru c tio n lab o rers, freight and stock handlers, and equipm ent wash railroad and car shop repairers. Be ers. Em ploym ent in this group is ex cause of advances in printing tech pected to grow only slowly as m a chinery increasingly replaces m anual labor in construction and m anufac Through the mid-1980’s employment growth will turing, the two largest employers of vary widely among occupational groups these workers. Power-driven equip m ent, such as forklift trucks, cranes, and hoists, will handle m ore and Percent change in employment, 1976-85 m ore m aterial in factories, loading docks, and w arehouses. O ther m a chines will do excavating, ditch dig ging, an d sim ilar w ork. B etw een 1976 and 1985, em ploym ent of la borers is expected to increase 11 p er cent, from 4.3 million to 4.8 million workers. Service workers in clu d e a w ide range of w orkers—firefighters, jan i tors, cosm etologists, private house hold workers, and bartenders are a few examples. These workers, m ost of whom are employed in the serviceproducing industries, m ake up one of Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics th e fa s te s t grow ing o c c u p a tio n a l groups. affec t em p lo y m en t p ro sp e cts for workers in this occupation. The sole exception will be stenographers who are trained as court reporters. M any types of clerical w orkers, how ever, will n o t be affected by tech n o lo g ical innovations because their jobs involve a high degree of personal contact. Substantial growth is anticipated for secretaries, typists, and receptionists, largely as a result of growth in the expanding business services and medical and health care serv ices in d u strie s. C o u n te r and fountain workers also are expected to increase as the restaurant industry grows. Sales workers are em ployed pri marily by retail stores, m anufactur ing and wholesale firms, insurance companies, and real estate agencies. Em ploym ent of this group is expect ed to grow from 5.5 million to 6.4 million workers, an increase of 17 percent. M uch o f the growth of sales work ers will be due to expansion in the retail trade industry, which employs about one-half of these workers. The dem and for both full- and part-tim e sales workers in retail trade is expect ed to increase as our growing popula tion requires an increasing num ber of shopping centers and stores. Despite the w idespread use o f laborsaving m erchandising techniques, such as self-service and com puterized check 9 25 TOMORROW’S JOBS cator is the total num ber of job open ings expected in the occupation. The total includes not only openings re sulting from em ploym ent growth, but also those resulting from labor force separations (retirem ents and deaths) and transfers to other occupations. B etw een 1976 and 1985, re tire ments and deaths alone are expected to account for nearly two-thirds of all job openings. (See ch a rt 10.) The need to replace workers who retire o r die will be a m ore significant source o f job openings than em ploy ment growth in every m ajor occupa tional group, and in m ost individual occupations. F urtherm ore, a large occupation that is growing slowly may offer m ore openings than a fast-growing small one. For example, among the m ajor occupational groups, total openings for operatives will exceed total open ings for craft w orkers, despite the fact that em ploym ent of craft w ork ers is expected to grow at a faster rate. Many job openings also are creat ed because of occupational transfers. When a technician is upgraded to an engineer, for example, a job opening for a technician is created. O f course, this shift also adds to the supply of engineers. Data for estimating occu pational losses and gains resulting from transfers are not yet available, but work is continuing towards the developm ent of such data. Some of the main factors that are expected to increase the need for these workers are the rising demand for medical care; the greater need for commercial cleaning and protective services; and the m ore frequent use of restaurants, beauty salons, and lei sure services as incom es rise. The em ploym ent o f p riv ate household workers, however, will continue to decline despite a rising dem and for their services, because low wages and the stren u o u s n atu re o f the work make this occupation unattactive to many people. Employment of service workers is expected to increase 23 percent be tween 1976 and 1985, from 12.0 mil lion to 14.8 million workers. Farm workers include farm ers and farm operators, as well as farm labor ers. Em ploym ent o f these w orkers has declined for decades as farm pro ductivity has increased as a result of the trend tow ard few er but larger farms, the use of m ore and better machinery, and the developm ent of new feeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. Between 1976 and 1985, the num ber of farm w orkers is expected to de cline 34 percent, from 2.8 million to 1.9 million workers. Job Openings The rate of em ploym ent growth in an occupation is only one indicator of future jo b prospects; another indi 10 Job openings are determined by replacement plus growth Workers needed—1976-85 (in millions) -2 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 0 2 4 6 BB Growth 8 10 12 Replacement Education and Employment A high school diploma by itself is not sufficient preparation for many occupations. But neither is a college degree. Different fields of work re quire different types of training. Just as there are occupations that require college degrees, so too th ere are o c c u p a tio n s fo r w hich te c h n ic a l training, work experience, or training in a particular skill is the most im por tan t entry requirem ent. Em ployers always wish to hire the best qualified persons available, but this does not mean that they always choose those applicants who have the most educa tion. The type of education and train ing an individual has had is as im por tant as the amount. For this reason, a vital part of the career planning p ro cess is deciding what type as well as how much education and training to pursue. Persons who have definite career goals may not find this decision diffi cult. Many occupations have specific education requirem ents. Physicians, for exam ple, m ust generally co m plete at least 3 years of college, 4 years of medical school, and in most States 1 year of residency. Cosm e tologists are required to com plete a State-approved cosm etology course that generally lasts 18 months. But for most people, the decision is more difficult. Either they have yet to choose a field of work, or the field they have selected may be entered in a variety of ways. Some may know only that they want jobs that provide status and large incomes, for exam ple. Or, an individual may wish to be an auto mechanic but cannot decide w hether to leave high school and learn on the job, or graduate and at tend a vocational school, or seek an apprenticeship. M aking this type of decision re quires specific inform ation about the types of education and training p re ferred for various occupations, and a knowledge of o n e’s own abilities and aspirations. Inform ation on how to enter each of the occupations includ ed in the Handbook is contained in th e individual o cc u p atio n al s ta te m ents, but general inform ation on the relationship of em ploym ent pros pects to education also is useful. 26 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 11 The unemployment rate is lowest for persons with a college education Percent unemployed, (March 1976) 2 0 ......... .........- ......- ..................................................... S ill High school 8 or less _ 1-3 _ Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 4 1-3 4 or more Years of school completed K P ersons co n tem p lating dropping out of high school should recognize that a high school education has be come standard. The educational a t tainm ent o f the labor force has risen from 10.9 years of school in 1952 to 12.6 in 1976. Thus, nongraduates are likely to be at a serious disadvantage when seeking jobs that offer better pay or advancem ent opportunities, unless they have participated in a training program specific to the o c c u p a tio n th ey wish to e n te r. As shown in ch art 11, the unem ploy m ent rate is much higher for persons who did not finish high school than for those who did. For many individuals, the decision they face is whether to extend their ed u c atio n beyond high school by going to college or by pursuing some o th er po stseco n d ary education o r training program . Looking again at chart 11, for individuals who have graduated from high school, the u n em ploym ent rate drops steadily as the am ount of education com pleted increases. In addition, as chart 12 Income increases as the number of years of schooling increases 12 Average income for year-round full-time workers, 1975 Dollars ollars (i ^ 25 College 20 High school 15 8 or less 1-3 4 1-3 Years of school completed Source: Bureau of the Census 4 5 or more shows, average yearly incom e rises with the num ber of years of school com pleted. In 1975, college gradu ates, on the average, earned over o n e -th ird m ore th a n high sch o o l graduates, while persons with 5 years or more o f college earned one-fifth more than those with 4 years of col lege. A lth o u g h college g ra d u ates do earn m ore, on the average, than high school graduates, there are num er ous well-paying occupations that do not require a college degree. W ork ers in the construction crafts and in m echanic and repairer occupations, fo r e x a m p le , g e n e ra lly are h igh sch o o l g ra d u a te s, y et m any ea rn more than workers in some jobs that require a college degree. In fact, earnings in many occupations not re q u irin g college d e g re e s have in creased faster than earnings in o ccu pations th a t do require a degree. C hart 13 shows how m uch the differ ence betw een the earnings of high school graduates and college gradu ates has narrowed. Although data are not available on the earnings of high school graduates who have com pleted other postsec ondary education program s, it is like ly that m ost of those who earn rela tively high incom es have obtained some type o f additonal education or training. Traditionally, a college education has been viewed as a gateway to b et ter pay, higher status, and more chal lenging work. As the opportunity to obtain a college education has be com e m ore w idespread, m ore high school graduates have attended col lege. Accordingly, the proportion of workers in the labor force who have com pleted at least 4 years o f college rose from 7.9 percent to 16.5 percent between 1952 and 1976, and college graduates are expected to constitute 20 p e rc e n t o f the lab o r force by 1985. R ecent experience has shown, how ever, th a t the trad itio n al view has not been m atched by reality. Between 1970 and 1976, the p ro portion of workers having 4 years or more o f college increased by m ore than 60 percent in clerical, sales, ser vice, and blue-collar occupations— areas that have em ployed very few college graduates in the past. This 27 TOMORROW’S JOBS “ spillover” reflects, at least in part, the econom ic conditions of the 197075 period. Cutbacks in the aerospace industry and the recession of 197071, followed by an oil em bargo in 1972-73 and recession in 1974-75, d am p en ed the e c o n o m y ’s grow th during the first half of this decade. Analysis of the future demand for college graduates, and o f future sup ply, indicates that more students are expected to graduate, and more per sons currently holding degrees are expected to reenter the labor force, than will be needed to fill jobs that currently dem and a college degree. Prospects are no brighter for many individuals who hold advanced de grees. Colleges and universities, the prim ary em ployers o f this group, have been faced with declining en rollments and budget cuts in recent years. T heir need for teaching and research staff is not expected to grow as rapidly as the num ber of graduates seeking these positons. Except for persons whose degrees are in areas dem anded by business and industry, advanced degree holders may have to take jobs that once went only to graduates who had b a c h e lo r’s d e grees. Not all occupations requiring col lege degrees will be overcrow ded, however. Nor will there be a lack of dem and for graduates of other post s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n p ro g ra m s . Many of the occupations that have grown m ost rapidly or have provided large num bers of job openings have required vocational, apprenticeship, or junior college education. Science and health technicians have been in creasingly in dem and, as have televi sion and radio service technicians, data processing m achine repairers, an d a ir-c o n d itio n in g m e c h a n ic s. Technological advances, in particu lar the com puter, have m ade many office jobs m ore com plicated, thus requiring people who hold these jobs to have a higher level of skill. Persons wishing to enter these and other occupations have found post secondary training helpful because employers prefer to hire applicants who have had training in these areas, ra th e r th a n provide such training themselves. Over the past 10 years, e n ro llm e n ts in p ublic v o c a tio n a l schools, for exam ple, have tripled, while the num ber o f persons regis tered in apprenticeship programs has jum ped 40 percent. The dem and for workers in these an d o th e r o c c u p a tio n s re q u irin g technical, vocational, or apprentice ship training is expected to continue to rise through the m id-1980’s. The need for w orkers who have some type of postsecondary training definitely is expanding. But the deci sion to go to college is an individual m atter. Persons who choose occupa tions th a t require college degrees should not necessarily be discour aged from pursuing careers that they believe m atch th e ir in tere sts and abilities. They may wish, however, to acquire more inform ation on the em ployment outlook for their fields, and to retain the option of switching to related occupations that offer better opportunities. The introductory sec tio n o f th e O ccupational O utlook Handbook fo r College Graduates con tains a detailed discussion of the job prospects for college graduates. Individuals who have less clear-cut occupational goals may wish to re view their reasons for going to col lege. College can provide many valu a b le o p p o rtu n itie s fo r p e rs o n a l growth and self-discovery, as well as the chance to increase o n e’s knowl edge of particular subject areas. A t tending college for personal reasons alone can be worthwhile, but a stu dent solely interested in career prep aration may find alternative types of e d u c a tio n and train in g p rog ram s more appropriate—either as an addi tion to or as a substitute for college attendance. W hatever o n e’s goals and aspira tions, beginning the planning process early allows students time to consider all the choices that are available for preparing for tom orrow ’s jobs. lllp l i i g g ■ M iiiliiW _______________ . ■ ' ■■ /' ‘ The Outlook for Occupations '§?M ■ INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS C ars, new spapers, radios, b a th tubs, guided missiles, eating utensils, books, and pencil sharpeners all have at least one thing in common. They, and almost all other products that we use, are m ade by the m illions of workers in industrial production and related occupations. M ost o f these skilled and sem i skilled blue-collar workers are em ployed in factories in the mass pro d u c tio n o f g o o d s. O th e rs w ork outside of m anufacturing in a wide variety o f activ ities ranging from showing m otion pictures to shoeing horses. Because mass production would not be possible without interchange able parts, workers in the machining and foundry occupations play a basic role in the production process. These workers make the tools, dies, molds, cores, and other items that can be used to make hundreds or even thou sands of identical parts. Assemblers may then put these parts together to m ake autom obiles, television sets, and hundreds of other products. If the parts or finished products require painting, production painters do that A very large number of jobs open each year in several industrial production and related occupations Selected industrial production and related occupations Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in thousands) 0 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 20 40 60 80 liH Growth Hill Replacement job. After the products are made, in spectors examine and test them to insure quality. Other factory workers are not di rectly involved in the p ro d u ctio n process, but support it in some way. Stationary engineers, for exam ple, operate soilers and other equipm ent used to heat and air-condition facto ries and other buildings, Millwrights move and install heavy m achinery used in the production process and power truck operators move m ateri als about the plant. Printing is another type of mass production. Printing craft w orkers operate the machinery used to print newspapers, books, and other publi cations. Industrial w orkers also are em ployed outside of m anufacturing in a variety of ac tiv ities. A u to m o b ile painters, for example, restore the fin ish on old and damaged cars. Photo graphic laboratory workers develop film and make prints and slides. 31 32 Most jobs in industrial production do not require a high school diploma. However, many employers prefer high school or vocational school graduates who have taken courses such as blueprint reading and m a chine shop. Semiskilled w orkers, such as as semblers and power truck operators, ordinarily need only brief on-the-job training. Skilled workers, such as sta OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tionary engineers and machinists, re quire considerable training to qualify for their jobs. Many learn their trades on the job, but training authorities generally recom m end completion of a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship p ro gram as the best way to learn a skilled trade. This chapter includes statem ents on 21 industrial production and re lated occupations. Many other work ers who are involved in industrial production are described elsewhere in the Handbook because o f th eir close a sso c ia tio n w ith p a rtic u la r occupational groups. For exam ple, engineers are included in the chapter on scientific and technical occupa tions. or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. D epartm ent of Labor. Inform ation also is available from the following organizations: American Foundrymen’s Society, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union, 1225 E. McMillan St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45206. Many of the products that we use every day are m ade by casting or have parts that are m ade by casting. Casting is a method of forming metal into intricate shapes by pouring mol ten m etal into carefully p rep ared molds and allowing it to solidify. F o u n d ry w o rk e rs p ro d u c e m etal castin g s fo r n u m e ro u s in d u stria l household products th at range from m achine tools and autom obiles to bathtubs. The patternmaker, the molder, and the coremaker each play an im por tant part in the process. A pattern maker m akes a wood or metal model of the casting. A molder places it in a box and packs sand around the m od el to form a mold. If the casting is to have a hollow section, a coremaker makes a core of packed and hard ened sand that is positioned in the m old b efo re the m olten m etal is poured in. In 1976, ab o u t 18,000 p a tte rn makers, 53,000 molders, and 22,000 corem akers worked in the foundry in d u stry . A b o u t th re e -fo u rth s o f them worked in shops that make and sell castings. The rem ainder worked in plants th at make castings to use in their final products, such as plants operated by m anufacturers of auto mobiles or machinery. A high school education is the minimum requirem ent for an appren ticesh ip in p a tte rn m a k in g . Som e highly skilled molding and corem ak ing jo b s also may req u ire a high sch o o l e d u c a tio n , b u t an eighth grade education may be enough for entry into many molding and core making jobs. The production and use of castings are expected to grow significantly through the m id-1980’s. However, because o f autom ation and other la borsaving im provem ents in produc tion m ethods, em ploym ent o f p at te rn m a k e rs , c o re m a k e rs , and molders is expected to increase only about as fast as the average for all occupations. In addition to those job openings th at result from em ploy m ent grow th, o th e r openings will arise from the need to replace experi enced w orkers who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. The num ber o f openings may fluctuate from year to year because foundry em ploym ent is very sensitive to ups and downs in the economy. Patternm akers, molders, and core makers are discussed in detail in the following statem ents. (F or a general description of many other jobs in volved in metal casting, see the state m ent on foundries elsewhere in the Handbook.) PATTERNMAKERS Nature of the Work Foundry patternm akers are highly skilled craftworkers who make the patterns used in making molds for metal castings. Most of the workers in the occupation are metal pattern makers (D.O.T. 600.280); a smaller n u m b e r are wood p a tte rn m a k e rs (D .O .T . 6 6 1 .2 8 1 ). Some p a tte rn m akers work with both m etal and wood as well as with plaster and plas tics. P attern m ak ers w ork from blu e prints prepared by engineers or draft ers. They make a precise pattern for the product, carefully checking each dimension with instrum ents such as m icrom eters and calipers. Precision is im portant because any im perfec tions in the pattern will be re p ro duced in the castings made from it. Sources of Additional Information For details about training opportu nities for p attern m ak ers, m olders, and corem akers, contact local found ries, the local office of the State em ployment service, the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency, Although employment of foundry workers is expected to show little change, some openings will be created by growth and replacement needs Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in hundreds) 0 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 5 1 0 1 5 20 Growth MSB Replacement 33 34 Wood patternm akers select the wood stock, lay out the pattern, and saw each piece of wood to size. They then shape the rough pieces into final form with various woodworking m a chines, such as lathes and sanders, as well as many small handtools. Final ly, they assem ble the p attern seg ments by hand, using glue, screws, and nails. Metal patternm akers prepare p at terns from metal stock or from rough castings m ade from a wood pattern. To shape and finish the patterns, they use many m etalw orking m achines, including lathes, drill presses, shap ers, milling m achines, power hack saws, and grinders. They also use small handtools, such as flies and rasps. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Apprenticeship is the best means of qualifying as an experienced p at ternm aker. Because of the high de gree of skill and the wide range of knowledge needed for patternm ak OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ing, it is difficult to learn the trade on the job, but in some instances skilled m achinists have been able to transfer to m etal patternm aking with addi tional on-the-job training or experi ence. High school courses in m e chanical drawing, blueprint reading, and shop m athem atics are helpful to persons interested in becoming p at ternm akers. In addition, vocational and technical school training in p at ternm aking, metalworking, and m a chining provide useful preparation for an apprentice, and may be credit ed toward com pletion of the appren ticeship. The usual apprenticeship period for patternm aking is 5 years; how ever, a few apprenticeships last only 3 or 4 years. Each year at least 144 hours of classroom instruction usual ly are provided. A pprenticeship p ro gram s fo r w ood an d m e ta l p a t ternm aking are separate. Employers almost always require apprentices to have a high school education. A pprentices begin by helping ex perienced patternm akers in routine Patternmakers must carefully check each dimension. duties. They m ake simple patterns u n d e r close su p erv isio n ; as th ey progress, the work becom es increas ingly com plex and the supervision m ore general. P atternm akers earn higher pay as their skill increases, and some becom e supervisors. Patternm aking, although not strenuous, requires considerable standing and moving about. M anual dexterity is especially im portant be cause o f the precise nature o f the work. The ability to visualize objects in three dimensions also is im portant when reading blueprints. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent o f foundry p attern makers is expected to increase only about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s d esp ite th e a n tic ip a te d large in creases in foundry production. The increased use of m etal patterns will allow production to increase faster than em ploym ent. M etal p attern s, unlike w ooden ones, can be used again and again, thus reducing the num ber of patterns that have to be made. In addition to those openings cre ated by em ploym ent growth, some job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced pattern m akers who retire, die, or transfer to o th e r o ccu p atio n s. M ost o f th ese openings will be for m etal pattern m akers. T he num ber o f openings may fluctuate from year to year since the dem and for foundry products is sensitive to changes in the economy. B ecause patternm akers learn ei th er basic m etalw orking or w ood working, they are prepared for jobs in related fields when patternm aking em ploym ent is not available. W ood patternm akers can qualify for wood working jobs such as cabinetm aker, and m etal patternm akers can trans fer their skills to m etalworking jobs such as machinist. Earnings and Working Conditions Patternm akers generally have higher earnings than other pro d u c tion w orkers in m anufacturing. In January 1976, average straight-tim e hourly earnings of wood patternm ak ers ranged from $6 in gray iron and 35 FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS malleable iron foundries, to $6.25 in nonferrous foundries, according to a wage survey made by the National Foundry Association. In com parison, all production workers in m anufac turing industries averaged $5.19 an hour. P a tte rn m a k e rs w ork indoors in w ell-lighted, w ell-ventilated areas. The rooms in which they work gener ally are sep arated from the areas where the casting takes place, so they are not exposed to the heat and noise of the foundry floor. For sources of additional inform a tion, see the introductory section of this chapter. workers set up and adjust their own machines. In a few foundries, hand molders still construct the sand molds, using primarily manual m ethods. Power tools, such as pneum atic ramm ers, and handtools, such as trowels and mallets, are used to sm ooth the sand. Molds for small castings usually are made on the workbench by bench molders (D.O.T. 518.381); those for large and bulky castings are made on the foundry floor by floor molders (D.O.T. 518.381). An all-round hand m older makes many different types of molds. A less skilled m older specializes in a few simple types. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement MOLDERS Nature of the Work One of the oldest known methods of making metal products is by metal casting, or the process of pouring molten metal into a previously made mold and allowing the metal to hard en in the shape of the mold. There are several different ways of making molds, but sand molding is the most common. In sand molding, molders make the mold by packing and ram ming specially prepared sand around a pattern—a model of the object to be d u p lic a te d —in a box called a flask. A flask usually is made in two parts th at can be separated to re move the pattern w ithout damaging the mold cavity. W hen molten metal is poured into the cavity, it solidifies and forms the casting. (O ther types of molds and molding processes are described in the foundry industry section of the Handbook). Technologically advanced molding machines th at pack and ram the sand m echanically are now used to make most molds. Thus, m ost of the work ers in this occupation are machine m olders. Machine molders (D .O .T. 5 1 8 .7 8 2 ) o p e ra te m ach in e s th a t speed up and simplify the making of large q u an titie s o f id en tical sand molds. M achine m olders assemble the flask and pattern on the m achine tab le, fill the flask with prepared sand, and operate the m achine with le forers and pedals. M any o f these Digitized FRASER C om pletion o f a 4-year ap p ren ticeship program , or equivalent expe rience, is needed to becom e a skilled h an d m o ld e r. W o rk e rs w ith this training also are preferred for some kinds o f m achine m olding, but in general a shorter training period is required in order to becom e a quali fied m achine molder. Some people learn molding skills informally on the job, but this way of learning the trade takes longer and is less reliable than apprenticeship. An eighth grade education usually is the minimum requirem ent for ap- prenticeship. Many employers, how ever, prefer high school graduates. A pprentices, under close supervi sion by skilled molders, begin with simple jobs, such as shoveling sand, and then gradually take on more dif ficult and responsible work, such as ram m ing m olds, w ithdraw ing p a t terns, and setting cores. They also learn to operate the various types of molding machines. As their training progresses, they learn to make com plete molds. In addition, the appren tice may work in other foundry de p a r tm e n ts to d e v e lo p a ll-ro u n d knowledge of foundry m ethods and practices. The apprentice usually re ceives a t least 144 hours of class room instruction each year in sub j e c t s s u c h as sh o p a r it h m e t i c , metallurgy, and shop drawing. Hand molders who do highly re petitive work that requires less skill usually learn their jobs during a brief training period. Trainees work with a molder to make a particular kind of mold. After 2 to 6 months, the train ee usually is capable of m aking a similar mold. Most m achine molding jobs can be learned in 2 to 3 m onths on the job. Physical standards for molding jobs are fairly high. Hand molders stand while working, must move about a great deal, and frequently must lift heavy objects. They need good vision and a high degree of m anual dexterity. M olders may ad vance to a specialized molding job or eventually to a supervisory position. Employment Outlook Molders need good vision and manual dexterity. Employment of m olders is expect ed to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. A lthough the d e mand for metal castings is expected to increase significantly, the trend to more m achine molding, such as the sand slinging process, and other la b o rsa v in g in n o v a tio n s will allow large increases in production with only m oderate em ploym ent growth. In addition to job openings created by em ploym ent growth, openings will arise from the need to replace experi enced m olders who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The num ber of openings, however, may fluctuate greatly from year to year 36 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK b ecau se th e d em an d for foundry products is sensitive to changes in the economy. Earnings and Working Conditions In January 1976, floor molders av eraged $5.52 an h o u r and bench molders averaged $4.98, according to a wage survey m ade by the N ation al Foundry Association. By com pari son, production workers in all m anu facturing industries averaged $5.19 an hour. M olders who were paid on an incentive basis generally had high er earnings. W orking conditions vary consider ably from one foundry to another. H eat, fum es, and dust, have been greatly reduced in many plants by the installation of im proved ventilation systems and air-conditioning; how ever, in many older foundries these still are problems. W orking in a foundry can be haz ardous, and the injury rate is higher than the average for all m anufactur ing industries. Safety program s and safety equipm ent, such as m etal-plat ed shoes, have helped reduce injuries at many foundries; however, molders must be careful to avoid burns from h o t m etal and to avoid cu ts and bruises when handling m etal parts and power tools. For sources of additional inform a tion, see the introductory section of this chapter. COREMAKERS Nature of the Work C orem akers prepare the “ cores” that are placed in molds to form the hollow sections in m etal castings. The poured metal solidifies around the core, so that when the core is removed the desired cavity or con tour remains. A co re may be m ade eith er by hand or by machine. In both instanc es, sand is packed into a block of wood or m etal in which a space of the desired size and shape has been hollowed out. A fter the core is re moved from this box, it is hardened by baking or by another drying m eth od. W hen hand m ethods are used, the corem aker uses mallets and other handtools to pack sand into the core box. Small cores are m ade on the w o rk b e n c h by bench corem akers (D.O.T. 518.381) and large ones are made on the foundry floor by floor coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381). Machine coremakers (D.O.T. 518.885) operate m achines that make sand cores by forcing sand into a core box. Some m achine corem akers are required to set up and adjust their m achines and do finishing o p erations on the cores. Others are pri marily m achine tenders. They are closely su p erv ise d and th e ir m a chines are adjusted for them. (To see how the corem aker’s job is a basic step in the casting process, read the description of sand casting given in the statem ent on foundries elsewhere in the Handbook.) equivalent experience is needed to becom e a skilled hand corem aker. Apprenticeships also are sometimes required for the m ore difficult m a chine corem aking jobs. A pprentice ships in corem aking and molding of ten are com bined. Experienced corem akers teach ap prentices how to m ake cores and op erate ovens. Classroom instruction covering subjects such as arithm etic and the properties o f metals general ly supplem ents on-the-job training. C orem akers earn higher pay as their skill increases, and som e may ad vance to supervisors. An eighth grade education usually is the minimum requirem ent for corem aking apprentices; however, most employers prefer high school graduates, and some employers re quire apprentices to have graduated from high school. Som e types o f hand corem aking require a high de gree of m anual dexterity. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment Outlook C om pletion of a 4-year a p p ren ticesh ip train in g p ro g ram or th e Although the production and use of metal castings are expected to FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS increase substantially, employm ent o f co rem ak ers is ex p e cted to in crease only about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the m id-1980’s, as the growing use of machine corem aking will allow large increases in p ro d u ctio n with only m oderate em ploym ent growth. In ad dition to those job openings created by employm ent growth, other open ings will arise because o f the need to replace experienced corem akers who retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. T he n u m b er o f openings may fluctuate greatly from year to year since the dem and for foundry 37 products is sensitive to changes in the economy. Earnings and Working Conditions In January 1976, average hourly earnings of floor corem akers were $5.30; bench corem akers, $5.28; and m achine corem akers, $5.31, accord ing to a wage survey m ade by the N ational Foundry A ssociation. By com parison, production workers in all m an ufacturing industries av e r aged $5.19 an hour. C o rem ak ers who were paid on an incentive basis generally had higher earnings than those who were paid a straight hourly wage. W orking conditions vary consider ably from one foundry to another. H eat, fum es, and dust, have been greatly reduced in many plants by the installation of im proved ventilation system s and air-co n d itio n in g . A l though the injury rate in foundries is higher than the average for m anufac turing, corem aking is one o f the least hazardous foundry jobs. For sources of additional inform a tion, see the introductory section of this chapter. perform ed, training, and earnings of these occupations are presented in the chapters that follow.) MACHINING OCCUPATIONS ALL-ROUND MACHINISTS M achine tools are stationary, pow er-driven devices used to shape or form metal by cutting, im pact, pres sure, electrical techniques, or a com b in atio n o f these processes. M ost m achine tools are nam ed for the way in which they shape metal. For exam ple, com m only used m achine tools include boring m achines, milling m a chines, lathes, drilling machines, and grinding machines. In 1976, over 1.1 million machinists, m achine tool op erators, tool-and-die m akers, setup workers, and instrum ent m akers used m achine tools to m ake precise metal parts. The m ost outstanding characteris tic of m achine tools is their precision of operation. For exam ple, in this cen tu ry th e accu racy o f m achine tools has im proved from a th o u sandth of an inch to about a millionth of an inch. A millionth of an inch is about 1/300th as thick as a human hair. This precision m akes possible the production of thousands of iden tical parts which may easily be inter changed in the assembly or repair o f final products. The interchangeabil ity o f parts, m ade possible by m a chine tools, is the m ost im portant re quirem ent for the mass production of goods. As a result, nearly every prod uct of Am erican industry, from corn flakes to tu rb in es, is m ade eith er using m achine tools or using m a chines m ade with m achine tools. All-round m achinists can operate most types o f m achine tools, whereas machine tool operators generally work with one kind only. Tool-anddie m akers m ake dies (m etal form s) for presses and diecasting m achines, devices to guide drills into metal, and special gauges to determ ine w hether the work m eets specified tolerances. Instrum ent m akers use m achine tools to pro d u ce highly accurate instru m ent parts from metal and other m a terials. Setup workers adjust tools for sem iskilled m achine tool operators to run. (D etailed discussions of work Technological advances will limit growth in all machining occupations. However, highly skilled machinists and tool-and-die makers will not be affected as much as less skilled operators and setup workers Selected machining occupations Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in thousands) o Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 38 10 15 Growth 20 25 Replacement (D.O.T. 600.280, .281, and .381) Nature of the Work All-round m achinists are skilled metal workers who can perform a w ide variety o f m achining o p e ra tions. They are able to set up and operate m ost types o f machine tools used to make metal parts for cars, machines, and other equipm ent. M a chinists also know the working p ro p erties of a variety of metals including steel, cast iron, alum inum, brass, and other metals. This knowledge o f m et als, plus their ability to work with m achine tools, enables m achinists to turn a block of metal into an intricate part m eeting precise specifications. All-round machinists plan and c a r ry through all the operations needed to m ake a machined product. They also often are able to switch from making one product to another; as a result, variety is a m ajor feature of all-round m achinists’ work. Before they begin actually making a m achined product, m achinists usu ally co n su lt b lu ep rin ts o r w ritten specifications for th e item . Using these, they are able to select tools and m aterials for the job and plan the cu ttin g and finishing o p e ra tio n s. They also m ake standard shop com putations relating to dimensions o f work and machining specifications. To be sure their work is accurate, they check it using precision instru m ents, such as m icrom eters, which measure to thousandths or even mil lionths o f an inch. A fter com pleting machining operations, they may use hand files and scrapers to sm ooth rough m etal edges before assembling the finished parts with wrenches and screwdrivers. Like production machinists, all round machinists who work in plant m aintenance shops have a broad knowledge of m echanical principles and machining operations. These workers are responsible for repairing MACHINING OCCUPATIONS parts or making new parts for m a chinery th at has broken down. They som etimes also adjust and test the parts they have made or repaired for a machine. Places of Employment About 400,000 persons worked as machinists in 1976. Almost every factory using substantial am ounts of m achinery employed all-round m a chinists to m aintain its m echanical equipm ent. Some all-round m achin ists made large quantities of identical parts such as autom obile axle shafts in production departm ents of m etal working factories; others m ade limit ed num bers of varied products such 39 as missile m otor cases in m achine shops. Most all-round machinists worked in the following industries: m achin ery, including electrical; transporta tion e q u ip m e n t; fa b ric a te d m etal products; and primary metals. O ther in d u s trie s e m p lo y in g s u b s ta n tia l num bers of these w orkers were the railroad, chem ical, food processing, and textile industries. The Federal G overnm ent also em ployed all-round machinists in Navy yards and other installations. Although machinists work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where many facto ries are located. Among the leading Most machinists work in factories that produce metal products such as automobiles and machinery. areas of em ploym ent are Los Ange les, C hicago, New Y ork, Philadel phia, B oston, San F ran cisco , and Houston. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A 4-year formal apprenticeship is the best way to learn the machinist trade, but some com panies have training program s for single-purpose m achines that require less than 4 years to com plete. Many machinists do learn this trade on the job, how ever. Persons interested in becoming machinists should be mechanically inclined and tem peram entally suited to do highly accurate work that re quires concentration as well as phys ical effort. P rospective m achinists should be able to work independent ly. Although the work sometimes is ted io u s and re p etitio u s, all-round machinists frequently have the satis faction o f seeing the final results of their work. A high school or vocational school education, including m athem atics, physics, or m achine shop training, is desirable. Some com panies require experienced machinists to take addi tional courses in m athem atics and electronics at com pany expense so that they can service and operate nu merically controlled m achine tools. In addition, equipm ent builders gen erally provide training in the electri cal, hydraulic, and m echanical as p e c ts o f m a c h i n e - a n d - c o n t r o l systems. Typical m achinist apprentice p ro grams consist of approxim ately 8,000 hours o f shop training and about 570 hours o f related classroom instruc tion. In shop training, apprentices learn chipping, filing, hand tapping, dowel fitting, riveting, and the opera tion of various m achine tools. In the classroom, they study blueprint read in g , m e c h a n ic a l d ra w in g , sh o p m athem atics, and shop practices. All-round machinists have num er ous opportunities for advancem ent. M any b e c o m e su p erv iso rs. Som e take additional training and becom e tool-and-die or instrum ent m akers. Skilled m achinists may open th eir own shops o r ad vance into othe 40 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK technical jobs in m achine program ming and tooling. Employment Outlook The num ber of all-round m achin ists is expected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Growth in the dem and for m achined m etal parts will cause m ost o f the increase. In addition to openings cre ated by growth in this large occupa tion, many openings will arise from the need to replace experienced m a chinists who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. As population and income rise, so will the dem and for m achined goods, such as autom obiles, household ap plian ces, and in d u strial p ro d u cts. H ow ever, te c h n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p ments that increase the productivity of machinists are expected to keep em ploym ent from rising as fast as the demand for m achined goods. Chief among these technological innovations is the expanding use of numerically controlled m achine tools. These machines, which use com puters to co n tro l various m a chining operations, significantly re duce the time required to perform machining operations. Much of the em ploym ent growth will occur in the m aintenance shops of m anufacturing plants as industries continue to use a greater volume of complex machinery and equipm ent. More skilled m aintenance machinists will be n ee d ed to p re v en t costly breakdow ns in highly m echanized plants. Often the breakdown of just one m achine can stop an entire pro duction line for hours. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of machinists com pare favorably with those of other sk ille d w o rk e rs. M a c h in ists e m ployed in m etropolitan areas had es tim ated average hourly earnings of $6.76 in 1976. Average hourly rates in 10 of the areas surveyed, selected to show how wage rates differ in var ious parts o f the country, appear in the accbm panying tab u latio n . Be cause machinists work indoors, they are for able to work year round and in all Digitized FRASER Area Hourly rate San Francisco—Oakland.................. $7.82 Detroit..................................................... 7.61 New York............................................... 7.39 Houston................................................... 7.23 Chicago................................................... 7.19 Minneapolis—St. Paul.......................... 6.87 Atlanta.................................................... 6.65 Dallas—Fort Worth............................... 6.60 Boston................................................. 6.33 New Orleans........................................... 6.18 kinds of weather. As a result, their earnings are relatively stable. Many also receive num erous opportunities for overtim e work. Machinists must follow strict safe ty regulations when working around hig h -sp eed m achine tools. S hortsleeved shirts, safety glasses, and o th er protective devices are required to reduce accidents. M ost shops are c le a n an d w o rk p la c e s are w elllighted. Many machinists are members of unions including the International Association of M achinists and A ero space W o rk ers; the In te rn a tio n a l U nion, U nited A utom obile, A e ro space and A gricultural Im plem ent W orkers o f A m erica; the In te rn a tional Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine W orkers; the International B rotherhood of Electrical W orkers; an d th e U n ited S te e lw o rk e rs o f America. Sources of Additional Information The National M achine Tool Build ers Association, 7901 W estpark Dr., M cLean, Va. 22101—whose m em bers build a large percentage of all machine tools used in this country— will supply, on request, inform ation on career opportunities in the m a chine tool industry. The National Tool, Die and Preci sion M achining A ssociation, 9300 L iv in g sto n R d., O xon H ill, M d. 20022, offers inform ation on appren ticeship training, including reco m m ended apprenticeship standards for tool and die m akers certified by the U.S. D epartm ent of L ab o r’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. The Tool and Die Institute, 777 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068 — a trade association—offers inform ation on apprenticeship train ing in the Chicago area. M any local offices of State em ploym ent services provide free apti tude testing to persons interested in* becom ing all-round m achinists or tool and diemakers. In addition, the State em ploym ent service refers ap plicants for apprentice programs to em ployers. In m any com m unities, applications for apprenticeship also are received by labor-m anagem ent apprenticeship com m ittees. A pprenticeship inform ation also may be obtained from the following unions (which have local offices in many cities): International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, Skilled Trades De partment, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., De troit, Mich. 48214. International Union of Electrical Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. INSTRUMENT MAKERS (MECHANICAL) (D.O.T. 600.280) Nature of the Work Instrum ent makers (also called ex perim ental m achinists and m odelm akers) are among the most skilled of all m achining workers. They work closely with engineers and scientists to translate designs and ideas into experim ental models, special labora tory equipm ent, and custom instru m ents. E xperim ental devices c o n structed by these craft workers are used, for example, to regulate heat, m e a su re d is ta n c e , re c o rd e a r t h quakes, and control industrial p ro cesses. The parts and m odels may range from simple gears to intricate parts of navigation systems for guid ed missiles. Instrum ent m akers also modify existing instrum ents for spe cial purposes. Instrum ent m akers perform many tasks similair to those done by all round machinists, tool-and-die m ak ers, and setup workers. For example 41 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS they may set up and use m achine tools such as lathes and milling m a chines to fabricate metal parts for the instruments they make. In addition, they use handtools such as files and chisels to smooth rough metal parts. As in other types of machining work, accuracy is im portant. Like most m a chining workers, instrum ent makers measure finished parts to make sure they m eet sp ecificatio n s, using a wide variety of precision measuring equipm ent, including m icrom eters, verniers, calipers, and dial indicators, as well as standard optical measuring instruments. U nlike o th e r skilled m achining w orkers, instru m en t m akers often are not given detailed instructions, such as blueprints, for their work. Instead, they may work from rough sketches or verbal instructions, or they may simply be given a concept to work with. As a result, their work often requires considerable imagina tion and ingenuity. In addition they must often work to finer tolerances th a n o th e r m a c h in in g w o rk e rs. Som etim es specifications m ust not vary more than 10 millionths o f an inch. To m eet these standards, they use special equipm ent or precision devices, such as the electronic height gauge, which other machining w ork ers seldom use. They also work with a wider variety of materials than o th er machining workers. These m ateri als include plastics and rare metals such as titanium and rhodium. In some instances, instrum ent makers work on instrum ents from start to finish. T hat is, they make all the parts, assemble them , and then test the finished product. However, in large shops, or where time is im p o rtan t, the work may be divided among a num ber of workers. Similar ly, if an instrum ent has electrical or electro n ic com ponents, electronic specialists may be consulted. Places of Employment Many o f the approxim ately 6,000 instrum ent m akers employed in 1976 worked for firms that m anufactured instrum ents. Others were in research Instrument makers work closely with engineers and scientists. and developm ent laboratories that make special devices for scientific research. The Federal Governm ent em ployed many instrum ent makers. The main centers of instrum ent making are located in and around a few large cities, particularly New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, W ashington, D etroit, Buffalo, and Cleveland. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some instrum ent m akers advance from the ranks of machinists or skilled m achine tool operators. These already skilled craft workers begin by doing the sim pler instru m ent making tasks under close su pervision. Usually 1 to 2 years or more of instrum ent shop experience are needed to qualify as instrum ent makers. O ther instrum ent makers learn their trade through apprenticeships that generally last 4 years. A typical 4-year program includes 8,000 hours of shop training and 576 hours of related classroom instruction. Shop training emphasizes the use of m a chine tools, handtools, and m easur ing in stru m en ts, and the w orking p ro p e rtie s o f v a rio u s m a te ria ls . Classroom instruction covers related technical subjects such as m athem at ics, physics, blueprint reading, chem istry, m etallurgy, elec tro n ics, and fundam ental instrum ent design. A p prentices m ust learn enough shop m athem atics to plan their work and to use formulas. A basic knowledge of m echanical principles is needed in solving gear and linkage problems. For apprenticeship programs, em ployers generally prefer high school graduates who have taken algebra, geom etry, trigonom etry, science, and m achine shopwork. F urther techni cal schooling in electricity, physics, m achine design, and electronics of ten is desirable, and may make possi ble future prom otions to technician jobs. Persons interested in becoming in s tru m e n t m a k e rs sh o u ld hav e a strong interest in m echanical sub jects and better than average ability to work with their hands. They must have initiative and resourcefulness OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 42 becau se in stru m en t m akers often work with little or no supervision. Since instrum ent m akers often face new problems, they must be able to develop original solutions. F requent ly, they must visualize the relation ship between individual parts and the complete instrum ent, and must un derstand the principles of the instru m ent’s operation. Because of the na ture of their jobs, instrum ent m akers have to be very conscientious and take considerable pride in creative work. As instrum ent m akers’ skills and knowledge im prove, they may ad vance to m ore responsible positions. For example, they may plan and esti m ate time and m aterial requirem ents for the m anufacture o f instrum ents o r provide specialized su p p o rt to professional personnel. Others may becom e supervisors and train less skilled instrum ent makers. Employment Outlook Employment in this very small oc cupation is expected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. M ost openings, however, will occur as workers retire, die, or leave the o ccu p atio n for o th e r reasons. Overall, replacem ent needs will be small because there are so few w ork ers in this field. Some workers will be needed to make m odels of new instrum ents for mass production and also to make custom or special instrum ents, p ar ticularly in the expanding field o f in dustrial autom ation. Also, more ver s a t i l e a n d s e n s i t i v e p r e c i s io n in s tru m e n ts can be e x p e c te d to em erge from cu rren t research and developm ent programs. Laborsaving technological innovations, however, will limit em ploym ent growth. N u m erically controlled m achine tools, for example, reduce the am ount of labor required in machining opera tions. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of instrum ent m akers com pare favorably with those of o th er highly skilled m etalw orkers. In 1976, instrum ent m akers generally earned about $7 an hour. Instrum ent shops usually are clean and well-lighted, with tem peratures strictly controlled. Instrum ent assem bly rooms are som etimes known as “ white room s,” because almost ster ile conditions are m aintained. Serious work accidents are not com m on, but m achine tools and flying m etal particles may cause fin ger, hand, and eye injuries. Safety rules generally require the wearing o f special glasses, aprons, tightly fitted clothes, and short-sleeved shirts. Many instrum ent m akers are union members. Among the unions rep re senting them are the International Association o f Machinists and A ero space W o rk ers; th e In te rn a tio n a l B rotherhood of Electrical W orkers; and the International Union, United Autom obile, A erospace and Agricul tural Im plem ent W orkers o f A m er ica. Sources of Additional information See the list under this same head ing in the previous statem ent on all round machinists. MACHINE TOOL OPERATORS (D.O.T. 602., 603., 604., 605., and 606.) ing m achine operator and drill press operator. Most m achine tool operators fall into the semiskilled category. Their jobs vary according to the type of machine they work with; however, there are many tasks com m on to most m achine tools. Typically, semi skilled operators place rough m etal stock in a machine tool on which the speeds and operation sequence al ready have been set by skilled w ork ers. By using sp ecial, easy-to-use gauges they watch the machine and make m inor adjustm ents. However, they depend on skilled m achining workers for m ajor adjustm ents when their m achine is not working proper tyThe work of skilled m achine tool operators is similar to that of all round machinists, except that it usu ally is lim ited to only one type of m achine and involves little or no h a n d fittin g o r asse m b ly w o rk . Skilled m achine tool operators plan and set up the correct sequence of m achining operations according to blueprints, layouts, or other instruc tions. They adjust speed, feed, and other controls, and select the proper cutting instrum ents or tools for each operation. Using m icrom eters, gaug es, and other precision m easuring in strum ents, they com pare the com pleted work with the tolerance limits given in the specifications. They also may select cutting oils to keep the Nature of the Work M achine tool operators use m a chine tools such as lathes, drill press es, milling m achines, grinding m a chines, and punch presses to shape m etal to p recise dim ensions. A l though som e o p e ra to rs can w ork with a wide variety of machine tools, most specialize in one or two types. O perators fall into two broad skill categories—semiskilled and skilled. Semiskilled operators are essentially m achine tenders who perform sim ple, repetitive operations that can be learned relatively quickly. Skilled o p erators can perform varied and com plex m ach in in g o p e ra tio n s. B oth skilled an d sem iskilled o p e ra to rs have job titles related to the kind o f m achine they operate, such as mill Machine tool operators must adjust ma chines with precision. MACHINING OCCUPATIONS 43 Although no special education is requirem ents th at will result from required for semiskilled jobs, persons technological advances. seeking such work can improve their opportunities by com pleting courses Earnings and Working in m athem atics and blueprint read Conditions Places of Employment ing. In hiring beginners, employers M achine tool operators are paid More than 500,000 m achine tool often look for persons with m echani operators were em ployed in 1976. cal ap titu d e and som e experience according to hourly or incentive Most worked in factories that pro w orking with m achinery. Physical rates, or on the basis o f a com bina d u ce fa b ric a te d m etal p ro d u c ts, stamina is im portant since much time tion of both methods. Highly skilled transportation equipm ent, and m a is spent standing. Applicants should operators in m etropolitan areas had chinery in large quantities. Skilled be able to work independently. They estim ated hourly earnings of $7.11 in machine tool operators also worked also should not mind working in a 1976. This com pares favorably with in production departm ents, m ainte relatively small workspace. Although the average for nonsupervisory work much of the work is tedious, many ers in private industry, except farm nance departm ents, and toolrooms. M achine tool operators work in machine tool operators derive satis ing. Average hourly rates in 10 of the every State and in almost every city faction from seeing the results o f areas surveyed, selected to show how in the United States. They are con their work. wage rates of m achine tool operators centrated, however, in major indus Skilled m achine tool operators differ in various parts of the country, trial areas such as the G reat Lakes may becom e all-round machinists, appear in the accom panying tabula Region. A bout one-fourth of all m a tool-and-die m akers, or advance to tion. chine to o l o p erato rs work in the jobs in m achine program ming and G reat Lakes cities of D etroit, Flint, m aintenance. Area Hourly rate Chicago, Cleveland, and Milwaukee. Detroit................................................. $7.89 Am ong th e o th er areas th at have Employment Outlook Cleveland............................................... 7.30 large num bers of these workers are Chicago.................................................. 7 .14 Los Angeles, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Job opportunities for m achine tool St. Louis.............................................. 6.93 and Indianapolis. operators should be fairly plentiful in Baltimore................................................ 6.84 6.34 the years ahead. Em ploym ent in the Cincinnati............................................... 6.30 occupation is expected to increase Houston.................................................. Training, Other Qualifications, 6.18 about as fast as the average for all Minneapolis—St. Paul.......................... and Advancement 6.12 occupations through the m id-1980’s. Dallas—FortWorth................................ Boston..................................................... 5 .76 Most m achine tool operators learn In addition to openings arising from their skills on the job. Beginners usu growth, many thousands of openings M ost shops are clean and w ork ally start by simply observing experi are expected to occur each year in enced operators at work. Later they this large occupation as operators places are well-lighted. M achine tool learn to use m easuring instrum ents retire, die, or transfer to other fields operators must use protective glasses to protect their eyes from flying m et and to m ake elem entary com puta of work. More m achine tool operators will al particles. They cannot wear loosetions n eed ed in shopw ork. W hen trainees first operate a m achine, they be needed as m etalw orking indus fitting garm ents as these might get are supervised closely by more expe tries expand their output. However, caught in the m achine, injuring the rienced workers. After gaining some the use o f faster and more versatile operator or causing damage to the experience themselves, beginners of autom atic machine tools and num eri machine. Most m achine tool operators be ten take over more o f the duties asso cally controlled m achine tools will ciated with the tools they operate. result in greater output per worker long to unions, including the Interna For example, they may learn to ad a n d te n d to lim it e m p lo y m e n t tional Association of Machinists and just feed speeds and cutting edges, growth. O ther factors that may slow A erospace W orkers; the Internation instead of calling upon other workers growth in this occupation are the in al Union, United A utom obile, A ero to perform these tasks. Some also creasingly im portant new processes space and A gricultural Im plem ent may learn to read blueprints and plan in m etalw orking, such as electrical W orkers o f A m erica; the In tern a discharge and ultrasonic machining, tional Union of Electrical, Radio and the sequence of machining work. Individual ability and effort largely and the use o f powdered metals that M achine W orkers; the International determ ine the time required to be reduce the machining necessary for a B rotherhood o f Electrical W orkers; an d th e U n ited S te e lw o rk e rs o f come a m achine tool operator. Most final product. W o rk e rs w ith th o ro u g h b a c k America. semiskilled operators learn their jobs in a few m onths, but becom ing a grounds in m achining o p eratio n s, skilled operator often requires I to 2 m athem atics, blueprint reading, and Sources of Additional years. Some com panies have formal a good w orking know ledge o f the Information training program s for new em ploy properties o f m etals will be better ees. able to adjust to the changing jo b See the list under this same headmetal workpiece from getting too hot and lubricating oils to keep the m a chine tools running smoothly. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 44 ing in the statem ent on all-round m a chinists elsewhere in the Handbook. SETUP WORKERS (MACHINE TOOLS) (D.O.T. 600.380) Nature of the Work M achine tools used in shops that do m achining in large volume usually are both very large and very com plex. Setup workers, often called m a chine tool jo b setters, are skilled workers who specialize in preparing these tools for use. Most setup w ork ers work on only one type of m a chine, such as a drill press o r lathe; however, some set up several differ ent kinds. Before they begin preparing a m a chine for use, setup workers consult blueprints, written specifications, o r job layouts. From these they can d e term ine how fast the m aterial to be m achined should be fed into the m a chine, operating speeds, tooling, and the order in which the m achine will perform its operations (operation se quence). They then select and install the proper cutting or other tools and adjust guides, stops, and other co n trols. After setting up the m achine, they usually m ake a trial run to be sure that it is running smoothly and p ro ducing parts that conform to specifi cations. W hen they are sure the m a chine is functioning properly, they explain to semiskilled operators how to run the m achine and how to be sure that the m achine’s output meets specifications. They then turn the m achine over to the semiskilled op erators to begin production. Places of Employment In 1976, an estim ated 60,000 setup workers were em ployed in factories that m anufactured fabricated metal products, transportation equipm ent, and machinery. Most worked for large com panies that employed many semiskilled m achine tool operators. Setup w orkers usually are not em ployed in m aintenance shops or in small jobbing shops. Setup workers are found in every State. However, em ploym ent is co n cen trated in m ajor industrial areas such as Los Angeles, Philadelphia, New Y ork, C hicago, D etroit, and Cleveland. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Setup workers must m eet the same qualifications as all-round m achin ists. They must be able to operate one or m ore kinds o f machine tools and select the sequence of operations so that m etal parts will be made ac cording to specifications. The ability to com m unicate clearly is im portant in explaining the machining o p era tions to semiskilled workers. Setup workers may advance within a shop to supervisory jobs or transfer into o th er jobs, such as parts program mer. Employment Outlook Setup worker in a turret lathe operation. Em ployment of setup workers is expected to increase about as fast as 45 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Although consum er and industrial dem and for machined goods will grow, partly off setting this will be greater productiv ity of setup workers due to the in c re a s in g use o f n u m e ric a lly controlled m achined tools. In these m achine tools, cu ttin g sequences, feed speeds, tool selection, and other operations are controlled by a com puter. M ost job o p portunities will arise from the need to replace experi enced w orkers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of setup workers com pare favorably with those of oth er sk illed m ach in in g w orkers. In 1976, setup workers in m etropolitan areas had average earnings of about $7 an hour. Because they work with high speed m achine tools that have sharp cutting edges, setup workers must follow certain safety practices. For example, they cannot wear loosefitting clothes as these might get caught in the m achine and they must wear safety goggles to protect their eyes from flying m etal particles. Many setup workers are members of unions, including the International Association of M achinists and A ero space W o rk ers; th e In tern atio n al U nion, U nited A utom obile, A ero space and A gricultural Im plem en W orkers o f America; and the United Steelworkers of America. ucts—tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices—are used by o th er m achining w orkers to massp ro d u c e m etal p arts. T o o lm ak ers produce jigs and fixtures (devices th at hold m etal while it is shaved, stam ped, or drilled). They also make gauges and other m easuring devices used in m anufacturing precision m et al parts. Diem akers construct metal forms (dies) to shape m etal in stam p ing and forging operations. They also make m etal molds for diecasting and for m olding plastics. T ool-and-die makers also repair worn or dam aged dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures, and design tools and dies. C om pared with m ost o th er m a chining workers, tool-and-die m akers have a b ro ad er knowledge o f m a chining o p e ra tio n s, m ath em atics, and blueprint reading. Like m achin ists, tool-and-die m akers use almost every type of m achine tool and preci sion measuring instrum ent. Because they work with all the m etals and alloys com m only used in m anufac turing, tool-and-die m akers must be familiar with the machining proper ties, such as heat tolerance, of a wide variety o f metals and alloys. Places of Employment M ore than 180,000 tool-and-die m ak ers w ere em p lo y ed in 1976. Most worked in plants that produce m an u fa ctu rin g , c o n stru c tio n , and farm m achinery. O thers worked in autom obile, aircraft, and other trans portation equipm ent industries; small Sources of Additional Information See the list under this same head ing in the statem ent on all-round m a chinists elsewhere in the Handbook. TOOL-AND-DIE MAKERS (D.O.T. 601.280, .281, and .381) Nature of the Work T ool-and-die m akers are highly skilled, creative workers whose prod Tool-and-die makers must have a broad knowledge of machine operations. 46 to o l-an d -d ie shops; and electrical machinery and fabricated metal in dustries. Although tool-and-die m akers are situated throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful in areas where many large factories are located. About one-fifth of all tool-and-die makers work in the D etroit and Flint, Chicago, and Los Angeles areas, which are major m anufacturing cen ters for autom obiles, machinery, and a irc ra ft, resp ectiv ely . A m ong the other areas that have large num bers of these workers are Cleveland, New York, Newark, Dayton, and Buffalo. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tool-and-die m akers obtain their skills in a variety of ways including formal apprenticeship, vocational school, and on-the-job training. For mal apprenticeship program s, how ever, are probably the best way to learn the trade. In selecting apprentices, most em ployers p refer persons with a high school or trad e school education. Applicants should have a good work ing knowledge of m athem atics and physics, as well as considerable m e chanical ability, finger dexterity, and an aptitude for precise work. Some employers test apprentice applicants to determ ine their m echanical apti tudes and their abilities in m athem at ics. Most of the 4 years o f a tool-anddie apprenticeship are spent in prac tical shop training. A pprentices learn to operate the drill press, milling m a chine, lathe, grinder, and other m a chine tools. They also learn to use handtools in fitting and assembling tools, gauges, and other m echanical equipm ent, and study heat treating and oth er m etalw orking processes. Classroom training consists of shop m athem atics, shop theory, m echani cal drawing, tool designing, and blue print reading. Several years of expe rience after apprenticeship are often OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK necessary to qualify for more diffi cult tool-and-die work. Some com pa nies have sep arate ap p ren ticesh ip program s for toolm aking and d ie making. Some m achining workers becom e tool-and-die m akers w ithout co m pleting formal apprenticeships. A fter years of experience as skilled m a chine tool operators or machinists, plus additional classroom training, they develop into skilled all-round w orkers who can m ake tools and dies. Skilled tool-and-die makers have num erous paths for advancem ent. Some advance to supervisory and administrative positons in industry. Many tool-and-die m akers becom e tool designers and others may open their own tool-and-die shops. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Tool-and-die m akers are among the highest paid machining workers. In 1976, tool-and-die m akers em ployed in m etropolitan areas had es tim ated earnings of $7.21 an hour. This was ab o u t one and o n e-h alf times as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in d u stry , e x c e p t fa rm in g . A v erag e hourly rates in 13 of the areas sur veyed, selected to show how wage rates for tool-and-die makers differ in various parts of the country, ap pear in the accom panying tabulation. Area Hourly rate San Francisco—Oakland..................... $8.87 Detroit................................................. 7.88 Chicago............................................... 7.72 Baltimore............................................... 7.6 1 Cleveland.............................................. 7 .18 Atlanta................................................ 7 .0 7 Dallas—Fort Worth............................... 7.00 Cincinnati............................................... 6.82 Boston..................................................... 6.62 Houston................................................... 6.61 New York........................................... 6.45 6.17 Salt Lake C ity................................... Chattanooga........................................... 5 .5 6 Em ployment of tool-and-die m ak ers is expected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Most openings, however, will occur as experienced tool-and-die m akers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The long-range expansion in m et As with other m achining workers, alworking industries will result in a tool-and-die makers wear protective continued need for tools and dies. glasses when working around m etal The growth of this occupation may c u ttin g m a c h in e s. T o o l-a n d -d ie be limited, however, by the use of shops are usually safer than similar electrical discharge m achines and operations in production plants. Many tool-and-die makers are numerically controlled machines that have significantly changed toolm ak mem bers of unions, including the In ing p ro c e sse s. N u m eric ally c o n ternational Union, United A utom o trolled machining operations require bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Im fewer of the special tools and jigs and plem ent W orkers o f A m erica; and fixtures, and could increase the o u t the United Steelworkers of America. put of each tool-and-die maker. The extensive skills and knowledge Sources of Additional of tool-and-die m akers can be a c Information quired only after many years of expe See the list under this same head rience. Because of this, tool-and-die ing in the statem ent on all-round m a makers are able to change jobs w ith chinists elsewhere in the Handbook. in the machining occupations m ore easily than other less skilled workers. PRINTING OCCUPATIONS In craft duce ness 1976, about 390,0000 printing workers were em ployed to pro new spapers, m agazines, busi form s, and hundreds o f other p rin ted m aterials. A lth o u g h m ost worked for publishers and com m er cial printing shops, many had jobs in insurance com panies, p ap e r mills, Most job openings in the printing occupations are to replace persons who retire or leave their jobs for other reasons Selected printing occupations Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in thousands) Bookbinder and related workers Composing room workers Lithographic workers Printing press operators and assistants 2 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics I Growth 4 6 Hi Replacement governm ent agencies, and many o th er organizations that do their own printing. Printing craft workers usually spe cialize in one area o f printing opera tions: Type com position, platem ak ing, presswork, or binding. The most com m on way to learn the skills need ed in m ost o f these fields is through apprenticeship, which generally lasts from 4 to 6 years. A pprenticeship a p p lic a n ts u su ally m u st be high school graduates who are at least 18 years of age, but requirem ents vary am ong em p lo y ers. M ost p rin tin g craft w orkers who are covered by union contracts work fewer than 40 hours a week. Some contracts specify a standard workweek of less than 35 hours, but most fall within a 35- to 37-1/2-hour range. Through the m id-1980’s, opp ortu nities to en ter printing crafts will stem mainly from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. Employment growth also will provide job openings in some crafts, but la borsav in g tech n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p ments will restrict growth in others. T he statem ents th a t follow deal with em ploym ent opportunities for the m ajor groups of printing workers: Composing room occupations, pho toengravers, electrotypers and ste reotypers, printing press operators and assistants, lith o g rap h ers, and bookbinders. There will be fewer jobs in some printing occupations in 1985 than in 1976, due to improved technology COMPOSITORS Percent change in employment, 1976-85 (D.O.T. 650.582, 654.782, and 973.381) Electrotypers and stereotypers Lithographers Nature of the Work ■ 1 Photoengravers Printing press operators and assistants Compositors Bookbinders 40 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics In a small shop, one person may do all the worked needed to com plete a printing job. In large shops however, the work is divided among special ists. Editors select the m aterial to be p r in te d , w hile c o m p o sin g ro o m workers prepare prelim inary printing plates for press room workers who do the actual printing. Com positors, the m ost num erous o f the com posing room occupations, are vital to insur47 48 ing that the job is com pleted accu rately and on time. After deciding what is to be printed and how it should look, edi tors send the m aterial or “ c o p y ” along with a list of specifications to the composing room. There, a com posing room supervisor reviews the editor’s specifications and marks the m anuscript with instructions about the style and size o f type, colum n width, and size of pictures or illustra tions. The copy—the term given to the m aterial to be printed—then is OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK given to a com positor who specializ es in typesetting. Hand compositors (D.O.T. 973.381) make up the oldest com posing room o c c u p a tio n . T o d ay , hand ty p esettin g only is used for small jobs in which the setting of type by m ach in e is im p ra c tic a l. H and typesetters read from the copy and set each line of type, letter by letter, on a “ com positing stick,” a device that holds type in place. They select the place where words will be divided and a hyphen placed if the w ord A compositor apprenticeship generally covers a 6-year period. doesn’t fit on a line (hyphenation), as well as adjust the spacing of the type with pieces of metal so that the line o f type will be the width of the col umn. As each “ stick” is filled, they slide the com pleted lines into a shal low metal tray called “ galley.” Linotype and m onotype m achine operators are craft workers who op erate sem iautom atic m achines th at set type m uch m ore rapidly th an hand methods. Linotype machine operators (D.O.T. 650.582) read from copy clipped to the m achine and operate a keyboard to select letters and other characters. As they press the keys, metal molds o f the letters are assem bled into lines o f words. After com pleting a line, operators touch a lever and the m achine autom atically fills the molds with lead, forming a line of type into a solid m etal strip called a “ slug.” The slugs are assembled into the type fram es from which printing plates are made. Monotype keyboard operators (D.O.T. 650.582) also operate a key board m achine. However, instead of selecting metal molds, the m onotype machine produces a perforated p a per tape, monotype keyboard opera tors or monotype caster operators (D.O.T. 650.782) feed the tape into a m achine that reads the tape and autom atically select metal molds for each letter. The m achine then forces molten m etal into each mold to form the type. While m achines m ake their tasks easier, m onotype and linotype m a chine operators must hyphenate and adjust type spacing to fit the width of colum ns. In small plants, operators also may maintain and repair typeset ting machines. Some typesetting will continue to be done by hand or with m onotype and linotype machines. However, more and m ore firms are using p h o totypesetting m achines, which can set type m uch m ore rapidly than lino type or m onotype m achines. W ith this equipm ent, a photographic p ro cess replaces the casting of type and the final product is a photographic film of the type rather than a m etal slug. In a com m on type of phototypeset tin g , a p h o to ty p e s e tte r (D .O .T . 650.582) types in the text without PRINTING OCCUPATIONS regard to column width or hyphen ation and produces a m agnetic or perforated paper tape. The operator then feeds the tape containing the text into a co m p u ter th at is p ro grammed to do hyphenation and cre ate columns of text. The com puter creates a second ta p e —containing the text as it will appear when print ed—that phototypesetters insert into a photocom position m achine. This machine displays the individual char acters on the tape and photographs them. The photo typesetter then de velops films of the m aterial to be printed. The most advanced method of typesetting uses electronic p h o to ty p esettin g eq u ip m en t. W ith this equipm ent, an operator uses a key board to select the size and style of type to select column width and pro vide spacing instructions, as well as to store each character in a com put er. The com puter then displays col umns of type on a screen that is simi lar to a TV picture tube. Operators visually check the text and make any required corrections. They then pho tograph the screen to obtain a film of the m aterial. T hese m achines can prepare entire pages of type and any accompanying pictures instead of a single line o f type. After the copy is set, typesetters pass it to other com positors who ar range the columns of type, pictures, and illustrations according to the de sired layout for each page. If 3etter press printing equipm ent are being used, they assemble the metal type and photoengravings in a large metal frame that clamps all the pieces to gether. If lithographic film equip ment is being used, they cut the film of type and pictures and tape the pieces in place. Either m ethod results in a preliminary printing plate. After arranging all the pages of a particular job in p ro per sequence, co m p o sito rs use a p ro o f press to make a test of the entire job. Page proofs are checked with the original copy for errors and returned to the editor for final changes. After final changes have been put into the type, the plate is sent to the pressroom where production printing plates are made. 49 Places of Employment About 152,000 workers were em ployed in composing room occupa tions in 1976. About one-third work for new spaper plants. Many others work for com m ercial printing plants, book and m agazine p rin ters, and F ed eral, S tate, and local g o v ern ments. Some work for banks, insur ance com panies, advertising agen cies, m anufacturers, and other firms that do their own printing. Composing room workers are lo cated in alm ost every com m unity throughout the country, but they are concentrated in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications Individuals who want to be all round skilled com positors usually learn their skills through apprentice ship programs. Generally, apprenticeship covers a 6-year period of progressively a d vanced training, supplem ented by classroom instruction or correspon dence courses. However, this period may be shortened by as much as 2 to 2-1/2 years for apprentices who have had previous experience or schooling or who show the ability to learn the trade m ore rapidly. After basic training as a hand com positor, the apprentice receives in tensive training in one specialized field or m ore, such as in the opera tion of typesetting machines, includ ing phototypesetting m achines, as well as in specialized work in hand composition and photocom position. Applicants for apprenticeship gen erally m ust be high school graduates and in good physical condition. They usually are given aptitude tests. Im portant qualifications include train ing in m athem atics and English, es pecially spelling. Printing and typing courses in vocational or high schools are good preparation for apprentice ship applicants, and a general back ground in electronics and photogra phy is becoming increasingly useful. Artistic ability is an asset for a com positor in layout work. Many techni cal institutes, ju n io r colleges, and colleges offer courses in printing technology, which provide a valuable background for people who are inter ested in becom ing all-round com positors. More and more com positors are bypassing the traditional apprentice approach and learning the work through on-the-job experience. P er sons with good typing skills can learn to be phototypesetting m achine op erators in a relatively short period of tim e. T hese w orkers need not be trained as skilled com positors but they must be familiar with printing terms and measurem ents. Employment Outlook Employment in composing room occupations is expected to decline through the m id-1980’s. N everthe less, a few thousand job openings are expected each year as experienced workers retire, die, or change occu pations. In spite of the anticipated expan sion in the volume of printing, em ployment in composing room occu p a tio n s is e x p e c te d to d e c lin e because of the trend to high-speed p h o to ty p e se ttin g and ty p esettin g com puters. These high speed m a chines require fewer operators than the traditional hot metal method of typesetting. For the jobs that do become avail able, opportunities should be best for persons who have com pleted post high school program s in printing technology, such as those offered by technical institutes and junior colleg es. Many em ployers prefer to hire applicants who have tom pleted these program s because the com prehen sive training that they receive helps them learn composing room trades and adapt to new processes and tech niques more rapidly. Although most job opportunities will continue to be in the printing industry, a growing num ber will be found in other industries, such as paper and textile mills, which are doing their own typesetting instead of contracting it to printing firms. Earnings and Working Conditions Union com positors on the day shift in newspaper plants had an estim ated average minimum rate of $7.91 an hour in 1976, according to a survey 50 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of 69 large cities. This rate was about one-half more than the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming. W orking conditions for com posi tors vary from plant to plant. Some heat and noise are made by typeset ting m achines. In general, the new plants are well-lighted and clean, and m any are a ir-c o n d itio n e d . H and com positors have to stand for long periods and do some heavy lifting. People with some types of physical handicaps, such as deafness, have been able to work in the trade. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers, such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office of the International Typographical Union, or the local office of the State em ploym ent ser vice. For general inform ation 6n com posing room occupations, write to: American Newspaper Publishers Association, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. International Typographic Composition Asso ciation, Inc., 2233 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20007. as cam era operators, artists, strip pers, and platem akers. Camera operators (D.O.T. 972.382) start the process of making a lithographic plate by photograph ing and developing negatives of the m aterial to be printed. They general ly are classified as line cam era opera tors, h alfto n e o p erato rs, or co lo r separation photographers. Negatives may need retouching to lighten or darken certain parts. Lithographic artists (D.O.T. 972.281) make these corrections by sharpening or reshap ing images on the negatives. They do the work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. Like cam era operators, they are assigned to only one phase of the work, and may have job titles such as d o t etchers, re touchers, or letterers. Strippers (D .O .T . 971.281 ) a r range and paste the negatives onto layout sheets, w hich are used by platem akers to m ake press plates. Platem akers (D.O.T. 972.78 1) cover the surface of flat pieces of m etal w ith a c o a tin g o f p h o to se n sitiv e chemicals, or may use plates with the coating already applied. They then put the layout sheet on top of the p late and expose b o th to b rig h t lights. As the final step, platem akers tre a t the plate with chem icals to bring out the images o f the m aterial to be printed. When a large num ber Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. LITHOGRAPHERS Nature of the Work Lithography, also called offset printing, is one of the most rapidly growing m ethods of printing. It is a process of photographing the m atter to be printed, making a printing plate from the photograph, and pressing the inked plate against a rubber plate which in turn presses it onto the paper. Lithographers are responsible for a variety of printing activities ranging from photographing copy and pic tures to m aking the final printing plates. M ost lithographers are divid ed for into specialized occupations such Digitized FRASER of plates or a multiple num ber of im ages are needed, operators use a pho tocom position machine. Places of Employment About 29,000 skilled lithographers were employed in 1976. Many work for com m ercial printing plants, news p a p e rs, and b ook and m agazin e printers. Some w ork for the U.S. Governm ent Printing Office. Although lithographic workers are located in all parts of the country, most are employed in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship p ro gram usually is required in order to become a well-rounded lithographic craft worker. These program s may emphasize a specific craft, such as cam era operator or lithographic art ist, although an attem pt is made to make the apprentice familiar with all lithographic operations. Usually, apprenticeship applicants must be in good physical condition, high school graduates, and at least 18 years of age. Aptitude tests usually are given to prospective apprentices to determ ine if they are suited for the work. Many technical institutes, junior colleges, and colleges offer 2-year programs in printing technology, w hich p ro v id e a v alu a b le b a c k ground for persons who are interest ed in learning lithographic crafts. High school and vocational school training in printing, p h otograp h y , m athem atics, chemistry, physics, and art also are helpful. Employment Outlook Many technical institutes, junior colleges, and colleges offer 2-year programs in printing technology. Employment of lithographers is ex pected to increase faster than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to the job openings resulting from em ploym ent growth, the need to replace workers who retire, die, or change occupa tions will provide some openings. Em ployment of lithographic w ork ers is expected to increase in re sponse to the continued growth of offset printing. Com m ercial printing firms and new spaper publishers in 51 PRINTING OCCUPATIONS creasingly are using offset printing methods instead of letterpresses. Em ployment growth also will be stimu lated by the greater use of photo g ra p h s an d d ra w in g s in p rin te d m atter, and by the m ore widespread use of color in many printed prod ucts. Employment opportunities should be best for people who have com plet ed p o st-h ig h sch o o l p ro g ram s in printing technology, such as those of fered by technical institutes and ju nior colleges. Many employers prefer to hire applicants who have com plet ed these program s because the com p re h e n siv e train in g th ey receiv e helps them learn lithography and adapt more rapidly to new processes and techniques. Earnings and Working Conditions Based on a survey o f union wages in 69 large cities, it is estim ated that in 1976, average minimum wages for lithographic artists w ere $8.98; for strippers $8.67; for cam era operators $8.78; and platem akers $8.78. These rates were higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. Lithographic workers are on their feet much o f the time, but the work is not strenuous. They sometimes are under pressure to m eet publication deadlines. Many lithographic workers are members o f the G raphic Arts Inter national Union. Sources of Additional information Details on apprenticeship and oth er training o p p o rtu n itie s in litho graphic o cc u p atio n s are available from local employers such as news papers and printing shops, local of fices o f the Graphic A rts Internation al Union, o r the local office of the State em ploym ent service. For infor mation on schools th at offer courses in printing technology, write to: Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. For general inform ation on litho graphic occupations, write to: American Newspaper Publishers Association, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. American Photoplatemakers Association, 105 West Adams St., Suite 905, Chicago 111. 60603. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. International Printing and Graphic Communi cations Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries o f America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. PHOTOENGRAVERS (D.O.T. 971.281 and .382) Nature of the Work Photoengravers m ake metal print ing plates of pictures and other copy that cannot be set up in type. In let terpress photoengraving, ink is rolled over a printed surface which stands higher th an the rest o f the plate. W hen p aper is pressed against the raised surface, the print or image is picked up. Similarly, gravure p h o toengravers make gravure cylinders on which the image is etched below the surface of the cylinder. Ink is placed in the etched or sunken areas, and when paper is pressed against the surface the ink is lifted out and ap pears on the paper. In both m ethods, however, the work of photoengravers is the same. For a typical job, photoengravers first m ount the picture or copy to be reproduced on a board, adjust the position and focus of a cam era, and take a picture. After developing the negative, they print its image on a flat, m etal plate by coating the plate with a chem ical solution sensitive to light, placing the negative on the plate, and exposing both to a bright light. As the final step in making the printing plate, photoengravers put the plate in an acid bath which eats the metal away from areas which will not be covered with ink. The areas to receive ink—those that were shielded from the light by the nega tive—stand out to m ake contact with the paper. Most photoengravers learn their trade through a 5-year apprenticeship program. The num ber of photoengraving op erations perform ed depends on the quality of the printing required. Pho toengravings for very high quality books or periodicals, for example, re quire m ore careful finishing th an those for newspapers. Photoengrav ers use han d to o ls to in sp ect and touch up the plates. They cut away metal from the nonprinting part of the plate to prevent it from touching the inking rollers during printing. In a small shop, the entire photo engraving operation usually is done by one person. In large shops, how ever, the work is divided among spe cialists who perform a particular op e r a t i o n s u c h as c a m e r a w o r k , printing, or etching. Places of Employment An estim ated 10,000 skilled pho toengravers were employed in 1976. More than half work in com m ercial shops that m ake photoengravings for other printing firms. Newspapers and photogravure shops employ several thousand photoengravers. Book and m agazine printers and the Federal G overnm ent also employ these w ork ers. Many photoengravers have their own shops. A lthough photoengravers are lo cated in all parts of the country, em- 52 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ploym ent is co n c en trate d in large printing centers, such as New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Los A n geles. Training and Other Qualifications Most photoengravers learn their trade through a 5-year apprentice ship program that includes at least 800 hours of classroom instruction. In addition to the care and use of tools, the apprentice is taught to cut and square negatives, inspect nega tives for defects, mix chemicals, sen sitize metals, and operate machines used in the photoengraving process. Apprenticeship applicants m ust be at least 18 years of age and generally must have a high school or vocation al school education or its equivalent, preferably with courses in printing, chem istry, and physics. Many em ployers require a physical exam ina tion for prospective photoengravers. Good eyesight is particularly im por tant because of the close work and color discrim ination involved. than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Photoengravers stand up much o f the time, but the work is not strenu ous. W ork areas usually are air-con ditioned and well-lighted. Most pho to e n g ra v e rs are m em b ers o f th e Graphic Arts International Union. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local em ployers such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office o f the union m en tioned above, or the local office o f the State em ploym ent service. For general inform ation on pho toengravers, write to: American Newspaper Publishers Association, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. American Photoplatemakers Association, 105 West Adams St., Suite 950, Chicago, 111. 60603. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. ELECTROTYPERS AND STEREOTYPERS Nature of the Work Electrotypers (D.O.T. 974.381) and stereotypers (D.O.T. 975.782) make duplicate press plates of m etal, rubber, and plastic for letterpress printing. These plates are m ade from the m etal type forms prepared in the composing room. Electrotypes are used mainly in book and magazine work. Stereotypes, which are less du rable, are used chiefly for new spa pers. Electrotyping and stereotyping are necessary because m ost volume printing requires the use of duplicate plates. W hen a large edition o f a Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for photoengravers are expected to be scarce in the years ahead. Despite the growing use of photographs and other illustrations in publications, em ploym ent of photoengravers will decline as many firms switch from letterpress to offset printing, which requires no photoengraving. Also, new technological advances such as color scanners and color enlargers plus the trend toward autom ated platem aking should reduce the need for these workers. However, some job openings are expected each year as experienced photoengravers re tire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions It is estim ated that photoengravers on the day shift in new spaper plants earned an average minimum rate of $8.47 an hour in 1976, based on a union survey of 69 large cities. This average was about two-thirds more Stereotyper prepares mats for casting machines. 53 PRINTING OCCUPATIONS magazine or new spaper is printed, several plates must be used to re place those that becom e too worn to m ake clea r im pressions. Also, by having duplicate plates, printers can use several presses at the same time and finish a big run quickly. F urther m ore, many big plants use rotary presses, which require curved plates made by either electrotyping or ste reotyping from flat type forms. Electrotypers make a wax or plas tic mold of the metal type form. They then coat the mold with chemicals and place the mold into an electrolyt ic bath that puts a metallic shell on the coated mold. Electrotypers then strip the shell from the mold and fill the back of the shell with molten lead to form a plate. After removing ex cess metal from the edges and back of the plate, electrotypers inspect the plate for any defects. The stereotyping process is sim pler, quicker, and less expensive than electrotyping, but it does not yield as durable or as fine a plate. Stereotyp ers make molds or mats of papierm ache’ instead of wax or plastic. The mat is placed on the type form and covered with a cork blanket and a sheet o f fib erb o ard . The covered form is run under heavy steel rollers to impress the type and photoengrav ings on the mat. Then the m at is placed in a stereotype casting m a chine which casts a composition lead plate on the mold. In many of the larger plants, au to m atic m achines cast stereotype plates. Some electrotypers and stereotyp ers do only one phase of the work, such as casting, m olding, or finishing. Others handle many tasks. Places of Employment About 4,000 electrotypers and ste reotypers were em ployed in 1976. Many electro ty p ers work in large plants th at print books and m aga zines. M ost stereo ty p ers work for newspaper plants, but some work in large co m m ercial p rinting plants. Electrotypers and stereotypers also are employed in service shops that do this work for printing firms. Jobs in these trades can be found throughout the country, but employ ment is concentrated in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications Much of the work in these trades requires little physical effort since the preparation of duplicate printing plates is highly m echanized. How ever, some lifting of relatively heavy press plates occasionally is required. Nearly all electrotypers and ste reotypers are mem bers of the Inter national Printing and Graphic C om munications Union. Nearly all electrotypers and ste reotypers learn their trades through 5- to 6-year apprenticeships. Electrotyping and stereotyping are separate crafts and relatively few transfers take place between the two. The ap prenticeship program of each trade covers all phases of the work and almost always includes classes in re lated technical subjects as well as training on the job. A pprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years of age and, in most instances be able to pass physical examinations that usually are given to prospective apprentices. Due to the decline in dem and for electrotyp ers and stereotypers, however, very few apprenticeships have been o f fered in the last several years. Many experienced electroplaters and ste reotypers are now being retrained as plate m akers in offset and press op erators. American Newspaper Publishers Association, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. Employment Outlook Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Job opportunities for electrotypers and stereotypers are expected to be scarce through the m id-1980’s. D e spite the anticipated increase in the volume o f printing, em ploym ent of electrotypers and stereotypers is ex pected to decline because of laborsaving developm ents. For example, autom atic plate casting elim inates m any ste p s in p la te m a k in g . T h e u se of plastic printing plates also requires less labor because such plates are m ore durable and reduce the d e mand for duplicate plates. F urther more, the greater use of offset print ing reduces the need for electrotype and stereotype plates, which are not needed in offset printing. Earnings and Working Conditions Based on a union wage survey, it is estimated that in 1976, union mini mum wage rates in 69 large cities averaged $7.23 an hour for electro typers and $7.88 an hour for stereo typers in book and com m ercial print ing s h o p s . B o th a v e ra g e s w e re considerably higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers, such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office of the International Printing and G raphic C om m unica tions Union, or the local office of the State em ploym ent service. For general information on elec trotypers and stereotypers, write to: International Printing and Graphic Communi cations Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. PRINTING PRESS OPERATORS AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 651.782, .885. and .886) Nature of the Work Printing operations are perform ed in a pressroom. Printing press opera tors prepare and operate the printing presses. Before actually starting the press, press operators set up and adjust the press to insure that the printing im pressions are distinct and uniform. Press operators first insert and lock type setups or plates into the press bed and then tighten the locking at tachm ent with a wrench. The press operator then levels the press plates by placing pieces of paper that are OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 54 Press operator adjusts controls. exactly the right thickness u n d er neath low areas of the plates. Press operators also adjust control margins and the flow of ink to the inking roller. In some shops, they oil and clean the presses and make mi nor re p airs. Press o p erato rs who work with large presses have assis tants and helpers. P ress o p e r a to r s ’ jo b s m ay d iffer from one shop to another, mainly because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses. Press operators in small com m ercial shops generally operate relatively simple manual presses. On the other hand, a crew of several press operators and press as sistants runs giant presses used by the larg e n e w sp a p e r, m ag az in e, and book printers. These presses are fed paper znbig rolls called “ webs” up to 50 inches or more in width. Ot ey print the paper on both sides; cut, assem ble, and fold the pages; and count the finished new spaper sec tions as they come off the press. Most press operators are generally designated according to the type of press they operate: letterpress, gra vure, or offset. Places of Employment About 145,000 press operators and assistants were employed in 1976. M ore than half work for com mercial printing shops and book and m agazine publishers. Many others have jobs in newspaper plants. Some press operators and assistants work for b a n k s, in su ra n c e co m p an ies, m anufacturers, and other organiza tions that do their own printing, such as Federal, State, and local goverments. Press operators and assistants can find jobs throughout the country, but employm ent is concentrated in large cities. Training and Other Qualifications Most press operators learn their trade through apprenticeship, but some workers learn as helpers or press assistants. Others obtain their skills through a com bination of work experience and vocational or techni cal school training. The length of apprenticeship and the content of training depend largely on the kind of press used in the plant. The apprenticeship period in com m ercial shops is 2 years for press assistants, and 4 to 5 years for press operators. In addition to onthe-job instruction, the apprentice ship includes related classroom or c o r re s p o n d e n c e sc h o o l c o u rse s. Courses in printing provide a good background. Because of tech n ical developm ents in the printing indus try, courses in chemistry and physics also are helpful. M echanical aptitude is im portant in making press adjust ments and repairs. An ability to visu alize color is essential for work on color presses. Physical strength and endurance are needed for work on some kinds of presses, where opera tors lift heavy plates and stand for long periods. Technological changes have had a trem endous effect on the skill re quirem ents of press operators. For example, printing com panies which change from sheet-fed offset presses to web-offset presses have to retrain their entire press crew because the skill requirem ents for the two types of press are very different. W eb-off set presses, with their faster op erat ing speeds, require faster decisions m onitoring of more variables, and greater physical effort. Advancem ent opportunities gener ally are limited. Press operators may advance in pay and responsibility by taking a job working on a more com plex printing press or by becoming a supervisor. Employment Outlook Employment of press operators is ex pected to increase m ore slowly than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Despite the increased use of faster and more effi cient presses, more press operators will be needed because of the growth in the am ount of printed m aterials. In addition to the jobs from em ploym ent grow th, a few thousand openings will arise each year as expe rienced workers retire, die, or leave their job for other reasons. However, printing press operators are expected to face com petition for jobs. Since there are generally long waiting lists for apprenticeship program s, m ost people will have to take jobs as press assistants or unskilled laborers b e fore being selected for an apprentice ship. It is not uncom m on for a person to work 2 or 3 years or more before beginning apprenticeship training. Since many firms are switching to web offset presses from letterpresses or sheet-fed presses, opportunities 55 PRINTING OCCUPATIONS are expected to be more favorable for web-press operators. Although most job opportunities will continue to be in the printing industry, a growing num ber of open ings will be found in other industries, such as papermills, which are doing more of their own presswork instead of contracting it out to printing firms. Earnings and Working Conditions Based on a survey of union wages in 69 large cities, it is estim ated that in 1976 the average minimum hourly rate for new spaper press operatorsin-charge was $8.18; for newspaper press operators, $7.65; for book and job cylinder press operators, $7.72; and for book and job press assistants and feeders, $6.84. These rates were higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industy, except farming. Many press opera tors work night shifts and receive ex tra pay. Pressrooms are noisy, and workers in certain areas frequently wear ear protectors. Press operators are sub ject to hazards when working near machinery. At times, they work un der pressure to m eet deadlines. Many pressroom workers are cov ered by union agreem ents. The prin cipal union in this field is the Internatio n a l P r in tin g a n d G ra p h ic Communications Union. