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„ LZ31 (r 50 riavtnn & Montgomery. Co Public UbrJHV r 1970-71 edition U.S. Departm ent of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin Not 1650 mmmm Pointers on Using the Handbook To learn the contents and a rran g em e n t of this Handbook see How the Handbook is Organized, page 4. To locate an occupation or industry in this book, see: Table of Contents, page xi. Alphabetical Index, page 831. For a general view of work and jobs in the United States, read the chapter on Tomor row’s Jobs, page 11. Forecasts of the fu tu re are precarious! To interpret the statements on the outlook in each occupation, keep in mind the points made on page 11, as well as the methodology presented in the Technical Appendix, page 829. The job picture is constantly changing. To find out how you can keep your informa tion up to date, see the chapter on Sources of Additional Information or As sistance, page 7. You m ay need local inform ation too. The Handbook gives facts about each occupa tion for the United States as a whole. For suggestions on sources of additional information for your own locality, see page 8. S U B S C R IB E TO TH E O C C U PA TIO N A L O U TLO O K C O M P A N IO N TO YO U R HA N D B O O K . Q U AR TERLY, AN ESSENTIAL • IT KEEPS U P TO DATE TH E VOLATILE FIELD OF M A N PO W ER A N D O C C U PATIO N AL IN FO R M A TIO N - I T REPO RTS PR O M PTLY ON N EW O C C U PA TIO N A L RESEARCH RESULTS • I T ANALYZES LEGISLATIVE, E D U C A TIO N A L, A N D T R A IN IN G D EVELO PM EN TS T H A T W ILL HELP Y O U N G PEOPLE W IT H T H E IR CAREER PLANS ORDER FORM ON BACK COVER OF T H IS H A ND BO O K / occupational outlook handbook 1970-71 edition BULLETIN NO. 1650 Revision of Bulletin 1550 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR George P. S h u ltz, S e c re ta ry B U R EA U OF LABOR S T A T IS T IC S G eoffrey H. M oore, C om m issioner For Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price $6.25 Foreword The opportunity for every American to develop his abilities through education and training and to engage in productive and rewarding work is one of the greatest goals of our society. This goal cannot be won without informed career decisions. Amer ican youth on the threshold of career planning, war veterans returning to civilian em ployment, women re-entering the labor force after their children reach school age, and many other groups, all have a great need for occupational information. The Department of Labor’s Occupational Outlook Handbook is a guide to em ployment opportunities in a broad range of occupations that cover all of the principal areas of work. It brings together information of significance for those who are plan ning their careers, thereby serving as a basic tool in the vocational guidance process. The Handbook is designed for use by counselors, parents, and individuals seeking a field of work, as well as by all others in the Nation who have an interest in matching jobs with people. The Department of Labor is proud to continue its leadership in the important task of providing comprehensive information on career opportunities to our Nation’s growing number of workers. G eorge P. S h u l t z , Secretary of Labor Prefatory Note Millions of young persons will enter the labor force for the first time over the dec ade of the 1970’s. Because of the vast changes that characterize the American economy, these new workers have a great need for reliable and up-to-date occupational informa tion to guide them in their career decisions. The 1970-71 edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook brings together a variety of occupational information for use in guiding youth toward career goals. It provides descriptions of the nature of work, education and training requirements, em ployment outlook, places of employment, and earnings and working conditions for over 700 occupations that cover the entire scope of work life. The occupational coverage of the Handbook has increased considerably since the first edition was published in 1949. This, the ninth edition, expands the detailed occu pational coverage by including occupational statements on building custodians, dental assistants, foremen, library technicians, meat cutters, merchant marine occupations, and waste water treatment plant operators. As part of its occupational outlook program, the Bureau of Labor Statistics also issues the Occupational Outlook Quarterly, a periodical that provides current informa tion on occupational developments between editions of the Handbook, and the Occu pational Outlook Report Series, a set of over 100 reprints of Handbook statements. Both of these publications provide assistance to young people seeking career informa tion. In preparing the Handbook, hundreds of officials in industry, labor organizations, trade associations, professional societies, government agencies, and other organizations have cooperated with the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Their assistance is acknowl edged with gratitude. G eoffrey H. M oore, Commissioner of Labor Statistics Letter From the American Personnel and Guidance Association New occupations and opportunities for personal development are emerging con stantly, and others are disappearing. Hence, both counselors and their clients need the Occupational Outlook Handbook, and its companion periodical, the Occupational Out look Quarterly. These useful publications have served both well. We are grateful to the Bureau of Labor Statistics for its scholarly research on occupations and for the preparation of such well organized, readable resources. M erle M . O h lsen , President American Personnel and Guidance Association Letter From the Veterans Administration Since World War II, some 11,700,000 veterans have used the educational and rehabilitation benefits available to them through the Veterans Administration. Such benefits are extended now to veterans’ widows and orphans and to the wives and children of totally and permanently disabled veterans. Veterans Administration ed ucational and vocational counseling services which help plan for school and work are available to all these groups. From the beginning of its counseling program, the Veterans Administration has recognized the need for up-to-date, comprehensive, and accurate occupational infor mation as a basis for sound educational and vocational planning. To meet this need after World War II, the Occupational Outlook Handbook was developed. Since that time, the rapid pace of technological change and an expanding economy have made reliable, current information about the changing structure of the world of work even more important. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a major source of such infor mation, and consequently, an indispensable tool in counseling. The Veterans Administration is pleased to have this opportunity to express ap preciation for the contribution of the Handbook and to welcome the publication of the 1970-71 edition. D onald J ohnson Administrator of Veterans Affairs Letter From the United States Training and Employment Service In March 1969, several major changes were made in the organization of the Man power Administration. One of the components in the new organization is the United States Training and Employment Service (U STE S). USTES combines the major pro gram activities of the former United States Employment Service and Bureau of Work Training Programs. It also incorporates the Veterans Employment Service and the Farm Labor Service. In fiscal year 1968, a total of 10.7 million persons sought the services of the pub lic employment service. Thousands of these received counseling and guidance in job opportunities and skills requirements. A total of 265,000 persons were enrolled in In stitutional and On-the-Job Training during that year. Hundreds of thousands more were served in the various work and training programs. The Occupational Outlook Handbook has provided the Manpower Administra tion with an invaluable tool both in job counseling and in planning for skill training programs. It will surely contribute to the efforts of the United States Training and Employment Service to improve the delivery of manpower services to the Nation by promoting more effective management and improving communications. R obert J. B rown , Deputy Associate Manpower Administrator U.S. Training and Employment Service U.S. Department of Labor Letter From the Social and Rehabilitation Service Today, more than 200,000 disabled men and women are being rehabilitated for useful work each year through the Federal-State vocational rehabilitation program. For many of these, the chance to hold a job has been a life-time goal. The opportunity for self-support through gainful work has been a motivating force throughout the reha bilitation process. For the counselor guiding a disabled client in choosing a suitable vocation, or making a selective placement taking account of the client’s talents, disability, and aspirations, the Occupational Outlook Handbook is invaluable. Only by keeping abreast of a job market, subject to the constant changes brought about by our dynamic technology, can the rehabilitation counselor give ultimate meaning to rehabilitation. This publication will help achieve that purpose. M ary E. S witzer , Administrator Social and Rehabilitation Service U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Letter From the United States Office of Education The Occupational Outlook Handbook has provided a real service over the years to the youth of the Nation, to educators, and others vitally concerned in occupational planning and selection. In view of the predicted shortage of manpower facing this na tion in the mid-1970’s, careful and systematic attention should be given to occupation al planning and career development for youth to assure maximum satisfaction to the individual and the fullest possible utilization of talent in the interests of national welfare. Choice of an occupation becomes more difficult year by year as the Nation fur ther expands its technology. Some educators accept the fact that youth in the schools today are forced to prepare, in many instances, for jobs that do not exist currently; nor can they be comprehended fully a decade from now. The latest revision of this valuable guide to youth and their counselors provides an accurate and careful listing of existing occupations, and estimates future needs in the various job categories. The Bureau of Labor Statistics, and particularly the Handbook staff, should be congratulated upon this excellent resource for youth and their advisors. J ames E. A llen , J r., Assistant Secretary for Education and U.S. Commissioner of Education U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Letter From the Department of Defense Armed Forces education officers and counselors have been using the Occupational Outlook Handbook for many years. It is a primary source of occupational information used to guide members of the Armed Forces to the opportunities off-duty educational programs offer for advancement in their military careers or in preparation for their re turn to civilian life. Servicemen may participate in many off-duty educational programs throughout their military service; they are encouraged to pursue educational goals that will help their military careers and prepare them for future civilian careers. The Occupational Outlook Handbook has added significantly to Armed Forces educational programs as a source of career information for both professional and citizen servicemen. On the basis of our experience with this valuable career guide, we commend it to all concerned with career planning. G eorge B enson , Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Education Contributors The Handbook was prepared in the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Division of Manpower and Oc cupational Outlook, under the supervision of Rus sell B. Flanders. General direction was provided by Harold Goldstein, Assistant Commissioner for Manpower and Employment Statistics. The planning and coordination of the Hand book was done by Neal H. Rosenthal, who also directed the research program on professional, technical, clerical, sales, service, and related oc cupations. Gerard C. Smith directed the research program on skilled trades and other manual oc cupations, and major industries and their occu pations. The research and preparation of the individual sections were supervised by Michael F. Crowley, William F. Hahn, Janice N. Hedges, Jerry F. Kursban, and Joseph J. Rooney. VIII Members of the Division staff who contributed sections were: Elinor W. Abramson, Marlene Ausmus, Priscilla M. Baker, William Barron, Delores F. Booker, Maxine M. Both, Norman J. Coakley, Max L. Carey, Constance B. DiCesare, Daniel E. Hecker, Kevin Kasunic, Joyce C. Kling, LaVeme W. Lang, Annie Lefkowitz, Doug las R. McDaniel, Ludmilla K. Murphy, H. James Neary, Irving P. Phillips, Michael J. Pilot, and John Sumansky. The statistical assistance was provided by Olive B. Clay, Sally G. Curry, Jane K. Green, Beatrice H. Meadows, Evelyn T. Polance, and Jean F. Whetzel under the direction of Everett J. M c Dermott. The chapter on Agriculture was coordinated in the Office of Information, U.S. Department of Agriculture, under the direction of Harold R. Lewis, Director of Information. Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor Statistics gratefully acknowledges the cooperation and assistance of the many government and private sources that either contributed photographs or made their facilities available to U.S. Department of Labor photographers for this edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook. G overnm ent Sources ment of Sanitation, Fire Department, Police De partment, and Public Library. Institute; The College Placement Council, Inc.; International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Em ployers and Moving Picture Machine Operators of the United States and Canada; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Chiropractors Association; International Union of Operating Engineers; Marble Institute of America; National Association of Barber Schools; National Association of Metal Finishers; Na tional Association of Sanitarians; National Asso ciation of Social Workers; National Committee for Careers in Medical Technology; National Lathing Industry’s Joint Apprenticeship Pro gram; National Marine Engineers’ Beneficial As sociation; National Maritime Union of America; National Plastering Industries Joint Apprentice ship and Training Committee; Printing Industries of America; Tile Contractor’s Association of Amer ica, Inc.; United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; United Association of Plumbers and Pipefitters; and United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Join ers of America. Private Sources Industry and Business. Aetna Shirt Co.; Allied Federal. Department of Agriculture— Forest Ser vice; Atomic Energy Commission; Department of Commerce— Environmental Science Services Administration, and Maritime Administration; General Accounting Office; General Services Ad ministration; Government Printing Office; De partment of Health, Education, and Welfare— National Institutes of Health, and Office of Edu cation; Department of the Interior— Bureau of Land Management, and Geological Survey; De partment of Justice— Federal Bureau of Investi gation; Department of Labor— Bureau of Em ployment Security; National Capital Planning Commission; Department of the Navy— Naval Observatory, and Naval Ordnance Laboratory; Post Office Department; Smithsonian Institution; and Department of Transportation— Federal Av iation Agency. State and Local. District of Columbia— Depart Individuals. Jerome Footer, D.D.S.; Don Hub bard; and Hugh N. Jacobsen, A.I.A. Membership Groups. American Apparel Manu facturers Association, Inc.; American Association of Advertising Agencies; American Association of Medical Record Librarians; American Dental Association; American Federation of Teachers; American Forest Products Industries, Inc; Am erican Home Economics Association; American Occupational Therapy Association; American Paper and Pulp Association; American Paper In stitute; American Podiatry Association; Amer ican Speech and Hearing Association; American Trucking Association; American Veterinary Med ical Association; Asphalt and Vinyl Asbestos Tile Chemical Corp.; Allstate Insurance Co.; Alumi num Company of America; American Airlines; American Telephone and Telegraph Co.; Arena Stage; Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Co.; Babcock and Wilcox Co.; D. Ballauf and Co.; Beau Bogan, Inc.; Bethlehem Steel Corp.; Blake Construction Co.; Boeing Co.; Burroughs Corp.; Capital Cab Co.; Caterpillar Tractor Co.; Charles of the Ritz; Charles Schwartz and Sons; Chrysler Corp.; Cincinnati Milling Machine Co.; Cities Service Oil Co.; Collins Radio Co.; Container Corporation of America; Continental Trailways; Danko Arlington, Inc; Design and Production, Inc.; E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Co.; Eastern Airlines; Ford Motor Co.; General Motors Corp.; Giant Food, Inc.; Great Northern Railway; Hot Shoppes; Humble Oil and Refining Co.; I. C. IX OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK X Isaacs; Inland Steel Co.; International Business Machines Corp.; Jack Morton Productions, Inc.; Kaiser Engineers; Koons Ford; Litton Industries; McLachlen Banking Corp.; Merkle Press, Inc.; Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner, and Smith, Inc.; New York Life Insurance Co.; Norfolk and Western Railway; North American Aviation, Inc.; North American Rockwell Corp.; Oxford Paper Co.; Potomac Electric Power Co.; Radio Corporation of America; Rand, McNally and Co.; Reynolds Metals Co.; Rothstein Dental Labora tories, Inc.; Safeway Trails, Inc.; Seaboard Air Line Railroad Co.; Sears, Roebuck and Co.; Standard Oil Co.; Sterling Optical Co.; Union Carbide Corp.; Union Meat Co.; Union Oil Co.; United Airlines; United States Steel Corp.; W ETA-TV; W TO P-TV; Washington Hilton Ho tel; Western Electric Co.; Westinghouse Corp.; and Woodward and Lothrop. Publications. Implement and Tractor Magazine; Signs of the Times Magazine; Traffic Manage ment Magazine; and The Washington Star. Schools. The George Washington University; and United States Merchant Marine Academy. Others. Brookhaven National Laboratory; John F. Kennedy Institute (Baltimore); Oak Ridge National Laboratory; and Washington Hospital Center. Note A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, and industrial or ganizations are in a position to supply valuable information to counselors or young people seeking information about careers. For the convenience of Handbook users, the statements on separate occupations or industries list some of the organizations or other sources which may be able to provide further information. Although these refer ences were assembled with care, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has no authority or facilities for investigating organizations. Also, since the Bureau has no way of knowing in advance what information or publications each organization may send in answer to a request, the Bureau cannot evaluate the accuracy of such information. The listing of an organization, therefore, does not in any way constitute an endorsement or rec ommendation by the Bureau or the U.S. Department of Labor, either of the organiza tion and its activities or of the information it may supply. Such information as each organization may issue is, of course, sent out on its own responsibility. The occupational statements in this Handbook are not intended, and should not be used, as standards for the determination of wages, hours, jurisdictional matters, ap propriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. These descriptive state ments are presented in a general, composite form and, therefore, cannot be expected to apply exactly to specific jobs in a particular industry, establishment, or locality. Contents Page Page Guide to the Handbook USING THE HANDBOOK IN GUID ANCE SERVICES ................................. HOW THE HANDBOOK IS ORGAN IZED .......................................................... Some important facts about the oc cupational reports .......................... SOURCES OF ADDITION AL INFOR M ATION AND A S S IS T A N C E ............ Occupational outlook service publica tions .................................................... Services to jobseekers at public em ployment o ffice s............................... TOM ORROW ’ S J O B S ............................... 3 4 4 7 7 8 11 The Outlook for Occupations PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OC CUPATIONS ........................................... Business administration and related professions......................................... Accountants ................................. Advertising w orkers.................... Marketing research workers....... Personnel workers ...................... Public relations workers............ Clergy .................................................... Protestant clergymen ................ Rabbis ........................................... Roman Catholic priests.............. Conservation occupations .................. Foresters ....................................... Forestry a id s................................. Range managers.......................... Counseling ........................................... Employment counselors.............. Rehabilitation counselors .......... School counselors........................ Engineering........................................... Aerospace ..................................... Agricultural ................................. Ceramic ......................................... Chemical ....................................... Civil ............................................... Electrical....................................... Industrial ..................................... Mechanical ................................... Metallurgical ............................... M in in g........................................... 23 27 27 30 33 35 37 41 41 43 45 47 47 49 51 55 55 58 60 63 67 68 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 74 Health service occupations.................... Physicians..................................... Osteopathic physicians .............. Dentists ........................................... Dental hygienists........................ Dental assistants ........................ Dental laboratory technicians ... Registered nurses........................ Licensed practical nurses............ Optometrists................................. Pharmacists ................................. Podiatrists ................................... Chiropractors .................................. Occupational therapists ............... Physical therapists ........................ Speech pathologists and audiol ogists ......................................... Medical laboratory workers....... Radiologic technologists ............... Medical record librarians............ Dietitians ..................................... Hospital administrators ............ Sanitarians ................................... Veterinarians ............................... Mathematics and related fields....... Mathematicians .......................... Statisticians ................................. Actuaries....................................... Natural sciences................................... Environmental sciences.............. Geologists ............................. Geophysicists ...................... Meteorologists .................... Oceanographers .................. Life sciences ................................. Life scientists ...................... Biochemists ........................ Physical sciences ........................ Chemists ............................... Physicists ............................ Astronomers ........................ Performing arts ................................... Actors and actresses.................... Dancers ......................................... Musicians and music teachers.... Singers and singing teachers..... Other art related occupations............ Commercial artists .................... Industrial designers.................... Interior designers and decora tors ........................................... XI 77 77 80 82 84 86 88 90 93 95 97 99 101 102 104 106 108 112 113 115 117 119 122 125 125 128 130 133 133 133 136 139 141 144 144 150 152 152 155 158 161 161 163 166 169 173 173 175 178 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK XII Page Social sciences ..................................... Anthropologists .......................... Economists ................................... Geographers ................................. Historians ..................................... Political scientists ...................... Sociologists ................................... Teaching ............................................... Kindergarten and elementary school teachers........................ Secondary school teachers ....... College and university teachers Technician occupations .................... Engineering and science.............. D raftsm en..................................... Writing occupations............................ Newspaper reporters .................. Technical w riters........................ Other professional and related occu pations ............................................. Architects ..................................... College placement officers ....... Home econom ists........................ Landscape architects.................. Law yers......................................... Librarians ..................................... Library technicians .................... Models ......................................... Photographers ............................. Systems analysts ........................ Programers ................................... Psychologists ............................... Recreation workers .................... Social workers ............................. Surveyors ..................................... Urban planners............................. M ANAGERIAL OCCUPATIONS............ Industrial traffic managers....... Purchasing agents ...................... CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPA TIONS ...................................................... Bookkeeping workers ................ Cashiers ....................................... Electronic computer operating personnel................................... Office machine operators............ Receptionists ............................... Shipping and receiving clerks.... Stenographers and secretaries.... Typists ......................................... Telephone operators .................. SALES OCCUPATIONS .......................... Automobile parts countermen.... Automobile salesmen.................. 181 181 183 185 187 189 191 195 196 198 201 205 205 211 215 215 217 221 221 223 225 228 230 233 237 238 241 244 246 249 252 254 257 260 263 265 268 271 273 275 277 279 283 284 286 288 290 295 296 298 SALES OCCUPATIONS— Continued Automobile service advisors....... Insurance agents and brokers.... Manufacturers’ salesmen............ Real estate salesmen and brok ers ............................................. Retail trade salesworkers......... Securities salesmen .................... Wholesale trade salesworkers.... 308 311 314 316 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS .................... Barbers ......................................... Cosmetologists ............................. Cooks and c h e fs .......................... Waiters and waitresses .............. FBI special agen ts...................... Police officers............................... State police officers.................... Firefighters ................................... Hospital attendants.................... Private household workers ....... Building custodians.................. 319 321 323 325 328 330 332 335 338 340 342 344 SKILLED AND OTHER MANUAL OC CUPATIONS ........................................... Skilled workers..................................... Semiskilled w orkers............................. Unskilled workers ............................... Foremen ................................................ Building trades..................................... Asbestos and insulating workers Bricklayers ................................... Carpenters ................................... Cement masons (cement and concrete finishers) .................. Construction laborers and hod carriers ..................................... Electricians (construction) ....... Elevator constructors ................ Floor covering installers.............. Glaziers ......................................... Lathers ......................................... Mable setters, tile setters, and terrazzo w orkers...................... Operating engineers (construc tion machinery operators) .... Painters and paperhangers......... Plasterers ..................................... Plumbers and pipefitters............ Roofers ......................................... Sheet-metal workers .................. Stonemasons................................. Structural-, ornamental-, and re inforcing-iron workers, rig gers, and machine movers....... 301 303 305 347 348 350 351 353 357 362 364 367 370 373 376 379 381 384 385 388 392 395 398 400 404 406 409 410 CONTENTS XIII Page Driving occupations............................ Over-the-road truckdrivers....... Local truckdrivers ...................... Routemen ..................................... Intercity busdrivers.................... Local transit busdrivers ............ Taxi drivers ................................. Machining occupations ...................... All-round machinists .................. Machine tool operators.............. Tool and die makers.................... Instrument makers (mechan ical) ........................................... Setup men (machine tools)....... Layout men ................................. Mechanics and repairmen.................. Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics............ Appliance servicemen.................. Automobile body repairmen..... Automobile mechanics................ Bowling-pin-machine mechanics Business machine servicemen.... Diesel mechanics ........................ Electric sign servicemen.............. Farm equipment mechanics....... Industrial machinery repairmen Instrument repairm en................ Maintenance electricians............ Millwrights ................................... Television and radio service technicians ............................... Truck mechanics and bus me chanics ..................................... Vending machine m echanics..... Watch repairmen ........................ Printing (graphic arts) occupations.. Composing room occupations..... Photoengravers .......................... Electrotypers and stereotypers.. Printing pressmen and assist ants ........................................... Lithographic occupations ......... Bookbinders and related work ers ............................................. Some other manual occupations....... Assemblers ................................... Automobile painters .................. Automobile trimmers and instal lation men (automobile up holsterers) ............................... Blacksmiths ................................. Boilermaking occupations ....... 415 419 422 425 427 430 433 436 438 439 441 443 444 447 448 451 454 457 460 462 469 472 475 477 479 481 484 486 489 492 495 499 503 507 509 510 512 514 517 517 519 521 523 525 Some other manual occupations— Continued Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics ................................. 528 Electroplaters ............................... 531 Furniture upholsterers................ 533 Gasoline service station attend ants ........................................... 535 Inspectors (manufacturing) ..... 537 Jewelers and jewelry repairmen 539 Meat cu tters................................. 542 Motion picture projectionists.... 544 Photographic laboratory occupa tions ......................................... 546 Power truck operators .............. 549 Production painters.................... 550 Shoe repairmen .......................... 552 Stationary engineers .................. 554 Stationary firemen (boiler)....... 556 Waste water treatment plant op erators ....................................... 558 Welders and oxygen and arc cutters ....................................... 561 Some Major Industries and Their Occupations AGRICULTURE ....................................... Opportunities on fa rm s...................... Opportunities on specific types of farms .................................................. Occupations related to agriculture.... Cooperative extension service workers ..................................... Soil scientists ............................... Soil conservationists.................... Other professional workers....... Farm service jo b s ........................ MINING ........................................................ Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing occu pations ..................................... CONSTRUCTION ..................................... M ANUFACTURING ................................. Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ........................ Aluminum industry.................... Apparel industry ........................ Atomic energy fie ld .................... Electronics manufacturing ....... Industrial chemical industry..... Iron and steel industry................ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ 569 570 573 579 579 580 582 583 587 589 590 597 599 601 611 619 629 639 649 657 667 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK XIV Page M ANUFACTURING— Continued Paper, and allied products in dustries ..................................... Petroleum refining...................... TRAN SPO RTATIO N , COMMUNICA TION, AND PUBLIC U TILITIE S..... Civil aviation ....................................... Pilots and copilots........................ Flight engineers.......................... Stewardesses ............................... Aircraft m echanics...................... Airline dispatchers .................... Air traffic controllers.................. Ground radio operators and tele typists ....................................... Traffic agents and clerks............ Electric power industry...................... Powerplant occupations ............ Transmission and distribution occupations ............................... Customer service occupations.... Merchant marine occupations .......... Licensed merchant marine of ficers ......................................... Unlicensed merchant seamen.... Radio and television broadcasting.... Radio and television announcers Broadcast technicians ................ Railroads ............................................. Locomotive engineers ................ Locomotive firemen (helpers).... Conductors ................................... Brakemen ..................................... Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen ................................. Station agents ............................. Clerks ........................................... Shop trades ................................. 677 685 689 691 693 697 698 700 703 704 706 707 709 712 715 718 721 724 728 733 740 741 745 749 750 752 753 754 755 756 757 Page Railroads— Continued Signal department workers....... Track workers ............................. Bridge and building workers..... Telephone industry .................... Telephone craftsm en.................. Central office craftsmen............ Central office equipment instal lers ........................................... Linemen and cable splicers....... Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen ........................ WHOLESALE AND R E TA IL TRADE.. Restaurants ......................................... FINANCE, INSURANCE, AND REAL ESTATE .................................................. Banking ................................................ Bank clerk s................................... Tellers ........................ Bank officers ............................... Insurance business............................... SERVICE AND MISCELLANEOUS .... Hotels .................................................... Bellmen and bell captains......... Front office clerks........................ Housekeepers and assistants..... Managers and assistants............ GOVERNM ENT ......................................... Federal civilian employment.............. Post office occupations................ Mail carriers........................ Postal clerk s........................ State and local governments.............. Armed F orces....................................... TECHNICAL APPEN D IX ...................... IN D EX TO OCCUPATIONS AND IN DUSTRIES ............................................. 759 760 762 763 766 766 768 770 772 775 777 781 783 786 788 789 793 799 801 803 805 806 807 809 811 816 820 822 825 827 829 831 GUIDE TO THE HANDBOOK USING THE HANDBOOK IN SERVICES stood charts and graphs. The functional job classification sys tem discusses occupations of prac tically all workers in the United States. A consistent format com pares specific occupations by in dicating the nature of the work; location of employment, training and other qualifications and ad vancement; employment outlook; and earnings and working condi tions. Especially useful is the R e print Series which can be read at Occupational Outlook Handbook. home. The Occupational Outlook The Handbook, now in its ninth edition, is designed for use in a Handbook is used frequently by number of settings by persons who counselors in conferring with stu play a variety of roles in career de dents who have completed a vo velopment, such as counselors,- cational interest inventory and certain occupational teachers, parents, and counselor selected educators. Settings include junior areas. A pupil may refer to a num and senior high schools, vocation ber of occupations related to his al and technical schools, junior vocational goals. Many counselors and community colleges, college prefer this book to other refer student personnel centers, college ences. The survey of current occupa preparation programs, private and public placement and counseling tions provided by the Handbook agencies, youth opportunity cen serves as a broad base for career ters, and in-service education pro development. Since the occupa tional outlook is constantly grams. The organization of the Hand changing and many future occu book is especially appropriate for pations have not yet evolved, a use by persons working with student having some years of groups. It analyzes job prospects preparation ahead may elect a in the world of tomorrow with broad curriculum in a general area well-designed and easily under of interest, such as the sciences, The underlying premise of the guidance service, self-guidance, places primary responsibility for evolving a productive and reward ing way of life upon the individual himself. In long-range career de velopment, the individual with the help of counselors, teachers, and parents assesses his vocational po tential and explores commensur ate vocational alternatives. An in valuable resource in this explora tion and decision making is the GUIDANCE humanities, or arts. Such realiza tion will emphasize the need for flexible planning for the choice of a major interest area as well as related occupations to which these interests and abilities may lead. Specialization may be delayed un til a later date. The further he goes in school the better the op portunity for a student to select his major field of interest. The more familiar he is with the areas of work, the better prepared he will be to plan his future. Career development is achieved through a continuing and coher ent planned effort by students and counselors. The Handbook has demonstrated its effectiveness as a unique instrument in this process. It has become an indis pensable part of the counselor’s and the school’s library of occu pational information. Don D. Twiford, Chief Pupil Personnel Services Branch and Frank L. Sievers, Principal Specialist Guidance and Personnel Services Office of Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 3 HOW THE HANDBOOK IS ORGANIZED The Handbook starts with three introductory chapters designed to help counselors and students make effective use of the book and to give them a general view of the world of work. This chapter, the Guide to the Handbook, describes the contents and organization of the book. It tells how the information was as sembled and discusses a number of points which need to be kept in mind in interpreting the state ments. The second introductory chapter gives suggestions regard ing supplementary sources of oc cupational information and tells how readers can keep up to date on developments affecting the em ployment outlook in different oc cupations. It also describes briefly the counseling, placement, and other services available to job seekers at local offices of State employment services affiliated with the U.S. Training and Em ployment Service. The final in troductory chapter describes some of the most important occupa tional and industrial employment trends to provide a background for interpreting the reports on in dividual occupations. O ccupational Reports The reports on different fields of work make up the main body of the book. The seven major divi sions of the book are: Professional and related occupations; mana gerial occupations; clerical and related occupations; sales occupa tions; service occupations; skilled and other manual occupations; and some major industries and their occupations. Within each of these major divisions, occupa tions are grouped into related fields. The introductory state ment for each major industry group provides occupational trends in the industry. Indexes and Appendix To help the readers locate in formation on the occupations in which they are interested, a de tailed list of the occupational re ports by field of work, is included in the table of contents at the front of the book. The index at the back of the book lists occupa tions and industries alphabetically. The occupations covered in the Occupational Outlook Hand book also are coded according to the occupational classification system developed by the U.S. D e partment of Labor and published in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. This Dictionary provides a code number (the so-called D.O.T. number) for each occupa tion included in it; the code num ber can be used as a filing system for occupational information. The code numbers of the D.O.T. are listed in parentheses immediately below the main occupational group headings in the Handbook. Volumes I and II of the D.O.T. contain job definitions; the sup plement lists individual physical demands, working conditions, and training time data for each job defined in the Dictionary. The technical appendix dis cusses the sources and methods used to analyze the occupational outlook in different fields of work. It is designed for readers wishing more information on this subject than is included in this chapter. S o m e im portant fa c ts about the occupational reports Occupations Covered The more than 700 occupations discussed in this Handbook gen erally are those of greatest inter est to young people. Most of the large ones requiring long periods of education or training are dis cussed, as are a number of small but rapidly growing fields and other occupations of special inter 4 est. Altogether, the occupations covered account for about 97 per cent of all workers in sales occu pations; about 95 percent of all workers in professional and re lated occupations; about twothirds of all workers in skilled, clerical, and service occupations, and two-fifths of those in semi skilled occupations. Smaller pro portions of managerial workers and laborers are discussed. The main types of farming occupa tions also are discussed. General information on many fields of work not covered in the occupational reports is contained in the introductions to the major divisions of the book. These in troductions are designed to aid the reader in interpreting the re ports on individual occupations. HOW THE HANDBOOK IS ORGANIZED Sources of Inform ation Information on employment trends and outlook and the many related topics discussed in the oc cupational reports was drawn from a great variety of sources. Interviews with hundreds of per sons in industry, unions, trade associations, and public agencies provided a wealth of the latest information. The Bureau’s other research programs supplied data on employment in different indus tries, productivity and technolog ical developments, wages and working conditions, trade union agreements, industrial hazards, and a number of other topics. Ad ditional data regarding the nature of the work in various occupa tions, training and licensing re quirements, wages, and employ ment trends were provided by other agencies of the Federal Gov ernment— among them, the Bur eau of Apprenticeship and Train ing and the U.S. Training and Employment Service in the De partment of Labor; the Bureau of the Census of the Department of Commerce; the Office of Educa tion and the Vocational Rehabili tation Administration of the De partment of Health, Education, and Welfare; the Veterans Ad ministration; the Civil Service Commission; the Interstate Com merce Commission; the Civil Aeronautics Board; the Federal Communications Commission; the Department of Transportation; and the National Science Found ation. Many other public and private organizations— including State licensing boards, educa tional institutions, business firms, professional societies, trade asso ciations, and trade unions— also made available published and un published data and supplied much helpful information through in terviews. After the information from these many sources was brought 5 will be maintained and that no cataclysmic events will occur, such as a war or a severe and pro longed economic depression. Such catastrophes would, of course, cre ate an entirely different employ ment situation from that likely to develop under the assumed con ditions. But young people would find it impossible to build their lifetime plans in expectation of such unpredictable catastrophes, although, on the basis of historical experience, they must be prepared to weather economic ups and downs during their working lives. The basic economic assumptions are discussed in detail in the in troductory section of the Hand book. Tomorrow’s Jobs, page 11. T o avoid constant repetition, the assumptions seldom are men tioned in the reports on the many fields of work where the impact of a general decline in business or a change in the scale of mo bilization would probably be about the same as in the economy as a whole. On the other hand, in the statements on occupations where employment tends to be either unusually stable or espe cially subject to ups and downs, the factors affecting employment are delineated. Even in the latter occupations, however, long-term trends in employment are more important than short-run fluctua tions when appraising the pros pects of an individual in a par ticular occupation. The picture of employment op Points To Bear in M ind in Using portunities given in this book ap the Reports plies to the country as a whole unless otherwise indicated. People In using the information on em who want supplementary informa ployment prospects which this tion on job opportunities in their book contains, it is important to communities should consult local keep in mind that all conclusions sources of information, as sug about the economic future neces gested in the next chapter. The information presented on sarily rest on certain assumptions. Among the assumptions which un earnings and working conditions, derlie the statements on employ as on other subjects, represents ment outlook in this Handbook, the most recent available when are that high employment levels the Handbook was prepared early together and analyzed in conjunc tion with the Bureau’s overall eco nomic model, conclusions were reached as to prospective employ ment trends in the occupations. (See the Technical Appendix, page 829, for a discussion of the methodology used in employment outlook analysis.) In addition, estimates were made of the num bers of job openings that will be created by retirements and deaths and transfers out of the occupa tion. The supply of new workers likely to be available in particular fields also was analyzed, by study ing statistics on high school and college enrollments and gradua tions, data on the number of ap prentices in skilled trades, re entries to an occupation, and transfers into an occupation. Preliminary drafts of the occu pational reports were reviewed by officials of leading companies, trade associations, trade unions, and professional societies, and by other experts. The information and conclusions presented in each report thus reflect the knowledge and judgment not only of the Bureau of Labor Statistics staff, but also of leaders in the field discussed, although the Bureau, of course, takes full responsibility for all statements made. The tech nical appendix presents a more detailed discussion of the sources of information used in the occu pational reports. 