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22209. BOOKBINDERS AND BINDERY WORKERS Nature of the Work Many printed items, such as books and magazines, m ust be folded, sewed, stapled, or bound after they leave the printing shops. Much of this work is done by skilled bookbinders (D.O.T. 977.781). Edition-binding—making books in quantity from big, flat printed sheets of paper—is the most com plicated kind of binding. Bookbinders first fold the printed sheets into units, known as “ signatures,” so that the pages will be in the right order. They then insert any illustrations that have been printed separately, gather and assemble signatures in proper order, and sew them together. They shape the book bodies with presses and trimming machines and reinforce them with glued fabric strips. Covers are glued or pasted onto the book bodies, and then the books undergo a variety of finishing operations and frequently are wrapped in paper Places of Employment About 80,000 bookbinders and bindery workers were employed in 1976. Many work in shops that spe cialize in bookbinding; others work in the bindery departm ents of book publishing firms, com m ercial print ing plants, and large libraries. Some bookbinders work for the Federal Governm ent. Although bookbinders work in all parts of the country, em ploym ent is concentrated in large printing cen ters such as New Y ork, C hicago, W ashington, D.C., and Los Angeles. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, the local office of the union m en tioned above, or the local office of the State em ploym ent service. For general inform ation about press operators and assistants, write to: Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement American Newspaper Publishers Association, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. International Printing and Graphic Communi cations Union, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. Washington, D.C. 20036. Digitized forNW., FRASER jackets. M achines are used ex ten sively throughout the process. Bookbinders seldom perform all the different binding tasks, but many have had training in all of them. In large shops, bookbinders may be as signed to one or a few operations, most often to the operation of com plicated m achines, such as a large paper cutter or a folding machine. In many binding shops much of the work is done by bindery workers who are trained zn only one operation 6r in a small num ber of relatively simple tasks. For example, bindery workers perform such tasks as wastening sheets or signatures together using a m achine stapler and feeding signa tu re s in to v ario u s m ach in e s fo r stitching, folding, or gluing o p era tions. Some bookbinders work in hand binderies designing original bindings and special bindings for a small num ber of copies of a large edition or restoring and rebinding rare books. This skilled work requires creative ability, knowledge of materials, and a thorough background in the history of binding. Hand bookbinding is p er haps the only kind of binding that gives the individual an opportunity to work at a variety of jobs. Many bindery workers are trained in only one operation. A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship, which includes on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction, generally is required to qualify as a skilled bookbinder. Apprenticeship applicants usually m ust have a high school education, m echanical ap ti OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 56 tude, and be at least 18 years of age. During the apprenticeship, trainees learn to assemble signatures; to ren ovate old, worn bindings; and to use various binding m achines, such as punchers and folders. Most bindery workers learn their tasks through informal on-the-job training th at may last from several months to 2 years. A large num ber, how ever, learn through formal ap prenticeship program s that include classroom instruction as well as onthe-job training. High school students interested in bookbinding careers should take shop courses to develop their m e chanical skills. Advancem ent opportunities gener ally are limited. In large binderies skilled bookbinders with consider able experience may advance to su pervisors. Employment Outlook Employment of bookbinders and bindery w orkers is expected to in crease more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. M ost job openings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or change occupations. Despite the anticipated growth in the am ount of bound printed m ateri als, em ploym ent growth will be limit ed by the increasing m echanization of bindery operations. For example, the use of integral folders that auto matically fold pages as they come off the press elim inates the need for bindery workers to do the folding by hand. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage rates for skilled bookbinders tend to be below the average for other printing crafts. Based on a sur vey of union wage rates in 69 large cities, it is estim ated that mininimum wage rates for bookbinders in pub lishing firms and bookbinding shops averaged ab o u t $7.47 an h o u r in 1976. This rate was about one and one-half tim es the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Wage rates for bindery workers are considerably lower than the rates for bookbinders, and are among the lowest for printing industry workers. A survey of union wages in 69 large cities shows that in 1976 the average minimum hourly rate for bindery workers was $4.77. A ccuracy, patience, neatness, and good eyesight are among qualities n e e d e d by b o o k b in d e rs . G o o d fin g e r dexterity is essential for those who count, insert, paste, and fold. Bookbinding shops tend to be noisy when m achinery is operating. Bookbinders have some variety in their jobs, but the jobs of bindery workers tend to be m onotonous. Long periods of standing and co n stant use of the arms can be tiring. Many bindery workers are m em bers of The G raphic A rts Intern a tional Union. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training opportunities may be obtained from local bookbinding shops, local offices of the G raphic Arts Union, or the local office of the State em ploym ent service. For general inform ation on book binding occupations, write to: American Newspaper Association, 11600 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 20041. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Graphic Arts International Union, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 1730 N. Lynn St., Arlington, Va. 22201. OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ASSEMBLERS Nature of the Work When Henry Ford began produc ing his autom obile on an assembly line, m odern mass production was born. W orkers who before had built each autom obile independently, now found themselves specializing in just one part of the job. Production be came a team effort, with each worker performing a single task on every car rolling by on the line. Over the years, the assembly line spread to other in dustries, until today alm ost every m anufactured item is produced in this way. The workers who put together the parts of m anufactured articles are called assem blers. Som etim es hun dreds are needed to turn out a single finished product. Many assemblers work on items that autom atically move past their work stations on conveyors. In the autom obile industry, for example, one assembler may start nuts on bolts by hand or with a hand tool, and the next w orker down the line may tight en the nuts with a pow er wrench. These workers must com plete their job within the time it takes the part or product to pass their work station. O ther assemblers, known as bench assemblers, do more delicate work. Some m ake subassemblies. These units are the interm ediate steps in the production process; for example, steering columns for autom obiles or motors for vacuum cleaners. Others make entire products. Assemblers in rifle m anufacturing plants build com plete rifles from a collection of parts and subassemblies and then test all the m oving parts to be sure they function correctly. Bench work gen erally requires the ability to do pre cise and detailed work. Some elec tronics assemblers, for example, use tweezers, tiny cutters, and magnify ing lenses to put together the small com ponents used in radios and cal culators. A nother group o f assemblers, called floor assemblers, put together large m achinery or heavy equipm ent on shop floors. School buses, cranes, and tanks are put together in this m anner. Parts are installed and fas tened, usually with bolts, screws, or rivets. Assemblers often use a power tool, such as a soldering iron or pow er drill, to get a proper fit. A small num ber o f assemblers are skilled workers who work with little or no supervision on the more com plex parts of subassemblies, and are responsible for the final assembly of com plicated jobs. A skilled assem bler may have to wire the tubes for a television set or put together and test a calculator. Some work with the en gineers and technicians in the facto ry, assem bling products that these people have just designed. To test new ideas and build m odels, these w orkers m ust know how to read b lu e p rin ts and o th e r en gineerin g specifications, and use a variety of tools and precision m easuring instru ments. Places of Employment A b o u t 1 ,1 0 0 ,0 0 0 a s s e m b le r s worked in m anufacturing plants in 1976. A lm ost tw o-thirds were in plants that made m achinery and m o tor vehicles. More than half of all Skilled assemblers work on complex subassemblies. 57 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 58 assem blers were em ployed in the heavily industrialized States of Cali fornia, New York, Michigan, Illinois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Inexperienced people can be trained to do assembly work in a few days or weeks. New workers may have their job duties explained to them by the supervisor and then be placed under the direction of experi enced employees. W hen new w ork ers have developed sufficient speed and skill, they are placed “ on their ow n” and are responsible for the work they do. Employers seek workers who can do routine work at a fast pace. A high school diploma usually is not required. For some types of assembly jobs, applicants may have to m eet special requirem ents. Some employers look for applicants with m echanical apti tude and prefer those who have tak en vocational school courses such as machine shop. Good eyesight, with or without glasses, may be required for assemblers who work with small parts. In plants that make electrical and electronic products, which may c o n ta in m any d iffe re n t c o lo re d wires, applicants often are tested for co lo r blindness. F loor assem blers may have to lift and fit heavy objects, thus they should be physically fit. As assemblers becom e more expe rienced they may progress to assem bly jobs that require more skill and be given more responsibility. A few advance to skilled assembly jobs. Ex p e rie n c e d asse m b le rs who have learned many assembly operations and thus understand the construction of a product may becom e product repairers. These workers fix assem bled articles th at in spectors have ruled defective. Assemblers also may advance to inspector and a few are prom oted to supervisor. Some as semblers become trainees in skilled trades jobs such as machinist. Employment Outlook Employment of assemblers is ex pected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the Digitized FRASER with thousands of open m for id-1980’s, ings each year. Most job openings, however, will result as workers retire, die, or leave the occupation. More assemblers will be needed in m anufacturing plants to produce goods for the N ations’s growing economy. As population grows and personal income rises, the dem and for consum er products, such as auto mobiles and household appliances, will increase. At the same time, busi ness expansion will increase the d e mand for industrial m achinery and equipm ent. Most assemblers work in plants that produce durable goods, such as autom obiles and aircraft, which are particularly sensitive to changes in business conditions and national d e fense needs. T herefore, even though em ploym ent is ex p ected to grow, jo b seek ers may find opportunities scarce in some years. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage rates for assemblers ranged from about $3 to $7 an hour in 1976, according to inform ation from a lim ited n u m b e r o f u n io n c o n tra c ts. M ost assem blers covered by these contracts made between $4 and $6 an hour. Some assemblers are paid incentive or piecew ork rates, and therefore can earn more by working more rapidly. The working conditions of assem blers differ, depending on the p a r ticular job perform ed. Bench assem blers who put to g eth er electronic equipm ent may work in a room that is clean, well lighted, and free from dust. Floor assemblers of industrial m achinery may come in contact with oil and grease, and their working areas may be quite noisy from nearby m achinery or tools th a t are used. W orkers on assembly lines may be under pressure to keep up with the speed of the lines. Since most assem blers only perform a few steps in the assembly operation, assembly jobs tend to be m ore m onotonous than other blue-collar jobs. Work schedules of assemblers may vary at plants with m ore than one shift. Usually in order of seniority, workers can accept or reject a c e r tain job on a given shift. Many assemblers are members of labor unions. These include the In ternational Association of Machinists and A erospace W orkers; the Interna tional Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine W orkers; the International U nion; U nited A utom obile, A e ro space and A gricultural Im plem ent W orkers o f A m erica; the In tern a tio n al B ro th e rh o o d o f E le c tric a l W orkers; and United Steelworkers. Source of Additional Information Additional inform ation about em ploym ent opportunities for assem blers may be available from local of fic e s o f th e S ta te e m p lo y m e n t service. AUTOMOBILE PAINTERS (D.O.T. 845.781) Nature of the Work Automobile painters make old and damaged m otor vehicles “ look like new .” These skilled workers repaint older vehicles that have lost the lus ter of their original paint and make fender and body repairs almost in visible. (Painters who work on the p ro d u ctio n lines at m otor vehicle m anufacturing plants are discussed e ls e w h e r e in th e H a n d b o o k .) To prepare an autom obile for painting, painters or their helpers re move the original paint or rust using air-or electric-pow ered sanders and a course grade of sandpaper. Before painting, they also must remove or protect areas which they do not want painted, such as chrom e trim, head lights, windows, and mirrors. Paint ers or their helpers cover these areas with paper and masking tape. When the car is ready, painters use a spray gun to apply prim er coats to the autom obile surface. After each coat of prim er dries, they sand the surface until it is sm ooth before ap plying an o th er coat. Final sanding may be uone by hand, using a fine grade of sandpaper. If the surface to be painted is not sm ooth, the paint job will be rough and uneven. Small nicks and scratches that cannot be removed by sanding are filled with autom obile body putty. Before painting repaired portions of an autom obile, painters often have OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 59 to mix paints to m atch the color of the car. This im portant part of the job can be very difficult when paint ing repaired parts of older cars be cause the original color often fades over the years. Before applying paint, painters ad just the nozzle of the spray gun ac cording to the kind o f lacquer or enamel being used and, if necessary, they adjust the air-pressure regulator to obtain the correct pressure. If the spray gun is not adjusted properly, the paint may run or go on too thinly. To speed drying, they may place the freshly p ain ted au tom obile under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven that is sealed to prevent dust and bugs from getting onto the fresh p ain t. A fte r the p a in t has d ried , painters or their helpers usually pol ish the newly painted surface. Places of Employmant About 30,000 persons worked as automobile painters in 1976. Almost two-thirds worked in shops that spe cialize in autom obile repairs. Most others w orked for autom obile and truck dealers. Some painters worked for o rg an izatio n s th a t m aintained and repaired their own fleets of m o tor vehicles, such as trucking com pa nies and buslines. Painters are employed throughout the county, but are concentrated in m etropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most autom obile painters start as helpers and gain their skills informal ly by w o rk in g w ith e x p e rie n c e d painters. Beginning helpers usually perform tasks such as removing auto mobile trim , cleaning and sanding surfaces to be painted, and polishing the finished work. As helpers gain experience, they progress to more com plicated tasks, such as mixing paint to achieve a good match and using spray guns to apply prim er coats and painting small areas. Be coming skilled in all aspects of auto mobile painting usually requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. A small num ber o f automobile painters learn through ap p ren tice sh ip . A p p re n tic e s h ip p ro g ra m s, which generally last 3 years, consist training supplem ented Digitized of for on-the-job FRASER Automobile painters often acquire their skills by working with experienced painters. by classroom in stru ctio n in areas such as shop safety practices, proper use of equipm ent, and general paint ing theory. Persons considering this work as a career should have good health, keen eyesight, and a good color sense. C ourses in autom obile-body repair offered by high schools and vocation al schools provide helpful ex p eri ence. Com pletion of high school gen erally is not a requirem ent but may be an advantage, because to many employers high school graduation in dicates that the person has at least some of the traits of a good worker, such as reliability and perseverance. An experienced autom obile paint er with supervisory ability may ad vance to shop supervisor. Many ex p e r i e n c e d p a i n t e r s w ith t h e n e c e ssa ry funds o p en th e ir ow n shops. retire or die. Openings also will occur as some painters transfer to other occupations. Employment of autom obile paintvrs is expected to increase primarily because more 4otor vehicles will be damaged in traffic accidents. As the n u m b er o f v eh icle s on th e ro ad grow s, a c c id e n t losses will grow , even though better highways, lower speed limits, driver training courses, and im proved bum pers and o th er safety features on new vehicles may slow the rate of growth. Most persons who enter the occu pation can expect steady work be cause the autom obile repair business is not affected much by changes in economic conditions. Job opportunities will be best in heavily populated areas. Many shops in small cities do not have enough business to hire trainees. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Em ployment of autom obile paint ers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to jobs created by growth, several hundred openings are expected to arise each year because of the need to replace experienced painters who Painters employed by autom obile dealers in 36 large cities had estim at ed average hourly earnings of $8.50 in 1976, com pared to an average of $4.87 for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Skilled painters usually earn between 60 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK two and three times as much as inex perienced helpers and trainees. Many painters employed by auto mobile dealers and independent re p air shops receive a com m ission based on the labor cost charged to the custom er. U nder this m ethod, e a rn in g s d e p e n d la rg e ly on th e am ount of work a painter does and how fast it is com pleted. Employers frequently guarantee their com m is sioned painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate until they b e come sufficiently skilled to work on a commission basis. Trucking com pa nies, buslines, and o th er organiza tions that repair their own vehicles usually pay by the hour. Most paint ers work 40 to 48 hours a week. Autom obile painters are exposed to fumes from paint and paint-mixing ingredients. In most shops, however, the painting is done in special venti lated booths that p rotect the paint ers. Painters also wear masks to pro tect their noses and mouths. Painters m ust be agile b ecause they often bend and stoop while w orking to reach all parts of the car. Many autom obile painters belong to unions, including the International Association of M achinists and A ero space W o rk ers; the In te rn a tio n a l U nion, U nited A utom obile, A ero space and A gricultural Im plem ent W orkers of America; the Sheet M et al W o rk e rs’ In tern atio n al A ssoci ation; and the International B rother h o o d o f T e a m ste rs , C h a u ffe u rs, W a re h o u s e m e n a n d H e lp e rs o f America (Ind.). Most painters who are union mem bers work for the larg er autom obile dealers, trucking com panies, and buslines. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work op portunities, contact local employers, su ch as a u to m o b ile -b o d y re p a ir shops and autom obile dealers; locals of the unions previously m entioned; or the local office o f the State em ployment service. The State em ploy ment service also may be a source of in fo rm atio n ab o u t a p p ren ticesh ip and o th e r p rogram s th a t provide training opportunities. For general inform ation about the work of autom obile painters, write: Automotive Service Industry Association, 230 North M ichigan A ve., C hicago, 111. 60601. Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Indus trial Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126. BLACKSMITHS (D.O.T. 356.381 and 610.381) Nature of the Work Years ago the village blacksmith was as vital to a community as the country doctor. No one else could repair a broken wagon wheel, shoe a horse, or forge a tool to suit a farm e r’s needs. Today, the blacksm ith’s work still is im portant in factories and mines where heavy metal equip ment must be repaired, and at stables and racetracks. Power hammers and ready-m ade horseshoes have m ade much of the work easier, but the b a sic tasks remain largely the same. The first thing a blacksmith m ust do when making or repairing any thing m ade of metal is to heat it in a forge to soften it. O nce the m etal begins to glow red, it is ready for the blacksmith to pick it up with tongs, place it on the anvil, and begin to shape it using presses and pow er ham m ers. On re p a ir jo b s bro k en parts are rejoined by ham m ering them together. The blacksm ith uses handtools such as ham m ers and chis els to finish the task at hand, often reheating the metal in the forge to keep it soft and workable. Before a metal article can be used, it must be hardened. To com plete this stage of the process, the black smith reheats the m etal to a high tem perature in the forge and then plunges it into a w ater or oil bath. However, metal hardened in this way is brittle and can break under stress. If strength is im portant, blacksmiths tem per the metal instead. To do this, they heat the metal to a lower tem perature than they use for hardening, keep it hot for some time, and then allow it to cool at room tem perature. Blacksmiths who specialize in shoeing horses are called farriers. Today, m ost farriers use ready-m ade horseshoes so that their primary job is to adjust shoes for a proper fit. On some occasions, however, they may have to make the shoes themselves. R acehorses need special care b e cause they must withstand strenuous punishm ent to their legs and hooves. Im proper shoeing can perm anently dam age a valuable horse. F arriers who shoe racehorses need to be able to recognize weaknesses in a ho rse’s legs, and shoe it accordingly. Some horses, for example, need shoes that are thicker on the outside as com pared to the inside edge in order to walk correctly. To shoe a horse, far riers begin by removing the old shoe with nail snippers and pincers. They examine the horse’s hoof for bruises and then clean, trim , and shape the hoof. W hen the hoof is ready, they position and nail a shoe onto the hoof and finish by trimming the hoof flush to the new shoe. Industrial occupations that are similar to blacksmith include forge and ham m er operator, welder, and boilerm aker. (These occupations are discussed elsew here in the H and book.) Places of Employment O f th e a p p ro x im a te ly 1 0 ,0 0 0 blacksm iths em ployed in 1976, al most two-thirds worked in factories, railroads, and mines. The rem ainder w orked in small shops, and m ost w ere self-em p lo y ed . B lacksm ith s work in all parts of the country—in rural com m unities as well as in large industrial centers. Most farriers are self-employed and contract their services to horse trainers at racetrack stables and to owners of horses used for private or public recreation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many beginners enter the occupa tion by working as helpers in black smith shops or large industrial firms that employ blacksmiths. Others en ter through form al apprenticesh ip programs and transfer from related occupations such as forge operator or ham m er operator. A ppren tice ship program s usually last 3 o r 4 years. The programs teach blueprint re ad in g , p ro p e r use o f tools and equipm ent, heat-treatm ent of m etal, OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 61 Those with sufficient skills to pass a licensing examination may find em ploym ent at racetracks. Employment Outlook Employment of blacksmiths is ex pected to decline through the mid1980’s. Forge shops are using m a chines to produce many of the metal articles th a t w ere form erly h an d m ade by blacksm iths. In addition, welders are doing much of the metal rep air w ork once done by b lack smiths. Nevertheless, some job open ings will occur as experienced black sm ith s r e tir e , d ie , o r leav e th e occupation for other reasons. E m ploym ent o f farriers may in crease slightly due to the growing popularity of horseracing and the in creasing use of horses for recreation al purposes. Since this is a small oc cupation, however, relatively few job openings will become available. Earnings and Working Conditions Many beginners work as helpers in blacksmith shops. and forging methods. Most appren tices are found in large industrial firm s ra th e r th an in sm all re p air shops. V ocational school or high school courses in m etalworking and blueprint reading are helpful to per sons interested in becom ing black smiths. Many farriers learn their craft by assisting experienced farriers. Others may take a short course in horse shoeing lasting about 3 or 4 weeks before gaining experience on their own or as farriers’ assistants. Courses in horseshoeing are taught in several colleges, as well as at private horse shoeing schools. M ost of these are located in the Midwest. Persons con sid erin g e n ro llin g a t any sch o o l should talk to a farrier in their area concerning the school’s perform ance in producing qualified farriers. At least 3 to 5 years of special training or experience are needed to obtain the skills necessary to shoe ra c e horses. Farriers who wish to work at race tracks m ust pass a licensing examina tion. During the exam ination, they must dem onstrate their knowledge of corrective shoeing techniques and the proper shoe to use depending on the condition of the horse’s hoof or leg, and the condition of the race track. The examination is a perform ance test and does not require a writ ten examination. Blacksmiths must be in good phys ical condition. Pounding metal and handling heavy tools and parts re q u ire c o n s id e ra b le s tre n g th an d stamina. Farriers, o f course, must have the patience to handle horses. O pportunities for advancem ent are lim ited , especially for b la c k sm iths who w ork in sm all re p a ir shops. How ever, blacksm iths may advance to be supervisors or inspec tors in factories, or decide to open their own repair shops. Blacksmiths also may be able to transfer to relat ed occupations such as forge, ham mer, and press operators. Farriers may open their own shops or travel from job to job with a portable forge, if one is needed. In union contracts covering a num ber of blacksmiths in steel plants and in the shipbuilding and petroleum in dustries, hourly pay ranged from $4 to $7.50 in 1976. Earnings of black sm iths in railroad shops averaged $6.87 an hour in 1976. According to limited information, yearly earnings of farriers who shoed saddle horses a v e ra g e d b e tw e e n $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 an d $12,000 a year in 1976; those who shoed racehorses averaged around $15,000 a year. Blacksmith shops tend to be hot and noisy, but conditions have im proved in recent years because of large ventilating fans and less vibra tion from new m achines. B lack smiths are subject to burns from forg es and heated metals and cuts and bruises from handling tools. Safety glasses, metal-tip shoes, face shields, and o th er protective devices have helped to reduce injuries. The jobs of some farriers may be seasonal. During the summer months, when horses are ridden more often, farriers may work long hours and even on weekends. Also, those who specialize in shoeing race horses often work at several different ra c e tra c k s w ithin th e ir area an d , therefore, must travel a great deal. In areas where horseracing is season OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 62 al, they may have to move to another State during the off season. Many blacksmiths are members of the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. O th er u nions re p resen tin g b la c k smiths include the United Steelwork ers of America, the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding W orkers o f A m erica, and the International Union of Journeymen Horseshoers. Sources of Additional information For details about training opportu nities in this trad e , co n ta c t local blacksmith shops and local offices of the State employm ent service. BLUE-COLLAR WORKER SUPERVISORS Nature of the Work In any organization, som eone has to be boss. For the millions of work ers who assemble television sets, ser vice automobiles, lay bricks, unload ships, or perform any of thousands of other activities, a blue-collar worker su p erv iso r is th e b o ss. T h e se su p e r v i sors direct the activities of other em ployees and frequently are respon sible fo r seeing th a t m illions o f dollars worth of equipm ent and m a terials are used properly and effi ciently. While blue-collar worker su pervisors are most commonly known as foremen or forewomen, they also have many other titles. In the textile industry they are referred to as sec ond hands; on ships they are known as boatswains; and in the construc tion industry they are often called overseers, straw bosses, or gang lead ers. Although titles may differ, the job of all blue-collar worker supervisors is similar. They tell other employees what jobs are to be done and make sure the jobs are done correctly. For example, loading supervisors at truck terminals assign workers to load trucks, and then check that the m ate rial is loaded correctly and that each truck is fully used. They may mark freight bills and keep charts to record the loads and weight of each truck. In some cases, supervisors also do the same work as other employees. This is especially true in the construction industry where, for example, brick layer supervisors also lay brick. Because they are responsible for the output of other workers, supervi sors make work schedules and keep production and em ployee records. They use considerable judgm ent in planning and must allow for unfore seen problem s such as absent work ers and m achine breakdowns. T each ing em ployees safe work habits and enforcing safety rules and regulations are other supervisory responsibilities. They also may dem onstrate timesav ing or lab o rsav in g tech n iq u e s to workers and train new employees. In addition to their other duties, blue-collar w orker supervisors tell their subordinates about com pany plans an d p o licies; rew ard good w orkers by m aking re co m m en d a tions for wage increases, awards, or p ro m o tio n s; and d ea l w ith p o o r workers by issuing warnings or rec ommending that they be fired or laid off w ithout pay for a day or more. In companies where employees belong to lab o r unions, supervisors m ay m eet with union representatives to discuss work problems and grievanc es. They must know the provisions of labor-m anagem ent contracts and run their operations according to these agreements. Places of Employment About 1,445,000 blue-collar worker supervisors were employed in 1976. Although they work for almost all businesses and governm ent agen cies, over half work in m anufactur ing, supervising the production of cars, washing m achines, or any of thousands of other products. Most of the rest work in the construction in dustry, in wholesale and retail trade, and in public utilities. Because em ployment is distributed in much the same way as population, jobs are lo cated in all cities and towns. / Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement W hen choosing supervisors, em ployers generally look for ex p eri ence, skill, and leadership qualities. Employers place special emphasis on the ability to m otivate em ployees, maintain high morale, com m and re spect, and get along with people. Completion of high school often is the m inimum educational re q u ire ment, and 1 or 2 years of college or technical school can be very helpful to workers who want to become su pervisors. Coordinating assignments is a responsibility of the blue-collar worker supervisor. 63 OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Most supervisors rise through the ran k s—th a t is, they are prom oted from jobs where they operated a m a chine, or w orked on an assembly line, or at a construction craft. This work experience gives them the ad vantage of knowing how jobs should be done and w hat p roblem s may arise. It also provides them with in sight into m anagem ent policies and em ployee attitu d e s tow ards these policies. Supervisors are sometimes form er union rep resentatives who are fam iliar with grievance proce dures and union contracts. To sup plem ent this work experience, larger companies usually have training pro grams to help supervisors make m an agem ent decisions. Smaller com pa nies often use independent training organizations or written training m a terials. Although few blue-collar worker supervisors are college graduates, a growing num ber of employers are hiring trainees with a college or tech nical school background. This prac tice is m ost prevalent in industries with highly technical production pro cesses, such as the chemical, oil, and electro n ics industries. Em ployers generally prefer backgrounds in busi ness adm inistration, industrial rela tions, m athem atics, engineering, or science. The trainees undergo onthe-job training until they are able to accept supervisory responsibilities. Supervisors with outstanding abil ity, particularly those with college education, may move up to higher m anagem ent positions. In m anufac turing, for exam ple, they may ad vance to jobs such as departm ent head and plant m anager. Some su pervisors, p articularly in the co n struction industry, use the experi ence and skills they gain to go into business for themselves. Employment Outlook Employment of blue-collar worker supervisors is expected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. In addition, many job open ings will arise as experienced supervi sors retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Population growth and rising in com es will stim u late dem and for goods such as houses, air condition ers, TV sets, and cars. As a result, m ore b lu e-c o lla r w o rk ers will be needed to produce and sell these items, and m ore supervisors will be needed to direct their activities. Al though m ost of these supervisors will continue to work in m anufacturing, a large part o f the increase in jobs will be due to the expansion of nonm anu facturing industries, especially in the trade and service sectors. There is usually keen com petition for supervisory jobs. C om petent workers who possess leadership abil ity and have a few years of collge are the most likely to be selected. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, average annual earnings of blue-collar w orker supervisors who worked full time were $15,149, com pared with $12,946 for workers in all occupations. Supervisors usu ally are salaried. Their salaries gener ally are determ ined by the wage rates of the highest paid workers they su pervise. For example, some com pa nies keep wages of supervisors about 10 to 30 percent higher than those of their subordinates. Some supervisors may receive overtim e pay. Since supervisors are responsible for the work of other employees, they generally work m ore than 40 hours a week and are expected to be on the job before other workers ar rive and after they leave. They som e times do paperw ork at hom e, such as making work schedules or checking employee time cards, and may find them selves worrying about job-relat ed problem s after work. W orking conditions vary from in dustry to industry. In factories, su pervisors may get dirty around m a chinery and m aterials and have to put up with noisy factory operations. Some supervisors who have limited authority may feel isolated, neither a m em ber o f the work force nor an im portant part of m anagem ent. On the other hand, supervisors have m ore challenging and prestigious jobs than most blue-collar workers. Sources of Additional Information A bibliography of career literature on m anagem ent occupations is avail able from: American Management Rssociation, 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. BOILERMAKING OCCUPATIONS Nature of the Work Boilers, vats, and other large ves sels that hold liquids and gases are essential to many industries. Boilers, for example, supply the steam that drives the huge turbines in electric utility plants and ships. Tanks and vats are used to process and store chemicals, oil, beer, and hundreds of other products. Layout workers and fitters help m ake the parts for these vessels, and boilerm akers assemble them. Layout workers (D.O.T. 809.381 and .781) follow blueprints in m ark ing off lines on m etal plates and tubes. These lines serve as guides to othe workers in the shop who cut the m etal and then shape it on lathes or use other shaping tools such as grinders to produce the finished piec es. Layout w orkers use compasses, scales, gauges, and other devices to make m easurem ents. Their m easure ments m ust be precise because errors may be difficult or impossible to co r rect once the m etal is cut. Before the boiler parts are assem bled, fitte rs (D .O .T . 819.781) see that they fit together properly. These w o rk e rs use b o lts o r te m p o ra ry welds, called tackwelds, to hold the parts in place while they check the parts to see that they line up accord ing to blueprints. W here alterations are necessary, fitters use grinders or cu ttin g to rc h e s to rem ove excess metal, and welding m achines to fill in small gaps. If large gaps appear, a new piece may have to be cut. Also, fitters use drills to line up rivet holes. Small boilers may be assembled at the plant where they are made; how ever, once the pieces for a larger boiler or tank have been cut out and checked for a proper fit, they are transported to the shop or construc tion site where they are to be used. T h e r e , b o ile r m a k e r s (D .O .T . 805.281) assemble and erect the ves OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 64 sels using rigging equipm ent such as hoists and jacks to lift heavy m etal parts into place, and then weld or rivet the parts together. After a boil er is com pleted, they test it for leaks or other defects. C onstruction boilerm akers also in stall auxiliary equipm ent on boilers and other vessels. For example, they install vapor barriers on open-top oil, gas, and chem ical storage tanks to prevent fumes from polluting in the air. Boilermakers also install air pol lution co n tro l equipm ent, such as precipitators and sm oke scrubbers, in electric plants that burn high sul fur coal. Boilermakers also do repair jobs. For example, boilers occasionally de velop leaks. When they do, boiler makers find the cause of the prob lem, and then they may dismantle the boiler, patch weak spots with metal stock, replace defective sections with new parts, or strengthen joints. In stallation and rep air work usually m ust m eet S tate and local safety standards. Places of Employment A bout 34,000 boilerm akers, lay out w orkers, and fitters were em ployed in 1976. O f these, several thousand boilerm akers worked in the construction industry, mainly to as semble and erect boilers and other pressure vessels. Boilerm akers also were em ployed in the m aintenance and repair departm ents of iron and steel p lan ts, petro leu m refineries, ra ilro a d s, sh ip y ard s, and e le c tric powerplants. Large num bers worked in Federal G overnm ent installations, principally in Navy shipyards and Federal powerplants. Layout work ers and fitte rs w orked m ainly in plants that make fire-tube and watertube boilers, heat exchangers, heavy tanks, and similar products. B o ile rm ak in g w o rk ers are e m ployed throughout the country, but em ploym ent is concentrated in high ly industrialized areas, such as New Y ork, Philadelphia, Chicago, Pitts burgh, Houston, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many people have becom e boiler makers by working for several years as helpers to experienced boilerm ak ers, but m ost train in g a u th o rities agree that a formal apprenticeship is the best way to learn this trade. A p prenticeship program s usually co n sist of 4 years of on-the-job training, supplem ented by about 150 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, shop m athem atics, and welding. A p prentices often have to travel from one area to another, since there is not always work available in their lo cality. Most layout workers and fitters are hired as helpers and learn the craft by w orking with experienced em ployees. It generally takes at least 2 years to becom e a highly skilled lay out w orker or fitter. W hen hiring apprentices or help ers, employers prefer high school or vocational school graduates. Courses in shop, m athem atics, blueprint read ing, w elding, and m achine m etal working provide a useful background for all boilerm aking jobs. Most firms require applicants to pass a physical exam in atio n because good h ealth and the capacity to uo heavy work are necessary in these jobs. M echani cal aptitude and the m anual dexterity needed to handle tools also are im portant qualifications. Layout workers and fitters may become boilerm akers or advance to shop supervisors. Boilerm akers may become supervisors for boiler instal lation contractors; a few may go into business for themselves. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent in boilermaking occupations is expected to increase much wasterthan the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to the job openings result ing from em ploym ent growth, other openings will arise each year as expe rienced workers retire, die, or trans fer to other fields of work. The construction o f many new electric pow erplants, especially n u clear plants, will create a need for additional boilers and will cause em ploym ent o f b o ilerm ak e rs, layout workers, and fitters to increase. The expansion of other industries that use boiler products, such as the chemical, petroleum , steel, and ship building industries, will further in crease the dem and for these workers. Also, as more laws are enacted to provide cleaner air, m ore boilerm ak ers will be needed to install pollution control equipm ent. D espite the expected overall in crease in em ploym ent, most of the industries that purchase boilers are sensitive to econom ic conditio n s. T herefore, during econom ic dow n turns some boilerm akers, fitters, and layout workers may be laid off, and others may have to move from one area of the country to another to find employment. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a national survey of workers in the construction industry, union wage rates for boilerm akers averaged $10.03 an hour in 1976, com pared with $9.47 for all building trades. Boilermakers employed in railroad shops averaged about $7 an hour in 1976. C om parable wage data were not available for boilerm akers em ployed in industrial plants. However, wage rates were available from union co n tracts that cover many boilerm akers, layout workers, and fitters em ployed in fabricated plate work and the pe troleum and shipbuilding industries in 1976. M ost o f these co n tra c ts called for hourly rates ranging from about $5.50 to $10. Generally, lay out workers earned more than boiler m akers, and b o ilerm ak ers earn ed more than fitters. When assembling boilers or m ak ing repairs, boilerm akers often work in cram ped quarters and sometimes at great heights, since large boilers may be over 10 stories tall. Some work also m ust be done in dam p, poorly ventilated places. Thus boiler making is more hazardous than many o th e r m etalw o rk in g o c c u p a tio n s. E m ployers and unions attem p t to eliminate injuries by prom oting safe ty training and the use of protective equipm ent, such as safety glasses and metal helmets. Most boilerm aking workers belong to labor unions. The principal union is the International B rotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. O ther workers are m em bers of the Industrial Union of M arine and Ship- OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 65 building W orkers of A m erica; the Oil, Chemical and Atomic W orkers International Union; and the United Steelworkers of America. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding boilermaking apprenticeships or oth er training opportunities, contact lo cal offices of the unions previously m entioned, local construction com panies and boiler m anufacturers, or the local office of the State employ ment service. BOILER TENDERS (D.O.T. 951.885) Nature of the Work Boiler tenders operate and main tain the steam boilers that power in dustrial m achinery and heat facto ries, offices, and o th e r buildings. They also may operate waste heat boilers that burn trash and other sol id waste. B oiler ten d ers co n tro l the m e chanical or autom atic devices that regulate the flow of air and fuel into th e co m b u stio n c h a m b e rs. T hey may, for example, start the pulveriz ers or stokers to feed coal into the firebox or start the oil pumps and heaters to ignite burners. These workers may be responsible for inspecting and maintaining boiler equipm ent. This includes reading m eters and gauges attached to the boilers to ensure safe operation. Sometimes boiler tenders make mi nor repairs, such as packing valves or replacing faulty indicators. Boiler tenders also chemically test and treat water for purity. In this way, they prevent corrosion of the boiler and buildup of scale. Boiler tenders often are supervised by stationary engineers who operate and maintain a variety o f equipm ent, including boilers, diesel and steam engines, and refrigeration and airconditioning systems. (Additional in fo rm atio n on stationary engineers appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Boiler tenders may advance to stationary engineers. Places of Employment About one-half of the 73,000 boil er tenders employed in 1976 worked in factories. Plants that m anufacture lumber, iron and steel, paper, chem i cals, and stone, clay, and glass prod ucts are among the leading em ploy ers of boiler tenders. Public utilities also employ many of these workers. M any o th ers w orked in hospitals, schools, and Federal, State, and local governments. A lthough boiler tenders are em ployed in all parts of the country, most work in the more heavily popu lated areas where large m anufactur ing plants are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some large cities and a few States require boiler tenders to be licensed. An applicant can obtain the knowl edge and experience to pass the li cense examination by first working as a helper in a boiler room. Applicants for helper jobs should be in good physical co n d itio n and have m e chanical aptitude and manual dexter ity. High school courses in m athe matics, m otor mechanics, chemistry, and blueprint reading also are helpful to persons interested in becom ing boiler tenders. There are two types of boiler ten ders’ licenses—for low pressure and high pressure boilers. Low pressure te n d e rs o p e ra te b oilers generally used for heating buildings. High pressure tenders operate the more powerful boilers and auxiliary boiler equipm ent used to power m achinery in fa cto ries as well as heat large buildings, such as high-rise a p a rt ments. Both high and low pressure te n d e r s , h o w e v e r, m ay o p e r a te equipm ent of any pressure if a sta tionary engineer is on duty. Due to regional differences in li censing requirem ents, a boiler tender who moves from one State or city to another 4ay have to pass an exami nation for a new license. However, the National Institute for Uniform Li censing of Power Engineers is cu r rently assisting many State licensing agencies in adopting uniform licens OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 6 6 ing requirem ents th at would elim i n ate this problem by establishing reciprocity of licenses. Boiler tenders may advance to jobs as stationary engineers. To help them advance, they sometimes supplem ent their on-the-job training by taking courses in chemistry, physics, blue print reading, electricity, and airconditioning and refrigeration. Boil er tenders also may becom e m ainte nance mechanics. Employment Outlook Employment of boiler tenders is expected to decline through the mid1980’s as more new boilers are equipped with autom atic controls. Nevertheless, a few thousand open ings will result each year from the need to replace experienced tenders who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions Boiler tenders had average hourly earnings of $6.20, according to a survey of 19 m etropolitan areas in 1976. This was higher than the aver age for all nonsupervisory workers in priv ate in d u stry , e x c ep t farm ing. The average for tenders in individual areas ranged from $3.63 in G reen ville, S.C., to $7.48 in Detroit, Mich. M odern boiler rooms usually are clean and well-lighted. However, boiler tenders may have to work in awkward positions and be exposed to noise, heat, grease, fumes, and smoke. They also are subject to burns, falls, and injury from defective boilers or moving parts, such as pul verizers and stokers. M odern equip m ent and safety procedures, how ever, have reduced accidents. The principal unions organizing boiler tenders are the International Brotherhood of Firem en and Oilers and the International Union of O per ating Engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportunities in this trade is available from local offices of State em ploy ment services, locals of the Interna tional B rotherhood of Firemen and O ilers, locals o f the In tern atio n al Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local licensing agen cies. Specific questions about the n a ture of the occupation, training, and em ploym ent opportunities may be referred to: National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 176 West Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60603. International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For inform ation concerning reci procity o f boiler te n d e rs’ licenses among various cities and States, co n tact: National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engineers, 176 West Adams St., Suite 1911, Chicago, 111. 60603. ELECTROPLATERS (D.O.T. 500.380 and .781 through . 886 ) Nature of the Work Electroplating is a commonly used m anufacturing process that gives metal or plastic articles a protective surface or an attractive appearance. Products that are electroplated in clude items as different as autom o bile bum pers, silverw are, costum e jewelry, and jet engine parts. In all cases, however, the object being plat ed is connected to one end o f an electric circuit and placed in an ap propriate solution. The other end o f the electric circuit is connected to the plating m aterial. By controlling the am ount of electricity that flows from the plating m aterial through the solution and to the object being plat ed, electroplaters control the am ount of chrom ium , nickel, silver, or other m etal th a t is applied to the final product. Prior to electroplating any object, electroplaters study the job specifica tions which indicate the parts of the objects to be plated, the type of plat ing metal to be applied, and the d e sired thickness of the plating. Follow ing these specifications, they prepare the plating solution by carefully add ing the proper am ounts and types of chemicals. In preparing an article for electro plating, platers may first cover parts of it with lacquer, rubber, or tape to keep these parts from being exposed to The plating solution. They then ei ther scour the article or dip it into a cleaning bath to rem ove dirt and grease before putting it into the solu tion. E lectroplaters m ust carefully in spect their work for defects such as m inute pits and nodules. They may use a magnifying glass to examine the surface and m icrom eters and calipers to check the plating thickness. Skill requirem ents and work p er form ed vary by type of shop. A ll round platers in small shops analyze solutions, do a great variety of plat ing, calculate the time and current needed for various types of plating, and perform other technical duties. They also may order chemicals and other supplies for their work. Platers in larg er shops usually carry o u t more specialized assignments that re quire less extensive knowledge. Places of Employment About 36,000 people worked as electroplaters in 1976. About half of them worked in shops that special ized in m etal plating and polishing for m anufacturing firms and oth er custom ers. Virtually all of the re maining platers worked in plants that m a n u fa c tu re d plum bing fix tu re s, cooking utensils, household ap p li ances, electronic com ponents, m otor vehicles, and other metal products. The Federal G overnm ent em ployed a few platers for m aintenance p u r poses at a num ber of military and civilian installations. Electroplaters work in almost ev ery p art o f the country, although most work in the N ortheast and M id west, near the centers of the m etal working industry. Large num bers 6f electroplaters work in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, New York, Detroit, Cleveland, Providence, and Newark. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most electroplaters learn the trade on the job by helping experienced platers. It usually takes at least 3 years to becom e an all-round plater. 67 OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook Employment of electroplaters is expected to grow more slowly than th e av e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. Besides em ployment growth, other openings will result from the need to replace expe rienced workers who retire, die, 6r leave the occupation for other rea sons. O pportunities are expected to be favorable for individuals who want jobs as electroplaters. Expansion of the m etalworking in dustries and the electroplating of a broadening group of metals and plas tics are expected to increase the need for electroplaters. However, em ploy m ent growth will be som ewhat re stricted by the increasing application of autom ated plating equipm ent and water effluent standards established by the E n v iro n m en tal P ro te c tio n Agency. Such standards will require plants to install equipm ent with addi tional w ater pollution controls to prevent pollution of streams and wa ters. This new non-polluting plating equipm ent will increase cost of elec troplating and thus will reduce the dem and for electroplated products and electroplaters. Earnings and Working Conditions Electroplaters dip aircraft wing pivot in plating solution. Platers in large shops usually are not required to have an all-round knowl edge of plating, and can learn their jobs in m uch less tim e. However, w orkers who receive such limited training generally have difficulty in transferring to shops doing electro plating with metals outside their spe cialty. A small proportion of electroplat ers receiv e all-ro u n d train in g by working 3 or 4 years as an appren tice. Apprenticeship program s com bine on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in the proper ties of metals, chemistry, and elec tricity as applied to plating. A ppren tices do progressively more difficult work as their skill and knowledge in crease. By the third year, they deter mine cleaning m ethods, do plating without supervision, make solutions, Digitizedexamine for FRASER plating results, and direct helpers. Qualified platers may b e come supervisors. Some electroplat ers who understand the chem ical processes of electroplating and the chem ical characteristics of m etals, and who have an outgoing personal ity, may becom e sales re p resen ta tives for metal products wholesalers o r m a n u fa c tu re rs. E le c tro p la te rs with the necessary capital may go into business for themselves. A few people take a 1- or 2-year electroplating course in a junior col lege, technical institute, or vocation al high school. In addition, m any branches of the Am erican E lectro platers Society give basic courses in electroplating. Persons who wish to become electroplaters will find high school or vocational school courses in ch e m istry , e le c tric ity , physics, m athem atics, and blueprint reading helpful. Hourly wage rates for electroplat ers ranged from $2.75 to $9.80 in 1976, according to the limited infor mation available. During apprentice ship or on-the-job training, a work e r’s wage rate starts at about 60 to 70 percent of an experienced w orker’s rate and progresses to the full rate by the end of the training period. Elec troplaters normally receive premium pay for working night shifts. O ccupational hazards associated with plating work include burns from splashing acids and inhalation of toxic fumes. Humidity and odor also are problem s in electroplating plants. However, most plants have ventila tion systems and other safety devices that have reduced occupational haz ards. Protective clothing and boots provide additional protection. Elec troplaters are on their feet most of their workday and do much reaching, lifting, bending and carrying. G ener ally, m echanical devices are used for lifting, but at times the worker must OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 68 lift and carry objects weighing up to 100 pounds. Some platers are m em bers of the Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers and Helpers International Union. O ther platers have been organized by the International U nion, U nited A uto mobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement W orkers o f Am erica, and the International Association of M a chinists and Aerospace W orkers. er metals also are forged. Nonferrous forgings are useful in m any critical ap p licatio n s, for exam ple, aircraft landing gear. Some of the ad vantages of nonferrous m etal forg ings are corrosion resistance and a lighter weight to strength ratio. Forged products may be as small and lightweight as a key, or they may be as bulky and heavy as a piece of industrial m achinery. Sources of Additional Information Nature of the Work Information on the availability of apprenticeships or on-the-job train ing may be obtained from State em ployment offices and local union of fices. T rain in g o p p o rtu n itie s may also be located by contacting m anu facturing plants and job shops that do electroplating. For m ore specific information about job opportunities and training, write to: American Electroplaters Society, Inc., 1201 Lousiana Avenue Winter Park, Florida 23609. National Association of Metal Finishers, 22 South Park, Montclair, N.J. 07042. FORGE SHOP OCCUPATIONS Forging is one of the oldest m eth ods of working and shaping metals. The exceptional strength of forged metal parts makes this an often used m eth o d o f form ing p ro d u c ts th a t m ust w ithstand heavy wear. Many machine tools such as wrenches and drill bits are forged because they are subjected to constant stress and pres sure. The simplest forging m ethod is hand forging done by a blacksmith. Modern forge shops, however, sub stitute heavy power equipm ent and dies (tools that shape m etal) for the blacksm ith’s ham m er and anvil. In this way, products can be forged in much greater quantity. Five em ploy ees operating a large forging m achine can turn o u t more forgings in an hour than five blacksm iths can make in a year. Most forgings are steel; but alum i num, copper, brass, bronze, and oth Before metal can be shaped, it must be heated in intensely hot fu r naces (forges) until it is soft. W ork ers place the heated m etal between two m etal dies that are attached to power presses or hammers. With tre m en d o u s fo rc e , th e ham m ers o r presses pound or squeeze the m etal into the desired shape. To finish the forging, other workers remove rough edges and excess m etal and perform other finishing operations such as heat treating and polishing. Two kinds of dies are used. The open die is flat and similar to the blacksm ith’s ham m er, and is used when only a limited quantity of forg ings o r larg e -size, sim p le -sh ap e d forgings are needed. The impression, or closed die, has a cavity shaped to the form of the m etal part, and is used to produce large quantities of identical forgings. Basic forge-shop equipm ent con sists o f various types of ham m ers, presses, dies, upsetters, and furnaces. F o r g e - s h o p w o r k e r s a ls o u s e h an d to o ls, such as ham m ers and tongs, to help mold and shape parts to fit exact specifications. Measuring devices such as rules, scales, and cali pers are needed to inspect the fin ished products. Descriptions of some major forgeshop production occupations follow. Hammersmiths (D.O.T. 612.381) direct the operation of open die power ham m ers. They follow blue prints and in terp re t drawings and sketches so that the part being forged will m eet specifications. H am m er smiths determ ine how to position the metal under the ham m er and which tools are needed to produce desired angles and curves. They decide the am ount o f ham m er force and if and when the m etal n eed s ad d itio n al heating. Hammersmiths head crews of four or more workers. A typical crew in cludes a ham m er driver or ham m er runner who regulates the force o f the forging blow; a crane operator who transfers the metal from the furnace to the ham m er and properly places it under the hammer; and a heater who controls the furnace that heats the metal to correct tem peratures. The rest of the crew consists of one or more helpers to assist as needed. The duties of ham m er operators (D.O.T. 610.782), who operate im pression die pow er ham m ers, are sim ilar to those ju st described for ham m ersm iths. Generally the parts forged by closed die ham m ers are m ore in tric a te and d etailed , thus these o p erato rs are highly skilled. With the assistance o f a crew of help ers and heaters, ham m er operators set and align dies in the hammers. They correctly position the metal un der the ham m er, control the force of the forging blow, and determ ine if and when the metal needs additional heating to make it easier to shape the metal to that of the die impression. Press operators (D .O .T. 611.782 an d .8 8 5 ) c o n tro l huge p re s se s equipped with either impression or open dies. These m achines press and squeeze hot metal rather than ham m er or pound it, and the operators regulate m achine pressure and move the hot m etal between the dies. They also may control the metal heating operations. Some operators set up the dies in the presses, using instru ments such as squares and m icrom eters to m ake sure these are in place. Their skills are very similar to those of ham m ersm iths or ham m er opera tors. With the help of heaters and sever a l h e l p e r s , u p s e tte r s ( D .O .T . 61 1 .7 8 2 ) o p e ra te m a c h in e s th a t shape hot metal by applying horizon tal pressure. The heads of nails and bolts, for example, are m ade by upset forging. Heaters (D.O.T. 619.782) control furnace tem peratures. They d e te r mine when the m etal has reached the correct tem perature by observing the m etal’s color and the furnace’s tem perature gauge. Using tongs or m e chanical equipm ent, they transfer the hot m etal from the furnace to ham- OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 69 remove surface scale and reveal any s u r f a c e d e f e c ts . H e a t tr e a te r s (D.O.T. 504.782) heat and cool forg ings to harden and tem per the metal. Places of Employment In 1976, about 71,000 production w o rk ers w ere em ployed in forge shops. About three-fourths of these worked in shops that make and sell forgings. The rem ainder worked in plants that use forgings in their final products, such as plants operated by m anufacturers of autom obiles, farm equipm ent, and handtools. Although forge-shop workers are found in all areas, they are concen trated near steel-producing centers that provide the steel for forgings, and near m etalworking plants that are the major users of forged prod ucts. Large num bers of forge-shop workers are employed in and around the cities of Detroit, Chicago, Cleve land, Los Angeles, and Pittsburgh. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Hammer operator shaping metal parts. mers or presses. Some heaters clean furnaces. Inspectors (D .O .T. 612.281) ex amine forged pieces for accuracy, size, and quality. They use tools such as gauges, m icrom eters, squares, and calipers to measure the exact dim en sions of the forgings. Machines that test strength and hardness and elec tronic testing devices also may be used. Die sinkers (D.O.T. 601.280) make the impression dies for the forging hammers and presses. W ork ing from a blueprint, drawing, or template, these skilled workers make an outline o f the object to be forged on two matching steel blocks. They measure and mark the object’s shape in the blocks to form the impression cavity by using milling machines and other m achine tools such as EDM (electrical discharge m achinery) and ECM (electrical chem ical m achin ery). Using handtools such as scrap ers and grinders, and m easuring tools such as calipers and m icrom eters, die sinkers sm ooth and finish the die cav ity to fit specifications. Finally, a sample is prepared from the finished cavity and is checked against specifi cations. Many forge-shop workers clean and finish forgings. For example, trimmers (D.O.T. 617.885) remove excess metal with presses equipped with trimming dies. Grinders (D.O.T. 705.884) remove rough edges with power abrasive wheels. Sandblasters or shotblasters (D.O.T. 503.887) o p erate sandblasting or shotblasting equipm ent that cleans and smoothes forgings. Picklers (D.O.T. 503.885) dip forgings in an acid solution to Most forge-shop workers learn their skills on the job. They generally join ham m er or press crews as help ers or heaters, and progress to other jobs as they gain experience. A d vancem ent to hammersmith, for ex ample, requires several years of onthe-job training and experience. Some forge shops offer apprentice ship training program s for skilled jobs such as diesinker, heat treater, ham m er o p e ra to r, h am m ersm ith , and press operator. These programs usually last 4 years, and offer class room training and practical experi ence in metal properties, power ham mer and furnace operation, handtool use, and blueprint reading. Training requirem ents for inspec tors vary. Only a few weeks of onthe-job training are necessary for those who examine forgings visually or use only simple gauges. O thers who inspect forgings that must m eet exact specifications may need some background in blueprint reading and m athem atics, and may be given sev eral months of training. Employers usually do not require a high school diploma, but graduates may be preferred. Persons interested in more skilled forge-shop jobs OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 70 should com plete high school and take m athem atics (especially geom e try), drafting, and shopwork. Although cranes are used to move very large objects, forge-shop work ers must be strong enough to lift and move heavy forgings and dies. They also need stamina and endurance to work in the heat and noise of a forge shop. Employment Outlook E m ploym ent o f forge-shop p ro duction w orkers is expected to in crease m ore slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. Some new jobs will becom e av ailable b ecau se o f grow th, b u t m ost openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who or transfer to o th er fields of work. Employment will grow because of expansion in industries that use forg ings, particularly autom obile and en ergy-related industries. The expan s io n o f n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t construction will cause a great de mand for forged piping and fittings. Likewise, many forged drilling bits and o th er forged products will be needed for oil drilling and coal m in ing o p erations. H ow ever, em ploy m ent will not keep pace with forge shop production because improved forging techniques and equipm ent will result in greater output per work er. Em ployment in some forge shops is sensitive to changes in econom ic conditions. In shops th at make auto mobile parts, for example, employ m ent fluctuates with changes in the dem and for new cars; thus, jobs in these shops may be plentiful in some years, scarce in others. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly earnings of forgeshop production workers are higher than the average for all m anufactur ing p ro d u c tio n w orkers. In 1976, production workers in iron and steel forging p lan ts av erag ed $6.86 an hour, com pared to $5.19 an hour for production workers in all m anufac turing industries. Forge-shop occupations are more hazardous than most m anufacturing o cfor c uFRASER p a tio n s . H o w e v er, im p ro v e Digitized ments in machinery and shop prac tices have reduced some noise and vibration. For example, many forge shops have heat deflectors and venti lating fans to reduce heat and smoke. Also, labor and m anagem ent cooper ate to encourage good work practic es through safety training and the re quired use o f protective equipm ent such as face shields, ear plugs, safety glasses, m etal-toed shoes, helm ets, and m achine safety guards. Most forge-shop workers are union members. Many are m em bers of the International B rotherhood of Boiler m akers, Iron S hipbuilders, B lack smiths, Forgers and Helpers. Others are m em bers o f the U nited S teel workers o f America; the Internation al Union, United Autom obile, A ero space and A gricultural Im plem ent W orkers o f A m erica; the In tern a tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace W orkers; and the Interna tional Die Sinkers’ C onference (Ind). Sources of Additional Information For inform ation on em ploym ent opportunities in forging, contact lo cal offices of the State em ploym ent service, personnel d ep artm en ts o f forge shops, locals of the labor o r ganizations listed above, or: The Forging Industry Association, 55 Public Square, Cleveland, Ohio 44113. The Open Die Forging Institute, 102 Pageant Ave., Rogers, Ark. 72756. FURNITURE UPHOLSTERERS (D.O.T. 780.381) Nature of the Work W hether restoring a treasured an tique or simply giving an old living room couch a facelift, upholsterers combine artistic flair and skill to re condition sofas, chairs, and other u p h o ls te re d f u r n itu re . T h ese c r a ft w orkers re p air or rep lace fabrics, springs, padding, and other parts that are worn or damaged. (W orkers em ployed in the m anufacture of uphol stered furniture are not included in this statem ent.) The tasks involved in upholstering any piece of furniture are basically the same, although each job is unique in some ways because of differences in furniture construction. As the first step, upholsterers usually place the furniture on padded wooden benches or some other type o f support so that they may work at a convenient level. Using ham m ers and tack pullers, they remove tacks holding the old fabric to the wooden frame. After stripping the old fabric, they remove the burlap and padding that cover the springs. Upholsterers examine the springs and remove broken or bent ones. If the nylon or cotton webbing—which hold the springs in place—is worn, upholsterers remove all the springs and all the webbing. To rebuild the furniture, uphol sterers may reglue loose sections of th e fra m e an d re fin ish e x p o se d wooden parts. They then tack web bing to one side of the fram e, stretch it tight, and tack it to the opposite side. O ther webbing is woven across the first and attached to the frame in a similar fashion to form a mat. A fter putting springs on the m at so they compress evenly, upholsterers sew or staple each spring to the webbing or frame and tie each spring to the ones next to it. Burlap then is stretched over the springs, cut and sm oothed, and tacked to the frame. To form a sm ooth rou n d ed surface over the springs and frame, upholsterers cov er all surfaces of the furniture with foam rubber, cotton pads, or other filling m aterial. After sewing the pad ding to the burlap, they cover it with heavy cloth and tack the cloth to the frame. Finally, upholsterers put the new fabric cover, which has been cut to size and tem porarily stitched to gether for fitting, on the furniture. A fter checking th at the cover fits tig h tly an d sm o o th ly — o r n o tin g w here adjustm ents are necessary— they remove the cover and sew it to gether. To com plete the job, uphol sterers put the cover back on the fu r niture; sew or tack on fringe, buttons, or other ornam ents; and m ake pillow covers. U p h o ls te re rs use a v a rie ty o f handtools including tack and staple rem overs, pliers, ham m ers, and hand or pow er shears. They use special OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Over three-fourths of all furniture uphol sterers own and operate, or work in, small upholstery shops. tools such as webbing stretchers and upholstery needles. They also use sewing machines. Sometimes upholsterers pick up and deliver furniture. Those who own and m anage shops order sup plies and equipm ent and keep busi ness records. Places of Employment About 27,000 people worked as furniture upholsterers in 1976. Over three-fourths of all furniture uphol sterers own and operate, or work in small upholstery shops. These shops generally have less than three work ers. Some upholsterers are employed by furniture stores. A few work for businesses, such as hotels, that main tain their own furniture. Upholsterers work in all parts of the country. However, employment is concentrated in metropolitan areas, where the large population provides the greatest dem and for the upholsterer’s services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The most common way to enter this trade is to start as a helper in an upholstery shop and learn on the job. Helpers learn by upholstering furni ture under the direction of experi enced workers. Much time and prac tice are needed to learn com plex tasks such as m easuring and cutting the new fabric and sewing and a t taching it to the fram e with a mini mum of waste. Usually about 3 years of on-the-job training are required to become a fully skilled upholsterer. Inexperienced persons may get valuable training from vocational or high school courses in upholstery. However, additional training and ex perience in a shop are usually re q u ired b efo re th ese w orkers can qualify as skilled upholsterers. In a few large cities, locals of the Uphol sterers’ International Union of North Am erica run formal apprenticeship programs that last from 3 to 4 years. The program s place graduates of lo cal vocational schools in upholstery shops where they receive on-the-job training. Persons interested in becoming up holsterers should have good manual dexterity, coordination, and be able to do occasional heavy lifting. An eye for detail, good color sense, patience, and a flair for creative work are help ful in making upholstered furniture as attractive as possible. The m ajor form of advancem ent for upholsterers is opening their own shop. It is easy to open a shop b e cause only a sm all investm ent in handtools is needed. However, the business is extremely com petitive, so operating a shop successfully is diffi cult. Employment Outlook Little or no change is expected in em ploym ent of upholsterers through the m id-1980’s. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who re tire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. More upholstered furniture will be used as population, personal income, and business expenditures grow. However, the dem and for upholster ers will be limited because more peo ple are buying less expensive furni tu r e an d re p la c in g r a th e r th a n reupholstering it. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wages for experienced fur n itu re u p h o ls te re rs ra n g ed from 71 $4.25 to $8 in 1976. Some highly skilled upholsterers earned over $10 an hour. W ages for inexperienced trainees ranged from $2.50 to $4 an hour. Upholsterers generally work 40 hours a week. W orking conditions in upholstery shops v ary —m any shops are sp a cious, adequately lighted, well-venti lated, and w ell-heated; others are small and dusty. Upholsterers stand while they work and do a consider able am ount of stooping and bending and some heavy lifting. Upholsterers usually buy their own handtools; employers provide power tools. Some upholsterers are members of the U pholsterers’ International Union o f North America. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work op portunities for upholsterers, contact local upholstery shops or the local office of the State em ploym ent ser vice. INSPECTORS (MANUFACTURING) Nature of the Work M ost p r o d u c ts — in c lu d in g th e things we eat, drink, wear, and ride in—are checked by inspectors som e time during the m anufacturing p ro cess to m ake sure they are of the d esire d q u ality . In sp e c to rs also check the quality of the raw m ateri als and parts that m ake up finished goods. A variety of m ethods are used to make certain that products m eet specifications. Inspectors may tastetest a soft drink or examine a jacket for flaws, im perfections, or defects. They may use tools such as m icrom eters, protractors, gauges, and mag nifying glasses to make sure that air p la n e s a re a sse m b le d p ro p e rly . Inspectors frequently m ake simple calculations to m easure parts and ex amine work orders or blueprints to verify that products conform to stan dards. 72 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK team. A few large com panies give preem ploym ent tests to check skills such as the ability to work with num bers. Some employers may hire ap p lican ts who do n o t have a high school diplom a but who have qualify ing aptitudes or related experience. O ther employers prefer experienced workers for inspection jobs. Many in spectors acquire the necessary skills and experience by working at various production line jobs, especially as sembling. Some semiskilled inspectors—p ar tic u la rly in m e ta lw o rk in g in d u s trie s —who tak e co u rses, such as blueprint reading and shop m ath e m atics, may advance to skilled in spectors. A fter acquiring sufficient experience and knowledge, a few be come quality control technicians or supervisors. Employment Outlook p o rta tio n e q u ip m e n t, e le c tro n ic s equipm ent, and furniture. O thers w o rk ed in p la n ts th a t p ro d u c e d goods such as textiles, apparel, and leather products. Inspectors worked in every part of the country, although they were co n centrated in the industrialized States. A lm ost tw o -th ird s w ere found in Ohio, New York, Michigan, Illinois, Pennsylvania, C alifornia, New J e r sey, North Carolina, and Indiana. Em ploym ent o f inspectors is ex pected to increase faster than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1980’s, with thousands of open ings each year. As population and personal incomes grow, m ost m anu facturing industries are expected to increase their output, and thus em ploym ent in the long run. This busi ness growth will create a need for m o re in d u s tr ia l m a c h in e ry a n d equipm ent. A dditionally, the grow ing co m p lex ity o f m a n u fa c tu re d products should result in a need for more inspectors. Many openings will result as workers retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Inspectors seeking jobs in com pa nies th a t p ro d u ce d u rab le goods, which are particularly sensitive to changes in business conditions, may find jobs scarce in some years, plenti ful in others. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Earnings and Working Conditions Inspectors generally are trained on the job for a brief period—from a few hours or days to several months, d e pending upon the skill required. Employers look for applicants who have good health and eyesight—with or w ithout glasses—and who can fol low directions and con cen trate on details. Applicants should be able to get along with people since inspec tors occasionally work as part of a Wages for inspectors ranged from $2.70 to $7.02 an hour in 1976, ac cording to inform ation from a limited num ber o f union contracts. Most in spectors covered by these contracts earned between $3.50 and $5.50 an hour. W orking conditions vary consider ably for inspectors. For exam ple, some have well lighted, air-co n d i tioned w orkplaces in an aircraft or Inspectors use a variety of instruments to test product quality. S e m isk ille d in s p e c to rs usu ally work under close supervision, w here as skilled inspectors generally have more responsibility and less supervi sion. For example, skilled inspectors usually have authority to accept or reject most products, and often an a lyze the reasons for faulty construc tion and recom m end corrective ac tio n . S killed in sp e c to rs also may know how to use a wider variety of complex testing instrum ents. Some inspectors m ake m inor re pairs and adjustm ents, such as filing a rough edge or tightening a bolt, and grade products for quality. In many plants, when the num ber of rejected items rises above a certain propor tion, inspectors notify their supervi sors. Places of Employment About 692,000 inspectors were employed in 1976. Two-thirds worked in plants that produced dura bleforgoods such as m achinery, trans Digitized FRASER 73 OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS missile plant; others, who work on the production floor of a machinery or metal fabricating plant, often are exposed to high tem peratures, oil, grease, and noise. Many inspectors are m embers of labor unions, including the Interna tional U nion, U nited A utom obile, A erospace and Agricultural Im ple ment W orkers of America; the Inter national Association o f M achinists and Aerospace W orkers; the Interna tional Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine W orkers; the International Brotherhood of Electrical W orkers; United Steelworkers; and the Allied Industrial W orkers of America. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities in this field may be available from State em ploym ent ser vice offices. The Am erican Society for Quality Control certifies quality technicians. They also publish a careers booklet called “ C areers in the Quality Sci ences,” which describes the occupa tion of inspector and includes infor m ation on quality engineering and m anagem ent careers as well. For in formation about the test required for certification, or for a free copy of the booklet, write to: American Society for Quality Control, 161 West Wisconsin Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. 53203. MILLWRIGHTS (D.O.T. 638.281) Nature of the Work With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, machines replaced many handcrafted items and new and big ger factories becam e necessary. The textile industry in England was one of the first to use m achinery to mass produce its goods. The workers who planned and built these textile mills, and set up the equipm ent that was needed, were called millwrights. The occu p atio n gradually expanded to other factories, and today the mill wright installs all types of m achinery in almost every industry. The millwright is a skilled craftworker who may perform any or all o f the tasks involved in preparing m achinery for use in a plant. This often includes construction o f con crete foundations or w ooden p lat forms on which heavy m achines are m ounted. As they either personally prepare or supervise the construction of these structures, millwrights must know how to read blueprints and work with various building materials. Millwrights also may have to dis m antle existing equipm ent, for in stance when it becom es obsolete or to make better use of factory space. W renches, ham m ers, pliers, m etal cutting torches, and other hand and power tools are used to loosen and disassemble parts. To aid in moving m achinery, the millwright may use any num ber of rigging devices. For example, to in stall a new oven in a food processing plant, millwrights may use a hoist or a small crane to move the oven from the truck on which it arrived to a conveyor which would carry it into the plant. Then it may be lifted, with the aid o f a crow bar for leverage, onto a dolly and taken to a founda tion for proper positioning. In assem bling m ach in ery , m ill wrights fit bearings, align gears and wheels, attach m otors and connect belts to prepare a m achine for use. Mounting and assembling a piece o f equipm ent requires tools similar to those used in the dism antling p ro cess. W hen precision leveling is n ec essary, many measuring devices m ust be used. To set up autom atic pin setting equipm ent in a bowling alley, for example, plumb bobs—or weights which determ ine perpendicularity— m ust be attached. Millwrights also use squares to test right angles and calipers to m easure diam eter and thickness. Many o f the millwright’s duties also are perform ed by industrial m a chinery repairers. (See the statem ent on in d u strial m achinery re p airers elsewhere in the Handbook.) This in clu d es p re v en tativ e m ain ten an c e, such as keeping m achinery regularly oiled and greased, and fixing or re placing worn parts. Millwrights employed by contract installation and construction com pa nies do a variety of installation work. Those em ployed in factories usually specialize in installing the particular types of machinery used by their em ployers. T hey also m ay m ain tain plant equipm ent such as conveyors and cranes. Places of Employment Most of the estim ated 96,000 mill wrights em ployed in 1976 worked for m anufacturing com panies; the m a jority were in transportation equip m en t, m etal, p a p e r, lu m b er, and chemical products industries. Others worked for contractors in the con struction industry. M achinery m anu facturers employed a small num ber to install equipm ent in custom ers’ plants. Millwrights work in every State. However, em ploym ent is concentrat ed in heavily industrialized areas such as D etroit, Pittsburgh, C leve land, Buffalo, and the Chicago-Gary area. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some millwrights start as helpers to skilled workers and learn the trade informally on the job. This process generally takes 6 to 8 years. Others learn through formal apprenticeship program s which last 4 years. A ppren ticeship program s include training in dism antling, moving, erecting, and repairing m achinery. H elpers also may work with concrete and receive instruction in related skills such as carpentry, welding, and sheet-m etal work. Classroom instruction is given in shop m athem atics, blueprint read ing, hydraulics, electricity, and safe tyApplicants for apprentice or helper jobs must be at least 17 years old. Some employers prefer to hire high school or vocational school graduates. Courses in science, m athem atics, m echanical drawing, and m achine shop practice are use ful. Because millwrights often put to gether and take apart com plicated m achinery, m echanical aptitude is im portant. Strength and ability also are im portant, because the work re quires a considerable am ount of lift ing and climbing. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK are subject to usual shop hazards such as cuts and bruises. A ccidents have been reduced by the use of protective devices such as safety belts and hats. Most millwrights belong to labor unions, among which are the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace W orkers; United B rother hood of C arpenters and Joiners of Am erica (construction millwrights); United Steelworkers of America; In ternational Union, United A utom o bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Im plem ent W orkers of Am erica; United P aperw orkers International Union; the International Union o f Electrical, R adio and M achine W orkers; and th e In te rn a tio n a l B ro th erh o o d o f Firemen and Oilers. Sources of Additional information For further inform ation on appren ticeship programs, write to the A p prenticeship Council of your S tate’s labor d ep artm en t, local offices of your State em ploym ent service, local firms that employ millwrights or: Employment Outlook Employment of millwrights is ex pected to increase about as fast as th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through th e m id-1980’s. Em ploy ment will increase as new plants are built, as existing plant layouts are im proved, and as increasingly complex m ach in ery is in stalled and m ain tained. Besides job openings from em ploym ent grow th, thousands o f openings will arise annually as expe rienced m illw rights retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a survey of m etropol itan areas, hourly wages for m ill wrights averaged $7.25 in 1976— more than one-third higher than the average wage for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Earnings for millwrights in 11 areas th at represent various re gions o f the country appear in the accompanying tabulation: Area Hourly rate Indianapolis........................................ Detroit................................................. Houston............................................... Baltimore............................................. Cincinnati........................................... Chicago............................................... St. Louis.............................................. Minneapolis—St. Paul...................... New York........................................... New Orleans....................................... $7.81 7.63 7.33 7.30 7.21 6.99 6.90 6.75 6.68 6.11 Millwrights employed by factories ordinarily work year round. Those employed by construction com panies and com panies that m anufacture and install m achinery may experience p e riods of unem ploym ent; how ever, they usually are com pensated with a higher hourly wage rate. Frequently these millwrights must travel. The work of millwrights involves some hazards. For example, there is the danger of being struck by falling objects or machinery that is being moved. T here also is the danger of falling from high workplaces, for millwrights must often climb up walkways and platform s to install equipm ent. In addition, millwrights United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. MOTION PICTURE PROJECTIONISTS (D.O.T. 960.382) Nature of the Work Projectionists are key behind-thescenes w orkers in m otion p ictu re theaters. From a booth in the back of the th e a te r, p rojectionists op erate movie projectors and sound equip ment. Their duties vary with the type of equipm ent used. In theaters with older equipm ent, projectionists use two projectors, sound equipm ent, a film rewinding m achine, and seven reels of film or more. Before the movie begins, they examine the film, check the equip m ent to see that it works properly, and load the projectors with the first and second reels. A fter igniting and adjusting the extrem ely bright p ro jecto r lamp which provides light for the screen, projectionists start the 75 OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS first reel. If the picture is out of focus or unsteady, they adjust the projector lens. Volume controls also may be adjusted if the sound is too loud or too soft. A reel of film lasts 20 minutes or more. W hen the reel is almost com plete, cue marks (small circles in the upper right corner of the picture) sig nal that it is time to start the second projector. After a second series of cue marks appears, the projectionist simultaneously closes the shutter on the first projector and opens the sec ond one. This changeover happens so quickly that the audience does not notice an interruption on the screen. Next, the projectionist removes the first reel and rewinds it on the re winding machine. The entire process is repeated until all the reels have been shown. When the film breaks, the p ro jectio n ist m ust reth read it rapidly so that the show may contin ue. Almost all new theaters and many renovated theaters have autom ated or sem i-autom ated equipm ent. When the film is properly program ed or “ set-up,” the machines automatically can dim houselights, open curtains, s ta rt th e show w ith p ic tu re and sound, change from one projector to another, and rewind the film. This eq u ip m en t also uses larger reels, which lessen the num ber of projector changeovers. In theaters with auto mated equipm ent, the projectionist’s main job is the “ setup” of the film. A movie com es from a film ex change com pany on 7 to 12 individ ual reels o f film. The projectionist splices the film from these reels and rewinds it on 2 to 3 reels or on one “ platter.” The projectionist also cues the program by placing small m etal lic tabs on the film that activate the various functions of the machinery such as the film changeover. The film must then be carefully inspected for flaws, which may cause the film to break during the showing. The pro jectionist loads the projector, ignites the light, adjusts the sound and pic ture, and starts the show. In case o f trouble such as a break in the film, the equipm ent shuts off until the projectionist can correct the problem. W hen a movie has finished its run in a theater, the projectionist must replace the film on the smaller reels for return to the film exchange company. Projectionists also clean and lubri cate equipm ent, check for defective parts and damaged film, and make m inor repairs and adjustm ents. For example, they may replace a badly worn projector sprocket. M ajor re pairs are usually m ade by service technicians who specialize in repair ing projection and sound equipm ent. However, employers sometime seek a projectionist who can do all the repair work. Places of Employment An estim ated 16,500 motion pic ture projectionists w ere em ployed full tim e in 1976. T h e m ajo rity worked for indoor theaters; most of the rem ainder worked for drive-ins. Some projectionists worked for large m anufacturing com panies, colleges, television studios, and Federal, State, and local governments. Projectionists work in cities and towns of all sizes throughout the country. However, m ost jobs are in large m etropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most theaters in urban areas are unionized and young people seeking jobs as projectionists generally must m eet unio n m em b ersh ip re q u ire m ents. T he union locals establish these mem bership requirem ents, and they vary considerably among the lo cals. In n o nunion th e a te rs young people may start as ushers or helpers and learn the trade by working with an experienced projectionist. Generally, unions prefer that ap plicants be high school graduates. In a few cities and States, projectionists must be licensed. The license often must be obtained before applying for union membership. Some locals only adm it applicants who have had experience with p ro jection equipm ent. These applicants may work for a trial period in several theaters under the supervision of the regular projectionist. If they dem on strate an adequate knowledge o f the projection equipm ent and its opera tion, they may join the union. The tria l p e rio d usually lasts sev eral weeks and during that time the appli cant receives no pay. Some locals conduct training p ro grams which usually require no pre vious e x p e rie n c e w ith p ro jec tio n equipm ent. Trainees learn the trade by working with projectionists. They firs t le a rn sim ple task s su ch as threading and rewinding film, and progress to m ore difficult assign ments such as adjusting and repairing equipm ent. A trainee often works in several theaters to becom e familiar with different types o f equipm ent. Som e tra in in g p ro g ra m s in clu d e classroom instruction in basic elec tronics and mechanics. After train ing, the applicant must pass a written exam about equipm ent use and m ain tenance; the applicant then becomes a union m em ber. Trainees are not paid for their work in the theaters. Persons interested in becoming projectionists should have good eye sight—including norm al color p e r c e p tio n — and good hearing. They should be tem peram entally suited to working alone. Manual dexterity and mechanical aptitude also are im por ta n t q u a lific a tio n s . H igh sch o o l courses in m echanics and electronics or practical experience gained from operating 16-millimeter projectors at school or in the A rm ed Forces is helpful. Advancem ent opportunities for projectionists are limited. Some, however, becom e projectionist-m an agers and run many of the th eate r’s daily operations. Employment Outlook Little change is expected in em ployment of motion picture projec tio n ists th ro u g h th e m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. Most job openings will occur as expe rienced workers retire, die, or trans fer to o th er fields of work. A ppli cants may face keen com petition for the jobs that becom e available. Be cause earnings of m otion picture p ro jectionists are relatively high, appli c a n ts fre q u e n tly o u tn u m b e r jo b openings. In some areas, new union m em bers may only be able to work p art tim e as replacem ents for full time projectionists. The num ber of movie theaters is expected to increase more slowly than in recent years, because lack of new films will hurt the theaters’ abil ity to com pete with other forms of e n te rta in m e n t such as television. 76 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Furtherm ore, because of laborsaving innovations in equipm ent and theater design, em ploym ent of projectionists will n o t k eep p ace w ith th e a te r growth. While older theaters had one screen and em ployed at least one projectionist, many new theaters are built with several screens side by side so that one projectionist, aided by autom ated projection m achines and longer film reels, can run films for more than one auditorium at a time. The rep lacem en t o f single screen th e a te rs by th o se w ith m u ltip le screens will slow the growth of pro jectionist jobs caused by new theater construction. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly earnings for pro je c tio n is ts in larg e m e tro p o lita n areas ranged from $5.18 to $16.50 in 1976, according to inform ation from several union contracts. Wages vary among locals, the specific rate being determ ined by the type of theater, m o v ie, an d e q u ip m e n t inv o lv ed . G enerally, downtown theaters pay higher hourly rates than suburban or drive-in theaters. Projectionists who work more than one screen also re ceive extra pay. Most projectionists work evenings; generally 4 to 6 hours on weekdays, and 10 hours or more on Saturday or Sunday. In theaters with weekday matinees, projectionists usually work 6 hours a day, 6 days a week. Some projectionists work at several th e aters. For example, a weekly sched ule may call for two evenings in each of three theaters. In small towns, pro jectio n ists usually work only p art time because of the small num ber of shows. P ro jectionists em ployed at drive-ins— particularly in northern States—may be laid off for several months during the winter. Projection rooms usually have ade quate lighting and ventilation, and some are air-conditioned. The work is not strenuous and is relatively haz ard free, but there is danger of elec trical shock and acid burns from the projector’s lamp if proper safety p re cautions are not tak en . A lthough projectionists must stand a lot, they may sit for short periods while the equipm ent is operating. Most projec tionists work without direct supervi sion and have in fre q u en t c o n ta c t with other theater employees. Sources of Additional Information Details about training program s and em ploym ent opportunities may be obtained from any local of the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine O perators o f the United States and Canada. OPHTHALMIC LABORATORY TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 711.381 and 713.884) Nature of the Work Ophthalmic laboratory technicians (also called optical mechanics) make eyeglasses ordered by dispensing o p ticians, eye physicians (ophthalm ol ogists), and optom etrists. The two types of ophthalm ic laboratory tech nicians are surfacer (or lens grinder) and bench technician (or finisher). In small laboratories, one person may perform the tasks of both a surfacer and a finisher. Starting with standard size lens blanks, which large optical firms mass-produce, they set up and operate machines to grind and polish eyeglass lenses according to prescrip tion specifications. Surfacers use p re cision instrum ents to m easure the lenses and make sure that they fit the prescription. In large laboratories, work is divided into separate o p era tions which are perform ed mainly by workers who operate power grinding and polishing machines. Bench technicians mark and cut lenses and smooth their edges to fit fram es. T hey th en assem ble th e lenses and frame parts into finished glasses. Bench technicians use spe cial tools, such as lens cutters and glass drills, as well as small files, pliers, and o th er handtools. They also use autom atic edging m achines Technician grinds lens to prescription specifications. OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS to shape lens edges and precision in struments to detect imperfections. In larg e la b o ra to rie s , th e d u ties o f bench technicians are divided into several o perations which are p e r formed mainly by semiskilled work ers. Places of Employment About 22,000 persons worked as ophthalmic laboratory technicians in 1976. Most ophthalm ic laboratory technicians work in ophthalm ic labo ratories. Some work for retail optical dispensaries or other stores that sell prescription lenses. A few work for eye physicians or optom etrists who dispense glasses directly to patients. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians are found in every State. However, employm ent is concentrated in large cities and in populous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The vast majority of all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job. At first, technician trainees do simple jobs such as pro cessing lenses through a grinding m a chine. As they gain experience, they progress to other operations such as lens cutting and eyeglass assembly. When the trainees have acquired ex perience in all types o f work, which usually takes about 3 years, they are co n sid ered all-ro u n d o p tical m e chanics. Some technicians specialize in one type of job, such as surfacing or bench work. The training time re quired to become a specialist is less than that needed to becom e an all round technician. High school graduates also can prepare to become a technician through 3- to 4-year formal appren ticeship programs. A pprentices with ex cep tio n al ability m ay com plete their training in a sh o rter period. Most training authorities agree that technicians who learn as apprentices have m ore jo b o p p o rtu n itie s and more opportunities for advancem ent than those without such training. A pprentices are generally trained to be either ophthalm ic surfacers or finishers. All apprentices receive in struction in optical m athem atics and optical physics. O phthalm ic surfac ers receive training in lens grinding and Digitized for ophthalm FRASER ic finishers learn to as 77 semble eyeglasses into frames and to do frame repair. Some technicians receive training while in the Arm ed Forces or by attending vocational schools which offer 9-m onth full-time optical tech nician courses. G raduates from these types of program s generally need ad ditional on-the-job training. Employers prefer applicants for entry jobs as ophthalm ic laboratory technicians to be high school gradu ates who have had courses in the ba sic sciences. A knowledge of physics, algebra, geom etry, and m echanical drawing is particularly valuable. In terest in and ability to do precision work are essential. Some States require licenses for ophthalm ic laboratory technicians. To obtain a license, the applicant generally m ust m eet certain m ini mum stan d ard s o f ed u c atio n and training, and must also pass either a written or practical examination, or both. For specific requirem ents, the licensing boards of individual States should be consulted. Ophthalm ic laboratory technicians can becom e supervisors and m anag ers. Some technicians becom e dis pensing opticians, although the trend is to train specifically for optician jobs. Som e technicians, especially those receiving their training in both shop and dispensing work, may go into business for themselves. A list of schools offering courses for people who wish to become oph thalm ic la b o ra to ry tech n ic ia n s is available from: Employment Outlook National Academy of Opticianry, 514 Chest nut St., Big Rapids, Mich. 49307. Em ploym ent of ophthalm ic labo ratory technicians is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to the job openings from em ploym ent growth, some openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other rea sons. More technicians will be needed due to the rising dem and for eye glasses. The dem and for eyeglasses is expected to increase as a result of increases in population and a greater awareness of the need for eyeglasses. State program s to provide eye care for low-income families, union health insurance plans, and M edicare also will stim ulate dem and. M oreover, the growing variety o f frame styles and colors may encourage individ uals to buy more than one pair of glasses. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wage rates for ophthalm ic technicians ranged from $4.60 to $7.50 in 1976, based on information from a small num ber of union con tracts. A pprentices start at about 60 p er cent of the skilled w orker’s rate; their wages are increased periodically so that upon com pletion of the appren ticeship program , they receive the beginning rate for experienced w ork ers. Most ophthalm ic laboratory tech nicians work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Work surroundings of the ophthal mic technician are pleasant, welllig h te d , and w e ll-v e n tila te d , b u t noisy because of the power-grinding and polishing machines. Some ophthalmic laboratory tech nicians are members of unions. The principal union in this field is the In ternational Union of Electrical, R a dio and M achine W orkers (A FLCIO). Sources of Additional Information National Federation of Opticianry Schools, 300 Jay St., Brooklyn, N.Y. 11202. For general inform ation about the occupation, contact: International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Opticians Association of America, 1250 Con necticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY OCCUPATIONS (D.O.T. 970.281, 976.381, .687 through .887) Nature of the Work Am ateur snapshots, home movies, professional p o rtra its, and ph o to - 78 graphs to illustrate publications re quire the skills of thousands of pho to g ra p h ic la b o ra to ry em ployees. These workers develop film, make prints and slides, and perform related tasks, such as enlarging and retouch ing photographs. (This chapter does not discuss employees o f laboratories who specialize in processing profes sional motion picture film.) All-round darkroom technicians (D.O.T. 976.381) can perform all tasks necessary to develop and print film. They know how to develop film manually, as well as how to operate and maintain any autom atic equip m ent used in processing film. The technician varies the developing pro cess according to the type of film — b la c k -a n d -w h ite n e g a tiv e , c o lo r Some high schools and trade schools of negative, or color positive. For exam fer photography courses that include training in film processing. ple, a developing process for blackand-white negative film covers five steps: developer, stop bath, fixing technician places the negative b e bath, washing, and drying. The first tween the lamp and lens, and the p a three steps use chem ical solutions per below the lens. W hen the techni and are perform ed in darkness. In a cian turns on the lamp, light passes hand operation, the technician first through the negative and lens and immerses unwound film in the devel records a m agnified image o f the oper, a solution that brings out the negative on the paper. During print image on exposed film. W hen the ing, the technician may vary the con film has remained in the developer trast of the image or remove unw ant ed b a c k g ro u n d by u sin g p a p e r for a specified period, the technician transfers it to a stop bath to prevent patterns to shade part of the photo overdevelopm ent. Next, the film is graphic p ap e r from the projected placed in a fixing bath that makes it image. A fter removing the exposed insensitive to light to prevent further photographic paper from the printer, exp o su re. Finally, the tech n ic ia n the technician develops it in much washes the film with water to remove the same way as the negative. If the the fixing solution and places the film c u sto m e r d esires, th e te c h n ic ia n in a drying cabinet. Although hand mounts the finished print in a frame operations are perform ed in some or on a paper or cardboard back. In addition to working in the labo small photographic studios, in many photographic labs technicians regu ratory, darkroom technicians may set late m achines that autom atically p er up lights and cam eras or otherwise assist ex p erien ced p h o to g rap h ers. form the steps described above. Processes for developing color Many technicians, particularly those films are more complex than those who work in portrait studios and as used for black-and-white. Thus, pire to becom e professional photog some labs employ color technicians raphers, divide their time between (D.O.T. 976.381)—highly skilled taking and processing pictures. In workers who specialize in processing some labs, helpers assist technicians. They also may be assisted by workers color film. The darkroom technician makes a who specialize in a particular activi photograph by transferring the image ty , su c h as d ev e lo p e rs (D .O .T . from a negative to photographic pa 976.38 1), printers (D.O.T. 976.381 ), and retouchers (D.O.T. 970.281). per. Printing frequently is perform ed In most large photo labs where the on a projection printer, which con sists of a fixture for holding negatives film-developing processes are largely and photographic paper, an electric autom ated, darkroom technicians su lam p, and a m agnifying lens. The pervise semiskilled workers who do OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK specialized assignm ents requ irin g only a limited knowledge of develop ing and printing. Included are film numberers (D .O .T. 976.887), who sort film according to the type of p ro cessing needed and num ber each roll fo r id e n tific a tio n ; film strip p ers (D.O.T. .976.884), who unwind rolls of film and place them in developing machines; printer operators (D.O.T. 9 7 6 .7 8 2 ), who o p e ra te m achines that expose rolls of photographic pa per to negatives; print developers, m a chine (D.O.T. 976.885), who operate machines th at develop these rolls of exposed photographic paper; chem i cal mixers (D .O .T. 976.884), who m easure and com bine the various chemicals that make up developing solutions; slide m ounters (D .O .T . 9 7 6 .8 8 5 ), who o p e ra te m achines that cut, insert, and seal slides in card b o ard or plastic m ounts; and p h o to c h e c k e r s a n d a s s e m b le r s (D.O.T. 976.687), who inspect the finished slides and prints and pack age them for customers. Places of Employment In 1976, about 35,000 persons worked in photo lab occupations. Most semiskilled workers are em ployed by large photofinishing labs that specialize in processing film for am ateur photographers. A large p ro p o rtio n o f d ark ro o m te c h n ic ia n s work in photo labs operated by p o r trait and com m ercial studios and by m a n u f a c tu r e r s , n e w s p a p e r a n d m ag azin e p u b lish e rs, a d v e rtisin g agencies, and o th er organizations. Darkroom technicians also work in com m ercial labs th at specialize in processing the work of professional photographers. Photo lab workers are situated in all parts of the country, but em ploy m ent is co n centrated in the m ore populous areas such as New York, Los A ngeles, C hicago, and o th e r large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most darkroom technicians learn their skills through informal on-thejob training. Beginners start as help ers and gradually learn to develop and print film by assisting experi enced technicians. It generally takes 79 OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS about 3 years to becom e a fully quali fied d ark ro o m te c h n ic ia n . Som e helpers become specialists in a par ticular activity, such as printing or developing. G enerally, the training time required in order to becom e a specialist is less than is needed to become an all-round darkroom tech nician. When hiring darkroom technician helpers, employers prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in chemistry and m athem at ics are helpful to people interested in this trade. Some high schools and trade schools offer courses in pho tography that include training in film processing. The Arm ed Forces also offer training for darkroom techni cians. E x p erien ce gained through processing film as a hobby is helpful. Two-year curricula leading to an associate degree in photographic technology are offered by a few col leges. C om pletion o f college level courses in this field is helpful to peo ple who are interested in supervisory and m anagerial jobs in photo labs. Many darkroom technicians even tually becom e professional photogra phers. (See statem ent on photogra phers elsew here in the Handbook.) Others advance to supervisory posi tions in laboratories. Training for workers in semiskilled photolab occupations ranges from a few weeks to several m onths of onthe-job training. For example, film num berers and slide m o u n te rs u su a l ly can learn their jobs in a few weeks, but printer operators and chemical mixers may need several m onths or longer. For many sem iskilled jobs, manual dexterity, good vision includ ing norm al co lo r p e rc e p tio n , and good hand-eye coordination are im portant qualifications. Employment Outlook Employment in photo lab occupa tions is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to jobs from em ploym ent grow th, many openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The need for semiskilled workers is tied closely to the growth of am a teur photography. Film purchases by am ateur photographers are expected to increase as a result of rising popu latio n an d p e rso n a l incom e. Im provem ents in still and movie cam eras that make them easier to load and operate also should contribute to an increase in the use of film. How ever, due to the growing popularity o f self-processing in stan t cam eras and the increased use of m echanized film-processing equipm ent in photo labs, em ploym ent will not grow as fast as the am ount of film used. The need for all-round darkroom technicians is expected to increase as a result of the growing dem and for photography in business and govern ment. A m ajor factor contributing to this dem and will be the increasing variety of printed m atter that is illus trated with photographs. The grow ing use o f photography in research and developm ent activities also will contribute to the dem and for dark room technicians. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of photo lab workers vary greatly and depend on factors such as skill level, experience, and geograph ic location. Inexperienced photo lab w orkers generally earned betw een $2.40 and $3.50 an hour in 1976, according to the limited inform ation available. W orkers in sem iskilled occupations earned from $2.40 to $5 an h o u r. A m ong th e se w o rk e rs, printer operators and chemical mix ers generally had the highest earn ings. In general, darkroom tech n i c ia n s a n d th o s e in s u p e rv is o ry positions earned more than the semi skilled specialized workers. Most of the experienced darkroom te c h n i cians e a rn e d b etw een $4.50 and $7.50 an hour in 1976. The majority of photo lab em ploy ees work a 40-hour week and get p re mium pay for overtime. In labs that specialize in processing film for am a teur photographers, employees may work a considerable am ount of over time during the sum m er and for sev eral w eeks after C hristm as. M any labs employ tem porary workers d u r ing these seasonal peaks. Photo lab jobs are not physically strenuous, but in many of the sem i skilled occupations the work is rep etitious and the pace is rapid. Some workers (for example, printer opera tors and photocheckers and assem b lers) are subject to eye fatigue. P h o to fin ish in g labs are generally clean, w ell-lighted, and air-co n d i tioned. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation ab o u t em p lo y m ent opportunities in photographic laboratories and schools that offer degrees in photographic technology, write to: Photo Marketing Association, 603 Lansing Ave., Jackson, Mich. 49202. Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 1090 Executive Way, Des Plaines, 111. 60018. Photographic Art and Science Foundation, 111 Stratford Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. POWER TRUCK OPERATORS (D.O.T. 922.883) Nature of the Work In the past, workers usually did the hard physical labor of moving m ate rials and products. Today, many m a terials and products are moved by workers who operate various types of power trucks. A typical power truck has a hy draulic lifting mechanism and forks to carry a load on a wooden skid or pallet, or other attachm ents to make it m ore versatile. F or exam ple, a truck may have a clamp lift to move cartons, bales, or paper rolls, a scoop to lift coal, or a tow bar to pull w are house trailers. Because the trucks are steered by the rear wheels and start and stop very quickly, operators m ust use care and skill in driving. Power trucks are relatively easy to operate; however, operators usually m ust follow special procedures when using a truck at a plant, warehouse, or construction site. For example, forks must be kept down if the truck is driven without a load. If the load is too high or wide to see around, the operator must drive the truck in reverse. W hen loading or removing materials that are stacked OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 80 on the floor or a platform, drivers must judge distance accurately and operate the truck smoothly so that no damage occurs to the stock. O pera tors also must know the lifting capac ity of the truck and the kinds of jobs it can do. O perators may have to keep rec ords of materials moved and do some manual loading and unloading. They also may be responsible for keeping their trucks in good working condi tion by cleaning and oiling them , checking the water in batteries, m ak ing simple adjustm ents, and report ing any m echanical problems. Places of Employment About 360,000 persons worked as power truck operators in 1976. About three-fourths of them worked in m anufacturing industries. Large numbers were employed in plants that made autom obiles, m achinery, fabricated metal products, paper, building materials, and iron and steel. Many power truck operators also were employed in warehouses, depots, freight and m arine term inals, and mines. P ow er tru ck o p e ra to rs are em ployed in all parts o f the country. A lth o u g h som e are em p lo y ed in small towns, m ost work in heavily populated areas where large factories are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Power truck operators train on the job. Most workers can learn to o p er ate a power truck in a few days. It tak es several w eeks, how ever, to learn the layout of the plant, the rules for operating a truck in the plant, and the m ost efficient way of handling materials. Many com panies have training programs that include classroom in struction and practice with the power truck. In the classes, trainees learn how the vehicle and its lift operate, proper m ethods of transporting m a terials, sim ple m aintenance p ro c e dures, and safe driving rules. The program s stress p ra ctice w ith the power trucks. Trainees even may be required to operate them on an o b stacle course. Training programs last 1 to 5 days. Because power trucks are becom ing more versatile and ex pensive, firms are expected to place g re ater em phasis on training p ro grams to increase the skills of their operators in order to avoid damage to trucks and m aterials from acci dents. E m ployers seek ap p lican ts who h av e a v e ra g e m a n u a l d e x te r ity , strength, and stam ina because opera tors must get on and off the truck fre q u e n tly a n d o c c a s io n a lly lo a d a n d unload m aterial. Good eyesight, in cluding good depth preception, is re Power truck operators are employed in many industries. quired to pick up, move, and deposit loads with the pow er truck. Large com panies generally require appli cants to pass a physical examination. Some m echanical ability is helpful because operators often are required to perform m inor m aintenance on their power trucks. Opportunities for advancem ent are limited. A few operators may become supervisors. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of pow er truck op erators is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the m id-1980’s. In ad dition to jobs resulting from em ploy m ent growth, many operators will be needed to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. M ore goods will be m anufactured as the population grows and our stan dard of living rises, and m ore power truck o p erato rs will be needed to move these goods and the materials used to produce them . The need for operators also will increase as m ore firms use power trucks in place of hand labor to move m aterials. The num ber o f jobs available annually will vary, because the occupation is sensitive to changes in the dem and for m anufactured goods. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, power truck operators in m anufacturing earned an average of $5.30 an hour, slightly above the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Earnings of operators varied slightly by region and by industry. Power truck operators are subject to hazards such as collisions and fall ing objects. They may operate their trucks outdoors where they are ex posed to all kinds of weather. Some o p erato rs tran sp o rt loose m aterial that is dirty or dusty. A trend toward quieter, m ore com fortable, and better handling trucks and emphasis on training in safe op eration have im proved working co n ditions. For example, all rider type pow er tru ck s now have ov erh ead guards and many which are used o u t doors are equipped with all-weather cabs. Also, the increasing use of the relatively noiseless and pollutant-free OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS b a tte ry -p o w e re d tru c k s is doing much to improve the com fort of the operator. Moving m aterials through out a plant also is likely to be less routine and boring than many other production jobs. Sources of Additional Information Information on work opportunities for power truck operators may be available from the local office of the State em ploym ent service. PRODUCTION PAINTERS Nature of the Work Almost every metal or wood prod uct m anufactured gets a coating of paint or other finish before it leaves the factory. Automobiles, for exam ple, usually receive rust preventative, primer, and paint totaling at least 10 coats. Even pencils are dipped in paint several times before they are packed into boxes. The workers who apply the var nish, lacquer, paint, and other finish es used in factories are called pro d u c tio n p a in te r s . B e c a u se th ey generally work on assembly lines, production painters’ skills are differ ent from those of painters who repair dam aged cars in body shops and from those who p ain t newly co n structed buildings. (Inform ation on these painters can be found in sepa ra te s ta te m e n ts elsew here in the Handbook.) The m ajority of produc tion painters use sprayguns to apply finishes; while the rest operate auto m atic painting m achinery, such as spraying m achines, dipping tanks, paint is applied with spray guns. Digitized Most for FRASER and tumbling barrels. Since painters m ay spray h u n d re d s o f id e n tic a l items a day, the work may becom e repetitious. Painters mix the paint at the begin ning of the process. They first figure areas to be covered, and then follow directions to blend paint to its cor rect color and thickness. These steps require simple arithm etic involving decimals and fractions. Viscosity m e ters are used to make sure the paint is the right consistency, for if it is too thick or too thin, the paint has to be mixed over. Pressure o f the spray gun nozzles and spray pattern controls also must be adjusted properly to en sure that the paint is evenly applied. Besides spraying, painters are re sponsible for other duties on the pro duction line. If an object is to be m ul ti-co lo re d , m asking tap e m ust be applied to keep colors from overlap ping. Production painters who oper ate m achinery set up the painting equipm ent at the beginning of the shift and are responsible for keeping it running. O ther m achines used in the painting process may also be op erated by the painters. For example, washing tanks are used to clean items prior to painting and baking ovens dry the painted articles. At the end of the shift, painters m ust clean spray guns and other equipm ent used, such as mixing paddles or gauges which check paint consistency. An increasing num ber of produc tion lines use autom atic painting m a chinery. H ere, production painters are necessary to check for im perfec tions and to paint parts of an article that the m achine misses. For exam ple, some m odern applicators cannot paint inside surfaces, such as the in terior of a bucket. Painters use spray guns to paint these areas. As produc tion lines become m ore autom ated, p ain ters m ust learn to handle all types of m odern painting m achinery, such as electrostatic applicators and powder-type painting systems. Places of Employment About 104,000 production paint ers were em ployed in 1976. A bout tw o-thirds o f the to ta l w orked in plants th a t m ade autom obiles, m a chinery, furniture and other wood p ro d u c ts, or m a n u fa c tu re d m etal 81 products such as cans, tinware, and h an d to o ls. A lthough p ro d u c tio n painters are scattered geographical ly, large num bers are employed in industrialized States. A fourth of all furniture painters were employed in N orth C arolina and Pennsylvania, while o n e-th ird o f all autom obile painters worked in M ichigan—over half of these in Detroit. Over a quar ter of the painters employed by com panies making machinery and metal products worked in Ohio and Illinois. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because no formal apprenticeship or training program exists, new p ro duction painters acquire their skills on the job. Inexperienced workers often start off loading and unloading item s from conveyor lines. A fter they becom e familiar with the p ro d u ctio n p ro cess and as openings arise, they may be taught new paint ing skills. They usually learn the work by watching and helping expe rien ced painters. T raining varies from a few days to several months. Som e m odern painting processes, such as those used to apply powdered coatings, dem and m ore skill than others and thus a correspondingly longer training period. As painters gain experience they can advance to higher skill categories, assume more responsibility, and r e c e iv e h ig h e r wages. Production painters usually have to stand for long periods of time to do their job. Although they seldom have to lift heavy objects, the p ro duction line nature of the job d e mands good physical condition, since the painters may be exposed to fumes or have to bend or stoop in their work. For example, to paint the un derside or top of an object, such as a car, may require reaching or crouch ing. Good eyesight is an asset to dis tinguish colors and check that paint has been applied evenly. High school graduation is generally not required for entry level positions, but a diplo ma or its equivalent may be needed to advance to higher skill levels. O pportunities for advancem ent are limited, although a small num ber OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 82 of production painters becom e su pervisors. Association of M achinists and A ero space W orkers; and the United Steel workers o f America Employment Outlook Employment of production paint ers is expected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Many job openings also will result as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Most m anufacturing industries are expected to increase their output in the years ahead. Demand for con sumer products, such as automobiles and furniture, will increase as popu lation and personal incom e grow. Business growth will create a need for m ore industrial m achinery and equipm ent. Employment of painters, how ever, is not ex p ected to keep pace with m anufacturing output be cause increased use o f autom atic painting processes and other laborsaving innovations should raise out put per worker. Most production painters work in plants that produce durable goods, such as automobiles, where em ploy m en t is p a rtic u la rly sen sitiv e to changes in general econom ic and business conditions. Therefore, these painters may be subject to occasional layoffs. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wage rates for production painters ranged from $2.63 to $6.12 in 1976, based on inform ation from a limited num ber of union contracts. Most painters covered by these con tracts earned between $4 and $5 per hour. Because painters are exposed to fumes from paint and paint-mixing ingredients, they may wear masks which cover the nose and mouth. Many wear coveralls to protect their clothes. T hey also may need e a r plugs, since noisy factory conditions often exist. When painting large ob jects, such as a car or refrigerator, they may have to work in awkward and cram ped positions. Among unions organizing produc tion p ain ters are the International Union, U nited A utom obile, A ero space and A gricultural Im plem ent Wfor orkers o f A m erica; International Digitized FRASER Sources of Additional Information More facts about job opportunities in this field may be available from local offices of the State em ploym ent service. G eneral inform ation on p ro duction painters may be obtained from: Materials Marketing Associates, Inc., Shepard-Benning Building, 520 Pleasant, St. Joseph, Mich. 49085. Federation o f Societies for Coatings Technol ogy, 1315 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19107. STATIONARY ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 950.782) Nature of the Work Stationary engineers operate and maintain the m achinery that provides power for industry; heat and air-con ditioning for factories, hospitals, and other buildings; and light for every city and town. Among the equipm ent they tend and control are steam boil ers, diesel engines, turbines, gener ators, pum ps, condensers, and air compressors. Stationary engineers m onitor the various m eters and gauges that are attached to equipm ent to m ake sure they are running properly, and m ake adjustm ents whenever necessary. On a steam boiler, for example, they check the m eters and gauges that indicate steam pressure and the am ount o f fuel being consumed. Stationary engineers, or power en gineers as they o fte n are ca lle d , check th e eq u ip m en t regularly to m ake sure th at adequate pow er is provided without wasting fuel. They can control both the flow of fuel to the boiler and the steam pressure by adjusting throttles or valves. O ther types of equipm ent may be regulated using switches or levers. Stationary engineers also protect equipm ent from soot and corrosion. Boiler w ater, for example, frequently is tested for purity and treated with chemicals. These workers detect and identify any trouble that develops. They watch and listen to machinery and routinely check the safety controls. Often stationary engineers make mi nor repairs, such as replacing defec tive valves, gaskets, or bearings. In a large plant, the stationary en gineer may be in charge of the boiler room, and direct the work of assist ant stationary engineers, turbine op erators, boiler tenders, and air-condi tioning and refrigeration m echanics. In a small plant, the stationary engi neer may be the only person op erat ing and maintaining equipm ent. Places of Employment In 1976, 194,000 stationary engi neers were employed in a wide vari ety o f places, including power sta tions, factories, sewage and watertreatm en t plants, office and ap a rt m ent buildings, hotels, and hospitals. F ed eral, S tate, and local go v ern ments also employed large num bers of these workers. Usually, plants that operate on three shifts employ four to eight stationary engineers, b u t some have more. In many plants, only one engineer w orks on each shift. Because stationary engineers work in so many different kinds of indus tries, they are employed in all parts of the country. Although some are employed in small towns and in rural areas, m ost work in the more heavily populated areas where large industri al and com m ercial businesses are lo cated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancment Many stationary engineers start as helpers or oilers and acquire their skills through informal on-the-job ex perience. A good background also can be obtained in the Navy or M er chant M arine. However, most train ing au th o rities recom m end form al apprenticeship program s because of the increasing com plexity o f the m a chines and systems. In selecting apprentices, m ost joint labor-m anagem ent apprenticeship com m ittees prefer high school or trade school graduates who have re ceived instruction in m athem atics, m echanical draw ing, m achine-shop 83 OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS not autom atic. For example, an engi neer who has a first-class license may work for some time as an assistant to another first-class engineer before a vacancy occurs. Some stationary en gineers eventually advance to jobs as plant engineers and as building and plant superintendents. A few obtain jo b s as exam ining en g in eers and technical instructors. Employment Outlook Stationary engineers operate generators and turbines. p ra c tic e , physics, and chem istry. M echanical aptitude, m anual dexter ity, and good physical condition also are im portant qualifications. The apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years. In ad d itio n to on-the-job training, apprentices receive class room instruction in practical chemis try, b em en tary physics, blueprint reading, applied electricity, and oth er technical subjects. Becoming a stationary engineer without going through a formal ap prenticeship program usually takes m any y ears o f e x p e rie n c e as an assistant to licensed stationary engi neers or as a boiler tender. This prac tical experience can be supplem ent ed by te c h n ic a l o r o th e r school training or home study. Many States, the District of C o lumbia, and many large and medium sized cities have licensing require ments for stationary engineers. Al though requirem ents for a license differ from place to place, applicants usually must be at least 18 years of age, reside for a specified period in the State or locality in which the ex amination is given, m eet the experi ence requirem ents for the class of license requested, and pass a written examination. Generally, there are several classes of stationary engineer licenses. Each class specifies the steam pressure or horsepower of the equipm ent the en gineer can operate. The chief engi neer license perm its the stationary engineer to operate equipm ent of all types and capacities. An applicant for this license may be required to have a high school education and an approved apprenticeship or on-thejob training. The lower class licenses limit the capacity of the equipm ent the engineer may operate without the supervision o f a higher rated engi neer. Because of regional differences in licensing requirem ents, a stationary engineer who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license. However, the National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engi neers is now assisting many States in adopting a stan d ard ized licensing program th at would elim inate this problem by establishing reciprocity of licenses. Stationary engineers advance to more responsible jobs by being placed in charge of larger, more pow erful, or m ore varied equipm ent. G e n e ra lly , e n g in e e rs ad v a n ce to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. A dvancem ent, however, is E m ploym ent of stationary engi n ee rs is e x p e c te d to show little ch a n g e th ro u g h th e m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. N evertheless, several thousand job openings will arise annually because of the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Industrial growth will result in an increased use of large boilers and auxiliary equipm ent in factories, powerplants, and other buildings. The need for additional stationary engineers, however, will be limited by she trend toward more powerful and more centralized equipm ent. For example, a large boiler operated by one stationary engineer can sup ply heat and refrigeration for several buildings, instead of each building having its own small boiler and its own engineer. Earnings and Working Conditions Stationary engineers had average hourly earnings of $7.03 in 1976, according to a survey of 21 m etro politan areas. This was alm ost 50 percent higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Averages fo r en g in eers in individual cities ranged from $4.69 in G reenville, S.C. to $7.99 in the San Francisco area. Stationary engineers generally have steady year-round employment. They usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. In plants that operate around the clock, they may be assigned to any one of three shifts—often on a rotating basis—and to Sunday and holiday work. Engine rooms, powerplants, or boiler room s usually are clean and well-lighted. Even under the most favorable conditions, however, some OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 84 stationary engineers are exposed to high tem peratures, dust, and dirt from the equipm ent. General m ainte nance duties may cause contact with oil and grease, and fumes or smoke. W orkers also may have to crawl in side boilers and work in crouching or kneeling positions to inspect, clean, or repair the interiors. Because stationary engineers often work around boilers and electrical and m echanical equipm ent, they must be alert to avoid burns, electric shock, and injury from moving m a chinery. Among the unions to which these workers belong are the International Union o f Operating Engineers and the International B rotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. Sources of Additional Information Information about training or work opportunities is available from local offices of State em ploym ent services, locals of the International Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about the occu pation may be referred to: International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. National Association of Power Engineers, Inc. 176 West Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60603. For questions concerning licensing requirem ents, contact: National Institute for Uniform Licensing of Power Engineers, 176 West Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60603. WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT OPERATORS (SewagePlant Operators) (D.O.T. 955.782) Nature of the Work C lean w ater is essential for our health and recreation and for the ex istence of fish and wildlife. W astewa ter trea tm e n t plant o perators help keep A m erica’s w ater clean by re moving harmful dom estic and indus trial waste. Waste m aterials are carried by wa ter through sewer pipes to treatm ent plants. O perators control equipm ent to remove these m aterials or render them harm less. By o p eratin g and m aintaining pumps, pipes, and valves that connect the collection system to th e tre a tm e n t fa c ility , o p e ra to rs m ove the w astew ater through the various treatm ent processes. O perators read and interpret m e ters and gauges to m ake sure plant equipm ent is working properly. O th er jobs include operating chem ical feeding devices to remove pollutants from wastewater; taking samples o f the w ater for laboratory analysis; and testing and adjusting the level o f chlorine in the water. O perators also m ak e m in o r r e p a ir s on v a lv e s, pumps, and other equipm ent. They use gauges, w renches, pliers, and other com m on handtools, as well as special tools. Occasionally operators must work under em ergency condi tio n s—for exam ple, a heavy ra in storm may cause abnorm al am ounts o f w astew ater to flow into sew er p ip es a n d th r e a te n to ex c eed a plant’s treatm ent capacity. The duties of operators vary d e pending on the type and size of plant. For example, the treatm ent process in an industrial plant, such as a foodprocessing com pany, may be simple since the wastewater is of a known content. T reatm ent plants that serve entire cities, on the other hand, m ust be equipped to tre a t a m ixture o f waste products that varies daily, thus making the operator’s job more com plicated. In smaller plants, one op erator may be responsible for the en tire system —making repairs, keeping plant records, handling com plaints, and doing the m aintenance work for the facility. In larger plants, the staff may include chem ists, lab o ra to ry technicians, m echanics, helpers, su pervisors, and a superintendent. As a result of the passage of the Federal W ater Pollution Control A ct of 1972, water pollution standards will becom e increasingly stringent in the future. In order to m eet these higher requirem ents, operators will have to be able to operate m ore sophisticated systems. Places of Employment About 100,000 people worked full time as wastewater treatm ent plant operators in 1976, o f whom about 58.000 worked in municipal plants, 40.000 in private industry, and 2,000 in Federal installations. W astewater treatm ent plant op era tors are em ployed throughout the country. G eog rap h ically , em p lo y m ent is distributed much like the N a tion’s population, with most jobs in larger towns and cities. Many opera tors in small towns are employed part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Trainees usually start as helpers and learn their skills on the job under the direction of an experienced op erator. They learn by doing routine tasks such as recording m eter read ings; taking samples o f w astew ater and sludge; and doing simple m ainte nance and repair w ork on pum ps, electric m otors, and valves. They also are expected to perform house keeping tasks such as cleaning and m ain tain in g p lan t e q u ip m en t and property. Persons interested in entering the field should have some m echanical aptitude and should be com petent in basic m athem atics. Employers gener ally prefer trainees who have a high school diploma or its equivalent, and in some States this is a minimum edu c a tio n a l re q u irem en t. Some p o si tions, particularly in larger cities and towns, are covered by civil service regulations, and applicants may be required to pass w ritten exam ina tions testing elem entary m athem atics skills, m echanical aptitude, and gen eral intelligence. O perators m ust be agile, since they have to climb lad ders and move easily around heavy machinery. Some 2-year program s leading to an associate degree in wastewater technology are available; these p ro vide a good general knowledge of the w ater pollution control field as well as basic preparation for becoming an operator. Since plants are becom ing m ore com plex, com pletion of such c o u rse s in c re a s e s an a p p lic a n t’s chances for em ploym ent and prom o tion. 85 OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Most State water pollution control agencies offer training courses to im prove the skills of treatm ent plant operators. These courses cover prin ciples of sludge digestion, odors and their control, chlorination, sedim en tation, biological oxidation, and flow measurements. Some operators take correspondence courses on subjects related to wastewater treatm ent, and some employers will pay part of the tuition for courses leading to a col lege degree in science or engineer ing. O perators may be prom oted to po sitions such as supervisor and super in ten d en t. A high school diplom a and increasingly responsible opera tor experience may be sufficient to qualify as superintendent of a small plant, since at many small plants the superintendent also serves as an op erato r. E d u catio n al requirem ents, however, are rising as larger, more complex treatm ent plants are being built to m eet new w ater pollution control standards. S uperintendents of large plants are expected to have an engineering or science degree. Training in m anagem ent techniques is becom ing increasingly im portant for operators seeking positions with supervisory responsibilities. A limit ed num ber of operators may become technicians employed by State water pollution control agencies to monitor and provide technical assistance to plants throughout the State. Some technical-vocational school or junior college training generally is preferred for technician jobs. In 40 States, supervisors and cer tain operators must pass an examina tion to certify that they are capable of overseeing treatm ent plant opera tions. V oluntary certification p ro grams are in effect in the remaining States, with the exception of Alaska. Under a typical program , there are different classes of certification for different sizes of treatm ent plants. For example, to be certified a “ class I o p erator” capable of operating a small plant with simple equipm ent, an applicant should be a high school graduate, dem onstrate general knowledge of treatm ent operations by passing a written test, and com plete 1 year of satisfactory employ m ent at a treatm ent plant. R equire ments for certification as a class IV operator who supervises a large plant employing complex technology may require a bachelor’s degree in sci ence or engineering; 4 years of trea t m ent plant experience, 2 years o f which were in a position o f m ajor responsibility; and specific know l edge of the entire field of wastewater treatm ent as dem onstrated through a written test. Typically, a large plant would employ mostly operators certi fied for operating small or m edium sized plants, but always under the su pervision of a class IV operator. Employment Outlook Employment of wastewater treat m ent plant operators is expected to increase much faster than the aver age for all occupations through the m id-1980’s, mainly as a result of the construction of new treatm ent plants to process the increasing am ount o f domestic and industrial wastewater. Also, m ore highly trained operators will be needed as existing plants ex pand and modernize their facilities to cope more effectively with water pol lution. In addition to new jobs from em ploym ent growth, many job open ings will occur as experienced opera tors retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. People who enter this field should have fairly steady em ploym ent in the years ahead. Even during economic downturns, treatm ent plants seldom lay off employees. Earnings and Working Conditions O perators employed at small and medium-sized wastewater treatm ent plants generally earned between $9,000 and $13,000 a year in 1976. Some experienced operators earned more than $20,000 a year in large plants. Superintendents of small plants earned about the same as o p erators, but superintendents of m edi um-sized plants generally earned b e tween $13,000 and $20,000 and as m uch as $25,000 or more in large plants. S alaries for tra in e e s w ere roughly 80 p e rc e n t o f o p e ra to rs ’ salaries in most cities. Because pollution control is a nev er-ending task, operators work dif ferent shifts and in an em ergency may have to work overtim e. O pera tors may be exposed to unpleasant odors, as well as noise from the op e ra tio n o f e le c tric a l m o to rs and pumps. However, odor is kept to a minimum by the use of chlorine or other chemicals. Sources of Additional Information People interested in a career in wastewater treatm ent should contact their local or State water pollution control agencies. A dditional infor mation is available from: Water Pollution Control Federation, 2626 Pennsylvania Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. Manpower Planning and Training Branch (WH-596), Office of Water Programs, Environmental Protection Agency, Wash ington, D.C. 20460. WELDERS (D.O.T. 810. through 819.887) Nature of the Work Welding consists of joining pieces of m aterial, usually m etal, by fusing or bonding them together. It is the most common m ethod of perm anent ly connecting metal parts that go into th e c o n stru c tio n o f au to m o b iles, spacecraft, ships, household appli ances, construction equipm ent, and thousands of other products. Beams and steel reinforcing rods in bridges, buildings, and roads frequently are jo in ed by w elding. In ad d itio n , a growing num ber of plastic parts are welded to make a variety of p ro d ucts. Welding processes differ in the way heat is created and applied to the parts being joined. In arc weld ing, the m ost frequently used p ro cess, h eat is created as electricity flows across a gap from the tip of the welding electrode to the metal. In resistance welding, heat is created by re sistan c e to the flow o f c u rre n t through the metal. In gas welding, the co m b u stio n o f burn in g gases m elts the m etal. As p art of many welding processes, filler m aterials, called welding electrodes or welding 86 rods, are m elted and added to the joint to give it greater strength. W hen the heat is removed, the metal and filler m aterial solidify and join the parts. It is the w elder’s job to control the heat and the weld pool size and to add the filler material so that togeth er they form a strong joint. Since welding processes differ and are used for a wide variety o f purpos es, the equipm ent used and the skill levels of welders vary. Jobs vary from those of highly skilled manual weld ers who can use gas and electric arc welding equipm ent in m ore than one position and who can plan their work from drawings or other specifications to those o f unskilled welding m a chine tenders who simply press a but ton to sta rt the welding m achine. Skilled w elders know the m aterial c h a ra c te ris tic s and p ro p e rtie s o f steel, alum inum , and other m etals and can weld joints in all positions. For example, m aintenance welders, pipe welders, and many o f the weld ers who construct ships are skilled welders. Ship welders join the steel plates, beams, and pipes used to build ships. Some welded joints are on the floor, some are on the wall, and some are overhead. All must be carefully welded to insure that the ship will not break apart in rough seas. Ship welders generally use arc welding equipm ent, although gas equipm ent also is used in many areas. After reading instructions or specifi cations to learn which m aterials and welding m ethod to use and obtaining supplies from the storage area, ship w elders are ready to begin w ork. When employing shielded metal' arc welding they use a rod in a holder attached to an electric cable coming from a welding pow er supply. The other pow er supply cable is attached to the m etal being w elded w hich com pletes the electrical circuit and controls are adjusted to provide the correct am ount o f welding current. When the power is turned on they “ strike an a rc ” by briefly touching the rod to the metal to start the elec tricity flowing and then pulling the rod back to create a small gap which the cu rren t m ust jum p. If the dis tance between the rod and the m etal is correct, an arc will jum p across the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK space; the heat from the electric arc o th er w orker. Like o th er w elders, melts the rod and the metal. W elders they are responsible for the sound control the arc m ovem ent along the ness of the joint. However, they need joint. As the rod melts and becomes less skill because all parts they weld shorter they move the holder closer are identical and each is welded in to the m etal to keep the correct arc the same position. If the factory is large, and many length. W hen the rod becomes very short, it is discarded and replaced identical parts are to be welded, the com pany may save money by using with a new one. M aintenance welders repair tools, autom atic welding machines. Such m achines, and equipm ent—for ex machines may be used, for example, ample, a leaking pipe. In such cases, in making autom obile mufflers and welders may bring their equipm ent to washing machines. The workers who the job. Gas welding is used in many operate these m achines need little knowledge o f welding and are fre cases because electrical power may quently called welding machine op not be available and the torch, hoses, e ra to rs to distinguish them from and tanks of gas are portable. more skilled, m anual welders. W eld A fter examining the pipe and p re ing m ach in e o p e ra to rs p lace the paring the break for repair—usually parts to be joined in holders on the by grinding—m aintenance w elders machine. To com plete the weld, op select the proper welding filler rod erators simply push a button. T he for the job. Next, they light the torch m achine th en clam ps the p a rt in and adjust regulators on the tanks o f place and rotates it, as necessary, to fuel gas, such as acetylene, hydrogen, com plete the welding cycle. A fter etc., and oxygen to obtain the right gas m ixtures and flame. With the fill er rod in one hand and the torch in the other, they heat the edges o f the break and apply the heat. As the m et al begins to melt, the welders period ically m elt the end of the filler rod in the hot, liquid m etal while they care fully move the torch and rod along the crack to com plete the repair. Welders m ust be careful to keep the torch at the right distance from the metal in order to apply the heat co r rectly and to add filler material, as needed, to fill the crack. Not all welders have the skills re quired o f shipbuilding or m ain te nance w elders. F or exam ple, less skilled w orkers use sem iautom atic arc welding equipm ent to speed up th e jo b o f w e ld in g a u to m o b ile fram es. S em iautom atic equipm ent consists of a welding gun that welders must m anipulate but which autom ati cally supplies the proper am ount o f arc heat and filler m aterial to the jo in t. In this case, assem bly lines bring car frames to welders and put them in place. W elders then position their welding guns on the parts to be welded and operate a switch on the handle which autom atically “ strikes an a rc ” . They guide the arc to com Jobs for welders are concentrated in the plete one or two joints before the manufacturing centers of the Great Lakes assembly line takes the frame to an States. 87 OTHER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS the welding cycle is finished, opera tors rem ove the w elded parts and load the m achine again. Closely related to welders are cut ters. C utters use the heat from burn ing gases or an electric arc to cut and trim metal rather then join it. Some cutters operate electrically or m e chanically controlled m achines that a u to m a tic a lly follow th e p ro p e r guideline. Places of Employment About 660,000 welders and flame cutters were employed in 1976, in cluding a relatively small num ber of cutters who used both flame and arc cu ttin g e q u ip m e n t. A lm o st twothirds of all welders help m anufac tu re d u rab le goods; for exam ple, boilers, bulldozers, trucks, ships, and heavy m achinery. M ost of the rest repair m etal products or help con struct bridges, large buildings, and pipelines. W elders are concentrated in the manufacturing centers of the G reat Lakes States. About one-third work in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, In diana, and Illinois. Because o f the widespread use of welding, the rest are distributed much the same as the po p u latio n is with large num bers working in New York, Texas, Wis consin, and California. Training, Other Qualifications, and A dvan cem en t Generally, it takes several years of training to become a skilled welder. Some of the less skilled jobs, how ever, can be learned on the job in a few months. Some welding machine operators, for example, learn to op erate a m achine in a few hours and becom e com pletely qualified in a week. Beginners often start in simple pro du ctio n jo b s w here the type and thickness o f the metal and the posi tion of the welding operation rarely change. As the need arises, supervi sors or experienced w orkers teach new employees how to weld different types of metals, and how to weld ver tical and overhead joints. Many large companies conduct program s to train people as welders. A fter completing the course, individuals are offered jobs. A few companies offer employ ees welder apprenticeship programs th a t last several years, including classroom and on-the-job training. Persons planning careers as weld ers or cutters need m anual dexterity, good eyesight, and good eye-hand coordination. They should be able to co n c e n tra te on detailed work for long periods, and should be free of any physical disabilities that would prevent them from bending, stoop ing, and working in awkward posi tions. Most employers prefer appli c a n ts w ho h av e h igh sc h o o l o r vocational school training in welding. Courses in shop m athem atics, m e chanical drawing, blueprint reading, physics, and chemistry also are help ful. New developm ents are requiring new skills of welders. This is particu larly true in fields such as atomic en ergy or aerospace m anufacturing, which have high standards for the reliability of welds. Before being as signed to work on buildings, bridges, pipelines, or other jobs where the strength o f the weld is highly critical, welders may be required to pass an exam ination of their welding skills given by an employer or governm ent agency. W elders who pass such ex aminations generally are referred to as “ certified welders.” Prom otion opportunities for weld ers are good. Some welding machine operators learn skilled welding jobs; skilled welders may be prom oted to welding inspectors, technicians, or supervisors. E x p erien ced w orkers who have obtained college training on the properties of metals often b e come welding engineers and are in great dem and to develop new appli cation for welding. A small num ber o f experienced welders open their own welding repair shops. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for welders should be very good in the years ahead. Em ployment in this large field is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. The faster increase will be caused by the gener ally favorable long run outlook for metalworking industries and by the greater use of welding in particular. In addition to openings created by e m p lo y m e n t g ro w th , m any jo b s should arise each year because of the need to replace experienced welders who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Job opportunities may vary from year to year, however, be cause em ploym ent o f welders in the m anufacturing and construction in d u stries flu c tu a te s w ith ups and downs in the economy. Increases in population and in come are expected to stimulate de mand for cars, buildings, heavy m a chinery, appliances, and thousands of other products that welders help make. Employment o f welders also is expected to increase as welding re places other methods of joining m et als. W elding generally is ch eap er than other methods of joining metal parts, and it is being used more fre quently in the m anufacturing and construction industries. Earnings and Working Conditions National wage data on welders are not available. However, the limited data available indicate that welding machine operators earned from $3.93 to $5.10 in 1976. Welders in the construction industry earned $6 to $12 an hour, depending on loca tion. W elders and cutters use protective clothing, safety shoes, goggles, hel mets with protective lenses, and o th er devices to prevent burns and eye injuries. Although lighting and venti lation usually are adequate, welders occasionally work in the presence of toxic gases and fumes created when some metals melt. They are often in contact with rust, grease, and dirt on metal surfaces. Welding machine op erators are largely free from the haz ards associated with manual welding. A face shield or goggles generally of fer a d e q u a te p ro te c tio n to th ese workers. Many welders are union members. However, because welding also is done by other craft workers, for ex ample by pipefitters, and only recen t ly has received recognition as a dis tinct craft, welders belong to many different unions. Am ong these are OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 88 the International Association of M a chinists and Aerospace W orkers; the International Brotherhood of Boiler m akers, Iron S hipbuilders, B lack smiths, Forgers and Helpers; the Inte r n a t io n a l U n io n , U n ite d Autom obile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Im plem ent W orkers of A m er ica; the United Association of Jo u r ney m en an d A p p re n tic e s o f th e Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio and M a chine W orkers of Am erica (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information For further inform ation on training and work opportunities for welders, contact local employers or the local office o f the State em ploym ent ser vice. For general inform ation about welders, write to: The American Welding Society, 2501 NW. 7th St., Miami, Fla. 33125. International Union, United Autom obile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers o f America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. OFFICE OCCUPATIONS Office occupations, 1976 O ffice w orkers p erform a wide range o f tasks th at are needed to keep business and o th er organiza tions running on a day to day basis. Clerical workers, such as secretaries and typists, maintain files, type, and operate office machines. Profession al and technical em ployees give legal advice, prepare and analyze financial rep o rts, design co m p u ter system s, and arrange bank loans. O pportunities in office work exist for people with widely different edu cational backgrounds. Some jobs can be entered with only a high school education; many others, however, re quire at least a college degree. Many clerical em ployees work with things and often do detailed, repetitive tasks. M ost professional office workers, on the other hand, work with ideas; they apply their skills to solving problem s and devis ing ways to provide better services to those who depend on them. Besides the technical skills required to do their jobs, office workers need judg m ent and the ability to com m unicate their ideas to others. This chapter of the Handbook de scribes office work in clerical occu pations, com puter and related o ccu p a t i o n s , b a n k in g o c c u p a t i o n s , insurance occupations, and adminis trative and related occupations. 89 ence, and knowledge o f the overall operations of the organization. Employment Outlook CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS About 16 million people worked in clerical jobs in 1976. Many keep rec ords and do other office paperwork. Others handle com m unications, op erate office m achines, ship and re ceive m erchandise, and ring sales on cash registers. W orkers in clerical jobs have a wide variety of skills and experience. They include highly skilled title searchers in real estate firms and executive secretaries in business of fices as well as relatively unskilled messengers and file clerks. Despite the diversity of jobs and duties, much clerical em ploym ent is concentrated in just a few familiar jobs. Roughly 1 of every 5 clerical workers is a secre tary or stenographer. One in 10 is a b o o k k e e p e r. T h e a c c o m p a n y in g chart shows em ploym ent in these and other m ajor clerical occupations dis cussed in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Clerical workers need high school diplomas for all but the most routine jobs, and many employers prefer ap p lic a n ts w ho h av e h ad b u sin ess courses. Some com panies cooperate with local high schools and business schools in office education program s th at en able students to work p art time while attending school. This ex p erie n ce is help fu l fo r beginners seeking jobs after graduation. Many States and localities sponsor p ro grams to train unem ployed and lowskilled workers for entry-level cleri cal jobs. Beginning clerical workers often receive on-the-job training. They learn how their em ployers keep rec ords and becom e familiar with the kinds o f business forms used. Some new w orkers learn to operate adding and duplicating m achines and other kinds of office equipm ent. They may attend classes to learn how to o p er ate tabulating m achines and other 90for FRASER Digitized specialized equipm ent. Secretaries, stenographers, and typists need spe cial skills th a t m ust be learned in schools or formal training programs. Many clerical jobs require reading com prehension, a knowledge of spelling and gramm ar, and arithm etic skills. Employers prefer applicants for alm ost all clerical jobs to have basic typing skills. Some employers test applicants for clerical aptitude. A dvancem ent opportunities for clerical workers are good, and many employers provide courses so that their employees can learn the skills needed for m ore dem anding jobs. As workers becom e more highly skilled, they are assigned m ore difficult tasks. F or example, junior typists may be prom oted to m ore respon sible jobs as senior typists as their typing speed and accuracy improves. Receptionists who learn typing and office procedures may becom e secre taries or typists. Prom otion to super visor or m anager generally depends on leadership ability, work experi Em ployment of clerical workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to the new jobs created by this growth, many other openings will occur as employees die, retire, or leave their jobs. Future growth in the num ber of clerical workers is expected to result primarily from the increasing paper work that will accom pany the expan sion of large and complex organiza tions. A great deal of this paperwork is handled by com puter. The im pact of autom ation on office equipm ent and procedures is considerable, but it is more im portant in some jobs than in others. In general, long-term em ploym ent prospects are best in cleri cal occupations that are not affected by autom ation, in those that are com patible with com puter applications, and in jobs that have developed as a result of new technologies. Job op portunities are especially favorable for re c e p tio n ists, sec retarie s, and typists. D em and for these w orkers will be particularly strong in banks, insurance com panies, m anufacturing firm s, and professional service o r ganizations. As m ore firms use com puters and business m achines, routine clerical Openings for secretaries are expected to be more than three times the number of openings for any other clerical occupation through 1985 Selected clerical occupations Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in thousands) Secretaries & stenographers Typists Bookkeeping workers Cashiers 0 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 50 100 150 200 250 300 Growth H I Replacement 91 CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS jobs such as payroll, bank, and file clerk may be reduced or eliminated. Also, as work is shifted from clerks to machines, many clerical workers will have to becom e familiar with com puter operations, particularly in large firms. Persons with clerical skills, partic ularly secretarial and typing skills, should find extensive opportunities for tem porary or part-tim e work as m ore em ployers use these workers during peak business periods. Earnings and Working Conditions Clerks in routine jobs earned as little as $113 a week, while many highly skilled workers were paid $200 or m ore, according to a 1976 survey. Salary variations within an occupation are relatively common and these usually reflect differences in edu catio n al level, work experi ence, and level of responsibility. Salaries in different parts of the country also vary; earnings generally are lowest in southern cities and highest in northeastern and western urban areas. For example, secretaries averaged $197 a week in the N orth east, $201 in the W est, and $181 in southern cities. Clerical employees work a 40-hour week in m ost cities. In some, espe cially in the N ortheast, the scheduled workweek is 35 hours. Most clerical workers in large cities receive 7 paid holidays or more a year and 2 weeks’ vacation after working 1 year. Longer vacations, based on added years o f service, may range to 4 weeks or m ore. Group life and health insurance plans, sick benefits, and retirem ent plans often are available. A d irec to ry o f private business schools located in cities throughout the country may be obtained from: United Business Schools Association, 1730 M St., NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. BOOKKEEPING WORKERS (D.O.T. 210.368 through .588, 216.388, and 219.388 and .488) Nature of the Work Every business needs system atic and up-to-date records of accounts and business tra n sa c tio n s. B o o k keeping workers m aintain these re c ords in journals, ledgers, and on o th er a c c o u n tin g fo rm s. T hey also prepare periodic financial statem ents showing all money received and paid o u t. T h e d u tie s o f b o o k k e e p in g w orkers vary with th e size of the business. In many small firms, general book keepers (D .O .T . 210.3 8 8 ) are the only b o o k k ee p in g w o rk ers. T hey analyze an d re c o rd all fin a n c ia l transactions, such as orders and cash sales. They also check money taken in against that paid out to be sure accounts “ b alan c e,” and calculate the firm ’s payroll. Although most of this work is done by hand, bookkeep ing workers generally use simple of fice equipm ent such as calculating machines. G eneral bookkeepers also prepare and mail custom ers’ bills and answer the telephone. In large businesses, a num ber of bookkeepers and accounting clerks work under the direction of a head or supervisory bookkeeper. In these or ganizations bookkeepers often spe cialize in certain types of work. For exam ple, some prepare statem ents on a com pany’s income from sales or its daily operating expenses. Others may post payments and charges on cards using bookkeeping machines, or feed information on accounts re ceivable and accounts payable into th e c o m p u te r. A cc o u n tin g clerks (D.O.T. 219.488), sometimes known as bookkeeping clerks, perform a va riety of routine duties. They record details o f business transactions, in cluding deductions from payrolls and bills paid and due. They also may type vouchers, invoices, and other financial records. Sources of Additional Information Many State em ploym ent service offices can provide information about earnings, hours, and employ m ent opportunities in clerical jobs. Inform ation concerning training for clerical occupations in your State is available from: State Supervisor of Office Occupations Educa tion, State Department o f Education, State capital. Bookkeeping workers need a knack for working with numbers. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 92 Places of Employment Employment Outlook Bookkeeping workers num bered almost 1.7 million persons in 1976. Jobs for bookkeeping workers are found in all kinds of firms, with an especially large num ber in wholesale and retail trade. M ore than 1 of every 3 bookkeepers work for a retail store or wholesale firm. In addition, many work in factories, banks, insurance companies, hospitals, and schools. Thousands o f job openings for bookkeepers are expected every year through 1985. Jobs will be num erous even though em ploym ent o f book keepers is expected to grow slowly over this period, for the occupation is large and turnover is high. Most job openings will occur because o f the need to replace workers who die, re tire, or stop working for other rea sons. Future em ploym ent growth in this occupation will be slowed by the increasing use of various types o f bookkeeping m achines and electron ic com puters that process data m ore accurately, rapidly, and econom ical ly than workers doing it by hand. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates who have taken business arithm etic, bookkeep ing, and p rin cip les o f accounting m eet the minimum requirem ents for m ost bookkeeping jobs. Some em ployers, however, prefer applicants w h o h a v e c o m p l e t e d b u s in e s s courses at a junior college or busi ness school and have had some expe rience working with accounts pay able and receivable. A knowledge of how com puters are used to perform bookkeeping operations is an asset. Persons also may qualify for book k ee p in g jo b s th ro u g h o n -th e -jo b training. In some areas, com panies cooperate with business schools and high schools in work-study programs. These program s offer part-tim e expe rience th at helps students get jobs soon after graduation. Bookkeeping workers need above average aptitude for working with num bers and a knack for concentrat ing on details. They should be able to type and operate various office m a chines. Because they depend on oth er office w orkers for inform ation, bookkeepers should be able to work as part of a team. Newly hired bookkeeping workers begin by recording routine transac tions in accounts receivable or ac counts payable units. They advance to m ore re sp o n sib le assignm ents, such as preparing incom e statem ents and operating complex bookkeeping machines o r com puters. Some w ork ers are prom oted to supervisory jobs. Bookkeepers who com plete courses in college accounting may becom e accountants. (The occupation of ac co u n tan t is discussed elsew here in Digitized forHandbook.) FRASER the Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning accounting clerks in pri vate firms averaged $637 a m onth in 1976, according to a Bureau o f L a bor Statistics survey of clerical occu pations. They had higher salaries, on th e a v e ra g e , th a n b eg in n in g file clerks or typists, but earned less than beginning secretaries or sten o g ra ph e rs . E x p e r ie n c e d a c c o u n tin g clerks earned $805 a m onth, about the same as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In 1977, starting salaries in the Federal G overnm ent ranged from $6,572 (GS-2) to $7,408 (GS-3) for bookkeeping workers right out o f high school. Starting salaries were higher for bookkeeping workers with at least 2 years’ work experience or 2 years of college education. These salaries ranged from $8,316 (GS-4) to $9,303 (GS-5) per year. Average salaries in the Federal G overnm ent in 1977 for general accounting clerks were $13,443 per year. W orking conditions for bookkeep ers are similar to those of other office workers in the same firms. (See in troductory section to this chapter for m ore inform ation on earnings and working conditions and for sources of additional inform ation.) CASHIERS (D.O.T. 211.138, .368, .468, .488, and 299.468) Nature of the Work Superm arkets, movie theaters, and restaurants are among the many busi nesses that employ cashiers to handle paym ents from cu sto m ers. M ost c a s h ie r s r e c e iv e m o n e y , m a k e change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. The related occupation of bank teller is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. In addition to these duties, cash iers, depending on their employers, may do other jobs and have different job titles. Those who work in th e aters, for example, are often called box office cashiers or ticket sellers. They operate ticket-dispensing m a chines and answer telephone inquir ies. R estaurant cashiers, sometimes called cashier checkers, may handle reservations for m eals and special parties, type menus, or sell items at the candy and cigarette counter. In superm arkets and other self-service stores, cashiers known as checkout clerks, checkers, or grocery clerks wrap or bag purchases. They also may restock shelves and m ark prices, rearrange displays o f m erchandise, and take inventory. In many offices, cashiers known as agency or frontoffice cashiers, ty p e, o p e ra te the sw itchboard, do bookkeeping, and act as receptionists. Cashiers operate several types of machines. Many use cash registers that print the am ount of the sale on a paper tape. A rapidly growing num ber o f cashiers op erate electronic registers, com puterized point-of-sale registers, or com puterized scanning systems. D epending upon its co m plexity, a com puterized system may autom atically calculate the necessary taxes and record inventory num bers and other inform ation. Such registers are replacing less versatile, conven tional models in many stores. C ash iers who work in hotels and hospitals use m achines that record charges for telephone, m edical, and other servic es and prepare itemized bills. C ash iers also operate adding and change dispensing machines. 93 CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS Places of Employment In 1976, about 1,250,000 persons worked as cashiers. M ore cashiers work in superm arkets and other food stores than in any other kind of store. However, cashiers are needed in businesses and organizations of all types and sizes, and many find jobs in departm ent stores, drugstores, shoesto res, h ard w are sto res, fu rn itu re stores, and in other kinds of retail s to re s . R e s ta u r a n ts , th e a te r s , schools, and hospitals also employ a large num ber of cashiers. Businesses em ploying cashiers are located in large cities, in suburban shopping centers, in small towns, and in rural areas. The Federal G overnm ent em ploys a small num ber, primarily in the D epartm ent of Defense. Opportunities for part-tim e work are very good. Nearly half of all cashiers work part time; about 1 in 4 is a student. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer beginning cash iers w ith high s c h o o l d ip lo m a s. Courses in business arithm etic, book keeping, typing, and other business subjects are good p re p ara tio n for cashier jobs. Cashier training is of fered as part of many public school vocational programs. Many employers offer on-the-job training for cashiers. In a small firm, the beginning cashier is trained on the job by an experienced worker. In large firms, cashier training program s often include classroom instruction in the use of electronic or com puter ized registers and in other phases of cashiers’ jobs. Many persons enter cashier posi tions w ithout significant prior work experience. For some cashier jobs, how ever, em ployers seek persons who have special skills or business experience, such as typing or selling. Many cashier openings also are filled by prom oting other qualified workers who are already em ployed by the firm. Persons who want to become cash iers should be able to do repetitious work accurately. They need finger dexterity, a high degree of eye-hand co o rd in a tio n , and an aptitude for working with figures. Because they m eet the public, cashiers should be Nearly half of all cashiers work part time. neat in appearance and able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with custom ers. Prom otion opportunities as cash iers tend to be limited. However, the cashier’s job affords a good opportu nity to learn an em ployer’s business and so may serve as a steppingstone to a m ore responsible clerical jo b , such as bookkeeper or sales clerk, or to a m anagerial position. Cashiers w orking in ch ain sto res and o th e r large retail businesses, for example, may advance to departm ent or store managers. Employment Outlook Job openings for cashiers are ex pected to be plentiful through 1985. E m ploym ent is ex p e cted to grow faster than the average for all occu pations. Some new jobs will result from future growth in retail trade. However, much more im portant than growth as a source of jobs for cash iers is the need to replace workers who die, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Because the occupa tion is large and turnover is high, many cashier jobs will be available over the next 10 years. Future em ploym ent of cashiers is likely to be affected by the use of com puterized checkout systems, which are beginning to replace cash registers in some superm arkets. An optical or m agnetic scanner tran s m its the code n um ber (U niversal P ro d u ct C ode-U PC ) o f each p u r chase to a co m p u ter th a t is p ro grammed to record a description and price of the item, add the tax, and print out a receipt. The com puter also keeps track of the store’s inven tory and places orders with the w are house when stock is needed. T he w idespread adoption of autom ated ch eck o u t system s in superm arkets and other establishm ents is expected to slow em ploym ent growth of cash iers and other workers. However, re sistance from consum er and labor groups may slow th e adoptio n of such systems. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning cashiers often earn the minimum wage required by law. In establishm ents covered by the F eder al law, the minimum was $2.30 an 94 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK hour in early 1977. In addition, mini mum wages in many establishments are governed by State law. Cashiers earn wages ranging from the mini mum in a given establishm ent to sev eral times that amount. According to a 1975 B ureau o f L abor Statistics Survey of grocery stores, head cash iers averaged $5.78 an hour; other full-time cashiers, $5.32 an hour; and part-tim e cashiers, $4.31 an hour. Wages tended to be highest in the West and N orth C entral Regions and lowest in the South; wages generally were higher in large m etropolitan areas than in smaller cities. Cashiers belong to a num ber of unions, principally the Retail Clerks In tern atio n al A ssociation; In tern a tio n al B ro th erh o o d o f T eam sters; and Retail, W holesale, and D epart m ent Store Union. They generally re ceive health insurance, annual and sick leave, pension benefits, and o th er benefits available to other w ork ers. Cashiers often work during rush periods such as holidays, weekends, late afternoons, and evenings. W ork at these times often is required in theaters, restaurants, and foodstores. Many cashiers in these places work part time or on split shifts. Full-time cashiers in superm arkets and other large retail stores usually work a 5day, 40-hour week; however, they may work on weekends and have time off during the week. Most cashiers work indoors, often in small booths or behind counters located near store entrances. In some cases, they are exposed to cold drafts in the winter and considerable heat during the summer. (See intro ductory section o f this chapter for sources of additional inform ation.) COLLECTION WORKERS (D.O.T. 240.368) Nature of the Work Com panies that lend money or ex tend credit expect to be repaid. How ever, custom ers who “ buy now ” are not always able to “ pay later.” C ol lection workers, often called bill col lectors, help m aintain a com pany’s financial well-being by keeping bad debts to a minimum. A collector’s prim ary job duty is to convince people to m ake good on unpaid bills. The collector usually receives a bad debt file after norm al billing m ethods, such as m onthly statem ents and collection form let ters, have failed to elicit paym ent. The file contains inform ation about the debtor, the nature and am ount o f the unpaid bill, and the last time pay m ent was made. The collector then contacts the debtor, determ ines why the bill is unpaid, and tries to get the debtor to pay or m ake new arrangem ents for payment. The approach that collectors use depends on the type of paym ent problem they are handling. Som e times custom ers feel that the bill is incorrect, or th at the m erchandise they bought is faulty, or that services they were billed for were not proper ly perform ed. C ollectors norm ally recom m end that the debtors resolve these disagreem ents by contacting the original sellers. In large stores, p ro b lem s are re fe rre d to sp ecial “ custom er service” departm ents, set up to deal with disputed accounts. If the problem s are not settled, the col lectors again contact the custom ers to co n v in ce them th a t they w ere properly charged and should pay the debts. W hen custom ers have m et with financial em ergencies o r m ism an aged th e ir m oney, collectors may work out new paym ent schedules. If collectors find custom ers fraudulent ly avoiding paym ent o f their bills, they may recom m end that the files be turned over to an attorney. When a debtor moves w ithout leaving a forwarding address, the col lector may inquire at the post office, search telephone directories, and call on the person’s friends and form er neighbors. In large collection opera tions, this may be done by collection workers known as “ tracers.” In small organizations, bill collec tors may perform other functions b e sides contacting delinquent custom ers. They may advise custom ers with financial problem s, or contact cus tom ers to determ ine if they are satis fied with the way their accounts are being handled. Some collectors su pervise the repossession procedure for businesses th a t reclaim goods when paym ent is not made. Although most collectors do their work by phone, some m ake personal visits to the debtor. These visits usu ally a re n e c e ssa ry w hen a larg e am ount of money is involved and the d e b to r has been u n resp o n siv e to phone contact. Places of Employment About 64,000 persons were collec tion workers in 1976. Although col lectors work for a variety o f business es, most are employed by banks, loan com panies, and collection agencies. M any o th e rs w ork for re ta il and wholesale businesses. Jobs for collectors are found throughout the United States, but opportunities are best in heavily populated urban centers. Many firms with branch offices in rural areas locate their collection departm ents in the business district of nearby cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school education usually is sufficient for entry into the collection field. Because a collector handles delinquent accounts on a person-toperson basis, high school courses in psychology and speech may be use ful. Previous em ploym ent as a sales clerk can help the collection w orker learn how credit transactions origi nate and how they are handled at the point of sale. Knowledge o f a foreign language may be an asset for persons seeking collection jobs in areas with large non-English-speaking popula tions. Most of a collector’s training is on the job. The em ployer may provide training m anuals that explain collec tion procedures, but m ore often the new employee gains collection skills inform ally. F or exam ple, the new c o lle c to r le a rn s te le p h o n e t e c h niques by listening as experienced workers m ake collection calls. A collector’s most im portant asset is the ability to get along with differ ent people. He or she m ust be alert, imaginative, and quick-w itted to h an dle the difficult situations that are a part of collection work. While collec CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS tors should be sym pathetic to the billpayers’ problems, they also must be p ersuasive to o v ercom e som e debtors’ reluctance to fulfill their fi nancial obligations. Because a collec tor spends most of the day on the telephone, a pleasant speaking voice and m anner are im portant. The collector’s job generally offers limited opportunities for advance ment; com petition for the few super visory positions is keen. The collec to r w ith ab o v e -a v e ra g e ab ilitie s, however, may becom e a collection manager or supervisor of a staff of collectors. Some collection workers progress to o th er positions in the credit field, such as bank loan officer or outside representative for a collec tion agency. Further education, such as that available through professional associations of collectors or college courses, may be helpful for advanced positions in the credit and collection field. Employment Outlook The applicant with a background of high school business courses who can dem onstrate effective telephone skills should find good job opportuni ties in the collection field. Demand is strongest for people who are person able, outgoing, and aggressive, for traits such as these are likely to lead to success on the job. In the past, some jobseekers have been reluctant to accept collection work. More recently, however, the im age o f the o cc u p atio n has im proved. The role of the collector has expanded to include custom er debt counseling, and collection methods have been modified in line with m od ern m anagem ent techniques and re cent consum er legislation. Despite this improved image, the num ber of persons seeking collection jobs is ex pected to fall short of the need for additional workers. Em ployers will need large numbers of collectors to fill vacancies created by turnover, which is relatively high in this occu pation. In addition, new positions will open up as the occupation grows. Employment opportunities should be best in collection agencies, where replacem ent needs continue to be high, and in retail trade firms, where earnings often are som ewhat lower than the average. The strongest com 95 The demand for collection workers will be spurred by the expansion of credit card services. petition for collection positions will be in large m etropolitan banks that generally offer higher salaries and b e tte r o p p o rtu n itie s for ad v a n ce m ent than other employers. The dem and for collection work ers will be spurred by the expansion of credit card services and the fur ther growth of suburban retail stores. D elinquent accounts, unfortunately, are an unavoidable aspect o f the credit system. As businesses extend attractive credit term s for the p u r chase of greater num bers of goods and services to more and more peo ple, the num ber of delinquent a c counts can be expected to increase. Additional collection workers will be required to service these accounts on a person-to-person basis. Earnings and Working Conditions Although earnings for collectors vary among employers, the limited inform ation available indicates that beginning collectors earned about $125 a week in 1976, or about $6,500 a year. M anagers of collec tio n d e p a r tm e n ts o fte n e a rn e d $17,000 a year and more. A survey by the Am erican C ollec tors A ssociation showed that te le phone collectors working for collec tio n a g e n c ie s h a d an a v e r a g e m onthly incom e of $823, or about $9,900 a year. Incomes of individual w orkers can vary substantially b e cause collection agencies generally use some form of salary plus com m is sion plan as an incentive to their col lectors. Commission schedules vary widely from agency to agency. A collector may be paid a relatively high salary with a low commission percentage or receive a low salary and a high rate on the money he or she collects for the agency. In some agencies, a quota is assigned to a collector or group of collectors and a bonus paid if the quota is reached. Earnings o f a few collection workers are only from commissions. In addition to salary, collectors re ceive the benefits com m on to other office occupations, such as paid va cations and health insurance. Those who occasionally m ake visits outside the office usually are furnished a company car or are paid expenses for using their own autom obile. Sources of Additional Information Information on jobs as collection workers as well as other positions in a credit collection office is available from: American Collectors Association, 4040 W. 70th St., Minneapolis, Minn. 55435. FILE CLERKS (D.O.T. 132.388, 205.368, 206.388, 219.588, 920.887) Nature of the Work An orderly file system is often the key to an efficient office. In most offices, records are arranged so that information can be located quickly. This creates many job opportunities for file clerks, who keep records ac c u ra te , up to d a te , and p ro p e rly placed. File clerks classify, store, update, and retrieve office information on request. To do this, they read incom ing m aterial and put it in order for future use by means of some system, such as by num ber, letter of the al phabet, or subject m atter. W hen th ese re c o rd s are re q u e ste d , file clerks locate them and turn them over to the borrow er. They keep track of m aterials rem oved from the files and make sure that those given out are returned. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tailed work. Most file clerks must be able to type. They should be neat, able to work as part o f a team , and not be easily bored by repeated tasks. File clerks can advance to m ore difficult filing duties and to jobs su pervising o th er file clerks. Those who learn additional skills may be prom oted to office m achine opera tors, receptionists, and typists. Employment Outlook Some clerks operate m echanized files th at rotate to bring the needed reco rd s to them . O th ers retrieve docum ents or spools o f m icrofilm and p lace th em in an e le c tro n ic transm itter that displays the inform a tion on video term inals located else where in the organization. Records also m ust be up to date in order to be useful. File clerks m ake sure that new inform ation is added to existing files shortly after it is received. From time to time, file clerks may destroy outdated file m aterials or transfer them to inactive storage. They check files at regular intervals to insure th at all items are correctly placed. W henever data cannot be located, the file clerk searches for the missing records. As an organiza tion’s needs for inform ation change, file clerks modify old filing systems or establish new ones. In small offices, file clerks often type, sort mail, or operate duplicat ing m achines. Those who work with autom ated filing systems may code and m icrofilm all incom ing d o cu ments. Places of Employment About 270,000 persons worked as file clerks in 1976. In addition, many other clerical workers perform some filing tasks in connection with their work. O pportunities for part-tim e Digitized for are FRASER work abundant in this occupa tion; in 1976, approxim ately 1 of ev ery 4 file clerks worked part time. Although filing jobs are found in almost every kind of organization, about one-half o f all file clerks work in banks, insurance com panies, fac tories, or governm ent agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer high school graduates for beginning file clerk po sitions. M ost seek applicants who can type, and many prefer those who have some knowledge o f office p rac tices as well. High schools, junior colleges, and private business schools teach these and other skills that help a beginner get a job. Many States and localities sponsor program s to train unem ployed and low -skilled workers who can read and spell well for entry level clerical jobs such as file clerk. Some on-the-job training usually is necessary because each organization has its own filing systems and office procedures. In organizations that have their own filing procedures, clerks learn their jobs in a few weeks. Learning to operate m echanical fil ing systems usually takes more time. W here file clerks have a variety o f related duties, training may take up to 3 months. File clerks m ust read accurately and rapidly, spell well, and like d e Em ploym ent o f file clerks is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as business expansion creates a need for m ore and better recordkeeping. In addition, a large num ber o f file clerks will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other jobs. The growing volume of paper work and continued expansion o f those businesses that traditionally have em ployed many file clerks should assure steady em ploym ent grow th. H ow ever, this growth should be slower than in past years as com puters are used m ore extensively to arrange, s to re , an d tra n s m it in fo rm a tio n . Jobseekers who have typing and o th er secretarial skills and are familiar with a wide range of office m achines sh o u ld have b e tte r o p p o rtu n itie s than less experienced applicants. File clerks should find many opportuni ties for tem porary or part-tim e work, especially during peak business p eri ods. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a recent survey, b e ginning file clerks in urban areas av eraged $113 a week in 1976. Those w ith so m e e x p e rie n c e a v e ra g e d $ 128; those with a great deal o f expe rien c e, $158. File clerks ea rn ed som ewhat less than three-fourths of the average earnings of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. In the Federal G overnm ent, begin ning file clerks without high school diplom as started at ab o u t $112 a week in 1977, and high school gradu ates began at $126 a week. Experi enced file clerks in the Federal G ov e rn m e n t a v e ra g e d a b o u t $171 a week in 1977. 97 CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS Working conditions for file clerks usually are similar to those for other office workers in the same organiza tion. Although they do not do heavy lifting, they often m ust stoop, bend, and reach. (See the statem ent on Clerical O ccupations for inform a tion on fringe benefits and sources of additional inform ation.) HOTEL FRONT OFFICE CLERKS (D.O.T. 242.368) Nature of the Work Hotels and motels employ front of fice clerks to handle room reserva tions, greet guests, issue keys, and collect payments. In small hotels and in many m otels, front office clerks also may work as bookkeepers, cash iers, or telephone operators. Large hotels usually employ several front office clerks to handle different jobs, such as receiving mail, providing in form ation, or issuing keys. In the largest hotels, floor clerks distribute m ail, p ack ag es, and telegram s to g u e s ts . A b o u t 6 2 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n s worked as front office clerks in 1976. Room or desk clerks assign room s to guests and answer questions about hotel services, checkout time, or parking facilities. In assigning rooms, they must consider guests’ preferenc es while trying to maximize hotel rev enues. These clerks fill out guests’ re g istra tio n form s and som etim es collect paym ents. Room clerks are always in the public eye and through their attitude and dem eanor, greatly influence g u ests’ im pressions and prom ote a hotel’s reputation. Reservation clerks record w ritten or telephoned requests for room s, prepare registration forms, and noti fy room clerk s o f g u e sts’ arriv al times. Rack clerks keep records of room assignments to advise housekeepers, telep h o n e o p e ra to rs, and m a in te nance workers that room s are occu pied. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually select high school graduates who have some Neatness, a courteous and friendly manner, and a desire to help people are important for front office clerks. clerical aptitude as front office clerks. A knowledge of bookkeeping is helpful for work in a small hotel or on the night shift, because clerks often have a wider range of duties u n d er these circum stances. O c ca sionally, em ployees in o th er hotel occupations, such as bellhops or ele vator operators, may be transferred to front office jobs. Front office work traditionally has been the pathway to m anagerial posi tions in the hotel industry. Although education beyond high school gener ally is not required for front office work, college training is an asset for ad v a n cem en t to m an ag erial jo b s. Neatness, a courteous and friendly m anner, and a desire to help people are im portant traits for front office clerks. Knowledge o f a foreign lan guage can be helpful for work in large hotels or resorts that receive many foreign guests. Newly hired workers usually begin as mail, inform ation, or key clerks and receive their training on the job. The training period is usually brief and includes an explanation of the jo b ’s duties and inform ation about the hotel, such as room locations and services offered. Once on the job, they receive help and supervision from the assistant m anager or an experienced front office worker. Some clerks may need additional training in data processing or office machine operation because of the increased use of com puterized reser vation systems. Most hotels prom ote front office workers from within so that a key or mail clerk may be prom oted to room clerk, then to assistant front office m anager, and later to front office m anager. Clerks may improve their opportunities for prom otion by tak ing hom e study courses in hotel m an agem ent such as those sponsored by th e E d u c a tio n a l In s titu te o f th e Am erican Hotel and M otel Associ ation. (See the statem ent on Hotel M anagers and Assistants elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook Em ployment of front office clerks is expected to grow m ore slowly than the average for all occupations th ro u g h the m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. E m ploy OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 98 ment growth will be limited by the use of com puterized reservation sys tems in most hotel and motel chains, and m ost jo b openings will result from the need to replace w orkers who die, retire, or leave the occupa tion. See the statem ent on the Hotel Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for information on earnings and working conditions, sources of addi tional inform ation, and more infor mation on em ploym ent outlook. OFFICE MACHINE OPERATORS (D.O.T. 207.782, .884, and .885; 208.782; 213.782; 214.488; 215.388; 216.488; and 234.) Nature of the Work To speed the paperw ork involved in operating a business, most firms employ office machine operators to record inform ation, determ ine bills and inventories, and perform other c a lc u la tio n s . T his s ta te m e n t d e scribes some of the m ore com m on machine operating jobs. Advances in data transmission devices will enable large employers to centralize recordkeeping. Billing machine operators (D.O.T. 214.488) p rep are cu sto m er sta te ments by typing inform ation, such as cu sto m ers’ nam es, purchases, and am ount of sales, on a billing machine that autom atically com putes the bal ances and required payments. B ookkeeping m achine operators (D.O.T. 215.388) record a firm ’s fi nancial transactions on a bookkeep ing m achine and calculate trial bal ances, sum m ary reports, and other necessary data. Adding and calculating machine op erators (D .O .T . 216.488) use m e chanical adding m achines and elec t r o n ic c a l c u l a t o r s to c o m p u te payrolls and invoices and do other statistical work. Som e calculators can also be used to com pute square roots and percent distributions. Mail preparing and mail handling machine operators (D.O.T. 234.) use machines to open incoming mail and prepare bills and letters for mailing. Some m achines fold and insert enclo sures, while others address, seal, and stam p envelopes. A ddressing m a chines print addresses on envelopes using stencils or m etal plates p re pared by embossing machine opera tors (D.O.T. 208.782) using special typewriters. Duplicating machine operators (D.O.T. 207.782, .884, and .885) operate equipm ent th at can rep ro duce letters, bills, invoices, and other d o cu m en ts. Included are m im eo g ra p h , s te n c il, and copying m a chines. These workers keep the m a chines loaded with paper, see that they are properly adjusted for the num ber o f copies to be made, and may collate—put together—pages o f lengthy docum ents by hand or m a chine. Tabulating machine operators (D.O.T. 213.782) operate m achines that sort and total large quantities of accounting and statistical inform a tion and print the results on special business forms. Inform ation about workers in sev eral other occupations that use office machines can be found elsewhere in the Handbook, in the statem ents on com puter and peripheral equipm ent o p e ra to rs , ty p ists, and sta tistic a l clerks. Places of Employment In 1976, about 163,000 people worked as office m achine operators. About one-fifth worked for m anufac turing companies; large numbers also were employed by banks, insurance companies, and wholesale and retail stores. Many office m achine o p era tors work for service firms that p re pare monthly bills and mailing circu lars for businesses that do not have their own office machinery. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer high school or business school graduates for jobs as office machine operators. Most new ly hired workers are expected to be able to type and operate adding m a chines and calculators. A knowledge of business arithm etic is helpful. The am ount of instruction and onthe-job training beginners receive de pends on the types o f machines they o p e ra te . A lthough a few days of training usually are sufficient to train duplicating m achine operators, sev eral weeks may be needed to train b o o k k e e p in g m ach in e o p e ra to rs . Some office m achine operators are tr a in e d a t c o m p a n y e x p e n se in schools run by equipm ent m anufac turers. Finger dexterity, good eye and hand coordination, and good vision are im portant for m ost office m a chine operator jobs. Billing and cal culating m achine operators should know simple arithm etic so they can d etect obvious errors in co m p u ta tions. Some m echanical ability is ad vantageous, especially for duplicat in g a n d t a b u l a t i n g m a c h i n e operators. Most employers prom ote from within and give strong consideration to seniority and job perform ance as shown by supervisors’ ratings. P ro motion may be from a routine m a chine job to a more complex one, or to a related clerical job. Employers often provide any additional training that may be required. In firms having large clerical staffs, office m achine operators may advance to jobs where they train beginners or to supervisory 99 CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS positions as section or departm ent heads. Employment Outlook Employment of office machine op erato rs is expected to grow m ore slowly than the average for all occu p atio n s th ro u g h th e m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. Most openings will result from the need to replace workers who die, re tire, or leave the occupation. Despite expected growth in the volume of billing, com puting, and duplicating work, the occupation will expand slowly as com puterized rec ordkeeping and processing systems spread. In addition, advances in data transmission devices will enable large employers to centralize recordkeep ing, and to reduce the requirem ents for operators in branch offices. POSTAL CLERKS (D.O.T. 231.388 and 688, 232.138 and .368) Earnings and Working Conditions A 1975 Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of earnings for several office machine operator occupations in ur ban areas showed th a t the lowest salaries were paid in the South and the highest in the N orth and West. For some occupations averages are given separately for different skill groups. O perators in Class A were very experienced and perform ed comparatively difficult work. Those in Classes B and C had some or no experience, worked on more routine assignments, and used simpler equip m ent. The average weekly salaries reported in this survey are shown in the accom panying tabulation: Average weekly salaries, 1976 Billing machine operators................ Bookkeeping machine operators: Class A ........................................ Class B ........................................ Tabulating machine operators: Class A ........................................ Class B ........................................ Class C .......................... the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Because some types of office m a chines are very noisy, operators may work in special areas apart from o th er co m pany offices. In o th e r r e spects, their working conditions are similar to those of other office work ers in the same firms. (See the state m ent on clerical occupations for furt h e r i n f o r m a t i o n o n w o r k in g conditions and for sources of addi tional inform ation.) $ 160 170 140 240 200 160 Billing and bookkeeping m achine Digitized FRASER op for erato rs earned slightly less than Nature of the Work Most people are familiar with the post office window clerk who works behind the counter selling stamps or accepting parcel post. However, the majority o f postal clerks are distribu tion clerks who sort incoming and outgoing mail in workrooms. Postal clerks work either at local post offices or at large central mail processing facilities. At local post offices postal clerks sort the mail for delivery to individual customers. In coming mail collected from the local neighborhood boxes is forwarded to the n earest mail processing cen ter where clerks continue the process o f sorting and preparing the mail for delivery. There are more than 300 mail p ro cessing centers throughout the coun try which service the local post offic es in designated geographic areas. Once mail is received at a center, letter sorting m achine clerks, distri bution clerks, and m ailhandlers sepa rate the mail into groups of letters, parcel post, magazines, and newspa pers. Then m ailhandlers feed the let ters th ro u g h stam p-canceling m a chines. A fter this step is com pleted, m ailhandlers take the mail into other workroom s to be sorted according to destination. T here, clerks read the ZIP codes and simply push keys co r responding to the le tte rs’ d estin a tions on electronic mail-sorting m a ch in es; th e le tte rs d ro p into the proper slots. Finally, the mail is sent from the mail processing center to local post Offices or to other centers for further sorting. The clerks at post office windows provide a variety of services in addi tion to selling stamps and money o r ders. They weigh packages to d eter m ine postage and check to see if th e ir co n d itio n is satisfactory for mailing. Clerks also register and in sure mail and answer questions about postage rates, m ailing restrictions, and other postal m atters. O ccasional ly they may help a custom er file a claim fo r a dam aged package. In large post offices, a window clerk may provide only one or two of these services and may be called a registry, stamp, or money order clerk. Places of Employment Two out of every five employees of the U.S. Postal Service were postal clerks in 1976. The majority of the 270,000 postal clerks work at mail processing centers, although many still sort mail and provide window services at local post offices through out the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postal clerks must be at least 18 (at least 16 if they have a high school diplom a) and qualify on a four-part w ritten exam ination. The first p art tests clerical accuracy by asking the applicant to com pare pairs of ad dresses and indicate which are identi cal. The second part tests ability to memorize mail distribution systems. The third m easures reading ability, including vocabulary, and the fourth tests ability to do simple arithm etic. Applicants must also pass a physical exam ination and may be asked to show th at they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants who are to work with an electronic sorting m achine must pass OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 100 cities, and ZIP codes. To help clerks learn these groups, many post offices offer classroom instruction. A good memory, good coordina tion, and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are im portant. Distri bution clerks work closely with other clerks, frequently under the tension and strain of m eeting mailing d ead lines. Window clerks must be co u rte ous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answ ering questions or receiving complaints. Postal clerks are classified as casu al, part-tim e flexible, part-tim e regu lar, or full time. Casual workers are h ire d to h elp h a n d le th e la rg e amounts of mail during peak mailing periods at various times throughout the year, such as the Christmas sea son. Part-tim e flexible employees do not have a regular work schedule, but replace absent workers or help with extra work loads as the need arises. P art-tim e re g u la r w o rk ers have a set work schedule—for exam ple, 4 hours a day. Most clerks begin as part-tim e flexible employees and become full time workers as vacancies occur. Full-tim e clerks may bid for p re ferred assignments such as the day shift, a window job, or a higher level nonsupervisory position as expediter or window service technician. Clerks may qualify to become supervisors. Employment Outlook Postal clerks sorting incoming mail. a special examination which includes a m achine aptitude test Applicants should apply at the post office or sectional center where they wish to work because each keeps a s e p a ra te list o f th o se who have passed the examination. A pplicants’ nam es are listed in o rder of their scores. Five extra points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran, and 10 extra points to the score of a veteran wounded in com bat or disabled. Disabled veterans who have a com pensable, serviceconnected disability of 10 percent or more are placed at the top of the list. When a vacancy occurs, the appoint ing officer chooses one of the top th ree a p p lic a n ts; th e re st o f th e names remain on the list for future appointm ents. New clerks are trained on the job. Most clerks begin with simple tasks to learn regional groupings of States, Employment of postal clerks is ex pected to decline through the mid1980’s due to falling mail volume and installation of more efficient sorting machines. The am ount of mail h an dled by the postal service is expected to decrease because of rising postal rates, greater use of telephones, and developm ent of other ways of distrib uting advertising circulars. N everthe less, many job openings will result from the need to replace clerks who retire, die, or transfer to other o ccu pations. Earnings and Working Conditions Postal clerks working full time started at $ 12,422 a year in 1976, but 101 CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS could advance to $15,007 after 8 years with satisfactory perform ance. Clerks working part-tim e flexible schedules started at $6.18 an hour and could advance to $7.46 an hour after 8 years. Clerks working parttime regular schedules started at $5.97 an hour and could advance to $7.21 an hour after 8 years. All clerks who work night shifts receive 10 percent additional pay. Besides good pay, full-time postal employees have m ore job security than workers in most other industries. (For infor mation on fringe benefits, see state m ent on Postal Service occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) W orking conditions of clerks differ according to the specific work as signments and the am ount and kind of laborsaving m achinery in the post office. In small post offices, clerks may carry heavy mail sacks from one part of the building to another, and sort the mail by hand. In large post offices and mail processing centers, chutes and conveyors move the mail and much o f the sorting is done by machine. In either case, clerks are on their feet m ost of the time, reaching for sacks and trays of mail and plac ing packages and bundles into sacks and trays while walking around the workroom. Distribution clerks may become bored with the routine of sorting mail unless they enjoy trying to improve their speed and accuracy. They also may have to work at night or on weekends, because most large post offices process mail around the clock. A window clerk, on the other hand, has a greater variety of duties, has frequent contact with the public, generally has a less strenuous job, and rarely has to work a night shift. RECEPTIONISTS (D.O.T. 235.862, 237.368) Nature of the Work All organizations want to m ake a good first impression on the public. This is an im portant part of the job of the receptionist, who generally is the first person a caller sees. R eceptionists greet custom ers and other visitors, determ ine their needs, and refer callers to the official who can help them . R eceptionists in hos pitals, after obtaining personal histo ries, d irec t patients to the p ro p er waiting rooms; in beauty shops, they arrange appointm ents and show cus tom ers to the o p erato r’s booth; and in large plants, they provide callers with identification cards and arrange escorts to take them to the proper office. Many receptionists keep business records o f callers, the times at which they called, and the persons to whom they were referred. W hen they are not busy with callers, receptionists may type, file, or operate a switch board. Some receptionists open and sort mail and collect and distribute messages. Still others prepare travel vouchers and do simple bookkeep ing. Places of Employment About 500,000 persons worked as receptionists in 1976. Part-tim e em ploym ent is readily available for re ceptionists, and about 1 in 3 works part time. Although receptionists work in al m ost every kind o f o rg a n izatio n , about half work for doctors, dentists, hospitals, and o th er health service providers. Large num bers of recep tionists also work in insurance com panies, banks, factories, and firms providing business and personal ser vices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma generally is required for work as a receptionist. Courses in English, spelling, typing, Sources of Additional information Local post offices and State em ployment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and em ploym ent opp ortunities for postal clerks. Liking people and wanting to help them are important assets for receptionists. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 102 elem entary bookkeeping, and busi ness practices are helpful to the be ginner. Liking people and wanting to help them are assets to the receptionist. A neat appearance, a pleasant voice, and an even disposition also are im portant. Because receptionists do not work u nder close supervision, common sense and a thorough un derstanding of how the business is organized help them handle various situations that arise. P ro m o tio n o p p o rtu n ities for re ceptionists are limited, especially in small offices. In large workplaces, h o w ev er, a re c e p tio n is t who has clerical skills may advance to a better paying job as a secretary, adm inistra tive assistant, or bookkeeper. Many com panies have their own training programs so that the skills needed for advancem ent can be learned on the job. College or business school train ing also can be helpful in advancing to better paying office jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Full-time switchboard operator-re ceptionists working in urban areas averaged $141 a week in 1976. This was about three-quarters as much as the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Receptionists working in the western United States had av e ra g e w eek ly e a rn in g s o f $ 1 4 9 . Those in southern cities averaged $133 a week. In the Federal G overn m ent, beginning inform ation recep tionists averaged $171 a week in 1977. R eceptionists usually work in areas that are com fortably furnished. Al though m ost have regular hours, re ceptionists in hospitals and beauty shops may work evenings and w eek ends. (See the statem ent on clerical occupations for sources of additional inform ation.) SECRETARIES AND STENOGRAPHERS (D.O.T. 201.268 and .368, 202.388, and 209.138) Nature of the Work The efficiency o f any organization depends upon secretaries and stenog raphers, who are a t the ce n te r o f com m unications within their firm. They tran sm it inform ation to the staff and to persons in other organi zations. Employment Outlook Employment of receptionists is ex pected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. Thousands of openings will result each year as businesses expand and as receptionists who die, retire, or transfer to other jobs are replaced. T he num ber o f re p la ce ments will be quite large because the occupation is large and turnover is high. Within the fast-growing clerical field, receptionist em ploym ent is ex pected to grow rapidly. This is largely because so many receptionists work for firms providing business, person al, and professional services—a sec tor of the economy which is expected to show very strong growth in the future. In addition, m ore and more firms recognize the im portance of the receptionist in prom oting good public relations. Also, because the receptionist’s work is o f a person-toperson nature, it is unlikely to be af fected by office autom ation. Job opportunities should continue to be excellent for persons who do not wish to work full time. This occu pation also offers many opportunities for those without prior work experi ence.for FRASER Digitized Secretaries and stenographers are at the center of communications within their firms. 103 CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS Secretaries (D .O .T. 201.368) re lieve their employers of routine du ties so that they can work on more im p o rtan t m atters. A lthough m ost secretaries type, take shorthand, and deal with callers, the time spent on these duties varies in different types of organizations. In offices where dictation and typ ing are handled in word processing c e n te rs, a d m inistrative secretaries handle all o ther secretarial duties. (For more inform ation on these cen ters, see the statem ent on typists else where in the Handbook.) They often work in clusters of three or four so that they can readily help each other. Because they are released from dic tation and typing, they can serve sev eral m em bers o f th e professional staff. Their duties range from filing, rou tin g m ail, and answ ering te le phones to more responsible jobs such as answering letters, doing statistical research, and writing reports. Some secretaries are trained in specific skills needed in certain types of work. Medical secretaries prepare case histories and medical reports; legal secretaries do legal research and help prepare briefs; and technical sec retaries assist engineers or scientists in drafting reports and research pro posals. A nother specialized secre tary is the social secretary (D.O.T. 201.268), who arranges social func tions, answers personal correspon dence, and keeps the em ployer in formed about all social activities. Stenographers (D.O.T. 202.388) take dictation and then transcribe their notes on a typewriter. They may either take shorthand or use a stenotype m achine that prints sym bols as c e rtain keys are pressed. G eneral sten o g ra p h ers, in clu d in g most beginners, take routine dicta tion and do other office tasks such as typing, filing, answering telephones, and operating office machines. Ex perienced and highly skilled stenog raphers take difficult dictation and do m ore responsible clerical work. They may sit in on staff meetings and give a summary report or a word-forw ord re c o rd o f th e p ro ceed in g s. They also supervise other stenogra phers, typists, and clerical workers. Technical stenographers must know the term s used in a particular profes sion. They include m edical, legal, and engineering or scientific stenog raphers. Some experienced stenog raphers take dictation in foreign lan g u a g e s ; o th e r s w o rk as p u b lic stenographers serving traveling busi ness people and others. Shorthand reporters are specialized stenographers who record all state ments m ade in a proceeding. Nearly half of all shorthand reporters work as court reporters attached to courts of law at different levels of govern ment. They take down all statem ents made at legal proceedings and p re sent their record as the official tran script. Many other shorthand rep o rt ers work as free-lance reporters who record out-of-court testimony for a t torneys, m eetings and conventions, and other private activities. Still o th ers reco rd the proceedings in the C ongress of the U nited S tates, in State legislatures, and in both State and Federal agencies. Most reporters dictate notes on magnetic tapes that a typist can tran scribe later. Because the re p o rter’s transcript is the official record of a proceeding, accuracy is vitally im portant. Places of Employment About 3.5 million persons worked in jobs requiring secretarial or steno graphic skills in 1976; m ost were sec retaries. Only about 100,000 persons worked as stenographers in 1976. Opportunities for part-tim e work are increasing in these and other clerical occupations. In 1976, ap proximately one of every five secre taries and one in six stenographers worked p art time. Secretaries and stenographers are employed throughout the economy. A bout two-thirds of them , however, work in banks, insurance com panies, real estate firms, governm ent agen cies, and other establishm ents p ro viding services to the public. M ost specialized stenographers and secre taries work for doctors, lawyers, and other professional people. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, graduation from high school is required for a job as a secretary or stenographer. Many employers prefer applicants who have additional secretarial training at a college or private business school. Courses vary from a few m onths’ instruction in basic shorthand and typing to longer program s teaching specialized skills such as shorthand reporting or legal or medical secre tarial w ork. S horthand re p o rters generally m ust com plete a 2-year c o u rse in a sh o rth a n d re p o rtin g school. An increasing num ber of private firms and governm ent agencies have th eir own training facilities w here em ployees can upgrade their skills and broaden their knowledge of the organization. Also, many State and local governments sponsor program s to train unem ployed and low-skilled workers for entry jobs as secretaries. Fourteen States require court re porters to be a Certified Shorthand R eporter (C SR). In some of these States, reporters can be hired with the understanding th at they will be certified within 1 year. Certification is adm inistered by a board of examin ers in each of the 14 States. The N a tional Shorthand R eporters Associ a tio n c o n f e r s th e d e s i g n a t i o n R eg istere d P ro fe ssio n a l R e p o rte r (RPR) upon those who pass a twopart examination and participate in continuing education programs. The RPR designation is recognized as the m ark of excellence in the profession. Employers usually have no prefer en ces am ong th e m any d iffe re n t shorthand methods. The most im portant factors in hiring and prom o tion are speed and accu racy . To qualify for jobs in the Federal Gov e rn m e n t—and for em ploym ent in many private firm s—stenographers must be able to take dictation at 100 words per minute and type 50 to 60 words per minute. Many shorthand reporting jobs require m ore than 225 words of dictation per m inute; short hand reporters in the Federal Gov ern m e n t generally m ust tak e 175 words a minute. Secretaries and stenographers should have good hearing; a knowl edge o f spelling, punctuation, and gram m ar and a good vocabulary are essential. The ability to concentrate amid distractions is vital for short hand reporters. Employers look for OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 104 persons who are poised and alert, and who have pleasant personalities. Discretion, judgm ent, and initiative are im portant for the more respon sible secretarial positions. Many stenographers who improve their skills advance to secretarial jobs; others who acquire the neces sary speed through additional train ing can becom e shorthand reporters. Secretaries can increase their skills and broaden their knowledge o f their c o m p a n y ’s o p e ra tio n s by ta k in g courses offered by the com pany or by local business schools, colleges, and universities. As secretaries gain knowledge and experience, they can qualify for the designation Certified P ro fe ssio n a l S e c re ta ry (C P S ) by passing a series of exams given by the N a tio n al S e c re ta rie s A ssociation. This designation is recognized by a growing num ber of em ployers as the mark of achievem ent in the secretar ial field. M any executive secretaries are prom oted to m anagem ent posi tions on the basis o f their extensive knowledge of their em ployer’s opera tions. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of secretaries is ex pected to increase faster than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as the continued expan sion o f business and governm ent cre ates a growing volume of paperwork. Hundreds o f thousands of jobs will become available each year due to growth and the need to replace those who die, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Demand for secretaries will rise mainly as those organizations that require large secretarial staffs ex pand their operations. New govern m ent agencies, p articularly at the State and local level; insurance com panies offering new forms of pro tec tion; and banks providing financial counseling for an increasingly afflu ent population are just a few of the org an izatio n s th a t will need welltrained and versatile secretaries in the years ahead. A lthough many new types o f autom atic office equipm ent h av e b ee n in tro d u c e d in re c e n t years, no adverse im pact on em ploy m ent of secretaries is expected. How ever, jo b se e k e rs who are fam iliar with wide range o f office m achines Digitized for aFRASER and pro ced u res are likely to have better prospects than other workers. Persons with secretarial skills should find extensive opportunities for tem porary or part-tim e work as employers increasingly turn to these workers during peak business peri ods. Such arrangem ents may be es pecially attractive to students, p e r sons w ith fam ily re sp o n sib ilitie s, retired persons, and others interested in flexible work schedules. Em ploym ent o f stenographers is expected to continue the decline o f recent years. The increased use of dictation m achines has severely re duced the need for office stenogra phers, and fewer jobs will be avail able than in the past. Dem and for skilled shorthand reporters, in co n trast to the overall outlook for ste nographers, should remain strong as State and Federal court systems ex pand to handle the rising num ber of crim inal co u rt cases and civil law suits. C o m p etitio n fo r entry level jobs is increasing as m ore students enter the field. O pportunities will be best for those who have earned certi fication by the N ational Shorthand Reporters Association. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) survey, general ste nographers working in urban areas averaged $706 a m onth in 1976; ex perienced workers who were highly skilled averaged $788. Shorthand re porters generally earn higher salaries than other stenographic workers. A c cording to a survey conducted by The N ational S horthand R eporters Association, shorthand reporters av eraged about $15,000 a year in 1976. According to the BLS survey, sec retaries to supervisors in small offices ea rn ed m onthly salaries o f $741. Secretaries to officers in small com panies had average monthly salaries o f $804; those working for middle m anagem ent in large com panies av e ra g e d $ 8 6 8 . S e c re ta rie s h aving greater responsibilities, such as ex ecutive secretaries to corporate offi cers, earned average m onthly salaries o f $954. Beginning clerk-stenographers in the Federal G overnm ent earned from $548 to $775 a m onth in 1977 depending on education, training, and experience. Earnings of begin ning sh o rth a n d re p o rte rs ra n g ed from $864 to $1,175 a m onth d e pending on speed, education, and ex perience. Starting salaries for secre taries in the F ederal G o v ern m en t ranged from $775 to $960 a m onth, while the average for all secretaries was $982 a m onth. In 1976, earnings of stenographers were slightly less and those o f secretaries slightly m ore than average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. W orking conditions for secretaries and stenographers generally are simi lar to those o f other office workers in the same organization. Shorthand re porters, however, often sit for long periods of time while recording an event. (See the statem ent on clerical occupations for more inform ation on earnings and working conditions.) Sources of Additional Information For inform ation on careers in sec retarial work, write to: National Secretaries Association (Internation al), 2440 Pershing Rd., Suite G10, Kansas City, Mo. 64108. Additional inform ation on careers in secretarial work and a directory of business schools are available from: Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, 1730 M St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For inform ation about shorthand reporting, contact: National Shorthand Reporters Association, 2361 South Jefferson Davis Hwy., Arling ton, Va. 22202. SHIPPING AND RECEIVING CLERKS (D.O.T. 209.688, 219.388, 222.138 through .687, 223.387, 239.588, 910.368 and 920.887) Nature of the Work Shipping and receiving clerks keep track of goods transferred betw een businesses and their custom ers and suppliers. In small com panies, one 105 CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS clerk may keep records of all ship ments sent out and received; in larger companies, many clerks take care of this recordkeeping. Shipping clerks are responsible for all shipments leaving a business place. Before goods are sent to a custom er, these clerks check to be sure the order has been filled cor rectly. Some shipping clerks fill o r ders them selves. They obtain m er chandise from the stockroom and wrap it or pack it in shipping contain ers. C lerks also p u t addresses and o th e r id en tify in g in fo rm a tio n on packages, look up and com pute ei ther freight or postal rates, and rec ord the weight and cost of each ship m e n t. T h e y a ls o m ay p r e p a r e in v oices an d fu rn ish in fo rm atio n about shipments to other parts o f the company, such as the accounting de p a r tm e n t. O n c e a s h ip m e n t is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move it to the shipping dock and direct its loading on trucks according to its destination. Shipping and receiving clerks working in small businesses may com bine these tasks w ith th e v ario u s d u tie s o f sto ck clerks. (F or more inform ation about th e ad d itio n a l d u ties o f shipping clerks in small firms, see the state m ent on stock clerks elsewhere in the Handbook.) W hen shipments arrive, receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those o f shipping clerks. They determ ine whether their em ployer’s orders have been correctly filled by verifying in coming shipm ents against the origi nal order and the accom panying bill o f lading o r invoice. They record the receip t and condition o f incom ing shipments. Clerks also make adjust ments with shippers for lost and dam aged m erchandise. Routing or m ov in g s h i p m e n t s to t h e p r o p e r d epartm ent, w arehouse section, or stockroom and providing inform a tion that is needed to com pute inven tories also may be part of their job. Places of Employment About 440,000 persons worked as shipping and receiving clerks in 1976. M ore than half worked in fac tories; large num bers also were em ployed by wholesale houses or retail stores. A lthough jobs for shipping and receiving clerks are found in all localities, most clerks work in urban a re a s, w h ere m any fa c to rie s and wholesale houses are located. Receiving clerk carefully checks manifest. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school g rad u ates are p re ferred for beginning jobs in shipping and receiving departm ents. Business arith m etic, typing, and o th er high school business subjects are helpful. The ability to write legibly is im por tant. Dependability and an interest in learning about the firm ’s products and business activities also are quali ties that employers seek. In addition, shipping and receiving clerks should be able to work under close supervi sion at repetitive tasks. New employees usually are trained on the job by an experienced worker. As part of their training they often file, check addresses, attach labels, and check item s included in ship m ents. As clerks gain experience, they may be assigned tasks requiring a good deal o f in d ep en d en t ju d g ment, such as handling problem s of dam aged m erchandise, or supervis ing other workers in shipping or re ceiving rooms. A job as a shipping or receiving clerk offers a good opportunity for new workers in a firm to learn about their com pany’s products and busi ness practices. Some clerks may be prom oted to head shipping or receiv ing clerk or w arehouse m anager. Others may enter related fields such as industrial traffic m anagem ent or purchasing. (Industrial traffic m an agers and purchasing agents are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook Em ploym ent o f shipping and re ceiving clerks is ex p ected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as business expands and there are more goods to be distributed. Several thousand jobs will becom e available each year as em ploym ent grows and as workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Although substantial growth is ex pected in the volume of goods to be moved, em ploym ent o f shipping and receiving clerks will not increase as rapidly because of changes in tech nology th at enable few er clerks to handle m ore goods. Growing num bers of firms are using com puters to keep track o f shipping and receiving 106 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK records, and moving belts to handle shipments once lifted by hand. Earnings and Working Conditions Shipping and receiving clerks in urban areas averaged $200 a week, according to a 1976 survey. This is about as m uch as the average earn ings for all nonsupervisory workers in p riv ate in d u stry , e x c e p t farm ing. Salaries varied substantially, how ever, by type of employer. Shipping and receiving clerks em ployed by m anufacturing firms averaged $200, those working for wholesale houses averaged $210, and those employed by public utilities averaged $248. Most shipping and receiving clerks receive tim e-and-a-half for work over 40 hours. Night work and over tim e, including work on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays, may be neces sary when shipm ents have been un duly delayed or when materials are needed im m ediately on production lines. Although shipping and receiv ing clerks do much of their work in w arehouses or in shipping and re ceiving room s, they may do some of it on o u ts id e lo ad in g p la tfo rm s. W orkplaces often are large, unparti tioned areas that may be drafty, cold, and littered with packing materials. M ost clerks must stand for long periods while they check m erchan dise. Locating num bers and descrip tions on ca rto n s often req u ires a great deal o f bending, stooping, and stretching. Also, under the pressure of getting shipments moved on time, clerks sometimes may help load or unload m aterials in the warehouse. (See the statem ent on clerical occu pations for additional inform ation on fringe benefits.) Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about the work and earnings o f shipping and receiving clerks in wholesale establishm ents is available from: National Association of Wholesaler-Distribu tors, 1725 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. ords and reports into com puter codes for data processing. Personnel clerks (D.O.T. 205.368, 206.588, 209.388, (D.O.T. 205.368) gather and file in fo rm atio n on the em ployees o f a 219.388, .488, and .588, 222.687, business; th e ir w ork may include 223.588, 913.368, and 953.168) some typing and preparation o f re Nature of the Work ports. Computing and tabulating. O rgani A dm inistrators and m anagers in all types of organizations depend on nu zations frequently use num erical rec merical records to help make deci ords for reports and research. Statis sions. Statistical clerks prepare and tical clerks gather inform ation from insure the accuracy and com plete records to present in a chart or table ness of these records. Although the for analysis. Actuary clerks (D.O.T. occupational title “ statistical clerk ” 219.388) use certain formulas, statis covers a num ber o f different jobs tical charts, and insurance rate books perform ed by statistical workers, the to assist actuaries in determ ining in jobs in this field can be grouped into surance rates for com pany custom four categories: recording, com pil ers. They also prepare charts and ta ing and coding, com puting and tabu bles for studies on general insurance practices. Policy checkers (D .O .T . lating, and scheduling. Recording. This work involves col 219.488) verify the accuracy of in lecting and verifying the accuracy of surance com pany records. Statistical in f o r m a tio n . S h ip p in g c h e c k e rs assistants (D .O .T . 2 1 9 .3 8 8 ), also (D.O.T. 222.687) in m anufacturing known as tabulating clerks, calculate com panies and wholesale and retail and com pute num erical data on the businesses insure th at m erchandise population and its characteristics for to be shipped is properly labeled and governm ent and business research c o n ta in s th e d e s ire d n u m b e r o f projects. Demurrage clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) , em ployed by railroads, use ite m s . C ar c h e c k e r s (D .O .T . 209.588) keep records of shipments rate tables to com pute railway freight as they arrive at or leave a railroad charges and calculate the weight of freig h t te rm in a l. T hey ch eck th e shipm ents or distance railroad cars num ber o f railroad cars and verify have traveled. Scheduling. Statistical clerks may their contents with the specifications on the invoice. C ounters (D .O .T . schedule business activities that in 223.588) , who may have a title speci volve the m ovem ent of people and fying th eir work or the item s th at things. Through planning, they as they co u n t, record the num ber o f sure that these activities run sm ooth m aterials received, tran sferred , o r ly and efficiently. For example, as produced. For example, lum ber tal- signm ent clerks (D .O .T . 9 1 3 .3 6 8 ) liers or lum ber checkers record the work for bus com panies and assign am o u n t an d type o f lum ber p ro drivers to m eet riders’ transportation cessed in sawmills; pit recorders col needs. Drivers are selected on the lect production data in the steel in basis o f experience, seniority, and dustry. n a tu re o f th e a ssig n m e n t. Crew Compiling and coding. In organiza schedulers (D.O.T. 219.388) do simi tions of all types, inform ation m ust lar work for airlines; they assign pi be properly filed, verified, or a n a lots to scheduled flights and log the lyzed for d ata processing. Posting mileage each pilot has flown. Gas dis clerks (D.O.T. 219.588) do this work patchers (D .O .T . 9 5 3 .1 6 8 ) d e te r by m aking entries in registers and mine the proper pressure in a natural journals. They receive and sort re c gasline to m eet custom ers’ require ords o f shipm ents, production, and m ents after considering inform ation fin an c ial tra n s a c tio n s to p ro v id e such as the weather, time of day, and company officials with current infor other factors that affect the use of mation on business activities. Record gas. keep ers (D .O .T . 2 0 6 .5 8 8 ) , also known as classification clerks, record Places of Employment data systematically for easy location. Coding clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) co n About 337,000 persons worked as vert inform ation obtained from re c statistical clerks in 1976. Although STATISTICAL CLERKS 107 CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS working with others in the same of fice. M ost employers follow a prom otion-from -w ithin policy th at allows experienced w orkers to qualify for m ore responsible jobs as they b e come available. Qualified statistical clerks may perform m ore difficult as signments or advance to supervisory positions. Some statistical clerks are able to advance to a technician level where they may deal with the techni cal problem s of statistical research projects. Some clerks becom e com puter programmers. Employment Outlook Statistical clerks compile the numerical records often used by management to make decisions. statistical clerks are employed in nearly every industry, over half worked in finance, insurance, and real estate com panies; m anufactur ing firms; and Federal, State, and lo cal government. Because businesses o f almost every size require num erical records, statis tical clerk s w ork th ro u g h o u t the United States. Jobs are concentrated, however, in heavily populated cities that are centers of industry and gov ernm ent activities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for statistical clerk jobs. They also seek applicants who have an aptitude for working with num bers and the ability to do d e tailed w ork. High school students may p rep are for jobs as statistical clerks by taking courses in general m athem atics, algebra, and geometry. Also recom m ended are courses in data processing, office procedures, bookkeeping, and typing. In many com panies, general clerks who have becom e familiar with their em ployers’ record systems and office procedures are prom oted to statisti cal clerk positions. On-the-job train ing that equips the em ployee to spe c ia liz e in n u m e ric a l w o rk m ay include the use of calculators, tab u lating machines, and typewriters. Statistical clerks m ust be familiar with the items or inform ation which they observe and record. For exam ple, lum ber checkers m ust know the various types and qualities of wood products. In preparing data for p ro cessing, coding clerks must use the proper com puter codes to avoid e r rors. Statistical clerks should be able to do prom pt and accurate work under close supervision. Also, they should be tactful and even tem pered when Employment of statistical clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. In addition to job opportunities arising from this growth, many additional openings will occur as clerks die, retire, or leave the occupation for other rea sons. This occupation includes a wide range of jobs, and the prospects for statistical clerks are better in certain areas than in others. Some routine jobs, for example, may be eliminated as com puters are increasingly used to collect and process information. However, statistical clerks in jobs such as those that require personal contact or involve the preparation of data for com puter analysis are ex pected to be in great demand. Among the factors that will con tribute to the dem and for statistical clerks is the expected increase in business and governm ent activities, including projects requiring the col le c tio n an d p ro c e ssin g o f la rg e amounts of num erical data. In addi tion, adm inistrators increasingly will rely on num erical records to analyze and control all aspects of their o r ganization’s work. Earnings and Working Conditions Limited inform ation indicates that beginning statistical clerks earn about as much as workers in other entry level clerical jobs such as office clerks or file clerks; salaries for these workers ranged between $110 and $130 a week in 1976. The entrance salary for beginning statistical assis OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 108 tants employed by the Federal Gov ernm ent was $142 a week in 1977. Most experienced workers doing statistically related clerical work, in cluding the operation o f tabulating machines or calculators, earned be tw een $155 and $200 a w eek in 1976. Top level clerks and supervi sors averaged about $235 a week. Earnings usually are highest in m anu facturing, transportation, and utili ties industries; they are lower in retail trade, finance, insurance, and real estate, and service industries. Nearly every em ployer of statisti cal clerks offers some form of health plan, life insurance coverage, and re tirem en t benefits. M ost statistical clerks work in clean, well-lighted and w e ll-v e n tila te d o ffic es. (S ee th e statem ent on clerical occupations for sources of additional inform ation.) ing clerks. (F o r m ore inform ation about the additional duties of stock clerks in small firms, see the state m en t on sh ip p in g an d re c e iv in g clerks elsewhere in the Handbook.) In large firms with specialized jobs, inventory clerks (D .O .T . 223.388) periodically count items on hand and make reports showing stock balanc es. P ro c u re m e n t c le rk s (D .O .T . 223.368) work in factories and p re pare orders for the purchase of new equipm ent. The duties of stock clerks also depend on the items they handle. For example, stock clerks who work with food and drugs must m aintain proper tem perature and humidity conditions to prevent spoilage; those who han dle construction items such as lum ber and bricks must do much walking and climbing to note the condition and quantity of that stock. Places of Employment STOCK CLERKS (D.O.T. 223.138, .368, .387, .388, .588, .687; 910.388; 969.387) About 490,000 persons worked as stock clerks in 1976. A bout threefourths of them worked in factories, wholesale firms, and retail stores. Many others were employed by air lines, governm ent agencies, hospi tals, and o th e r organizations th a t keep large quantities o f goods on hand. Although jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, most work in urban areas where fac to ries, w arehouses, and stores are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no specific educational requirem ents for begin ning stock clerks, employers prefer high school graduates. Reading and writing skills and a basic knowledge of m athem atics are necessary; typing and filing abilities also are useful. G ood health, especially good eye sight, is im portant. Generally, those who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs must be bonded. Stock clerks usually receive onthe-job training. New workers begin with simple tasks such as counting and marking stock. Basic responsibil ities o f the job usually are learned within several weeks. As they prog- Nature of the Work Most employers recognize the im po rtan ce o f keeping w ell-balanced inventories to prevent sales losses or slowdowns in production. Stock clerks (D.O.T. 223.387) help protect against such losses by con trolling the flow o f goods received, stored, and issued. They usually re ceive and u n p ack incom ing m e r chandise o r m aterial. They re p o rt damaged or spoiled goods and pro cess papers necessary for obtaining replacem ents or credit. On outgoing orders, they may check the items for quality and quantity and sometimes make m inor repairs or adjustments. M aterials are stored in bins, on the floor, or on shelves according to the plan of the stockroom . Stock clerks organize and m ark item s with identi fying codes or prices so that invento ries can be located quickly and eas ily. T h ey k eep re c o rd s o f item s entering or leaving the stockroom . Sometimes they label, pack, crate, or address goods for delivery. Stock clerks working in small firms also may perform various duties usu ally Digitized for handled FRASER by shipping and receiv Some competition is likely for stock clerk positions because many young people seek this work as a first job. CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS ress, stock clerks learn to keep rec ords of incoming and outgoing m ate rials, tak e in v en to ries, and o rd er supplies. In small firms, stock clerks may advance to sales positions or be come assistant buyers or purchasing agents. In large firms, stock clerks can ad v an ce to m ore responsible stock handling jobs such as invoice clerk, stock control clerk, or p ro curem ent clerk. A few may be pro moted to stockroom supervisor, but a d d itio n a l e d u c a tio n o ften is re quired. Employment Outlook Employment of stock clerks is ex pected to increase about as fast as th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. Many thou sands of job openings will occur each year as em ploym ent grows and as workers die, retire, or transfer to oth er occupations. Growth in em ploym ent of stock clerks probably will be slower than in the past as com puters are used in creasingly for inventory control. Be cause entrance into this occupation is relatively easy and many young people seek this work as a first job, some co m p etitio n for openings is likely. Earnings and Working Conditions Experienced stock clerks earned a v e rag e w ee k ly sa la rie s o f $ 1 9 2 in 1976, according to the limited data available. This was slightly above the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal G overnm ent, begin ning stock clerks without experience were paid $126 a week in late 1976; those with general work experience received $142 a week. Experienced stock clerks in the Federal G overn m ent averaged about $203 a week in 1976. Stock clerks generally receive tim e-and-one-half for work over 40 hours. Overtim e may be required when large shipments are delivered and when inventory is taken. Although stock clerks usually work in relatively clean, heated, and well-lighted areas, some stockroom s may be dam p and drafty. Clerks han dling refrigerated goods may spend 109 som e tim e in cold storage room s. Stock clerks are on their feet m uch of the working day, often on a con crete floor. T he jo b also involves co n sid erab le bending, lifting, and clim bing. (S ee th e sta te m e n t on clerical occupations for additional inform ation on working conditions and fringe benefits.) Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about the work and earnings o f stock clerks in wholesale establishm ents is available from: National Association of Wholesaler-Distribu tors, 1725 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. TYPISTS (D.O.T. 203.138 through .588; 208.588; and 209.382 through .588) Nature of the Work A rapid flow of written com m uni cation is essential to the m odern of fice. The typist helps to maintain this flow by making neat, typed copies o f handw ritten, printed, and recorded words. Beginning or junior typists usually type headings on form letters, copy directly from handw ritten drafts, and address envelopes. O ften, they do other office tasks, including answer ing telephones, filing, and operating office m achines such as copiers and calculators. M ore experienced typists do work that requires a high degree of accura cy and independent judgm ent. Sen ior typists work from rough drafts which are difficult to read or which co n tain tech n ic al m aterial. They may plan and type com plicated sta tis tic a l ta b le s , c o m b in e an d r e a rra n g e m a te ria ls from d iffe re n t sources, o r prepare m aster copies to be reproduced on copying machines. Clerk typists (D.O.T. 209.388) com bine typing with filing, sorting mail, answering telephones, and o th er general office work. Varitypists (D .O .T . 2 0 3 .5 8 2 ) produce m aster copies, such as stencils, on m achines similar to typewriters. Transcribing machine operators (D.O.T. 208.588) type letters and reports as they listen to dictation recorded on magnetic tape. O ther typists who have special duties in c l u d e p o l i c y w r i t e r s ( D .O .T . 203.588) in insurance com panies, waybill clerks (D .O .T. 209.588) in railroad offices, and mortgage clerks (D .O .T . 2 0 3 .5 8 8 ) w ho w ork in banks. In some offices, many typists are grouped in a specialized word p ro cessing center that handles all the transcription and typing for several departm ents. These workers, usually called correspondence secretaries, op erate various kinds o f high-speed typew riters eq u ip p ed w ith a p ro gram m ed m em ory w hich en ab les them to produce final copy with a minimum of retyping. Places of Employment About 1 million persons worked as typists in 1976. In addition, many o th e r w o rk e rs —in c lu d in g s e c r e taries, new spaper reporters, writers, and editors—use typing skills in the perform ance of their jobs. Part-tim e em ploym ent is readily available for workers with clerical skills, and nearly one typist out of four works part time. Typists are em ployed throughout the entire econ omy. Over half of them work in fac tories, banks, insurance com panies, real estate firm s, and governm ent ag e n cies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement T y p ists g e n e ra lly n e e d a h igh sch o o l d ip lo m a. G o o d sp ellin g , punctuation, and gram m ar are essen tial. Ability to operate office equip m ent, such as copying and adding m achines, and also a knowledge of office procedures, are assets. An increasing num ber of com pa nies and governm ent organizations have their own typist training p ro gram s. T h ese give em p lo y ees a chance to learn or upgrade skills so that they can advance to more re sponsible positions within the organi zation. M any States and localities sponsor program s to train u n em ployed and low-skilled workers for entry jobs as typists. 110 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ticu larly strong for highly skilled workers and those who can handle other office jobs in addition to typ ing. Many employers will prefer typ ists who are familiar with new kinds o f word processing equipm ent. Be cause an increasing num ber of em p lo y ers are using te m p o ra ry and part-tim e workers during peak busi ness periods, opportunities should continue to be excellent for typists who do not wish to work full time. Earnings and Working Conditions Nearly 1 out of 4 typists works part time. M any em p lo y ers re q u ire a p p li cants for typing jobs to take a test that shows their speed and accuracy. For m ost jobs, a speed of 50 to 60 words per m inute is required. All typists who transcribe recorded dic tation need sharp hearing and must be especially good in spelling. Suc cessful typists are neat, accurate, and able to c o n c e n tra te am id d istrac tions. As beginners increase their skills, they often advance to higher level typing jobs. Some typists are prom ot ed to supervisor jobs in word p ro cessing centers. Others who m aster additional skills can move into secre tarial jobs. Employment Outlook The num ber of typists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid19 8 0 ’s as business exp an sio n in creases th e volum e o f paperw ork. Many job openings will occur every year because turnover in this occupa tion is very high. Jobs for typists also will becom e available as em ploym ent continues to grow. C ontinued growth of the economy, particularly those industries that gen erate vast quantities o f written re c ords and correspondence, will assure very good prospects for typists in the years ahead. Dem and should be p ar According to a recent survey, be ginning typists averaged $142 a week in 1976. T hose w ith ex p e rien ce earned $166 a w eek, slightly less than the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Governm ent, the starting salary for typists without ex perience was $126 a week in 1977, c o m p a re d w ith $160 a w eek for th o se w ith e x p e rie n c e . A v e rag e weekly earnings for all typists in the Federal G overnm ent were $157. W orking conditions for typists usu ally are similar to those for other of fice employees. Typists, like other clerical w orkers, sit for periods of time and often m ust contend with high noise levels caused by office m a chines lo cate d nearb y . (S ee th e statem ent on clerical occupations for m ore inform ation on working condi tions and also for a list o f places to write for additional inform ation on clerical jobs.) COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS increasingly im portant part of every day life. Today these machines bill custom ers, pay em ployees, record Since 195 1 when the first com put er was installed for com m ercial use, com puter systems have become an Most openings for programmers and systems analysts will result from growth Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in thousands) I Computer operating personnel I | Programmers H H le ik s v Systems analysts I ' -10 10 0 20 Growth H i Replacement Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Employment of programmers and systems analysts, negligible in 1960, is expected to grow to half a million workers by 1985 airline and hotel reservations, and monitor factory production process es. S cientific and engineering re search relies on com puter systems to solve complex equations as well as to collect, store, and sort vast am ounts of data. W orkers in com puter and related occupations design systems for p ro cessing inform ation, write instru c tions and translate them into m a c h i n e - r e a d a b l e la n g u a g e , a n d operate com puters and peripheral equipment. Most com puter careers require some type of specialized training. Al though not a universal requirem ent, a college degree is increasingly im portant for systems analysts and p ro g ra m m e rs — e s p e c ia lly fo r th o s e working in scientific and technical research operations. C om puter op erators usually need a high school diploma, but specialized training and experience are more im portant than formal education. For all com puter occupations, employers stress the im portance of learning on the job. In addition to technical knowledge and skills, com puter personnel must be able to concentrate on their work and should enjoy working with de tails. T hose who o p erate e q u ip m ent—keypunchers or console op e ra to rs, for exam ple — m ust have manual dexterity and some m echani cal aptitude. Program m ers and sys tems analysts must be able to think logically and should enjoy solving problems. This chapter describes three com puter occupations: C om puter O per ating Personnel, Program m ers, and Systems Analysts. Employment (in thousands) 30C Programmers Systems aa# u,,m,/ w, u 200 COMPUTER OPERATING PERSONNEL (D.O.T. 213.138, .382, .582, .588, and .885, and 223.387) 100 Nature of the Work 1965 1970 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 1975 1980 1985 All data systems require special ized workers to enter data and in stru ctio n s, o p erate the co m p u ter, and retrieve the results. The data to 111 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 112 be processed and the instructions for the com puter are called “ input;” the results are called “ o u tp u t.” Inform ation is entered into a com puter system in a variety of ways. In m any system s, keypunch operators (D.O.T. 213.582) prepare input by punching patterns o f holes in cards to represent different letters, num bers, and special characters, using a m a chine similar to a typewriter. In o th ers, data typists (D .O .T . 213.588) use special m achines th at convert the inform ation they type to holes in cards or magnetic impulses on tapes or disks. Many newer systems are ca pable o f rem ote data entry. The user sits at a m achine equipped with a typewriter keyboard and an electron ic screen th at displays the data as it is entered directly into the com puter. Once the input is coded, prepared in a form the com puter can read, it is ready to be processed. Console opera tors (D.O.T. 213.382) examine the pro g ram m er’s instructions for p ro cessing th e in p u t, m ake sure the com puter has been loaded with the c o rre c t card s, m ag n etic tap es, or disks and then start the com puter. While it is running, they watch the machine, paying special attention to the error lights th at could signal a malfunction. If the com puter stops or one o f the lights goes on, operators must locate the problem and remove the faulty input materials. In some systems, m achines directly Some operators work evenings or night shifts because computers are used 24 hours a day. connected to the com puter translate output into the form desired by the program m er. In others, high-speed printers o r converters run by auxilia ry equipm ent operators—high-speed printer operators (D .O .T. 213.382) and co n v erter operators (D .O .T . 213.382)—perform this function. Frequently, d ata on punched cards, magnetic tape, or disks are kept for future use. Tape librarians (D.O.T. 223.387) classify and cata log this m aterial and m aintain files o f current and previous versions of p ro gram s, listings, and te st d ata. In smaller organizations, librarians may do some keypunching as well as co ordinate activities between the p ro grammer and the operations d epart ment. Places of Employment About 565,000 persons worked as console, auxiliary equipm ent, and keypunch operators in 1976. Although workers in these occupa tions are em ployed in almost every industry, most work in m anufactur ing firms, wholesale and retail trade establishm ents, banks, and govern ment agencies. Many com puter and p e r ip h e ra l e q u ip m e n t o p e r a to rs work for insurance com panies and firms th a t provide data processing services for a fee. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In firms that have just installed a new com puter system, tabulating and bookkeeping m achine operators may be transferred to jobs as keypunch or auxiliary equipm ent operators, or console operators. Most often, how ever, employers recruit workers from the outside. Some organizations train typists to o p e ra te k ey p u n c h m a chines, but most seek workers who already have this skill. Many high schools, public and private vocation al schools, private com puter schools, and business schools and colleges of fer training in com puter operating skills. Y oung m en and w om en in military service also can learn valu able skills in com puter operations. In addition, a growing num ber of busi ness firms across the country hold weekend seminars on data process ing for high school students. Employers in private industry usu ally require applicants to have a high school education, and many prefer console operators to have some col lege training, especially in data p ro cessing. The Federal G overnm ent re quires a high school diploma, unless applicants have had specialized train ing or experience. Many employers test applicants to determ ine their ap titude for com puter work, particular ly their ability to reason logically. Keypunch operators and other data entry personnel often are tested for their ability to work quickly and ac curately. Beginners usually are trained on the job. The length of training needed varies—auxiliary equipm ent operators can learn their jobs in a few weeks, but console operators re quire several months o f training be cause they must becom e sufficiently fam iliar with the co m puter eq u ip m ent to be able to trace the causes of failures. Keypunch and auxiliary equipm ent operators should be able to work under close supervision as part o f a team. They also must like working with m achines and not becom e easily bored by repetitious tasks. Console o p e ra to rs m ust be capable o f in d e p e n d e n t ju d g m e n t, e s p e c ia lly when working without supervision on second and third shifts. Although advancem ent opportuni tie s fo r k e y p u n c h an d a u x iliary eq u ip m en t o p e ra to rs are lim ited , prom otion to a supervisory position is possible after several years on the job. With additional training, often including college study, a few ad vance to jobs as console operators. Console operators also may be prom oted to supervisory positions, or to jobs that combine supervision and console operation. Through on-thejob-experience and additional train ing, some console operators advance to jobs as program mers. Employment Outlook Changes in data processing tech nology will have differing effects on c o m p u te r o p e ra tin g o c c u p a tio n s over the next decade. Em ploym ent o f console and peripheral equipm ent operators is expected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations while em ploym ent o f keypunch op erators should continue the decline 113 COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Sources of Additional Information The discovery of new ways to prepare and enter data into computers has contributed to the growing need for peripheral equipment operators, but has caused demand for keypunch operators to decline Further inform ation on data p ro cessing careers is available from: American Federation of Information Process ing Societies, 210 Summit Ave., Montvale, N.J. 07645. Advances in technology create some jobs and eliminate others 400 Peripheral ...... equipment operators (in thousands) PROGRAMMERS (D.O.T. 020.188) Nature of the Work oRH 1965 1970 1975 1985 Source: Bureau o f Labor Statistics of recent years. R ecent advances in m iniaturizing circuits have enabled m an u factu rers to red uce both the size and the cost of com puter com po nents. As this technology develops, a continued expansion in the use o f com puters is expected, especially by sm all businesses. E m ploym ent o f console and perip h eral equipm ent operators in data processing service firms may grow less rapidly than in the past as more small firms install th e ir own c o m p u ter system s, but overall dem and for these w orkers should remain strong. This same technology will further reduce dem and for keypunch opera tors. The prim ary reason for this de cline is the increased use of com put er term inals. As d irec t data entry techniques becom e m ore efficient, the im portance of punched cards as a form o f input will diminish. Despite the anticipated decline in em ploy ment, several thousand openings will occur each year as workers die, re tire, or transfer out o f the occupa tion. Earnings and Working Conditions Average weekly earnings of key punch operator trainees in private in dustry ranged from $120 to $140 in 1976, according to surveys conduct ed in urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and firms engaged in research on data processing occupa tions. Lead operators earned from $150 to $180 weekly. Average weekly earnings o f begin ning co n so le o p e ra to rs av erag ed ab o u t $150. E xperienced w orkers earned from $205 to $215, and lead operators earned from $230 to $260 weekly. The average weekly earnings for tape librarians in 1976 was $160. In the Federal G overnm ent, con sole operators and keypunch opera tors without work experience started at $126 a w eek, and the average weekly salary was $245 for console operators and $160 for keypunch op erators. T hroughout the economy in 1976, c o n so le o p e r a to rs e a rn e d slightly m ore and keypunch o pera tors earned slightly less than average earnings for all nonsupervisory w ork ers in private industry, except farm ing. Because electronic com puters m ust be operated at carefully co n trolled tem peratures, operators work in air-conditioned rooms. One disad vantage, however, is the high noise level g en erated by som e auxiliary equipm ent. Some console and auxil iary equipm ent operators work eve ning or night shifts because many o r ganizations use their com puter 24 hours a day. Tape librarians usually work only day shifts. Com puters can process masses of inform ation rapidly and accurately, but only if they are given step-by-step instructions to follow. Because the m achines c a n n o t th in k for th e m selves, com puter program m ers must write detailed instructions called p ro grams that list in a logical order the steps the m achine m ust follow to solve a problem. Program m ers usually work from problem descriptions prep ared by systems analysts who have examined th e problem and d e te rm in e d th e steps necessary to achieve the de sired results. (Systems analysts are described elsew here in the Hand book.) In organizations that do not em ploy system s analysts, w orkers called program mer-analysts may be responsible for both systems analysis and programming. Once this analysis has b een c o m p leted , a sp ec ia list called an applications program m er writes detailed instructions for p ro cessing the data, using one of the lan guages developed especially for com puters. Programs vary with the type of problem to be solved. For example, the m ath em atica l ca lcu latio n s in volved in payroll accounting proce dures are different from those re quired to determ ine the flight path of a space probe. A business applica tio n s p ro g ram m e r d eveloping in s tru c tio n s fo r b illin g c u s to m e rs would first decide w hat com pany records the com puter would need and then draw a flow chart or dia gram showing the steps the com puter must follow to obtain old balances, add new charges, calculate finance charges, and deduct paym ents before 114 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tific operations. A different type of specialist, the systems program m er, m aintains the general instructio n s (called software) that control the op eration o f the entire com puter sys tem. These workers m ake changes in these sets of instructions that d eter mine how the com puter’s resources are to be allotted am ong the various jobs it has been given. Because of th eir know ledge o f operating sys tem s, system s program m ers often help applications program m ers de term ine the source o f problem s with their programs. Places of Employment In 1976, about 230,000 persons worked as com puter program m ers. Most were employed by m anufactur ing firms, banks and insurance com panies, d ata processing service o r g a n iz a tio n s , an d g o v e rn m e n t agencies. Programm ers usually work in large firms that need and can afford exten sive com puter systems. Small firms generally require com puters only for payroll or billing purposes and fre quently pay data processing service organizations to do this work. Sys tem s program m ers usually work in re se a rc h o rg a n iz atio n s, c o m p u ter m anufacturing firms, and large com puter centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Computer programmers write instructions that list the steps the computer must take to solve a problem. determining a custom er’s bill. Using th e flow c h a rt, th e p ro g ra m m e r co d es th e ac tu a l in stru ctio n s the com puter will follow. The program m er then checks the operation o f the program to be sure the instructions are correct and will produce the desired information. This check is called “ debugging.” The program m er tries a sample of the data with the program and re views the results to see if any errors are made. If errors occur, the pro gram m u s t be c h a n g e d an d r e checked until it produces the correct results. Finally, an instruction sheet is p re pared for the com puter operator who will run the program. (The work o f com puter operators is described in the statem ent on C om puter O perat ing Personnel.) Although simple program s can be written in a few days, programs that use complex m athem atical formulas or many data files may require m ore than a year of work. In such cases, several program m ers may work to gether u n d er an experienced p ro gram m er’s supervision. A pplications program m ers usually specialize in either business or scien There are no universal training re quirem ents for progam m ers because em p lo y ers’ needs vary. M ost p ro gramm ers are college graduates; o th ers have tak en special courses in co m puter program m ing to sup p le m ent their experience in fields such as accounting or inventory control. Employers using com puters for scientific or engineering applications prefer college graduates with degrees in com puter science, m athem atics, engineering, or the physical sciences. G raduate degrees are required for som e jobs. Very few scientific o r ganizations are interested in appli cants with no college training. Although some em ployers who use com puters for business applications do not require college degrees, they prefer applicants who have had col lege courses in data processing, ac counting, and business adm inistra 115 COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS tion. Occasionally, workers who are experienced in com puter operation or payroll accounting but have no college training are prom oted to pro gramming jobs; however, they need additional data processing courses to become fully qualified programmers. Prior work experience is not essential for a job as a program m er; in fact, about half o f all entrants to the occu pation have no significant work expe rience. C om puter programming is taught at public and private vocational schools, colleges, and universities. Instruction ranges from introductory home study courses to advanced courses at the graduate level. High schools in many parts of the country also offer courses in com puter pro gramming. In hiring program m ers, employers look for people who can think logi cally and are capable o f exacting analytical work. The job calls for pa tience, persistence, and the ability to work with extrem e accuracy even under pressure. Ingenuity and imagi n atio n are p artic u la rly im p o rtan t when program m ers m ust find new ways to solve a problem. Beginning applications program mers usually spend their first weeks on the job attending training classes. A fter this initial in stru ctio n , they work on simple assignm ents while completing further specialized train ing programs. Program m ers general ly must spend at least several m onths working under close supervision be fore they can handle all aspects of their job. Because o f rapidly chang ing technology, program m ers must co n tin u e th e ir train in g by taking courses offered by th eir em ployer and softw are vendors. F or skilled workers, the prospects for further ad vancem ent are good. In large organi zations, they may be prom oted to lead program m ers and be given su pervisory responsibilties. Some appli cations program m ers advance to systems p r o g r a m m i n g . Both applications program m ers and sys tems program m ers often are prom ot ed to the more dem anding occupa tion o f systems analyst. Employment Outlook Employment of program m ers is expected to grow faster than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as com puter usage ex pands, particularly in firms providing ac co u n tin g and business m an ag e m ent services and organizations in volved in research and developm ent. In addition to job openings resulting from growth of the occupation, sev eral th o u san d openings will arise each year from the need to replace w orkers who leave the occupation. Because many program m ers are rela tively young, few openings will result from death s o r retirem ents. H ow ever, many vacancies will be created as experienced workers transfer into jobs as systems analysts. The dem and for applications p ro grammers will increase as many p ro cesses once done by hand are auto m ated, but em ploym ent will not grow as rapidly as in the past for several reasons. Improved software, such as utility program s that can be used by other than data processing personnel will simplify or eliminate some p ro gramming tasks. Also, em ploym ent of program m ers in d ata processing firms is not expected to rise as fast as in recent years. Technology has re duced both the size and cost of com puter hardw are, bringing a com puter system within reach of small busi nesses. As m ore small firms install their own com puter, rather than rely on a data processing firm, em ploy m ent growth in these data processing firms may slow somewhat. Demand throughout the econom y, however, should remain strong over the next decade. Prospects should be bright est for college graduates who have had com puter-related courses, p ar ticularly for those with a m ajor in com puter science or a related field. G raduates of 2-year program s in data processing technologies also should find am ple opportunities, although generally limited to business applica tions. ly e a rn m o re th a n a p p lic a tio n s program m ers. For example, experi enced system s program m ers av er aged about $360 a week com pared to $310 for applications program mers. Average salaries for lead program mers were $385 and $355, respec tively. In general, program m ers earn about twice as much as average earn ings of all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Civil Service, the entrance salary for persons with a college degree was about $180 a week in 1977. Salaries for Federal Governm ent program m ers at all lev els are generally com parable to those in private industry. Program m ers working in the North and W est earned som ewhat more than those working in the South. Those working for data processing services and public utilities had higher earnings than program m ers employed in banks, advertising, or educational institutions. Programm ers work about 40 hours a week, but their hours are not al ways from 9 to 5. Once or twice a week a program m er may report early or work late to use the com puter when it is available. Occasionally, they work on weekends or are tele phoned to advise com puter operators working a second or third shift. Sources of Additional Information A d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e occupation of program m er is avail able from: American Federation of Information Process ing Societies, 210 Summit Ave., Montvale, N.J. 07645. Association for Computing Machinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. Earnings and Working Conditions SYSTEMS ANALYSTS Average weekly earnings of p ro gramm er trainees in private industry ranged from $190 to $200 in 1976, according to surveys conducted in urban areas by the Bureau o f Labor Statistics and firms engaged in re search on data processing occupa tions. Systems program m ers general (D.O.T. 003.187, 012.168, 020.081 and 020.088) Nature of the Work Many essential business functions and scientific research projects de pend on systems analysts to plan effi- 116 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement System analysts devising a new system. cient m ethods of processing data and handling the results. Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the data processing problem with managers or specialists to determ ine the exact na ture of the problem and to bre4akit down into its com ponent p4artsJf a new inventory system is desired, for example, systems analysts m ust de term ine what new data need to be collected, the equipm ent needed for com putation, and the steps to be fol lowed in processing the information. Analysts use various techniques, such as co st accounting, sampling, and m athem atical m odel building to analyze a problem and devise a new system. Once a system has been de veloped, they prepare charts and dia grams th at describe its operation in term s th at m anagers o r custom ers can understand. They also may p re pare a cost-benefit analysis to help the client decide w hether the p ro posed system is satisfactory. If the system is accepted, systems analysts translate the logical require ments o f the system into the capabili ties o f the com puter m achinery or “ h a r d w a r e .” T h ey also p re p a re specifications for p rogram m ers to follow and work with them to “ de bug,” or elim inate errors from the system. (The job o f the com puter program m er is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) The problem s systems analysts must solve range from monitoring nuclear fission in a pow erplant to forecasting sales for an appliance m anufacturing firm. Because the work is so varied and complex, ana lysts specialize in either business or scientific and engineering applica tions. Some analysts improve systems al ready in use by developing b etter procedures or adapting the system to handle additional types of data. O th ers do research, called advanced sys tems design, to devise new m ethods of systems analysis. Places of Employment About 160,000 persons worked as systems analysts in 1976. Em ploy m ent of these workers is concentrat ed in two geographic regions—m ore than one-third o f the total are em ployed in the M idw est and ab o u t one-fourth work in the northeastern portion o f the U nited States. M ost system s analysts w orked in urban areas for m anufacturing firms, banks, insurance com panies, and data p ro cessing service organizations. In ad dition, large num bers w orked fo r wholesale and retail businesses and governm ent agencies. There is no universally acceptable way o f preparing for a job as a sys tem s an aly st b e c a u se em p lo y ee s’ p re fe re n c e s d ep e n d on tjie w ork being done. However, college gradu ates generally are sought for these jobs, and for some o f the m ore com plex jobs, persons with graduate d e grees are preferred. Employers usu ally want analysts with a background in accounting, business m anagem ent, or econom ics for work in a business environm ent while a background in the physical sciences, m athem atics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organiza tions. A growing num ber o f em ploy ers seek applicants with a degree in com puter science, inform ation sci ence, or data processing. Regardless o f college m ajor, m ost em ployers look for people who are familiar with programming languages. Courses in com puter concepts, systems analysis, and d ata retrieval techniques offer good preparation for a job in this field. P rior work experience is im por tant. Nearly half of all persons en ter ing this occupation have transferred from o th er occupations, especially fro m c o m p u te r p ro g ra m m e r. In many industries, all systems analysts begin as program m ers and are p ro m oted to analyst positions after gain ing experience. Systems analysts m ust be able to think logically and should like w ork ing with ideas. The ability to concen trate and pay close attention to de tails also is im portant. Although m ost systems analysts work independently, they som etim es work in team s on large projects. They m ust be able to com m unicate effectively with techni cal personnel such as program m ers as well as with clients who have no com puter background. In order to advance, systems ana lysts m ust continue their technical education. T echnological advances come so rapidly in the com puter field that continuous study is necessary to keep o n e’s skills up to date. Training usually takes the form of 1-and 2week courses offered by em ployers and software vendors. 117 COMPUTER AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS An indication of experience and professional com petence is the C er tificate in D ata Processing (C D P). This designation is conferred by the Institute for C ertification of C om put er P ro fessio n als u p o n c a n d id a tes who have com pleted 5 years’ experi ence and passed a five-part examina tion. In large data processing d ep a rt ments, persons who begin as junior systems analysts may be prom oted to senior or lead systems analysts after several years of experience. Systems analysts who show leadership ability also can advance to jobs as managers of systems analysis or data processing departm ents. Employment Outlook Employment o f systems analysts is expected to grow faster than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as com puter usage ex p an d s, p artic u la rly in acco u n tin g firms and organizations engaged in research and developm ent. In addi tion to opportunities that will result from growth, some openings will oc cur as systems analysts advance to m anagerial positions or enter other occupations. Because many of these workers are relatively young, few po sitions will result from retirem ent or death. The dem and for systems analysts is expected to rise as com puter capa bilities are increased and com puters are used to solve problem s in a larger variety o f areas. Sophisticated ac counting system s, telecom m unica tions networks, and complex m athe m atical system s used in scientific research are exam ples o f new ap proaches in problem -solving. Over the next decade, we can expect sys tem s analysts to be harnessing the com puter’s resources to solve prob lems we have not yet recognized. A d vances in technology that have dras tically reduced the size and cost of com puter hardware will have differ ing effects on em ploym ent of systems analysts. Em ploym ent in data p ro cessing firms may not grow as rapidly as in recent years as m ore small busi nesses install th eir own co m p u ter rather than rely on a data processing service. This will be offset, however, by a rising dem and for analysts to design system s especially for th e small com puter and geared specifi cally for the problem s of small firms. The outlook for graduates o f com puter-related curriculum s should be e x c ellen t. C ollege g ra d u ates who have, had courses in com puter p ro gramming, systems analysis, and o th er data processing areas should also find m any o p p o rtu n itie s. P ersons without a college degree and college graduates unfamiliar with data p ro cessing may face com petition from the large n u m b er o f ex p erien ced workers seeking jobs as systems ana lysts. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings for beginning systems analysts in private industry averaged $250 a week in 1976, according to surveys conducted in urban areas by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and private firms engaged in research on com puter occupations. Experienced workers earned from $340 to $380, and lead systems analysts earned from $385 to $400 weekly. Overall, systems analysts earn well over twice as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal G overnm ent, the entrance salary for recent college graduates was about $180 a week in 1977. Salaries for systems analysts at all levels of responsibility generally are com parable to those in private industry. Systems analysts working in the North and W est earned somewhat more than those in the South and generally their earnings were greater in data processing service firms or in heavy m anufacturing than in insur ance com panies or educational insti tutions. Systems analysts usually work about 40 hours a w eek—the same as other professional and office w ork ers. Unlike many com puter o p era tors, system s analysts are n o t as signed to evening o r night shifts. O ccasionally, how ever, evening or weekend work may be necessary to com plete emergency projects. Sources of Additional information Further inform ation about the oc cupation of systems analyst is avail able from: American Federation of Information Process ing Societies, 210 Summit Ave., Montvale, N.J. 07645. Association for Systems Management, 24587 Bagley Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44138. Inform ation about the C ertificate in D ata Processing is available from: The Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals, 35 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 2828, Chicago, 111. 60601. BANKING OCCUPATIONS Com mercial banks constitute one of the fastest growing industries in our economy. To keep pace with re quirem ents of the com m unity, they offer a variety o f services: Checking, savings, and cred it card accounts, co m m erical and c o n su m er loans, trust fund m anagem ent, and financial counseling. Banks em ploy highly specialized techniques and equipm ent in very detailed work. C onsequently, m ost employees gain experience and skill th ro u g h o n -th e -jo b tra in in g . A l though banks usually seek college graduates for officer trainee jobs, many openings exist for high school graduates in other bank positions. Bank employees generally have good opportunities for advancem ent. They can qualify for b etter positions by enrolling in programs offered by the A m e ric a n B a n k e rs A s s o c ia tio n , A m erican Institute o f Banking, or State banking associations, or by tak ing college courses in finance and business. B ank e m p lo y e e s sh o u ld en jo y working with num bers and be able to p erfo rm d e ta ile d w ork. P erso n a l qualifications such as honesty and the ability to com m unicate with cus tom ers are im portant. This section discusses three cate g o rie s o f b a n k in g o c c u p a tio n s : Clerks, officers and m anagers, and tellers. BANK CLERKS (D.O.T. 209.388, 210.388, 215.388 217.388, 219.388 and .488) Nature of the Work All organizations need clerks to handle paperw ork. Because of the specialized nature of banking, some clerical duties in banks differ from those o f other businesses. (S ecre ta rie s, ty p ists, re c e p tio n is ts , file clerks, and o th e r clerical w orkers whose jo b s are m uch the same in Many employment opportunities are expected in banking occupations Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in thousands) Bank clerks -* Mmi Bank officers Bank tellers 40 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 118for FRASER Digitized Growth B 60 Replacement banks as in other businesses are dis cussed in greater detail elsewhere in the Handbook.) In a small bank, one clerk may do several jobs, such as sorting checks, totaling debit and credit slips, and preparing monthly statem ents for de positors. In a large bank, however, each clerk usually specializes and frequently has a special job title, as well. Many bank clerks use office m a chines unique to banking. C lerks known as sorters (D.O.T. 219.388) separate docum ents—checks, depos it slips, and other item s—into differ e n t g ro u p s an d ta b u la te ea c h “ batch” so they may be charged to the proper accounts. Often clerks use canceling and adding m achines in their work. Proof machine operators (D .O .T . 2 1 7 .3 8 8 ) use e q u ip m en t that sorts checks and deposit slips, adds their am ounts, and records the tabulations. Bookkeeping workers are the larg est single group of bank clerks. Book keeping machine operators (D .O .T. 2 1 5 .3 8 8 ) m ay use c o n v e n tio n a l bookkeeping m achines or electronic posting m achines to record financial transactions. In banks, these workers are som etim es know n as a c co u n t clerks, posting m achine operators, or recording clerks. T he job titles of bookkeepers (D.O.T. 210.388) som e times relate to the kinds of records they k eep —for example, Christmas club b o o k k e e p e r, d isco u n t b o o k keeper, interest-accrual bookkeeper, tru st b o o k k eep er, and com m odity loan clerk. Thousands o f bookkeeping a n d a c c o u n tin g c le r k s ( D .O .T . 219.488) also do routine typing, cal culating, and posting. Included in this group are reconcilem ent clerks, who process statem ents from other banks to aid the auditing of accounts, and trust investm ent clerks, who post the daily investm ent transactions of bank customers. O ther clerical em ployees whose duties and job titles are unique to banking include country collection clerks (D.O.T. 219.388), who sort thousands of pieces o f mail daily and determ ine which items m ust be held at the main office and which should be routed to branch banks for collec tion. Also em ployed are transit clerks (D.O.T. 217.388), who sort checks BANKING OCCUPATIONS 119 Clerks in large banks are usually assigned specialized duties. and drafts on other banks, list and total the am ounts involved, and pre pare docum ents to be mailed for col lectio n ; exchange clerks (D .O .T . 219.388), who service foreign depos it accounts and determ ine charges for cashing or handling checks drawn against such accounts; interest clerks (D.O.T. 219.388), who keep records on interest-bearing items that are due to or from the bank; and mortgage clerks (D .O .T. 209.388), who type legal papers dealing with real estate upon which money has been loaned, and m aintain records relating to tax es and insurance on these properties. Electronic data-processing has created several new clerical occupa tions unique to banking. These in clude the electro n ic re ad er-so rter operator who runs electronic check sorting equipm ent; the check inscriber or encoder who operates machines th at p rint inform ation in m agnetic ink on checks and o ther docum ents for m achine reading; and the control clerk who keeps track o f the large volume o f docum ents flowing in and out o f the com puter division. O ther occupations include card-tape con verter o p erator, coding clerk, con sole operator, data typist, data con v e rtin g m a c h in e o p e r a to r , d a ta examination clerk, high speed printer operator, tape librarian, teletype op erator, and verifier operator. Banks em ployed approxim ately 456,000 clerical workers in 1976; almost one-fifth were bookkeepers; one-fourth were stenographers, typ ists or secretaries; and almost onefifth were office m achine operators. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduation is consid ered adequate preparation for m ost beginning c lerical jo b s in b anks. C o u rses in b o o k k e e p in g , typ in g , business arithm etic, and office m a chine operation are desirable. Appli cants may be given brief tests to de term ine their ability to work rapidly and accurately, and to com m unicate effectively with others. They should be able to work under close supervi sion as part o f a team. Beginners often are hired as file clerks, keypunch operators, transit clerks, or clerk-typists. Some are trained by the bank to operate var ious office machines. A few start as messengers. A clerk in a routine job may be prom oted to a clerical supervisory position, to teller or credit analyst, and eventually to senior supervisor. A dvancem ent to a bank officer posi tion is a possibility for outstanding clerks who have had college training or have taken specialized courses in banking. Additional education—p ar tic u la rly c o u rse s o ffe re d by th e Am erican Institute of Banking—may help w orkers advance. (See sta te m ent on the banking industry for in form ation on the Institute’s educa t i o n a l p r o g r a m . ) In g e n e r a l , prom otion depends upon the w ork e r’s perform ance, qualifications, and m otivation as well as the available openings. Employment Outlook Em ployment of bank clerks is ex pected to grow faster than the aver- Weekly salary ranges for clerical occupations in banking, 1976 Bookkeeper File clerk Keypunch operator Senior keypunch operator Proof machine operator Safe deposit clerk Secretary General stenographer Senior stenographer $100 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics $120 $140 $160 $180 120 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK age for o th er occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to oppor tunities stemming from em ploym ent growth, many jobs will open up from the need to replace the large num ber of clerks who leave their jobs each year. As a result, banking should continue to be a good source of em ploym ent opportunities for clerical workers. Jobs for clerks will arise as estab lished banks expand th eir services and new banks and branches open. Future em ploym ent growth will dif fer m arkedly among individual cleri cal occupations. Nearly all banks use electronic equipm ent th at lessens de mand for workers such as check sort ers and bookkeeping m achine opera to rs . M o re o v e r, th e n e e d fo r keypunch operators is declining as banks shift from punched card- to m agnetic tape-based com puter sys tems. No evidence suggests, however, that new technologies will displace large num bers o f workers. Overall, the b anking industry and em ploy m ent of clerks in the banking indus try are expected to grow. W orkers whose duties are given to a m achine most likely will be reassigned to new jobs created by the change or to du ties related to new banking services. BANK OFFICERS AND MANAGERS (D.O.T. 186.118, .138, .168, and .288; 161.118, 189.118 and .168) Nature of the Work Practically every bank has a pres ident who directs operations; one or m ore vice presidents who act as gen eral m anagers or who are in charge of bank departm ents such as trust o r credit; and a com ptroller or cashier who, unlike cashiers in stores and other businesses, is an executive offi cer generally responsible for all bank property. Large banks also may have treasurers and other senior officers, as well as junior officers, to supervise the various sections within different departm ents. Banks em ployed over 300,000 officers and m anagers in 1976. Bank officers m ake decisions within a fram ework o f policy set by the board of directors and existing laws and regulations. They m ust have a broad knowledge o f business activi ties to relate to the operations o f their departm ent. For example, loan officers evaluate the credit and col lateral of individuals and businesses applying for a loan. Similarly, trust officers m ust understand each ac co u n t before they invest funds to support families, send young people to college, or pay retirem en t p en sions. Besides supervising financial services, officers advise individuals and businesses and p a rtic ip a te in com m unity projects. Because banks offer many servic es, a wide choice of careers is avail able to workers who specialize. Loan officers may handle install m ent, com m ercial, real estate, or ag ricultural loans. To evaluate loan ap plications properly, officers need to be familiar with econom ics, produc tio n , d istrib u tio n , m erch an d isin g , and com m ercial law. Also, they need to know business o p e ra tio n s and should be able to analyze an indus try ’s financial statem ents. Bank officers in trust m anagem ent require knowledge o f financial plan ning and investm ent for investm ent research and for estate and trust ad m inistration. O perations officers plan, coordi nate, and control the work flow, up date systems, and strive for adminis trative efficiency. C areers in bank o p erations include electronic d ata processing m anager and other posi tions involving internal and custom er services. Earnings Beginning salaries for clerical workers depend upon the w orker’s actual position and length o f experi ence, as well as the size and location of the bank. For reference, an inex perienced typist usually earned be tween $95 and $120 a week in 1976. The accom panying chart indicates salary ranges for various clerical occupations in banking in 1976. In general, financial institutions have paid clerical workers lower salaries than have other industrial groups, such as wholesale trade or m anufac turing. In 1973, clerical salaries in banking ran below the average for all in d u strie s; by 1976 th is re la tiv e standing had not im proved. See the statem ent on the banking industry for additional inform ation. A loan officer evaluates an individual’s credit rating before approving a loan. 121 BANKING OCCUPATIONS A correspondent bank officer is responsible for relations with other banks; a branch m anager, for all functions o f a branch office; and an international officer, for advising custom ers with financial dealings abroad. A working knowledge of a foreign country’s financial system, trade relations, and econom ic condi tions is beneficial to those interested in international banking. O ther career fields for bank offi cers are auditing, econom ics, person nel adm inistration, public relations, and operations research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement banks th at have special training p ro grams, prom otions may occur m ore quickly. For a senior officer position, however, an employee usually needs many years o f experience. A lthough experience, ability, and leadership are em phasized for p ro m otion, advancem ent may be accel erated by special study. The A m eri can B a n k e rs A sso c ia tio n (A B A ) offers courses, publications, and o th er training aids to officers on every phase of banking. The Am erican In stitute o f B anking, an arm o f the ABA, has long filled the same educa tional need among bank support p er sonnel. (S ee the statem ent on the banking industry elsew here in the Handbook for m ore inform ation on these and o th er training program s sponsored by universities and local bankers’ associations.) Bank officer and m anagem ent po sitions generally are filled by m an agem ent trainees, and occasionally by p ro m o tin g o u ts ta n d in g b an k clerks or tellers. College graduation usually is required for m anagem ent Employment Outlook trainees. A business adm inistration Through the m id-1980’s, em ploy major in finance or a liberal arts cur riculum including accounting, eco m ent of bank officers is expected to nom ics, com m ercial law, political increase faster than the average for science, and statistics serves as excel all occupations. Rising costs due to lent preparation for officer trainee expanded banking services and the positions. In fact, a M aster of Busi increasing dependence on com puters ness Adm inistration (M BA) in addi will require m ore officers to provide tion to a social science b ach elo r’s sound m an ag e m en t and effective degree com es closest to the “ ideal” quality control. O pportunities also college education. However, banks will arise as ex p e rien ce d officers do hire people with diverse back- leave th eir jobs. College graduates gounds such as chem ical engineer who m eet the standards for m anage ing, nuclear physics, and forestry to m ent trainees should find good o p m eet the needs o f com plex, high- portunities for entry positions. tech n o lo g y in d u stries w ith w hich they deal. Valuable experience may Earnings be gained through sum m er employ Officer trainees at the bachelor’s m ent programs. A m anagem ent or officer trainee level generally earned between $800 may spend a year or two learning the and $900 a m onth in 1976. Those various banking areas before choos with an M.A. or M.S. started at b e ing a perm anent position. This prac tween $ 1,000 and $ 1,200 a m onth. A tice is common but not universal. A M aster o f Business A dm inistration, bank may hire an applicant with spe however, appears to be worth m ore cific skills for a position that is clear in salary terms: graduates with an MBA were offered starting salaries of ly defined at the outset. Persons interested in becoming $1,300 to $1,400 a m onth in 1976. Salaries o f senior bank officers bank officers should like to work in d ep en d en tly and to analyze d e may be several times as m uch as tailed inform ation. They also need starting salaries. The actual salary tact and good judgm ent to counsel level depends upon the particular custom ers and supervise employees. position and the size and location o f A dvancem ent to an officer or the bank. For officers, as well as for m anagem ent position may come other bank employees, earnings are slowly in small banks where the num likely to be lower in small towns than Digitized FRASER berforof positions is limited. In large in big cities. See the statem ent on the banking industry elsewhere in the Handbook for additional inform ation on bank ing occupations. BANK TELLERS (D.O.T. 212.368) Nature of the Work Most bank custom ers have contact with the teller, the man or woman behind the window who cashes checks and processes deposits or withdrawals. Many banks employ one or two “ all-purpose” tellers; larger banks employ tellers in m ore specialized functions. One teller, for example, sells saving bonds; another accepts paym ent for custom ers’ util ity bills. A third receives deposits for C h ristm a s clu b a c c o u n ts ; and a fourth keeps records and perform s the necessary paperw ork for custom er loans. Still other tellers handle f o r e ig n c u r r e n c ie s , s e ll t r a v e l e r s ’ checks, or com pute interest on sav ings accounts. Com mercial tellers, the m ost com m on, cash cu sto m ers’ checks and h an d le d ep o sits and w ith d raw als from checking and savings accounts. Before cashing a check, the teller must see that the written and num eri cal am ounts agree, verify the identity o f the person to receive paym ent, and be certain that the payee’s ac count has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller m ust carefully count out the cash to avoid errors. Often a custom er withdraws money in th e form o f a c a sh ie r’s ch eck , which the teller types up and verifies. W hen accepting a deposit, the teller checks the accuracy o f the deposit slip and enters the total in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use m achines to m ake change and total deposits. In some banks, tellers use com puter term inals to record de p o sits an d w ith d ra w a ls In o th e r banks, they w rite deposit receipts and passbook entries by hand. Tellers’ duties begin before and continue after banking hours. A teller begins the day by receiving and counting an am ount o f working cash OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK for his or her drawer; this am ount is verified by a supervisor, usually the head teller. The tellers use this cash for paym ents during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. After banking hours, tellers count cash on hand, list the curren cy-received tickets on a settlem ent sh eet, and b alan ce th e d ay 's a c counts. They also sort checks and deposit slips. Paying and receiving tellers may supervise one clerk or more. A teller generally works 37 to 40 hours per week. For many young people just out of school, working as a teller is their first job. Because the job involves repetitive work with great attention to detail and long periods o f time on one’s feet, this occupation does not suit some people. The high rate of turnover suggests that, after a couple of years’ work, many tellers seek other positions. A bout 310,000 tellers were em ployed in 1976. A large n u m b er worked p art time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring tellers, banks seek people with basic qualities: clerical skills, friendliness, attentiveness. Although not required, a high school diploma is generally preferred. M aturity, neatness, tact, and courtesy are im portant because custom ers deal with tellers far m ore frequently than with other bank employees. Although tell ers work independently, their record keeping is closely supervised. They work with detail and are confined to a small work area. New tellers usually observe experi enced workers for a few days before doing the work themselves. Training may last from a few days to 3 weeks or longer. Beginners usually start as com m ercial tellers; in large banks which have a separate savings teller’s “ cage,” they may start as savings tell ers. Often banks simultaneously train tellers for other clerical duties. T h e c o n d itio n s g o v e rn in g a d vancem ent of tellers are m uch the same as those for clerks. The teller interested in prom otion has access to courses and o ther sources of addi tional training. Such self-im prove m ent efforts, coupled with satisfac tory perform ance on the job, would make a teller an attractive candidate for prom otion. After gaining experi ence, a teller in a large bank may advance to head teller; those who have had some college or specialized training offered by the banking in dustry may be prom oted to an offi cer’s or m anagerial position. (See the statem ent on the banking industry for inform ation about the education al program s of the Am erican Insti tute of Banking.) Employment Outlook The num ber of bank tellers is ex pected to increase faster than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as banks expand services. T housands o f openings will o ccur each year as a result o f em ploym ent growth and the need to replace tell ers who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. The relatively high replacem ent needs in this occupation are e x p e cted to be an im p o rta n t source o f job opportunities. Q uali fied applicants should find good em ploym ent prospects. A lthough in cre ased use o f m e chanical and electronic equipm ent may elim inate some routine duties and speed other work, total em ploy m ent is not likely to be adversely af fected. Earnings Most beginning tellers earned be tween $95 and $120 a week in 1976. Experienced tellers generally earned between $125 and $175 a week. The a c tu a l sa la ry d e p e n d s u p o n th e length o f service, the location and size of the bank, and the w orker’s specific duties. Most savings tellers, for exam ple, earned between $125 and $145 a week in 1976, while note tellers usually earned between $150 and $170 a week. In general, the greater the range of responsibilities the teller perform s, the higher his or her salary. See the statem ent on the banking industry elsewhere in the Handbook for additional inform ation on this and other banking occupations. An increasing number of tellers will be needed to work part time. INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS Insurance protection is an integral part of our lives. It frees policyhold ers and their beneficiaries from wor ry about the enormous financial bur dens th a t so m etim es re su lt from death, illness, or other losses. Busi nesses could not operate, nor could most people buy hom es or other m a jor items, without the assurance of protection from sudden disaster. In surance w orkers ad ap t policies to m eet changing needs, decide which applications can be accepted and es tablish premium rates on the policies, and investigate and settle claims. A college degree is increasingly im p o rta n t for m an agerial, p ro fes sional, and sales jobs in insurance, although some positions are open to high school graduates who have ap p ro p r ia te e x p e rie n c e . In su ra n c e workers in clerical positions need a high school diploma. Regardless of th eir p revious train in g , insurance workers m ust continually learn while on the job. Many professional associ ations sponsor courses in all phases of insurance work; em ployees are en couraged to participate to prepare th em selv es fo r m o re re sp o n sib le jobs. This section describes three insur ance occupations: actuaries, claim rep resen ta tiv e s, and underw riters. (Statem ents on the insurance indus try and insurance agents and brokers are included elsewhere in the Hand book. ) pension plans that can be m aintained on a sound fin an cial basis. T hey assemble and analyze statistics to cal culate probabilities o f death, sick ness, injury, disability, unem ploy m ent, retirem ent, and property loss from accident, theft, fire, and other potential hazards. Actuaries use this inform ation to determ ine the expect ed insured loss. For example, they may c a lc u late how m any persons who are 21 years old today can be expected to live to age 65—the prob ability th at an insured person might die during this period is a risk to the co m p an y . T hey th e n c a lc u la te a price for assuming this risk that will be profitable to the com pany yet be co m p etitiv e w ith o th e r in su ran ce companies. Finally, they must m ake sure that the price charged for the insurance will enable the company to pay all claims and expenses as they occur. In the same m anner, the actu ary calculates premium rates and d e term ines policy co n tract provisions for each type of insurance offered. M ost actuaries specialize in either life and health insurance or property and liability (casualty) insurance; a growing num ber specialize in p en sion plans. To perform their duties effectively, actuaries must keep inform ed about general econom ic and social trends, and legislative, health, and other de velopm ents that may affect insurance p ra ctices. B ecause o f th e ir broad know ledge o f insurance, com pany actuaries may work on problems aris ing in th eir com pany’s investm ent, group underwriting, or pension plan ning departm ents. A ctuaries in ex ecutive positions help determ ine gen eral com pany policy. In th at role, they may be called upon to explain complex technical m atters to com pa ny executives, governm ent officials, policyholders, and the public. They may testify before public agencies on proposed legislation affecting the in surance business, for example, or ex plain intended changes in premium rates or contract provisions. A ctuaries who work for the F eder al G overnm ent usually deal with a particular insurance or pension p ro gram, such as social security or life insurance for veterans and mem bers o f the A rm ed Forces. Actuaries in State governm ent positions regulate insurance com panies, supervise the o p eratio n s o f S tate re tire m en t or pension systems, and work on prob lems connected with unem ploym ent insurance or w orkers’ com pensation. Consulting actuaries set up pension and welfare plans for private com pa- ACTUARIES (D.O.T. 020.188) Nature of the Work Why do young persons pay more for autom obile insurance than older persons? How much should an insur ance policy cost? Answers to these and similar questions are provided by actuaries who design insurance and 123 124 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK nies, unions, and governm ent agen cies. They calculate future benefits and determ ine the am ount of the an nual employer contribution. A ctuar ies w ho a re e n ro lle d u n d e r th e provisions of the Employee R etire ment Income Security Act of 1974 (E R IS A ) e v a lu a te th e se p en sio n plans and subm it reports certifying their financial soundness. Places of Employment A p p ro x im a te ly 9 ,0 0 0 p e rs o n s worked as actuaries in 1976. Four of every 10 actuaries worked in five m a jor cities—New Y ork, H artford, C hi cago, Philadelphia, and Boston. About two-thirds of all actuaries worked for private insurance com pa nies. A lm ost 90 p e rc e n t of these worked for life insurance companies; the rest worked for property and li ability (c asu alty ) co m panies. The num ber of actuaries employed by an insurance com pany depends on the volume of its business and the num ber and types of insurance policies it offers. Large com panies may employ over 100 actuaries on their staffs; others, generally sm aller com panies, may rely instead on consulting firms or rating bureaus (associations that supply a c tu a ria l d a ta to m em ber com panies). C onsulting firm s and rating bu reaus employ about one-fifth of all actuaries. O ther actuaries work for private organizations adm inistering in d e p e n d e n t p ension and w elfare plans or for Federal and State gov ern m en t agencies. A few teach in colleges and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A good educational background for a beginning job in a large life or casualty com pany is a bachelor’s d e gree with a major in m athem atics or statistics; a degree in actuarial sci ence is even better. Some com panies hire applicants with a m ajor in engi neering, econom ics, or business ad m inistration, provided they dem on s tra te a th o ro u g h fo u n d a tio n in calculus, probability, and statistics (2 0 -2 5 h o u r s ) . O th e r d e s ira b le courses are insurance law, econom ics, and accounting. Although only 25 colleges and universities offer a degree in actuarial science, several hundred schools offer a degree in m athem atics or statistics. A strong background in m athem at ics is essential for persons interested in a career as an actuary. O f equal im portance, however, is the need to pass while in school one or more of the examinations offered by profes sional societies. Three societies spon sor program s leading to full profes sional status in their speciality. The Society of Actuaries gives 9 actuarial examinations for the life and health in su ra n c e and p en sio n field, th e Casualty A ctuarial Society gives 10 examinations for the property and li ability field, and the Am erican Soci ety of Pension Actuaries gives nine exam inations covering the pension field. Because the first parts of the exam ination series o f each society cover sim ilar m a te ria ls, stu d e n ts need not com m it themselves to a ca reer specialty until they have taken about four examinations. Success in passing the first few exam inations helps students evaluate their poten tial as actu aries. T hose who pass these examinations usually have b et ter o p p o rtu n itie s for em ploym ent and receive a higher starting salary. Actuaries are encouraged to com plete an entire series o f examinations as soon as possible. It generally takes from 5 to 10 years to com plete the series required for full professional status. Examinations are given twice each year. Extensive home study is required in o rd e r to pass the a d vanced examinations; many actuaries spend as m uch as 20-25 hours a week studying. A ctuaries who com plete five exam inations in either the life insurance series or the pension series or seven examinations in the casualty series are awarded “ associate” m em bership in their respective society. Those who have passed an entire se ries receive full m em bership and the title “ fellow.” Consulting pension actuaries who service private pension plans and certify th eir solvency m ust be e n rolled by the Joint Board for the E n rollment o f Actuaries. Applicants for enrollm ent must m eet certain experi ence and education requirem ents as stipulated by the Joint Board. Beginning actuaries often rotate among different jobs to learn various actuarial operations and to becom e familiar with different phases of in surance work. At first, their work may be rather routine, such as p re paring calculations or tabulations for actuarial tables or reports. As they gain experience, they may supervise actuarial clerks, prepare correspon dence and reports, and do research. Advancem ent to m ore responsible work as assistant, associate, and chief actuary depends largely on job p er form ance and the num ber of actuar ial examinations passed. Many actu a rie s , b e c a u s e o f th e ir b ro a d knowledge of insurance and related fields, are selected for administrative positions in other com pany activities, p a rtic u la rly in u n d e rw ritin g , a c counting, or data processing dep art m ents. Many actuaries advance to top executive positions. Employment Outlook E m ploym ent of actu aries is ex pected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. In addition to job openings resulting from this growth, several hundred actu aries will be need ed each year to replace those who re tire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. Job opportunities will be best for new college graduates who have passed at least two actuarial exami nations while still in school and have a strong m athem atical and statistical background. H ow ever, because o f the large num ber of persons expect ed to receive degrees in actuarial sci en ce, m athem atics, and statistics, and the large num ber of students tak ing actuarial examinations, com peti tion for beginning jobs should remain keen. Employment in this occupation is influenced to a great extent by the volume of insurance sales, which will continue to grow over the next d ec ade. Shifts in the age distribution of th e p o p u la tio n th ro u g h th e m id1980’s will result in many more p eo ple with established careers and fam ily responsibilities. This is the group that traditionally has accounted for the bulk of private insurance sales. Increased sales, however, are only one determ inant of the dem and for actuaries. In addition, changes in ex isting insurance practices are creat ing a need for more actuarial servic es. As m ore and m o re in su ran ce INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS co m p an ies b ran ch o u t into m ore than one kind of insurance coverage, a greater num ber of actuaries will be needed to establish the rates for the variety of insurance offered. Growth in sales of relatively new forms of protection, such as dental, prepaid legal, and kidnap insurance will cre ate additional dem and for actuaries. As more States pass competitive rat ing laws, many com panies that previ ously relied o r rating bureaus for ac tu a ria l d a ta can be e x p e c te d to expand existing a c tu a ria l d e p a rt ments or create new ones. R ecent court decisions concerning product liability have focused much attention on this complex area. In the years ahead, actuaries will be spend ing a lot o f time developing better ways to provide p ro d u c t liability, m edical m alpractice, and w orkers’ com pensation insurance protection. Adoption of a “ no-fault” autom o bile insurance plan requires com pa nies writing autom obile insurance to reevaluate their pricing structures in light of no-fault requirem ents. It is uncertain whether Federal no-fault legislation will be enacted soon; how ever, the growing num ber of States enacting no-fault plans or revising existing ones in d icates co n tin u ed strong dem and for actuaries to make the required analyses. ERISA has imposed strict respon sibilities on actuaries for the opera tion and funding of pension plans. As the num ber of pension plans contin ues to grow, there will be an increas ing need for pension specialists to develop adequately financed plans and to prepare the reports that certi fy their solvency. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, actuaries had average salaries more than twice as high as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. New college graduates en tering the life insurance field without having passed any actuarial exams averaged $10,600 in 1976, according to a survey of U.S. com panies by the Life Office M anagem ent Association (LOM A). Applicants who had suc cessfully com pleted the first exam re ceived $11,200 and those who had passed two exams averaged $11,800. 125 In the Federal G overnm ent, new graduates with the bachelor’s degree could start at $9,300 a year in 1977. Applicants with either 1 year of graduate study or relevant work ex perience were hired at $11,500, and those with the m aster’s degree or 2 years’ experience started at $14,100 a year. A ctuaries in the Federal Gov ernm ent averaged $25,100 a year in 1977. Beginning actuaries can look for ward to a m arked increase in earn ings as they gain professional experi ence and advance in an actuarial society’s examination program. Life in su ran ce com panies usually give m erit increases averaging from $500 to $850 to their actuaries as they pass each successive examination leading to mem bership in the Society of A c tuaries. Associates who received that d e s i g n a t i o n in 1 9 7 6 a v e r a g e d $16,500 a year; salaries for actuaries who were awarded a full fellowship during that year averaged $24,800. Fellows with additional years of ex perience earned substantially m ore— top a c tu a rial executives averaged about $43,000 in 1976. Although data are not available for salaries paid actuaries in casualty com panies or consulting firms, it is believed that salaries for these spe cialists generally are com parable to those paid by life insurance com pa nies. Sources of Additional information For facts about actuarial opportu nities and qualifications, contact: American Society of Pension Actuaries, 1700 K St., NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Casualty Actuarial Society, 200 East 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Society of Actuaries, 208 South LaSalle St., Chicago, 111. 60604. CLAIM REPRESENTATIVES (D.O.T. 168.288, 241.168, and 249.268) Nature of the Work Fast and fair settlem ent of all claims is essential to any insurance company if it is to m eet its com m it ments to policyholders and also pro tect its own financial well-being. The people who investigate claims, nego tiate settlem ent with policyholders, and authorize paym ent are known as claim representatives—a group that includes claim adjusters and claim examiners. When a property-liability (casual ty) insurance com pany receives a claim, the claim adjuster determ ines whether the policy covers it and the am ount of the loss. Adjusters use re ports, physical evidence, and testi mony of witnesses in investigating a claim. When their com pany is liable, they negotiate with the claim ant and settle the case. Adjusters must make sure that set tlements are in line with the real ex tent of the loss. They must protect their company from false or inflated claims but, at the same time, settle valid claim s fairly and prom ptly. Some adjusters are allowed to issue ch ecks on com pany funds; m ost, how ever, subm it th eir findings to claim examiners who review them to insure that proper procedures have been follow ed and then authorize payment. Some adjusters work with all lines of insurance. Others specialize in claims from property damage by fire, marine loss, autom obile damage, w orkers’ com pensation loss, or prod uct liability. Several States have “ no fa u lt” autom obile insurance plans that relieve the adjuster from d eter mining responsibility for a loss. A d justers in these States still must de cide the am ount of loss, however. A growing num ber of casualty com pa nies employ special claims people to settle small claims, usually minor au to m o b ile o r h o m eo w n e r dam age claims. These claim workers, gener ally called “ inside a d ju s te rs ” or “ te le p h o n e a d j u s t e r s ,” c o n ta c t claimants by telephone or mail and have the policyholder send repair costs, medical bills, and other state m ents to the company. Many com pa nies centralize this operation in a drive-in claims center where the cost of repair is determ ined and a check is issued on the spot. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 126 phia, where most home offices are located. Adjusters may travel to almost any area of the United States, since claims must be settled locally. O cca sionally, an ex p e rien ce d ad ju ster may travel to the scene of a disaster, such as a hurricane or a riot, to work with local personnel. Some cases re sult in trav el o u tsid e the U n ited States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Claims adjuster gathering evidence in investigating a claim. Adjusters work away from the of fice most of the time. They may be called to the site of an accident or to the location of a fire or burglary. A d justers m ake their own schedules of the activities needed to dispose of a claim properly. They also keep writ ten or taped records of information obtained from witnesses and other sources and prepare reports of their findings. In life insurance com panies, the counterpart of the claim adjuster is the claim examiner, who investigates the details surrounding questionable claims or those exceeding a specified amount. They may check claim ap plications for com pleteness and ac curacy, interview medical specialists, consult policy files to verify inform a tion on a claim, or calculate benefit payments. Generally, examiners are au th o rized to investigate and a p prove paym ent on all claims up to a certain limit; larger claims are re ferred to a senior examiner. Examiners checking incorrect or questionable claims may correspond with investigating com panies, field managers, agents, or the family of the insured. Claim examiners occasional ly travel to obtain inform ation by personal interview, or contact State insurance departm ents and other in surance com panies. In addition to verifying claims and approving pay ment, examiners also m aintain rec ords o f settled claims and prepare reports to be subm itted to their com pany’s d ata processing departm ent. Some experienced exam iners serve on com m ittees, conduct surveys of claim practices within their com pa ny, and help devise m ore efficient ways to process claims. They, like claim adjusters, sometimes testify in court on contested claims. Places of Employment About 155,000 persons worked as claim representatives in 1976. The majority of claim adjusters worked for insurance com panies that sell property and liability coverage. Some were em ployed by in depen dent adjusting firms th at co n tra ct their services for a fee. These in dependent firms range from national com panies em ploying hundreds of adjusting specialists to small 3- or 4person local operations. A relatively small num ber of adjusters represent the insured rather than the insurance com pany. These “ public adjusters” usually are retained by banks, finan cial organizations, and other business firms to handle fire and other losses to property. They negotiate claims against in su ran c e co m p an ies and deal with adjusters for such com pa nies. Most claim examiners worked for life insurance com panies in large cities such as New York, San F ran cisco, Chicago, Dallas, and Philadel Although a growing num ber of in surance com panies prefer claim rep resentatives to have a college degree, m any h ire th o se w ith o u t co lleg e training, particularly if they have spe cialized experience. For exam ple, persons experienced in autom obile repair work may qualify as auto ad justers, and those with clerical work experience might be hired as inside adjusters. No specific field of college study is recom m ended. Although courses in insurance, economics, or other busi ness subjects are helpful, a m ajor in almost any college field is adequate preparation. An adjuster who has a business or accounting background might specialize in loss from business interruption or damage to m erchan dise. Those with college training in engineering will find their education helpful in adjusting industrial claims. A legal background is most helpful to those handling w orkers’ com pensa tion and product liability cases. Most large insurance com panies provide beginning claim adjusters and examiners on-the-job training and home study courses. Claim rep resentatives are encouraged to take courses designed to enhance their professional skills. For example, the Insurance Institute of Am erica offers a six-semester study program leading to an associate degree in claims ad justing upon successful com pletion of six exam inations. A djusters can prepare for these exam inations by in dep en d en t hom e study or through com pany or public classes. A profes sional C ertificate in Insurance A d justing also is available from the C ol lege of Insurance in New York City. The Life Office M anagem ent As sociation (L O M A ) in cooperatio n with the International Claim Associ 127 INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS ation offers a claims education pro gram for life and health examiners. The program is part o f the LOMA Institute Insurance E ducation P ro gram leading to the professional des ignation, FLMI (Fellow, Life M an agem ent Institute) upon successful com pletion of eight written examina tions. About three-fourths of the States require adjusters to be licensed. De spite wide variation in State licensing re q u ire m e n ts , a p p lic a n ts usually must comply with one or more of the following: Pass a written examination covering the fundamentals of adjust ing; furnish character references; be 20 or 21 years of age and a resident of the State; offer proof that they have com pleted an approved course in insurance or loss adjusting; and file a surety bond. Because they often work closely with claim ants, witnesses, and other insurance professionals, representa tives must be able to adapt to many d iffe re n t p erso n s an d situ atio n s. They should be able to com m unicate effectively and gain the respect and cooperation of people from different backgrounds. For example, when ad ju sters’ evaluations of claims differ from those of the persons who have suffered the loss, they should be able to explain their conclusions tactfully. Examiners need to be familiar with medical and legal term s and practic es and Federal and State insurance laws and regulations. Because they may have to check prem ium pay ments, policy values, and other nu merical items in processing a claim, examiners should be adept at making m athem atical calculations. Both ad justers and examiners should have a good m em ory and enjoy w orking with details. Beginning adjusters and examiners work on small claims under the su pervision of an experienced worker. As they learn more about claim in vestigation and settlem ent, they are assigned claims that are higher in loss value and m ore difficult. Trainees are prom oted as they dem onstrate com petence in handling assignments and progress in the courses they take. Because of the complexity of insur ance regulations and claims proce dures, workers who lack formal aca dem ic training may advance m ore slowly th an those w ith 2 years o r m ore o f college. E m ployees who show unusual com petence in claims work or outstanding adm inistrative skills may be prom oted to d ep a rt m ent supervisor in a field office or to a m anagerial position in the hom e office. Qualified adjusters and exam iners som etimes transfer to other d e partm ents, such as underwriting or sales. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of claim representa tives is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as the num ber of insurance claims continues to increase. In addition to jobs created by growth of the occupation, many others will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or transfer to other jobs. Several factors point to a growing volume of insurance and a resulting need for claim adjusters. Over the next decade a steadily rising num ber of workers will be entering their m ost productive years. These workers and their families are likely to seek insur ance p ro te c tio n as they pu rch ase homes, autom obiles, and other con sum er durables. New or expanding businesses will need protection for new plants and equipm ent and for insurance covering their em ployees’ health and safety. As m ore people live and work in densely populated areas, the increased risk of autom o bile accident, fire, or theft should re sult in a greater num ber of claims. As ways of doing business continue to change, the dem and for certain kinds of claim adjusters will be stron ger than for others. For example, the growing trend toward drive-in claim centers and claim handling by tele phone should reduce the dem and for autom obile adjusters while it stim u lates dem and for inside adjusters. In dependent adjusters who specialize in autom obile damage claims should continue to suffer some loss of busi ness. Prospects should be very good, however, for adjusters who specialize in highly complex types of business in su ra n c e such as m arin e carg o , w orkers’ com pensation, and product liability. A similar situation exists for claim examiners. Em ploym ent of exam in ers in casualty com panies should rise about as fast as for adjusters; how ever, m uch slower growth is expect ed for life insurance examiners as in creased use o f co m puters enables them to process more claims, espe cially routine ones and those th at arise under group policies. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a recent survey of property and liability com panies, claim adjusters averaged about $13,000 a year in 1976; inside adjust ers earned average salaries o f about $9,900. M ost public adjusters are paid a percentage o f the am ount of the se ttle m e n t—generally 10 p e r cent. Adjusters are furnished a com pany car or are reim bursed for use of their own vehicles for business p ur poses. Salaries of claim adjusters are about one and one-half times the av erage earnings for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, except farming; salaries of inside adjusters are slightly above the average for all nonsupervisory work A survey of life insurance com pa nies by the Life Office M anagem ent Association revealed that claim ex am iners earned average salaries of $13,300 a year in 1976. According to the survey of property and liability com panies, casualty claim examiners averaged $15,280. Claim supervisors in casualty com panies and life com pan ies averaged $ 1 7 ,3 0 0 a year. Claim examiners earn m ore than 1 1/2 times the average for all nonsu pervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Claim adjusting is not a desk job. It requires that a person be physically fit because much of the day may be spent in traveling from one place to another, walking about outdoors, and climbing stairs. Adjusters may have to work evenings or weekends in order to interview witnesses and claimants when they are available. Since m ost com panies provide 24h o u r claim serv ice to th e ir p o l icyholders, som e ad ju sters always must be on call. (See the statem ent on the Insurance Industry for addi tional inform ation on working condi tions and employee benefits.) Claim examiners have desk jobs that require no unusual physical ac 128 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tivity. Although the average w ork week for examiners is 35 to 40 hours, they may work longer at tim es of peak claim loads or when quarterly and annual statem ents are prepared. They also may need to travel occa sionally. Sources of Additional Information G eneral inform ation about a ca reer as a claim exam iner or adjuster is available from the hom e offices of many life and property and liability insurance com panies. In fo rm atio n ab o u t licensing re quirem ents for claim adjusters may be obtained from the departm ent of insurance in each State. Inform ation about career opportu nities in these occupations also may be obtained from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. American Mutual Insurance Alliance, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. The National Association of Independent In surers, Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. For inform ation about public in surance adjusting, contact: National Association of Public Adjusters, 1613 Munsey Building, Baltimore, Md. 21202 . C areer inform ation on life insur ance claim exam ining is available from: American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. UNDERWRITERS (D.O.T. 169.188) Nature of the Work Insurance com panies assume mil lions of dollars in risks each year by transferring chance o f loss from their policyholders to themselves. U nder writers appraise and select the risks their com pany will insure. (The term underwriter sometimes is used in re ferring to insurance agents; see the statem ent on insurance agents and brokers elsewhere in the Handbook Digitized forfora FRASER discussion o f th at occupation.) Underwriters analyze information pre sented on policy applications. Underwriters decide w hether their companies will accept risks after ana lyzing inform ation in insurance appli cations, re p o rts from loss co n tro l consultants, medical reports, and ac tuarial studies (reports that describe the probability of insured loss). Some routine applications that require very little independent judgm ent are han dled by com puters. Generally, how ever, underwriters use considerable personal judgm ent in making deci sions. B ecause these decisions are seldom reviewed at a higher level, underwriters have great responsibil ity. Their com panies may lose busi ness to com petitors if they appraise risks too conservatively or may have to pay m any future claims if their underwriting actions are too liberal. When deciding that a policy is an acceptable risk, an underw riter may outline the term s of the contract, in cluding the am ount of the premium. Underwriters frequently correspond with policyholders, agents, and m an agers about policy cancellations or requests for inform ation. In addition, they som etim es accom pany salespeo ple on appointm ents with prospec tive custom ers. Most underw riters specialize in one of three m ajor categories of in surance: life, property and liability, or health. They further specialize in group o r individual policies. T he p ro p erty and liability u n d erw riter specializes by type of risk insured, such as fire, autom obile, m arine, or w orkers’ com pensation. Some under writers, called com m ercial account underwriters, handle business insur ance exclusively. They often m ust evaluate a firm ’s entire operation in appraising its insurance application. There is a growing trend in casualty com panies toward “ package” under writing, where various types o f risks are insured under a single policy. In such a situ atio n , th e u n d e rw rite r would have to be familiar with sever al different lines of insurance rather than specializing in a single line. An increasing proportion of total insurance sales is being made through group contracts. A standard group insurance policy insures all persons in a specified group through a single contract at uniform premium rates; this type of group policy gener ally provides life or health insurance protection. The group underw riter analyzes the overall com position of the group to be sure that total risk is not excessive. A different type of group policy finding increasing ac ceptance is the policy that provides the m em bers of a g ro u p —a labor union, for example—with individual policies geared to their own circum stances. These policies generally are in the casualty field, covering au to mobiles, pleasure boats, and homes. The casualty u nderw riter analyzes the application of each group m em ber and makes individual appraisals. Som e g ro u p u n d e rw rite rs a tte n d m eetings with union o r em plo y er representatives to discuss the types of policies available to their groups. Places of Employment An estim ated 25,000 persons worked as insurance underw riters in 1976. Over three-fourths were p ro p erty and liability underw riters w ork ing in re g io n a l o r hom e o ffic es throughout the United States; m ost life in su ran ce underw riters are in hom e offices in a few large cities, such as New Y ork, San Francisco, Chicago, Dallas, and Philadelphia. INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For beginning underwriting jobs, most large insurance com panies seek college graduates who have a degree in liberal arts or business adm inistra tion, but a major in almost any field provides a good general background. Some small companies hire persons with less than a college degree for underwriter trainee positions. In ad dition, some high school graduates who begin as underw riting clerks may be trained as underwriters after they dem onstrate an aptitude for the work. Underwriter trainees begin by evaluating routine applicants under the close supervision of an experi enced risk ap p raiser. They study claim files to become familiar with factors associated with certain types of losses. As they develop the sound judgm ent that is required, they are assigned policy applications that are m ore com plex and have a greater face value. Continuing education is a necessi ty if the underw riter expects to ad vance to senior level positions. Insur ance com panies generally place great em phasis on com pletion of one or more of the recognized independent study program s. M any com panies pay tuition and the cost of books for those who satisfactorily com plete un derwriting courses; some offer salary increases as an additional incentive. In d e p e n d e n t study p ro g ram s are available through the Am erican Insti tute of Property and Liability U nder writers, the American College of Life Underwriters, the Academy of Life Underwriters, the Health Insurance Association of Am erica, and the Life Office M anagem ent Association. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for persons who like working with details and enjoy relating and evaluating information. In addition to analyzing problems, underwriters must make prom pt decisions and be able to com m unicate their ideas to others. They must also be imagina tive and aggressive, especially when they have to get additional inform a tion from outside sources. Experienced underwriters who complete study courses may advance 129 to chief underw riter or underwriting manager. Some underwriting m anag ers are prom oted to senior m anageri al jobs after several years. Employment Outlook Em ployment of underwriters is ex pected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id -1 9 8 0 ’s as insurance sales continue to expand. Each year many jobs will becom e available as the o c cupation grows and as those who die, retire, or transfer to other work are replaced. Several factors underlie the ex pected growth in the volume of insur ance and the resulting need for un derwriters. Over the next decade, a much larger portion o f our popula tion will enter their m ost productive years. As this traditional m arket for life insurance expands, the volume of insurance sales also should rise. This will occur as more individuals p u r chase life insurance to protect their families’ standard of living, finance their children’s education, or provide retirem ent income. Property and li ability insurance sales also should ex pand as purchases of autom obiles, pleasure boats, and other consum er durables increase. Both spending for new h o m e c o n s tru c tio n and th e Am erican public’s growing security consciousness should contribute to dem and for m ore extensive insur ance protection. New or expanding businesses will need protection for new plants and equipm ent and insur ance for w orkers’ com pensation and product liability. Heightened com pe tition am ong insurance com panies and changes in regulations affecting investm ent profits also are expected to increase the insurance industry’s need for com petent underwriters. Earnings and Working Conditions Underwriters in life insurance who had 2 to 4 years’ experience aver aged $12,600 a year in 1976, accord ing to a Life Office M anagem ent As sociation (L O M A ) survey. Senior life underw riters (those with 5 to 8 y e a rs ’ e x p e rie n c e ) a v e ra g e d $16,600, while senior group under w riters earn ed average salaries o f $17,400. Supervisors of underwriting in life insurance com panies averaged $17,500 to $23,000. In most cases, u n d erw riters in larger com p an ies earned higher salaries. A recent survey of com panies that sell property and liability insurance showed that underwriters with 2 to 4 years’ experience averaged $12,300 a year in 1976. Earnings varied sub stantially by underwriting specialty, however: personal lines underwriters earned average salaries of $11,700, while those specializing in surety bonds averaged $14,300. Senior un derwriters earned substantially high er incom es—personal lines un d er writers averaged $15,200 while those specializing in com m ercial lines re ceived an average of $15,000 a year. Experienced underwriters earn about 1 1/2 times the average earnings of nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Underwriting supervisors in property and liability com panies averaged $17,500 a year in 1976. Most underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical ac tivity. Although the average week is 37 hours, underw riters som etim es work overtime. Most insurance com panies have liberal vacation policies and other em ployee benefits. (See the statem ent on the Insurance In dustry for additional information on w orking conditions and em ployee benefits.) Sources of Additional Information G eneral inform ation about a ca reer as an insurance underw riter is available from the hom e offices of many life insurance and property and liability insurance com panies. Infor mation about career opportunities as an underw riter also may be obtained from: American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006 Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. American Mutual Insurance Alliance, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. The National Association of Independent In surers, Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS M ost adm inistrative w orkers are professional office em ployees who run, or help run, business and other organizations. Some are m anagers, who supervise, plan operations, and make com pany policy. Others p ro vide assistance to m anagers, such as personnel workers who recruit and hire staff m em bers or accountants, whose inform ation helps m anagers The number of employees in administrative occupations varies widely by occupation Employment (in thousands) 1.200 1.000 ' ■ ■; - .................. 800 mm _ ......... . Accountants > ACCOUNTANTS . . . . . . Lawyers Personnel and labor relations workers .............. ••Purchasing agents ,, §s J U s <4iH * i t s i, ......... ............................................ Credit . .managers 400 200 - ~ j 1965 1985 1980 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Openings vary greatly among administrative and related occupations Selected administrative and related occupations Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in thousands) o Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 130for FRASER Digitized make difficult decisions. The success or failure of an organization depends heavily on the way adm inistrative workers do their jobs. Nearly all administrative jobs re quire a college degree, although em ployers vary in the specific area of study they prefer. Some seek busi ness adm inistration or liberal arts graduates; others want a background in a technical area such as engineer ing or science. Many adm inistrative workers solve problems and make decisions using numbers and technical data. In addi tion, these workers must be tactful and able to get along with others. They also must be able to handle the uneven flow of work in offices. This section describes several ad m inistrative occupations including city m anagers, accountants, cred it officials, and personnel and labor re lations workers. 20 40 Growth | 60 Replacement (D.O.T. 160.188) Nature of the Work Managers must have up-to-date fi nancial inform ation to make im por tant decisions. A ccountants prepare and analyze financial reports th at furnish this kind of information. Three major accounting fields are public, m anagem ent, and g o v ern m ent accounting. Public acco u n t ants have their own businesses or work for accounting firms. M anage m ent accountants, also called indus trial or private accountants, handle the financial records of the com pany they work for. G overnm ent account ants examine the records of govern m ent agencies and audit private busin e s s e s a n d i n d i v id u a ls w h o s e dealings are subject to governm ent regulations. A ccountants often concentrate on one particular phase of accounting. For example, many public account ants specialize in auditing (reviewing a clien t’s financial records and re ports to judge their reliability). O th ers specialize in tax m atters, such as preparing income tax forms and ad vising their clients of the advantages and disadvantages of certain business 131 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Many accountants in the Federal G overnm ent work as Internal Rev enue agents, investigators, and bank exam iners; o th e r governm en t a c countants have regular accounting positions. Places of Employment About 865,000 people worked as accountants in 1976. Almost 20 p er cent were Certified Public A ccount ants (C P A ’s) and nearly 12 percent w ere C ertifie d In te rn a l A u d ito rs (C IA ’s). About 60 percent of all account an ts do m a n a g e m e n t a c c o u n tin g work; one-fifth of these work as in ternal auditors. An additional 25 per cent are engaged in public account ing as p r o p r ie to r s , p a r tn e rs , or employees of independent account ing firms. O ther accountants work for Federal, State, and local govern m ent agencies, and a small num ber teach in colleges and universities. O pportunities are plentiful for parttime work in accounting, particularly in smaller firms. Accountants are found in all busi ness, industrial, and government o r ganizations. Most, however, work in large urban areas where many public accounting firms and central offices of large businesses are concentrated. For example, over 20 percent of all ac co u n tan ts are em ployed in ju st four major cities: Chicago; Los A n geles; New York; and W ashington, DC. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Traveling auditor reviewing financial records at a company plant. decisions. Still others becom e spe cialists in m anagem ent consulting and give advice on a variety of m at ters. They might develop or revise an accounting system to serve the needs of clients more effectively or give ad vice about different types of account ing equipm ent. M anagem ent accountants provide the financial information executives Digitized need for FRASER to make sound business deci sions. They may choose to work in areas such as taxation, budgeting, or investm ents. Internal auditing is an area of specialization within m anage ment accounting that is rapidly grow ing in im portance. A ccountants who work as internal auditors exam ine and evaluate their firm ’s financial system s and m an ag em en t co n tro l procedures to ensure efficient and econom ical operation. Training in accounting is available at colleges and universities, account ing and business schools, and co rre spondence schools. Although many graduates of business and correspon dence schools are successful in small firms, most large public accounting and business firms require applicants for accountant and internal auditor positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or a closely re lated field. Many employers prefer those with the m aster’s degree in ac counting. A growing num ber of large employers prefer applicants who are familiar with com puter technology for both accounting and internal au ditor positions. For beginning a c counting positions, the Federal Gov- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 132 ernm ent requires 4 years of college training (including 24 sem ester hours in accounting) or an equivalent com bination o f education and ex p eri ence. For teaching positions, most colleges and universities require at least the m aster’s degree or the C er tified Public A ccountancy C ertifi cate. Previous work experience in ac counting can help an applicant get a job. Many colleges offer students an o p p o rtu n ity to g ain e x p e rie n c e through intern sh ip program s co n ducted by public accounting or busi ness firms. Anyone working as a “ certified public accountant” m ust hold a cer tificate issued by the State board of accountancy. All states use the CPA examination, prepared by the Am eri can Institute of Certified Public A c countants, to establish certification. Most successful candidates have col lege degrees, and three-fourths of the States require CPA candidates to be college graduates. Nearly all States require applicants to have at least 2 years of public accounting experi ence for a CPA certificate. Requirem ents vary, but more than half the States restrict the title “ pub lic accountant” to those who are li censed or registered. Some States require only a high school diploma while others require 2 years of col lege or m ore. In form ation on re quirem ents may be obtained directly from individual State boards of ac countancy or from the National Soci ety of Public Accountants. The recognized m ark of com pe tence and experience in the field of internal auditing is the designation, C ertified In tern al A u d ito r (C IA ). The Institute of Internal A uditors, Inc., confers this designation upon candidates who have com pleted 3 years’ experience in internal auditing and who have passed a four-part ex a m in a tio n . B eg in n in g in 1978, a bachelor’s degree from an accredited college or university also will be re quired. Persons planning a career in ac counting should have an aptitude for m athem atics. Neatness and accura cy also are n ecessary. Em ployers seek applicants who can handle re sponsibility and work with little su pervision. To get to the top in the profession, accountants usually must continue their study of accounting even though they already have a college degree or professional certificates. They may participate in seminars sponsored by various professional as sociations or take courses offered by their employers. A growing num ber of States require both C PA ’s and li censed public accountants to com plete a certain num ber of hours of continuing education courses before their licenses can be renewed. An increasing num ber o f acco u n tan ts study com puter operation and p ro gramming to adapt accounting p ro c e d u re s to new d a ta p ro c e ssin g m eth o d s. A lth o u g h c a p ab le a c countants should advance rapidly, those having inadequate academ ic preparation may be assigned routine jobs and find prom otion difficult. Junior public accountants usually start by assisting with auditing work for several clients. They may ad vance to interm ediate positions with more responsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within anoth er few years. In larger firms, those who deal successfully with top indus try executives often becom e supervi sors, m anagers, or partners, or trans fer to executive positions in private firms. Some open their own public accounting offices. Beginning m anagem ent acco u n t ants often start as ledger account ants, junior internal auditors, or as trainees for technical accounting p o sitions. They may advance to jobs such as chief plant accountant, chief cost accountant, budget director, or manager o f internal auditing. Some becom e co n tro llers, treasurers, fi nancial vice-presidents, or corpora tion presidents. In the Federal Gov e rn m e n t, b e g in n e rs are h ired as trainees and usually are prom oted in a year or so. In college and universi ty teaching, those having minimum training and experience may receive the rank o f instructor w ithout tenure; advancem ent and perm anent faculty status depend upon further educa tion and teaching experience. for all occupations through the mid1980’s as businesses and governm ent agencies continue to expand in size and complexity. In addition to jobs resulting from growth, many th o u sands o f openings will result each year when w orkers die, retire, or leave the occupation. Demand for skilled accountants will rise as managers rely more on accounting inform ation to make business decisions. For example, offi cers of large corporations base their decisions concerning proposals such as plant expansion, mergers, or for eign in v e stm e n ts on in fo rm atio n about the financial condition of the firm , tax im plications of the p ro posed action, and o th er consid er ations. On a smaller scale, owners of small businesses are expected to rely more and more on the expertise of public accountants in planning their operations. G overnm ent legislation to m onitor business activity also is expected to add to the dem and for accountants. An example is the Pen sion Reform Act of 1974, which es tablishes minimum standards for pri vate pension plans. This and other legislation should create many new jobs for m anagem ent accountants to m aintain new systems and public ac countants to audit them. Because of the growing complexity of business, college graduates will be in greater dem and than applicants who lack this training. Many em ploy e rs p r e f e r g r a d u a te s w ho h a v e worked p art time in a business or ac co u n tin g firm w hile in sch o o l. Those who have been trained in a specific phase of accounting should find ample opportunities. As data processing systems contin ue to replace manual preparation of accounting records and statem ents, the need for some accountants to perform routine tasks, particularly in large firms, may be reduced. How ever, many opportunities will arise for accountants w ithout a college de gree, mainly in small businesses and public accounting firms. Employment Outlook Starting salaries o f beginning ac countants in private industry were $ 11,500 a year in 1976, according to a survey in urban areas. Earnings of E m ploym ent is ex p e cted to in crease about as fast as the average Earnings and Working Conditions 133 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS experienced accountants ranged be tween $ 15,400 and $23,400, depend ing on their level of responsibility and the complexity of the accounting system. In general, experienced ac countants earn about twice as much as nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Chief ac countants who direct the accounting program of a company or one of its e s ta b lis h m e n ts e a rn e d b e tw e e n $20,500 and $ 3 3 ,9 0 0 , depending upon the scope of their authority and size of professional staff. According to the same survey, be ginning auditors averaged $ 11,800 a year in 1976, while experienced au d ito r s ’ ea rn in g s ra n g ed b etw een $16,100 and $20,000. In the Federal Civil Service, the entrance salary for junior account ants and auditors was about $9,300 in 1977. Candidates who had a supe rio r acad em ic re c o rd receiv ed a starting salary of about $ 11,500. Ap plicants with a m aster’s degree or 2 years’ professional experience began at about $14,100. A ccountants in the Federal Governm ent averaged about $21,800 a year in 1977. Accountants who specialize in in com e tax p re p a ra tio n w ork long hours under heavy pressure during the tax season; those em ployed by national accounting firms may travel extensively to co n d u ct audits and perform other services for their cli ents. The majority, however, work in one office between 35 and 40 hours a week, under the same general condi tions as fellow office workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about C PA ’s and about aptitude tests in high schools, colleges, and public accounting firms may be obtained from: American Institute of Certified Public Ac countants, 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. Further inform ation on specialized fields of accounting is available from: National Association of Accountants, 919 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. National Society of Public Accountants, 1717 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Institute of Internal Auditors, 249 Maitland Ave., Altamonte Springs, Fla. 32701. ADVERTISING WORKERS (D.O.T. 050.088; 132.088; 141.081 and .168; 162.158; and 164.068 through .168) Nature of the Work Almost every business, from a small grocery store to a large bank, does some form of advertising to pursuade people to buy its products or use its services. Advertising re quires the talents of people in many d iffe re n t kinds o f jo b s. C rea tiv e workers such as writers, artists, and designers develop and produce ad vertisem ents, while people with busi ness and sales ability handle the ar ra n g e m e n ts fo r b ro a d c a stin g th e advertisem ents on radio and televi sion, publishing them in newspapers or magazines, mailing them directly, or posting them on billboards. The following occupations are those most commonly associated with advertis ing. Advertising managers direct the ad vertising program of the businesses for which they work. They determ ine the size of the advertising budget, the type of ad and the m edia to use, and what advertising agency, if any, to employ. M anagers who decide to em ploy an agency work closely with the advertising specialists from the agen cy. These m anagers may supervise the preparation of pam phlets, b ro chures, or other materials developed to prom ote the firm ’s products or services. Advertising m anagers w ork ing for new spapers, radio stations, and o th e r com m unications m edia have so m ew h a t d iffe re n t d u ties. They are responsible for selling ad vertising time or space, and do work that is similar to the work of sales managers in other businesses. Account executives are em ployed by advertising agencies to develop advertising programs for client firms and individuals. They first study the client’s sales, public image, and ad vertising problem s, and then create a program that suits the client’s needs. In m ost agencies, artists and copy writers are responsible for develop ing the actual artwork and advertis ing copy, but in some small agencies, the account executives have this re sponsibility. Research directors and their assis tants study the m arket. They review possible uses for the product or ser vice being sold, com pare its advan tages or disadvantages with those of co m p etito rs, and suggest ways of reaching potential buyers. To devel op m arket inform ation, these work ers may survey buying habits and m o tives of custom ers, or try out sample ads to find the them e or medium that best sells the product. (See the state m ent on marketing research workers for more information on this occupa tion.) Advertising copywriters develop the headlines and text to be used in the ads. By studying information about the product and its potential custom ers, they are able to write copy aimed at the particular group of custom ers the advertiser seeks to at tract. They may specialize in writing copy for a certain group of people, such as business m anagers, teenag ers, or sports lovers, or for a class of products, such as cars or com puter e q u ip m e n t. C o p y w rite rs u su ally work closely with acco u n t execu tives. In some agencies, they may be supervised by copy chiefs. Artists and layout workers create the visual impact of an ad by select ing photographs, draw ing illu stra tions or figures, and selecting the size or type of print to be used in a m aga zine or newspaper ad. When televi sion commercials are planned, they usually sketch sample scenes for the client to consider. (See the state m ents on com m erical artists and photographers for more information on this type of work.) Media directors (or space buyers and time buyers) negotiate contracts for advertising space or air time. They determ ine the day and time when a television com m ercial will reach the largest group of prospec tive buyers at the lowest cost. To se lect the best medium for the advertis er, m edia directors m ust know the costs of using various media and the c h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e a u d ie n c e reached by specific publications or television stations. Production managers and their as sistants arrange to have the ad print ed for publication, filmed for televi sion, or recorded for radio. They 134 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK must know which firms or freelance workers will be able to produce the best ad for the least cost. Places of Employment In 1976, about 180,000 people worked in jobs requiring consider able knowledge of advertising. Those em ployed in ad v ertising agencies were heavily co n cen trated in New York City, Los Angeles, and C hica goMany others worked in the adver tising departm ents of m anufacturing firm s, re ta il sto res, banks, pow er com panies, professional and trade associations, and many other organi zations. Some people had advertising jobs with television or radio stations, newspapers, and magazines. Still oth er people in th e advertising field worked for printers, art studios, let ter shops, package design firms, and similar businesses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer college graduates. Some em ployers seek p er sons with degrees in advertising with heavy emphasis on m arketing, busi ness, and journalism ; others prefer g r a d u a te s with a lib e ra l a rts b a c k ground (social scien ce, lite ratu re , art, and other disciplines); some em ployers place little emphasis on the type of degree. No p articu lar educational b ac k ground is equated with success in ad vertising. In fact, relevant work expe rience may be more im portant than educational background. Experience selling ads for school publications or radio stations, or on a summer job with a m arketing research service, can be a distinct advantage to the jobseeker. Some organizations recru it o u t standing college graduates for train ing program s that cover all aspects of advertising work. In other firms, em ployees immediately enter a specialty and do not gain such all-round expe rience. Some beginners start as re search or production assistants or as space or time buyers. A few begin as junior copywriters. Many advertising jobs require creativity, and a flair for imagination, language. These traits are especially im portant to artists, layout workers, and account executives. All creative effort m ust be directed toward the sales function. People interested in becoming advertising managers, ac count executives, m edia buyers, and production managers must be able to get along well with people and be able to sell their ideas. Research di rectors and their assistants must have an understanding of hum an behavior. All advertising workers must be able to accept criticism of their work and be able to function as part of a team. O pportunities for advancem ent in this field generally are excellent for creative, talented, and hard-working people. For example, copywriters and account executives may advance to more responsible work in their specialties, or to managerial jobs, if they dem onstrate ability in dealing with clients. Some especially capable workers may becom e partners in an existing agency, or they may estab lish their own agency. Employment Outlook Em ployment of advertising w ork ers is expected to increase faster than th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. Most open ings, however, will result from the need to replace workers who die, re tire, or leave the occupation for o th er reasons. The growing num ber of consum er and industrial goods and increasing com petition in many product and service m arkets will cause advertis ing expenditures to rise. Such expen ditures also may be spurred by the growing tendency toward self service in retail m arketing. An additional factor is the growing need of small businesses for professional advertis ing services. Em ployment in advertis ing occupations is strongly affected by general business conditions b e cause firms expand or contract their ad v e rtisin g b u d g ets a c co rd in g to their financial success. Although op portunities should be favorable for highly qualified applicants, particu larly in re ta il ad v ertisin g , o th e rs seeking entry jobs will face keen com petition because the glamorous nature of the field attracts many peo ple. Local television, radio, and news papers are expected to increase their share o f total advertising expendi tures while direct mail, m agazines, and national newspapers continue to lose ground. The few very large agen cies that account for nearly all na tional advertising are expected to maintain fast growth because of their expanding international business. Advertising can be a satisfying career for persons who enjoy variety, creative challeng es, and competition. 135 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Earnings and Working Conditions Based on limited inform ation, an nual salaries for beginning advertis ing workers with bachelor’s degrees ranged from $8,000 to $10,000 in 1976. Higher starting salaries gener ally were paid by the largest firms or advertising agencies to outstanding applicants, particularly those with advertising experience. Salaries of experienced advertising workers varied by size and type of firm as well as by type of job. Ac cording to a survey of advertising agencies taken in 1975, average an nual salaries of workers in selected occupations were as follows: Chief executive officer, $45,300; account supervisor, $28,400; account execu tive, $18,500; executive art director, $24,400; art director, $17,100; sen ior layout artist, $ 12,900; junior lay o u t a r ti s t , $ 9 ,3 0 0 ; co p y c h ie f, $22,300; senior copywriter, $16,600; ju n io r copyw riter, $10,500; m edia director, $16,800; space or time buy e r , $ 9 ,4 0 0 ; r e s e a r c h d i r e c t o r , $24,000; research analyst, $13,500; production m anager, $14,400. Sev eral other surveys yielded these re sults: In 1976, the top advertising of ficers in large retail firms averaged over $32,000 a year; in 1975, the m edian salary of advertising direc to rs in larg e b an k s ran g ed from $16,000 to $17,000 a year; in 1975, the av erag e salary o f advertising managers in a wide variety of com pa nies ranged from $18,000 to $34,000 a year, depending upon the annual sales volume of the firm. Salaries of advertising m anagers generally are higher in consum er than industrial products firms, and many receive in centive com pensation. People in advertising work under great pressure, and do not have the job security enjoyed by workers in many other occupations. These workers are expected to produce quality ads in as short a time as possible. Sometimes they must work long or irregular hours to m eet dead lines or m ake last-m inute changes. A c co u n t ex e cu tiv es, co p y w riters, and lay o u t w orkers may becom e frustrated by a clien t’s inability to define the type of ad he or she wants for product. Digitized fora FRASER Advertising can be a satisfying c a reer for persons who enjoy variety, excitem ent, creative challenges, and com petition. Unlike workers in many other occupations, advertising w ork ers ex p erien ce the satisfaction of having their work in print, on televi sion, or on radio, even though they rem ain unknow n to the public at large. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation on advertising agen cies and the careers they offer is available from: American Association of Advertising Agen cies, 200 Park Ave. New York, N.Y. 10017. For additional inform ation on ca reers and a list of colleges that p ro vide training in advertising, contact: American Advertising Federation, 1225 Con necticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. BUYERS (D.O.T. 162.158 and 185.168) Nature of the Work The Am ericans have been invited to a private showing in Paris. R epre senting a m ajor New York d epart m ent sto re, they sit with a select g ro u p in an ele g a n tly fu rn ish e d room. They watch closely as graceful models float down the runway before them to display the latest creations by the w orld’s most famous design ers. A fter some consultation, they m ake choices involving thousands, perhaps millions of dollars. All in a day’s work. The job of retail buyer often brings to mind the glamour o f high fashion; indeed, many fashion buyers do lead exciting, fast-paced lives involving frequent travel abroad. Not every buyer, however, deals in fashion. All m erchandise sold in a retail store— garden furniture, autom obile tires, toys, aluminum pots, and canned soups alike—appears in that store on the decision of a buyer. Although all buyers seek to satisfy their stores’ custom ers and sell at a profit, the kind and variety of goods they p u r chase depend on the store w here they work. A buyer for a small cloth ing store, for example, may purchase its com plete stock o f m erchandise from sportsw ear to form al evening clothes. Buyers who work for larger retail businesses often handle one or a few related lines of goods, such as m en ’s w ear, ladies’ sportsw ear, or children’s toys. Some, known as for eign buyers, purchase m erchandise outside the United States. In order to purchase the best selec tion of goods for their stores, buyers must be familiar with the m anufac turers and distributors who handle the m erchandise they need. They also m u st k ee p in fo rm e d a b o u t changes in existing products and the developm ent of new ones. To learn ab o u t m erchandise, buyers atten d fashion and trade shows and visit m a n u fa c tu re rs ’ show room s. T hey usually order goods during buying trip s, and also place o rd e rs w ith wholesale and m anufacturers’ sales workers who call on them to display their m erchandise. Buyers must be able to assess the resale value of goods after a brief inspection and make a purchase de cision quickly. They are aw are of their stores’ profit margins and try to selec t m erc h an d ise th a t will sell quickly at well above the original cost. Since most buyers work within a limited budget, they must plan their purchases to keep needed items al ways in stock but also allow for unex pected purchases when a “ good buy” presents itself. B ecause buyers p u rc h ase m e r chandise for their firms to resell (u n like p u rc h a sin g a g e n ts w ho buy goods for direct use by the firm —see the statem ent on purchasing agents elsew here in the H andbook), they must know what m otivates custom ers to buy. Before ordering a particular line o f m erchandise, buyers study m arket research reports and analyze past sales records to determ ine what products are currently in dem and. They also work closely with assistant buyers and sales clerks whose daily contact with custom ers furnishes in form ation about consum er likes and dislikes. In ad d itio n , buyers read fashion and trade magazines to keep abreast of style and m anufacturing trends; follow ads in newspapers and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 136 jobs for buyers are found in all parts of the country, most jobs are in m ajor m etropolitan areas where retail stores are concentrated. M arket rep resentatives work for buying offices in major m arket areas such as New York, Chicago, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Buyer in a large department store discusses quality of merchandise with manufactur er’s representative. other m edia to check retail com peti to rs’ sales activities; and watch gen eral econom ic conditions to antici pate consum er buying patterns. Merchandise managers (D.O.T. 185.168) plan and coordinate buying and selling a c tiv itie s f o r la rg e a n d medium-sized stores. They divide the budget among buyers, decide how much m erchandise to stock, and as sign each buyer to purchase certain goods. M erchandise m anagers may review buying decisions to insure that needed categories of goods are in stock, and help buyers to set gen eral pricing guidelines. Buyers and m erchandise m anagers usually have very busy schedules and deal with many different people in the course of a day. They work with m anufacturers’ representatives, o th er store personnel including store ex ecutives and sales workers, and cus t o m e r s . A s s i s t i n g w ith s a l e s prom otions and creating enthusiasm among sales personnel are part o f the buyer’s jo b , and he or she may be asked to provide inform ation such as dress sizes and product descriptions to the advertising departm ent for a sales p ro m o tio n , or to m eet with floor sales workers before a new line of m erchandise is introduced. Some buyers direct assistants who handle routine aspects of purchasing such as verifying shipments; others supervise departm ent managers. Some buyers represent large stores o r c h a in s in citie s w h e re many m anu facturers are located. The duties of these “ m arket representatives” vary by em ployer; some purchase goods, while others supply inform ation and arrange for store buyers to m eet with m a n u fa c tu re rs w hen they are in town. New technology has altered the buyer’s role in retail chain stores. In the past, firms employed a buyer for each store or group of stores in a local area. Now cash registers co n n ec te d to a co m p u te r, know n as point-of-sale term inals, allow retail chains to m aintain centralized, up-tothe-m inute inventory records. With these records, a single garden furni ture buyer, for exam ple, can p u r chase lawn chairs and picnic tables for the entire chain. Places of Employment In 1976, approxim ately 109,000 buyers and m erchandise m anagers worked for retail firms. Although Distributive education program s at thousands of high schools have launched careers in retailing leading to a buyer’s position. (A dditional in form ation on distributive education appears in the statem ent on retail trade sales workers elsewhere in the H andbook.) Indeed, m any a good buyer began in a stockroom or be hind a counter and worked up the ladder without any college training. However, new buyers will find a col lege degree increasingly necessary. Many junior and 4-year colleges of fer program s in m arketing and p u r chasing and confer thousands of de g r e e s e a c h y e a r . In a d d i t i o n , num erous trad e schools train stu dents for careers in fashion m erchan dising. Courses in m erchandising or m arketing may help in getting a first jo b , b u t m o st em p lo y e rs a c c e p t graduates in any field of study and train them on the job. Many stores, especially the larger ones, have formal training program s for m anagem ent or executive train ees, including buyers. T hese p ro grams usually last from 6 to 8 months and com bine classroom instruction in m erch an d isin g and pu rch asin g with short rotations to various jobs in the store. This training introduces the new worker to store operations and policies, and provides the funda m entals of m erchandising and m an agem ent as well. The trainee’s first job is likely to be that of assistant buyer. The duties include supervising sales workers, checking invoices on m aterial re ceived, and keeping account of stock on hand. Assistant buyers gradually assum e purchasing responsibilities, d e p e n d in g u pon th e ir in d iv id u a l abilities and the size of the dep art m ent where they work. Training as an assistant buyer usually lasts at least a year. After years of working as a buyer, those who show exceptional ability may advance to m erchandise 137 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS manager. A few find further prom o tion to top executive jobs such as general m erchandise m anager for a retail store or chain. The length of time it takes to reach any of these levels depends not just on the indi v id u al’s ability but on the sto re ’s need for m anagem ent personnel. The faster the company grows, the great er the opportunity for a worker to acquire responsibility. Buyers should be good at planning and decisionmaking and have an in terest in m erchandising. They need leadership ability and com m unica tions skills to supervise sales workers and assistant buyers and to deal ef fectively with m anufacturers’ repre sentatives and store executives. Be cause of the fast pace and constant pressure of their work, buyers need physical stamina and em otional sta bility. Employment Outlook Employment of buyers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. Centralized buying is gaining popularity among chain stores, which are expected increasingly to dom i nate general m erchandise retailing. Although anticipated growth of in dependent food stores should partial ly offset these trends, they will still reduce the num ber of openings for buyers. M ost job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave the o c c u p a tio n . Com petition for these jobs is expect ed to be keen, for m erchandising a t tra c ts la rg e n u m b e rs o f co lleg e graduates every year. Prospects are likely to be best for qualified appli cants who enjoy the com petitive na ture of retailing and work best in a demanding, fast-paced job. line purchased, the sales volume of the store, and the individual’s senior ity. Buyers often earn large bonuses for exceptional perform ance. In ad dition, many stores have incentive plans, such as p ro fit sharing and stock options. Buyers regulate their own hours, and often work more than 40 hours a week because of special sales, co n ferences, and travel. The am ount of traveling a buyer does varies with the type of m erchandise bought and the location o f suppliers, but most spend 4 or 5 days a m onth on the road. M erchandise m anagers also travel frequently, averaging several trips a month in many cases. Sources of.Additional Information G eneral inform ation about a c a reer in retailing is available from: National Retail Merchants Association, 100 West 31st St., New York, N.Y. 10001. Inform ation on schools that teach retailing is available from: United States Office of Education, Division of Vocational/Technical Education, Wash ington, D.C. 20202. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. CITY MANAGERS (D.O.T. 188.118 and 188.168) Nature of the Work Population growth and industrial expansion place increasing pressure on housing, transportation, and other facilities of cities. Problems associat ed with growing m odern com m uni ties, such as air and water pollution and rising crime rates, also demand attention. To cope effectively with these problem s, many communities hire a specialist in m anagem ent tech niques—the city manager. A city m anager usually is appoint ed by the com m unity’s elected offi cials and is responsible directly to Earnings and Working Conditions Buyers for discount departm ent stores and other mass merchandising firms are among the m ost highly paid in the industry, as are those who buy centrally for large chain departm ent stores. M ost earned between $15,000 and $25,000 a year in 1976, though many earned salaries outside this range. M erchandising managers earned considerably more. The actu al for income depends upon the product Digitized FRASER A city manager often deals with members of the community. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 138 them. Although duties vary by city size, city managers generally adm in ister and coordinate the day-to-day operations of the city. They are re sponsible for functions such as tax collection and disbursem ent, law en forcem ent, and public works. They also hire departm ent heads and their staffs and prepare the annual budget to be approved by elected officials. In addition, they study current prob lem s, such as traffic co n g e stio n , crime, or urban renewal, and report their findings to the elected council. City managers must plan for future growth and developm ent of cities and surrounding areas. To provide for an expansion of public services, they frequently appear at civic m eet ings to advocate certain programs or to inform citizens of current govern m ent operations. City m anagers work closely with planning departm ents to coordinate new and existing programs. In small er cities th a t have no p erm a n en t planning staff, coordination may be done entirely by the manager. To aid the city m anager, many cities employ management assistants: assistant city managers, departm ent head assistants, and administrative assistants. U nder the m anager’s di rection, m anagem ent assistants ad minister program s, prepare reports, receive visitors, answ er correspon dence, generally help to keep the city go v ernm ent functioning sm oothly. Assistant city managers organize and coordinate city program s, supervise city em ployees, and act for the city m anager upon occasion. They also may assume responsibility for some projects, such as the developm ent of a preliminary annual budget. D epart m ent head assistants generally are re sponsible for one activity, such as personnel, finance, or law enforce ment, but they also may assist in oth er areas. A dm inistrative assistants, also called executive assistants or as sistants to the city m anager, usually do administrative and staff work in all departm ents under the city m an ager. For instance, they may compile o p eratin g statistics o r review and analyze work procedures. Places of Employment About 3,000 city m anagers were employed in 1976. In addition, nearly 9,000 persons worked as ad m inistrative assistants, d ep artm en t head assistants, and assistant city m a n a g e rs . M o st c ity m a n a g e rs worked for cities and counties that had a council-m anager form of gov ernment. U nder this type of govern ment, an elected council appoints a m anager who is responsible for the day-to-day operation o f the govern m ent as well as for the hiring and firin g o f a s s is ta n ts , d e p a rtm e n t heads, and other staff. Many other city m anagers worked for m unicipal ities that had the mayor-council form of governm ent, in which the mayor appoints the city m anager as his or her chief adm inistrative officer. A few city m anagers also worked for county governments, m etropolitan or regional planning organizations, and councils o f governments. All types o f local governm ents em ployed m an agement assistants, but larger juris dictions generally employed them in greater numbers. Although over three-quarters of all city m anagers work for small cities having less than 25,000 inhabitants, many larger cities also employ a city manager. About half of the cities having a population of between 10,000 and 500,000 have city m an agers. City m anagers work in all States, but one-half are concentrated in the eastern part of the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A m aster’s degree, preferably in public or business adm inistration, is becoming essential for those seeking a ca re e r in city m anagem ent. A l though some applicants with only a bachelor’s degree may find em ploy m ent, strong com petition for posi tions, even am ong m aster’s degree recipients, will m ake the graduate degree a requirem ent for most entry level jobs. In some cases, employers may hire a person with training in a field related to public adm inistration, such as engineering, recreation, so cial work, or political science. In 1976, 185 colleges and universi ties o ffered g rad u ate degree p ro grams in public or municipal adm in istratio n . D egree re q u irem en ts in som e sc h o o ls in c lu d e su cc essfu l com pletion of an internship program in a city m anager’s office. During this internship period, w hich may last from 6 months to a year, the degree candidate observes local governm ent operations and does research under the d irec t supervision o f the city manager. Nearly all city m anagers begin as m anagem ent assistants. Most new graduates work as administrative as sistants to city m anagers for several years to gain experience in solving urban problem s, coordinating public services, and applying m anagem ent techniques. Others work in a govern m ent d ep artm en t such as finance, public w orks, or public planning. They may acquire supervisory skills and additional experience by w ork ing as assistant city m anager or de partm ent head assistant. City m anag ers often are first em ployed in small cities, but during their careers they may work in several cities of increas ing size. Persons who plan a career in city m anagem ent should like to work with detail and to be a part of a team . They m ust have sound judgm ent, self-confidence, and the ability to perform well under stress. To handle emergency situations, city m anagers must quickly isolate problems, iden tify their causes, and provide a num ber of possible solutions. City m anag ers should be tactfu l and able to com m unicate and w ork well with people. City managers also must be dedi cated to public service since they of ten put in long, hard hours in times of crisis. Employment Outlook Employment of city managers and local governm ent m anagem ent assis tants is expected to expand faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as m anage m ent of our governm ents becom es more complex. Examples of m ore so phisticated m anagem ent techniques include com puterized tax and utility billing, electronic traffic control, and application of systems analysis to ur ban problem s. The dem and for city m anagers also will increase as more cities convert to the council-m anager form of governm ent, currently the fastest growing form of city govern m ent. F u rth erm o re, city m anagers and m anagem ent assistants will be 139 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS employed by other types of local gov ernment to help elected officials with day-to-day o p e ra tio n s of go v ern ment. Increased emphasis on region al solutions to urban problems should result in additional job opportunities for city managers and managem ent assistants in councils of government. Persons who seek beginning m an ag e m e n t assistan t jo b s may face strong com petition through the mid1980’s, especially if they do not have a graduate degree in public adminis tration or related m anagem ent expe rience. Com petition should be keen among the growing num ber of ad m inistrative assistants, departm ent head assistants, and assistant city managers for the relatively few city m anager positions. However, many of those unable to find employment in this area should find jobs in other fields of public administration. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of city managers and m an agement assistants vary according to education, experience, job responsi bility, and city size. Generally, city m an ag e rs’ earnings are very high relative to the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. In 1976, av erage annual salaries of city m anag ers ranged from ab out $20,000 in cities of 5,000 inhabitants to more th a n $ 4 0 ,0 0 0 in c itie s o f o v e r 100,000 in h ab itan ts, according to the International City M anagem ent Association. The average annual sal ary for all city m anagers was more than $23,000. City m anagers in cities not having council-m anager govern ments received slightly less. Salaries o f m anagem ent assistants averaged $17,000 in 1976, and ranged from about $12,000 in small cities to more than $20,000 in large ones. Salaries of assistant city m anag ers generally were higher than those of other m anagem ent assistants. City managers often work more than 40 hours a week. Emergency problems may require evening and weekend work and meetings with in dividuals and citizen’s groups con sume additional time. Fringe benefits usually include health and life insurance programs, pension plans, sick leave, vacation time, and often a car for official business. Managers generally are re imbursed for expenses incurred while attending professional meetings and seminars. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in city m anagem ent, contact: International City Management Association, 1140 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. COLLEGE STUDENT PERSONNEL WORKERS (D.O.T. 045.108, 090.118 and .168, 129.108, and 166.168) Nature of the Work A student’s choice o f a particular institution of higher education is in fluenced by many factors. Availabil ity of a specific educational program , quality of the school, cost, and loca tion all may play im portant roles. For many students, however, an equally im portant factor is the insti tu tio n ’s ability to provide for their housing, social, cultural, and recrea tional needs. Developing and adm in istering these services are the tasks of college student personnel workers. The admissions officer, the registrar, the dean of students, and the career planning and placem ent counselor are probably the best known among these. O ther workers that make up this broad occupational field include student activities and college union personnel, student housing officers, counselors in the college counseling center, financial aid officers, and for eign student advisers. Titles of student personnel w ork ers vary from institution to institution and from program to program within a single school. Titles also vary with the level o f responsibility within a s tu d e n t p e rso n n e l p ro g ram . T he more com m on titles include dean, di rector, officer, associate dean, assist ant director, and counselor. The dean o f students, or the vice president for student affairs, heads the student personnel program at a school. Among his or her duties are evaluating the changing needs of the students and helping the president of the college develop institutional poli cies. For example, to m eet the needs of an increasing num ber of older, part-tim e students, colleges and uni versities have been changing policies in areas such as student housing and student participation in decisions on graduation requirem ents and course offerings. In addition, the dean of students generally coordinates a staff Student financial aid personnel help students obtain financial support for their educa tion. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 140 of associate or assistant deans who are in charge of the specific p ro grams that deal directly with the stu dents. At some schools, the admissions office and the records office are separate. Admissions counselors in terview and evaluate prospective stu dents and process their applications. They may travel extensively to re cruit high school, junior college, and older students and to acquaint them with opportunities available at their college. They work closely with fac ulty, ad m in istrato rs, financial aid personnel, and public relations staff to determ ine policies for recruiting and adm itting students. Personnel in the office o f the registrar m aintain the academ ic records of students and provide current enrollm ent statistics to those who require them both with in the college and in the community. S tu d en t fin a n cia l aid perso n n el help students obtain financial sup port for their education. W orkers in this field m ust keep well-inform ed about the sources and m anagem ent of all forms of financial aid—scholar ships, grants, loans, em ploym ent, fel lowships, and teaching and research assistan tsh ip s. T hey w ork closely with adm inistrators and the adm is sions, counseling, business, and aca demic office staffs. Career planning and placement counselors, sometimes called college placem ent officers, assist students in career selections and also may help them get part-tim e and summer jobs. On many campuses, they arrange for prospective employers to visit the school to discuss their personnel needs and to interview applicants. (For further inform ation on this field, see statem ent on college career planning and placem ent counselors.) The student personnel staff in charge of student activities work with m em bers o f p ro p o sed and e sta b lished stu d en t organizations, espe cially with student government. They help the student groups to plan, im plem ent, and evaluate their activi ties. Often, the student activities staff will assist in the orientation of new students. College union staff m em bers work with students to provide intellectual, cultural, and recreational programs. Many college union staff m em bers direct the operation o f the physical facilities and services o f the building, such as food and recreational servic es, building m aintenance, fiscal plan ning, and conference facilities. Student housing officers sometimes live in the dorm itories and, in gener al, help the students to live together in harmony. They may serve as coun selors to individual students with p er sonal problems. Housing officers also may be involved in managing the fis cal, food service, and housekeeping operations of student residences. Counselors help students with p er sonal, educational, and vocational problems. Students may come to the counselors on their own or be re ferred by a faculty m em ber, a resi dence hall counselor, or a friend. C ounseling needs may arise from lack of self-confidence or m otivation on the part of the student, failure in academic work, desire to leave col lege or transfer to another college, inability to get along with others, loneliness, drug abuse, or m arriage problem s. In ad d itio n , th ere is a growing trend for counselors to try to reach m ore students by establishing group sensitivity sessions and tele phone “ hotlines.” Counselors often a d m in is te r te s ts th a t in d ic a te a p t i tudes and interests to students having trouble understanding them selves. Some also teach in the college or as sist with admissions, orientation, and training o f residence hall staff. (F or further inform ation on this field, see statem ent on psychologists.) Foreign student advisers adm inister and coordinate many of the services that help to insure a successful aca demic and social experience for stu dents from o th er co u n tries. They usually assist with foreign student ad missions, orientation, financial aid, housing, English as a foreign lan guage, academ ic and personal coun seling, student-com m unity relation ships, jo b p lacem en t, and alum ni relations. In addition, they may be an adviser for international associations and nationality groups and for U.S. students interested in study, educa tional travel, work, or service proj ects abroad. Places of Employment An estim ated 57,000 college stu d en t personnel w orkers w ere em ployed in 1976. Every college and university, whether a 2-year or a 4year school, has a staff perform ing stu d en t personnel functions. They are not always organized as a unified program. Large colleges and univer sities generally have specialized staffs for each personnel function. In many small colleges a few persons may car ry out the entire student personnel program. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity in duties, the education and backgrounds of college student personnel workers vary considerably. G enerally, how ever, a m aster’s degree is preferred and a doctoral degree may be neces sary for advancem ent to top-level po sitions. Schools often prefer persons with a bachelor’s degree in a social science, such as economics or histo ry, and a m aster’s degree in student personnel work. In 1976, 120 colleg es and universities offered graduate programs in this area. O ther specialized training may also be required for some student person nel occupations. A m aster’s degree in clinical or counseling psychology usually is required for work as a col lege counselor. This degree also is helpful in other student personnel fields such as career planning and placem ent. Familiarity with data p ro cessing is an asset, especially for work in admissions, records, or fi nancial aid. Social science and recre ation degrees also are useful, as is work experience in business, govern m ent, or educational associations. College student personnel workers must be interested in, and able to work with, people of all backgrounds and ages. They m ust have the p a tience to cope with conflicting view points o f students, faculty, and p ar ents. People in this field often deal with the unexpected and the unusual; therefore em otional stability and the ability to function while under pres sure are necessities. Entry level positions usually are those of student activities advisers, admissions counselors, financial aid 141 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS counselors, residence hall directors, and assistants to deans. Persons with out graduate degrees may find ad vancem ent opportunities limited. A doctorate usually is necessary for the top student personnel positions. Employment Outlook The employm ent outlook for col lege stu d en t personnel w orkers is likely to be som ewhat com petitive through 1985. Tightening budgets in both public and private colleges and universities, are expected to limit growth in employment. Student per sonnel positions least likely to be af fected if some reduction becom es necessary are those in admissions, fi nancial aid, and records. Most open ings will result from the need to re place personnel who transfer to other positions, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Any em ploym ent growth that does occur is expected to be in junior and community colleges. Enrollm ent at this level of education has been rising and many new schools have opened. If these recent trends continue, some additional student personnel workers will be needed in 2-year institutions. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries vary greatly depending on geographic location and the size of the school. According to the limited data available, top adm inistrators with at least 5 years of experience averaged between $28,000 and $30,000 a year in 1976. In the larger colleges and universities, salaries reached as high as $46,000. College student personnel workers frequently wok more than a 40-hour week; often irregular hours and over time work are necessary. Em ploy ment in these occupations usually is on a 1 2 -m o n th b a s is. In m any schools, they are entitled to retire ment, group medical and life insur ance, and sabbatical and other bene fits. Sources of Additional Information A pam phlet, Careers in Higher is available from: Education, The American Personnel and Guidance Asso ciation, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. CREDIT MANAGERS (D.O.T. 168.168) Nature of the Work Both businesses and individuals may require cred it (th e postpone m ent of paym ent until a future date) to m eet their daily needs for a variety o f goods and serv ices. F or m ost forms of credit, a credit m anager has final authority to accept or reject a credit application. In extending credit to a business (com m ercial credit), the credit m an ager, or an assistant, analyzes d e tailed financial reports subm itted by the applicant, interviews a represent ative of the company about its m an agement, and reviews credit agency reports to determ ine the firm ’s re c ord in repaying debts. The m anager also checks at banks where the com pany has deposits or previously was granted credit. In extending credit to individuals (consum er cred it), d e tailed financial reports usually are not available. The credit m anager m ust rely m ore on personal in ter views, credit bureaus, and banks to provide inform ation about the p er son applying for credit. Particularly in large organizations, executive level credit managers are responsible for formulating a credit policy. They must establish financial standards to be m et by applicants and thereby determ ine the am ount of risk that their com pany will accept when offering its products or services for sale on credit. M anagers usually cooperate with the sales departm ent in developing a credit policy liberal enough to allow the com pany’s sales to increase and yet strict enough to deny credit to custom ers whose abil ity to repay their debts is question able. Many credit m anagers establish o ffic e p ro c e d u re s an d su p erv ise w o rk ers who g ath er in fo rm atio n , analyze facts, and perform general office duties in a credit departm ent; they include application clerks, col lection w orkers, bookkeepers, and secretaries. In smaller com panies that handle a limited num ber of accounts, credit managers may do much of the work of granting credit themselves. They may interview applicants, analyze the information gained in the interview, and make the final approval. They frequently must contact custom ers who are unable or refuse to pay their debts. They do this through writing, telephoning, or personal contact. If these attem pts at collection fail, credit m anagers may refer the ac count to a collection agency or assign an attorney to take legal action. Places of Employment About 53,000 persons worked as credit managers in 1976. About onehalf were employed in wholesale and retail trade, but many others, about one-third of the total, worked for m anufacturing firms and financial in stitutions. Although credit is granted throughout the United States, most credit managers work in urban areas where many financial and business establishments are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree is becoming in creasingly im portant for entry level jobs in credit managem ent. Employ ers usually seek persons who have m ajored in business adm inistration, economics, or accounting, but may also hire graduates holding liberal arts degrees. Some employers p ro mote high school graduates to credit manager positions if they have expe rience in credit collection or process ing credit information. Newly hired workers normally be gin as m an ag e m en t tra in e e s and work under the guidance of more ex perienced personnel in the credit de partm ent. Here they gain a thorough u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e c o m p a n y ’s credit procedures and policies. They may analyze previous credit transac tions to learn how to recognize which applicants should prove to be good custom ers. Trainees also learn to deal with credit bureaus, banks, and other businesses that can provide in form ation on the past credit dealings o f their customers. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 142 of bank credit cards. As stores substi tute bank credit cards for their own charge accounts, credit departm ents may be reduced or eliminated. Earnings and Working Conditions A college degree is becoming increasingly Important for entry level jobs in credit management. Many formal training programs are available through the educational branches o f the associations that serve the credit and finance field. This training includes home study, college and university programs, and special instruction to improve begin n e rs’ skills and keep experienced credit managers aware of new devel opm ents in their field. A person interested in a career as a credit m anager should be able to analyze detailed inform ation and draw valid conclusions based on this analysis. Because it is necessary to m aintain good cu sto m er re la tio n ships, a pleasant personality and the ability to speak and write effectively also are characteristics of the suc cessful credit manager. The work perform ed by credit managers allows them to become fa m iliar with alm ost every phase of their co m p an y ’s business. Highly qualified and experienced managers can advance to top-level executive positions. However, in small and m e dium-sized companies, such opportu nities are limited. Employment Outlook Through the mid-1980’s em ploy ment is expected to grow more slow ly than the average for all occupa tions. D espite this relatively slow growth, many jobs will becom e avail able each year due to the need to replace persons who leave the occu pation. Although there will be oppor tunities throughout the country, em ployment prospects should continue to be best for well-qualified jobseek ers in m etropolitan areas. The volume of credit extended rose very rapidly during the past dec ade. In the years ahead, businesses can b e e x p e c te d to req u ire in c r e a sin g amounts o f credit to secure raw m a terials for production and obtain fin ished goods for eventual resale. It is in the area of business credit where dem and for credit m anagers will be strongest. C onsum ers, whose p erso n al in com es have risen, are expected to finance g re a te r num bers o f highpriced items. In addition, the use of credit for everyday purchases is ex pected to grow as dem and increases for recreation and household goods as well as for consum er services. D e spite increases in consum er debt, the use of com puters for storing and re trieving inform ation will enable this greater volume of inform ation to be processed more efficiently. The use of telecom m unications networks en ables retail outlets to have im mediate access to a central credit office, re gardless o f distance. A nother factor that is expected to slow the growth in the num ber of credit m anagers is the increased use In 1976, credit m anager trainees who had a college degree earned annual salaries that ranged from about $10,000 to $11,000, depend ing on the type of em ployer and the geographic location of the job. A ssistant c red it m anagers av e r aged about $12,000 to $14,000 a year and credit m anagers had aver age earnings of about $17,000. Indi viduals in top-level positions often earn over $40,000 a year. Credit managers normally work the standard workweek of their com pany— 35-40 hours, but some work longer hours. In wholesale and retail trad e, for exam ple, a seasonal in crease in credit sales can produce a greater work volume. Some credit m anagers attend conferences spon sored by industry and professional organizations where managers m eet to develop and discuss new te c h niques for the m anagem ent of a cred it departm ent. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career in con sum er credit may be obtained from: International Consumer Credit Association, 375 Jackson Ave., St. Louis, Mo. 63130. National Consumer Finance Association, 1000 16th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. F or in fo rm atio n a b o u t train in g program s available in com m ercial credit, write: National Association of Credit Management, 475 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10016. HOTEL MANAGERS AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 163.118 and 187.118, .168) Nature of the Work Hotel managers are responsible for operating their establishm ents profit ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ably and satisfying guests. They de termine room rates and credit policy, direct the operation of the kitchen and dining rooms, and manage the housekeeping, accounting, and main tenance d ep artm ents o f the hotel. Handling problems and coping with the unexpected is an im portant part of the job. M anagers who work in small hotels may do much of the front office clerical work, such as taking room reservations and assigning rooms. In some small hotels and many motels, the m anager is also the owner and may be responsible for all aspects of the business. General managers of large hotels usually have several assistants who manage various parts of the opera tion. Because the hotel restaurant and cocktail lounge are im portant to the success of the entire establish ment, they almost always are operat ed by managers with experience in the restaurant field. O ther areas that usually are handled separately are advertising, rental o f banquet and meeting facilities, personnel, and ac counting. Large hotel and m otel chains often centralize some activities, such as purchasing and advertising, so that individual hotels in the chain may not need m an ag ers fo r th ese d e p a rt m en ts. M a n a g e rs w ho w ork fo r chains may be assigned to organize a newly built or purchased hotel or to reorganize an existing hotel or motel that is not operating successfully. General managers of large hotels usually have several assistants who manage var ious parts of the operation. About 137,000 hotel and motel managers worked in 1976. More than a third were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experience generally is the most im portant consideration in selecting managers. However, employers in creasingly are em phasizing college education. A b a c h e lo r’s degree in hotel and restaurant adm inistration provides particularly strong prepara tion for a career in hotel m anage ment. In 1976, about 30 colleges and universities offered 4-year programs in this field. However, applicants to these program s may face increasing com petition in the coming years. The courses in hotel work that are avail able in m any ju n io r colleges and technical institutes and through the American Hotel and Motel Associ atio n also p ro v id e a good b a c k ground. A college program in hotel m an agem ent usually includes courses in h o tel a d m in istra tio n , a c co u n tin g , econom ics, d ata processing, food service m anagem ent and catering, and hotel m aintenance engineering. Students are encouraged to work in hotels or restaurants during summer vacations because the experience gained and the contacts made with employers may help them to get b et ter hotel jobs after graduation. M anagers should have initiative, self-discipline, and the ability to o r ganize work and direct the work o f others. They must be able to concen trate on details and solve problems. Some large hotels have special onth e-jo b m an ag e m en t train e e p ro grams in which trainees rotate among various d ep a rtm en ts to acquire a thorough knowledge of the h o tel’s o p eratio n . O utstanding em ployees who have not had college training may receive financial assistance to help them acquire a degree. Most hotels prom ote employees with proven ability, usually front of fice clerks, to assistant m anager and eventually to general m anager. New ly b uilt h o tels, p artic u la rly those w ithout well-established on-the-job training program s, often prefer expe rienced personnel for managerial p o sitions. Hotel chains may offer better opportunites for advancem ent than 143 independent hotels, because em ploy ees can transfer to another hotel in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Employment Outlook Employment of hotel m anagers is expected to grow m ore slowly than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Some job openings will occur as additional ho tels and motels are built and chain and fran ch ise o p e ra tio n s sp read . However, most openings will occur as experienced managers die, retire, or leave the occupation. Applicants having college degrees in hotel ad ministration will have an advantage in seeking entry positions and later advancem ent. See the statem ent on the Hotel Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for information on earnings and working conditions, sources of addi tional inform ation, and more infor mation on em ploym ent outlook. INDUSTRIAL TRAFFIC MANAGERS (D.O.T. 184.168) Nature of the Work In d u stria l firms w a n t to receive raw materials and deliver custom ers’ goods prom ptly, safely, and with minimum cost. Arranging for the transportation of materials and fin ished products is the job of an indus trial traffic manager. Industrial traf fic m a n a g e r s a n a ly z e v a r io u s tr a n s p o r ta t io n p o s s ib ilitie s an d choose the m ost efficient type for th eir c o m p a n ie s’ n e e d s—rail, air, road, water, pipeline, or some com bi nation. Then they select the route and the particular carrier. To make their decision, traffic m anagers con sider factors such as freight classifi c a tio n s an d re g u la tio n s , fre ig h t charges, time schedules, size of ship ments, and loss and damage ratios. (This statem ent does not cover traf fic managers who sell transportation services for railroads, airlines, tru ck ing firms, and other freight carriers.) 