6 in 1969. Much of the information came from Bureau of Labor Sta tistics surveys, but many other sources were utilized also. For this reason, the earnings data pre sented in the various occupational reports often refer to different periods of time, cover varying geo graphic areas, and represent dif ferent kinds of statistical meas ures. Comparisons between the earnings data for different occu pations should, therefore, be made with great caution. Reference has been made in sev eral occupational statements to training programs established un der the Manpower Development and Training Act (M D T A ), to OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK equip unemployed and underem ployed persons with skills needed in today’s world of work. How ever, the absence of a reference to M D TA training for a particular occupation does not necessarily mean that programs are not in op eration. In 1969, training pro grams (which last from several weeks to 2 years) covered several hundred occupations— technical and semiprofessional, skilled and semiskilled, clerical and sales, ser vice and nonagricultural. To ob tain information about M DTA training offered in your area, con tact the local office of the State employment service. Finally, information on occupa tions and the employment oppor tunities they offer is only part of that needed in making a career decision, which means matching a person and an occupation. The other part relates, of course, to the aptitudes and interests of the potential worker himself. In as sessing their own abilities and in terests and in selecting the occu pation for which they are best suited, people can obtain help from vocational counselors in schools and colleges, State em ployment service offices, Veterans Administration regional offices and guidance centers, and many community agencies. SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OR ASSISTANCE Persons using this Handbook may want more detail on the oc cupations discussed in the occu pational reports, or information on fields of work which are not covered in this publication. Suggestions as to sources of ad ditional information on the occu pations discussed are given in most of the occupational reports. In addition, several types of pub lications of the U.S. Department of Labor (see descriptions follow ing index), provide further in formation on topics such as earn ings, hours of work, and working conditions. Other sources likely to be helpful include public li braries; schools; State employ ment services; business establish ments; and trade unions, employ ers’ associations, and professional societies. A brief description of each follows. great numbers of publications on occupations, and the librarians may be of assistance in finding the best ones on a particular field of work. ployment offices are described in the concluding section of this chapter.) Business Establishm ents Schools School libraries and guidance offices also often have extensive reading materials on occupations. In addition, school counselors and teachers usually know of any local occupational information which has been assembled through spe cial surveys made by schools or other community agencies. Teach ers of special subjects such as music, printing, and shorthand can often give information about occupations related to the sub jects they teach. S tate Em ploym ent Services Employers and personnel offi cers usually can supply informa tion about the nature of the work performed by employees in their industry or business and the qual ifications needed for various jobs, as well as other facts about em ployment conditions and oppor tunities. The names of local firms in a particular industry can be found in the classified sections of telephone directories or can be ob tained from local chambers of commerce. T rad e Unions, Em ployers’ Associations, and Professional Societies Public Libraries These libraries usually have many books, pamphlets, and ma gazine articles giving information about different occupations. They also may have several books and current indexes which list the Counselors in local public em ployment offices are in a partic ularly good position to supply information about job opportuni ties, hiring standards, and wages in their localities. (The services available through the public em Frequently, these organizations have local branches; their officials can supply information relating to the occupations with which they are concerned. O ccupational outlook service publications and m aterials The Bureau of Labor Statistics has recently published a Counsel or’s Guide to Manpower Informa tion, An Annotated Bibliography of Government Publications. The bibliography, as the title suggests, lists the major occupational and other manpower publications of Federal and State government agencies that will be useful to counselors and others interested in trends and developments that have implications for career de cisions. This bulletin, No. 1598, is available from the Superintend ent of Documents, Government Printing Office, W a s h in g to n , D.C., 20402, at $1 a copy. The Bureau of Labor Statistics also issues a periodical, the Occu pational Outlook Quarterly, to keep readers up to date between editions of the Handbook, on de velopments affecting employment 7 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 8 opportunities and on the findings of new occupational outlook re search. In addition, the Bureau issues at irregular intervals occu pational outlook bulletins which give much more detailed informa tion on various fields of work than can be included either in the Handbook or in the Occupational Outlook Quarterly. Further in formation about these publica tions and directions for ordering them will be found on page The Bureau also has developed a visual aid for counselors en titled, Looking Ahead to a Career. It consists of a set of 36 color slides or a filmstrip that show the changing occupational and indus trial mix and trends for manpower development, education, and training. The slides and filmstrip, which have an accompanying nar rative, are available directly from the Bureau of Labor Statistics Regional Offices; the slides cost $10 a set, the filmstrip $5. (See order form in back of Handbook.) The Bureau will be glad to place the name of any user of this Handbook on its mailing list to receive announcements of new publications and releases sum marizing the results of new stu dies. Anyone wishing to receive such materials should send the request, with his address, to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washing ton, D.C., 20212. S e rv ic e s to jo b se e k e rs at public em ploym ent offices Local offices of State employ ment services specialize in finding jobs for workers and workers for jobs. The State employment ser vices are affiliated with the U.S. Training and Employment Ser vice of the U.S. Department of Labor’s Manpower Administra tion and constitute a FederalState partnership. Employment and related services are available without charge in every State. At each of the over 2,000 public employment service offices across the Nation, jobseekers are aided in obtaining employment, and em ployers are assisted in finding qualified workers. Four basic services are provided to workers by the public employ ment service: (1) Job informa tion; (2) employment counseling; (3) referral to job training or other needed service; and (4) job placement. Job Information. The personnel who staff the public employment service offices are familiar with their areas and thus know what kinds of workers are employed in local industry, what jobs are avail able, what the hiring requirements and the opportunities for ad vancement are, and the wages that are paid. The staff conduct man power surveys to determine the area’s available skills, training needs, and future occupational op portunities. Through the employ ment service network of offices, information is also available on job opportunities in other areas of the country. Employment Counseling. Em ployment counseling assists young people who are starting their careers, as well as experi enced workers who wish or need to change their occupation. The major purposes of employment counseling are to help people un derstand their actual and poten tial abilities, their interests, and their personal traits; to know the nature of occupations; and to make the best use of their capa cities and preferences in the light of available job opportunities. The employment counselor is specially trained and has access to a large store of occupational information. Most local offices provide testing services to help the counselor appraise the appli cant’s abilities, aptitudes, and preferences. Often such tests re veal aptitudes the jobseeker did not know he had. The General Aptitude Test Battery, for in stance, measures basic abilities for broad fields of work and for specific jobs. Referral to Training. Many in dividuals seek work for which they lack some qualifications. Sometimes the job requires basic education or a specific skill. Be sides referring a jobseeker to a job the public employment ser vice may suggest training so the applicant can qualify or secure a better job. Jobs and job requirements change. In today’s fast-paced world, important considerations when selecting a vocation are the training required to perform the work, and ways that training need can be met. Job Placement. A primary objec tive of the public employment service is to place workers in jobs. Regular contact is maintained with local employers to learn about their job openings. Re quests are received from employ ers for many different kinds of workers. As a result, registered SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OR ASSISTANCE applicants have access to a variety of job vacancies with many em ployers, just as the employer has access to many applicants. This dual function eliminates “ hit-ormiss” job hunting. If job openings are not avail able locally, applicants may ap ply for employment elsewhere in the State, in another area, or even in a foreign country. Each State employment service prepares in ventories of its hard-to-fill jobs so that other State employment services may refer local workers to out-of-area jobs for which they qualify. In addition, a national network of highly specialized pro fessional placement offices oper ates within the employment serv ice network to speed the match ing of jobs and applicants in pro fessional fields. of the public employment service system, to assist young people, particularly school dropouts, to prepare for and obtain jobs. YOC representatives go into neighbor hoods where disadvantaged youth live to recruit and motivate those who do not come voluntarily for help. These centers, established in early 1965, provide complete employment services and cooper ate closely with other community agencies serving youth. Special Services for Disadvan taged Adults. Through its human Special Services for Youth. The resources development program, the employment service seeks to improve the employability of adults who have withdrawn from the work force because of some social or cultural disadavantage. An important part of this pro gram is “ outreach” into slum areas. full range of employment services is available to youth. Specialized youth units have been established in most local offices. In addition, Youth Opportunity Centers (YO C) have been established in high population areas, as a part Other Special Services. Individ uals with mental or physical dis abilities which constitute voca tional handicaps are given special consideration by the employment service. 9 Veterans also receive special services. Each local office has a veterans’ employment representa tive who is informed about vet erans’ rights and benefits, and seeks to develop jobs for veterans. Middle-age and older workers are assisted in making realistic job choices and overcoming prob lems related to getting and hold ing jobs. Employers are encour aged to hire individuals on their ability to perform the work. Sim ilar attention is given to the em ployment problems of minority group members and all others fac ing special difficulties in obtain ing suitable employment. Community Manpower Service. Jobseekers, employers, schools, civic groups, and public and pri vate agencies concerned with manpower problems are invited to utilize the service of the public employment office in their com munity, and avail themselves of the job information in that office. The local office is listed in the phone book as an agency of the State government. TOMORROW'S JOBS Choosing a career is one of the most important decisions a person will make in his lifetime. Plan ning a career calls for an evalua tion of an individual’s abilities and interests and for knowledge of employment opportunities that will be favorable or not so favor able in the future. This Hand book provides this latter informa tion for counselors, teachers, par ents, and students themselves, as well as other information that furnishes a background for under standing the outlook, education and training requirements, and nature of particular occupations. Our Nation’s vast and complex economy offers individuals numer ous career choices. Thousands of different jobs are available as well as a huge variety of employers. Several questions are of major importance to young persons as they view the variety of occupa tional choices open to them. Among these questions are: What fields look especially promising for employment opportunities? What competition will other workers furnish? What type and how much training and education are required to enter particular jobs? How do earnings in certain occupations compare with earn ings in other occupations requir ing similar training? What types of employers provide which kinds of jobs? What are the typical en vironment and working conditions associated with particular occupa tions? Of importance in evaluating in formation that answers these and related questions is knowledge of the dynamic changes that are con tinually occurring in our economy — the trends in the Nation’s work force and its business, industrial, and occupational development. New ways of making goods, new products, and changes in living standards are constantly chang ing the types of jobs that become available. T o throw light on the changing characteristics of occu pations and to provide back ground for understanding the out look in specific occupatons, this chapter focuses on overall pat terns of change in the country’s industrial and occupational com position. It also discusses the im plications of these changes on edu cation and training in relation to occupational choice. No one can accurately forecast the future. Nevertheless, by using the wealth of information avail able, extensive economic and sta tistical analyses, and the best judgment of informed experts, the work future can be described in broad terms. Of course, some as pects of the future can be pre dicted more accurately than others. For example, the number of 18-year olds in 1980 can be estimated with a very high degree of accuracy because individuals 6-years old in 1968 are accounted for in our vital statistics, and the death rate of children between 6 and 18 is extremely low and stays about the same from year to year. On the other hand, forecasting employment requirements for automobile assemblers in 1980 is extremely difficult. Employment of these workers can be affected by the changing demand for American-made automobiles, shifts in buyer’s preferences (to ward the compact car, for exam ple), changes in the ways cars are made (more automation or greater use of turbine engines), and unpredictable economic de velopments outside of the auto mobile industry. To project the demand for all workers in the economy, specific assumptions have to be made about general economic move ments and broad national policy. The picture of the future employ ment outlook reflected in the Handbook is based on the follow ing fundamental assumptions: 1. Maintenance of high levels of employment and of utilization of available manpower in 1980; 2. that no major event will alter substantially the rate and nature of economic growth; 3. that economic and social patterns and relationships will continue to change at about the same rate as in the recent past; 4. that scientific technological advancement will continue at about the same rate as in recent years; and 5. that defense activities in 1980 in terms of expenditures will approximate the 1963 level which is somewhat higher than the levels before the Viet Nam Buildup. The Handbook's assessment of 1980 industrial and occupational outlook assumes a projected total labor force of 100.7 million in 1980, an Armed Forces of 2.7 million, and a resulting civilian labor force of 98 million. Understanding the world of work requires knowledge of loca tion where the specific types of work is done because employers seek a wide variety of skills; for example, many different indus tries employ engineers, secretaries, and salesmen. Analyses of the character of the economy’s indus trial composition show that work locations have changed sharply over the years and are expected to continue to do so. These changes greatly affect employment oppor tunities and occupational choices. Industry employment and oc cupational requirements change as a result of many factors. A new 11 12 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK W here People W ork INDUSTRY MANUFACTURING TRADE GOVERNMENT MILLIONS OF WORKERS - 1968 1 5 10 15 I nondurable durable retail state and local '| 20 wholesale | federa SERVICES TRANSPORTATION AND PUBLIC UTILITIES AGRICULTURE FINANCE, INSURANCE, AND REAL ESTATE CONTRACT CONSTRUCTION MINING 1 WAGE AND SALARY WORKERS. EXCEPT AGRICULTURE, WHICH INCLUDES SELF EMPLOYED AND UNPAID FAMILY WORKERS machine or a newly automated process may require different oc cupational skills or may even create an entirely new occupa tion; a change in product demand may affect the number of workers needed; an invention may all but eliminate an industry or create a new one. To help understand the Na tion’s industrial composition, in dustries may be viewed as either goods producing or service pro ducing. They may further be grouped into 9 major divisions ac cording to this product or service. (See chart 1.) Most of the Nation’s workers are in industries producing ser vices, in activities such as educa tion, health care, trade, repair and maintenance, and in government transportation, and banking and insurance service. The production Industries Providing Services O ffe r More Jobs Than Those Providing G ood s MILLION WORKERS * GOODS PRODUCING Manufacturing Contract construction Mining Agriculture SERVICE PRODUCING Transportation and public utilities Trade Finance, insurance and real estate Services Government 'w a g e a n d s a la ry w o rkers only, except the a g ricu ltu re in d u stry, w h ich also in cludes self-em ployed and unpaid fa m ily w o rkers of goods— raising food crops, building, extracting minerals, and manufacturing of goods— has re quired less than half of the coun try’s workforce since the late 1940’s. (See chart 2.) In general, job growth through the 1970’s is expected to continue to be faster in the service-producing industries than in the goods-producing in dustries. However, among indus try divisions within both the goods-producing and service-pro ducing sectors, the growth pattern will continue to vary. Service-Producing Industries. In 1968, about 44.2 million work ers were on the payrolls of serviceproducing industries— trade; Government; services and miscel laneous; transportation and other utilities; and finance, insurance, and real estate— about 18.8 mil lion greater than the number em ployed in 1947. The major factors underlying this rapid Post World War II growth have been (1) population growth; (2) increasing urbanization, with its accompany ing need for more city services; and (3) rising income and living standards accompanying demand for improved services, such as health, education, and security. These factors are expected to con tinue to result in rapid growth of service industries as a group, and to employ 59.5 million by 1980, an increase of 35.0 percent above the 1968 level. Trade the largest division with in the service-producing indus tries, has expanded sharply since 1947. Wholesale and retail out lets have multiplied in large and small cities to satisfy the need of an increasingly urban society. Employment in trade was about 14.1 million in 1968, about 57 percent above the 1947 level. Employment in trade is ex pected to grow one-fourth be tween 1968 and 1980. (See chart 3.) Although an ever increasing volume of merchandise will be dis- TOMORROW’S JOBS 13 tributed as a result of increases in population and consumer ex penditures, the rate of increase in manpower needs will be slowed by laborsaving technology such as the greater use of electronic data processing equipment and auto mated warehousing equipment, growth in the number of self-serv ice stores, and the growing use of vending machines. Government employment has grown faster than any other in dustry division, and has more than doubled from 5.5 million to 11.8 million between 1947 and 1968. Growth has been mostly at the State and local levels, which combined increased more than 150 percent. Employment growth has been greatest in agencies pro viding education, health, sanita tion, welfare, and protective ser vices. Federal Government em ployment increased about 45 per cent between 1947 and 1968. Government will continue to be a major source of new jobs through the 1970’s. By 1980, em ployment in Government may be as much as 42 percent higher than in 1968. Most of the growth will be in State and local governments in which employment needs may rise in 1980, to 13.8 million about 52 percent higher than the 9.1 million employed in 1968. Fed eral Government employment is expected to rise slowly to about 3 million in 1980, 300,000 or about 10 percent above the 1968 level of 2.7 million. Services and miscellaneous in dustries employment has in creased rapidly since World War 11 as a result of the growing need for maintenance and repair, ad vertising, domestic, and health care services. From 1947-68, total employment in this industry divi sion doubled from slightly more than 5.0 million to about 10.6 million. Service and miscellaneous in dustries will continue to be among the fastest growing industries through the 1970’s. More than one-half again as many workers are expected to be employed in this industry division in 1980 as in 1968. Manpower requirements in health services are expected to grow rapidly due to population growth and the increasing ability of persons to pay for health care. Business services including ac counting, data processing, and Em ploym ent G ro w th W ill V a r y W id e ly -3 0 -2 0 -1 0 , SERVICES CONTRACT CONSTRUCTION GOVERNMENT FINANCE, INSURANCE, AND REAL ESTATE TRADE MANUFACTURING TRANSPORTATION AND PUBLIC UTILITIES MINING AGRICULTURE , , PERCENT CHANGE 1968-80 10 20 30 40 ______ I I I 50 60 maintenance also are expected to grow very rapidly. Transportation and public util ity employment in 1968 at 4.3 mil lion was only slightly higher than in 1947. Different parts of this industry, however, have experi enced different growth trends. For example, air travel employ ment increased rapidly but the railroad industry declined. The number of jobs in trans portation and public utilities as a whole is expected to continue to increase slowly through the 1970’s and widely differing employment trends will continue to be experi enced among individual industries within the division. Rapid in creases in employment are ex pected in air transportation and a decline is expected to continue in railroad employment and little or no change is expected in water transportation, and electric, gas, and sanitary services. Overall em ployment in this industry division is expected to increase to more than 4.7 million in 1980, 10 per cent above the 1968 level. Finance, insurance, and real estate, the smallest of the service producing industry divisions, has grown about 90 percent since World War II, from nearly 1.8 million in 1947 to nearly 3.4 mil lion in 1968. Employment has grown especially rapidly in banks; credit agencies; and security and commodity brokers, dealers, ex changes and services. Job growth in finance, insur ance, and real estate will keep in step with the overall employment increases of nonfarm employment through the 1970’s. Finance, in surance, and real estate employ ment is expected to expand to nearly 4.3 million by 1980, about one-fourth above 1968 levels. The most rapid advances will be in banking and credit agencies, which combined account for near ly two-fifths of total employment in this industry division. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 14 Goods-Producing Industries. Em ployment in the goods-producing industries— agriculture, manufac turing, construction, and mining — more than 27.5 million in 1968 — has increased slowly in recent years. Significant gains in pro ductivity resulting from automa tion and other technological de velopments as well as the growing skills of the work force have per mitted large increases in output without corresponding increases in employment. Employment in goods-producing industries is ex pected to increase to about 30 million in 1980, 10 percent above the 1968 level. However, widely different patterns of employment changes have occurred and will continue among the industry divi sions in the goods-producing sec tor. Agriculture, which until the late 1800’s employed more than half of all workers in the economy, employed only 5 percent, or 3.8 million workers, in 1968. Employ ment in agriculture has dropped by more than one-half since 1947. Increases in the average size of farms, rapid mechanization, and improved fertilizers, feeds and pesticides have created large in creases in output at the same time that employment has fallen sharply. Agriculture is facing a continu ing decline in manpower needs. Factors resulting in past declines will continue and the outlook is for a 1980 farm work force 21 per cent lower than in 1968. Mining employment, at about 610,000 workers in 1968, has de clined by nearly two-fifths since 1947, primarily because of laborsaving technological changes and a shift to sources of power other than coal. This trend is likely to continue and mining is the only nonagri1968 and 1980. Although minor employment increases are expect ed in quarrying and other non metallic mining, they will be more cultural industry division that is not expected to increase between than offset by continuing declines in the coal mining, and in crude petroleum and natural gas extrac tion industries. The job level of the entire mining group is ex pected to decline about 10 per cent to about 550,000 between 1968 and 1980. Contract construction employ ment, at nearly 3.3 million in 1968, has increased more than three-fifths since World War II. The Nation’s rapidly growing need for homes, offices, stores, highways, bridges, dams, and other physical facilities resulted in this sharp increase in employ ment. Between 1968 and 1980, con tract construction is expected to grow by more than two-fifths to about 4.6 million. Construction activity will be spurred by several factors. An expanding economy will result in more industrial plants and commercial establish ments such as office buildings, stores, and banks. The volume of construction maintenance and re pair, which is now about one-third of new construction activity, also is expected to grow significantly through the 1970’s. Home and apartment building will be stimu lated by the increase in popula tion, new family formations, and higher income levels. Also, large government expenditures for ur ban renewal, school construction, and roads are likely. Manufacturing, the largest divi sion within the goods producing sector that had about 19.8 million workers in 1968, increased about 27 percent in employment be tween 1947 and 1968. New prod ucts for industrial and consumer markets and the rapid growth of the defense-space market has spearheaded the post World War II growth. Manufacturing employment is expected to increase about 11 per cent through the 1970’s and reach about 21.9 million in 1980. Dur able goods manufacturing is pro jected to increase slightly faster (12 percent) and nondurable goods slightly slower (10 percent) than the total. However, the rate of growth will vary among the in dividual manufacturing indus tries. The machinery industry is expected to have the largest need for additional people, as employ- Em ploym ent In M a jo r O ccupational G ro u p s, By Sex MILLIONS OF WORKERS, 1968 PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL CRAFTSMEN ' '' MALE SERVICE MANAGERS, OFFICIALS, AND PROPRIETORS SALES NONFARM LABORERS FARM WORKERS 1Includes Self-Em ployed and Unpaid Fam ily W orkers 15 TOMORROW’S JOBS ment grows from nearly 2.0 mil lion to more than 2.4 million. Pro ducers of rubber and plastic prod ucts; furniture and fixtures; stone, clay, and glass products; and instruments, will be among other rapid growing manufactur ing industries. In contrast, em ployment in some manufacturing industries may decline, for exam ple, leather, textile mill products, tobacco, and petroleum refining. Ordnance industry manpower re quirements in 1980 may be as much as one-fourth lower than 1968 levels, if the Viet Nam con flict has ended. O ccupational Profile As American industries con tinue to grow larger, more com plex, and more mechanized, fund amental changes will take place in the Nation’s occupational struc Em ploym ent has Shifted T o w a rd W h ite-C olla r Occupations MILLIONS OF WORKERS 40 — •— - - i 1947 i i 50 i i i i 55 i i i i t i i 60 Industries Differ In The Kinds O f W orkers They Em ploy PERCENT 1968 FINANCE, INSURANCE, AND REAL ESTATE TRADE SERVICES TRANSPORTATION AND PUBLIC UTILITIES MANUFACTURING MINING CONTRACT CONSTRUCTION i 65 i 1968 ture. Furthermore, occupations will become more complex and more specialized. Thus, an impos ing and confusing number of oc cupational choices is provided to individuals who are planning their careers. An individual, in examin ing the vast number of choices should first look at broad group ings of jobs that have similar char acteristics such as entrance re quirements. (See chart 4.) Among the most significant changes in the Nation’s occupa tional structure has been the shift toward white-collar jobs. In 1956, for the first time in the Nation’s history, white-collar workers— professional, managerial, clerical, and sales— outnumbered blue-col lar workers— craftsmen, oper atives, and laborers. (See chart 5.) Through the 1970’s, we can ex pect a continuation of the rapid growth of white-collar occupa tions, a slower than average growth of blue-collar occupations, a faster than average growth among service workers, and a fur ther decline of farm workers. Total employment is expected to increase about 25 percent between 1968 and 1980. In comparison, an increase of about 36 percent is expected for white-collar jobs, and only about 13 percent for blue-collar occupations. By 1980, white-collar jobs will account for more than one-half of all em ployed workers compared with about 47 percent in 1968. The rapid growth expected for whitecollar workers and service workers reflects continuous expansion of the service-producing industries which employ a relatively large proportion of these workers. (See chart 6.) The growing demand for workers to perform research and development, to provide educa tion and health services, and to process the increasing amount of paperwork throughout all types of enterprises, also will be signifi cant in the growth of white-collar OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 16 jobs. The slower than average growth of blue-collar and farm workers reflects the expanding use of labor-saving equipment in our Nation’s industries and the relatively slow growth of the goods-producing industries that employ large proportions of bluecollar workers. The following section describes in greater detail the changes that are expected to occur among the broad occupational groups through the 1970’s. Professional and technical workers, the third largest occu pational group in 1968, include among more than 10.3 million workers such highly trained per sonnel as teachers, engineers, den tists, accountants, and clergymen. Professional occupations will be the fastest growing occupation from 1968-80. (See chart 7.) Per sonnel in this area will be in great demand as the Nation puts great er efforts toward the country’s socio-economic progress, urban renewal, transportation, harness ing the ocean, and enhancing the beauty of the land. The quest for scientific and technical knowledge is bound to grow and raise the demand for workers in scientific and technical specialties. The 1970’s will see a continuing em phasis in the social sciences and medical services. By 1980 the re quirements for professional, tech nical, and kindred workers may be about one-half greater than 1968 employment. Managers, officials and propri etors totaled about 7.8 million in 1968. As a group they will increase more than one-fifth between 1968 and 1980, somewhat slower than the rate of growth for all occupa tions. As in the past, requirements for salaried managers are likely to continue to increase rapidly be cause of the increasing depend ence of business organizations and government agencies on man agement specialists. On the other hand, the number of self-em ployed managers are expected to continue to decline through the 1970’s as larger businesses con tinue to restrict growth of the total number of firms and as su permarkets continue to replace small groceries, general stores, and hand laundries. Clerical workers numbering 12.8 million in 1968, include work ers who operate computers and office machines, keep records, take dictation, and type. Many new clerical positions are expected to open up as industries employing large numbers of clerical workers continue to expand. The trend in retail stores toward transferring to clerical workers functions that were performed by salespersons also will tend to increase employ ment needs of clerical workers. The demand will be particularly strong for those qualified to han dle jobs created by the change of clerical occupations to electronic data processing operations. How ever, the use of electronic com puting bookkeeping machines and other mechanical devices to do processing and repetitive work are expected to reduce the number of clerks employed in jobs such as o M ore Jo b s W ill R equire Extensive Education and Tra in in g PERCENT CHANGE IN EMPLOYMENT 1 9 6 8 -8 0 SCHOOL YEARS COMPLETED (M EDIAN) 1968 -4 0 -3 0 16.3 PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL 11.1 SERVICE 8.8 11.6 12.6 filing, making up payrolls, keep ing tract of inventories, and bill ing customers. The need for cleri cal workers as a group is expected to increase about one-third be tween 1968 and 1975. Sales workers, accounting for about 4.6 million workers in 1968, are found primarily in retail stores, wholesale firms, insurance companies, real estate agencies, as well as offering goods door to door. Between 1968 and 1980 sales workers are expected to in crease nearly 30 percent. Increasing sales of many new products resulting from rapid population growth, new product development, business expansion, and rising business level will be the major reason for increasing employment of sales workers. The expected increase in residential and commercial construction and urban renewal will increase the need for real estate agents. Con tinued extension of such laws as workers compensation and auto mobile liability insurance should boost the need for insurance sales men. The trend of stores to re main open longer hours should increase the need for retail sales persons. However, changes in dis- PRIVAT OTHER CLERICAL 12.6 SALES 12.7 MANAGERS, OFFICIALS, AND PROPRIETORS 12.0 CRAFTSMEN 11.0 OPERATIVES 9.8 NONFARM LABORERS 9.1 FARM LABORERS -2 0 -1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 TOMORROW’S JOBS tribution methods, such as self service and automatic vending are likely to restrict the employ ment growth of sales workers. Craftsmen, numbering about 10 million in 1968, include carpen ters, tool and die makers, instru ment makers, all round machin ists, electricians, and type setters. Industrial growth and increasing business activity are the major factors expected to spur the growth of crafts occupations through the 1970’s. However, technological developments will tend to limit the expansion of this group. Craftsmen are expected to increase nearly one-fourth, some what slower than the growth of all occupations. Semiskilled workers (opera tives) made up the largest major occupational group in 1968 with nearly 14 million workers en gaged in assembling goods in factories; driving trucks, buses and taxis; and operating machin ery. Employment for semi-skilled workers is expected to increase about 10 percent above the 1968 level, despite continued techno logical advances that will reduce employment for some types of semi-skilled occupations. In creases in production generated by rising population and rapid economic growth, as well as the increasing trend to motor truck transportation of freight, are ex pected to be the major factors contributing to the increasing employment. Laborers (excluding those in farming and mining), who num bered nearly 3.6 million workers in 1968, for the most part move, lift, and carry materials and tools in the Nation’s workplaces. Em ployment of laborers is expected to change little between 1968 and 1980 in spite of the rises in manu facturing and construction which employ most laborers. Increased demand is expected to be offset 17 by rising productivity resulting from continuing substitution of mechanical equipment for manual labor. Service workers, including men and women who maintain law and order, assist professional nurses in hospitals, give haircuts and beauty treatments, serve food, and clean and care for our homes, totaled about 9.4 million in 1968. This diverse group will increase about 40 percent between 1968 and 1980 and after professional workers will be the fastest grow ing group. Some of the main fac tors that are expected to increase requirements for these occupa tions are the rising demand for hospital and other medical care; the greater need for protective services as urbanization continues and cities become more crowded; and the more frequent use of restaurants, beauty parlors, and other services as income levels rise and as an increasing number of housewives take jobs outside the home. Farm workers— including farm ers, farm managers, laborers, and foreman— numbered nearly 3.5 million in 1968. Employment re quirements for farm workers are expected to decline to about 2.6 million in 1980. This decrease is anticipated, in part, because of continued improvement in farm technology. For example, im proved fertilizers, seeds, and feed, will permit a farmer to increase production without increasing em ployment. Job Openings In considering a career, young people should not eliminate oc cupations just because their pref erences will not be among the most rapidly growing. Although growth is a key indicator of fu ture job outlook, more jobs will be created between 1968-80 from deaths, retirements, and other labor force separations than from employment growth. (See chart 8.) Replacement needs will be particularly significant in occupa tions which have a large propor tion of older workers and women. Furthermore, large occupations that have little growth may offer Training Needs A re Determ ined By Replacem ent Plus G ro w th MILLIONS OF WORKERS NEEDED, 1968-80 0 CLERICAL WORKERS PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL 8 10 _____ i_________ i---------------!_________ 1 2 4 1 deaths and retirements 1 CRAFTSMEN AND FOREMEN MANAGERS, OFFICIALS, AND PROPRIETORS SALES WORKERS NON FARM LABORERS FARM WORKERS growth 1 SERVICE WORKERS OPERATIVES 6 1 IH H 12 18 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK more openings than a fast grow ing small one. For example, among the major occupational groups, openings for operatives resulting from growth and re placement combined will be great er than for craftsmen, although the rate of growth of craftsmen will be more than twice as rapid as the rate of growth for opera tives. O utlook and Education Numerous opportunities for employment will be available for jobseekers during the years ahead. Employers are seeking people who have higher levels of education because jobs are more complex and require greater skill. Furthermore, employment growth generally will be fastest in those occupations requiring the most education and training. For ex ample, professional occupations requiring the most education will show the fastest growth through the 1970’s. (See chart 7.) A high school education has be come a standard for American workers. Thus, because of per sonnel practices in American in dustries, a high school graduate is in a better competitive position in the job market than a non graduate. Although training beyond high school has been the standard one for sometime for many profes sional occupations, many other areas of work require more than just a high school diploma. As new automated equipment is in troduced on a wider scale in of fices, banks, insurance companies, and government operations, skill requirements are rising for clerical and other office jobs. Employers increasingly are demanding better trained workers to operate com plicated machinery. In many areas of sales work, new developments in machine de sign, use of new materials, and the complexity of equipment are making greater technical knowl edge a requirement for demon strators; and repairmen must be come familiar with even more complicated machines. Along with the demand for greater education, the proportion of youth completing high school have increased and an even larger proportion of high school gradu ates pursue higher education. (See chart 9.) This trend is ex pected to continue through the 1970’s. In 1980, high school en rollment is expected to be 21.2 million, 14 percent above the 1968 level and college degree credit en rollment is projected at 10.2 mil lion, 50 percent above the 1968 level of 6.8 million. 19 TOMORROW’S JOBS The number of persons in the labor force (including those in the Armed Forces) is a related as pect of job competition. Although the number of all workers and job seekers will increase about 25 per cent from 1968 and 1980, the growth in the labor force is really a story of young men and women between 16-34 who will account for about two-thirds of the net in crease in workers between 1968 and 1980. (See chart 10.) Thus, in the 1970’s the number of young workers will increase and these workers will have more education on the average than new entrants to the labor force in previous years. With so much competition from young people who have higher levels of education, the boy or girl who does not get good prep aration for work, will find the go ing more difficult in the years ahead. Employers will be more likely to hire workers who have at least a high school diploma. Furthermore, present experience shows that the less education and training a worker has the less chance he has for a steady job, because unemployment falls heaviest on the worker who has the least education. (See chart 11.) In addition to importance in competing for a job, education is highly valued in the determina tion of income. In 1966, men who had college degrees could expect to earn more than a half-million dollars in their lifetime, or nearly 3 times the $189,000 likely to be earned by workers who had less than 8 years of schooling, nearly twice that earned by workers who had 1 to 3 years of high school, and nearly one and three-fourths as much as high school graduates. Clearly the completion of high school pays a dividend. A worker who had only 1 to 3 years of high have acquired a skill or good basic education will have a better chance at interesting work, good wages, and steady employment. Getting as much education and training as one’s abilities and cir cumstance permit therefore should be a top priority for to day’s youth. school could expect to earn only $37,000 more than workers who had an elementary school educa tion, but a high school graduate could look forward to a $94,000 lifetime income advantage over an individual completing elementary school. (See chart 12.) In summary, young people who U n em ploym e n t Rates are Highest for Y o u n g W orkers UNEMPLOYMENT RATE (MARCH 1968) 15% 18 TO 24 YRS.OLD 25 TO 54 Y R S . OLD Estimated Lifetime Earnings for Men are Higher for Those W ith M ore Education ESTIMATED EARNINGS -1966 TO DEATH IN THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED $ 0 100 200 300 I I ALL LEVELS ELEMENTARY LESS THAN 8 YEARS 8 YEARS HIGH SCHOOL 1 TO 3 YEARS 4 YEARS COLLEGE 1 TO 3 YEARS 4 YEARS 4 YEARS OR MORE 5 YEARS OR MORE 400 500 600 THE OUTLOOK FOR OCCUPATIONS PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Professional occupations have many attractions for young peo ple choosing a career. They offer opportunities for interesting and responsible work, and in many cases, lead to high earnings. How ever, professional work usually can be entered only after a long period of preparation, since a broad and thorough knowledge of a field is essential to success in the professions. More than 10.3 million persons, or about 1 out of every 7 workers, were in professional or related oc cupations in 1968. These workers accounted for about three-tenths of all white-collar employment in that year. Professional occupations are of two major types. The larger group, which includes engineer, physician, and teacher, requires specialized and theoretical knowl edge. Professions in this group re quire college graduation— and sometimes an advanced degree— or experience that provides com parable knowledge. The other group, which includes performing artists and athletes, places a high premium on skill and often on creative talent. Academic training generally is of lesser importance in this second group. Licenses are required for practice in many pro fessions — medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy, for example— with licensing authorities determining the minimum qualifications for eligibility. Professional societies set up membership standards that tend to define their respective fields. Women find many employment opportunities in the professions. Almost two-fifths of all profes sional and related jobs were filled by women in 1968; women pre dominate in several large profes sions, including teaching, nurs ing, library work, and social work. Closely related to the profes sions is a wide variety of technical occupations. People in these occu pations work with engineers, scientists, mathematicians, physi cians, and other professional per sonnel. Their job titles include those of draftsman; engineering aid; programer; and electronics, laboratory, or X-ray technician. Employment in these technical occupations usually requires a combination of basic scientific knowledge and specialized educa tion or training in some particular aspect of technology or science. Such training may be obtained in technical institutes, junior col leges, and other schools, or through equivalent on-the-job training. Many occupations in education, health, social welfare, recreation, library work, and other areas