144 Activities of industrial traffic m an agers range from checking freight bills to deciding w hether the com pa ny should buy its own fleet of rail cars or trucks or contract for servic es. They route and trace shipments, arrange with carriers for transporta tion services, prepare bills of lading and other shipping docum ents, and handle claim s for lost or dam aged goods. Traffic m anagers keep re c ords of shipments, freight rates, com modity classifications, and applicable governm ent regulations. They also must stay informed about changing transportation technology. Traffic managers often consult with other company officials about the firm ’s transportation needs. They may, for example, work with produc tion d epartm ent personnel to plan shipping schedules, or with m embers Digitized of for theFRASER purchasing departm ent to d e OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Some traffic managers work for co n sulting firms that handle transporta tion problems for clients; a few run their own consulting businesses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement termine what quantities of goods can be transported most economically. Since many aspects of transporta tion are subject to Federal, State, and local governm ent regulations, traffic managers must know about these and any other legal m atters that apply to th e ir c o m p a n ie s’ shipping o p e ra tions. High level traffic m anagers re p resen t th eir co m panies b efo re ratem aking and regulatory bodies such as th e In te rsta te C om m erce Commission, State commissions, and local traffic bureaus. Places of Employment More than 21,000 persons were involved in industrial traffic m anage m ent in 1976. Although most jobs are found in m anufacturing firm s, som e tra ffic m a n a g e rs w ork fo r wholesalers or for large retail stores. Although high school graduates with experience in traffic d e p a rt ments sometimes are hired as traffic managers, a college education is in creasingly im portant in this field. For some kinds of work, college training is required. To argue cases before the Interstate C om m erce C om m ission, for example, a traffic m anager m ust m eet standards that include at least 2 years of college. Som e em ployers p refer g rad u ates o f tech n ical and trade school programs in traffic m an agem ent. O thers seek college and university graduates who have either majored, or taken courses, in trans portation, logistics, physical distribu tion, m anagem ent, economics, statis tics, m arketing, com puter science, and com m ercial law. Industrial traffic training is avail able through colleges and universi ties, technical and trade schools, and sem inars sponsored by professional associations. More than 100 colleges and universities offer program s or courses in traffic m anagem ent. C ol lege courses in this field often are offered as part of a m ajor program in business adm inistration. In some col leges and universities, however, traf fic m anagem ent is taught in dep art ments o f logistics, transportation, or m arketing and distribution. In addi tion to degree programs at the asso ciate, baccalau reate, and graduate levels, a num ber of colleges and uni versities offer workshops, seminars, and o th er short-term program s in transportation and traffic m anage ment. Industrial traffic m anagers should be able to analyze num erical and technical data such as freight rates and classifications to solve transpor tatio n problem s. T he job also re quires the ability to work indepen d en tly and to p re s e n t fa c ts an d figures in a convincing m anner. Newly hired traffic specialists of ten com plete shipping d ocum en ts and calculate freight charges. After gaining experience, they do m ore te c h n ic a l work such as analyzing 145 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS transportation statistics. A com pe tent worker may advance to a super visory job such as supervisor of rates and routes; a few are prom oted to assistant traffic m anager and eventu ally to traffic m anager. Industrial traffic managers can sometimes help their chances for advancem ent by participating in com pany-sponsored tra in in g p ro g ram s o r tak in g a d vanced courses in traffic m anage ment. A growing num ber are certi fied by th e A m erican Society of Traffic and Transportation, Inc. Employment Outlook Industrial traffic m anagem ent is a relatively small occupation and is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Openings will occur each year as new jobs are created, and as traffic managers die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Col lege graduates with a major in traffic m anagem ent or transportation can ex p ect first consid eration for the available jobs. Growth in the occupation will stem from an increasing emphasis on re ducing the cost of receiving raw m a terials and distributing finished prod u c ts . As th e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n m arkets becom es g reater and rate schedules and regulations governing transportation more complex, m anu facturers increasingly will require the Sources of Additional Information Answers to specific questions about a career in traffic m anagem ent are available from: American Society of Traffic and Transporta tion, Inc., 547 West Jackson Blvd., Chica go, III. 60606. For a list of colleges, universities, and technical institutes that offer in struction in transportation and relat ed areas, see: Directory o f Transpor tation Education, published in 1976 by the U.S. D epartm ent of Transpor tation (W ashington, D.C., U.S. Gov ernm ent Printing Office). The direc tory is available in many school and public libraries. For a copy of the American T ruck ing A ssociation’s Directory o f Trans portation Education in U.S. Colleges and Universities, write: American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. For inform ation on p ro p rietary schools that offer programs in traffic m anagem ent, contact: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. LAWYERS (D.O.T. 1 10.108, .118, and 1 19.168) e x p e r tise o f th e tra ffic m a n a g er. Earnings and Working Conditions Industrial traffic specialists’ sala ries started at about $ 1 1,000 a year in 1976, according to the limited in formation available. Although earn ings of experienced traffic managers vary, in general they are much higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Some traffic executives earned $50,000 a year or more. Although industrial traffic m anag ers usually have a standard w ork week, some of them have to spend time outside regular working hours preparing reports, attending m eet ings, and traveling to hearings before State and Federal regulatory agen cies. Laws perm eate every aspect of our society. T hey reg u late the en tire spectrum of relationships among in dividuals, groups, businesses, and governm ents. They define rights as well as restrictions, covering such di verse hum an activities as judging and punishing crim inals, granting p a t ents, drawing up business contracts, paying taxes, settling labor disputes, constructing buildings, and adm inis tering wills. Because social needs and attitudes are continually changing, the legal system that regulates our social, p o litical, and econom ic relationships also is subject to change. The task of keeping the law responsive to hum an needs is the work of lawyers. Also called attorneys, lawyers are the link between the legal system and society. To perform this role, they must un derstand the world around them and be sensitive to the num erous aspects of society that are touched by the law. They must com prehend not only the words of a particular statute, but the human circum stances it address es as well. As our body of laws grows more voluminous and complex, as the legal system takes on new regulatory tasks in social welfare, racial integration, energy conservation, and other areas, the work of lawyers takes on wider significance. Nature of the Work Lawyers perform a wide variety of tasks, but certain basic activities are common to nearly every attorney’s work. Probably the most fundam ent al of all is interpretation of the law. Every attorney, w hether representing the defendant in a m urder trial or the plaintiff (suing party) in a lawsuit, com bines an understanding of the relevant laws with knowledge of the facts in the particular case in order to determ ine how the first affects the second. Based on this determ ination, the attorney decides what courses of action would best serve the interests of the party he or she represents. In order to interpret the law knowledgeably, lawyers do research. They must stay abreast of their field, in both legal and nonlegal matters. An attorney representing electronics m anufacturers, for example, must follow trade journals as well as the latest Federal regulations affecting his or her clients. A ttorneys in the State D epartm ent must remain wellversed in current events and interna tional law, while divorce lawyers spend a certain portion of their time reading about the changing role of the family in m odern society. Re search also includes specific, indepth reading on the legal questions or substantive m atters of an individ ual case. In any event, the o v e r whelming volume of literature to be digested requires a lawyer to conduct research efficiently, quickly picking out and evaluating the substance o f a particular article or court case. Usually a law yer’s work also in volves contact with people. A tto r neys consult with their clients to de termine the details o f their specific OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 146 problem s, advise them of the law, and suggest actions that m ight or must be taken. To be effective, a law yer learns to deal with people in a courteous, efficient fashion. Finally, most lawyers must do some writing in the course of their work. This may take the form of reports, legal briefs, or adm inistra tive paperwork. In all cases, the at torney calls upon his or her ability to com m unicate clearly and precisely. The m ore detailed aspects of the legal profession depend upon the lawyer’s individual Field and position. Most lawyers are engaged in general practice and handle all kinds o f legal work for clients. They counsel the individual who wants to buy proper ty, make a will, sign a contract, or settle an estate. These lawyers per form whatever tasks are necessary to help their client comply with the law. A significant num ber specialize in one branch of law, such as corporate, criminal, labor, patent, real estate, tax, or international law. C om m uni cations lawyers, for exam ple, may rep resent radio and television sta tions in their dealings with the Feder al C o m m u n ic a tio n s C om m ission (F C C ). They help established sta tions prepare and file license renewal ap p licatio n s, em ploym ent reports, and other docum ents required by the FCC on a regular basis. They also keep their clients informed of chang es in FCC regulations. C om m unica tions lawyers give similar assistance to individuals or corporations wish ing to buy or sell a station or establish a new one. O ther lawyers specialize in repre senting public utilities before the Federal Pow er Commission (F P C ) and other regulatory agencies. For example, they handle m atters involv ing th e re a so n a b le n e ss o f utility rates. They help a firm develop its case, assist in preparing strategy, a r guments, and testimony, prepare the case for presentation at a trial or ad ministrative hearing, and argue the case. These lawyers also keep clients inform ed about changes in regula tions and advise them as to the legal ity of their actions. Private practitioners specialize in other areas, too. Some draw up wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, and o th er for legal docum ents; conduct out-of Digitized FRASER Corporate lawyers reviewing legal matters pertaining to the company. court negotiations; and do investiga tive and other legal work to prepare for trials. Some may act as trustees by managing a person’s property and funds, or as executors by seeing that the provisions of their client’s will are carried out. A small num ber of law yers devote them selves entirely to courtroom work. An increasing num ber handle only so-called public in terest cases. These cases, either civil or crim inal, have a potential im pact extending well beyond the individual clien t. A tto rn ey s who take th ese cases hope to use them as a vehicle for legal and social reform. Some lawyers are em ployed full time by a single client. Known as house counsel, these lawyers usually work for a corporate firm, advising and acting on legal questions th at arise from the com pany’s business activities. These questions may in volve patents for new productions, FTC regulations, a business contract with another com pany, or a collec tive bargaining ag reem en t with a union. A ttorneys em ployed at the various levels of governm ent constitute still another category. Criminal lawyers may work in the office of a State attorney general; they also may be employed by a prosecutor’s or public defender’s office, or by the court itself. At the Federal level, attorneys perform investigations for the Justice D epartm ent and regulatory agencies. Lawyers at every level of governm ent also help develop laws and programs; they prepare drafts o f proposed legis latio n , establish law en fo rce m e n t procedures, and argue cases. Many people who have legal train ing do not work as lawyers but use their knowledge of law in other occu pations. They may, for example, be journalists, m anagem ent consultants, financial analysts, insurance claim adjusters, tax collectors, probation officers, and credit investigators. A legal background also is an asset to those seeking or holding public of fice. Places of Employment About 396,000 persons worked as lawyers in 1976. Almost threefourths of them , 280,000, practiced privately, with about 40 percent in ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS solo practice and the other 60 per cent working in law firms. Of the re m aining 116,000, ab out one-third were employed as house counsel by various business firms; one-fourth worked in the Federal Governm ent; the rem ainder held positions in State and local government. In addition, about 8,000 lawyers taught full or part time in law schools. Some sala ried lawyers also have independent practices; others do legal work part time while in another occupation. Although there is no nationwide bar exam, most States and the Dis trict of Columbia participate in the M ultistate Bar Examination (M BE). The MBE, covering issues of broad interest, is given in addition to the State bar exam; how the MBE score is treated varies from State to State. The required college and law school education usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate study followed by 3 years in law school. Although a num ber of law schools accept students after 3 years Training, Other Qualifications, of college, an increasing num ber re and Advancement quire applicants to have a bachelor’s In order to practice law in the degree. To m eet the needs of stu courts of any State, a person must be dents who can attend only part time, admitted to its bar. Applicants for a num ber of law schools have night admission to the bar must pass a or part-tim e divisions which usually written examination; however, a few require 4 years of study. In 1976, States drop this requirem ent for about one-fifth of all graduates of graduates of their own law schools. A B A -approved schools were partLawyers who have been adm itted to time students. Com petition for admission to law the bar in one State occasionally may be admitted in another without tak school has become intense in the last ing an exam ination provided they few years. Enrollments rose very rap m eet that S tate’s standards of good idly between 1969 and 1972, and, moral character and have a specified according to one estim ate, applica period of legal experience. Each Fed tions outnum bered available open eral co u rt or agency sets its own ings by almost 10 to 1 in the midqualifications for those practicing be 1970’s. Although the increase in en rollments is expected to slow by the fore it. To qualify for the bar examination 1980’s, law school admission will re in most States, an applicant must main the first of several hurdles for have com pleted 3 years of college prospective lawyers. Preparation for a career as a law and have graduated from a law school approved by the American yer really begins in college. Although Bar Association (ABA) or the proper there is no such thing as a “ prelaw State authorities. (ABA approval sig m ajor,” the undergraduate program nifies that the law school m eets the alm ost always m akes a difference. minimum standards necessary to al Certain courses and activities are d e low its g rad u ates to take the bar sirable because they give the student exam and practice law in any State. the skills needed to succeed both in G raduates of nonapproved schools law school and in the profession. Es are restricted to the State in which sential skills—the ability to write, to the school is located.) A few States read and analyse, to think conceptu accept the study of law wholly in a ally and logically, and to com m uni law office or in com bination with cate verbally—are learn ed during study in a law school; only California high school and college. The best un accepts the study of law by corre dergraduate program is one that cul spondence as qualification for taking tivates these skills while at the same the bar exam. Several States require time broadening the student’s view of registration and approval of students the world. Majors in the social sci by the State Board of Examiners, ei ences, natural sciences, and hum an ther before they enter law school or ities all fill the bill, as long as the during the early years o f legal study. student does not specialize too nar In a few States, candidates must com rowly. Students interested in a particular plete clerkships before they are ad aspect of the law may find it helpful mitted to the bar. 147 to take related courses; for example, engineering and science courses for the prospective patent attorney, and accounting for the future tax lawyer. In addition, typing is advisable simply for convenience in law school. A cceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s ability to dem onstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good grades and the Law School Admis sion Test (LSA T), adm inistered by the Educational Testing Service. In 1976, 163 law schools had American Bar Association approval. O thers— ch iefly n ig h t s c h o o ls —w ere a p proved by State authorities only. The first year or year and a half of law school generally is devoted to fundam ental courses such as consti tutional law, contracts, property law, and judicial procedure. In the re maining time, students may elect spe cialized courses in fields such as tax, labor, or corporation law. Practical experience often is acquired by p ar ticipation in school-sponsored legal aid activities, in the school’s practice court where students conduct trials under the supervision of experienced lawyers, and through writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. G raduates receive the degree of juris doctor (J.D .) from most schools as the first professional degree. A d vanced study often is desirable for those planning to specialize, do re search, or teach in law schools. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Persons planning careers in law should like to work with people and ideas, and be able to win the confidence of their clients. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions, although some go into independent practice im m edi ately after passing the bar examina tion. Newly hired salaried attorneys usually act as research assistants (law clerks) to experienced lawyers or judges. A fter several years of p ro gressively responsible salaried em p lo y m en t, m any law yers go into practice for themselves. Some law yers, after years of practice, become judges. Employment Outlook A rapid increase in the num ber of law school graduates has created OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 148 keen com petition for the available jobs. In the years ahead, the num ber of graduates is expected to increase further and intensify this com peti tion. Employers will be selective in hir ing new lawyers. G raduates of wellknown law schools and those who rank high in their classes should find salaried positions with law firms, on the legal staffs of corporations and go v ern m en t agen cies, and as law clerks for judges. G raduates of less prom inent schools and those with lower scholastic ratings will experi ence some difficulty in finding sala ried jobs. However, many will find opportunities in fields where legal training is an asset but not normally a requirem ent. The em ploym ent of lawyers is ex pected to grow faster than the aver age for o th er occupations through the m id-1980’s as increased business activity and population create a de mand for attorneys to deal with a growing num ber of legal questions. Supreipe C ourt decisions extending the right to counsel for persons ac cused of lesser crimes, the growth of legal action in the areas of consum er p ro te c tio n , the en v iro n m e n t, and safety, and an expected increase in the use of legal services by middleincome g ro u p s th ro u g h p rep a id legal service program s also should provide em p lo y m en t o p p o rtu n itie s. O th er jobs will be created by the need to replace lawyers who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other rea sons. Prospects for establishing a new practice probably will continue to be best in small towns and expanding suburban areas, as long as there al ready exists an active m arket for le gal services in which the new lawyer can find clients. In such communities com petition is likely to be less than in big cities and new lawyers may find it easier to becom e known to potential clients; also, rent and other business costs are som ewhat lower. N everthe less, starting a new practice will re main an expensive and risky proposi t i o n t h a t s h o u ld b e w e ig h e d carefully. Salaried positions will be limited largely to urban areas where the chief employers o f legal talent— governm ent agencies, law firms, and Digitized FRASER bigforcorporations—are concentrated. Earnings and Working Conditions Lawyers entering practice in 1976 earned a wide range of starting sala ries—from about $10,000 to $23,000 a year. M ost fell in the $15,000 to $18,000 range. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new graduates in clude: their academ ic records; type, size, and location of their employers; and whether the new lawyer has any specialized educational background that the em ployer requires. The field of law makes a difference, too. P at ent law yers, for exam ple, tend to earn more than general corporate a t to rn ey s. Law yers w ith at least a year’s experience working in m anu facturing and business firms earned about $18,000 a year; those with a few y e a rs o f e x p e rie n c e e a rn e d $30,000 or m ore annually. In the Federal Governm ent, annual starting salaries for attorneys in 1977 were $14,097 or $17,056, depending upon academ ic and p erso n al q u alifica tions. Federal attorneys with some experience earned $24,308 or m ore a year. Beginning lawyers engaged in le gal-aid work usually receive the low est startin g salaries. New law yers starting their own practices may earn little more than expenses during the first few years and may need to work part time in other occupations. L aw y ers on salary re c e iv e in creases as they assume greater re sponsibility. Incom es of lawyers in private practice usually grow as their practices develop. Private practition ers who are partners in law firms gen erally ea rn m ore th an those who practice alone. Lawyers often work long hours and are under considerable pressure when a case is being tried. In addi tion, they must keep abreast of the latest laws and court decisions. How ever, since lawyers in private prac tice can determ ine their own hours and workload, many stay in practice well past the usual retirem ent age. Sources of Additional Information Persons considering law as a c a reer will find inform ation on law schools and prelaw study in the Pre law Handbook, published annually (P rinceton, N.J.: Educational T est ing Service). Copies may be available in public or school libraries. In addi tion, many colleges and universities have a prelaw advisor who counsels undergraduates about their un d er graduate course work, the LSAT, law school applications, and other m at ters. Information on law schools and law as a career is available from: Information Services, The American Bar As sociation, 1155 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. (There may be a slight charge for publications.) Information on law school accredi tation is available from: Association of American Law Schools, Suite 370, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For advice on financial aid, co n tact a law school financial aid officer. The specific requirem ents for ad mission to the bar in a particu lar State may be obtained at the State capital from the clerk of the Supreme C ourt or the secretary of the Board of Bar Examiners. MARKETING RESEARCH WORKERS (D.O.T. 050.088) Nature of the Work Businesses require a great deal of information to make sound decisions on how to m arket their products. M arketing research workers provide much of this information by analyz ing available data on products and sales. If additional inform ation is re quired but not available, they con d u ct m arketing surveys, by in te r view ing th o se likely to have the needed data. They also prepare sales fo recasts and m ake reco m m en d a tions on product design and advertis ing. Most m arketing research starts with the collection of facts from sources such as com pany records, published m aterials, and experts on the subject under investigation. For exam ple, m arketing research w ork ers making sales forecasts may begin by studying the growth of sales vol ume in several different cities. This grow th may then be traced to in creases in p o p u latio n , size of the 149 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS com pany’s sales force, or am ount of money spent on advertising. O ther m ark etin g re se a rc h w orkers may study changes in the quantity of com pany goods on store shelves or make door-to-door surveys to get informa tion on com pany products. M arketing research workers often are concerned with custom ers’ opin ions and tastes. For example, to help decide on the design and price of a new line of television sets, marketing research w orkers may survey con sumers to find out what styles and price ranges are most popular. This type of survey usually is supervised by m arketing researchers who spe cialize in consum er goods; that is, m erchandise sold to the general pub lic. They may be helped by statisti cians who select a group (or sample) to be interviewed and “ motivational re s e a rc h ” sp ecialists who phrase questions to produce reliable infor mation. Once the investigation is un derw ay, the m ark etin g researcher may supervise the interview ers as well as direct the office workers who tabulate and analyze the information collected. M arketing surveys on products used by business and industrial firms may be conducted differently from surveys for consum er goods. M arket Digitized forresearchers FRASER ing often conduct the in Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement terviews themselves to gather opin ions of the product. They also may speak to com pany officials about new uses for it. They must therefore have specialized knowledge of both marketing techniques and the indus trial uses of the product. Places of Employment About 25,000 full-time m arketing research workers were employed in 1976. M ost jobs for m arketing re search workers are found in m anu fa c tu rin g co m p a n ie s, ad v e rtisin g agencies, and independent research organizations. Large num bers are employed by stores, radio and televi sion firms, and newspapers; others work for university research centers and governm ent agencies. M arketing research organizations range in size from one-person enterprises to firms with a hundred employees or more. New York City has a large num ber of m arketing research workers. Many m ajor advertising agencies, in dependent m arketing organizations, and central offices of large m anufac tu rers are located th ere. A nother large co n centration is in C hicago. However, marketing research w ork ers are employed in many other cities as well—w herever there are central offices of large m anufacturing and sales organizations. Although a bachelor’s degree usu ally is sufficient for trainees, gradu ate education is necessary for many specialized positions in marketing re search. G raduate study usually is re quired for advancem ent, and a siz able num ber of m arket researchers have a m aster’s degree in business administration or other graduate de gree as well as a bachelor’s degree in marketing. Some people qualify for jobs through previous experience in o th er types of research; university teachers of m arketing or statistics, for example, may be hired to head m arketing research departm ents in business firms or advertising agen cies. B achelor’s programs in marketing and related fields, including courses in statistics, English composition, speech, psychology, and economics, are valuable preparation for work in marketing research. Some marketing research positions require special ized skills such as engineering, or substantial sales experience and a thorough knowledge of the com pa n y ’s products. Knowledge of d ata processing is helpful because of the increasing use of com puters in sales forecasting, distribution, and cost analysis. College graduates may find their first job in any of a num ber of places: in the m arket research departm ent of a large company, with a research firm, in a governm ent planning agency, or even in a university m ar keting departm ent. Trainees usually start as research assistants or junior analysts. At first, they may do considerable clerical work, such as copying data from pub lished sources, editing and coding questionnaires, and tabulating survey returns. They also learn to conduct interviews and write reports on sur vey findings. As they gain experi ence, assistants and junior analysts may assume responsibility for specif ic m arketing research projects, or ad vance to supervisory positions. An exceptionally able w orker may be come m arketing research director or vice p re sid e n t for m arketing and sales. 150 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Either alone or as part of a team , marketing research workers must be able to analyze problems objectively and apply various techniques to their solution. As advisers to m anagem ent, they should be able to write clear reports informing company officials of their findings. Employment Outlook Opportunities should be best for applicants with graduate training in marketing research or statistics. The growing complexity of m arketing re search techniques also may expand o p p ortunities in this field for psy chologists, economists, and other so cial scientists. M arketing research em ploym ent rises as new products and services are developed, particularly when business activity and personal in comes are expanding rapidly. In pe riods of slow economic growth, how e v e r, th e r e d u c e d d e m a n d fo r marketing services may limit the hir ing of research workers. Over the long run, population growth and the increased variety of goods and services that businesses and individuals will require are ex pected to stimulate a high level of marketing activity. As a result, em p lo y m e n t o f m a rk e tin g re se a rc h workers is expected to grow much faster than the average for o th er occupations through the m id-1980’s. C om petition am ong m anufactur ers of both consum er and industrial products will make the appraising of marketing situations increasingly im portant. As techniques improve and statistical data accum ulate, company officials are likely to turn more often to m arketing research workers for in formation and advice. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries for m arketing research trainees were about $11,000 a year in 1976, according to the limited information available. Persons with m aster’s degrees in business adminis tra tio n and related fields usually started with salaries around $15,000 a year. Starting salaries varied ac cording to the type, size, and location of the firm as well as the exact nature of the position. G enerally, though, starting salaries were som ewhat high er and prom otion som ewhat slower than in other occupations requiring similar training. Experienced workers such as sen ior analysts received salaries over $19,000 a year. Earnings were high est, however, for workers in m anage ment positions of great responsibil ity. D irectors of m arketing research earned well over $25,000 a year in 1976. M arketing research workers usual ly work in m odern, centrally located offices. Some, especially those em p loyed by in d e p e n d e n t re se a rc h firm s, m ay trav el for th eir w ork. Also, they may frequently work un der pressure and for long hours to m eet deadlines. Sources of Additional Information A pam phlet, “ C areers in M arket ing” (M onograph Series No. 4), may be purchased for $1.50 from: American Marketing Association, 222 South Riverside Plaza, Chicago, 111. 60606. PERSONNEL AND LABOR RELATIONS WORKERS (D.O.T. 166.088 through .268; 169.118) Nature of the Work Attracting the best employees available and m atching them to the jobs they can do best is im portant for the success of any organization. T o day, most businesses are much too large for close contact between own ers and their employees. Instead, p er sonnel and labor relations workers provide the link betw een m anage m ent and em ployees—assisting m an agement to make effective use of em p lo y e e s ’ s k ills , a n d h e lp in g employees to find satisfaction in their jobs and w orking co n d itio n s. A l though some jobs in this field require only limited contact with people o u t side the office, most involve frequent contact with other people. Dealing with people is an essential part of the job. Personnel workers and labor rela tions workers concentrate on differ en t aspects of em ployer-em ployee relations. Personnel w orkers in ter view, select, and recom m end appli cants to fill job openings. They han dle wage and salary adm inistration, train in g and c a re e r d evelopm en t, and employee benefits. “ Labor rela tions” usually means union-m anage m ent relations, and people who spe cialize in this field work for the m ost part in unionized business firms and governm ent agencies. They help offi cials prepare for collective bargain ing sessions, participate in contract negotiations with the union, and h an dle labor relations m atters that com e up every day. In a small com pany, personnel work consists mostly of interviewing and hiring, and one person usually can handle it all. By contrast, a large organization needs an entire staff, which might include recruiters, inter view ers, co unselors, jo b analysts, wage and salary analysts, education and training specialists, and labor re lations specialists, as well as techni cal and clerical workers. Personnel work often begins with the personnel recruiter or employment interviewer (D.O.T. 166.268), who works on a person-to-person basis with p re sen t and prospective em ployees. Recruiters travel around the country, often to college campuses, in the search for promising job appli cants. Interviewers talk to applicants, and selec t and recom m end those who appear qualified to fill vacan cies. They often adm inister tests to applicants and interpret the results. H iring and p la c e m e n t sp ec ia lists need to be thoroughly familiar with the organization and its personnel policies, for they m ust be prepared to discuss wages, working conditions, and prom otional opportunities with prospective and newly hired em ploy ees. They also need to keep informed about equal em ploym ent opportunity and affirm ative action guidelines. Equal em ploym ent opportunity is a com plex and sensitive area of p e r sonnel work which in some large o r ganizations is h an d led by special EEO counselors or coordinators. The w ork o f e m p lo y m en t co u n se lo rs, which is similar in a num ber of ways, is described in a separate statem ent elsewhere in the Handbook. ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 151 Knowledge of rules and reg u la Job analysts (D.O.T. 166.068) and bility of the personnel departm ent— salary and wage administrators or of the labor relations specialist, if tions pertaining to affirmative action (D.O.T. 169.118) do very exacting the union has a safety representative. and equal opportunity program s is work. Job analysts collect and ana In creasin g ly , h o w ever, th e re is a im portant in public personnel work. lyze detailed information on jobs, job separate safety departm ent under the In 1972, the U.S. Civil Service C om qualifications, and worker character direction of a safety and health p ro mission established a specialization istics in order to prepare job descrip fessional, generally a safety engineer for Federal personnel workers co n tions, sometimes called position clas or industrial hygienist. (The work o f cerned with prom oting equal oppor sifications, that tell exactly what the occupational safety and health w ork tunity in hiring, training, and a d duties of a job are and what training ers is discussed elsew here in the v a n c e m e n t. S im ilar a tte n tio n to equal em ploym ent opportunity, ac and skills it requires. W henever a Handbook.) Labor relations specialists (D.O.T. com panied by a need for qualified government agency or large business firm introduces a new job or evalu 169.118) advise m anagem ent on all staff, is evident in State and local ates existing ones, it calls upon the aspects o f union-m anagem ent rela governm ent agencies. Labor relations is an increasingly expert knowledge of the job analyst. tions. W hen the contract is up for Accurate information about job du n e g o tia tio n , th ey p ro v id e b a c k im portant specialty in public person ground info rm ation and technical nel adm inistration. Labor relations in ties also is req u ired when a firm evaluates its pay system and consid support, a job that requires extensive this field have changed considerably ers changes in wages and salaries. Es knowledge of economics, labor law, in re cen t years, as union strength tablishing and maintaining pay sys and collective bargaining trends. A c am ong g o v e rn m e n t w o rk e rs has tem s is the principal job of wage tual negotiation of the agreem ent is grown. This has created a need for administrators. They devise ways of conducted at the top level, with the more and better trained workers to making sure that pay rates within the director of labor relations or other handle negotiations, grievances, and firm are fair and equitable, and con top-ranking official serving as the arbitration cases on behalf of F eder duct surveys to see how their pay em ployer’s representative, but m em al, State, and local governm ent agen rates com pare with those elsewhere. bers of the com pany’s labor relations cies. Being sure that the firm ’s pay system staff play an im portant role through Places of Employment complies with laws and regulations is out the negotiations. Much o f the everyday work of the another part of the job, one that re In 1976, about 335,000 people quires knowledge of com pensation labor relations staff concerns inter were personnel and labor relations pretation and adm inistration of the workers. Nearly 3 out of 4 worked in structures and labor law. Training specialists supervise or contract, the grievance procedures in private industry, for m anufacturers, conduct training sessions, prepare particular. Members of the labor re banks, insurance com panies, airlines, manuals and other materials for lations staff m ight w ork with the departm ent stores, and other busi these courses, and look into new union on seniority rights under the ness concerns. Some worked for pri methods of training. They also coun layoff procedure set forth in the con vate em ploym ent agencies, including sel employees on training opportuni tract, for example. Later in the day, executive job-search agencies, “ of ties, which may include on-the-job, they might m eet with the union stew fice tem poraries” agencies, and o th apprentice, supervisory, or m anage ard a b o u t a w o rk e r’s g riev a n ce. ers. Doing the job well m eans staying ment training. A large num ber of personnel and Employee-benefits supervisors and abreast o f current developm ents in labor relations workers, over 90,000 other personnel specialists handle labor law, including arbitration deci in 1976, worked for Federal, State, the em ployer’s benefits program, sions, and maintaining continuing li and local governm ent agencies. M ost which often includes health insur aison with union officials. of these were in personnel adminis Personnel workers in governm ent tration; they handled recruitm ent, in ance, life insurance, disability insur ance, and pension plans. These work agencies generally do the same kind terviewing, testing, job classification, ers also coordinate a wide range of of work as those in large business training, and other personnel m atters employee services, including cafete firms. There are some differences, for the N atio n ’s 15 million public rias and snack bars, health rooms, however. Public personnel workers employees. Some were on the staff of re c re a tio n a l facilities, new sletters deal with employees whose jobs are the U.S. Em ploym ent Service and and com m unications, and counseling governed by civil service regulations. State em ploym ent agencies. Still o th for work-related personal problems. Civil service jobs are strictly classi ers worked for agencies that oversee Counseling em ployees who are ap fied as to duties, training, and pay. com pliance with labor laws. Some, proaching retirem ent age is a partic This requires a great deal of em pha for example, were wage-hour com pli ularly im portant part of the job of sis on job analysis and wage and sal ance officers; their work is described ary classification; m any people in in another part of the Handbook, in these workers. public personnel work spend their the statem ent on health and regula O ccupational safety and health programs are handled in various time classifying and evaluating jobs, tory inspectors (G overnm ent). O ther ways. Quite often, in small com pa or devising, adm inistering, and scor public employees in this field carried ing com petitive exam inations given out research in econom ics, labor law, nies especially, accident prevention Digitized forindustrial FRASER safety are the responsi to job applicants. and personnel practices, and related sub 152 jects, and sought new ways of ensur ing that w orkers’ rights under the law are understood and protected. In com parison with private indus try, labor unions do not employ a la rg e n u m b e r o f p ro f e s s io n a lly trained labor relations workers. An elected union official generally han dles labor relations m atters at the company level. At national and inter national union h ead q u arters, how ever, th e re searc h and ed u catio n staff usually includes specialists with a degree in industrial and labor rela tions, economics, or law. A few personnel and labor rela tions w orkers are in business for them selves as m anagem ent consul tants or labor-m anagem ent relations experts. In addition, some people in the field teach college or university courses in personnel adm inistration, industrial relations, and related sub jects. Most jobs for personnel and labor relations workers are located in the highly industrialized sections of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many employers seek to fill begin ning positions in personnel and labor re la tio n s w ith co lleg e g ra d u a te s. Some employers look for graduates who have m ajored in personnel ad m inistration or industrial and labor relations, while others prefer college g rad u ates with a gen eral business background. Still o th er em ployers feel that a well-rounded liberal arts education is the best preparation for personnel work. A college m ajor in personnel adm in istration, political science, or public adm inistration can be an asset in looking for a job with a governm ent agency. At least 200 colleges and universi ties have program s leading to a de gree in the field o f personnel and labor relations. (W hile personnel ad m in istratio n is widely taught, the num ber of programs that focus pri m arily on labor relatio n s is quite small.) In addition, many schools of fer course work in closely related fields. An in terd iscip lin ary b a c k ground is appropriate for work in this area, and a com bination of courses in Digitized FRASERsciences, behavioral sci thefor social OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ences, business, and econom ics is useful. Prospective personnel workers might include courses in personnel m anagem ent, business adm inistra tion, public adm inistration, psychol ogy, sociology, political science, eco nom ics, and statistics. C ourses in labor law, collective bargaining, la bor economics, labor history, and in dustrial psychology provide valuable backgound for the prospective labor relations worker. G raduate study in industrial or la bor relations is often required for work in labor relations. While a law degree seldom is required for jobs at the entry level, most of the people with responsibility for contract nego tiations are lawyers, and a com bina tion of industrial relations courses and a law degree is becoming highly desirable. A college education is im portant, but it is not the only way to enter personnel work. Some people enter the field at the clerical level, and advance to professional positions on the basis of experience. They often find it helpful to take college courses part time, however. New personnel workers usually en ter formal or on-the-job training p ro grams to learn how to classify jobs, interview applicants, or adm inister employee benefits. After the training period, new workers are assigned to specific areas in the com pany’s em ployee relations departm ent. A fter gaining experience, they usually can advance within their own com pany or transfer to another employer. At this point, some people move from personnel to labor relations work. A growing num ber o f people enter the labor relations field directly, as trainees. They usually are graduates of m aster’s degree program s in indus trial relations, or may have a law d e gree. Quite a few people, however, begin in personnel work, gain experi ence in th at area, and subsequently move into a labor relations job. W orkers in the middle ranks o f a large organization often transfer to a top job in a smaller one. Employees with exceptional ability may be p ro moted to executive positions, such as director o f personnel or director o f labor relations. Personnel and labor relations workers should speak and write ef fectively and be able to work with people o f all levels of education and experience. They also must be able to see both the em ployee’s and the em ployer’s points of view. In addi tion, they should be able to work as part of a team. They need superviso ry abilities and must be able to ac cept responsibility. Integrity and fairm indedness are im portant qualities for people in personnel and labor re lations work. A persuasive, congenial personality can be a great asset. Employment Outlook The num ber of personnel and la bor relations workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 1985, as em ployers, increasingly aw are o f the benefits to be derived from good la bor-m anagem ent relations, continue to su p p o rt sound, capably staffed employee relatb ns programs. In ad dition to new jobs created by growth o f the occupation, many openings will becom e available each year be cause of the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Legislation setting standards for em ploym ent practices in the areas of occupational safety and health, equal em ploym ent opportunity, and p en sions has stimulated dem and for p er sonnel and labor relations workers. Continued growth is foreseen, as em ployers throughout the country re view existing program s in each of these areas and, in many cases, estab lish entirely new ones. This has creat ed job opportunities for people with appropriate expertise. The effort to en d d is c rim in a to ry e m p lo y m e n t p ractices, for exam ple, has led to scrutiny o f the testin g , selectio n , p lacem en t, and p ro m o tio n p ro c e dures in many com panies and gov ernm ent agencies. The findings are causing a num ber o f em ployers to modify these procedures, and to take steps to raise the level of profession alism in their personnel departm ents. Substantial em ploym ent growth is foreseen in the area o f public person nel ad m in istra tio n . O p p o rtu n itie s probably will be best in State and local governm ent, areas that are ex ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS pected to experience strong employ ment growth over the next decade. By c o n tra st, F ed eral em ploym ent will grow slowly. M oreover, as union strength am ong public em ployees continues to grow, State and local agencies will need many more work ers qualified to deal with labor rela tions. E nactm ent of collective bar gaining legislation for State and local government employees could greatly stimulate dem and for labor relations workers knowledgeable about public sector negotiations. Although the num ber of jobs in both personnel and labor relations is projected to increase over the next decade, com petition for these jobs also is increasing. Particularly keen competition is anticipated for jobs in labor relations. A small field, labor relations traditionally has been diffi cult to break into, and opportunities are best for applicants with a mas te r’s degree or a strong undergrad uate m ajor in industrial relations, economics, or business. A law degree is an asset. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning job analysts in private industry started at $ 11,200 a year in 1976, according to a Bureau of La bor S tatistics survey. Experienced job analysts earned $19,200 a year, about twice the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. Wage and salary adm inistrators earned about $19,800 and p ersonnel m anagers averaged $21,100, according to a survey con ducted by the Administrative M an agement Society. Top personnel and labor relations executives in large c o rp o ra tio n s ea rn ed considerably more. Average salaries for personnel spe cialists em ployed by State govern m e n ts r a n g e d fro m $ 9 ,9 0 0 to $13,000 a year in 1976, according to a survey conducted by the U.S. Civil Service Commission. Personnel spe cialists who had supervisory respon sibilities averaged from $14,800 to $19,500 and State directors o f per sonnel earned average salaries rang ing from $27,400 to $31,900 a year. In the Federal Governm ent, new graduates with a bachelor’s degree generally started at $9,300 a year in 153 1977. Those with a m aster’s degree started at about $14,100 a year. Av erage salaries of Federal employees in several different areas of person nel work ranged from about $19,300 to $24,500 in 1977, as follows: PUBLIC RELATIONS WORKERS (D.O.T 165.068) Nature of the Work Staffing specialists.......................... Position classifiers.......................... Personnel management specialists.. Employee development specialists..................................... Salary and wage administrators.... Occupational analysts.................... Mediators......................................... $19,300 21,100 21,800 21,800 21.800 24,500 30,800 Federal employees in the field of labor relations had generally com pa rable salaries. L ab o r-m anagem ent and em ployee relations specialists and labor-m anagem ent relations offi cers av erag ed $ 2 1 ,8 0 0 a year in 1977. F ed eral m e d ia to rs’ salaries were higher, about $30,800 a year, on the average. Employees in personnel offices generally work 35 to 40 hours a week. As a rule, they are paid for holidays and vacations, and share in retirem ent plans, life and health in surance plans, and o th er benefits available to all professional workers in their organizations. Sources of Additional Information For general inform ation on careers in personnel and labor relations work, write to: American Society for Personnel Administra tion, 19 Church St., Berea, Ohio 44017. For inform ation concerning a ca reer in employee training and devel opm ent, contact: American Society for Training and Develop ment, P.O. Box 5307, Madison, Wis. 53705. Inform ation about careers in pub lic personnel adm inistration is avail able from: International Personnel Management Associ ation, 1313 E. 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. A brochure describing a career in la b o r-m a n a g e m e n t re la tio n s as a field exam iner is available from: Director of Personnel, National Labor Rela tions Board, 1717 Pennsylvania Ave. NW„ Washington, D.C., 20570. P ublic re la tio n s w o rk ers apply their talen t for com m unication in many different areas. They may han dle press, community, or consum er relations, sales prom otion, political cam paigning, interest-group re p re sentation, fund raising, or employee recruitm ent. The role they play is crucial to im proved understanding and cooperation among the diverse individuals, groups, organizations, and institutions that make up our so ciety. How successfully an organization presents goals and policies may af fect its public acceptance, prosper ity, and even its continued existence. Public relations workers help organi zations build and maintain positive public reputations. Public relations is m ore th an telling the e m p lo y er’s “ story,” however. Understanding the attitudes and concerns of custom ers, employees, and various other “ pub lics”—and com m unicating this infor mation to m anagem ent—is an im por tant part of the job. Public relations departm ents are found in organizations of all kinds, and w orkers m ust tailor their p ro gram s to an em ployer’s particular needs. A public relations director for a college or university, for example, may devote most of his or her ener gies to attracting additional students, while one in a large corporation may handle the em ployer’s relations with stockholders, governm ent agencies, and community groups. Public relations w orkers put to gether inform ation th at keeps the public aware of their em ployer’s ac tivities and accom plishm ents and keeps m anagem ent aware of public attitudes. After preparing the infor mation, they may contact people in the media who might be interested in publicizing their material. Many ra dio or television public service an n o u n c e m e n ts o r sp e c ia l re p o rts , newspaper items, and magazine arti- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 154 Public relations workers help organizations build and maintain a positive public image. cles start at public relations w orkers’ desks. Som etim es the subject is a company and its policies towards its employees or its role in the com m u nity. Often the subject is a public issue, such as health, nutrition, ener gy, or the environm ent. Public relations workers also a r ra n g e an d c o n d u c t p ro g ra m s in which com pany representatives will have direct contact with the public. Such work includes setting up speak ing engagem ents for com pany offi cials and writing speeches for them. These workers often serve as an em ployer’s representative during com munity projects or occasionally may show films at school assemblies, plan conventions, or manage fund-raising campaigns. Public relations staffs in very large firms may num ber 200 or more, but in most firms the staff is much smaller. The director of public rela tions, who is often a vice president, may develop overall plans and poli cies with a top m anagem ent execu tive. In addition, large public rela tions dep artm en ts em ploy w riters, research workers, and other special ists who prepare m aterial for the dif ferent media, stockholders, and o th er publics. W orkers who handle publicity for an individual or direct public rela tions for a university or small busi ness may handle all aspects of the job. They make contacts with people outside the organization, do the n ec essary planning and research, and p re p are m a te ria l for p u b licatio n . These workers may com bine public relations duties with advertising or sales prom otion work; some are toplevel officials and others have lower level positions. The m ost skilled pub lic relations work of making overall plans and maintaining contacts usu ally is done by the departm ent direc to r and highly e x p e rie n c e d sta ff members. Places of Employment About 1 15,000 persons were pub lic relations workers in 1976. M anu facturing firms, public utilities and transportation com panies, insurance com panies, and trade and profession al associations employ many public relations workers. A sizable num ber work for governm ent agencies (the Federal G overnm ent alone employs several thousand public inform ation specialists), or for schools, colleges, museums, and other educational, re ligious, and human service organiza tions. The rapidly expanding health field also offers o p p o rtu n ities for public relations work, in hospitals, p h a r m a c e u tic a l c o m p a n ie s , an d medical associations, for example. A num ber of public relations workers are em ployed by public relatio n s consulting firms which furnish public relations services to clients for a fee. Some work for advertising agencies. Public relations workers are co n centrated in large cities where press services and other com m unications facilities are readily available, and where many businesses and trade as sociations have their headquarters. M ore th an h a lf o f th e estim ated 2,000 public re la tio n s co nsu ltin g firms in the United States are in New Y ork, Los A ngeles, C hicago, and W ashington, D.C. A m ajor tren d , however, is the dispersal of public relations jobs throughout the Nation, including smaller towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college education com bined with public relations experience is an excellent preparation for public rela tions work. Although most beginners have a college degree in journalism , com m unications, or public relations, some employers prefer a background in a field related to the firm ’s busi ness—science, finance, or engineer ing, for example. Some firms want college graduates w ith experien ce working for the news media. In fact, many editors, reporters, and workers in closely related fields enter public relations work. In 1976, about 90 colleges and m ore than 30 graduate schools of fered degree program s or special curriculums in public relations, usually adm inistered by the journalism or com m unications departm ent. In ad dition, about 200 colleges offered at least one course in this field. Courses include public relations theory and 155 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS techniques, organizational com m uni cation, public relations managem ent and administration, practical courses in public relations, and others. Spe cialties are offered in public relations in business, governm ent, and non profit organizations. Persons with a bachelor’s degree in public relations or a related field generally enter staff positions whereas those with a gradu ate degree are more qualified for ad ministrative and managerial jobs. Public relations workers must have considerable ability to gather infor mation, write, speak, and deal effec tively with people. Courses in jo u r n alism , b u sin ess a d m in is tra tio n , psychology, sociology, political sci ence, advertising, English, and public speaking help in preparing for a pub lic relations career. Extracurricular activities such as writing for a school publication or television or radio sta tion provide valuable experience. M any schools help stu d en ts gain part-tim e or summer internships in public relations which provide train ing that can help in com peting for entry positions. M embership in the Public Relations Student Society of America provides an opportunity for students to exchange views with pub lic re la tio n s p ra c titio n e rs and to make professional contacts that may be helpful in later securing a job in the field. A portfolio of published articles, television or radio programs, slide presentations, and other work sa m p les u su a lly is an a ss e t in fin d in g a job. Creativity, initiative, and the abil ity to express thoughts clearly and simply are im portant to the public relations worker. Fresh ideas are so vital in public relations that some ex perts spend all their time developing new ideas, leaving the job of carrying out program s to others. People who choose public rela tions as a career need an outgoing personality, self-confidence, and an understanding of hum an psychology. They should have the enthusiasm necessary to motivate people. Public relations workers need a highly de veloped sense of com petitiveness and the ability to function as part of a team. Public inform ation specialist posi tions in the Federal G overnm ent gen erally require a college degree. Me dia, writing, or editing experience may be quite helpful in gaining such a position. Requirem ents for similar positions in State and local govern ments vary. Some com panies—particularly those with large public relations sta ffs—have form al train in g p ro gram s for new w orkers. In o th e r firms, new employees learn by w ork ing under the guidance of experi enced staff m em bers. Beginners of ten m aintain files of material about company activities, scan newspapers and magazines for appropriate arti cles to clip, and assemble inform a tion for speeches and pamphlets. Af ter gaining experience, they work on more difficult assignments, such as writing press releases, speeches, and a rtic le s fo r p u b lic a tio n . In som e firms, workers get all-round experi ence whereas in other firms, public relations workers tend to specialize. Prom otion to supervisory jobs may come as workers show they can han dle more dem anding and creative as signments. Some experienced public relations workers start their own con sulting firms. The Public Relations Society of America accredits public relations workers who have at least 5 years’ experience in the field and have passed a com prehensive 6-hour ex amination (4 hours written, 2 hours oral). However, because of disagree m ents over the appropriateness of formal licensing requirem ents in this field, such requirem ents are not ex pected in the immediate future. Employment Outlook Employment of public relations workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to new jobs created by this growth, openings will occur every year b e cause of the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Demand for public relations w ork ers may be affected by econom ic conditions, slackening as employers delay expansion or impose staff cuts during business slowdowns. Over the long run, however, expenditures on public relations are expected to in crease substantially. C orporations, associations, and other large organi zations are likely to expand their public relations efforts to gain public support and approval. Com petition for beginning jobs is keen, for public relations work has an aura of glamour and excitem ent that attracts large num bers of jobseekers. Furtherm ore, the num ber of people who transfer into pub lic relations from newspaper, adver tising, or other closely related jobs is e x p e c te d to ex c e e d th e n u m b e r transferring out. This factor should serve to stiffen com petition. Prospects for a career in public relations are best for highly qualified applicants—talented people with sound academic preparation and some media experience. Most open ings are expected to occur in large organizations—corporations, public relations consulting firms, m anufac turing firms, educational institutions, and others. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for college gradu ates beginning in public relations work generally ranged from $7,500 to $10,000 a year in 1976; persons with a g rad u ate degree generally started at a higher salary. The salaries of experienced work ers generally are highest in large or ganizations with extensive public re lations program s. A ccording to a 1976 survey, median annual salaries of public r e la tio n s w o r k e r s w ere as follows: Presidents of public relations consulting firms, $38,000; public in form ation or relations directors and m anagers in the F ed eral G o v e rn ment, $23,500; in State government, $ 1 7 ,0 0 0 ; in lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t, $22,000; in ed u catio n al organ iza tions, $23,500. According to a 1975 survey o f a wide range of firms, pub lic re la tio n s ex e cu tiv es averag ed $29,000-49,000 a year, while public re la tio n s m a n a g e rs a v e ra g e d $21,000-31,000 a year, depending on the annual sales volume of the firm. Many firms offered incentive com pensation. Based on a 1975 sur vey of advertising agencies, public relations directors averaged $20,100 a year, while public relations account executives averaged $15,100. Public relations consulting firms often pay higher salaries than organi- 156 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK zations with their own public rela tions departm ents. Salaries in m anu facturing firms are among the highest while salaries in social welfare agen cies, nonprofit organizations, hospi tals, and universities are among the lowest. In th e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t, bachelor’s degree holders generally started at $9,303 or $1 1,523 a year in 1977, depending upon the appli can t’s academ ic record; m aster’s de gree h o ld ers g en erally sta rte d at $14,097 a year; additional education or experience could qualify appli cants for a higher salary. Public in formation specialists averaged about $24,300 a year in 1977. Although the workweek for public relations staffs usually is 35 to 40 hours, overtime often is necessary to prepare or deliver speeches, attend m eetings and com m unity activities, or travel out of town. Occasionally, the natu re of th eir regular assign ments or special events requires pub lic relations workers to be on call around the clock. Sources of Additional Information For career inform ation and a list of schools offering degrees and courses in the field, write to: Career Information, Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 845 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. an organization’s work may be inter rupted or halted. M aintaining an ade quate supply of items an organization needs to operate is the purchasing agent’s job. Purchasing agents, also called in dustrial buyers, obtain goods and ser vices of the required quality at the lowest possible cost, and see th a t a d e q u a te su p p lies are a v a ila b le . Agents who work for m anufacturing firms buy machinery, raw materials, product com ponents, and services; those working for governm ent agen cies may purchase office supplies, furniture, and business machines. In formation on retail buyers, who p u r chase m erchandise for resale in its original form , is presented in the statem ent on buyers elsewhere in the Handbook. Purchasing agents buy when stocks on hand reach a predeterm ined reo r der point, or when a departm ent in the organization requisitions items it needs. Because agents often can p u r chase from many sources, their main job is selecting the seller who offers the best value. Purchasing agents use a variety of means to select among suppliers. They com pare listings in catalogs and trade journals and telephone suppli ers to get in f o r m a tio n . They a ls o m eet with salespersons to examine sam ples, w atch dem onstrations of equipm ent, and discuss items to be purchased. Frequently agents invite suppliers to bid on large orders; then they select the lowest bidder among those who m eet req u irem en ts for quality of goods and delivery date. In some cases, however, purchas ing agents must deal directly with a m anufacturer to obtain specially de signed item s m ade exclusively for their organization. These agents must have a high degree of technical ex pertise to insure th a t all p ro d u c t specifications are met. It is im p o rtan t th a t p u rchasin g agents develop good business rela tions with their suppliers. This can result in savings on purchases, favor able term s of paym ent, and quick de livery on rush orders or m aterials in short supply. They also work closely with personnel in various d e p a rt ments of their own organization. For example, they may discuss product design with com pany engineers or shipm ent problems with workers in the traffic departm ent. Once an order has been placed with a supplier, the purchasing agent makes periodic checks to insure that it will be delivered on time. This is necessary to prevent work flow inter ruptions due to lack of materials. Af ter an o r d e r has been received and inspected, the purchasing agent au thorizes paym ent to the shipper. C urrent inform ation on the public relations field, salaries, and o th er items is available from: PR Reporter, Dudley House, P.O. Box 600, Exeter, N.H. 03833. For additional inform ation on job opp o rtu n ities and the public rela tions field in general, write to: Service Department, Public Relations News, 127 East 80th St., New York, N.Y. 10021. PURCHASING AGENTS (D.O.T. 162.158) Nature of the Work If m aterials, supplies, or eq u ip ment are not on hand when needed, Purchasing agents must develop good business relations with their suppliers. 157 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Because of its im portance, p u r chasing usually is designated as a separate responsibility within an or ganization. In a large firm or govern ment agency, purchasing agents usu ally specialize in one or more specific item s—for exam ple, steel, lum ber, cotton, or petroleum products. The ag en ts are divided into sectio n s, headed by assistant purchasing m an agers, th a t are resp o n sib le for a group o f related com m odities. In smaller organizations, agents gener ally are assigned certain categories of goods, such as all raw materials or all office supplies, furniture, and busi ness machines. Places of Employment About 190,000 persons worked as purchasing agents in 1976. Over half worked in m anufacturing industries. Large num bers also were employed by governm ent agencies, construc tio n c o m p a n ie s , h o s p ita ls , an d schools. About half of all purchasing agents work in organizations that have few er than five employees in the pur chasing d e p a rtm e n t. M any large business firms and governm ent agen cies, however, have m uch larger pur chasing departm ents; some employ as many as 100 specialized buyers or more. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no universal educational requirem ents for entry level jobs, most large com panies now require a college degree, and prefer applicants with a m aster’s degree in business adm inistration. Training re quirem ents vary with the needs of the firm. For example, com panies that m anufacture complex machinery or chemicals may prefer applicants with a background in engineering or sci ence, while o th er com panies hire business adm inistration or liberal arts majors for trainee jobs. Courses in purchasing, accounting, econom cs, and statistics are very helpful. Famil iarity with the com puter and its uses also is desirable. Small com panies generally have less rigid educational requirem ents because they often purchase less complex goods in much smaller quantities. Some require a bachelor’s degree; many others, however, hire graduates of associate degree p ro grams in purchasing for entry level jobs. Prom otion of clerical workers or technicians into purchasing jobs is much m ore common in small firms. Regardless of size of com pany, a col lege degree is becoming increasingly im portant for advancem ent to m an agement positions. The purchasing agent must be able to analyze num bers and technical data in order to make buying deci sions and tak e re sp o n sib ility fo r spending large am ounts of money. The job requires the ability to work independently and a good memory for details. In addition, a purchasing agent m ust be tactful in dealing with salespersons and able to m otivate others. Regardless of their educational background, beginning purchasing agents initially spend considerable time learning about com pany opera tions and purchasing p ro c ed u re s. They may be assigned to the store keeper’s section to learn about the purchasing system , inventory re c ords, and storage facilities. Next they may work with experienced buyers to learn a b o u t ty p es o f goods p u r chased, prices, and suppliers. Following the initial training peri od, junior purchasing agents are giv en the responsibility for purchasing standard and catalog items. As they gain experience and develop exper tise in their assigned areas, they may be prom oted to purchasing agent, then senior purchasing agent. W ork ers with proven ability can move into a job as assistant purchasing m anager in charge of a group of purchasing agents and then advance to m anager of the entire purchasing departm ent. M any pu rch asin g m anagers m ove into executive positions as director o f purchasing or director of m aterials m anagem ent. Continuing education is essential for purchasing agents who want to advance in their careers. Purchasing agents are encouraged to participate in frequent seminars offered by p ro fe s s io n a l s o c ie tie s an d to ta k e courses in purchasing at local colleg es and universities. The recognized m ark of experience and professional com petence in private industry is the d esig n a tio n C ertifie d P u rch asin g M anager (CPM ). This designation is conferred by the N ational Associ ation o f Purchasing M anagem ent, In c ., upo n c a n d id a te s who have passed four exam inations and who m eet educational and experience re quirem ents. In governm ent agencies, the indication of professional com pe tence is the designation C ertified Public Purchasing Officer (C PPO ), which is conferred by the National Institute of G overnm ental Purchas ing, Inc. The CPPO is earned by pass ing two exam inations and m eeting educational and experience require ments. Employment Outlook Employment of purchasing agents is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Several thousand jobs will be open every year due to growth of the occupation and the need to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other work. O pportunities will be excellent for persons with a m aster’s degree in business adm inistration. Persons with a bachelor’s degree in engineering, science, or business adm inistration whose college program included one course or m ore in purchasing also should have bright prospects. G radu ates of 2-year program s in purchas ing should continue to find ample op p o r t u n i t ie s , a lth o u g h th e y w ill probably be limited to small firms. Demand for purchasing agents is expected to rise as their im portance in reducing costs is increasingly rec ognized. In large industrial organiza tions, the purchasing departm ent will be expanded in order to handle the growing complexity of m anufactur ing p ro cesses. In co m panies th a t m anufacture complex items such as industrial engines and turbines, elec tro n ic c o m p u te r e q u ip m e n t, and com m unications equipm ent, th ere will be a growing need for persons with a technical background to select highly technical goods. Many opportunities also should occur in firms providing personal, business, and professional services. Strong growth is expected for this sector of the economy, and a growing num ber of hospitals, school districts, and other relatively small employers OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 158 are recognizing the im portance of professional purchasers in reducing their operating costs. Earnings and Working Conditions College graduates hired as junior purchasing agents in large firms earned about $ 11,700 a year in 1976, according to surveys conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and Purchasing Magazine. Experienced agents purchasing standard items av eraged about $14,200 a year; senior p u rch asin g agents sp ecializing in complex or technical goods averaged about $17,000. Assistant purchasing m anagers received average salaries of about $20,000 a year, while m an agers of a purchasing departm ent re ceived about $24,700. Many corpo ra te d ir e c to r s o f p u rc h a s in g o r m aterials m anagem ent earned well over $50,000 a year. Salaries gener ally are higher in large firms where responsibilities often are greater. In 1976, earnings of purchasing agents were about 1 1/2 times as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Governm ent, begin ning purchasing agents who had col leg e d e g r e e s e a rn e d $ 9 ,3 0 0 or $11,500 in 1977, depending on scho lastic achievem ent and relevant work experience. The average salary for all purchasing agents in the Federal Ser vice was $20,500. Salary levels vary widely am ong State governm ents; ho w ev er, averag e earnings range from $10,600 to $13,900 for p u r chasers of standard items, $14,200 to $18,800 for senior buyers purchasing highly complex items, and $21,000 to $26,000 for State purchasing di rectors. URBAN PLANNERS (D.O.T. 199.168) Nature of the Work Urban planners, often called com munity or regional planners, develop p ro g ra m s to p ro v id e fo r fu tu re growth and revitalization of urban, su b u rb an , and rural com m unities. They help local officials make deci sions to solve social, econom ic, and environm ental problems. Planners examine com m unity fa cilities such as h ealth clinics and schools to be sure these facilities can m eet the dem ands placed upon them . They also keep abreast of the legal issues involved in community devel o p m e n t o r r e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d changes in housing and building codes. Because suburban growth has increased the need for better ways o f traveling to the urban center, the planner’s job often includes design ing new transportation and parking facilities. Urban planners prepare for situ ations or needs that are likely to d e v elop as a re s u lt o f p o p u la tio n g ro w th o r so c ia l a n d e c o n o m ic change. They estim ate, for example, the com m unity’s long-range needs for housing, transportation, and busi ness and industrial sites. W orking within a fram ework set by the com m unity g o v ern m en t, they analyze and p ro p o se a lte rn a tiv e ways to Places of Employment Sources of Additional Information Further inform ation about a career in purchasing is available from: National Association of Purchasing Manage ment, Inc., 11 Park Place, New York, N.Y. 10007. National Institute of Governmental Purchas ing, Inc., 1001 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. achieve more efficient and attractive urban areas. Before preparing plans for longrange com m unity developm ent, u r ban planners prepare detailed studies that show the currentTise of land for residential, business, and com m unity purposes. These reports present in formation such as the arrangem ent of streets, highways, and w ater and sew er lines, and the location of schools, libraries, and playgrounds. They also provide inform ation on the types of industries in the com m unity, charac teristics o f the population, and em ployment and economic trends. With this inform ation, urban planners p ro pose ways of using undeveloped land and design the layout of recom m end ed buildings and other facilities such as subways. They also prepare m ate rials that show how their programs can be carried out and the approxi m ate costs. Urban planners often confer with private land developers, civic lead ers, and officials of public agencies th at do specialized planning. They may prepare m aterials for com m uni ty relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legisla tive com m ittees to explain and de fend their proposals. In small organizations, urban plan ners must be able to do several kinds of work. In large organizations, plan ners usually specialize in areas such as physical design, com m unity rela tions, or the reconstruction of ru n down business districts. Urban planners view the present and fu ture development of the east coast. About 16,000 persons were urban planners in 1976. M ost work for city, county, or regional planning agen cies. A grow ing n u m b er are em ployed by States or by the Federal G overnm ent in agencies dealing with housing, transportation, or environ m ental protection. Many planners do consulting work, either part time in addition to a regular job, or full tim e working for a firm that provides services to private developers or governm ent agencies. Urban planners also work for large land developers or research organi zations and teach in colleges and uni versities. 159 ADMINISTRATIVE AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers often seek workers who have advanced training in urban planning. Most entry jobs in Federal, State, and local governm ent agencies require 2 years of graduate study in urban or regional planning, or the equivalent in work experience. Al though the m aster’s degree in plan ning is the usual requirem ent at the entry level, some people who have a bach elo r’s degree in city planning, architecture, landscape architecture, or engineering may qualify for begin ning positions. In 1976, over 80 colleges and uni versities gave a m aster’s degree in urban planning. A lthough students holding a bachelor’s degree in archi tecture or engineering may earn a m aster’s degree after 1 year, most graduate programs in urban planning require 2 or 3 years to com plete. G raduate students spend consider able time in workshops or laboratory courses learning to analyze and solve urban planning problem s. Students often are required to work in a plan ning office part time or during the summer while they are earning the graduate degree. Candidates for jobs in Federal, State, and local governm ent agencies usually must pass civil service exami nations to becom e eligible for ap pointment. Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and to visualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should be flexible in their approaches to problem s and be able to cooperate with others and reconcile different viewpoints to achieve constructive policy recom mendations. After a few years’ experience, ur ban planners may advance to assign ments requiring a high degree of in d e p e n d e n t j u d g m e n t , su c h as outlining proposed studies, designing the physical layout of a large devel opm ent, or recom m ending policy, program , and budget options. Some are prom oted to jobs as planning di rectors, and spend a great deal of time m eeting with officials in other o rg a n iz a tio n s , sp e a k in g to civic groups, and supervising other profes sio n als. F u rth e r a d v a n c e m e n t is more difficult at this level and often occurs through a transfer to a large city, where the problem s are more com plex and th e re sp o n sib ilitie s greater. Employment Outlook Employment of urban planners is expected to grow faster than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to openings created by future growth of this rela tively small occupation, some jobs will open up because of the need to re p la ce p lan n ers who leave th eir jobs. Future growth of the occupation will depend to a great extent on the availability of money for urban plan ning projects. Growth in Federal sup port for State and local community developm ent, urban restoration, and land use planning program s should in cre ase re q u ire m e n ts fo r u rb an p lan n ers. M any o p p o rtu n itie s for planners should arise in fields in which they have not traditionally been employed, such as environm en tal and social service planning. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for urban planners r a n g e d b e tw e e n $ 1 1 ,0 0 0 a n d $14,000 a year in 1976. Planners with a m aster’s degree were hired by the Federal G overnm ent at $14,097 a year in 1977. In some cases, p er sons having less th an 2 years of graduate work could enter Federal service as interns at yearly salaries of either $9,303 or $ 1 1,523. State governm ents paid urban planners average beginning salaries of about $ 11,000 a year in mid-1976, although planners started at more than $14,000 in some States. Salaries of experienced State planners ranged from an average minimum of nearly $16,000 a year to an average maxi mum of more than $21,000 a year. Salaries of State planning directors ranged from an average minimum of about $24,000 to an average maxi mum of nearly $28,000 in m id-1976. City, county, and other local gov ernm ents paid urban planners aver age s ta r tin g s a la r ie s e x c e e d in g $14,000 in 1976, alth o u g h som e communities in the East and South paid less. In 1976, experienced urban and re g io n a l p la n n e rs g en e rally earned m ore than one and one-half times as much as the average earn ings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Most planners have sick leave and vacation benefits and are covered by re tire m e n t and h e a lth plans. A l though m ost city planners have a scheduled w orkw eek of 40 hours, they sometimes work in the evenings and on weekends to attend meetings with citizens’ groups. Sources of Additional Information Facts about careers in planning and a list of schools offering training are available from: American Institute of Planners, 1776 Massa chusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Society of Planning Officials, 1313 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. SERVICE OCCUPATIONS W orkers in service occupations perform a wide variety of tasks rang ing from policing streets and fighting fires to serving food and cleaning buildings. In 1976, about 12 million people w ere em ployed in service jobs. T he m ajor groups of service occupations are discussed below: Food service occupations. The larg est group of service workers, almost 4 million persons in 1976, prepared and served food in restaurants, cafe terias, schools, hospitals, and other institutions. W orkers in this group included cooks and chefs, w aiters and w a itre s s e s , b a r te n d e r s , and kitchen workers. Cleaning and related occupations. W orkers in these occupations clean and m aintain buildings such as apart m ent houses, schools, and offices. Almost 2.3 million persons were em ployed in these jobs in 1976. The group included janitors, building cus todians, and pest controllers. Health service occupations. More than 1.7 million persons were em ployed as health service workers in Service occupations, 1976 Digitized 1 6 0for FRASER jobs such as practical nurse or hospi tal attendant. Most of these workers were em ployed in hospitals, but some worked in doctors’ or dentists’ offic es. Personal service occupations. W orkers in this group range from barbers and cosmetologists to ski in structors and theater ushers. A bout 1.6 million persons were employed in personal service jobs. Protective and related service occu pations. A bout 1.3 million persons were em ployed to safeguard lives and property in 1976. The majority were police officers, guards, or firefight ers. Most police officers and d etec tives w ere governm ent em ployees, but some worked for hotels, stores, and other businesses. Guards, anoth er large group of protective service em ployees, worked chiefly for p ri vate com panies to protect com pany property and enforce com pany rules and regulations. Firefighters worked mainly for city governments. The re maining protective service workers were sheriffs and bailiffs, crossing guards and bridge tenders, and m ar shals and constables. Private household service occupa tions. Most of the 1.1 million private h o u se h o ld w o rk e rs em p lo y ed in 1976 w ere dom estic w orkers who cleaned their em ployer’s hom e, p re pared meals, and cared for children. Some worked as launderers, caretak ers, and companions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement T raining and skill req u irem en ts differ greatly among the various ser vice occupations. FBI special agents, for example, must have a college de gree. B arbers and cosm etolo g ists need specialized vocational training. Still other occupations—household worker, building custodian, and hotel bellhop, for exam ple—have no spe cific educational requirem ents for entry, although a high school diplo ma is always an advantage. For many service occupations, personality traits and special abilities may be as im portant as formal schooling. Thus, physical strength and endurance are a necessity for work as a porter, lifeguard, or win dow cleaner; and a pleasing m anner and appearance are especially im por tant for a waiter or waitress, elevator o p e ra to r, or usher. O th er service workers, such as store and hotel de tectives and travel guides, need good judgm ent and should be skillful in dealing with people. Some service workers eventually go into business for themselves as caterers or restaurant operators, for example, or proprietors of barber or beauty shops. A dvancem ent from service occupations that require little training or skill may be difficult for people w ithout a good basic educa tion and some knowledge of the busi ness in which they work. SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 161 More than 12 million people work in service occupations Employment, 1976 (in millions) Food service Cleaning service *<• Health service Personal service Protective service Private household workers Source: Bureau of Labor Statists Employment Outlook Employment in the service occu pations is expected to grow at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. The n um ber of private household workers, however, has declined since the m id-1960’s and this trend is ex pected to continue despite a strong dem and for these workers. If private h o u se h o ld w o rk ers are ex clu d ed from the total, service workers show a faster than average rate of growth. Most of the future em ploym ent in crease is expected to be among the health care and protective service occupations. Population growth and the aging of the population will cre ate more dem and for all health care occupations. M ore police officers and guards will be needed in the fu ture as population increases and the need for protection against crim e, th eft, and vandalism continues to grow. Rising incomes, increasing lei sure time, and the growing num ber of women who combine family respon sibilities and a job are likely to cause the num ber of cooks and chefs to grow faster than the average. The following sections of the Handbook contain detailed inform a tion on most of the service occupa tions m entioned here. Others are de scribed in the industry statem ents on government; transportation, com m u nications, and public utilities; whole sale and retail trade; and service and miscellaneous industries. The health service occupations are included in the section on health care occupa tions, and statem ents on m eatcutters, pest controllers, and funeral direc tors can be found elsewhere in the Handbook. CLEANING AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Every public building and ap art ment house needs to be kept clean and in good condition for the com fort and safety of the people who work or live there. M uch of this work is done by persons in cleaning and related occupations. These workers may clean floors and windows in hos pitals, change linens in hotels, repair broken faucets in apartm ents, or ex term inate insects and rodents in of fice buildings. W orkers in these occupations usu ally learn their skills on the job, but other training is som etimes available. Building custodians may attend train ing program s offered by unions and governm ent agencies; hotel house keepers may take courses in house keeping procedures and interior de sign o ffe re d by th e ir e m p lo y e r. W orkers who learn their jobs thor oughly and show that they can han dle responsibility may advance to su pervisory positions. Besides a knowledge of their job, these workers must be courteous, tactful, and neat if their job requires contact with the public. Some p er form m onotonous and tiring tasks, such as scrubbing and waxing floors, and must be able to stand the bore dom of the job. This section describes three clean ing and related occupations: build ing custodians, pest controllers, and hotel housekeepers and assistants. BUILDING CUSTODIANS (D.O.T. 187.168, 381.137 and .887; 382.884, 891.138) Nature of the Work Building cu sto d ian s, som etim es called janitors or cleaners, keep of fice buildings, hospitals, stores, and apartm ent houses clean and in good 162 condition. They see that heating and ventilating equipm ent work properly, clean floors and windows, and do other necessary m aintenance tasks. On a typical day, a custodian may wet- or dry-mop floors, vacuum c a r pets, dust furniture, make m inor re pairs, and exterm inate insects and ro dents. Custodians use many different tools and cleaning materials. For one job they may need a mop and bucket; for another an electric polishing m a chine and a special cleaning solution. Chemical cleaners and power equip m ent have made many tasks easier and less time consuming, but custodi ans m ust know how to use them properly to avoid harming floors and fixtures. Some custodians supervise a group of custodial workers and are respon sible for m aintaining a section of a building or an entire building. They assign tasks to each worker, give in structions, and see that jobs, such as floor waxing or window washing, are done well. Places of Employment tic and be able to follow instructions. High school shop courses are helpful because minor plumbing or carp en try work may be a part of the job. Most building custodians learn their skills on the job. Usually, begin ners do routine cleaning and are giv en more com plicated duties as they gain experience. In some cities, unions and govern ment agencies have developed p ro grams to teach custodial skills. Stu dents learn how to clean buildings thoroughly and efficiently, and how to operate and m aintain m achines, such as wet and dry vacuums, buff ers, and polishers that they will use on the job. Instruction in m inor elec trical, plumbing, and other repairs is also given. As part of their training, students learn to plan their work, to deal with people in the buildings they clean, and to work without supervi sion. Building custodians usually find work by answering new spaper adver tisements, applying directly to a com pany where they would like to work, or applying to a building m ain te nance service. They also get jobs through State em ploym ent offices. Custodial jobs in the governm ent are obtained by applying to the civil ser vice personnel headquarters. Advancem ent opportunities for custodial workers are usually limited because the custodian is the only m aintenance worker in many build ings. W here there is a large m ainte- In 1976, m ore than 2.1 m illion people worked as building custodi ans. O ne-third worked part time. Most custodians worked in office buildings and factories, but schools, apartm ent houses, and hospitals also employed many. Some worked for firm s supplying b u ild in g m a in te nance services on a contract basis. Although custodial jobs can be found in all cities and towns, m ost are located in highly populated areas where there are many office build ings, stores, and apartm ent houses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No special education is required for most custodial jobs, but the b e ginner should know simple arithm e One-third of all building custodians work part time. 163 CLEANING AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS nance staff, however, custodians can be prom oted to supervisory jobs. A high school diplom a im proves the chances for advancem ent. Some cus todians go into the m aintenance busi ness for themselves. Building custodians spend most of their time on their feet, sometimes lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equipm ent. Many tasks, such as dust ing or sw eeping, require co n stan t bending, stooping, and stretching. Employment Outlook Sources of Additional Information Employment opportunities in this occupation are expected to be good through the m id-1980’s. The need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the o cc u p atio n will c re a te many jobs each year. C onstruction of new office buildings, hospitals and apartm ent houses will cause employ ment of custodians to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions. Persons seeking part-tim e or eve ning work can expect to find many opportunities. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, building custodians aver aged $3.63 an hour, which is about three-fourths as much as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farm ing. Earnings, however, vary by in d u stry and a re a o f th e c o u n try . Workers in large cities of the N orth east and North C entral regions usual ly earn the highest wages. Custodians working in the Federal G overnm ent are paid at the same rates offered by private industries in the local area. Most building service workers re ceive paid holidays and vacations, and health insurance. Because most office buildings are cleaned while they are empty, custo dians often work evening hours. In buildings requiring 24-hour m ainte nance, custodians may work a night shift. Although custodians usually work inside heated, well-lighted buildings, they sometimes work outdoors sweeping walkways, mowing lawns, or shoveling snow. W orking with m a chines can be noisy and some tasks, such as cleaning bathroom s and trash rooms, can be dirty. Custodial work ers often suffer minor cuts, bruises, and burns from machines, handtools, Digitized FRASER andforchemicals. Inform ation about custodial jobs and training opportunities may be obtained from the local office of your State em ploym ent service. For general information on job op portunities in local areas, contact: Service Employees International Union, 2020 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. HOTEL HOUSEKEEPERS AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 321.138) Nature of the Work A hotel’s or m otel’s reputation d e pends on how well it serves its guests. Although some offer economical ac c o m m o d a tio n s and o th e rs stress luxurious surroundings and attentive service, all are concerned with their guests’ com fort. Hotel housekeepers are responsible for keeping hotels and m otels clean and attractive and providing guests with the necessary furnishings and supplies. It is their job to hire, train, schedule, and su pervise the housekeeping staff, in cluding linen and laundry workers, and repairers. They also keep em ployee records and order supplies. About 17,000 persons worked as ho tel housekeepers in 1976. Housekeepers who work in small or middle-sized establishm ents may not only supervise the housekeeping staff, but perform some of these du ties them selves. In large or luxury hotels, their jobs are primarily ad ministrative and they are frequently called executive or head housekeep ers. Besides supervising a staff that may num ber in the hundreds, execu tive housekeepers prepare the bud get for their departm ents; submit re ports to the general m anager on the condition of rooms, needed repairs, and suggested im provem ents; and purchase supplies and furnishings. Executive housekeepers are assisted by floor housekeepers, who supervise the cleaning and m aintenance of one or several floors in the hotel, and assistan t executive h o u sek e ep ers, who help with the adm inistrativ e work. Some large hotel and motel chains assign executive housekeepers to special jobs, such as reorganizing housekeeping procedures in an es tab lish ed hotel o r setting up the Hotel housekeepers are responsible for keeping hotels and motels clean and attractive. 164 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK housekeeping departm ent in a new motel. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A lthough th ere are no specific educational requirem ents for house keepers, most em ployers prefer ap plicants who have at least a high school diploma. Experience or train ing in h o tel hou sek eeping also is helpful in getting a job. Several colleges, junior colleges, and technical insititutes offer instruc tion in hotel adm inistration that in clu d es c o u rses in h o u se k e e p in g ; some of these courses are offered in sum m er or evening classes. Many schools have d ev elo ped program s under the guidance and approval of the National Executive H ousekeep ers Association, an organization that confers certified m em bership status upon those mem bers who com plete certain education and experience re quirements. In addition, the Am eri can Hotel and M otel Association of fers courses for either classroom or home study. Most helpful are courses on housekeeping; personnel m anage m ent; b udget prep aration; re c o rd keeping; interior decoration; safety practices; environm ental controls; and the purchase, use, and care of different types of equipm ent and fab rics. Executive housekeepers should be good at planning and organizing work and must be able to get along well with people, especially those they supervise. H ousekeepers also should like to work independently and be able to keep records and analyze numbers. Although assistant housekeepers may be prom oted to executive housekeepers after several years of experience, opportunities are limited because only one executive house keeper job is available in any hotel or motel. Those with degrees or courses in institutional housekeeping m an agement may have the best advance ment opportunities. ings will result from the need to re place w orkers who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Because established hotels usually fill vacancies by prom oting assistant h o u sekeepers to executive ho u se keepers, beginners will find their best job opportunities in newly built m o tels or hotels. See the statem ent on the Hotel Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for inform ation on earnings and working conditions, sources of addi tional inform ation, and more infor mation on the em ploym ent outlook. PEST CONTROLLERS (D.O.T. 389.781 and 389.884) Nature of the Work Rats, m ice, and com m on house hold insects such as flies and roaches contam inate food and spread sick ness; term ites can eat away houses. Protection of our health and proper ty from these pests is the job of p ro fessional pest controllers, who are classified either as pest control route w orkers or term ite specialists. A l though these fields o f work are sepa rate, many controllers do both. Often working alone, a pest co n trol route worker usually begins the day by making sure the route truck has the necessary pesticides, spray ers, traps, and other supplies for ser vicing custom ers’ facilities. With the supervisor’s instructions, the route worker starts out to visit the 5 to 15 custom ers on the route list. A route worker generally services restaurants, hotels, food stores, homes, and other facilities that have problems with rats, mice, or insects. Com mercial custom ers commonly have service contracts calling for regular visits, such as once a month. Service to homes usually is less fre quent, or only as required. A route worker, who must know pests’ habits and hiding places, care fully inspects the facility to d e te r mine the extent of the pest problem . Employment Outlook Employment of hotel housekeep ers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Most open Pest controllers know the habits and hiding places of different insects. CLEANING AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS To eliminate pests and prevent their return, the route worker sprays pesti cides in and around areas such as cabinets and sinks where insects usu ally live, and sets traps and poisonous bait near areas where rats or mice nest and along paths they travel. While regular visits are of help, the route worker may suggest to custom ers ways to eliminate conditions that attract pests. They may, for example, recommend replacing damaged gar bage containers, sealing open food containers, and repairing cracks in walls. Term ite specialists are pest con trollers who work to eliminate ter mites and prevent them from reach ing wood stru ctu res. T erm ites eat wood. W ith o u t p ro p e r co n tro ls, these insects can go virtually unno ticed while they severely undermine the wood structure of a home or oth er building. Termite specialists, usually work ing in pairs, can effectively control term ites by providing a barrier be tw een th e te rm ite s ’ u n d erg ro u n d colonies and the wood structure. The most common barrier is term ite poi son. To provide a poisonous barrier, they stick a steel nozzle into the ground and pump poison through a hose attached to the nozzle. Pumping forces the poison through the holes in the nozzle and into the soil. They repeat the process at numerous points around the foundation. To reach soil beneath or behind cem ent or other surfaces, they drill holes through the surface, insert the nozzle into the soil, and pump in the poison. W orkers then seal these holes with cement. Specialists also may spray poison directly to the w ood’s surface. This is done commonly on older, all wood structures. Since term ites will not cross poi sonous areas, those term ites in the ground must find food elsewhere or starve while those trap p ed in the wood stru c tu re die from lack o f m oisture. Because barriers last for y ears, te rm ite sp ec ia lists seldom need to revisit a treated facility. Termite specialists sometimes have to alter buildings to prevent pests from returning. For example, they may remove and rebuild foun 1 65 dations or insulate w ood-to-earth contacts with concrete. Helpers assist term ite specialists by digging around and underneath houses, helping set up and operate equipm ent, mixing cem ent, and doing general cleanup work. Some highly experienced special ists inspect houses for term ites, esti m ate costs, and explain the proposed work to custom ers. In most exterm i nating firms, however, managers, su pervisors, or pest control sales w ork ers do these jobs. Places of Employment M ore than half of the estim ated 27,000 pest controllers employed in 1976 were route workers; the rest were term ite specialists and com bi nation route workers-term ite special ists. Most pest controllers work for or own firms that specialize in this ser vice. A small num ber work for Fed eral, State, and local governments. Jobs in this field can be found th ro u g h o u t the co u n try . E m ploy m ent, how ever, is concentrated in major m etropolitan areas and large towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement B eginning p e st c o n tro lle rs are trained by supervisors and experi enced w orkers. Many large firms also provide several weeks of train ing, w hich includes classes on the characteristics of term ites or other pests, the safe and effective use of pesticides, custom er relations, and the preparation of work records. To aid beginners, many employers p ro vide training manuals. Beginners gain practical experience by helping pest control route workers or term ite spe cialists on the job. They can learn many of the basic concepts for pest control within 2 or 3 months. At this stage, however, they lack the experi ence to work alone. Almost all States require pest con trollers to pass a written test dem on strating com petent and safe use of pesticides. Those few States not re quiring a written test are expected within the next 3 years to pass legisla tion that would require pest control lers to pass a similar test. C urrently, about 30 States require pest control lers be licensed, which in most States is only for registration. Employers prefer trainees who are high school graduates, have safe driv ing records, and are in good health. Many firms require their employees to be bonded; applicants for these jobs must have a record of honesty and respect for the law. Because route workers frequently deal with customers, employers look for appli cants who are courteous, tactful, and w ell-groom ed. T erm ite specialists need manual dexterity and m echani cal ability. Some firms give aptitude tests to determ ine an applicant’s suit ability for the work. High school courses in chemistry and business arithm etic provide a helpful background for pest control lers. Students interested in becoming route workers also may benefit from courses in sales. Those interested in becoming term ite specialists can gain v a lu a b le e x p e r ie n c e by ta k in g courses related to building construc tion such as carpentry. Experienced workers with ability can advance to higher paying posi tions, such as service m anager or pest-control sales worker. Employment Outlook Employment of pest controllers is expected to grow faster than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to the jobs resulting from em ploym ent growth, th e n eed to re p la c e ex p e rien ce d workers who retire or die or transfer to other occupations also will create many job openings. Because pests reproduce rapidly and tend to develop resistance to pesticides, their control is a neverending problem. Population growth and further congestion of m etropoli tan areas will add to the need for more pest controllers. The deterio ration o f older buildings also is in creasing the need for these workers since buildings becom e more prone to infestation as they age. Earnings and Working Conditions The starting pay for inexperienced trainees ranged from $3 to $4 an 166 hour in 1976, based on the limited inform ation available. Earnings of experienced pest controllers ranged from $5 to $8 an hour. Some route workers are paid an hourly rate or weekly salary. Others receive a commission based upon charges to customers. Nearly all ter mite specialists are paid an hourly rate or weekly salary. On the average, pest controllers work 40 to 44 hours a week. During spring and summer, however, hours may be longer because pests are more prevalent. Most work is done during the day. Route workers, how ever, occasionally work nights b e cause many restaurants and stores do not want them to work while custom ers are present. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Pest controllers work both indoors and outdoors in all kinds of weather. They frequently lift and carry equip ment and m aterials, but most items weigh less than 50 pounds. Route workers also do a great deal of walk ing and driving. Term ite specialists occasionally must crawl under build ings and work in dirty, cram ped spac es. W orkers in these occupations are subject to some hazards. Although most pesticides are not harmful to hum ans, some can cause injury if they are inhaled or left on the skin. Such injuries, however, are avoided if safety precautions are followed. Term ite specialists risk injury from power tools and sharp or rough m ate rials in buildings. Pest controllers are on their own to a great extent. They do not work under strict supervision and, within limits, may decide how they will han dle a job. Sources of Additional Information Further inform ation about oppor tunities in this field is available from local exterm inating com panies and the local office of the State em ploy m ent service. General information a b o u t th e w ork can be o b ta in e d from: National Pest Control Association, Inc., 8150 Leesburg Pike, Vienna, Va. 22180. waitresses, cooks and chefs, and b ar tenders are presented in the state m ents that follow. FOOD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS BARTENDERS Food service workers make up one of the largest and fastest growing occupational groups in the N ation’s labor force. T here are m ore than four times as many persons employed in food service as there are in auto m o b ile m a n u fa c tu rin g and steel m anufacturing com bined. In 1976, about 3.9 million persons were em ployed in food service, mostly in res taurants, hotels, factory and school cafeterias, and catering firms. Job o p p o rtu n itie s exist alm ost ev ery where and for almost any interested person, including those with limited skills. There are no specific educational requirem ents for most food service w o rk an d sk ills u su a lly can be learned on the job. Many restaurants hire inexperienced persons for jobs as dining room attendants, dishwash ers, food co u n ter w orkers, waiters and waitresses, and bartenders. Ex perience sometimes is needed, how ever, to get one of these jobs in a large restaurant or catering firm. Per sons who want to becom e cooks usu ally must have some prior experience in a food service occupation, such as kitchen helper or assistant cook. Ex perienced workers may advance to food service m anager, m aitre d ’hotel, head cook, or chef. Vocational schools, both public and private, offer courses in cooking, catering, and bartending. E m ploy m ent of food service workers is ex pected to increase faster than the av erage for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. The dem and for these workers will increase as new restau rants, cafeterias, and bars open in response to population growth and increased spending for food and bev erages outside the home. Higher av erage incomes and more leisure time will allow people to eat out more of ten. Also, as an increasing num ber of wives work, families are finding din ing out a welcome convenience. D e tailed discussions of the work, train ing, outlook, and earnings of dining room a tten d a n ts and dishw ashers, food co u n ter w orkers, waiters and (D.O.T. 312.878) Nature of the Work Cocktails range from the ordinary to the exotic. B artenders make these concoctions by com bining different kinds of liquor with other ingredients such as soft drinks, soda water, bit ters, fruit juices, and cream . There are dozens o f com binations, and each one can be m ade in several ways. B ecause som e people have preferences for certain cocktail receipes, bartenders often are asked to mix drinks to suit a custom er’s taste. Besides cocktails, bartenders serve wine, draft or bottled beer, and a wide variety of nonalcoholic bever ages. Most bartenders take orders, serve drinks, and collect paym ent from c u s to m e rs . O th e rs sim ply m ak e A large number of jobs will open each year in the food service occupations, mainly to replace workers who leave Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in thousands) 0 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 20 40 60 Growth 80 Replacement Bartenders often are asked to mix drinks to suit a customer’s taste. 167 168 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK drinks for waiters and waitresses to serve. Bartenders usually are responsible for ordering and maintaining an in ventory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies. They also arrange bot tles and glasses to form a display, wash glassware, and clean the bar. B artenders in large restaurants or hotels usually have bartender helpers (D.O.T. 312.887) to assist them with their duties. Helpers keep the bar supplied with liquor, mixes, and ice; stock refrigerators with wine and beer; and replace empty beer kegs with full ones. They also keep the bar area clean and remove empty bottles and trash. Places of Employment M ost of the 261,000 bartenders employed in 1976 worked in restau rants and bars, but many also had jo b s in h o tels and p riv ate clubs. R oughly o n e -fifth w ere se lf-e m ployed. Several thousand people, many of whom have full-time jobs in other occupations or attend college, tend bar part time. Part-tim e workers of ten serve at banquets and private parties. Most bartenders work in the urban population centers of New York, California, and other large States, but many are employed in small com munities also. Vacation resorts offer seasonal em ploym ent, and some bar tenders altern ate betw een sum m er and winter resorts rather than remain in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bartenders learn their trade on th e jo b . A lth o u g h p re p a rin g drinks at hom e can be good practice, it does not qualify a person to be a bartender. Besides knowing a variety of cocktail recipes, bartenders must know how to stock a bar properly and be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Persons who wish to becom e bar tenders can get good experience by working as bartender helpers, dining room atten d an ts, w aiters, or w ait resses. By watching the bartender at w ork, they can learn how to mix drinks and do other bartending tasks. Some private schools offer short courses in bartending that include instruction on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail recipes, a t tire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some o f these schools help th eir graduates find jobs. Bartenders should have pleasant personalities and be neat and clean in personal appearance because they deal with the public. They need physical stam ina, since they stand while they work and also may have to lift heavy beer kegs or boxes of bev erages. Generally, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, although some employers prefer those who are 25 or older. Some States require bartend ers to have health certificates assur ing that they are free from co n ta gious diseases. In some instances, they must be bonded. Small restaurants, neighborhood bars, and resorts usually offer a b e ginner the best entry opportunities. After gaining experience, a bartend er may wish to work in a large restau rant or cocktail lounge where pay is higher and prom otion opportunities are greater. A lthough prom otional opportunities in this field are limited, it is possible to advance to head b ar tender, wine stew ard, or beverage m anager. Some b a rte n d e rs open their own business. Employment Outlook Em ployment of bartenders is ex pected to increase about as fast as th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. In addition to the job openings caused by em ploym ent growth, several thousand will arise annually from the need to replace experienced bartenders who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. The dem and for bartenders will increase as new restaurants, hotels, and bars open in response to popula tion growth and as the am ount spent for food and beverages outside the home increases. Higher average in comes and more leisure time will al low people to go out for dinner or cocktails m ore often, and to take more vacations. Also, as more wives work, families are finding dining out a welcome convenience. Job opportunities for bartenders should be especially favorable in States that have recently liberalized their drinking laws. In the early 1970’s, 25 States either lowered the drinking age or legalized the sale of liquor by the drink, or both, and some other States may follow suit. Earnings and Working Conditions H ourly ea rn in g s o f b a rte n d e rs ranged from $2.86 to $5.33 in 1976, according to limited data from union contracts in the restaurant industry. Besides wages, bartenders may re ceive tips that increase their ea rn ings. Bartenders usually receive free meals at work and may be furnished bar jackets or com plete uniforms. Many bartenders work more than 40 hours a week, and night and weekend work and split shifts are com m on. For many bartenders, however, the opportunity for friendly conversation with custom ers and the possibility of someday managing or owning a bar or restaurant more than offset these disadvantages. For o th ers, the opportunity to get part-tim e work is im portant. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about job opportuni ties may be obtained from the Hotel and R estaurant Employees and Bar tenders International Union, which is the principal union organizing b ar tenders, and from the State em ploy m ent service. For general information on job op portunities in bartending, write to: Culinary Institute of America, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Port, N.Y. 12538. COOKS AND CHEFS (D.O.T. 313.131 through .887; 314.381 through .878; and 315.131 through .381) Nature of the Work A reputation for serving fine food is an asset to any restaurant, whether FOOD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 169 A restaurant’s reputation depends largely on the skills of its cooks. it prides itself on “ home cooking’’ or exotic foreign cuisine. Cooks and chefs are largely responsible for the re p u ta tio n a re s ta u ra n t acq u ires. Many chefs have earned fame for both themselves and the restaurants and hotels where they work because of their skill in creating new dishes and improving familiar ones. A co o k ’s work depends partly on the size of the restaurant. Many small restaurants offer a limited num ber of short order dishes that are relatively simple to prepare, plus pies and other baked goods bought from bakeries. One cook usually prepares all of the food with the aid of a short order cook and one or two kitchen helpers. Large eating places usually have more varied menus and prepare more of the food they serve. Kitchen staffs often include several cooks, sometimes called assistant cooks, and many kitchen helpers. Each cook usually has a special assignment and often a special job title—pastry, fry, or sauce cook, for example. Head cooks or chefs coordinate the work of the kitchen staff, and often direct certain kinds of food prepara tion. They decide the size of serv ings, sometimes plan menus, and buy food supplies. Places of Employment About 1,065,000 cooks and chefs w ere e m p lo y e d in 1976. M ost worked in restaurants and hotels, but many w orked in schools, colleges, and hospitals. G overnm ent agencies, factories, private clubs, and many other kinds of organizations also em ployed cooks and chefs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most cooks start work in an un skilled position such as kitchen help er and acquire their skills on the job. However, an increasing num ber of cooks are obtaining high school and post-high school vocational training in food p re p ara tio n . O ccasionally they are trained in apprenticeship programs offered by professional as sociations and trade unions, or in a 3year apprenticeship program adm in istered by an office of the Am erican Culinary Federation in cooperation with local employers and junior col leges. A few are trained in program s th at some large hotels and restau rants have for new employees. Inexperienced workers usually can qualify as assistant or fry cooks after several m onths of on-the-job train ing, but acquiring all-round skills as head cook or chef in a fine restaurant often tak es several years. A high school diplom a is not required for m ost beginning jobs; it is re co m m ended, however, for those planning c a re e rs as co o k s o r chefs. High school or vocational school courses in business arithm etic and business adm inistration are helpful in becom ing a cook or chef. High school stu dents can get experience as a cook by working part time in a fast-food res taurant or other limited service op eration. Persons who have had courses in com m ercial food preparation will have an advantage when looking for jobs in large restaurants and hotels where hiring standards are often high. Some vocational programs in high schools offer this kind of train ing to students. M ore often, these courses, ranging from a few months to 2 years or more, and open in some cases only to high school graduates, are given by trade schools, vocation al centers, junior colleges, universi ties, professional associations, hotel m a n a g e m e n t g ro u p s , an d tr a d e unions. Training in supervisory and m anagem ent skills sometimes is em p h a s iz e d by p riv a te v o c a tio n a l schools in courses offered by profes sional associations, and in university program s. The A rm ed Forces are also a good source of training and experience in food service work. Although curricula may vary, stu dents usually spend m ost of their tim e le a r n in g to p r e p a r e fo o d th ro u g h a c tu a l p ra c tic e in w ellequipped kitchens. They learn to bake, broil, and otherwise prepare food, and to use and care for kitchen equipm ent. Training programs often include courses in selection and stor age of food, use of leftovers, determ i nation o f portion size, menu plan ning, and purchasing food supplies in quantity. Students also learn hotel and restaurant sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Many school districts in coopera tion with school foodservices divi sions of State departm ents of educa tion provide on-the-job training and som etim es sum m er w orkshops for cafeteria w orkers who wish to be com e cooks. Some junior colleges, State departm ents of education, and school associations also provide such training. School cooks often are se lected from em ployees who have p ar ticipated in these training programs. 170 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Persons who want to becom e cooks or chefs should like to work with people in a team relationship and be able to work under pressure during busy periods and in close quarters. Cleanliness and a keen sense of taste and smell and the phys ical stamina to stand for hours at a time also are im p o rtan t qualifica tions. Most States require health cer tificates indicating th at cooks and chefs are free from contagious dis eases. Advancem ent opportunities for cooks are better than for most other food service occupations. Many cooks acquire higher paying posi tions and new cooking skills by mov ing from re sta u ran t to restaurant. Others gradually advance to chef po sitions or supervisory or m anagem ent positions, particulary in hotels, clubs, or the larger, more elegant restau rants. Some eventually go into busi ness as caterers or restaurant owners; others may become instructors in vo cational programs in high schools, ju nior and com m unity colleges, and other academ ic institutions. Employment Outlook Employment of cooks and chefs is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to em ploym ent growth, thousands of job openings will arise annually from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other o c c u p a tio n s . S m all re s ta u r a n ts , school cafetrias, and o th er eating places with simple food preparation will provide the greatest num ber of starting jobs for cooks. The dem and for cooks and chefs will increase as population grows and people spend more money on eating out. Higher personal incomes and more leisure time will allow people to go out for dinner more often and to take more vacations. Also, as an increasing num ber of wives work, more families are finding dining out a welcome convenience. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, hourly pay rates ranged from $3.11 to $6.01 for chefs, from $2.81 to $5.19 for cooks of various types, and from $2.02 to $4.05 for assistant cooks, according to limited data from union contracts in several large m etropolitan areas. Wages of cooks and chefs vary depending on the part of the country and the type of establishm ent in which they work. Wages generally are higher in the W est and in large, well-known restaurants and hotels. Cooks and chefs in famous restau rants earn much more than the mini mum rates and several chefs with n a tional reputations earn m ore than $40,000 a year. Hours in restaurants may include late evening, holiday, and weekend work, and range from 37 1/2 to 48 hours a week. Cooks em p lo y ed in p u b lic and p riv a te schools work regular school hours during the school year only, usually for 9 months. Many kitchens are air-conditioned and have convenient work areas and modern equipm ent. Others, particu larly in older or smaller eating places, are often not as well equipped and working conditions may be less desir able. In all kitchens, however, cooks m ust stand m ost of the tim e, lift heavy pots and kettles, and work near hot ovens and ranges. The principal union organizing cooks and chefs is the Hotel and R estaurant Employees and B artend ers International Union. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from local em ployers, locals of the Hotel and Res tau ran t Em ployees and B artenders International Union, and local offices of the State em ploym ent service. General information about restau ra n t cooks and chefs is available from: Culinary Institute of America, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Park, N.Y. 12538. Educational Director, National Institute for the Foodservice Industry, 120 South Riv erside Plaza, Chicago, III. 60606. The Educational Institute, American Hotel and Motel Association, 1407 S. Harrison Rd., Michigan State University, Stephen S. Nisbet Bldg., East Lansing, Mich. 48823. For inform ation on the Am erican Culinary F ederation’s apprenticeship program for cooks and chefs, write to: American Culinary Federation, Educational Institute, 1407 S. Harrison Rd., East Lan sing, Mich. 48823. DINING ROOM ATTENDANTS AND DISHWASHERS (D.O.T. 31 1.878 and 381.887) Nature of the Work Clean and attractive table settings are as im portant to a re sta u ra n t’s reputation as the quality of food it serves. An egg-stained fork, a soiled tablecloth, or an empty salt shaker can make a custom er unhappy. Din ing room attendants and dishwashers provide the quick hands and sharp eyes needed to prevent such p ro b lems. A ttendants do many jobs that o th erwise waiters and waitresses would have to do. They clear and reset ta bles, carry dirty dishes from the din ing area to the kitchen and return w ith trays o f food, and clean up spilled food and broken dishes. By taking care of these details, atten dants give w aiters and w aitresses more time to serve customers. In some restaurants, attendants also help by serving w ater and bread and butter to custom ers. W hen busi ness is light, they do odd jobs like refilling salt and pepper shakers and cleaning coffee urns. Dishwashers pick up where the at ten d an ts leave off—with the dirty dishes. They o p e ra te special m a ch in es th a t clean silverw are and dishes quickly and efficiently. O cca sionally, they may have to make mi nor adjustm ents to keep m achines o p e ra tin g p ro p e rly . D ish w ash e rs scrub large pots and pans by hand. In addition, they clean refrigerators and other kitchen equipm ent, sweep and mop floors, and carry out trash. Places of Employment A bout 250,000 dishw ashers and 190,000 attendants were em ployed in 1976. Many w orked only p art time. 171 FOOD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Most attendants and dishwashers work in restaurants, bars, and hotels. Dishwashers also work in schools and hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school ed u cation is not needed to qualify for jobs as dining room atten d an ts and dishw ashers, and many employers will hire appli cants who do not speak English. A t tendants and dishwashers must be in good physical condition and have physical stamina because they stand most of the time, lift and carry trays, and work at a fast pace during busy periods. S tate laws often require them to obtain health certificates to show that they are free of contagious diseases. Because of their close con tact with the public, it is im portant that attendants have a neat appear ance and the ability to get along with people. Prom otions for dining room atten dants and dishwashers are limited. A tten d an ts som etim es advance to positions as waiter or waitress, and dishwashers occasionally advance to co o k ’s helper or short-order cook. The ability to read, write, and do sim ple arithm etic is required for prom o tio n . A d v a n c e m e n t o p p o rtu n itie s generally are best in large restau rants. Employment Outlook Job openings for dining room a t tendants and dishwashers are expect ed to be plentiful in the years ahead. Most openings will result from the need to replace w orkers who find jobs in other occupations, retire, or die. T u rn o v er is particularly high am ong p art-tim e w orkers. A b o u t one-half of the attendants and dish washers are students, most of whom w ork p a r t tim e w hile a tte n d in g Attendants and dishwashers must have good health and physical stamina. school and then find other jobs after graduation. Additional openings will result from em ploym ent growth. Employ m ent of dining room attendants is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations and em ploym ent of dishwashers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid19 8 0 ’s as p o p u latio n grow th and higher incomes create more business for restaurants. Earnings and Working Conditions Dining room attendants and dish washers have relatively low earnings. Lim ited data from union contracts th at cover restaurants and bars in sev eral large cities in d ic a te th a t hourly rates for these workers ranged from $1.46 to $3.75 in 1976. These am o u n ts w ere below the average earnings of most other nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. A ttendants may receive a percent age of w aiters’ and waitresses’ tips in addition to wages. Tips often average between 10 and 20 percent of p a trons’ checks. The majority of employers provide free meals at work and furnish uni forms. Paid vacations are custom ary, and various types of health insurance and pension plans may be offered. Most attendants and dishwashers work less than 30 hours a week. Some are on duty only a few hours a day during either the lunch or dinner period. Others work both periods but may take a few hours off in the middle of the day. W eekend and holiday work often is required. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from local em ployers, locals of the Hotel and Res tau ra n t Em ployees and B artenders International Union, and local offices o f th e S tate em ploym ent service. Names of local unions can be ob tained from: Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bartend ers International Union, 120 East 4th St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45202. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 172 For general inform ation about din ing room attendants and dishwash ers, write to: Educational Director, National Institute for the Food Service Industry, 120 S. River side Plaza, Chicago, 111. 60606. Culinary Institute of America, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Park, N.Y. 12538. FOOD COUNTER WORKERS (D.O.T. 31 1.878 and 319.878) Nature of the Work C ounter workers serve custom ers in eating places that specialize in fast service and inexpensive food, such as ham burger and fried chicken carry outs, drugstore soda fountains, and school and public cafeterias. About 4 2 0 ,0 0 0 p e rso n s, m o st o f whom worked p art time, had food counter jobs in 1976. Typical duties of counter workers include taking custom ers’ orders, serving food and beverages, making out checks, and taking payments. At drugstore fountains and in diners, they also may cook, m ake sandwich es and cold drinks, and prepare sun daes and other ice cream dishes. In hamburger carryouts, where food is prepared in an assembly-line m an ner, counter workers may take turns waiting on custom ers, making french fries, toasting buns, and doing other jobs. C ounter workers in cafeterias fill plates for custom ers and keep the serving line supplied with desserts, salads, and other dishes. Unlike other counter workers, they usually do not take paym ents and m ake change. C ounter workers also do odd jobs, such as cleaning kitchen equipm ent, sweeping and mopping floors, and carrying o u t trash. ers of fast-food restaurants often hire young people still in high school as part-tim e c o u n te r w orkers. T here usually are no specific educational re q u ire m e n ts for c o u n te r jo b s in cafeterias. Many large com panies, such as the nationwide ham burger carryout chains, operate formal m anagem ent training programs. C ounter workers who show leadership ability may qualify for these programs. Because counter workers deal with the public, a pleasant personality and neat appearance are im portant. Good health and physical stam ina also are needed because they stand most of the time and work at a fast pace during busy periods. State laws often require counter workers to ob tain health certificates to show that they are free of contagious disease. Opportunities for advancem ent are limited, especially in small eating places. Some counter workers move into higher paying jobs and learn new skills by transferring to a larger res ta u ra n t. A d v a n cem en t can be to cashier, cook, w aiter or w aitress, counter or fountain supervisor, or, in the case o f counter workers in cafe terias, to line supervisor or m erchan diser (person in charge of stocking food). Most counter workers learn their skills on the job by observing and working with more experienced workers. Some employers, including some fast-food restaurants, use selfstudy instructional booklets and au dio-visual aids to train new em ploy ees. Employment Outlook Job openings for food c o u n te r workers are expected to be plentiful in the years ahead. M ost openings will result from turnover—replace m ent of workers who find jobs in o th er occupations, retire, or die. Many counter workers are high school and college students who work part time while attending school and find jobs in o th er occu p atio n s after g rad u ation. Because of the high turnover, jobs for counter workers are relative ly easy to find. Additional job openings will result from em ploym ent growth. Em ploy m ent is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s, as popula tion growth and higher incomes cre ate more business for eating places. Earnings and Working Conditions H ourly ra te s for food c o u n te r workers ranged from $1.67 to $3.79 in 1976, based on limited data from union contracts that covered eating places in several large cities. These am ounts were well below the average earnings for most other nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. However, some co unt e r w o r k e r s , s u c h as t h o s e in drugstores and diners, receive tips which can be g reater than hourly Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In the counter jobs that require to taling bills and making change, em ployers prefer to hire persons who are good in arithm etic and have a t tended high school, although a diplo ma usually is not necessary. M anag Flexible schedules often allow students to fit their working hours around their classes. 173 FOOD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS wages. Tips usually average between 10 an d 20 p e r c e n t o f p a t r o n s ’ checks. C ounter workers usually re ceive free meals at work, and may be furnished with uniforms. Most counter workers work less than 30 hours a week. Some are on duty only a few hours a day for either the lunch or dinner period. Many others work both periods, but may take a few hours off in the middle of the day. Flexible schedules often allow students to fit their working hours around their classes. W eekend and holiday work often is required. Job hazards include the possibility of falls, cuts, and burns, but injuries seldom are serious. Sources of Additional Information In preparing beef quarters, m eat cutters divide them into primal cuts such as rounds, loins, and ribs with a band saw, and then use knives or saws to divide these large cuts into custom er-sized cuts such as steaks, roasts, and chops. M eatcutters use knives or sheers or power cutters to divide boneless cuts and a band saw or cleaver to divide pieces that con tain bones. Any bone chips left on the m eat are scraped off with a knife or brushed off by a m achine. Cutters grind trimmings into ham burger. Places of Employment About 215,000 persons worked as m eatcutters in 1976. They had jobs in almost every city and town in the Nation. Most m eatcutters worked in retail foodstores. A few worked in wholesale stores, restaurants, hotels, hospitals, and other institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M ost m e a tc u tte rs acquire th eir skills on the job. Although many are in fo rm a lly t r a i n e d , m o st le a r n through apprenticeship programs. A few m eatcutters learn their skills by attending private schools specializing in this trade. Generally, on-the-job trainees be gin by doing odd jobs, such as rem ov ing bones and fat from retail cuts. Under the guidance of skilled m eat cutters, they learn about the various cuts and grades of m eats and the proper use of tools and equipm ent. After dem onstrating skill with tools, they learn to divide quarters into pri- Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from local em ployers, locals of the Hotel and Res tau ran t Em ployees and B artenders International Union, and local offices o f the S tate em ploym ent service. Names of local unions are available from the Hotel and R estaurant Em ployees and Bartenders International Union, 120 East 4th St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45202. For general inform ation about food counter workers, write to: Educational Director, National Institute for the Food Service Industry, 120 S. River side Plaza, Chicago, 111. 60606. Culinary Institute of America, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Park, N.Y. 12538. MEATCUTTERS (D.O.T. 316.781 and .884) Nature of the Work M eatcu tters p rep are m eat, fish, and p o u ltry in s u p e rm a rk e ts or wholesale food outlets. Their prim a ry duty is to divide animal quarters and carcasses into steaks, roasts, chops, and other serving-sized por tions. They also may prepare m eat products such as sausage and corned beef. C u tte rs who w ork in retail foodstores may set up counter dis plays and wait on customers. Meatcutters acquire their skills on the job either informally or through apprenticeship programs. 174 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK mal cuts and to divide primal cuts into individual p o rtions. T rainees may learn to cut and prepare fish and poultry, roll and tie roasts, prepare sausage, and cure and corn m eat. Later, they may learn m arketing op erations such as inventory control, m eat buying and grading, and rec ordkeeping. M eatcutters who learn the trade through apprenticeship generally com plete 2 to 3 years of supervised on-the-job training that may be sup plem ented by some classroom work. At the end of the training period, apprentices are given a m eatcutting test which is observed by their em ployer. A union m em ber also is pre sent in union shops. Apprentices who pass the test qualify as m eatcutters. Those who fail can take the test again at a later time. In many areas, ap prentices may become m eatcutters in less than the usual training time if they can pass the test. Employers prefer applicants who have a high school diploma and the potential to develop into m eat de partm ent managers. High school or vocational school courses in business arithm etic are helpful in weighing and pricing m eats and in m aking change. Manual dexterity, good depth p er ception, color discrim ination, and good eye-hand coordination are im portant in cutting m eat. A pleasant personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to com m unicate clearly also are im p o rta n t q u alifica tio n s when cutters wait on customers. Bet ter than average strength is needed to lift heavy pieces of m eat. In some co m m u n ities, a h ea lth c e rtificate may be required for employment. M eatcutters may progress to su pervisory jobs, such as m eat depart m ent m anagers in superm arkets. A few become m eat buyers for whole salers and superm arket chains. Some cutters becom e grocery store m anag ers or open their own m eat markets. Employment Outlook The num ber of m eatcutters is ex pected to decline slightly through the m id-1980’s. Nevertheless, thousands of entry jobs will be available as ex p erie n ced w orkers re tire , die, or leave the occupation for other rea sons. Em ployment of m eatcutters in food stores will be limited by central cutting—the practice of cutting and wrapping m eat for several stores at one location. C entral cutting, which permits m eatcutters to specialize in both a type of m eat and a type of cut, increases efficiency. In addition, more central cutting is expected to be done in m eatpacking plants, thus reducing the am ount of m eat cu t— and the need for m eatcutters—in food stores. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly earnings of most m eatcut ters averaged $7.10 in 1976, accord ing to a 1975 survey of union wage rates for grocery store employees in citie s o f 100,0 0 0 in h a b ita n ts o r more. M eatcutters working in cities with 500,000 inhabitants or m ore tended to earn more than those in smaller cities. Among grocery store occupations, m eatcutters have the highest wages. Beginning apprentices usually re ceive between 60 and 70 percent o f the experienced c u tte r’s wage and generally receive increases every 6 to 8 months. C u tte rs w ork in coldroom s d e signed to prevent m eat from spoiling. They m ust be careful when working with sharp tools, especially those that are powered. Most cutters are members of the Amalgamated M eat Cutters and Butcher W orkmen of North A m er ica. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportu nities can be obtained from local em ployers or local offices of the State em ploym ent service. For information on training and other aspects of the trade, contact: Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America, 2800 North Sheridan Rd., Chicago, 111. 60657. WAITERS AND WAITRESSES (D.O.T. 311.138 through .878) Nature of the Work W aiters and waitresses take cus tom ers’ orders, serve food and bever ages, m ake out checks, and som e tim e s ta k e p a y m e n ts. In d in e rs , coffee shops, and other small restau rants they provide fast, efficient ser vice. In o th er restau ran ts, w aiters and waitresses serve food at a more leisurely pace and offer more person al service to their custom ers. For ex ample, they may suggest wines and explain the preparation of items on the menu. W aiters and waitresses may have duties other than waiting on tables. They set up and clear tables and carry dirty dishes to the kitchen. In very small restaurants they may com bine waiting on tables with counter service, p rep arin g sandw iches, or cashiering. In large restaurants and in places where meal service is formal, waiters and waitresses are relieved of most additional duties. Dining room attendants often set up tables, fill wa te r glasses, and do o th e r ro u tin e tasks. Places of Employment About 1,260,000 waiters and wait resses were employed in 1976. M ore than half worked part time (less than 35 hours a week). Most worked in restaurants; some worked in hotels, colleges, and factories that have res tau ra n t facilities. Jobs are located throughout the country but are most plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. V acation resorts offer seasonal em ploym ent and some waiters and waitresses alternate between sum m er and winter resorts instead of rem ain ing in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire ap plicants who have had at least 2 or 3 years of high school. A person may start as a waiter or waitress, or ad vance to that position after working as a dining room attendant, car hop, or soda fountain worker. Although most waiters and waitresses pick up th eir skills on the jo b , at least 3 m onths’ experience is preferred by larger restaurants and hotels. Some p u b lic a n d p r i v a t e v o c a ti o n a l FOOD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 175 graduation. In addition to the job openings from turnover, many will result from em ploym ent growth. Em ployment of waiters and wait resses is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s, as popula tion growth and higher incomes cre ate m ore business for restaurants. H igher incom es and m ore leisure time will perm it people to eat out m ore often. Also, as an increasing num ber o f wives w ork, m ore and more families may find dining out a welcome convenience. Beginners will find their best op portunities for em ploym ent in the thousands o f inform al restaurants. Those who seek jobs in expensive restaurants may find keen com peti tion for the jobs that become avail able. Earnings and Working Conditions schools, restaurant associations, and some large restaurant chains provide classroom training. O ther employers use self-instruction program s to train new employees. In these programs, an employee learns food preparation and service skills by observing film strips and reading instructional book lets. Because people in this occupation are in close and constant contact with the public, a neat appearance and an even disposition are im por tant qualifications. Physical stamina also is im portant, as waiters and wait resses are on their feet, lifting and carrying trays of food from kitchen to table, for hours at a time. Waiters and waitresses also should be good at arithm etic and, in restaurants spe cializing in foreign foods where cus to m e rs m ay n o t s p e a k E n g lish , knowledge of a foreign language is helpful. State laws often require wait ers and waitresses to obtain health certificates showing th a t they are free of contagious diseases. Opportunities for prom otion in this occupation are limited, due to the small size of most food-serving establishments. After gaining experi ence, however, a waiter or waitress may transfer to a larger restaurant where earnings and prospects for ad vancem ent may be better. The most successful waiters and waitresses are those who genuinely like people, are interested in offering service, and possess the ability to sell rather than just take orders. A dvancem ent can be to cashier or supervisory jobs, such as maitre d ’hotel or dining room supervisor. Some supervisory w ork ers advance to jobs as re sta u ran t managers. Employment Outlook Job openings are expected to be plentiful in the years ahead, mainly due to the need to replace the waiters and waitresses who find other jobs or who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. Turnover is particular ly high am ong p art-tim e w orkers. About one-fourth of the waiters and w a itre sse s are s tu d e n ts , m ost o f whom work part time while attending school and then find other jobs after Hourly rates for waiters and wait resses (excluding tips) ranged from $1.25 to $3.33 in 1976, according to lim ited data from union contracts th a t co v ered eating and drinking places in several large cities. For many waiters and waitresses, how ever, tips are g reater than hourly wages. Tips generally average b e tween 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks. Most waiters and waitresses receive meals at work and many are furnished with uniforms. Some waiters and waitresses work split shifts—that is, they work for several hours during the middle of the day, take a few hours off in the afternoon, and then return to their jobs for the evening hours. They also may work on holidays and weekends. The wide range in dining hours cre ates a good opportunity for part-tim e work. W aiters and waitresses stand most of the time and often have to carry heavy trays o f food. During dining hours they may have to rush to serve several tables at once. T he work is relatively safe, but they must be careful to avoid slips or falls, and burns. The principal union organizing waiters and waitresses is the Hotel and R estaurant Employees and Bar tenders International Union. 176 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from local em ployers, locals of the union previous ly m entioned, and local offices of the State em ploym ent service. G eneral inform ation on waiter and waitress jobs is available from: The Educational Institute, American Hotel and Motel Association, 1407 S. Harrison Rd., Michigan State University, East Lan sing, Mich. 48823. National Institute for the Foodservice Indus try, 120 South Riverside Plaza, Chicago, 111. 60606. Culinary Institute of America, P.O. Box 53, Hyde Park, N.Y. 12538. Places of Employment PERSONAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Personal service workers perform a variety of tasks for people, such as styling or cutting hair, making airline passen g ers safe and co m fo rtab le, conducting tours, carrying baggage, or arranging funerals. Some of these tasks require special skills that must be learned through formal training. O th ers req u ire skills th a t can be learned on the job. For some person al service jobs, workers must obtain a State license after completing a train ing program or apprenticeship. P ersons en terin g these o cc u p a tions should be neat, tactful and able to get along well with people because success on the job depends on the impression personal service workers make on their custom ers. Physical stamina is necessary for those jobs that involve lifting heavy objects or standing for long periods of time. Personal service workers may re ceive salaries, commissions or both. In many cases they also receive tips th a t add substantially to th eir in come. Employers often furnish uni form s for jobs th at require them . Some workers, like barbers and cos metologists, must provide their own tools. This section describes four person al service occupations: barbers, cos m etologists, fu n eral d irecto rs and em balm ers, and bellhops and bell captains. lons, “ unisex” salons, and some bar bershops. They cut and style hair to suit each custom er and may color or straighten hair and fit hair pieces. M ost barbers offer hair and scalp treatm ents, shaves, facial massages, and shampoos. A sm all but growing num ber o f barbers cut and style w om en’s hair. They usually work in unisex salons— shops that have male and female cus tomers. Some States require a cos m etologist’s license as well as a b ar b er’s license, however, to perm anent wave or color w om en’s hair. As part of their responsibilities, barbers keep their scissors, combs, and other instrum ents sterilized and in good condition. They clean their work areas and may sweep the shop as well. Those who own or manage a shop have additional responsibilities such as ordering supplies, paying bills, keeping records, and hiring em ployees. BARBERS (D.O.T. 330.371) Nature of the Work Although most men go to a barber for just a haircut, other services such as hairstyling and coloring have be come increasingly popular. Barbers train ed in these areas are called “ hairstylists” and work in styling sa More than half of all barbers operate their own businesses. Most o f the 124,000 barbers in 1976 worked in barbershops. Some worked in unisex salons, and a few worked for governm ent agencies, ho tels, or departm ent stores. More than half of all barbers operated their own businesses. Almost all cities and towns have barbershops, but em ploym ent is con centrated in the most populous cities and States. Hairstylists usually work in large cities where the greatest de mand for their services exists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require barbers to be li censed. The qualifications necessary to get a license vary from one State to an o th er, how ever. G enerally a person must be a graduate of a Stateapproved barber school, have com pleted the eighth grade, pass a phys ical examination, and be at least 16 (in some States 18) years old. Many States require a beginner to take an examination for an appren tice license, and serve 1 or 2 years as an apprentice before taking the ex amination required for a license as a registered barber. In the exam ina tions, the applicant usually is re quired to pass a written test and dem onstrate an ability to perform the basic services. Fees for these exami nations range from $10 to $75. Because most States do not recog nize training, apprenticeship work, or licenses obtained in another State, persons who wish to become barbers should review the laws of the State in which they want to work before en tering a barber school. Barber training is offered in about 350 schools; 3 out of 4 barber schools are private. Some public high schools offer barbering in their voca tional programs. Barber school p ro grams usually last 9 to 12 months. Students buy their own tools, which cost about $200. They study the ba sic services—haircutting, shaving, fa cial massaging, and hair and scalp treatm ents—and, under supervision, practice on fellow students and on custom ers in school “ clinics.” Be sides attending lectures on barber services and the use and care of in strum ents, students take courses in 177 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 178 san itation and hygiene, and learn how to recognize certain skin condi tions. Instruction also is given in sell ing and general business practices. A dvanced courses are available in some localities for barbers who wish to update their skills or specialize in hairstyling, coloring, and the sale and service of hairpieces. Dealing with custom ers requires patience and a better than average disposition. Good health and stam ina also are im portant because b ar bers stand a great deal and work with both hands at shoulder level—a posi tion that can be tiring. Beginners may get their first jobs through the barber school they a t tended, or through the local barber’s union or em ployer’s association. Som e e x p e rie n c e d b a rb e rs a d vance by b eco m in g m an ag ers o f large shops or by opening their own shops. A few may teach at barber schools. Barbers who go into busi ness for them selves m ust have the capital to buy or rent a shop and in stall equipm ent. New equipm ent for a one-chair shop cost from $1,500 to $3,000 in 1976. Some shopowners buy used equipm ent and fixtures at reduced prices, however. Employment Outlook The em ploym ent decline of the last decade is expected to level off by the m id-1980’s as population growth and the increasing popularity of hair styling offset the effect of the fashion fo r lo n g e r h a ir. A lth o u g h little change is expected in the level of em ploym ent, several thousand job openings for barbers will occur each year because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to oth er kinds of work. R eplacem ent needs in barbering are high, com pared with many other occupations. The shift in consum er preferences from regular haircuts to more p er sonalized and intensive services has greatly affected the occupation. Bar bers who specialize in hairstyling have been m uch m ore successful than those who offer conventional services. This trend is expected to continue, and em ploym ent opportu nities should be better for hairstylists than for regular barbers. Earnings and Working Conditions Barbers receive income from com missions or wages and tips. M ost barbers who are not shopowners n o r mally receive 60 to 70 percent of the money they take in; a few are paid straight salaries. Weekly earnings of experienced barbers (including tips) generally ranged between $200 and $250 in 1976, according to limited inform a tion available. H airstylists usually earned $315 to $400 a week, b e cause the services they provide are m ore p e rso n a liz e d and th e re fo re m ore expensive. Some hairstylists and a few barbers who operated their own shops earned more than $400 a w eek. B eginning barb ers usually earn about $175 to $200 a week, hairstylists $200 to $250 a week. Earnings depend on the size and location o f the shop, custom ers’ tip ping habits, com petition from other barbershops, and the b arb er’s ability to attract and hold regular custom ers. Most full-time barbers work m ore than 40 hours a week and a w ork week of over 50 hours is not uncom mon. Although Saturdays and lunch hours are generally very busy, a b ar ber may have some time off during slack periods. To assure an even workload, some barbers ask custom ers to m ake appointm ents. Some b ar bers receive 1- or 2-week paid vaca t i o n s , i n s u r a n c e , a n d m e d ic a l benefits. The principal union that organizes barbers—both em ployees and shopowners— is the Journeym en Barbers, H a ird re sse rs, C o sm eto lo g ists and P roprietors’ International Union of Am erica. The principal association that represents and organizes shopowners, m anagers, and employees is the Associated M aster Barbers and Beauticians of America. Every State maintains inform ation on State licensing requirem ents and approved barber schools. For details, contact the State board of barber ex aminers or the equivalent authority at your State capital. Additional inform ation on this oc cupation is available from: National Barber Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd., Bronx, N.Y. 10467. BELLHOPS AND BELL CAPTAINS (D.O.T. 324.138 and .878) Nature of the Work Bellhops carry baggage for hotel and motel guests and escort them to their rooms on arrival. W hen show ing new guests to their rooms, bell hops make sure everything is in order and may offer inform ation about va let services, dining room hours, or other hotel services. Bellhops also run errands for guests and may re lieve elevator operators or sw itch board operators. Large and medium-sized hotels employ bell captains to supervise bellhops on the staff. They plan work assignments, record the hours each bellhop is on duty, and train new employees. Bell captains take care of any unusual requests guests may make and handle any com plaints re garding their departm ent. Sometimes they help arriving or departing guests if a bellhop is unavailable. In 1976, more than 16,000 persons worked as bellhops and bell captains. A few hotels have large service departm ents and employ superinten dents of service to supervise bell cap tains and bellhops, elevator o p era to rs, d o o rk e ep ers, and w ashroom attendants. Sources of Additional Information Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Lists of barber schools, by State, are available from: No specific educational req u ire m ents exist for bellhops, although high school graduation improves the chances for prom otion to a job as desk clerk or reservation clerk. Many hotels fill bellhop jobs by prom oting elevator operators. National Association of Barber Schools, Inc., 338 Washington Ave., Huntington, W.Va. 25701. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 L St., NW., Room 440, Washington, D.C. 20036. PERSONAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 179 areas where hotels and m otels are open only part of the year. See the statem ent on the Hotel Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for inform ation on earnings and working conditions, sources of addi tional inform ation, and more infor mation on em ploym ent outlook. COSMETOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 332.271 and .381; 331 and 339.371 ) Because bellhops and captains have fre quent contact with guests, they must be neat, tactful, and courteous. Because bellhops have frequent contact with guests, they must be neat, tactful, and courteous. A knowledge of the local area is an asset because guests often ask about local tourist attractions, restaurants, and transportation services. Bellhops also must be able to stand for long periods, carry heavy baggage, and work independently. Bellhops can advance to bell cap tain and then to superintendent of service, but opportunities are limit ed. Because there is only one bell captain position in each hotel, many years may pass before an opening oc curs. O pportunities for advancem ent to superintendent of service are even fewer. darken the color of the hair to better suit the p atro n ’s skin color. Cosm e tologists may give m anicures, scalp and facial treatm ents, provide m ake up analysis for women, and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. M ost co sm e to lo g ists m ake a p pointments and keep records of hair color formulas and perm anent waves used by their regular patrons. They also keep their work area clean and sanitize th e ir h aird ressin g im p le ments. Those who operate their own salons also have m anagerial duties which include hiring and supervising workers, keeping records, and order ing supplies. Nature of the Work Hair has been a center of attention since women and men first began to c a re a b o u t th e ir a p p e a ra n c e . Throughout history a great deal of effort has gone into acquiring a fash io n a b le h a irsty le o r a p e rfe c tly trim m e d b e a rd . A lth o u g h styles change from year to year, the cosm e tologist’s task remains the sam e—to help people look attractive. Cosmetologists, who also are called beauty operators, hairstylists, or beauticians, sham poo, cut, and style hair, and advise patrons on how to care for their hair. Frequently they straighten or perm anent wave a pa tro n ’s hair to keep the style in shape. Cosmetologists may also lighten or Places of Employment Most of the m ore than 534,000 co sm etologists em ployed in 1976 w o rk e d in b e a u ty salo n s. Som e worked in “ unisex” shops, b arb er styling shops, or departm ent stores, and a few were employed by hospi tals and hotels. More than one-third operated their own businesses. All cities and towns have beauty salons, but em ploym ent is con cen trated in the most populous cities and States. Those cosmetologists who set fashion trends with their hairstyles usually work in New York City, Los Angeles, and other centers of fashion and the performing arts. Changing hairstyles have caused a drop in employment of barbers, but cosmetology has continued to grow Employment Outlook Employment Little or no change in employment of bellhops is expected through the m id-1980’s. Most openings will result from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupa tion. Although many motels now offer services similar to those of a hotel and employ bellhops, the growing popularity of economy motels that offer only basic services is expected to limit em ploym ent growth. New workers will have b etter opportuni ties in m otels and small hotels be cause the large luxury hotels prefer to hire experienced workers. O ppor tunities also will be available in resort 700.000 600.000 500.000 400.000 300.000 200.000 100,000 0 I 960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 180 Employment Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although all States require cosm e tologists to be licensed, the qualifica tions necessary to obtain a license vary. Generally, a person must have g ra d u ated from a S ta te-a p p ro v ed cosmetology school, have com pleted at least the 10th grade, pass a phys ical examination, and be at least 16 years old. In some States com pletion o f an apprenticeship training p ro gram can substitute for graduation from a cosmetology school, but very few cosmetologists learn their skills in this way. Cosmetology instruction is offered in both public and private vocational schools, in either daytime or evening classes. A daytime course usually takes 9 m onths to 1 year to com plete; an evening course takes longer. M any public school program s in clude the academ ic subjects needed for a high school diplom a and last 2 to 3 years. An apprenticeship pro gram usually lasts 1 or 2 years. Both public and private programs include classroom study, dem onstra tio n s, and p ra c tic a l w ork. M ost schools provide stu d ents with the necessary hairdressing im plem ents, su c h as m a n ic u r e im p le m e n ts , combs, scissors, razors, and hair roll ers, and include their cost in the tu ition fee. Sometimes students must purchase their own. A good set of im plem ents costs over $50. Begin ning students work on manikins or on each other. Once they have gained some experience, students practice on patrons in school “ clinics.” After graduating from a cosm etol ogy course, students take the State licensing examination. The exam ina tion consists of a written test and a p ractical test in w hich applicants dem onstrate their ability to provide the required services. In some States an oral examination is included and the applicant is asked to explain the p ro ced u res he or she is following while taking the p ra ctical test. In some States a separate examination is given for persons who want only a m a n ic u ris t’s license. Som e S tates have reciprocity agreem ents that al low a cosm etologist licensed in one State to work in another without re examination. Cosmetologists must keep up with the lat est fashions. Persons who want to become cos metologists must have finger dexter ity, a sense of form and artistry, and the physical stamina to stand for long periods o f time. They should enjoy dealing with the public and be willing and able to follow patrons’ instruc tions. B ecause hairstyles are c o n stan tly c h a n g in g , co sm e to lo g ists must keep abreast of the latest fash ions and beauty techniques. Business skills are im portant for those who plan to operate their own salons. Many schools help their students find jobs. During their first m onths on the job, new cosmetologists are given relatively simple tasks, such as giving m anicures or shampoos, or are assigned to perform the simpler hair styling p a tte rn s. O nce they have dem onstrated their skills, they are gradually perm itted to perform the more com plicated styling tasks such as hair coloring and perm anent wav ing. A dvancem ent usually is in the form of higher earnings as cosm e tologists gain experience and build a steady clientele; but many m anage large salons or open their own after several years of experience. Some teach in cosmetology schools or use their knowledge and skill to dem on s tr a te c o s m e tic s in d e p a r tm e n t stores. A few work as examiners for State cosmetology boards. Em ploym ent of cosm etologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through th e m id -1 9 8 0 ’s as p o p u latio n in creases and the num ber of working women rises. The trend to hairstyling for men also creates a dem and for these workers because many men go to unisex shops or beauty salons for styling services. In addition to open ings due to growth in the occupation, thousands of cosmetologists will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupa tion. Employment in this occupation is not strongly affected by downturns in the business cycle, and job opportu nities are expected to be good for both new com ers and ex perien ced c o s m e to lo g is ts . M any o p e n in g s should be available for persons seek ing part-tim e work. Earnings and Working Conditions C o sm eto lo g ists re ceiv e incom e from commissions or wages and from tips. Those who are not salon owners receive a percentage of the money they take in, usually 50 percent; a few are paid straight salaries. Weekly earnings of experienced cosmetologists (including tips) gen erally ra n g ed b etw e en $285 an d $340 in 1976, according to limited information available. After 10 years o f experience, they can earn m ore than $450 a week. Beginners usually earned $95 to $125 a week. Those co sm etologists who cu t and style m e n ’s h air often ea rn m ore th an those who work on w om en’s hair be cause the services they provide are m ore expensive. Earnings also depend on the size and location of the salon, patro n s’ tipping habits, com petition from o th er beauty salons, and the individual cosm etologist’s ability to attract and hold regular patrons. Many full-time cosmetologists work m ore than 40 hours a week, including evenings and Saturdays when beauty salons are busiest. M ore than one-third of all cosmetologists PERSONAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS work part time, usually during these FUNERAL DIRECTORS busy hours. AND EMBALMERS A few large salons and departm ent stores offer group life and health (D.O.T. 187.168 and 338.381) insurance and other benefit plans. Nearly all employers provide annual paid vacations of at least 1 week after Nature of the Work a year’s service. The principal union which organiz Few occupations require the tact, es cosm etologists—both employees discretion, and compassion called for and salon ow ners—is the Journey in the work of funeral directors and men Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosm e embalmers. The family and friends of tologists, and P ro p rieto r’s Interna the deceased may be under consider tio n a l U n io n o f A m e ric a . T h e able em otional stress and bewildered prin cip al trad e asso ciation which by the many details of the occasion. represents and organizes salon own T h e f u n e r a l d ir e c to r ( D .O .T . 187.168) helps them to m ake the ers, managers, and employees is the A s s o c ia te d M a s te r B a rb e rs and personal and business arrangem ents Beauticians of A m erica. O ther o r necessary for the service and burial. g an iza tio n s in clu d e th e N atio n al The embalmer (D.O.T. 338.381) p re Hairdressers and Cosmetologists As pares the body for viewing and buri sociation, Inc.; the National Associ al. In many instances, one person ation of Cosmetology Schools, Inc., performs both functions. The director’s duties begin when a which represents school owners and teachers; and the N ational Beauty call is received from a family request C u ltu r is ts ’ L ea g u e, re p re s e n tin g ing services. After arranging for the black cosmetologists, teachers, m an deceased to be removed to the funer al home, the director obtains the in agers, and salon owners. formation needed for the death c e r tificate, such as date and place of Sources of Additional birth and cause of death. The direc Information tor makes an appointm ent with the A list of approved training schools family to discuss the details of the and licensing requirem ents can be fu n e ra l. T h ese in clu d e tim e and place of service, clergy and organist, obtained from State boards of cos selection o f casket and clothing, and metology or from: provision for burial or crem ation. Di Cosmetology Accrediting Commission, 1707 rectors also make arrangem ents with L Street, N.W., Room 440, Washington, the cem etery, place obituary notices D.C. 20036 in newspapers, and take care of other A dditional inform ation about ca details as necessary. D irectors m ust reers in cosm etology and State li be familiar with the funeral and buri censing re q u irem en ts is available al custom s of various religious faiths and fraternal organizations. from: Embalming is a sanitary, preserva National Beauty Career Center, 3839 White tive and cosm etic measure. Em balm Plains Rd„ Bronx, N.Y. 19467. ers, perhaps with the help of appren National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists As tic e s , firs t w ash th e bod y w ith sociation, 3510 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo. germicidal soap. The embalming p ro 63103. cess itself replaces the blood with a For general inform ation about the preservative fluid. Em balm ers apply occupation, contact: cosmetics to give the body a natural appearance and, if necessary, restore Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosme disfig u red fe a tu re s. F inally, they tologists, and Proprietors International Union of America, 7050 West Washing dress the body and place it in the ton St., Indianapolis, Ind. 46241. casket selected by the family. National Association of Cosmetology Schools, On the day of the funeral, directors 599 South Livingston Ave., Livingston, provide cars for the family and pall N.J. 07039. bearers, receive and usher guests to their seats, and organize the funeral 181 procession. A fter the service they may help the family file claims for social security, insurance, and other benefits. Directors may serve a fam ily for several months following the funeral until such m atters are satis factorily completed. Places of Employment A b o u t 4 5 ,000 p erso n s w ere li censed as funeral directors and em balmers in 1976. A substantial num ber of the d irec to rs w ere funeral home owners. Most of the 22,000 funeral homes in 1976 had 1 to 3 directors and embalmers, including the owner. Many large homes, however, had 20 or more. Besides the em balm ers em ployed by funeral hom es, several hundred w orked for m orgues and hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is needed to practice em balm ing. State licensing standards vary but generally an em balm er must be 21 years old, have a high school diploma or its equivalent, graduate from a m o rtu ary scien ce sch o o l, serve an apprenticeship, and pass a State board examination. One-half of the States require a year or more of college in addition to training in m or tuary science. All but six States also require fu neral directors to be licensed. Quali fications are similar to those for em balm ers but directors may have to take special apprenticeship training and board examinations. Most peo ple entering the field obtain both li censes, however some States issue a single license to em balm er/funeral directors. Inform ation on licensing requirem ents is available from the State office of occupational licens ing. High school students can start p re paring for a career in this field by taking courses in biology, chemistry, and speech. Students may find a parttim e or sum m er jo b in a fun eral hom e. A lthough these jobs consist mostly of m aintenance and clean-up tasks, such as washing and polishing hearses, they can be helpful in gain 182 ing familiarity with the operation of funeral homes. In 1976, 34 schools had m ortuary science programs accredited by the American Board of Funeral Service Education. About one-half were pri vate vocational schools that offer 1year p ro g ram s em phasizing basic subjects such as anatom y and physi ology as well as practical skills such as embalming techniques and restor ative art. Community colleges offer 2-year programs, and a small num ber of colleges and universities offer 2and 4-year programs in funeral ser vice. These programs included liber al arts and m anagem ent courses as well as m ortuary science. All p ro grams offered courses in psychology, accounting, and funeral law. Apprentices work under the guid ance of experienced em balm ers and directors. An apprenticeship usually lasts 1 or 2 years and may be served before, after, or during the time one attends m ortuary school, depending on State regulations. State board examinations consist of written and oral tests and actual dem onstration of skills. After passing the examination and meeting other requirem ents, apprentices receive a license to practice. If they want to work in another State, they may have to pass its examination, although many States have m utual agreem ents that make this unnecessary. Im portant personal traits for funer al directors are com posure, tact, and the ability to com m unicate easily with the public. They also should OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK have the desire and ability to com fort people in their time of sorrow. A dvancem ent opportunities are best in large funeral homes where directors and em balm ers may earn prom otion to higher paying positions such as personnel m anager or gener al m anager. Some workers eventually acquire enough m oney and experi ence to establish their own business es. „ Employment Outlook Little change in the em ploym ent o f funeral directors and em balm ers is expected through the m id-1980’s. In recent years, the num ber of m ortuary school graduates has approxim ately equaled the num ber of jobs available due to retirem ents, deaths, and trans fers to other occupations. Many stu dents secure a prom ise of em ploy m ent before entering a program and, barring any significant growth in en rollm ents, future graduates should find job opportunities available. Dem and for funeral services will rise as the population grows and deaths increase. Most funeral homes, however, will be able to m eet the demand w ithout expanding their em ployment. The average funeral hom e conducts only one or two funerals each week and is capable of handling several m ore without hiring addition al employees. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, funeral directors and em balmers generally earned from $200 to $300 a week. M anagers generally e a r n e d b e tw e e n $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 a n d $16,000 a year, and many owners earned more than $20,000. A ppren tic e s e a rn e d b etw e en $2.25 an d $4.60 an hour. In large funeral hom es, employees usually have a regular work schedule. Typically they put in 8 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week. Overtim e, how ever, occasionally may be necessary. Some employees work shifts; for ex ample, nights 1 week, and days the next. Occasionally em balm ers may come into contact with contagious diseases but the possibility of their becoming ill is rem ote, even less likely than for a doctor or nurse. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties in this field is available from local funeral homes and from: National Funeral Directors Association of the United States, Inc., 135 W. Wells St., Mil waukee, Wise. 53203. National Selected Morticians, 1616 Central St., Evanston, 111. 60201. For a list of accredited schools of m ortuary science and inform ation about scholarship opportunities, con tact: The American Board of Funeral Service Edu cation, Inc., 201 Columbia St., Fairmont, W. Va. 26554. PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS A bout 1.4 million w orkers were em ployed in private households in 1976. The m ajority were dom estic workers who perform ed household tasks such as cooking, cleaning, or caring for children, but workers in o th e r o cc u p a tio n s also w ere em ployed by private households. G ar deners keep the grounds of large es tates looking attractive by planting shrubs and flowers and cutting the lawn. Chauffeurs drive their employ ers’ cars and keep the vehicles clean and in good running condition. C ar p en ters, p ain ters, and o th er craft w orkers m ain tain and re d e c o ra te hom es. P rivate nurses, secretaries, and cu rato rs or librarians are em ployed in some households. The following statem ent discusses the dom estic occupations most fre quently found in private households, in c lu d in g g e n e ra l h o u s e k e e p e r , m other’s helper, and com panion. w orkers clean the house and may also be responsible for meal prepara tion, laundry, or caring for children. W hen hired by the day or hour, they are called day workers. Heavy household tasks and yard m aintenance are usually perform ed by caretakers. They may wash win dow s, p a in t fen ces and mow th e lawn. In some households, meals are p re p a re d by cooks. Som e co o k s do everything from planning menus and buying food to serving m eals and cleaning the kitchen. Others follow the instructions of a family mem ber. C ooks may be assisted by a cook's helper, who is less skilled than a cook and perform s simple tasks, such as peeling vegetables and cleaning the kitchen. A few households em ploy launderers to wash, iron, and fold the laundry. Some private household workers specialize in perform ing personal ser vices for mem bers of the family. La dy's and gentleman's attendants keep their em ployer’s clothes pressed and hung, m ake their beds, help them dress, and run errands. Companions do similar work, but they also act as a friend or aide to the convalescent, elderly, or handicapped person who employs them. Some private households employ workers whose sole job is child care. PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD WORKERS (D.O.T. 099.228, 301.887, 303.138, 304.887, 305.281, 306.878, 307.878, and 309.138 through .878) Nature of the Work Thousands of people employ pri vate household workers to help care for children, clean and m aintain the house and yard, cook meals, or serve the family. Some household workers specialize in one o f these jobs, but the duties o f most workers change from day to day. Frequently, workers who specialize live in their employ e r’s house. M ost private household workers are e m p lo y e d as g en era l houseworkers or m other's helpers. These Most private household workers are employed as general houseworkers or mothers’ helpers. 183 184 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Unlike m others’ helpers, whose du ties generally entail light housekeep ing as well as child care, these work ers have no general housekeeping responsibilities. Such workers bathe the ch ild ren , p rep are th eir m eals, launder their clothes, and supervise their play. Those who care for very young children are responsible for sterilizing bottles, preparing form u las, and ch a n g in g d ia p e rs. Som e households employ tutors, who usu ally are in charge of school-age chil dren and supervise their recreation, diet, and health, as well as their edu cation. These w orkers also are re sponsible for disciplining the chil dren and arranging their activities. A household with a large staff of workers may employ a home house keeper or a butler to supervise the staff and the operation of the house hold. These workers usually are re sponsible for hiring and firing the other household employees. In addi tion to these duties, butlers receive and announce guests, answ er tele phones, serve food and drinks, and may act as gentlem an’s attendants. H ousekeepers order food and clean ing supplies and keep a record of ex penditures. Places of Employment N early 1.1 million persons were employed as private household work ers in 1976. M ost are employed part time, working half-days or only 2 or 3 days a week. Those who live in their em ployer’s house work longer hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For m ost household jobs, experi ence and an ability to cook, clean, or care for a yard is im portant; formal education is not. Em ployers prefer workers who know how to operate vacuum cleaners, floor waxers, and lawn mowers, but m ost young people can learn these skills while helping with the house and yard work at home. Some household workers ac quire skills by spending a year work ing as a m o th er’s helper under the supervision of either an experienced household worker or their employer. Home econom ics courses in high schools, vocational schools, and ju nior colleges offer training in child developm ent and m eal preparation that can be very useful to persons in te re ste d in b eco m in g cooks o r child ca re w orkers. T raining p ro grams sponsored by Federal agen cies, State em ploym ent service offic es, and local w elfare departm ents also teach many of the skills needed for household work. For a person wishing a job serving as a com panion or caring for chil dren, educational and cultural back ground is more im portant than work experience. Generally a com panion’s b a c k g r o u n d , in te r e s ts , an d ag e should be similar to the em ployer’s, and practical nursing experience is useful if the em ployer is an invalid. Being able to read well or carry on an interesting conversation is helpful. A well-rounded education and teaching skills are im portant for persons inter ested in caring for children. Private household workers m ust have physical stam ina because they are on their feet most o f the time and sometimes must do some heavy lift ing. The desire to do a job carefully and thoroughly is im portant. H ouse hold workers should be able both to get along well with people and to work independently. Some workers, particularly cooks and infant’s nurs es, need a health certificate showing that they are free of contagious dis eases. Many em ployers arrange and pay for the necessary physical exam i nation. A dvancem ent o th e r than an in crease in wages generally is not possi ble in private household work. Few households require live-in workers, and even few er re q u ire so m any workers that a butler or home house keeper is needed as a supervisor. W orkers can transfer to better pay ing and m ore highly skilled house hold jobs, such as cook or lady’s or gentlem an’s attendant, but job open ings in these occupations are limited. However, many private household workers use their training and experi ence to transfer to related jobs—in child care or day care facilities, or as kitchen workers in restaurants. Some may go to work as building cleaners, em ployed by com m erical cleaning services. O thers may go to work as nursing aides in hospitals, or nursing homes, or hom em aker-hom e health aides employed by health agencies, public welfare departm ents, or com merical firms. Employment Outlook A lthough the num ber o f private household w orkers is expected to d e c lin e th ro u g h th e m id -1 9 8 0 ’s, th o u san d s o f openings will re su lt each year from the need to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation. The dem and for house hold w orkers has exceeded supply for some time, as m ore women, espe cially those with young children, en ter the labor force. Low wages, the tedious nature o f som e household tasks, and the lack o f advancem ent opportunities discourage many p er sons from entering the occupation, however, and some prospective em ployers are turning to child-care cen ters and com m ercial cleaning servic es for help. Job openings for dom estic w ork ers, particularly for general house keepers and m others’ helpers, will be plentiful th rough th e m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. Many openings will be available for part-tim e work. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1975, full-time female private household workers averaged $2,413 a year, less than half the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farm ing. Earnings data are not available for men in the occupation because men represen t such a small proportion of total em ployment. The provisions of Federal and State minimum wage laws were extended to private household w ork ers in May 1974. Wages vary according to the work perform ed, em ployer’s incom e, and the custom of the local area. E arn ings are highest in large cities, espe cially in the North. Most private household workers receive instructions from their em ployers, but are free to work on their own. Frequently, they have a key to the house or apartm ent. Household work is often tedious, especially for day workers who generally are given PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD SERVICE OCCUPATIONS the less d esira b le task s, such as cleaning bathroom s or defrosting the refrigerator. Long or irregular work ing hours can isolate workers who “ live in ” from th eir fam ilies and friends, and if they are the sole em ployees in the households, they are likely to be alone most of the time. 185 Sources of Additional Information Facts about em ploym ent opportu nities and training program s in pri vate household work are available from local offices of State em ploy m ent agencies. Inform ation on laws affecting household workers and guidelines for work is available from: National Committee on Household Employ ment, 7705 Georgia Ave. NW., Suite 208, Washington, D.C. 20012. CORRECTION OFFICERS (D.O.T. 372.868 and 375.168 and .868) PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS The growth of our N ation’s popu lation and economy has put an in creasing emphasis on protective ser vices. Each city, suburban area, and national port of entry requires pro tective and related service workers to check crim e, minimize loss of life and p ro p erty , and enforce regula tions that protect the health and safe ty of our citizens at home and on the job. Careers in protective and related service occupations require varied com binations of education and expe rience. W orkers such as FBI special agents and some F ederal G overn m ent inspectors must have at least a bachelor’s degree, while guards may have less than a high school educa tion. Most occupations in this group, however, require a high school diplo ma. In many cases, a college degree is an asset for advancem ent to higher level positions. In addition to educational require m ents, m ost w orkers in protective Nature of the Work and related services m ust undergo formal training program s and get onthe-job experience before they are fully qualified. T raining program s last from sev e ral days to a few months and emphasize specific jobrelated skills. Personal qualifications such as honesty and an understanding of h u man nature are im portant. Persons seeking careers in protective and re lated service occupations should sin cerely desire to serve the community and be able to exercise proper judg m ent under a variety of conditions. This section describes the work of several occupations in protective and related services: correction officers, FBI sp e c ia l a g e n ts, fire fig h te rs , guards, police officers, State police officers, o c c u p a tio n a l safety and health w orkers, and health, regula tory, and construction inspectors. Except for guards, most openings in the protective service occupations result from growth in employment needs Selected protective and related service occupations Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in thousands) Firefighters Guards Health and regulatory inspectors (government) Police officers 60 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 186 70 Replacement C o rrectio n officers are charged with the safekeeping of persons who have been arrested, are awaiting tri al, or who have been tried and co n victed of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a correctional institu tion. They m aintain order within the institution, enforce rules and regula tions, and often counsel inmates. To make sure inmates are orderly and obey rules, correction officers keep a close watch on everything the immates do—working, exercising, eating, and bathing. They give and oversee work assignm ents for in mates, as well as instruct and help them on specific tasks. Sometimes it is necessary to search inm ates for forbidden items, such as weapons or drugs, to settle disputes between in m ates, and to en fo rce discipline. They cannot show favoritism to any inmate and must report all who vio late rules. To prevent escapes, offi cers serve as guards on towers and at gates. They count inm ates to m ake sure all are present during transfers and activities. C orrection officers examine facili ties to assure the safety and security of prisoners. They check cells and o th e r areas o f the in stitu tio n for unsanitary conditions, fire hazards, and evidence of infraction of rules by inm ates. Periodically, they inspect locks, windowbars, grill doors, and gates for tampering. C orrection officers report orally and in writing on inm ate conduct and on the quality and quantity of work done by inmates. Officers also report disturbances, violations of rules, and any unusual occurrences. They keep a record of their activities in a n o te book. C orrection officers escort inm ates to and from cells and other areas and admit and accom pany authorized visitors within the facility. From time to time, they may censor mail, ad m inister first aid, or assist police au thorities by investigating crimes com mitted within the institution and by searching for escaped inmates. 187 PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS m ainder work for the Federal Gov ernment. Most correction officers work in relatively large institutions located outside m etropolitan areas, although a significant num ber work in smaller facilities located in towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Correction officers oversee work assignments of inmates and instruct them in specific tasks. Counseling inmates and helping them with problems also is an im por tant part o f the correction officer’s job. Officers play a key role in efforts to rehabilitate inm ates by helping them adjust to life in the institution, preparing them for later civilian life, and counseling them on how to avoid future criminal behavior. In some in stitutions, officers lead or participate in group counseling sessions. More often, however, the counseling is in fo rm a l. O ffic e rs m ay a rra n g e a change in a daily schedule so that an inmate has an opportunity to visit the library, help inm ates get news of th eir fam ilies, talk o ver personal problems that may have led to com mitting a crime, or suggest where to look for a job after release from pris on. C orrection sergeants directly su pervise correction officers. They usu ally are responsible for maintaining security and directing the activities of a group of inmates during an as signed watch. Places of Employment There were about 90,000 co rrec tion officers in 1976. More than 9 out of 10 correction officers work for State and local governments; the re The Federal Governm ent, as well as almost every State and a few local ities, provides training for correction officers. Some States—Maryland and New Y ork are two — have special train in g ac ad em ies. M ost S ta tes, how ever, provide inform al on-thejob training. A cadem y train e es generally re ceive 4 to 8 weeks o f instruction on institutional policies, regulations and procedures, the behavior and custo dy of inm ates, writing reports, and security. On-the-job trainees receive 2 to 6 months of similar training in an actual job setting under the guidance o f an experienced officer. Experi enced officers sometimes receive inservice training to keep abreast of new ideas and procedures. Most penal systems require that correction officers be at least 21 years old and have a high school education or its equivalent, or else work experience that qualifies them. They must be in good health. Many States require candidates to m eet formal standards of height, weight, vision, and hearing. Strength, good judgm ent, and the ability to think and act quickly are assets. Some States require candidates to have 1 or 2 years’ experience in corrections or related police work. A few States require candidates to pass a written examination. With additional education, experi ence, and training, qualified officers may advance to correction sergeant or other supervisory or adm inistra tive positions. O fficers som etim es transfer to related areas, such as p ro bation and parole. Employment Outlook Employment of correction officers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. The likely population increase within c o rrec tional facilities is expected to create OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 188 growth in the em ploym ent of correc tion officers. Many additional open ings will result from job turnover and the need to replace workers who die or retire. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, salaries for correction of ficers varied widely by level of gov ernm ent. A t the Federal level, the starting salary was $10,370 per year; the average salary for all Federal co r rection officers and correction ser geants was $12,675 per year. At the State level, starting salaries averaged $8,900 per year while maximum sala ries averaged $11,400 per year. Sala ries o f co rrectio n sergeants range fro m an a v e r a g e m in im u m o f $10,259 to an average maximum of $13,426 at the State level. C orrection officers usually work an 8-hour day, 40-hour week. Prison security m ust be provided around the clock, which m eans some officers work weekends, holidays, and nights. During em ergencies, officers may work overtim e, for which they are paid straight time, or time-and-onehalf, or are given equal time off. Officers may work either indoors with inm ates or outdoors on towers or at gates. Although corrections work is not normally hazardous, there is always the th reat of trouble by inmates. FBI SPECIAL AGENTS (D.O.T. 375.168) Nature of the Work F ed eral B ureau o f Investigation (FBI) special agents investigate vio lations of Federal laws in connection with bank robberies, kidnappings, white-collar crime, thefts of G overn m ent property, organized crime, es p ionage, and sab o tag e. T he FBI, which is part of the U.S. D epartm ent of Justice, has jurisdiction over many different Federal investigative m at ters. Special agents, therefore, may be assigned to any type of case, al though those with specialized train ing usually work on cases related to their background. Agents with an accounting background, for exam ple, m ay in v estig ate w h ite-c o lla r crimes such as bank em bezzlem ents, or fraudulent bankruptcies or land deals. Because the FBI is a fact-gathering agency, its special agents function strictly as investigators, collecting evidence in cases in which the U.S. G overnm ent is or may be an interest ed party. In their casework, special agents conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of sus pects, and participate in raids. Be cause the FBI’s work is highly confi d e n tia l, sp e c ia l a g e n ts m ay n o t disclose any of the inform ation gath ered in the course of their official duties to unauthorized persons, in cluding m em bers of their families. Frequently agents m ust testify in court about cases that they investi gate. Although they work alone on m ost assignments, agents com m unicate with their supervisors by radio or telephone as the circum stances dic tate. In performing potentially dan gerous duties, such as arrests and raids, two agents or m ore are as signed to work together. Places of Employment About 8,600 persons were special agents in 1976. Most agents were as signed to the FBI’s 59 field offices located throughout the Nation and in Puerto Rico. They worked in cities where field office headquarters are located or in resident agencies (suboffices) established under field office supervision to provide prom pt and efficient handling o f investigative m atters arising throughout the field office territory. Some agents are as signed to the Bureau headquarters in W ashington, D.C., which supervises all FBI activities. Sources of Additional Information In fo rm atio n ab o u t e n tra n ce re quirem ents, training, and career op p o rtu n ities for co rrec tio n officers may be obtained from Federal and State civil service commissions, State departm ents of corrections, or near by correctional institutions and fa cilities. Additional inform ation describing a career as a correction officer is available from: American Correctional Association, National Offender’s Services Contact Center, P.O. Box 81826, Lincoln, Neb. 68501. Special agents process a car for fingerprints. PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To be considered for appointm ent as an FBI special agent, an applicant usually must be a graduate of a Stateaccredited law school or a college graduate with a major in accounting. The law school training must have been preceded by at least 2 years of undergraduate college work. From time to time, as the need arises, the FBI accepts applications from persons who have a 4-year col lege degree with a physical science major or fluency in a foreign lan guage, or who have 3 years of profes sional, executive, complex investiga tive, or other specialized experience. Applicants for the position of FBI special agent must be citizens of the United States, be at least 23 years old but not have reached their 35th birthday before they begin duty and be willing to serve anywhere in the United States or Puerto Rico. They must be capable of strenuous phys ical ex e rtio n , and have excellent hearing and vision, normal color per ception, and no physical defects that would prevent their using firearms or p articip atin g in d an gerous assign ments. All applicants must pass a rigid physical examination, as well as written and oral examinations testing their aptitude for meeting the public and conducting investigations. All of the tests except the physical exami nations are given by the FBI at its facilities. Background and character investigations are made of all appli cants. Appointm ents are made on a probationary basis and become per m anent after 1 year of satisfactory service. Each newly appointed special agent is given about 15 weeks of training at the FBI Academy at the U.S. Marine Corps Base in Quantico, Va. before assignment to a field of fice. During this period, agents re ceive intensive training in defensive tactics and the use of firearms. In a d d itio n , th e y a re th o ro u g h ly schooled in Federal criminal law and pro ced u res, FBI rules and regula tions, fingerprinting, and investig a tive work. After assignment to a field office, the new agent usually works closely with an experienced agent for about 2 weeks before handling any assignments independently. All administrative and supervisory jobs are filled from within the ranks by selecting those FBI special agents who have dem onstrated the ability to assume more responsibility. Employment Outlook The jurisdiction of the FBI has ex panded greatly over the years. Al though it is impossible to forecast sp ec ia l a g e n t p e rso n n e l r e q u ir e ments, em ploym ent may be expected to increase with growing FBI respon sibilities. The FBI provides a career service and its rate of turnover is traditional ly low. Nevertheless, the FBI is al ways interested in applications from qualified persons who would like to be considered for the position of spe cial agent. Earnings and Working Conditions The entrance salary for FBI special agents was $15,524 in late 1976. Special agents are not appointed un der Federal Civil Service regulations, but, like other Federal employees, they receive periodic within-grade salary raises if their work perform ance is satisfactory; they can advance in grade as they gain experience. Salaries o f supervisory agents start at $28,725 a year. Special agents are subject to call 24 hours a day and must be available for assignment at all times. Their duties call for some travel, for they are assigned wherever they are needed in the United States or Puerto Rico. They frequently work longer than the custom ary 40-hour week and, under specified co n d i tions, receive overtim e pay up to about $3,900 a year. They are grant ed paid vacations, sick leave, and an nuities on retirem ent. Agents are re quired to retire at age 55 if they have served at least 20 years. Sources of Additional Information The Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. De partment of Justice, Washington, D.C. 20535. 189 FIREFIGHTERS (D.O.T. 373.1 18 through .884) Nature of the Work Every year fires destroy thousands of lives and property worth millions of dollars. Firefighters help protect the public against this danger. This sta te m e n t gives in fo rm atio n only about paid (professional) firefight ers; it does not cover the many thou sands o f volunteer firefighters in communities across the country. During duty hours, firefighters must be prepared to respond to a fire and handle any emergency that arises. Because firefighting is danger ous and com plicated, it requires or ganization and teamwork. At every fire, firefighters perform specific du ties assigned by a com pany officer such as lieutenant, captain, or other departm ent officer: they may co n nect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pump, or position ladders. Because their duties may change several times while the company is in action they must be skilled in many different fire fighting activities such as rescue, ventilation, and salvage. Some fire fighters operate fire apparatus, em er gency rescue vehicles, and fire boats. In addition, they help people to safe ty and administer first aid. Most fire departm ents also are re sponsible for fire prevention activi ties. They provide specially trained personnel to inspect public buildings for conditions that might cause a fire. They may check building plans, the num ber and working condition of fire escapes and fire doors, the stor age of flammable materials, and o th er possible hazards. In addition, fire fighters educate the public about fire p re v e n tio n and safety m easu res. They frequently speak on this subject before school assemblies and civic groups, and, in some communities, they inspect private homes for fire hazards. Between alarms, firefighters spend much time improving their skills and doing m aintenance work. They also have practice drills, clean and lubri cate equipm ent, and stretch hoses to dry. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 190 Firefighting requires organization and teamwork. Places of Employment M o re th a n 2 1 0 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n s worked as firefighters in 1976. Nine out of ten worked in municipal fire departm ents. Some very large cities have several thousand firefighters on the payroll while many small towns have fewer than 25. Some firefighters work in fire departm ents on Federal installations; others work in large m anufacturing plants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for m unicipal firefight ing jobs m ust pass a written test, a m edical exam ination, and tests of strength, physical stam ina, and agil Digitized ity,forasFRASER specified by local regulations. These examinations are open to men and women who are at least 18 years of age, m e e t c e rta in h eig h t and weight requirem ents, and have a high sc h o o l e d u c a tio n o r e q u iv a le n t. Those who receive the highest scores on the exam inations have the best chances for appointm ent. Extra cred it usually is given for military service. E xperience gained as a volunteer firefighter or through training in the Armed Forces also may improve an applicant’s chances for appointm ent. As a rule, beginners in large fire departm ents are trained for several weeks at the city’s fire school. Through classroom instruction and practice drills, the recruits study fire fighting techniques, fire prevention, local building codes, and first aid; also, they learn how to use axes, chemical extinguishers, ladders, and o th er equipm ent. A fter com pleting this training, they are assigned to a fire company where they are evaluat ed during a probationary period. Experienced firefighters often con tinue study to improve their job p er form ance and prep are for p ro m o tio n a l e x a m in a tio n s . F ire d e p a rtm e n ts fre q u e n tly c o n d u c t training program s, and many colleges and universities offer courses such as fire engineering and fire science that are helpful to firefighters. Among the personal qualities fire fighters need are m ental alertness, courage, m echanical aptitude, en durance, and a sense of public ser vice. Initiative and good judgm ent are extrem ely im p o rta n t becau se firefighters often m ust m ake quick decisions in em ergency situations. B ecause m em bers o f a crew e a t, sleep, and work closely together un der conditions of stress and danger, they should be dependable and able to get along well with others in a group. Leadership qualities are assets for officers who m ust establish and maintain a high degree of discipline and efficiency as well as direct the activities of the firefighters in their companies. Opportunities for prom otion are good in most fire departm ents. As firefighters gain experience, they may advance to a higher rank. After 3 to 5 years of service they may become eligible for prom otion to the grade of lieutenant. The line of fur ther prom otion usually is to captain, then battalion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, and finally to chief. Chances for advancem ent generally depend upon each candidate’s posi tion on the prom otion list, as d eter mined by the score on a written ex am ination, his or h er su p erv iso r’s rating, and seniority. Employment Outlook Em ployment of firefighters is ex pected to increase about as fast as th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s to m eet the grow ing need for fire p ro te c tio n . Thousands of jobs will becom e avail able each year due to growth and the PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS need to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation. Employment should rise as new fire departm ents are form ed and as others enlarge their fire prevention sections. M uch of the expected in crease will occur in smaller com m u nities as volunteer firefighters are re placed by professionals. Additional firefighters also may be required as more cities shorten the workweek for firefighters. The num ber of firefighters in a community ultimately depends upon the availability of funds from the municipal government for salaries and equipm ent. Fire protection is an essential service and citizens are likely to exert considerable pressure on city officials to expand fire pro tectio n co v erag e. H ow ever, local governm ents m ust live within their budgets. This means that in some fi nancially troubled cities, firefighter employm ent probably will remain at current levels or decline while in oth er cities, em ploym ent is likely to in c rease s u b sta n tia lly to m e e t the needs of an expanding population. The num ber of people who qualify for firefighter jobs in large cities usu ally is greater than the num ber of job openings, even though the written exam ination and physical req u ire m ents elim in ate m any applicants. Therefore, com petition among can didates in urban areas is apt to re main keen. Opportunities should be much better in smaller communities. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, average entrance salaries for beginning full-tim e firefighters ranged from $9,900 to $12,200 a year, depending on city size and re gion of the country. Average maxi mum salaries varied from $12,600 to $14,850 annually. Earnings for fire fighters are lowest in the South and highest in the West, and generally are higher in suburban districts than in large cities. Average earnings of all firefighters are about one and onehalf times as much as the average of all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Fire lieutenants started at an aver age salary o f $13,700 a year in 1976 Digitized forearned FRASERan average maximum sal and ary of $16,100. Fire captains started at an average salary of $15,450 a year and earned an average m axi mum of $ 18,300. Practically all fire departm ents fur nish allowances to pay for protective clothing (helm ets, boots, and rubber coats) and many also provide dress uniforms. In some cities, firefighters are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In other cities, they work a day shift o f 10 hours and a night shift of 14; shifts are rotated at frequent intervals. The average workweek for firefighters is 52 hours, but is only 42 hours in many large cities, particular ly in the East. Some firefighters work as many as 84 hours a week. Fire lieutenants and fire captains work the sam e hours as the firefighters they supervise. Duty hours may in clude som e tim e when firefighters are free to read, study, or pursue o th er personal interests. In addition to scheduled hours, firefighters often must work extra hours when they are bringing a fire under control. W hen overtime is worked, m ost fire depart ments give com pensatory time off or extra pay. The job of a firefighter involves risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins o f floors or toppling walls and danger from exposure to flames and smoke. Firefighters also may come in contact with poisonous, flam m able, and explosive gases and chemicals. In addition, they work in all types o f weather. Firefighters generally are covered by liberal pension plans that often provide retirem ent at half pay at age 50 after 25 years of service or at any age if disabled in the line of duty. Firefighters also receive paid vaca tions. Provisions for sick leave usual ly are liberal. H ealth and surgical benefit plans are offered in many fire d e p a rtm e n ts and co m pensation is provided for firefighters injured in the line o f duty. M ost fire d ep a rt ments provide paid holidays—rang ing to 11 or more a year—or com pensatory time off for working on holidays. A bout 8 out of 10 firefighters are mem bers of the International Associ ation of Firefighters (AFL-CIO ). 191 Sources of Additional Information Inform ation on obtaining a job as a firefighter is available from local civil service commission offices or fire de partm ents. Inform ation about a career as a firefighter may be obtained from: International Association of Fire Chiefs, 1725 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 10006. National Fire Protection Association, 470 At lantic Ave., Boston, Mass. 02210. Additional inform ation on the salaries and hours of work of fire fighters in various cities is published annually by the International City M anagem ent Association in its M u nicipal Yearbook, which is available in many libraries. GUARDS (D.O.T. 372.868) Nature of the Work Guards patrol and inspect property to protect it against fire, theft, van dalism, and illegal entry. The specific duties o f these w orkers, how ever, vary depending on the size, type, and location of their employer. In office buildings, banks, hospi tals, and departm ent stores, guards protect records, m erchandise, m on ey, and equipm ent. In departm ent stores they often work with under cover detectives watching for theft by custom ers or store employees. At ports and railroads, guards p ro tect m erchandise in shipm ent as well as property and equipm ent. They in sure th a t nothing is stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and watch fo r fire s, p ro w le rs, an d tro u b le among work crews. Sometimes they direct traffic. Guards who work in public build ings, such as m useum s or art gal leries, pro tect paintings or exhibits from fire, theft, or damage. They also answer routine questions from visi tors and sometimes guide traffic. In large factories, aircraft plants, and defense installations where valu able inform ation m ust be protected, some guards check the credentials of persons and vehicles entering and 192 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK device th at indicates the time at which th ey re a c h various c h e c k points. (T he related occupation of correction officer also is discussed in this section on p ro tec tiv e service occupations.) Places of Employment In 1976, almost 500,000 persons worked as guards. Most work in of fice buildings, governm ent installa tions and buildings, stores, hotels, banks, schools, and m anufacturing plants. Industrial security firms and guard agencies employ about 40 p er cen t of all guards; agency guards work under contract in private busi ness establishm ents o f all types, as well as in some governm ent facilities. Although guard jobs are found throughout the country, most are lo cated in highly industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bank guards maintain the security of the bank by monitoring closed circuit televi sion cameras. leaving th e prem ises. U niversity, park, or recreation guards perform sim ilar d u ties and also may issue parking permits and direct traffic. At social affairs, sports events, conventions, and other public gath erings, guards m aintain order, give inform ation, and watch for persons who may cause trouble. In a large organization, a security officer often is in charge of the guard force; in a small organization, a sin gle w orker may be responsible for security. Patrolling usually is done on foot; b u t if the p ro p erty is large, guards may make their rounds by car or m otor scooter. As they make their rounds, guards check all doors and windows, see that no unauthorized persons remain after working hours, and insure that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprinkler systems, furnaces, and various elec tric a l and p lu m b in g system s are working properly. They som etimes set therm ostats or turn on machines for janitorial workers. Guards usually are uniform ed and often carry a nightstick or gun. They also may carry a flashlight, whistle, two-way radio, and a watch clock—a Most employers prefer guards who are high school graduates. A ppli cants with less than a high school education usually are tested for their reading and writing abilities and their com petence in following written and oral in stru ctio n s. E m ployers also seek people who have had experi ence in the military police or in State and local police departm ents. Most persons who enter guard jobs have prior work experience, although it is usually unrelated. Many have retired from careers in the military or other protective services, and their guard em ploym ent is a second career. C andidates for guard jobs in the Federal G overnm ent m ust be veter ans, have some experience as guards, and pass a written examination. For most Federal guard positions, appli cants m ust qualify in the use of fire arms. A driver’s perm it is required for some jobs. Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and also provide several weeks of on-the-job training. G uards may be taught the use of firearms, the adm inistration of first aid, the procedure to use in handling various em ergencies, and ways to spot and deal with security problems. Applicants are expected to have good character references, no police record, good health—especially in hearing and vision—and good p e r sonal habits such as neatness and dependabiluty.They should be mentally alert, emotionally stable, and physi cally fit to cope with em ergencies. Some em ployers require guards to m eet height and w eight specifica tions or to be within a certain age range. Although guards in small com pa n ies re c e iv e p e rio d ic salary in creases, advancem ent is likely to be limited. However, m ost large organi zations use a military type of ranking that offers advancem ent in position and salary. Guard experience enables some persons to transfer to police jobs that offer higher pay and greater o p p o r tu n itie s fo r a d v a n c e m e n t. Gards with some college education may advance to jobs that involve ad ministrative duties or the prevention of espionage and sabotage. Employment Outlook Employment of guards is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Increased concern for crime and van dalism will heighten the need for se curity in and around plants, stores, and recreation areas and is expected to cause rapid grow th o f agency g u a rd e m p lo y m e n t. A d d itio n a l guards will be n eed ed by banks, m anufacturing plants, and Federal, State, and local governments to p ro vide better security and m onitor re m ote cam eras, alarm systems, and other electronic surveillance equip ment. Many openings also will arise as guards retire, die, or leave their jobs for other reasons. O pportunities will be m ost plentiful for persons seeking work on night shifts. Earnings and Working Conditions Wages of guards working in 36 ur ban areas were estim ated to average $3.23 an hour in 1976. Those w ork ing in the North earned more than the average while guards employed in the South and W est earned som e what less. Hourly wages of guards were estim ated to average $5.04 in m anufacturing; $5.29 in transporta tion and public utilities; $4.10 in banking, finance, insurance, and real 193 PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS estate; $4.22 in w holesale trad e; $3.70 in retail trade; and $2.61 in the various service industries, including security and guard agencies. Guards who were members of unions earned more than average. Depending on their experience, newly hired guards in the Federal Governm ent earned between $142 and $160 a week. Top supervisory guards in the Federal Governm ent may be paid up to $271 a week. These workers usually receive over time pay as well as a wage differential fo r th e sec o n d and th ird shifts. G uards generally have paid vaca tions, sick leave, and insurance and pension plans. About two-thirds of all guards work at night; the usual shift lasts 8 hours. Some employers have three shifts where guards rotate to divide daytime, weekend, and holiday work equally. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular lunch break. Guards often work alone, so that no one is nearby to help if an acci dent or injury occurs. Some large firms therefore use a reporting ser vice that enables guards to be in con stant contact with a central station outside the plant. If they fail to trans mit an expected signal, the central station investigates. course of a day’s work, they may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a housebreaking, and give first aid to an accident victim. In a large police departm ent, by contrast, officers usually are assigned to a spe cific type of duty. Most officers are detailed either to patrol or to traffic duty; smaller num bers are assigned to special work such as accident p re vention or operation of com m unica tions systems. Others work as d etec tives (plainclothes officers) assigned to criminal investigation; still others, as experts in chem ical and m icro scopic analysis, firearm s identifica tion, and handwriting and fingerprint identification. In very large cities, a few officers may work with special units such as m ounted and m otorcy cle police, harbor patrols, helicopter patrols, canine corps, mobile rescue teams, and youth aid services. Most new recruits begin on patrol duty. R ecruits may be assigned to such varied areas as congested busi ness districts or outlying residential areas. They may cover their beats alone or with other officers. They may ride in a police vehicle or walk on “ foot” patrol. In any case, they becom e thoroughly fam iliar w ith conditions throughout their area and, while on patrol, remain alert for any thing unusual. They note suspicious circum stances, such as open win dows or lights in vacant buildings, as well as hazards to public safety such as burned-out street lights or fallen trees. Officers also watch for stolen autom obiles and enforce traffic regu lations. At regular intervals, they re port to police headquarters through call boxes, by radio, or by walkietalkie. They prepare reports about their activities and may be called on to testify in court when cases result in legal action. Places of Employment A bout 500,000 full-time officers worked for local police departm ents in 1976. Some cities have very large police forces. For exam ple, New York has about 30,000 police offi cers and Chicago has nearly 13,000. Hundreds of small communities em ploy fewer than 25 officers each. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Local civil service regulations gov ern the appointm ent of police offi cers in practically all large cities and in many small ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 21 Sources of Additional Information F urther inform ation about work opportunities for guards is available from local employers and the nearest State em ploym ent service office. POLICE OFFICERS (D.O.T. 375.1 18 through .868, and 377.868) Nature of the Work The security of our N ation’s cities and towns greatly depends on the work of local police officers whose jobs range from controlling traffic to preventing and investigating crimes. W hether on or off duty, these offi cers are expected to exercise their authority whenever necessary. Police officers who work in a small community have many duties. In the Police officers often work independently in carrying out their duties. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 19 4 years of age, and must m eet certain height and weight standards. Eligi bility for appointm ent depends on perform ance in com petitive exami nations as well as on education and experience. The physical exam ina tions often include tests of strength and agility. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, good judgm ent, and a sense of responsibility are especial ly im portant in police work, candi dates are interviewed by a senior of ficer at police h e a d q u a rte rs, and their character traits and background are investigated. In some police de partm ents, candidates also may be interview ed by a psychiatrist or a pyschologist, or be given a personal ity test. A lthough police officers work independently, they must per form their duties in line with laws and departm ental rules. They should en joy working with people and serving the public. In large police departm ents, where most jobs are found, applicants usu ally must have a high school educa tion. A few cities require some col lege tra in in g and som e hire law enforcem ent students as police in terns. A few police departm ents ac cept applicants who have less than a high school education as recruits, particularly if they have worked in a field related to law enforcem ent. M ore and m ore, police d e p a rt ments are encouraging applicants to take post-high school training in soci ology and psychology. As a result, more than 1,000 junior colleges, col leges, and universities now offer pro grams in law enforcem ent or criminal justice. O ther courses helpful in pre paring for a police career include English, Am erican history, civics and government, business law, and phys ics. Physical education and sports are especially helpful in developing the stam ina and agility needed for police work. In some large cities, young persons who have com pleted high school can enter police work as police cadets, or trainees, while still in their teens. As paid civilian employees of the police departm ent, they attend classes to learn police skills and do clerical work. They may be appointed to the regular force at age 21 if they have all the necessary qualifications. Before their first assignments, offi cers usually go through a period of training. In small comm unities, re cruits learn by working for a short tim e w ith e x p e rie n c e d o ffic e rs. Training provided in large city police departm ents is more formal and may last several weeks or a few months. This training includes classroom in struction in constitutional law and civil rights; in State laws and local ordinances; and in accident investi gation, patrol, and traffic control. Recruits learn how to use a gun, d e fend themselves from attack, adm in ister first aid, and deal with em ergen cies. Police officers usually become eli gible for prom otion after a specified length of service. In a large depart ment, prom otion may allow an offi cer to specialize in one type of police work such as laboratory work, traffic control, com m unications, or work with juveniles. Prom otions to the rank of sergeant, lieutenant, and cap tain usually are made according to a candidate’s position on a prom otion list, as determ ined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job perform ance. Many types of training help police officers improve their perform ance on the job and prepare for advance ment. Through training given at po lice departm ent academ ies and col leges, officers keep abreast of crowdcontrol techniques, civil defense, le gal developm ents th at affect their work, and advances in law enforce ment equipm ent. Many police d e p a rtm e n ts e n c o u ra g e o ffic ers to work tow ard college degrees, and some pay all or part of the tuition. Employment Outlook Police work is attractive to many. The job frequently is challenging and involves m uch responsibility. F u r therm ore, layoffs are rare. In periods of relatively high unem ploym ent, the num ber o f persons seeking police em ploym ent may be greater than the num ber o f openings. However, the written examinations and strict phys ical requirem ents always elim inate many applicants. The outlook should be good for persons having some col lege training in law enforcem ent. Law enforcem ent is complex and requires an approach tailored to the particular problems of each city. The police departm ent of a city with a large, mobile population is likely to emphasize traffic control, preventive patrol, and cooperation with police agencies in the surrounding areas. In smaller cities, or those with wellestablished com m unities and fewer em ploym ent and recreation centers, police work may be less specialized. In either case, however, the usual way of increasing police protection is to provide more officers for duty. The num ber of officers employed will depend on the am ount of money m ade av a ila b le by local g o v e rn ments. Because police work is essen tial, it is likely that funding for law enforcem ent will have high priority, and that the em ploym ent of city po lice officers will rise faster than the a v e ra g e fo r o th e r o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, entry level salaries for po lice officers averaged nearly $11,300 a year, although they varied widely from city to city. In some sm aller communities, officers started at less than $8,400 a year, while some m ajor cities offered over $15,000 a year to new em ployees. M ost officers re ceive regular salary increases during the first few years of em ploym ent un til they reach a set maximum for their rank. Maximum earnings averaged $13,900 a year in 1976, and exceed ed $17,000 a year in some areas. Prom otion to a higher rank brings a higher basic salary. The average starting salary for sergeants, for ex ample, was almost $14,500 a year in 1976; m ore than $18,000 a year in the largest cities. Beginning salaries for lieutenants averaged more than $16,300 a year in 1976. In general, police officers are paid about 1 1/2 tim es as m uch as nonsuperviso ry workers in private industry, except farming. Police dep artm en ts usually p ro vide officers with special allowances for uniform s and furnish revolvers, night sticks, handcuffs, and other re quired equipm ent. The scheduled workweek for po lice officers usually is 40 hours. Be cause police protection must be pro- PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 195 vided around the clock in all but the smallest communities, some officers are on duty over weekends, on holi days, and at night. Police officers are subject to call any time their services are needed and may work overtime in em ergencies. In som e d e p a rt ments, overtim e is paid at straight time or time and one-half; in others, o ffic e rs m ay be given an eq u al amount of time off on another day of the week. Police officers generally are cov ered by liberal pension plans, en abling many to retire at half pay by the time they reach age 55. In addi tion, paid vacations, sick leave, and health and life insurance plans fre quently are provided. Police officers may have to work outdoors for long periods in all kinds of weather. The injury rate is higher than in many occupations and re flects the risks officers take in pursu ing speeding m o to rists, capturing lawbreakers, and dealing with public disorder. Sources of Additional Information In form ation ab o u t en tra n ce re quirem ents may be obtained from lo cal civil service commissions or po lice departm ents. Additional information describing careers as police officers is available from: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 11 Firstfield Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760. STATE POLICE OFFICERS (D.O.T. 375.1 18, .138, .168, .228, .268, and .388) Nature of the Work The laws and regulations that gov ern the use of our N ation’s roadways are designed to insure the safety of all citizen s. S tate p o lice officers (som etim es called S tate troopers) p atro l o u r highw ays and enforce these laws. State police officers issue traffic tickets to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of an accident, State police officers usually take care of vehicle and traffic matters on the State’s highways. they direct traffic, give first aid, call for em ergency equipm ent including am bulances, and write reports to be used in determ ining the cause of the accident. In addition, State police officers provide services to motorists on the highways. For example, they radio for road service for drivers with m e chanical trouble, direct tourists to their destination, or give information about lodging, restaurants, and to u r ist attractions. State police officers also provide traffic assistance and control during road repairs, fires, and other em er gencies, as well as during special o c currences such as parades and sports events. They sometimes check the weight of commercial vehicles, co n duct driver exam inations, and give information on highway safety to the public. In addition to highway responsibil ities, State police may investigate crimes, particularly in areas that do not have a local police force. They sometimes help city or county police catch lawbreakers and control civil disturbances. State highway patrols, however, normally are restricted to vehicle and traffic m atters. Some officers work with special State police units such as the m ounted police, canine corps, and marine patrols. Others instruct train ees in State police schools, pilot po lice aircraft, or specialize in finger print classification or chemical and m icroscopic analysis of criminal evi dence. State police officers also write re ports and m aintain police records. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 196 Some officers, including division or bureau chiefs responsible for training or investigation and those who com m and police o p eratio n s in an as signed area, have administrative du ties. Places of Employment About 48,000 State police officers were employed in 1976. The size of State police forces var ies considerably. T he largest force (in California) has over 5,000 offi cers; the smallest (in North D akota) has fewer than 100. One State (H a w aii) does not m ain tain a police force. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement State civil service regulations gov ern the appointm ent of State police officers. All candidates must be citi zens of the United States. O ther en try re q u ire m e n ts v ary , b u t m ost States require that applicants have a high school education or an equiv alent com bination of education and experience and be at least 21 years old. Officers must pass a competitive examination and m eet physical and personal qualifications. Physical re q u ire m e n ts in clu d e s ta n d a rd s o f height, weight, and eyesight. Tests of stren g th an d agility often are re quired. Because honesty and a sense of responsibility are im portant in po lice work, an ap p lican t’s character and background are investigated. Although State police officers work independently, they must per form their duties in line with depart m ent rules. They should w ant to serve the public and be willing to work outdoors in all types of w eath er. In all States, recruits enter a formal training program for several months. They receive classroom instruction in State laws and jurisdictions, and they study procedures for accident investigation, patrol, and traffic con trol. Recruits learn to handle fire arms, defend themselves from attack, handle an autom obile at high speeds, and give first aid. After gaining expe rience, some officers take advanced training in police science, adminis tration, law enforcem ent, or crim i nology. Classes are held at junior col leges, colleges and universities, or special police institutions such as the N ational A cadem y o f the F ederal Bureau of Investigation. High school and college courses in English, governm ent, psychology, so ciology, Am erican history, and phys ics help in preparing for a police c a reer. Physical education and sports are useful for developing stam ina and agility. Driver education courses and military police training also are help ful. Police officer recruits serve a pro b atio n ary p erio d ranging from 6 months to 3 years. After a specified length of time, officers becom e eligi ble for prom otion. Most States have merit prom otion systems that require officers to pass a com petitive exam i nation to qualify for the next highest rank. Although the organization of police forces varies from State to State, the typical avenue of advance ment is from private to corporal, to sergeant, to first sergeant, to lieuten ant, and then to captain. In some States, high school gradu ates may enter State police work as cadets. These paid civilian em ploy ees of the police organization attend classes to learn various aspects of p o lice work and are assigned nonen forcem ent duties. C adets who qual ify may be appointed to the State police force at age 21. Employment Outlook State police em ploym ent is expect ed to grow about as fast as the aver age for other occupations. Although m o st jo b s will r e s u lt fro m th is growth, some openings will be creat ed as officers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Although some State police will be needed in criminal investigation and other nonhighway functions, the greatest dem and will be for officers to work in highway patrol. This is the result of a growing, more mobile population. In ever-increasing num bers, Am ericans are using the m otor vehicle as a means of transportation and a source of recreation. M otorcy cles, cam pers, and other recreational vehicles will continue to add to the N ation’s traffic flow and require ad ditional officers to insure the safety of highway users. Because law enforcem ent work is becoming more complex, specialists will be needed in crime laboratories and electronic data processing cen ters to develop adm inistrative and criminal information systems. How ever, in m any d ep a rtm en ts, these jobs will be filled by civilian em ploy ees rather than uniform ed officers. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, beginning salaries for State police officers averaged about $10,400 a year. Officers generally re ceive regular salary increases, based on experience and perform ance, un til a specified maximum is reached. Maximum salaries averaged $13,600 a year in 1976, but ranged to more than $15,000 a year in some States. Although starting salaries are n o r mally higher in the W est and lower in the South, State police officers on the average earn about 1 1/2 times as much as nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Earnings increase with prom otions to higher ranks. S tate police se r geants received average starting sala ries of $12,350 a year in 1976, and average maximum salaries of close to $15,800. Lieutenants received aver age starting salaries of $14,200 a year and average maximum salaries of more than $18,300. State police agencies usually p ro vide officers with uniforms, firearm s, and other necessary equipm ent, or give special allowances for their p u r chase. In many States, the scheduled workweek for police officers is 40 hours. Although the workweek is longer in some States, the trend is toward a 40-hour week. Since police protection must be provided around the clock, some officers are on duty over weekends, on holidays, and at night. Police officers also are subject to emergency calls at any time. State police usually are covered by liberal pension plans. Paid vacations, sick leave, medical insurance, and life insurance plans frequently are provided. The work of State police officers is sometimes dangerous. They always run the risk of an autom obile acci dent while pursuing speeding m otor PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS ists or fleeing criminals. Officers also face the risk of injury while appre hending criminals or controlling dis orders. Sources of Additional Information In fo rm atio n a b o u t specific e n trance requirem ents may be obtained from State civil service commissions or State police headquarters, usually located in each State capital. CONSTRUCTION INSPECTORS (GOVERNMENT) (D.O.T. 168.168) Nature of the Work Federal, State, and local govern ment construction inspectors insure th at recognized stan d ards of co n struction are observed in public and private construction. They inspect the construction, alteration, or repair of highways, streets, sewer and water system s, dam s, bridges, buildings, and other structures to insure com pliance with building codes and ordi- An inspector’s job is to insure compliance with building codes and ordinances, zon ing regulations, and contract specifica tions. nances, zoning regulations, and con tract specifications. C onstruction inspectors visit w ork sites to inspect recently com pleted construction. On large projects, they generally are re q u ired to in sp ect each new stage of construction. Sev eral m em bers o f large inspection staffs may be assigned to a single complex project. C onstruction inspectors generally specialize in one particular type of construction work. Broadly catego rized, these are building, electrical, m echanical, and public works. B uilding inspectors in sp ect th e structural quality of buildings. Some m ay sp e c ia liz e — fo r ex a m p le , in structural steel or reinforced co n crete buildings. Before construction, in sp ecto rs d eterm in e w hether the plans for the building or other struc ture comply with local zoning regula tions and are suited to the engineer ing and environm ental dem ands of the building site. They visit the work site before the foundation is poured to inspect the positioning and depth o f the footings. They inspect the foundation after it has been com plet ed. The size and type of structure and the rate o f completion determ ine the num ber o f o th er visits they m ust make. Upon com pletion of the proj ect, they conduct a final com prehen sive inspection. Electrical inspectors inspect the in stallation of electrical systems and equipm ent to insure that they work properly and are in com pliance with electrical codes and standards. They visit worksites to inspect new and ex isting wiring, lighting, sound and se curity systems, and generating equip m ent. T hey also may inspect the installation of the electrical wiring for heating and air-conditioning sys tems, kitchen appliances, and other com ponents. M echanical inspectors exam ine plum bing systems including septic tanks, plum bing fixtures and traps, and w ater, sew er, and vent lines. They also inspect the installation of the m echanical com ponents of kitch en appliances, heating and air-condi tioning equipm ent, gasoline and bu tane tanks, gas piping, and gas-fired appliances. Some specialize in in specting boilers, m echanical com po nents, or plumbing. 197 Public works inspectors insure that Federal, State, and local government construction of water and sewer sys tems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to detailed contract specifications. They inspect excava tion and fill operations, the place m ent of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, and asphalt pav ing. They also record the am ount of work perform ed and materials used so th at co n tra ct paym ent calcula tions can be made. Public works in spectors may specialize in inspection of highways, reinforced concrete, or ditches. While inspections are primarily visual, inspectors often use tape m ea sures, m etering devices, co n crete strength m easurers, and other test equipm ent during inspections. They often keep a daily log of their work, file written reports, and, if necessary, act on their findings. For example, co n stru ctio n inspectors notify the construction contractor, superinten dent, or supervisor when they discov er a detail of a project that is not in co m p lian ce with th e a p p ro p ria te codes, ordinances, or contract speci fications. If the deficiency is not cor rected within a reasonable period of time, they have authority to issue a “ stop-w ork” order. Many inspectors also investigate reported incidents of “ bootlegging,” construction or alteration that is being carried on without proper per mits. Violators of perm it laws are di rected to obtain permits and submit to inspection. Places of Employment About 22,000 persons worked as governm ent construction inspectors in 1976. M ore than th ree-fo u rth s w o rk ed for m u n icip al or co u n ty building departm ents. Public works co n stru c tio n in sp ecto rs were em ployed primarily at the Federal and State levels. The em ploym ent o f local govern m ent construction inspectors is con centrated in cities and in suburban a re a s u n d e rg o in g ra p id g ro w th . These governments employ large in spection staffs, including most of the inspectors who specialize in structur al steel, reinforced co n c rete, and boiler inspection. 198 A bout h alf the co nstruction in spectors em ployed by the Federal G overnm ent work for the D epart m ent of Defense, primarily for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK creased until they are able to handle complex assignments. An engineer ing degree is frequently needed in order to advance to supervisory in spector. Since they advise representatives of the contruction industry and the general public on m atters of code interpretation, construction practic es, and technical developm ents, con s tr u c tio n in s p e c to rs m u st k e e p abreast of new building code devel opm ents. The Federal G overnm ent and most State and large city govern ments conduct formal training pro grams for their construction inspec tors to broaden their knowledge of co n stru c tio n m ateria ls, p ra c tic e s, and inspection techniques and to ac quaint them with new materials and practices. Inspectors who work for small agencies that do not conduct train in g p rogram s freq u en tly can broaden th eir know ledge o f c o n struction and upgrade their skills by attending S tate-conducted training programs or by taking college or co r respondence courses. To become a construction inspec tor, several years of experience as a construction contractor, supervisor, or cra ft w orker are generally re quired. Federal, State, and most local governm ents also require an appli cant to have a high school diploma. High school preparation should in clude courses in drafting, m athem at ics, and English. W orkers who want to become in sp ecto rs should have a th o ro u g h knowledge of construction materials and practices in either a general area like structural or heavy construction, or in a specialized area such as elec trical or plum bing system s, re in forced concrete, or structural steel; a significant num ber of construction inspectors have recent experience as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or Employment Outlook pipefitters. Many employers prefer inspectors Em ploym ent of governm ent con to be graduates of an apprenticeship struction inspectors is expected to program , to have studied at least 2 grow faster than the average for all years toward an engineering or archi occupations through the m id-1980’s. tectural degree, or to have a degree Because o f the increasing complexity from a community or junior college, of construction technology and the with courses in construction technol trend tow ard the establishm ent o f ogy, b lu e p rin t read in g , tech n ic al minimum professional standards for m athem atics, English, and building inspectors by State governments, job inspection. o p p o rtu n itie s should be best fo r Construction inspectors must be in those who have some college educa good physical condition in order to tion or who are currently employed walk and climb about construction as carpenters, electricians, or plum b sites. They also must have a m otor ers. vehicle o p e ra to r’s license. In addi In addition to growth needs, job tion, Federal, State, and many local openings for construction inspectors go v ern m en ts usually req u ire th a t will occur each year to replace those construction inspectors pass a civil who die, retire, or leave the occupa tion for other reasons. service examination. Construction inspectors receive The num ber of new positions for most of their training on the job. construction inspectors will be During the first couple of weeks, largely affected by the level of new working with an experienced inspec housing and com m ercial building ac tor, they learn about inspection tech tivity. Because construction activity niques; codes, ordinances, and regu is sensitive to ups and downs in the lations; contract specifications; and economy, the num ber of job open recordkeeping and reporting duties. ings may fluctuate from year to year. The dem and for construction in They begin by inspecting less com plex types of construction such as spectors also should increase as they residential buildings. The difficulty are given more responsibility for in of their assignments is gradually in suring safe construction of prefabri ca te d buildings m ass-produced in factories and assembled on the con struction site. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries of construction in spectors working in cities and towns averaged about $10,500 a year in 1974, according to a survey conduct ed by the Public Personnel Associ ation. Top salaries for senior inspec tors averaged $13,000. Salaries for supervisory inspectors were higher in large cities. Among geographic re gions, the West had the highest aver age salaries, cities in the South the lowest. In the Federal G overnm ent, con struction inspectors started at $9,300 or $ 11,500 a year in 1977, depending on the am ount and nature of their e a rlie r w ork e x p e rie n c e . E x p e ri enced construction inspectors were paid salaries ranging from $ 14,000 to $ 1 9 ,5 0 0 , an d m o re e x p e rie n c e d workers were paid salaries ranging from $17,000 to over $22,000. C onstruction inspectors often spend a large portion of their time traveling between worksites. Usually, an autom obile is furnished for their use or their expenses are reim bursed if they use their own. Since they spend m ost of their time outdoors or in partially enclosed structures, they are exposed to all types of inclem ent weather. Unlike the seasonal and interm it tent nature of em ploym ent in many o f the occupations associated with the construction industry, inspection work tends to be steady and year round. In 1976, according to limited inform ation, unem ploym ent was esti m ated to be less than 3 percent, a figure significantly lower than th at for the Nation. Sources of Additional Information Persons seeking additional infor m ation on a career as a State or local governm ent construction inspector should contact their State or local em ploym ent service, or: International Conference o f Building Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Rd., Whittier, Calif. 90601. Persons interested in a career as a construction inspector with the F ed PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS eral Governm ent can get information from: Interagency Board of the U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. HEALTH AND REGULATORY INSPECTORS (GOVERNMENT) (D.O.T. 168.168, and .287) Nature of the Work Protecting the public from health and safety hazards, prohibiting unfair trade and em ploym ent practices, and raising revenue are included in the wide range of responsibilities of gov ernm ent. Health and regulatory in spectors help insure observance of the laws and regulations that govern these responsibilities. For discussion of a third type of inspector, see the statem ent on construction inspectors (G o v e rn m e n t) e lse w h e re in th e Handbook. The duties, titles, and responsibil ities o f F e d e ra l, S ta te, and local health and regulatory inspectors vary widely. Som e types o f inspectors work only for the Federal Govern ment while others also are employed by S tate and local go v ern m en ts. Many other workers employed as ac countants, agricultural cooperative extension service workers, and other agricultural professionals also have inspection duties. Health Inspectors. Health inspectors work with engineers, chemists, mi crobiologists, and health workers to insure com pliance with public health and safety re g u la tio n s governing food, drugs, and various other con sumer products. They also adminis ter regulations that govern the quar a n tin e o f p e rso n s an d p ro d u c ts entering the United States from for eign countries. The m ajor types of health in sp ecto rs are: Food and drug, m eat and poultry, and agricul tural quarantine inspectors. In addi tion, some inspectors work in a field that is closely related to food inspec tion—agricultural com m odity grad ing.for FRASER Digitized Most food and drug inspectors spe cialize in one area of inspection such as food, feeds and pesticides, weights and m easures, or drugs and cosm et ics. Some, especially those who work for the Federal G overnm ent, may be proficient in several o f these areas. W orking individually or in teams un der the direction of a senior or super visory inspector, they travel through o u t a geographical area to check periodically firms that produce, han dle, store, and m arket food, drugs, and cosm etics. They look for evi dence of inaccurate product labeling, decom position, chem ical or bacteri ological co n tam in atio n , and o th er factors that could result in a product b e c o m in g h a rm fu l to c o n s u m e r health. They assemble evidence of v io latio n s, using p o rta b le scales, cam eras, ultraviolet lights, container sam pling d ev ice s, th e rm o m e te rs, chemical testing kits, and other types of equipm ent. Product samples collected as part of their examinations are sent to laboratories for analysis. After com pleting their inspection, inspectors discuss their observations with the m anagem ent of the plant and point out any areas where corrective m ea sures are needed. They prepare writ ten re p o rts of their findings, and, when necessary, com pile evidence that may be used in court if legal actions m ust be taken to effect com pliance with the law. Federal and State laws em power meat and poultry inspectors to inspect m eat, poultry, and their byproducts to insure that they are wholesome and safe for public consum ption. W orking as part of a constant onsite team under the general supervision of a veterinarian, they inspect m eat and poultry slaughtering, processing, and packaging operations. They also check to see that products are la beled correctly and that proper sani tation is m aintained in slaughtering and processing operations. Agricultural quarantine inspectors protect Am erican agricultural prod u c ts fro m th e in tr o d u c tio n an d spread of foreign plant pests and ani mal diseases. To safeguard crops, forests, and gardens, they inspect ships, aircraft, railroad cars, and m o to r v eh icle s e n te rin g th e U n ited States for the presence of restricted 199 or prohibited plant or animal m ateri als. Environmental health inspectors, or sanitarians, work primarily for State and local governm ents. These in spectors perform a variety of inspec tion duties to help insure that the food p e o p le e a t, th e w ater they drink, and the air they breathe m eet governm ent standards. They check the cleanliness and safety of food and beverages produced in dairies and processing plants, or served in res taurants, hospitals, and other institu tions. They often examine the han dling, processing, and serving of food for com pliance with sanitation rules and regulations. Environm ental health inspectors concerned with waste control over see the trea tm e n t and disposal of sewage, refuse, and garbage. They examine places where pollution is a danger, perform tests to detect pollu tants, and collect air or water sam ples for analysis. They determ ine the nature and cause of the pollution, then initiate action to stop it. In large local and State health or ag ricu ltu re d ep a rtm en ts, en v iro n m ental health inspectors may spe cialize in areas of work such as milk and dairy products, food sanitation, waste control, air pollution, institu tional sanitation, and occupational health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range of environm ental health activi ties. Agricultural commodity graders ap ply quality standards to various com modities to insure that retailers and consumers receive good and reliable products. They generally specialize in an area such as eggs and egg prod ucts, processed or fresh fruits and vegetables, grain, or dairy products. They inspect samples of a particular product to determ ine its quality and grade, and issue official grading cer tificates. G raders also may inspect the plant and equipm ent to insure that adequate sanitation standards are maintained. Regulatory Inspectors. Regulatory inspectors insure com pliance with various laws and regulations that p ro tect the public w elfare. Im portant types o f regulatory inspectors are: Immigration; customs; aviation safe- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 2 0 0 Most health and regulatory inspectors are employed by the Federal Government 1976 employment (in thousands) Federal I I I State Local 0 10 40 50 60 70 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics ty; mine; wage-hour com pliance; al cohol, to b acco , and firearm s; and occupational safety inspectors. Im m igration inspectors interview and examine people seeking adm is sion, readmission, or the privileges of passing through or residing in the United States. They inspect the pass ports of those seeking to enter the United States to determ ine w hether they are legally eligible to enter and to verify their citizenship, status, and identity. Immigration inspectors also prepare reports, m aintain records, and process applications and peti tions by aliens for privileges such as immigrating to or living tem porarily in the United States. C ustom s inspectors en fo rce the laws governing U.S. im ports and ex ports. Stationed at airports, seaports, and b o rd e r cro ssing p o in ts, they count, weigh, gauge, m easure, and sample com m ercial cargoes entering and leaving the United States to de termine the am ount of tax that must be paid. They also inspect baggage and articles worn or carried by the passengers and crew o f ships, air craft, and m otor vehicles to insure that all m erchandise being brought through ports of entry is declared and the proper taxes paid. Aviation safety officers insure that Federal Aviation A dm inistration (FAA) regulations that govern the quality and safety o f aircraft equip ment and personnel are m aintained. ees to verify the em ployer’s records and to check for any complaints. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms in spectors insure th a t the industries which m anufacture these products comply with the provisions of rev enue laws and other regulations on operating procedures, unfair com pe titio n , and tra d e p ra c tic e s. T hey spend m ost of their time inspecting distilleries, wineries, and breweries; cigar and cig arette m anufacturing plants; wholesale liquor dealers and im porters; firearm s and explosives m anufacturers, dealers, and users; and other regulated facilities. They periodically audit these estab lish ments to determ ine that appropriate taxes are correctly determ ined and paid. Places of Employment Aviation safety officers may inspect a ir c r a f t m a n u fa c tu rin g , m a in te n an ce, o r o p eratio n s p ro c ed u re s. They usually specialize in inspecting eith er com m ercial or general avi ation aircraft. They are responsible for the inspection of aircraft m anu facturing and of m ajor repairs. They also c e r tif y a i r c r a f t p ilo ts a n d schools, pilot exam iners, flight in structors, and instructional m aterials. Mine inspectors work to insure the health and safety of miners and to prom ote good mining practices. To insure com pliance with safety laws and regulations, mine inspectors visit mines and related facilities to obtain in fo rm atio n on h ea lth and safety conditions. Mine inspectors discuss their find ings w ith the m anagem ent o f the mine, prepare written reports that in co rp o rate th eir findings and d ec i sions, and issue notices of findings that describe violations and hazards that must be corrected. They also in v estigate and p re p a re re p o rts on mine accidents and direct rescue and firefighting operations when fires or explosions occur. Wage-hour compliance officers in spect the em ployer’s time, payroll, and personnel records to insure com pliance with the provisions of various F ederal laws on m inim um wages, overtim e, pay, em ploym ent of m i nors, and equal em ploym ent oppor tunity. They often interview em ploy About 115,000 persons worked as health and regulatory inspectors in 1976. Nearly two-thirds of all health and regulatory inspectors work for the Federal G overnm ent, although State and local governments also em ploy large numbers. The largest sin gle em ployer of food and drug in spectors is the U.S. Food and Drug A d m in istra tio n , b u t th e m ajo rity work for State governm ents. M eat and poultry inspectors and com m od ity graders who work in processing plants are employed mainly by the U.S. D epartm ent of Agriculture. Ag ricultural quarantine inspectors work either for the U.S. Public Health Ser vice or the U.S. D epartm ent of Agri cu ltu re . E nvironm ental health in spectors work primarily for State and local governments. Regulatory inspectors work for various agencies within the Federal G overnm ent, mainly in regional and district offices throughout the United States. Aviation safety officers work for the Federal Aviation Adm inistra tion; wage-hour com pliance officers, for the D epartm ent of Labor; mine inspectors, the D epartm ent of the In terior; and alcohol, tobacco, and fire arm s inspectors, the Treasury D e partm ent. Immigration, customs, and ag ric u ltu ral q u aran tin e in sp ecto rs work at U.S. airports, seaports, b o r der crossing points, and at foreign airports and seaports. They are em ployed by the Justice and Treasury D epartm ents. PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Training, Advancement, and Other Qualifications Because inspectors perform such a wide range of duties, qualifications for em ploym ent in these positions vary greatly. The Federal G overn ment requires a passing score on the Professional and Administrative C a reer Examination (PA C E) for sever al inspector occupations, including im m ig ratio n ; cu sto m s; wage and hour com pliance; alcohol, tobacco, and firearm s; o ccu pational safety; and c o n s u m e r safety (fo o d and drug). To take this exam ination, a bachelor’s degree or 3 years of re sponsible work experience, or a com bination of the two, are required. In some cases, agencies will give prefer ence to an applicant whose course work or work experience is related to the field of employment. Other Federal inspectors must pass an examination based on specialized knowledge, in addition to having work experience in related fields. These include commodity inspectors such as those in m eat, poultry, live stock, and egg products. Air safety inspectors must have considerable experience in aviation m aintenance, and an FAA Air Frame and Power Plant certificate. In addi tion, various pilot certificates and considerable flight experience are re quired, with the type dependent on the inspection duties. Many air safety inspectors receive both their flight training and m echanical training in the Armed Forces. No written exami nation is required. Applicants for mine safety inspec to r positions generally m ust have specialized work experience in mine m anagem ent or supervision, or pos sess a skill such as electrical engi neering (for mine electrical inspec to rs ). In som e c a s e s , a g e n e ra l aptitude test may be required. Some Civil Service registers, in cluding those for agricultural quaran tine inspectors and fruit and vegeta ble graders, rate applicants solely on their experience and education and require no written examination. Qualifications for inspectors at the State and local level usually are simi lar to those for Federal employees. However, this may vary among gov ernm ent em ployers, particularly at the local level. Environm ental health inspectors, called sanitarians in many States, m ust have a bachelor’s degree in environm ental health or the phys ical or biological sciences. In 35 States, they are licensed and their qualifications regulated by exam in ing boards. All inspectors are trained in the laws and inspection procedures relat ed to their specific field through a com bination of classroom and onthe-job training. In general, people who w ant to beco m e h ea lth and regulatory inspectors should be able to accept responsibility and like d e tailed work. They should be neat and personable and able to express them selves well orally and in writing. All Federal G overnm ent inspec tors are prom oted on a Civil Service “ career ladder.” This means that, as suming satisfactory work perform ance, workers will advance autom ati cally, usually at 1-year intervals, to a specified maximum level. Above this level (usually supervisory positions), advancem ent is com petitive, based on needs of the agency and individ ual merit. Employment Outlook Employment of health and regula tory inspectors as a group is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. The growth in em ploym ent of health inspectors is expected to be m ore rapid than that of regulatory inspectors. In addition to job oppor tunities stemming from growth, many inspectors will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Increased food consum ption caused by population growth and greater public concern over potential health hazards should create addi tional jobs for food and drug, m eat and poultry, and other com m odity inspectors and graders. Public con cern for improved quality and safety of consum er products also should re sult in new legislation in these areas, requiring additional inspectors to in sure com pliance. A v ia tio n in d u stry g ro w th , i n creased international travel, and in creases in the volume of U.S. imports and exports should continue to cre ate new openings for aviation safety officers, quarantine and immigration 201 inspectors, and customs inspectors. Increasing coal mining activity and concern over mine safety should cre ate additional mine inspector jobs. Continued public pressure for equal em ploym ent rights should cause a growing need for wage-hour com pli ance officers. Earnings and Working Conditions With the exception of mine inspec tors and aviation safety officers, the Federal G overnm ent paid health and regulatory inspectors and graders starting salaries of $9,303 or $ 11,523 a year in 1977, depending on the type of position and the qualifica tions of the applicant. Aviation safety officers and mining inspectors usual ly re c e iv e d s ta rtin g s a la rie s o f $14,097. Salaries of experienced m eat and poultry inspectors, egg product in spectors, agricultural quarantine in spectors, alcohol, tobacco, and fire arm s inspectors, and custom s and im m igration inspectors w ere over $14,000 a year in 1977. Experienced food and drug inspectors (consum er safety officers), mine inspectors, and wage-hour compliance officers usu ally re c e iv e d s a la r ie s o f a b o u t $20,000 from the Federal G overn m ent in 1977. Experienced aviation s a f e ty o f f ic e r s a v e r a g e d o v e r $24,000 a year. Nonsupervisory environm ental health inspectors working for select ed U.S. cities and counties received a v e ra g e s ta rtin g s a la r ie s a b o u t $11,000 in 1976; those working for State governments started at about $1,000 less. Experienced environ m ental health inspectors working for State governments earned between $11,500 and $15,200, but those in top supervisory and adm inistrative p o s itio n s h a d s a la r ie s b e tw e e n $15,500 and $20,500 in 1976. Most health and regulatory inspec tors live an active life, meeting many people and working in a variety of environments. Many travel frequent ly and are usually furnished with an autom obile or reim bursed for travel expenses. At times inspectors must work un der unfavorable working conditions. For example, m eat and poultry, and alcohol, tobacco, and firearm s in- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 20 2 More detailed information on qualifications for Federal jobs is available from local Civil Service Commission offices or from individ ual Federal agencies. Information about career opp ortu nities as inspectors in State and local governments is available from State civil service commissions, usually lo cated in each State capital, or from local governm ent offices. OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH WORKERS (D.O.T. 010.081; 012.081 and .188; 079.188; 168.168, .268, and .284; 379.387; 821.387; and 909.128) Nature of the Work Public concern for improved quality and safety of consumer products will require additional inspectors to insure compliance. spectors frequently com e in contact with strong, unpleasant odors; mine inspectors often spend a great deal of time in mines where they are exposed to the same hazards as miners. Many inspectors work long and often ir regular hours. Sources of Additional Information For facts about inspector careers in the Federal G overnm ent, contact: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Exam iners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. People in the occupational safety and health field have the challenging job of insuring a safe and healthful environm ent for w orkers and safe products for consumers. Safety and health workers in a num ber of differ en t o cc u p atio n s strive to c o n tro l occupational accidents and diseases, property losses, and injuries from un safe products. This statem ent dis cusses occupations in private indus try ; fo r a d isc u ssio n o f re la te d occupations in government, see the statem ent on health and regulatory inspectors elsew here in the Hand book. The largest group of safety w ork ers is safety engineers. Although all of them are concerned with preventing accidents, their specific tasks depend on where they work. For example, the safety engineer working in a large m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t ( D .O .T . 012.081) may develop a com prehen sive safety program covering several thousand employees. This usually en tails detailed analysis of each job in the plant to identify potential hazards so that preventive m easures can be tak en . W hen accid en ts do o ccu r, safety engineers in m anufacturing plants investigate to determ ine the cause. If poor design, im proper m ain tenance, or m echanical failure is in volved, they use their technical skills to correct the situation and prevent its recurrence. When hum an error is PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Safety engineer inspecting plant machinery for potential hazards. the cause o f an accident, safety engi neers may establish training courses for plantworkers and supervisors or reemphasize existing ones. Safety eng in eers who work for t r u c k i n g c o m p a n i e s ( D .O .T . 909.128) study sch ed ules, ro u tes, loads, and speeds to determ ine their in flu en c e on tru c k in g ac cid en ts. They also inspect heavy rigs, such as trucks and trailers, to suggest ways of safer operation. In the mining indus tr y , s a f e ty e n g i n e e r s ( D .O .T . 010.081) may inspect underground or open-pit areas to insure com pli ance with State and Federal laws, d e sign protective equipm ent and safety devices for mine m achinery, or lead rescue activities during emergencies. Many safety engineers are directly concerned with the safety of their com pany’s product. They work closely with design engineers to d e velop m odels th at m eet all safety sta n d a rd s , and they m o n ito r th e m anufacturing process to insure the safety of the finished product. Safeguarding life and property against loss from fire, explosion, and related hazards is the job of the fire p r o t e c t i o n e n g i n e e r ( D .O .T . 012.188). Those who specialize in research investigate problem s such 203 as fires in high-rise buildings or the m anufacture, handling, and storage of flammable materials. Fire protec tion engineers in the field use these research findings to identify hazards and devise ways to correct them. For exam ple, new findings concerning fla sh p o in ts (th e te m p e ra tu re s at which different materials will ignite) are valuable to the engineer design ing storage facilities in a chemical plant. Like safety engineers, fire protec tion engineers may have different job d u ties d e p e n d in g on w here they w ork. O ne who w orks for a fire equipm ent m anufacturing company may design new fire protection de vices, while engineers in consulting firms work with architects and others to insure that fire safety is built into new structures. In contrast, fire p ro tection engineers working for insur ance rating bureaus (organizations th at calculate basic costs of insur ance coverage in particular areas) in spect private, com m ercial, and in dustrial properties to evaluate the adequacy of fire protection for the entire area. Many fire protection en gineers have special expertise in one area or more of fire protection, such as sprinkler or fire detection systems. Losses in the workplace cannot be reduced without m easures to elimi nate hazards to w orkers’ health. De signing and maintaining a healthful work environm ent is the job of the i n d u s t r i a l h y g i e n i s t (D .O .T . 079.188). These health professionals are concerned with how noise, dust, vapors, and other hazards common to the industrial setting affect w ork ers’ health. After a problem is detect ed, perhaps by analyzing employee m edical records, the industrial hy gienist at the jobsite may take air sam ples, m o n ito r noise levels, or m easure radioactivity levels in the areas under investigation. O ther industrial hygienists work in private laboratories or in those m ain tained by large insurance com panies or industrial firms. Laboratory hy gienists analyze air samples, do re search on the reliability of health equipm ent such as respirators, or in vestigate the effects of exposure to chemicals or radiation. Some hygien ists specialize in problem s of air and water pollution. For example, these 204 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK health professionals may work with government officials, environm ental g ro u p s, lab o r o rg a n iz a tio n s, and plant m anagem ent to develop a sys tem to screen harmful substances be fore they enter and pollute a river. L oss c o n tro l an d o cc u p a tio n a l health consultants (D.O.T. 168.168) in property-liability insurance com panies perform many services for their clients. These range from co r recting a single hazard in a small business to devising a program to eliminate or reduce all losses arising out of a large firm ’s operation. When dealing with a new account, the con sultant makes a thorough inspection of the plant and then confers with m anagem ent to form ulate a program that m eets the com pany’s needs. The consultant may, for example, help set up plant health program s and m edi cal services, assist plant personnel to insure that a new facility meets all safety requirem ents, or train plant safety people. Safety and health con sultants also help th eir com pany’s underw riters d eterm in e w hether a risk is acceptable and the am ount of premium to charge. Places of Employment An estim ated 28,000 persons were engaged in occupational safety and health work in 1976. A bout onequarter of these carried the profes sional designations, Certified Safety Professional; Certified Industrial Hy gienist; or M ember, Society of Fire P rotection Engineers. Many others who are not certified perform ed pro fessional level work, while a relative ly small num ber were employed in the occupational safety and health field as technicians and inspectors. Property and liability insurance com panies em ploy m any occupational safety and health workers to provide engineering, consulting, and inspec tion services to their clients. Others worked for a variety o f industrial, m anufacturing, and com m ercial con cerns. These workers are needed wherev er large num bers of people are con c e n tra te d and in d u strial d ev elo p m ent occurs. Insurance consultants generally have their headquarters in a region’s m ajor city and travel to andforfrom the sites they visit. Digitized FRASER Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry level safety and health pro fessionals generally need at least a bachelor’s degree in engineering or science. A more specialized degree, such as one in safety m anagem ent, industrial safety, or fire protection engineering, often is helpful in get ting a good job. Many employers p re fer applicants with a graduate degree in areas such as industrial hygiene, safety engineering, or occupational safety and h ealth engineering, or those with prior industrial work ex perience. Some employers will hire graduates of 2-year college curriculums as technicians, particularly if they have work experience related to the job. Continuing education is necessary to stay abreast of changing technol o g ies, new id e a s, an d e m erg in g trends. Many insurance com panies offer training sem inars and c o rre spondence courses for their staffs. The O ccupational Safety and Health A dm inistration (O S H A ) co n d u cts courses for safety and health workers on topics such as occupational injury investigation and radiological health hazards. The recognized m arks of achievem ent in the field are the des ignations Certified Safety Profession al; Certified Industrial Hygienist; and M ember, Society of Fire Protection Engineers. Certification is conferred by the Board of Certified Safety P ro fessionals, the Am erican Board of In dustrial Hygiene, or the Society of Fire Protection Engineers after the candidate com pletes the required ex perience and passes an examination. In addition to possessing technical com petence, safety and health w ork ers m ust be able to com m unicate well and m o tiv a te o th e rs . T hey should be able to adapt quickly to different situations, being equally at ease with a representative of a local union, a supervisor in the welding shop, or a corporate executive. Be cause physical activity is basic to the job, good physical condition is neces sary. In the insurance industry, safety and health workers can be prom oted to departm ent m anager in a small branch office, move up to larger branch offices, and finally take an executive position in the home of fice. In industrial firms, they can ad vance to plant safety and health m an ag e r o r c o rp o ra te m an ag e r o v er several plants. A lthough extensive experience is required, technicians can advance to professional safety and health positions. Employment Outlook Employment of safety and health workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as growing concern for occupational safety and health and consum er safety contin ues to generate program s and jobs. Many openings will arise also to re place w orkers who die, retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Much of the em ploym ent growth is expected to occur in industrial and m anufacturing firms. Many firms now without a safety and health p ro gram are expected to establish one, and others will upgrade and expand existing programs in response to gov ernm ent requirem ents, union inter est, and rising insurance costs. The num ber of safety and health workers in casualty insurance companies also will increase as more small em ploy ers request the services of their insur e r’s engineering or loss control de partm ent. Prospects should be best for graduates of occupational safety or health curriculums. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of safety and health w ork ers vary widely according to educa tion, experience, and specialty. In manufacturing firms, persons with a bachelor’s degree generally started at between $ 12,000 and $ 15,000 a year in 1976, according to the lim ited data available. Those with a graduate degree usually received higher start ing salaries, and technicians som e what lower ones. Safety and health workers with several years’ experi ence averaged $18,000 to $22,000, and co rp o rate m anagers well over $25,000 a year. The am ount of travel required de pends upon job specialty and geo graphic location. For exam ple, the plant safety engineer may travel only to seminars and conferences, while PROTECTIVE AND RELATED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS the insurance consultant may spend about half the time traveling between worksites. Usually, a car is furnished or workers are reim bursed for the expenses of using their own vehicles. Sources of Additional Information For g en eral in fo rm atio n ab o u t safety careers, write to: American Society of Safety Engineers, 850 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Also available from the Society is a booklet that lists colleges and univer sities offering degree programs in the occupational safety and health field. Information concerning a career in industrial hygiene is available from: American Industrial Hygiene Association, 66 S. Miller Rd., Akron, Ohio 44313. C a re e r in fo rm atio n c o n c ern in g fire protection engineering may be obtained from: Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 60 Batterymarch St., Boston, Mass. 02110. C areer inform ation on insurance loss control consulting is available from the home offices of many prop erty-liability insurance companies. The National Institute for O ccupa 205 tional Safety and Health of the U.S. Public Health Service provides gen eral information on requirem ents for various careers in the occupational safety and health field, as well as lists of college and universities that award degrees in the various occupational safety and health disciplines. This in formation is available from: Division of Training and Manpower Develop ment, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Robert A. Taft Labo ratories, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cin cinnati, Ohio 45226. 206 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK OTHER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS MAIL CARRIERS (D.O.T. 233.138 and 233.388) Nature of the Work Most mail carriers travel planned routes delivering and collecting mail. Carriers start work at the post office early in the m orning, where they spend a few hours arranging their mail for delivery and taking care of other details. A carrier may cover the route on foot, by vehicle, or a com bination of both. On foot, they tote a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it in a cart. In outlying suburban or rural areas a car or small truck is used to deliver mail. Residential carriers cov er their routes only once a day, but carriers assigned to a business district may make two trips a day. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to road side mailboxes, and to large build ings, such as apartm ents, which have all the mailboxes on the first floor. Besides making deliveries, carriers collect postage-due and c.o.d. fees and obtain signed receipts for regis tered, certified, and som etimes for insured mail. If a custom er is not home the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, car riers return to the post office with mail gathered from street collection boxes and homes. They turn in the accountable mail receipts and money collected during the day and may separate letters and parcels so that they can be canceled easily, and they turn in the receipts and money col lected. Many carriers have more special ized duties. Some deliver only parcel post while others collect mail from street boxes and office mail chutes. In contrast, rural carriers provide a wide variety of postal services. In ad dition to delivering and picking up mail, they sell stamps and money o r ders and accept parcels and letters to be registered or insured. All carriers answer custom ers’ questions about postal regulations and service and provide change-ofaddress cards and other postal forms when requested. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Mail carriers must be at least 18 and qualify on a four-part written ex amination. The first part tests clerical accuracy by asking the applicant to com pare pairs of add7essesand indi cate which are identical. The second part tests ability to m emorize mail distribution systems. The third m ea sures reading ability, including vo cabulary, and the fourth tests ability to do simple arithm etic. If the carrier job involves driving, applicants m ust have a driver’s li cense, a good driving record, and pass a road test. Before appointm ent, mail carriers must pass a physical ex amination and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing up to 70 pounds. Applicants for mail carrier jobs should apply at the post office where they wish to work because each post officeeeps a separate list of those who have passed the exam ination. A pplicants’ names are listed in order of their scores. Five extra points are added to the score of an honorably d ischarged v eteran , and 10 ex tra points to the score o f a v eteran w ounded in c o m b a t or disab led . When a vacancy occurs, the appoint ing officer chooses one of the top th re e a p p lic a n ts; th e rest o f th e names remain on the list to be con sidered for future openings. Mail carriers are classified as casu al, part-tim e flexible, part-tim e regu lar, or full time. Casual workers are hired to help deliver m ail during peak mailing periods during the year. Part-tim e flexible employees, do not have a regular work schedule but re place absent workers and help with extra work as the need arises. Parttime regulars have a set work sched ule—for example, 4 hours a day. New carriers are trained on the job. They may begin as part-tim e flexible city carriers and become regular or full-time carriers in order of seniority as vacancies occur. A d vancem ent possibilities are limited, but carriers can look forward to ob taining p referred routes or higher level jobs such as carrier technician as their seniority increases. A rela tively small num ber of carriers b e come supervisors. Employment Outlook E m ploym ent o f m ail c a rrie rs — who num bered 250,000 in 1976—is e x p e c te d to c h a n g e v ery little through the m id-1980’s. A lthough the num ber of homes and business estab lish m en ts is ex p e cted to in crease along with growth in popula tion and business activity, anticipat ed cutbacks in the frequency of mail delivery should limit the need for ad ditional carriers. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced carriers who retire, die, or tra n sfe r to o th e r o cc u p atio n s. O penings will be c o n c e n tra te d in m etropolitan areas. Earnings and Working Conditions Part-time flexible carriers began at $6.18 an hour in 1976, with periodic increases up to $7.46 an hour after 8 years of satisfactory service. Hourly wages of part-tim e regular workers were $5.97 an hour, with periodic increases up to $7.21 an hour after 8 years of service. Full-tim e carriers were paid on an annual basis, begin ning at $12,422 and increasing to a maximum of $15,007 after 8 years. Rural carriers are paid tim e-and-onehalf for each hour they work over 40 hours a week or for each route mile over 42 miles. They also receive an allowance of 18 cents a mile for the use of their autom obiles. Substitute rural carriers receive the same pay as th e reg u lar ca rriers whose ro u tes they are covering. R ural c a rrie rs work either a 5- or 6-day week. 207 OTHER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS at their own pace as long as they cov er their routes within a certain period o f time. M oreover, full-time postal em ployees have m ore job security than w orkers in m ost other indus tries. (For inform ation on fringe bene fits, see the statem ent on Postal Ser vice occupations elsew here in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State em ployment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and em ploym ent opportunities for mail carriers. TELEPHONE OPERATORS Nature of the Work Carriers can work at their own pace as long as they cover their routes on time. A full-time city carrier works an 8hour day 5 days a week. City carriers who work more than 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week also are paid 1 1/2 times their regular rate of pay for the extra hours. City carriers also receive 10 percent additional pay for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Most carriers begin work early in the m orning, in some cases as early as for 4 FRASER a.m. if they have routes in the Digitized business district. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors in all kinds of weather delivering mail. Even those who drive often m ust walk when making deliveries, and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post when loading their vehicles. The job, however, has its advan tages. C arriers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon. They are also free to work A lthough m illions o f telep h o n e numbers are dialed directly each day, there are times when making a call requires the assistance of a telephone operator. Often an operator is need ed because a caller wants to reverse long-distance charges, locate a tele phone num ber in another city, or know the cost of a call. O perators also may be needed to contact the police or fire departm ent in an em er gency or arrange a conference call for business executives. Providing these service are two groups of telephone operators. The operators who work in telephone company central offices probably are the most familiar. But many business and large organizations receive so many calls that they also employ operators to run their private branch e x c h a n g e (P B X ) s w itc h b o a r d s . Sometimes operators place calls by inserting and rem oving plugs th at make switchboard connections and by listening and speaking into their h ead sets. H ow ever, m any sw itch boards, especially those in telephone company central offices, are now op erated by pushbuttons or dials. T e le p h o n e co m p an y o p e ra to rs may be assigned eith er to handle long-distance calls or to give directo ry assistance. Long-distance opera- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 208 training period than telephone com pany operators. In large businesses, an in stru cto r from the local te le phone com pany may train new em ployees. Experienced telephone company operators may be prom oted to super visory jo b s or tran sfer to clerical o c c u p a tio n s such as secretary or bookkeeper. They also may have the opportunity to advance to jobs as telephone craft workers such as tele phone installers and repairers. PBX operators in large firms may advance to more responsible clerical positons; however, in many small business, op portunities for advancem ent usually are very limited. Employment Outlook During peak calling periods, the pace at the switchboard may be very hectic. tors obtain the inform ation needed to com plete the call, make the neces sary connections, and record the de tails for billing. Directory assistance operators (D.O.T. 235.862) look up and provide telephone num bers. Ser vice assistants train and help new op erators to com plete difficult calls. PBX operators (D.O.T. 235.862) run switchboards for business offices and other establishm ents. They con nect interoffice or house calls, an swer and relay outside calls, assist company em ployees in making o u t going calls, supply inform ation to callers, and record charges. In many small establishm ents, PBX operators work at switchboards that serve only a lim ited n u m b er o f te le p h o n e s. These operators may do other office work such as typing or sorting mail and many also act as receptionists or information clerks. (The work of re ceptionists is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Places of Employment About 340,000 telephone o pera tors were em ployed in 1976. More than one-half worked as PBX opera tors in m anufacturing plants, hospi tals, departm ent stores, or business e s . T h e r e m a i n d e r w o rk e d in telep h o n e com panies. A bout one fourth of all operators work only part time. Both telephone com pany and PBX operators are concentrated in heavily populated areas. Nearly one-fifth work in the New Y ork, Chicago, and Los Angeles m etropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons planning to becom e tele phone operators should like to serve the public, be pleasant and courte ous, and not mind sitting at a switch board for long periods. A clear and pleasing voice and good hearing also are im portant. Many telephone com panies and business firms require ap plicants, including operators, to pass physical exam inations. High school courses in speech, office practices, and business m ath provide a helpful background for persons interested in this occupation. New operators are taught on the job how to use the equipm ent and keep records of calls. Once they have learned the procedure, they put through practice calls. Instruction and practice usually last from 1 to 3 weeks. O perators then are assigned to regular operator jobs and receive further instruction from supervisors. PBX operators who handle routine calls may have a som ewhat shorter E m p lo y m en t o f te le p h o n e an d PBX operators as a group is expected to decline slightly through the mid19 8 0 ’s. N evertheless, thousands of full-time and part-tim e workers will be hired each year to replace experi enced operators who die, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Many other openings will result from the need to replace operators who ad vance to other occupations. Employment of telephone com pa ny operators is expected to decline more than em ploym ent of PBX op erators. As more telephone com pa nies start charging custom ers for di rectory assistance and inform ation calls, more people will dial num bers directly and use telephone directo ries to locate unknown num bers, thus red u cin g th e need for o p e ra to rs. A lso, technological im provem ents will limit the em ploym ent of o p era tors. For example, m ore telephone com panies are installing electronic switching systems in their central of fices, thus reducing the need for manual switching of calls. In addi tion, traffic service position systems are being added, which autom atically feed data about each telephone co n nection, such as the length and cost of the call, into a com puter that p ro cesses the billing statem ents. F o r merly this inform ation was tabulated by an operator and then transferred to the statem ent. Even though more small business es will require PBX services, em ploy m ent growth of PBX operators will be limited as many large businesses 209 OTHER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS convert to Central Exchange (C EN TREX). With CENTREX, incoming and outgoing calls can be dialed di rectly w ithout an o p erato r’s assist ance. Earnings and Working Conditions Telephone company operators in training averaged $3.75 an hour in late 1975; ex p erien ced o p erato rs $4.90; service assistants $5.92; and supervisors or chief operators, $8.63. Contracts between unions and tele phone companies generally provide for periodic pay increases and extra pay for work on evenings, Sundays, and holidays. Most telephone company and PBX operators work between 35 and 40 hours a week. Often, their scheduled hours are the same as those of other office clerical workers. In telephone companies, however, and in hotels, hospitals, and other places where telephone service is needed on a 24- hour basis, operators work on shifts and on holidays and weekends. Some operators work split shifts—that is, they are on duty during the peak calling periods in the late morning and early evening, and have time off between these two periods. O perators usually work in welllighted and pleasant surroundings. The job of a telephone operator does not require any physical exertion; however, during the peak calling p e riods in the late m orning and late afternoon, the pace at the sw itch board may be very hectic. Often op erators are unable to leave their seats during these periods. Insurance, pension programs, holi days, vacations, and o th e r fringe benefits are much the same as those for other types of clerical employees. For specific information about fringe benefits for telephone company op erators, see the statem ent on the tele p h o n e in d u stry elsew h ere in th e Handbook. Many operators employed by tele phone com panies are members of the Com munications W orkers of Am er ica, the International Brotherhood of E lectrical W orkers, and the T ele c o m m u n ic a tio n s In te r n a tio n a l Union. Sources of Additional Information For m ore details about em ploy ment opportunities, contact the tele phone company in your community or local offices of the unions that re p resen t telephone w orkers. For general information on telephone op erator jobs, write to: Telecommunications International Union, P.O. Box 5462, Hamden, Conn. 06518. United States Independent Telephone Associ ation, 1801 K St. NW„ Suite 1201, Wash ington, D.C. 20006. International Brotherhood of Electrical Work ers, 1200 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. EDUCATION AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS The im portance of an education has grown considerably since the birth of our Nation. Once primarily an agrarian economy, we have evolved into a highly sophisticated, technical, and urban society. M a Education and related occupations, 1976 2 1 0 chinery and p ro d u cts never en v i sioned before are constantly being invented, calling for new jobs and skills to produce and use them. As a result, m ore educated workers are needed to fill a variety of positions at all levels of society. In addition, as our economy has p ro sp e re d , it has allow ed peo p le more time for personal developm ent and leisure. No longer required to labor from early morning until dusk, workers have sought new avenues for personal enrichm ent. A dult educa tion and craft courses, for example, draw increasingly larger num bers of interested students. T eachers, teac h er aides, and li brarians play vital roles in the educa tion of people of all ages. In large urban classrooms or rural county li braries, teachers and librarians are the people we turn to for inform a tion. T hese o c c u p a tio n s are d is cussed in the following sections. TEACHING OCCUPATIONS Most people would agree that education is a life-long process. At every age we learn from our friends, family, and associates. We also teach others along the way, often unwit tingly. But perhaps our most influen tial educational experiences occur during the years of formal education. During those years, students explore them selves and learn about many subjects. They make career decisions and train for productive work. Most significantly, they learn to think for themselves. Today, more than 3 million teach ers are involved at all levels of this educational process. Teachers work with people of all ages in a variety of d if f e r e n t s u b je c ts . S om e te a c h youngsters in their first years away from hom e, while others work pri marily with adults who are taking courses to expand or change their job potential, or as a source of recre ation. Some teachers are members of other professions who instruct part time. Detailed information on teaching o c c u p a tio n s and th e ou tlo o k for teachers through the m id-1980’s is p re sen ted in the follow ing s ta te ments. KINDERGARTEN AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS (D.O.T. 092.228) Nature of the Work Employment of teachers generally will follow enrollment trends, rising or falling according to the number of students through 1985 Employment (in thousands) 1,600 1,400 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 1965 1970 Source: National Center for Educational Statistics 1975 1980 1985 K in d e r g a rte n an d e le m e n ta ry school teachers play a vital role in the developm ent of children. W hat is learned or not learned in these early years can, to a large measure, shape students views o f them selves, the world and the process of education. Kindergarten and elem entary school teachers must introduce chil dren to the basic concepts of m athe matics, language, science, and social studies to provide a sound founda tion for more advanced study in the higher grades. They also try to instill in the students good study and work habits and an appreciation for learn ing while closely watching and evalu ating each child’s perform ance and potential. Elem entary school teachers often devise creative means to present a specific subject m atter. They may use films, slides, com puters, or devel op instructional games. They also ar211 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 212 Most elementary school teachers instruct a single group of children in several subjects. range class trips, speakers, and class projects. All o f this w ork involves m uch tim e and effort, often after the regular school day is finished. T eachers also are concerned with the social developm ent and health of their students. They study each child’s interactions with his or her classm ates and discuss any problem s with the parents. T eachers may, for example, m eet with the parents of a child who habitually resists authority to discover the causes of these ac tions and work out a solution. T each ers also rep o rt any possible health p ro b le m s to p a r e n ts an d sch o o l health officials. The te a c h e r’s prim a ry concern is to insure th at each child receives as m uch personalized help as required. M ost elem entary school teachers instruct a single group o f children in several subjects. In some schools, two teachers or m ore “ team te a c h ’’ and are jointly responsible for a group o f students o r for a particular subject. An increasing num ber of ele m entary school teachers specialize in one or two subjects and teach these su b jects to several classes. Som e teach special subjects such as music, art, o r physical education, while o th ers teach basic subjects such as Eng lish, m athem atics, o r social studies. T eachers participate in many ac tivities outside the classroom. They g e n e ra lly m u st a tte n d re g u la rly scheduled faculty m eetings and may serve on faculty com m ittees, such as those to revise curricula, or to evalu ate the school’s objectives and the student’s perform ance. T eachers also may supervise after-school activities such as glee clubs, dram a clubs, o r arts and crafts classes. To stay up-todate on educational m aterials and teaching techniques, they participate in workshops and other inservice ac tivities, and take courses at local col leges and universities. A growing num ber of elem entary school teachers have aides to do sec re ta ria l w ork and help su pervise lunch and playground activities. As a result, teachers can be free from ro u tine duties to give m ore individual attention to students. Places of Employment A bout 1.4 million people worked as e lem e n ta ry school te a c h e rs in 1976. M ost e le m e n ta ry te a c h e rs work in public schools that have six grades; however, some teach in m id dle schools—schools that cover the 3 or 4 years between the lower elem en tary g ra d e s an d 4 years o f high school. Only about 13 percent o f ele m entary school te a c h e rs w ork in nonpublic schools. A large proportion of all public elem entary school teachers teach in urban areas, including cities and their suburbs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District o f Colum bia require public elem entary school teachers to be certified by the departm ent of education in the State in which they work. Some States also require teachers in private and p aro chial schools to be certified. To qualify for certification, a teacher must have a bachelor’s d e gree from an institution with an ap proved teacher education program. Besides a bachelor’s degree, which provides the necessary liberal arts background, States require that p ro s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs h av e s tu d e n t te a c h i n g a n d o t h e r e d u c a t i o n courses. In 1976, 14 States required teach ers to get supplem entary postgrad uate education—usually a m aster’s degree o r a fifth year of study—after their initial certification. Some States required U.S. citizenship; some an o ath o f allegiance; and several a health certificate. Local school systems sometimes have additional requirem ents for em ployment. Students should write to the local superintendent of schools and to the State departm ent of edu cation for information on specific re quirem ents in the area where they want to teach. In addition to meeting educational and certification requirem ents, teachers should be creative, depend able, and patient. Most im portant, they should want to be directly in volved in the educational and em o tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f c h ild re n . C om petence in handling classroom situations also is im portant. As a teacher gains experience, he or she may advance within a school system or transfer to another which recognizes experience and has a higher salary scale. Some teachers may advance to supervisory, adm in istrative, or specialized positions. Of ten, however, these positions require additional training and certification. As a result, for most teachers, ad v ancem ent consists o f higher pay rather than more responsibility o r a higher position. Employment Outlook K in d e r g a rte n a n d e le m e n ta ry school teachers are expected to face com petition for jobs of their choice through the m id-1980’s. If patterns of entry and reentry to the profession continue in line with past trends, the 213 TEACHING OCCUPATIONS num ber o f persons qualified to teach in elem entary schools will exceed the num ber o f openings. The basic sources o f teacher sup ply are re c e n t co lleg e g ra d u a te s qualified to teach at the elem entary level and teachers seeking reentry to the profession. R eentrants, although more experienced, will face increas ing com petition from new graduates, who co m m and low er salaries and have m ore recent training. Pupil enrollm ent is the basic factor underlying the need for teachers. Be cause o f fewer births in the 1960’s, elem entary enrollm ents have been on the decline since 1967, when they peaked at nearly 32 million. The N a tional C enter for Education Statistics projects that by 1982 the downward enrollm ent trend will halt at a level of 28 m illion, and enrollm ents again will advance to about 29 million by 1985. Teachers will be needed to fill new positions created by larger enroll ments; to replace those who are not now certified; to m eet the expected p re ssu re fo r an im p ro v e d pupilteacher ratio; and to fill positions va cated by teachers who retire, die, or leave the profession for other rea sons. However, a decline in the project ed num ber of children bom over the next decade could lessen the dem and for teachers. While the trend has not been clearly established, since 1970 w o m e n h a v e c o n tin u e d to h a v e fe w e r children, and according to a recent survey, they expect to continue hav ing sm aller families than were com mon 10 years ago. Several factors could alter the out look for teachers. Increased em pha sis on early childhood education, on special program s for disadvantaged children, and on individual instruc tion may result in larger enrollm ents, sm aller stu d en t-teach er ratios, and consequently an increased need for teachers. Possible budget restraints for educational services, on the other hand, might limit expansion. Earnings and Working Conditions According to the National Educa tion Association, public elem entary school teachers averaged $1 1,870 a year in 1976. Average earnings in 1976 were m ore than one and onethird times as m uch as the average earnings for all nonsupervisory w ork ers in private industry, except farm ing. Generally, States in the N orth east and in the W est paid the highest salaries. Collective bargaining agreem ents cover an increasingly large num ber of teachers. In 1976, 31 States had enacted laws that required collective bargaining in the teacher contract negotiation process. Most public school systems that enroll 1,000 stu dents or m ore bargain with teacher organizations over wages, hours, and the term s and conditions o f em ploy ment. Public school systems enrolling 6,000 or m ore pupils paid teachers with a bachelor’s degree average starting salaries of $8,233 a year in 1974-75. Those with a m aster’s d e gree earn ed a starting average o f $9,159 a year. Public elem entary school teachers worked an average o f about 36-1/2 hours a week in 1976. Additional time spent preparing lessons, grading papers, making reports, attending m eetings, and supervising extracur ricular activities increased the total num ber of hours to about 46. In addition to their regular teach ing assignm ents, som e elem entary school teachers teach sum m er ses sions, take courses, or work at other jobs, such as cam p counselors. Most e le m e n ta ry school teachers work a trad itio n al tw o-sem ester, 9-m onth school year. Some, however, work in year-round schools where they work an 8-week session, are off 1 week, and have a longer midwinter break. This type of schedule may m ake find ing additional em ploym ent outside o f the school system difficult. T eachers spend much o f their time walking, kneeling, or even sitting on the floor. For example, kindergarten teachers may join their students on the floor to finger paint, cut out pictures, or do other crafts. Employment in teaching is steady, and business conditions usually do not affect the m arket for teachers. In 1976, 38 States and the District o f Colum bia had tenure laws that in sured the jobs of teachers who had successfully taught for a certain num ber of years. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation on schools and certifi cation requirem ents is available from local school systems and State de partm ents o f education. Inform ation on the Teacher Corps, internships, graduate fellowships, and other inform ation on teaching may be obtained from: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washing ton, D.C. 20202. O ther sources of general inform a tion are: American Federation of Teachers, 1012 14th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS (D.O.T. 091.228) Nature of the Work The high school years are the years o f tra n s itio n from c h ild h o o d to young adulthood. They are the years when students delve m ore deeply into subject m atter introduced in ele m entary school and learn more about themselves and the world. It is also a time of preparation for their future lives as citizens and jobholders. Sec ondary school teachers have a direct role in this process. The prim ary function of the sec ondary school teacher is to instruct students in a specific subject such as English, m athem atics, social studies, or science. Within a teacher’s spe cialized subject area, he or she may teach a variety of courses. A social studies teacher, for example may in s tr u c t tw o 9 th g ra d e classes in A m erican History, two 12th grade classes in C ontem porary Am erican Problems, and another class in World G e o g ra p h y . F o r e a c h class, th e teacher develops lesson plans, p re pares and gives examinations, and ar ranges other activities, such as a class project to devise an urban redevelop m ent plan for the city. Teachers also must design their classroom presentations to m eet the 214 individual needs and abilities of their students. They may arrange tutoring for students, or give advanced assign m ents for highly m otivated pupils. Recognizing the needs of each stu dent can be difficult because most te a c h e r s c o n d u c t five s e p a ra te classes a day. Teachers use a variety of instruc tio n a l m a te ria ls in clu d in g film s, slides, and com puter terminals. They also may arrange for speakers or trips to supplem ent their classroom lec tures such as a visit to the planetar ium after a discussion on the ea rth ’s rotation. Some teachers train students for specific jobs after graduation such as welding, autom echanics, or distribu tive education. These teachers in struct with the actual tools of the trade w hether they be adding m a chines or an 8-cylinder car engine. Secondary school teachers also su pervise study halls and hom eroom s, and attend meetings with parents and school personnel. Often they work with student groups outside of class to help solve sp ec ific p ro b lem s. Teachers also participate in w ork shops and college classes to keep upto-date on their subject specialty and on current trends in education. In recent years, teachers have been able to spend more time teaching due to the increased availability of teacher aides who perform secretar OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ial work, grade papers, and do other routine tasks. Places of Employment In 1976, m o re th a n 1 m illion teachers taught in secondary schools. More than 90 percent of them taught in public schools. A lthough they work in all parts o f the co u n try , teachers are concentrated in cities an d in su b u rb a n a re a s. According to a recent survey, slightly more than one-half of all public secondary teachers teach in senior high schools; about one-third teach at the junior high level. About one-tenth teach in junior-senior high schools, and a very small num ber are elem entary-secondary com bination teachers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of C olum bia require public secondary school teachers to be certified. Many States also require certification of secondary teachers in private and parochial schools. The minimum educational require m ent for certification is a bachelor’s degree. In 1976, the District of C o lumbia was the only jurisdiction re quiring a m aster’s degree for initial certification as a senior high school teacher. F ourteen States, however, have sp ec ifie d th a t a se c o n d a ry school teacher m ust get additional ed u catio n , usually a fifth year of study or a m aster’s degree, within a certain period after beginning em ploym ent. As a resu lt, m ore and more secondary school teachers are obtaining advanced degrees. The educational requirem ents for secondary school teachers vary by S tate and by school system . A p proved colleges and universities in every State offer program s that in clude the education courses and the student-teaching that States require. They also offer the academ ic courses that are necessary to qualify teachers in the various su b ject sp ecialties taught at the secondary level. States and local jurisdictions often have general teacher requirem ents, such as the recom m endation of the college, a certificate of health, and U.S. citizenship. Prospective teach ers may get com plete inform ation on such e d u c atio n al and g en eral re quirem ents from each State d ep art ment of education and from the su p e r in te n d e n t o f sch o o ls in ea c h community. Aside from educational req u ire m ents, a secondary school teacher must want to work with young peo ple, have an interest in a special sub ject, and have the ability to m otivate students and to relate knowledge to them. Education and experience provide the primary basis for advancem ent, usually in the form of higher salaries rather than a different job. A dvance m ent to supervisory and adm inistra tive positions usually requires at least 1 year of professional education be yond the bachelor’s degree and sev eral years o f successful classroom teaching. Only a small proportion of secondary school teachers, however, advance to administrative positions. Some experienced teachers with specific preparation may work as special school service personnel, such as school psychologists, reading specialists, or guidance counselors. Often these jobs require special certi fication as well as special education. Employment Outlook The supply of secondary school teachers through the m id-1980’s will greatly exceed anticipated req u ire 215 TEACHING OCCUPATIONS ments if past trends of entry into the profession continue. As a result, pro spective teachers are likely to face keen com petition for jobs. The prime sources of teacher sup ply are re c e n t co llege g ra d u ates qualified to teach secondary school and teachers seeking to reenter the profession. Although reentrants have e x p e rie n c e in th e ir fav o r, m any sch o o ls m ay p re fe r to h ire new graduates who com m and lower sala ries and whose training is more re cent. Pupil enrollm ent is the basic factor underlying the dem and for teachers. The National C enter for Education Statistics projects that enrollm ent in secondary schools will decline and, in turn, reduce the dem and for teach ers. As a result, over the 1976-85 period, nearly all teaching positions will stem from the need to replace teachers who die, retire, or leave the profession for other reasons. Thus, an increasing proportion of prospec tive teachers will have to consider a lte rn a tiv e s to sec o n d ary school teaching. Although the overall outlook for secondary teachers indicates a highly competitive m arket, employm ent conditions may be more favorable in certain fields. According to a recent survey, the supply of teachers of vo cational subjects was not adequate to m eet th e d em an d . M a th e m a tic s, natural sciences, and physical scienc es should not experience as large an oversupply as some other subjects. Earnings and Working Conditions According to the National Educa tion A ssociation, public secondary school teach ers averaged $12,395 per year in 1976. This is 1 1/2 times the average for nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farm ing. Generally, salaries were higher in the Northeast and in the West than they were in the Southeast and in the Middle States. In school systems with enrollments of 6,000 or more, beginning teachers with a bachelor’s degree earned aver age salaries of $8,233 in the school year 1974-75. New teachers with a m aster’s degree started at $9,159 a year. Beginning teachers could ex pect regular salary increases as they gained ex p e rien ce and ad d itio n al education. A recent survey of public school teachers indicated that the average required school week for those
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