also are related to the professions. R e lated— and supportive— occupa tions in these areas include teach er assistant, medical laboratory assistant, social welfare technic ian, recreation assistant, and li brary technician. Training for many supportive jobs may be ob tained in vocational and technical schools, junior colleges, or some times on the job. The major professional and re23 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 24 lated occupations are shown in chart 13. As a group, these workers increased by more than 3.3 mil lion during the decade 1958-68. The rate of increase, almost 50 percent, was more rapid than for any other occupational group, and more than double the rate for all occupational groups combined. The outlook for professional and related occupations continues to be very favorable. Between 1968 and 1980, employment in this group is expected to increase by nearly one half. Teachin g & Engineering Are The Larg est Professional O ccu p atio ns 0 Employment In Selected Professional and Technical Occupations 200 TEACHING ELEMENTARY SECONDARY COLLEGE (FULL TIME) SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL ENGINEERS TECHNICIANS SCIENTISTS HEALTH REGISTERED NURSES PRACTICAL NURSES PHYSICIANS PHARMACISTS DENTISTS OTHER ACCOUNTANTS CLERGYMEN LAWYERS THOUSANDS OF WORKERS, 1968 400 600 800 1000 1200 The continuing very rapid growth in the professional worker group is the result of develop ments such as expansion in re search and development activi ties; improvements in standards of living, medical care, and educa tion; and the growing concentra tion of the population in metro politan areas— all of which stimu late requirements for highly edu cated workers. A unique set of factors, however, determines growth in any one occupation. T o illustrate, birth rates, school at tendance rates, and classroom size are the primary factors in the de mand for teachers, whereas pri mary factors underlying engineer ing demand include the level of research and development activi ties and the complexity of indus trial processes. In addition, the nature and impact of technologi cal advances on employment re quirements vary from profession to profession. Technology in edu cation, such as programmed learn ing and instructional television, is expected to affect the nature of teaching rather than to exert a strong influence on the level of teacher requirements. In contrast, technological advances in the en gineering field are expected to in crease requirements for engineers and limit to some extent require ments for the lesser skilled among the draftsmen. Although different rates of growth are expected among individual professional oc cupations because of the varying influence of factors underlying growth, the general tendency will be for a moderate to very rapid growth of these occupations. Naturally scientists are expect ed to be among the rapidly ex panding professions through the 1970’s. Chemists, for example, will be required in increasing numbers for research and devel opment and for the production of products such as plastics, man made fibers, drugs, and high en- PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ergy and nuclear fuels for missiles and rockets. Demands for phy sicists also will grow rapidly as more are required to perform highly complex research and de velopment work and to satisfy the increasing demand for physicists on college faculties because of the growing importance of physics in engineering and other science curriculums. Requirements for mathematicians are expected to increase markedly, stimulated by the application of systems analy sis and computers to a wide range of endeavors and by the use of mathematics in research in fields as diverse as economics and biol ogy. Demands for engineers will rise very rapidly in response to de fense and space programs, indus trial expansion, and a variety of programs that include urban re newal, transportation, and envir onmental protection. Most types of health workers also are expected to increase rap idly, due to population growth, rising standards of health care, in creasing emphasis on preventive medicine and rehabilitation, new drugs and techniques, and wider participation in private health in surance plans and in government programs such as Medicare and Medicaid. In contrast, the em ployment effect of rising stand ards in education will be offset partially as declining birth rates begin to affect elementary and secondary school enrollments significantly. However, employ ment requirements in certain areas of education, such as teach ers trained in instructing physi cally and mentally handicapped and disadvantaged students, are expected to rise. Rapidly increas ing college enrollments probably will require large increases in col lege and university teaching staff. Social scientists are expected to grow rapidly as the solution to social problems is sought increas ingly through economics, sociol 25 ogy, psychology, and other social sciences. College trained manage ment personnel, such as account ants, also will be required in larger numbers to cope with the growth in the size and number of firms and their increasing com plexity. Technicians and support per sonnel in many fields also will in crease rapidly with growing em phasis on improving the utiliza tion of professional workers by relieving them of tasks that can be performed by less highly train ed personnel. Educational Trends Professional occupations ac counted for about two-thirds of all workers having a college edu cation in 1968. The proportion of all professional workers having a degree has been increasing. In ad dition to the many professions for which a college education long has been an entry requirement, the demand for graduates at the en try level in other professional, ad ministrative, and related occupa tions is growing. College gradu- ates are filling many positions that formerly were held by em ployees who qualified through their experience and personal characteristics rather than by academic studies. Graduates also are working in many professional jobs that did not exist a few decades ago. Emphasis on a college educa tion will be reinforced in the years ahead as the growing complexity of our society constantly in creases the amount of specialized knowledge required for effective performance in many professions. Finally, a college education is be coming necessary for an increas ing proportion of jobs, and in many professions the amount of education needed is increasing. A great increase in the number of college graduates, which is the chief source of professionally trained workers, has accompanied the growth in the professional and related occupations. As a percent of all persons 22 years of age, the proportion of young people com pleting college rose from 17 per cent in 1958 to more than 20 per cent in 1968, as shown on the inset in chart 15. G ra d u a te s A s A Percent O f A ll Persons 22 Y e a rs O f A g e N u m b e r O f B achelor’s A n d 1st Professional D egrees Earned 200 THOUSANDS OF STUDENTS 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 0% 10% _ H _ 20 % i l ■ H I ■h h j ■ _____ 3 □ _______ 1 PROJECTED SOURCE: U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE, OFFICE OF EDUCATION 1 26 The rapid increase in the pro portion of young people graduat ing from college reflects a num ber of basic social trends. Family incomes are higher, enabling more young people to postpone going to work and to meet the costs of education. More families want a college education for their chil dren. Scholarships and loans are available for more students; parttime work opportunities also are available. Since these factors probably will continue to be influential in the fu ture, the proportion of young peo ple who graduate from college is expected to go on increasing for many years. The college-age population also is growing. The number of people age 18 to 21 is expected to increase by nearly 2.7 million between 1968 and 1980. These factors, considered togeth er, indicate a great increase in col lege graduations, assuming that the Nation’s colleges and univer sities build the classrooms, labor atories, dormitories, and other facilities and hire the faculty needed to provide for the greatly increased number of students. Projections prepared by the U.S. Office of Education indicate an increase from about 685,000 bachelor’s degrees granted in 1968 to over one million in 1980. The number of students in gradu ate school also has risen very rap idly during the last few decades, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and probably will continue to mount through the 1970’s. A mas ter’s degree usually is earned through 1 or 2 years of study be yond the bachelor’s degree. The Ph. D. degree usually requires 3 years or more beyond the bach elor’s degree. As a rule, graduate study is concentrated in the maj or subject field of the student’s interest, whereas undergraduate study is broader in content. Chart 16 shows the vast in crease in graduate degrees award ed during the past 10 years. Mas ter’s degrees rose from about 66,- 000 in 1958 to almost 150,000 in 1968 and are expected to ap proach 300,000 in 1980, if past trends continue. The number of doctorates awarded increased from about 9,000 in 1958 to about 22.000 in 1968, and may reach 48.000 by 1980. Overall analysis of the supply and demand for professional per sonnel indicates that the outlook for these highly trained workers continues to be excellent. Tech nicians and supportive personnel generally will have very favorable opportunities. B U S I N E S S A D M IN IS T R A T IO N A N D R E L A T E D P R O F E S S IO N S Many professional workers play a major role in administering bus inesses and a wide variety of other organizations, both private and governmental. These workers generally need a college degree to qualify for jobs in their respective fields. Though their disciplines are oriented toward business management, they perform func tions which are highly specialized and varied. Whether their organi zations are small or large, employ ing only a few people or many thousands, the decisions they make and their effectiveness in implementing these decisions contribute greatly to the success or failure of the enterprise. This chapter describes a few selected professional occupations that are of vital importance to the Nation’s businesses— ac countants, advertising workers, Accountant reviews financial report. marketing research workers, per sonnel workers, and public rela tions workers. Workers engaged primarily in managerial duties are covered in the section on Managerial Occupations found elsewhere in the Handbook. ACCOUNTANTS (D.O.T. 160.188) N ature of the W ork Accountants compile and ana lyze business records and prepare financial reports, such as profit and loss statements, balance sheets, cost studies, and tax re ports. The major fields of employ ment are public, management, and government accounting. Pub lic accountants are independent practitioners who work on a fee basis for business enterprises or for individuals wishing to use their services or as a member or employee of an accountancy firm. Management accountants, often referred to as industrial or private accountants, handle the financial records of the particular firm for which they work on a salary basis. Government accountants work on the financial records of govern ment agencies and often audit the records of private business organi zations and individuals whose dealings are subject to govern ment regulations. Accountants in any field of em ployment may specialize in such areas as auditing, taxes, cost ac counting, budgeting and control, information processing, or sys tems and procedures. Probably 100 or more specialties now exist in the accounting field. Public accountants are likely to special ize in auditing— that is, in review ing financial records and reports and giving opinions as to their reliability. They also advise clients on tax matters and other financial and accounting prob lems. Most management account27 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 28 ants are involved in some aspects of providing management with information for decision-making. Sometimes they specialize in taxes, budgeting or internal aud iting— that is, examining and ap praising financial systems and management control procedures in their company. Many account ants in the Federal Government are employed as Internal Revenue agents, investigators, and bank examiners, as well as in regular accounting positions. Places of Em ploym ent More than 500,000 accountants were employed in 1968, of whom over 100,000 were certified public accountants. Accounting is one of the largest fields of professional employment for men. About 2 percent of the CPA’s and less than 20 percent of all account ants are women. Nearly three-fifths of all ac countants do management ac counting work for the business and industrial firms that employ them. An additional one-fifth are engaged in public accounting as proprietors, partners, or em ployees of independent account ing firms. Over 10 percent work for Federal, State and local gov ernment agencies. A small num ber teach in colleges and universi ties. Accountants are employed wherever business, industrial, or governmental organizations are located. The majority, however, work in large metropolitan cen ters where there is a particularly heavy concentration of public ac counting firms and central offices of large business organizations. Train in g , O th er Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Training in accounting can be obtained in universities, 4-year colleges, junior colleges, account ing and private business schools, and correspondence schools. Graduates of all these institutions are included in the ranks of suc cessful accountants; however, a bachelor’s degree with a major in accounting or a closely related field is increasingly an asset, and for better positions it may be re quired. Candidates having a mas ter’s degree in accounting, as well as college training in other busi ness and liberal arts subjects, are preferred by many firms. Previous work experience also can be of great value in qualifying for em ployment. A number of colleges offer students an opportunity to get such experience through in ternship programs conducted in cooperation with public account ing or business firms. For begin ning accounting positions, the Federal Government requires 4 years of college training (includ ing 24 semester hours in account ing) or an equivalent combina tion of education and experience. Most universities require the master’s degree or the doctorate with the Certified Public Ac countancy Certificate for teach ing positions. All States require that anyone practicing in the State as a “ cer tified public accountant” must hold a certificate issued by the State board of accountancy. The CPA examination, administered by the American Institute of Cer tified Public Accountants, is used by all states to establish certifi cation. In 1968, half the States had laws that require CPA can didates to be college graduates. In recent years, nearly 9 out of 10 successful CPA candidates have been college graduates, and a majority of the remainder have had at least 1 year of college training. Young people interested in an accounting career should be aware that recent reports by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants indicate that in the near future, some States may require CPA candidates to have a graduate degree. Before the CPA certificate is issued, at least 2 years of public accounting experience is required by nearly all States. Considerably more than half the States restrict the title “ pub lic accountant” to those who are licensed or registered. Require ments for licensing and registra tion vary considerably from one State to another. Information on these requirements may be ob tained directly from individual State boards of accountancy, or from the National Society of Pub lic Accountants. Inexperienced accountants us ually begin with fairly routine work. Junior public accountants may be assigned to detailed work such as verifying cash balances or inspecting vouchers. They piay advance to semisenior positions in 1 or 2 years and to senior posi tions within another 1 or 2 years. In the larger firms, those success ful in dealing with top industry executives often become supervis ors, managers, or partners, or transfer to executive positions in private accounting. Some become independent practitioners. Begin ners in management accounting may start as ledger accountants, junior internal auditors, or as trainees for technical accounting positions. They may rise to chief plant accountant, chief cost ac countant, budget director, senior internal auditor, or manager of internal auditing, depending on their specialty. Some become con trollers, treasurers, financial vicepresidents, or corporation presi dents. In the Federal Govern ment, beginners are hired as trainees and usually are promot ed in a year or so. In colleges and universities, those having mini mum training and experience may receive the rank of instructor BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS without tenure; advancement and permanent faculty status are de pendent upon further education. Accountants who want to get to the top in their profession usually find it necessary to continue their study of accountancy and related problems— even though they al ready may have obtained college degrees or CPA certificates. Even experienced accountants may spend many hours in study and research in order to keep abreast of legal and business develop ments that affect their work. More and more accountants are studying computer operation, programing, mathematics, and quantitative methods in order to adapt accounting procedures to new methods of processing busi ness data. Although advancement may be rapid for capable account ants, those having inadequate academic preparation are likely to be assigned to routine jobs and find themselves handicapped in obtaining promotions. Em ploym ent Outlook Employment opportunities for accountants are expected to be excellent through the 1970’s. De mand for college-trained account ants will be stronger than the de mand for people without this aca demic background because of the growing complexity of business accounting requirements. How ever, graduates of business and other schools which offer thor ough training in accounting also should have good job prospects. In addition, the trend toward specialization is creating excellent opportunities for accountants trained in a specific phase of ac counting. In addition to openings resulting from employment growth several thousand account ants will be needed annually dur ing this period to replace those who retire, die, or leave the oc cupation for other reasons. Accounting employment is ex pected to expand rapidly in the 1970’s because of such factors as the greater use of accounting in formation in business manage ment; complex and changing tax systems; the growth in size and number of business corporations required to provide financial re ports to stockholders; and the in creasing use of accounting serv ices by small business organiza tions. The computer is having a major effect on the accounting profes sion. Electronic data processing systems are replacing manual preparation of accounting records and financial statements. As a re sult, the need for junior account ants at the lower level may be reduced or eliminated. On the other hand, computers can proc ess vast quantities of routine data which will require the employ ment of additional accountants so that these data can be analyzed. Also, the computer is expected to cause radical changes in manage ment information systems and decisionmaking processes in large companies. Additional highlytrained accountants will be re quired to prepare, administer and analyze the information made available by these systems. Earnings and W orking Conditions Starting salaries for bachelor’s degree holders majoring in ac counting were about $8,300 a year in 1968, according to a private survey covering accounting posi tions. Information provided by the American Institute of Certi fied Public Accountants indicates that salaries vary by educational background and size and location of firm. Beginning accountants in small firms earned between $6,000 and $7,000 a year; those in 29 medium size firms earned between $7,000 and $8,000; and in large firms, beginners received between $8,000 and $10,000 a year. Accountants having 6 months to 1 year of experience generally receive salaries $500 to $1,000 higher than those having no ex perience. In 1968, accountants having 1 to 3 years of experience earned between $8,500 and $10,000 in small firms, and from $12,000 to $16,000 in medium and large firms. Salary differentials by size of firm narrowed as the level of responsibility increased. The average salary for a senior accountant in a small firm was about $14,000, whereas a senior accountant in a large firm earned about $16,000 a year. Annual sal aries of accounting operations managers of medium and large firms ranged from $15,000 to $30,000 and from $16,000 to $35,000, respectively. Salaries are generally 10 per cent higher for those holding a graduate degree or a CPA certifi cate. Earnings also are higher for those who are required to travel a great deal. w The average income of a selfemployed CPA acting as a sole practitioner was $13,000 a year in 1967. The average income earned by partners in CPA firms having 2 to 15 partners and a pro fessional staff was $18,500 a year. Those in firms having 16 to 35 partners and a professional staff earned incomes that averaged about $28,000 a year. In the Federal Civil Service the entrance salary for junior ac countants and auditors was $6,690 in late 1968. Some candi dates having superior academic records could qualify for a start ing salary of $7,680. Many ex perienced accountants in the Fed eral Government earned more than $12,000 a year. Those having administrative responsibilities earned more. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 30 Public accountants are likely to work especially long hours under heavy pressure during the tax sea son. They do most of their work in their client’s offices, and some times do considerable traveling to serve distant clients. A few man agement and government ac countants also do much traveling and work irregular hours, but the majority remain in one office and work between 35 and 40 hours a week, under the same general conditions as their fellow office workers. Sources of A d ditional Inform ation Information; particularly on CPA’s and on the aptitude and achievement tests now given in many high schools and colleges and by many public accounting firms, may be obtained from: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 666 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. Further information on special ized fields of accounting may be obtained from: National Association of Account ants, 505 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. National Society of Public Ac countants, 1717 Pennsylvania Avenue N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006. Financial Executives Institute, 50 West 44th St., New York, N.Y. 10036. The Institute of Internal Audi tors, Inc., 170 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10038. Information describing ac counting as a career may be ob tained free from: Accounting Careers Council, Na tional Distribution Center, P.O. Box 650, Radio City Station, New York, N.Y. 10019. ADVERTISING WORKERS (D.O.T. 050.088; 132.088; 141.081 and .168; and 164.068 through .168) N atu re of th e W ork Through advertisements pub lished in newspapers and maga zines, broadcast on the radio, shown on television, displayed on billboards, sent through the mail, or even written in smoke in the sky, businessmen try to reach po tential customers and persuade them to buy their products or services. Advertising workers plan and prepare these advertisements and get them before the public. They include executives responsi ble for planning and overall sup ervision, copywriters who write the text, artists who prepare the illustrations, layout specialists who put copy and illustrations in to the most attractive arrange ment possible, administrative and technical workers who are respon sible for the satisfactory repro duction of the “ ads,” and sales men who sell advertising space in publications or time on radio and television programs. In a very small advertising organization, one person may do all these things. Large organizations em ploy specialists for research, copywriting, and layout work. They sometimes have staff members who specialize in writing copy for particular kinds of products or for one type of advertising media, such as radio, popular magazines, or direct mail. The following are the specialized occupations most commonly found in advertising work. Advertising managers direct a company’s advertising program. They work mostly on policy ques tions— for example, the type of advertising, the size of the adver tising budget, and the agency to be employed. They then work with the agency in planning and carrying through the program. They also may supervise the prep aration of special sales brochures, display cards, and other promo tional materials. The advertising manager of a newspaper, radio station, or other advertising medium is concerned chiefly with selling advertising time or space; his functions are similar to those of the sales man ager in other businesses. Account executives employed in advertising agencies handle relations between the agency and its clients. An account executive studies the client’s sales and adver tising problems, develops a plan to meet the client’s needs, and seeks his approval of the proposed program. Account executives must be able to sell ideas and maintain good relations with clients. They must know how to write copy and use artwork, even though copywriters and artists usually carry out their ideas and suggestions. Some advertising agencies have account supervisors who oversee the work of the account ex ecutives. In others, account ex ecutives are responsible directly to agency heads. Advertising copywriters create the headlines, slogans, and text that attract buyers. They collect information about products and the people who might use them. They use p s y c h o l o g y and writing techniques to prepare copy especially suited for readers or listeners and for the type of advertising medium to be used. Copywriters may specialize in copy that appeals to certain groups— housewives, business men, scientists, engineers— or even in copy that deals with items such as packaged goods or indus trial products. In advertising agencies, copywriters work closely with account executives, although they may be under the super vision of a copy chief. BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS 31 Artists and layout men are part of a key creative group in adver tising work. They work closely with advertising managers, copy writers, and other advertising per sonnel in planning and creating visual effects in advertisements. More information about this group appears in the separate statements on Commercial Artists and on Photographers. Places of Em ploym ent Account executive reviews advertising copy with client’s representatives. Advertisers and advertising agencies employ media directors (or space buyers and time buyers) to determine where and when ad vertising should be carried to reach the largest group of pro spective buyers at the least cost. They must have a vast amount of information about the cost of ad vertising in all media and the rela tive size and characteristics of the reading, viewing, or listening audience which can be reached in various parts of the country by specific publications, broadcast ing stations, and other media. Production managers and their assistants arrange to have the final copy and artwork converted into printed form. They deal with printing, engraving, filming, re cording and other firms involved in the reproduction of advertise ments. The production manager must have a thorough knowledge of various printing processes, typography, photography, paper, inks, and related technical mate rials and processes. Research directors and their as sistants assemble and analyze in formation needed for effective ad vertising programs. They study the possible uses of the product, its advantages and disadvantages compared with competing prod ucts, and the best ways of reach ing potential purchasers. Such workers may make special sur veys of the buying habits and mo tives of customers, or may try out sample advertisements to find the most convincing selling theme or most efficient media for carrying the advertising message. The re search director is an important executive in advertising organiza tions. More information on this occupation is contained in the statement on Marketing Research Workers. In 1968, about 140,000 men and women were employed in positions requiring considerable knowledge of advertising. More than one-third of these workers are employed in advertising agen cies, and more than half of the agency workers are employed in the New York City and Chicago metropolitan areas. However, there are many independent agen cies in other cities, and many leading agencies operate branch offices outside the major centers. Advertising workers not em ployed in advertising agencies work for manufacturing compan ies, stores, and other organiza tions having products or services to sell; for advertising media, such as newspapers and magazines; and for printers, engravers, art studios, product and package de signers, and others who provide services to advertisers and adver tising agencies. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Most employers, in hiring ad vertising trainees, prefer college graduates having liberal arts training or majors in advertising, marketing, journalism, or busi ness administration. However, there is no typical educational background for success in adver tising. In 1968, an estimated one- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 32 fourth of all advertising workers did not have a college degree. Some successful advertising peo ple have started in such varied occupations as engineer, teacher, chemist, artist, or salesman. Most advertising jobs require a flair for language, both spoken and written. Since every assign ment requires individual hand ling, a liking for problem-solving also is very important. Advertis ing personnel should have a great interest in people and things to help them sell their ideas to their superiors, to advertisers, and to the public. They must be able to accept criticism and to gain im portant points with tact. Young people planning to enter the advertising field should get some experience in copywriting or related work with their school publications and, if possible, through summer jobs connected with marketing research services. Some large advertising organiza tions recruit outstanding college graduates and train them through programs which cover all aspects of advertising work. Most begin ners, however, have to locate their own jobs by applying directly to possible employers. Young men sometimes begin as mail clerks or as messengers and runners who pick up and deliver messages and proofs for departments and agency clients. Some start as as sistants in research or production work or as space or time buyers. A few begin as junior copywrit ers. In most advertising organiza tions, women begin as secretaries or, if they have the required edu cation, as research assistants. One of the best avenues of entrance to advertising work for women is through advertising departments in retail stores. Employees having initiative, drive, and talent may progress from beginning jobs to creative, research, or managerial work. Management positions require ex perience in all phases of the ad vertising business including some work with advertising agencies, media, and advertisers. Copywriters and account exe cutives can usually look forward to rapid advancement if they demonstrate exceptional ability in dealing with clients, since the success of an advertising organiza tion depends upon satisfied adver tisers. Many of these workers pre fer to remain in their own special ties and for them advancement is to more responsible work at in creased pay. Some topflight copy writers and account executives establish their own agencies. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of advertising workers is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Most new jobs will be created in adver tising agencies as more and more advertisers turn their work over to agencies. Most openings— sev eral thousand each year— will re sult from the need to replace those who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. The many young people at tracted to advertising will face stiff competition for entry jobs in this field through the 1970’s. Op portunities should be favorable, however, for the highly qualified, especially in advertising agencies. Earnings and W orking Conditions According to the limited in formation available, starting sal aries for beginning advertising workers ranged from $6,000 to $8,000 a year in 1968. The higher starting salaries were paid most frequently in very large firms that recruit outstanding college gradu ates; the lower salaries were earn ed in stores and small advertising agencies. Salaries of experienced adver tising workers vary according to type of employer. In 1967 the av erage salary paid to advertising people employed by advertisers was $13,700 a year, whereas those employed by communications media averaged about $17,800 a year. The average annual salary of advertising workers employed by advertising agencies was about $17, 700 in 1967. In advertising agencies, work ers who had 1 to 3 years of adver tising experience generally earned from $10,000 to $14,000 a year; for those who had 5 years of ex perience, earnings were as high as $20,000 a year. Pay for excep tional individuals ranges much higher at each level of experience; some of the top people in charge of large accounts make from $50,000 to $70,000 a year. Advertising workers frequently work under great pressure. Work ing hours are sometimes irregular because publication and broad cast deadlines must be met and last minute changes are not un common. People in creative jobs often work evenings and week ends to finish important assign ments. At the same time, advertising offers a satisfying career to peo ple who enjoy variety, excitement, and a constant challenge to their creative ability, and who can meet the competition. Advertising workers have the satisfaction of seeing their work in print or hear ing it over the radio or television even though they remain un known to the public at large. Sources of A dditional Inform ation American Advertising Federation, 1225 Connecticut Ave. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Association of Advertis ing Agencies, 200 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS Association of Industrial Adver tisers, 41 East 42nd Street, New York, N.Y. 10017. A list of schools which provide training in advertising may be ob tained from: Advertising Education Publica tions, 3429 Fifty-Fifth Street, Lubbock, Texas 79413. MARKETING RESEARCH WORKERS (D.O.T. 050.088) N ature of the W ork Businessmen make decisions daily regarding the marketing of their goods and services. Market ing research workers help to in crease the fund of information up on which these basic business de cisions are made. They act as fact finders— seeking out, analyzing, and interpreting many different kinds of information. They pre pare reports and recommenda tions to help management make decisions on such widely differing problems as forecasting sales; se lecting a brand name, package, or design; choosing a new plant location; deciding whether to move goods by rail, truck, or other method; and determining the kinds of advertising likely to at tract the most business. In inves tigating these and other problems, they consider expected changes in population, income levels, and consumer credit policies, or other subjects relevant to marketing policies. Most marketing research starts with the collection of facts from published materials, from the firm’s own records, and from specialists on the subject under investigation. For example, re search workers analyzing the fluctuations in a company’s sales may first study sales records in a number of different cities to de termine periodic changes in sales volume. They may then compare these changes with changes in population, income levels, the size of the company’s sales force, and the amounts spent by the company for advertising in each city and, from these com parisons, discover the reasons for changes in the volume of sales. Other marketing research workers may study changes in the quan tity of company goods on store shelves, or make door-to-door sur veys to learn how many company products already are used in households. Marketing research is often concerned with the personal opin ions of the people who are using company products or who might use them in the future. For ex ample, a survey intended to help management decide on the design and pricing of a new line of tele vision sets may involve the use of a questionnaire to learn from a limited number of consumers the price they would be willing to pay 33 and their preferences in such things as the color and size of the set. A survey of this kind is usually conducted under the supervision of marketing research workers who specialize in research on con sumer goods— that is, merchan dise sold to the general public. In planning the survey, the market ing research worker may get help from a statistician in selecting a group (or “ sample” ) of individ uals to be interviewed, in order to be confident that the opinions ob tained from them represent those held by most potential customers. He may also consult a specialist in “ motivational research” — an expert in framing questions that will produce reliable information about the motives that lead peo ple to make the purchases they do. When the investigation gets underway, the marketing research worker may supervise a number of interviewers who call on con sumers to obtain answers to the questions. He also may direct the work of the office employees who tabulate and analyze the informa tion collected. His report sum- Marketing research worker plans location of test market. i OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 34 marizing the survey findings also may include other information that company officials need in making decisions about the new line. Marketing research surveys concerned with products used by business and industrial firms may be conducted somewhat differ ently from consumer goods sur veys. Because research on some industrial products requires inter viewers with a technical knowl edge of the product involved, the interviews are often conducted by the marketing research worker himself (or by several research workers if the survey is a particul arly extensive one). In his inter views, the worker not only tries to get opinons about the proposed product but keeps on the lookout for possible new ways of adapting it to industrial needs. He must, therefore, be a specialist both in marketing research and in the in dustrial uses of the product in volved. Places of Em ploym ent More than 20,000 marketing research workers were estimated to be employed full time in 1968. This number included research assistants and others in junior positions, as well as research sup ervisors and directors. The ma jority of these workers were men; positions held by women were most frequently at the junior pro fessional levels. In addition to these marketing research workers, a limited num ber of other professional em ployees (statisticians, economists, psychologists, and sociologists) and several thousand clerical workers (clerks who code and tab ulate survey returns, typists, and others) were employed full time in this field. Thousands of addi tional workers, many of them women, were employed on a part time or temporary basis as survey interviewers. Among the principal employers of marketing research workers are manufacturing companies and in dependent advertising and mar keting research organizations which do this kind of work for clients on a contract basis. Mar keting research workers also are employed by very large stores, radio and television firms, and newspapers; others work for uni versity research centers, govern ment agencies, and other organi zations which provide informa tion for businessmen. Marketing research organizations range in size from one-man enterprises to large firms having a hundred em ployees or more. The largest number of market ing research workers are in New York City, where many major ad vertising and independent mar keting research organizations are located, and where many large manufacturers have their central offices. The second largest con centration is in Chicago. How ever, marketing research workers are employed in many other cities — wherever there are central of fices of large manufacturing and sales organizations. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A bachelor’s degree is usually required to enter trainee positions in marketing research. A master’s degree in business administration is becoming increasingly desir able, especially for advancement to higher level positions. Many people qualify for positions in marketing research through ex perience gained in other kinds of research jobs or in work related to the field of marketing. Univer sity teachers of marketing re search or statistics sometimes are sought by employers to head new marketing research departments. Among the college courses con sidered valuable as preparation for work in marketing research are marketing, statistics, English composition, speech, psychology, and economics. Candidates for some marketing research posi tions need specialized training in engineering or other technical subjects, or a substantial amount of sales experience and a thorough knowledge of the company’s prod ucts. A knowledge of electronic data-processing procedures is be coming important because of the growing use of electronic comput ers in sales forecasting, distribu tion, cost analysis, and other aspects of marketing research. Graduate training may be neces sary for some kinds of work— for example, motivational research or sampling and other statistical work connected with large-scale surveys. Trainees in marketing research usually start as research asistants or junior analysts. At first, they are likely to do considerable cleri cal work, such as copying inform ation from published sources, edit ing and coding questionnaires, and tabulating results of ques tionnaires returned in surveys. They also learn how to conduct interviews and how to write re ports on survey findings. After gaining experience, as sistants and junior analysts may advance to higher level positions and be responsible for specific marketing research projects, or to supervisory positions. An excep tionally able individual may eventually become marketing re search director or vice president in charge of marketing and sales. Marketing research workers must have exceptional ability in recognizing and defining prob lems, and imagination and in genuity in applying marketing re search techniques to their solu tion. Above all, this work calls for BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS the ability to analyze information and to write reports which will convince management of the significance of the information. E m ploym ent O utlook College graduates trained in marketing research methods and statistics are likely to find very good job opportunities in this growing occupation through the 1970’s. The growing complexity of marketing research techniques also has led to expanded oppor tunities for people trained in psy chology, economics, and related fields. Advanced degrees are be coming increasingly important for employment in marketing re search, and as a result, opportuni ties for holders of Masters and PhD degrees will be excellent. The demand for marketing re search services is expected to in crease very rapidly through the 1970’s. It is expected that exist ing marketing research organiza tions will expand and that many new marketing research depart ments and new independent re search firms will be set up. Busi ness managers will find it increas ingly important to obtain the best information possible for apprais ing marketing situations and planning marketing policies. Fur thermore, as marketing research techniques improve and more statistical data accumulate, com pany officials are likely to turn to marketing research workers for information and advice with in creasing frequency. In addition to growth needs, many openings will occur each year as persons re tire, die or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings and W orking Conditions Starting salaries for market re search trainees averaged about $7,300 a year in 1968 according to the limited data available. Per sons having masters degrees in re lated fields usually started at $8,400 to $10,800 a year. Earnings were substantially higher for experienced marketing research workers who attained positions with considerable re sponsibility. In 1968, earnings of senior analysts generally ranged between $12,000 and $15,000 a year. Marketing research direc tors’ average salaries were more than $16,000 annually; and vicepresidents in charge of marketing received salaries well over $20,000 a year. A private survey indicates fur ther that of the four management functions (marketing, finance, manufacturing, and research), executives in marketing tend to be the highest paid. Marketing research workers usually work in modern, centrally located offices. Some, especially those employed by independent research firms, do a considerable amount of traveling in conection with their work. Also, they may frequently work under pressure and for long hours to meet dead lines. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information about specialized types of marketing research is contained in a report entitled “ Selecting Marketing Research Services” which may be obtained from: Small Business Administration, Washington, D.C. 20416. Additional information on mar keting research may be obtained from: American Marketing Association, 230 North Michigan Ave., Chi cago, 1 1 60601. 1. 35 PERSONNEL WORKERS (D.O.T. 166.088 through .268 and 169.118 and .168) N ature of the W ork Attracting and keeping the best employees available, and match ing them to jobs they can do ef fectively are important for the successful operation of business and government ( P e r s o n n e l ) workers are responsible for help ing their employers attain these objectives. They develop recruit ing and hiring procedures and in terview job applicants, selecting or recommending the ones they consider best qualified for the openings to be filled. In addition, personnel workers counsel em ployees, deal with disciplinary problems, classify jobs, plan wage and salary scales, develop safety programs, and conduct research in personnel methods. Other im portant aspects of their work in volves employee management re lations, employee training, and the administration of employee benefit plans. Some personnel jobs require only limited contact with people; others involve frequent contact with employees, union represen tatives, job applicants, and other people in and outside the com pany. Business organizations with large personnel departments em ploy personnel workers at varying levels of responsibility. Usually the department is headed by a director who formulates personnel policy, advises other company of ficials on personnel matters, and administers his department. Within the department, super visors and various specialists— in wage administration, training, safety, job classification, and other aspects of the personnel program— may be responsible for 36 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK trial relations, and similar sub jects. Most personnel workers are em ployed in large cities and in the highly industrialized sections of the country. Almost three-fourths of all personnel workers are men. Many women, however, occupy personnel positions in organiza tions that employ large numbers of women workers— for example, in department stores, telephone companies, insurance companies, banks, and government agencies. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Interviewing job applicants is an important responsibility in personnel work. the work of staff assistants and clerical employees. Small business organizations employ relatively few personnel workers. Sometimes one person may be responsible for all the personnel activities as well as other types of duties. Personnel workers in Federal, State, and local government agen cies do much the same kind of work as those employed in large business firms. Government per sonnel workers however, spend considerably more time in activi ties related to classifying jobs, and in devising, administering, and scoring the competitive ex aminations given to job appli cants. Places of Em ploym ent Personnel workers are employ ed in nearly all kinds of business enterprises and government agen cies. The total number employed in 1968 was estimated to be about 110,000. Well over half of all per sonnel workers were employed by private firms. Large numbers also were employed by Federal, State, and local government agencies. A small group of personnel workers were in business for themselves, often as management consultants or employee management rela tions experts. In addition, colleges and universities employed some professionally trained personnel workers as teachers of courses in personnel administration, indus A college education is becoming increasingly important for en trance into personnel work. Some employers hire new graduates for junior positions, and then provide training programs to acquaint them with their operations, poli cies, and problems. Other employers prefer to fill their personnel positions by trans ferring people who already have firsthand knowledge of opera tions. A large number of the peo ple now in personnel work who are not college graduates entered the field in this way. Many employers in private in dustry prefer college graduates who have majored in personnel administration; others prefer graduates who have a general business administration back ground. Still other employers con sider a liberal arts education the most desirable preparation for personnel work. Young people in terested in personnel work in gov ernment are advised to major in public administration, political science, or personnel administra tion; however, those having other college majors also are eligible for personnel positions in govern ment. For some positions, more spec ialized training may be necessary. BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS Jobs involving testing or em ployee counseling often require a bachelor’s degree with a major in psychology and sometimes a grad uate degree in this field. An en gineering degree may be desirable for work dealing with time studies or safety standards, and a degree with a major in industrial rela tions may be helpful for work in volving employee management re lations. A background in account ing may be useful for positions concerned with wages or pension and other employee benefit plans. After the initial period of orien tation, through formal or on-thejob training programs, college graduates may progress to classi fying jobs, interviewing appli cants, or handling other personnel functions. After they have gained experience, those with exception al ability may be promoted to executive positions, such as per sonnel director. Personnel work ers sometimes advance by trans ferring to other employers having larger personnel programs or from a middle-rank position in a big organization to the top job in a smaller one. Personal qualities regarded as important for success in personnel work include the ability to speak and write effectively and a betterthan-average aptitude for work ing with people of all levels of in telligence and experience. In ad dition, the prospective personnel worker should be the kind of per son who can see the employee’s point of view as well as the em ployer’s, and should be able to give advice in the best interests of both. A liking for detail, a high degree of persuasiveness, and a pleasing personality also are im portant. Em ploym ent O utlook College graduates who enter personnel work are expected to find many opportunities through 37 the 1970’s. Although employment prospects will probably be best for college graduates who have spec ialized training in personnel ad ministration, positions will be available also for people having degrees in other fields. Opportuni ties for young people to advance to personnel positions from pro duction, clerical, or subprofes sional jobs will be limited. Employment in personnel work is expected to expand very rapid ly as the Nation’s employment rises. More personnel workers will be needed to carry on recruiting, interviewing, and related activi ties. Also, many employers are recognizing the importance of good employee relations, and are depending more heavily on the services of trained personnel workers to achieve this. Employment in some special ized areas of personnel work will rise faster than others. More peo ple will probably be engaged in psychological testing; the need for workers to handle work relat ed problems will probably con tinue to increase; and the growth of employee services, safety pro grams, other benefit plans, and personnel research also is likely to continue. demic records or master’s degrees began at $6,981; a few master’s degree holders who ranked high in their respective classes received $8,462 a year. Federal Govern ment personnel workers with higher levels of administrative re sponsibility and several years of experience in the field were paid more than $14,000; some in charge of personnel for major de partments of the Federal Govern ment earned about $20,000 a year. Employees in personnel offices generally work 35 to 40 hours a week. During a period of intensive recruitment or emergency, they may work much longer. As a rule, personnel workers are paid for holidays and vacations, and share in the same retirement plans and other employee benefits available to all professional employees in the organizations where they work. Earnings and W orking Conditions Information about government careers in personnel work may be obtained from: A national survey indicated that the average annual salary of trainees employed as job analysts in private industry was about $7,600 in early 1968; experienced job analysts averaged about $12,000; directors of personnel generally earned between $10,000 and $19,200; and some top per sonnel and industrial relations executives in very large corpora tions earned considerably more. In the Federal Government, in experienced graduates having bachelor’s degrees started at $5,732 a year in late 1968; those having exceptionally good aca Sources of Additional In fo rm atio n General information on person nel work as a career may be ob tained by writing to: American Society for Personnel Administration, 52 East Bridge St., Berea, Ohio 44017. Public Personnel Association, 1313 East 60th St., Chicago, 11 . 1 60637. PUBLIC RELATIONS WORKERS (D.O.T. 165.068) N ature of the W ork All organizations— both profit and nonprofit— want to present a OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 38 favorable image of themselves to the public. By keeping themselves informed about the attitudes and opinions of customers, employees, and other groups, public relations workers help an employer build and maintain such a public image. Public relations workers pro vide information about an em ployer’s business to newspapers and magazines, radio and tele vision, and other channels of com munication. They plan the kind of publicity that will be most effec tive, contact the people who may be interested in using it, and pre pare and assemble the necessary material. Many items in the daily papers; human interest stories in popular magazines; and pamph lets giving information about a company, its product, and job op portunities with it, have their start at public relations workers’ desks. These workers also may ar range speaking engagements for company officials and write the speeches they deliver. Often, they participate in community affairs, serving as an employer’s represen tative during safety campaigns and other community projects. In addition, showing a film at a school assembly, staging a beauty contest, calling a press conference, and planning a convention may be all part of a public relations worker’s job. Public relations workers tailor their programs to an employer’s particular needs. In a business firm, the public relations worker usually is concerned with his em ployer’s relationships with em ployees, stockholders, government agencies, civic organizations, and other community groups. Public relations staffs in large firms sometimes number 200 or more. Responsibility for develop ing overall plans and policies may be shared between a company vice president or another top executive who is responsible for final decisions, and the director of Public relations worker checks materials for press release. the public relations department. In addition to writers and re search workers, public relations departments employ specialists to do work such as preparing mater ial for the differerent media or writing reports sent to stockhold ers. Public relations workers who handle publicity for an individual or who are in charge of a public relations program for a university, fraternal organization, or small business firm may handle all aspects of the work. They make their own contacts with outsiders, do the necessary planning and re search, prepare material for pub lication, and perform other duties. Such public relations workers may combine public relations du ties with advertising or othermanagerial work, and they may be top-level officials or occupy posi tions of less importance. Places of Em ploym ent In 1968, about 100,000 public relation workers were employed, according to the limited data available. Over one-fourth were women. In recent years, an in creasing number of women have entered public relations work. The majority of public relations workers are employed by manu facturing firms, stores, public utilities, trade and professional associations, and labor unions. Others are employed by consult ing firms which provide public re lations services to clients on a fee basis. Employment in public relations work tends to be concentrated in big cities where press services and other communications facilities are readily available, and where large corporations and trade, pro fessional, and other associations have their headquarters. More than half of the personnel and consulting firms in the United States are in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago and Washing ton, D.C. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Although college education generally is regarded as the best preparation for public relations work, employers differ in the spe cific type of college background they require of applicants. Some seek graduates who have majors in English, journalism, or public relations; others prefer candidates with a background in science or some other field related to the firm’s business activities. College graduates who have secretarial skills also are desired by some employers, especially in small firms, because they can combine secretarial duties with public relations work. After a few years’ experience, these workers may advance to a full-time public relations position. In 1968, six colleges offered a bachelor’s degree in public rela- BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS tions, and six offered the master’s degree. In addition, about 200 col leges offered at least one course in public relations. Among the college subjects con sidered desirable in preparing for a career in public relations are journalism, economics and other social sciences, business adminis tration, psychology, public speak ing, literature, and physical sciences. Extracurricular activi ties which may provide students with some valuable experience in clude writing or other work con nected with school publications, participation in student govern ment activities, and part-time or summer employment in selling, public relations or a related field of work such as broadcasting. The personal qualifications usually considered important for work in this field include creativity, init iative, drive and the ability to ex press thoughts clearly and simply. Fresh ideas are so important to effective public relations work that some experts in this field spend all of their time providing ideas and planning programs but take no active part in carrying out the programs. In selecting new employees, many employers pre fer people who have had some previous work experience, par ticularly in journalism or a relat ed field. Some companies— particularly those with large public relations programs— have formal training programs for new employees. In other companies, new employees learn on the job by working under the guidance of experienced staff members. Beginners often main tain files of material about the company and its activities, scan newspapers and magazines for ap propriate articles to clip, and do the research needed to assemble information for speeches and pamphlets. After gaining experi ence, they may be given progres sively more difficult assignments, such as writing press releases, speeches, and articles for publica tion. Promotion to supervisory and managerial positions may come as the worker demonstrates ability to handle more difficult and creative assignments. The most skilled public relations work, which involves developing the plans and maintaining the contacts which are essential to a successful public relations pro gram usually is in the hands of the director of the department and his most experienced staff members. Some experienced pub lic relations workers eventually establish their own consulting firms, and others move on to better positions with another employer. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment in this field is ex pected to expand very rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to the new jobs created as expanding organizations require more public relations specialists, other open ings will occur because of the need to replace workers who retire or leave the field for other reasons. The demand for public rela tions workers is expected to grow through the 1970’s as population increases and the general level of business activity rises. In recent years, there has been an increase in the amount of funds spent on public relations, and many or ganizations have newly developed public relations departments. This trend is expected to continue in the years ahead. 39 workers who were very well quali fied from the standpoint of edu cational background and previ ous work experience. Many pub lic relations workers who have a few years of experience earned be tween $8,000 and $12,000 a year. The salaries of experienced public relations workers generally are highest in large organizations, where public relations programs are likely to be extensive. In 1968, directors of public relations em ployed by medium-size firms gen erally earned $12,000 or more an nually, and those employed by large corporations had salaries in the $15,000 to $25,000 range, ac cording to the Public Relations Society of America. Some officials, such as vice presidents in charge of public relations, earned from $25,000 to $50,0000 a year or more. Many consulting firms em ploy fairly large staffs of experi enced public relations specialists and often pay salaries which are somewhat higher than those paid public relations workers in other business organizations. In social welfare agencies, nonprofit or ganizations, and universities, sal ary levels tend to be somewhat lower. The workweek for public rela tions workers usually is 35 to 40 hours. Irregular hours and over time often may be necesary, how ever, to prepare or deliver speeches, attend meetings and community functions, and make trips out of town. On occasion, the nature of their reular assign ments or special events require that public relations workers be on call around the clock. Earnings and W orking Conditions Sources of A dditional Inform ation Starting salaries for public re lations workers averaged about $5,500 a year in 1968, according to the limited data available. The highest starting salaries were paid by consulting firms in major cities to beginning public relations The Information Center, Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 845 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. Service Department, Public Re lations News, 127 East 80th Street, New York, N.Y. 10021. TH E C LER G Y The choice of the ministry, priesthood, or rabbinate as one’s lifework involves considerations that do not influence to the same degree the selection of a career in most other occupations. When young people decide to become clergymen, they do so primarily because of their religious faith and their desire to help others. Nevertheless, it is important for them to know as much as possible about the profession and how to prepare for it, the kind of life it offers, and its needs for personnel. They also should understand that the civic, social, and recreational activities of clergymen often are influenced, and sometimes re stricted, by the customs and atti tudes of their community. The number of clergymen need ed is broadly related to the size and geographic distribution of the Nation’s population and partici pation in organized religious groups. These factors affect the number of churches and syna gogues that are established and thus the number of pulpits to be filled. In addition to the clergy who serve congregations, many others teach in seminaries and other educational institutions, serve as missionaries, and perform various other duties. Young people considering a ca reer as a clergyman should seek the counsel of a religious leader of their faith to aid them in evaluat ing their qualifications for the profession. Besides a desire to serve the spiritual needs of oth ers and to lead them in religious activities, they need a broad back ground of knowledge and the abil ity to speak and write clearly. Emotional stability is necessary, since a clergyman must be able to help others in times of stress. Fur thermore, young people should know that clergymen are expect ed to be examples of high moral character. The amount of income clergy men receive depends, to a great ex tent on the size and financial status of the congregation they serve and usually is highest in large cities or in prosperous subur ban areas. Earnings of clergymen, as of other professional groups, usually rise with increased experi ence and responsibility. Most Protestant churches and a num ber of Jewish congregations pro vide their spiritual leaders with housing. Roman Catholic priests ordinarily live in the rectory of a parish church or are provided lodgings by the religious order to which they belong. Many clergy men receive allowances for trans portation and other expenses nec essary in their work. Clergymen receive gifts or fees for officiating at special ceremonies such as wed dings and funerals. In some cases, these gifts or fees are an impor tant source of additional income; however, they frequently are do nated to charity by the clergy men. Some churches establish a uniform fee for these services, which goes directly into the church treasury. More detailed information on the clergy in the three largest faiths in the United States— Prot estant, Roman Catholic, and Jew ish— is given in the following statements that were prepared in cooperation with leaders of these faiths. Information on the clergy in other faiths may be obtained directly from leaders of the re spective groups. Numerous other church-related occupations— those of the missionary, teacher, director of youth organizations, di rector of religious education, edi tor of religious publications, music director, church secretary, recreation leader, and many oth ers— offer interesting and satisfy ing careers. In addition, oppor tunities to work in connection with religious activities are pres ent in many other occupations. Clergymen or educational direc tors of local churches or syna gogues can provide information on the church-related occupations and other areas offering oppor tunities for religious service. PROTESTANT CLERGYMEN (D.O.T. 120.108) N ature of the W ork Protestant clergymen lead their congregations in worship services and may administer the rites of baptism, confirmation, and Holy Communion. They prepare and deliver sermons and give religious instruction to persons who are to be received into membership of the church. They also perform marriages, conduct funerals, coun sel individuals who seek guidance, visit the sick and shut-in, com fort the bereaved, and serve their church members in many other ways. Protestant ministers also may write articles for publication, give speeches, and engage in inter faith, community, civic, educa tional, and recreational activities sponsored by or related to the in terests of the church. Some clergymen teach in seminaries, colleges, and universities. The types of worship services that ministers conduct differ among Protestant denominations and also among congregations within a denomination. In some denominations, ministers follow a traditional order of worship, 41 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 42 whereas in others, they adapt the services to the needs of youth and other groups within the congrega tion. Most services include Bible reading, hymn singing, prayers, and a sermon. Bible reading by a member of the congregation and individual testimonials may con stitute a large part of the service in some denominations. Ministers serving small congre gations generally work on a per sonal basis with their parishion ers. Those serving large congrega tions usually have greater admini strative responsibilities and spend considerable time working with committees, church officers, and staff, besides performing their other duties. They may have one or more associates or assistants who share specific aspects of the ministry, such as a Minister of Education who assists in educa tional programs for different age groups. Places of E m ploym ent In 1968, about 244,000 minis ters served almost 72 million Protestants. In addition, thou sands of ordained clergymen were in other occupations closely relat ed to the parish ministry. The greatest number of clergymen are affiliated with the five largest groups of churches— Baptist, Methodist, Lutheran, Presbyter ian and Episcopal. Most minis ters serve individual congrega tions; some are engaged in mis sionary activities in the United States and in foreign countries; others serve as chaplains in the Armed Forces, in hospitals, and in other institutions. Still others teach in educational institutions, engage in other religious educa tional work, or are employed in social welfare and related agen cies. Less than 5 percent of all ministers are women; however, about 80 denominations ordain women. In some denominations, an increasing number of women who have not been ordained are serving as pastors’ assistants. All cities and most towns have one or more Protestant churches with a full-time minister. The ma jority of ministers are located in cities and towns. Many others live in less densely populated areas where each may serve two or more congregations. A larger proportion of Protestants than members of other faiths live in rural areas. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications The educational preparation re quired for entry into the Protest ant ministry has a wider range than for most professions. Some religious groups have no formal educational requirements, and others ordain persons having varying amounts and types of training in liberal arts colleges, Bible colleges, or Bible institutes. An increasingly large number of denominations, however, require a 3-year course of professional study in a theological school following college graduation. After com pletion of such a course, the de gree of bachelor or master of di vinity is awarded. One hundred of the theological institutions in the Nation in 1969 were accredited by the Ameri can Association of Theological Schools. Accredited institutions admit only students who have re ceived the bachelor’s degree or its equivalent from an approved col lege. In addition, certain charac ter and personality qualifications must be met, and endorsement by the religious group to which the applicant belongs is required. The American Association of Theo logical Schools recommends that preseminary studies be concen trated in the liberal arts. Al though courses in English, philos ophy, and history are considered especially important, the pretheological student also should take courses in the natural and social sciences, religion, and for eign languages. The standard cur riculum recommended for ac credited theological schools con sists of four major fields: Bibli cal, historical, theological, and practical. There is a trend toward more courses in psychology, pas toral counseling, sociology, reli gious education, administration, and other studies of a practical nature. Many accredited schools require that students gain experi ence in church work under the supervision of a faculty member or experienced minister. Some in stitutions offer the master of the ology and the doctor of theology degrees to students completing 1 year or more of additional study. Scholarships and loans are avail able for students of theological institutions. In general, each large denomin ation has its own school or schools of theology that reflect its par ticular interests and needs; how ever, many of these schools are open to students from various denominations. Several interde nominational schools associated with universities give both un dergraduate and graduate train ing covering a wide range of theo logical points of view. Among the most necessary per sonal qualifications in a candi date for the ministry are a deep religious conviction, a sense of dedication, a genuine concern for and love of people, a wholesome personality, high moral and ethi cal standards, and a vigorous and creative mind. Good health is a valuable asset. Persons who have denomin ational qualifications for the min istry usually are ordained follow ing graduation from a seminary. In denominations that do not re- 43 THE CLERGY quire seminary training, clergy men are ordained at appointed times. Clergymen often begin their careers as pastors of small congregations or as assistant pas tors in large churches. Protestant clergymen in many of the larger denominations— especially those groups that have a well-defined church organization— often are requested to serve in positions of great administrative and denom inational responsibility. O utlook The demand for Protestant ministers has been greater than the supply in recent years. The increase in the number of gradu ates of theological schools has not been sufficient to satisfy needs for growth and to replace clergy men who retire, die, or transfer to other work. Requirements for Protestant clergymen probably will continue to exceed supply through the 1970’s, especially in denomina tions that require many years of formal preparation for the minis try. The continued growth in the number of church members and the continued establishment of new congregations, particularly in metropolitan suburbs, will be leading factors in increasing de mands for clergymen. The trend for large congregations to hire as sistant ministers also will be a factor in rising demand. Increas ing opportunities for clergymen in youth and family relations work, welfare programs, religious edu cation, the campus ministry, and chaplaincies in the Armed Forces, hospitals, universities, and cor rectional institutions also point toward additional needs for clergymen. Furthermore, demand for clergymen on the faculty of departments of religion in both public and private colleges and universities is growing. As the number of clergymen increases, the replacement of those who re tire, die, or leave the ministry for other reasons also will require an increasing number of newly train ed ministers. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Young people who are interest ed in the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a min ister or church guidance worker. Additional information on the ministry and other church-relat ed occupations also are available from many denominational of fices. Information on admission requirements may be obtained directly from each theological school. RABBIS (D.O.T. 120.108) N ature of the W ork Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their congregations and teach ers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradition. They conduct daily services, and deliver sermons at services on the Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Rabbis custom arily are available at all times for counsel to members of their con gregations, other followers of Judaism, and the community at large. Many of the rabbis’ func tions— preparing and delivering sermons, performing wedding ceremonies, visiting the sick, con ducting funeral services, comfort ing the bereaved, helping the poor, counseling individuals, supervis ing religious education programs, engaging in interfaith activities, and assuming community respon sibilities— are similar to those performed by clergymen of other faiths. Rabbis serving large congrega tions may spend considerable time in administrative duties, working with their staffs and committees. Large congregations frequently have an associate or assistant rabbi in addition to the senior rabbi. Many of the assistant rab bis serve as Educational Direc tors. Rabbis serve congregations af filiated with 1 of the 3 wings of Judaism— Orthodox, Conserva tive, or Reform. Regardless of their particular point of view, all Hebrew congregations preserve the substance of Jewish religious worship. The congregations differ in the extent to which they fol low the traditional form of wor ship— for example, in the wearing of head coverings or in the use of Hebrew as the language of pray er, or in the use of music. The format of the worship service and therefore the ritual that the rab bis use may vary even among congregations belonging to the same wing of Judaism. Rabbis also may write for re ligious and lay publications, and teach in theological seminaries, colleges, and universities. Places of Em ploym ent About 6,000 rabbis served al most 5.9 million followers of the Jewish faith in this country in 1968. Most are Orthodox rabbis; the rest are about equally divid ed between the Conservative and Reform wings of Judaism. Most rabbis act as spiritual leaders of individual congregations; some serve as chaplains in the Armed Forces, in hospitals, and in other institutions. Others are adminis trators or teachers in Jewish sem inaries, communal schools, and other educational institutions or are employed in religious educa tion work for organizations such 44 as the Hillel Foundation. Still others are employed by Jewish social welfare agencies. Although rabbis serve Jewish communities throughout the Na tion, they are concentrated in those States that have large Jew ish populations, particularly New York, California, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Illinois, Massachu setts, Maryland, and the Wash ington, D.C. metropolitan area. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must com plete the prescribed course of study for the rabbinate. Entrance requirements and the curriculum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary is associated. The Hebrew Union College— Jewish Institute of Religion is the only seminary that trains rabbis for the Reform wing of Judaism. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America is the only seminary that trains rabbis for the Conservative wing of Judaism. Both seminaries require the completion of a 4-year college course, as well as prior preparation in Jewish studies, for admission to the rabbinic pro gram leading to ordination. Al though 5 years normally are re quired to complete the rabbinic course at the Reform seminary, exceptionally well-prepared stu dents can shorten this period of study to a minimum of 3 years. The course at the Conservative seminary can be completed in 4 years by student having a strong background in Jewish studies; for others, the course may take as long as 6 years. About 15 seminaries train Orthodox rabbis. These schools have programs of various lengths leading to ordination. Two of the larger Orthodox seminaries re quire the completion of a 4-year OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK college course for ordination. However, students who are not college graduates may spend a longer period at these seminaries and complete the requirements for the bachelor’s degree while pursuing the rabbinic course. The other Orthodox seminaries do not require a college degree to qualify for ordination, although students who qualify usually have complet ed 4 years of college. In general, the curriculums of Jewish theological seminaries pro vide students with a comprehen sive knowledge of the Bible, Tal mud, Rabbinic literature, Jewish history, theology, and courses in education, pastoral psychology, and public speaking. The Reform seminary places less emphasis on the study of Talmud and Rab binic literature and offers a broad course of study that includes sub jects such as human relations and community organization. Some seminaries grant advanc ed academic degrees in fields such as Biblical and Talmudic re search. All Jewish theological seminaries make scholarships and loans available to students. Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as leaders of small congre gations, assistants to experienced rabbis, directors of Hillel Foun dations, teachers in seminaries and other educational institu tions, or chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, the pulpits of large and well-established Jewish congregations are filled by experi enced rabbis. The choice of a career as a rab bi, should be made on the basis of a fervent belief in the religious teachings and practices of Juda ism, and a desire to serve the religious needs of others. In ad dition to having high moral and ethical values, the prospective rabbi should have good judgment and be able to write and speak effectively. O utlook In 1968, the number of rabbis in this country was inadequate to meet the expanding needs of Jew ish congregations and other or ganizations desiring their services. This situation is likely to persist through the 1970’s. Continued growth in Jewish religious affilia tion and in the number of syna gogues and temples, particularly in the suburbs of cities having large Jewish communiities, to gether with increasing demands of large congregations for assist ant rabbis, are expected to create many new openings. Demand for rabbis to work with social welfare and other organizations connect ed with the Jewish faith also is expected to increase. Although an increase in the number of stu dents graduating from the Jewish theological seminaries is antici pated, the number of new rabbis probably will not be adequate to fill new openings and to replace the rabbis who retire or die, or leave the rabbinate for other rea sons. Immigration, once an im portant source of rabbis, is no longer significant. In fact, grad uates of American seminaries now are in demand for Jewish congre gations in other countries. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Young people who are interest ed in entering the rabbinate should seek the guidance of a rabbi. Information on the work of a rabbi and allied occupations also is available from many of the local Boards of Rabbis in large communities. Information on ad mission requirements of Jewish theological seminaries may be ob tained directly from each semi nary. THE CLERGY ROMAN CATHOLIC PRIESTS (D.O.T. 120.108) N atu re of the W ork Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiritual, moral, and educa tional needs of the members of their church. Their duties include offering the Sacrifice of the Mass; giving religious instructions in the form of a sermon; hearing confessions; administering the Sacraments, including the sacra ment of marriage; visiting and comforting the sick; conducting funeral services and consoling relatives and friends; counseling those in need of guidance; and assisting the poor. Priests spend long hours per forming services for the church and the community. Their day usually begins with morning medi tation and Mass and may end with the hearing of confessions or an evening visit to a hospital or a home. Many of them serve on church committees or in civic or ganizations and assist in com munity projects. Various societies that carry on charitable and so cial programs also depend upon priests for direction. Although all priests have the same powers acquired through or dination by a bishop, they are classified in two main categories — diocesan and religious— by rea son of their way of life, the type of work to which they are assign ed, and the church authority to whom they are immediately sub ject. Diocesan priests (sometimes called secular priests) generally work as individuals in the par ishes to which they are assigned by the bishop of their diocese. Religious priests generally work as members of a religious com munity in specialized activities, such as teaching or missionary 45 work, assigned to them by the superiors of the religious order to which they belong; for example, Jesuits, Dominicans or Francis cans. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and adminis trative posts in Catholic seminar ies, universities and colleges, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large pro portion of the institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas, diocesan priests are concerned with the parochial schools attached to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The members of religious orders do most of the missionary work conducted by the Catholic Church in this country and abroad. Places of E m ploym ent More than 62,000 priests serv ed about 48 million Catholics in the United States in 1968. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural com munities; however, the majority are in metropolitan areas, where most Catholics reside. Catholics are concentrated in the Northeast and the Great Lakes regions, with smaller concentrations in California, Texas, and Louisiana. A large number of priests are lo cated in communities near Cath olic educational and other insti tutions. Others travel constantly on missions to local parishes throughout the country. Some priests serve as chaplains with the Armed Forces or in hospitals or other institutions. Many are stationed throughout the world as missionaries. Train in g and O ther Q ualifications Preparation for the priesthood requires 8 years or more of study beyond high school graduation. More than 450 special schools, called seminaries, offer education to young men who wish to be come priests. Study for the priest hood may begin in the first year of high school, at the college level, or in theological seminaries after college graduation. High school seminaries provide a college preparatory program that emphasizes English gram mar, speech, literature, and social studies. Two years of Latin are required and the study of a mod em language is encouraged. The seminary college offers a liberal arts program, stressing philoso phy and religion; the study of man through the behavioral sciences and history; and the nat ural sciences and mathematics. In many college seminaries, a student may concentrate in any of these fields. The course of study in theo logical seminaries, which provide the remaining four years of prep aration required for the priest hood, includes sacred scripture; apologetics; dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics; church history; liturgy; and can on law. Diocesan and religious priests attend different major seminaries, where slight varia tions in the training reflect the differences in the type of work expected of them as priests. Dur ing the later years of his semi nary course, the candidate re ceives from his bishop a succes sion of orders culminating in his ordination to the priesthood. Most postgraduate work in the ology is given either at Catholic University of America, Washing ton, D.C. or at the eccelestical universities in Rome. Many priests also do graduate work at other universities in fields unre lated to theology. Priests are commanded by the law of the Catholic Church to continue their studies, at least informally, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 46 after ordination. Young men are never denied entry into seminaries because of lack of funds. In seminaries for secular priests, the bishop may make arrangements for student loans. Those in religious seminar ies often are financed by contri butions of benefactors. Among the qualities considered most desirable in candidates for the Catholic priesthood are a love of and concern for people, a deep religious conviction, a desire to spread the Gospel of Christ, at least average intellectual ability, capacity to speak and write cor rectly, and more than average skill in working with people. Can didates for the priesthood must understand that priests are not permitted to marry and are dedi cated to a life of chastity. The first assignment of a newly ordained secular priest is usually that of assistant pastor or curate. Newly ordained priests of religi ous orders are assigned to the specialized duties for which they are trained. Many opportunities for greater responsibility exist within the hierarchy of the church. Diocesan priests, for example, may rise to positions such as monsignor or bishop. Much of their time at this level is given to administration duties. In the re ligious orders which specialize in teaching, priests may become heads of departments or assume other positions which include ad ministrative duties. Outlook A growing number of priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual, educa tional, and social needs of the growing number of Catholics in the Nation. Although the number of seminarians has increased steadily in recent years, the num ber of ordained priests is insuffi cient to fill the needs of newly es tablished parishes and expanding colleges and other Catholic insti tutions, and to replace priests who retire or die. Although priests usu ally continue to work longer than persons in other professions, the varied demands and long hours create a need for young priests to assist the older ones. Also, an in creasing number of priests have been serving in many diverse areas— for example, in religious radio, newspaper, and television work, labor-management media tion; and in foreign posts, par ticularly in countries that have a shortage of priests. Continued ex pansion of these activities, in ad dition to the expected further growth of the Catholic popula tion, will require a steady in crease in the number of priests through the 1970’s. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Young men interested in enter ing the priesthood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priest. Additional informa tion regarding different religious orders and the secular priesthood, as well as a list of the various seminaries which prepare stu dents for the priesthood, may be obtained from Diocesan Directors of Vocations or from the diocesan chancery office. C O N S E R V A T IO N O C C U P A T IO N S Forests, rangelands, wildlife, and water are part of our coun try’s great wealth of natural re sources. Conservationists protect, develop, and manage natural re sources to assure that they are not needlessly exhausted, de stroyed, or damaged, and that fu ture needs for these resources will be met. Specialized training is gener ally required to work in conserva tion occupations. Many positions can be filled only by those having at least a bachelor’s degree. For other positions, the desired train ing may be obtained on the job. This chapter includes descrip tions of three conservation occu pations— forester, forestry aid, and range manager. Soil conserva tionist, a related occupation, is discussed elsewhere is this Hand Foresters also safeguard forests from fire, destructive animals and insects, and diseases. Other re sponsibilities of foresters include wildlife protection and watershed management, and the manage ment of camps, parks, and graz ing land. Foresters usually specialize in one area of work, such as timber management, fire control, forest economics, outdoor recreation, watershed management, wildlife management, or range manage ment. Some of these specialized activities are becoming recognized as distinct professions. The pro fession of range managers, for ex ample, is discussed in a separate book. statement in this chapter. Forest ers also may engage in research activities, extension work (pro viding forestry information to farmers, logging companies, and the public), forest marketing, and college and university teaching. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 25,000 persons were employed as foresters in the United States in 1968. About onethird were employed in private industry, mainly by pulp and pa per, lumber, logging, and milling companies. Slightly less than onethird were employed by the Fed eral Government, mainly in the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture. Other Federal agencies employing significant numbers of foresters were the D e partments of the Interior and De fense. Most of the remainder were employed by State and local gov ernments, colleges and universi ties, and consulting firms. Others were managers of their own lands or were in business for themselves as consultants. FORESTERS Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent (D.O.T. 040.081) N atu re of th e W ork Forests are one of America’s greatest natural resources. They cover more than one-third of the land area of the country. Forest ers manage, develop, and protect these valuable lands and their re sources— timber, water, wildlife, forage, and recreation areas. They estimate the amount and value of these resources. They plan and supervise the harvesting and cut ting of trees, purchase and sale of trees and timber, the process ing, utilization and marketing of forest products, and reforestation activities (renewing the forest cover by seeding or planting). Forester explains local wildlife to children. A bachelor’s degree with a ma jor in forestry is the minimum educational requirement for young persons seeking profession al careers in forestry. An ad vanced degree is generally re quired for teaching and research positions. Education in forestry leading to a bachelor’s or higher degree was offered in 1968 by 48 colleges and universities of which 32 are accredited by the Society of American Foresters. The curriculums in most of these schools in clude specialized forestry courses in five essential areas: (1) Silvi culture (methods of growing and improving forest crops); (2) for est protection (primarily against 47 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 48 fire, insects, and disease); (3) forest management (the applica tion of business methods and technical forestry principles to the operation of a forest prop erty); (4) forest economics (study of the factors affecting the supply of and the demand for for est products); and (5) forest uti lization (the harvesting, process ing, and marketing of the forest crop and other forest resources). The curriculums also include re lated courses in the management of recreational lands, watershed management, and wildlife man agement, as well as courses in mathematics, science, engineer ing, economics, and the humani ties. Most colleges require that students spend one summer in a field camp operated by the col lege. Forestry students also are encouraged to work other sum mers in jobs that will give them firsthand experience in forest or conservation work. Beginning positions for forestry graduates often involve work in a broad range of relatively routine forestry activities under the su pervision of experienced foresters. As they gain experience, foresters may advance to increasingly re sponsible positions in manage ment of forest lands or related research activities. Qualifications for success in forestry include an enthusiasm for outdoor work and the ability to meet and deal effectively with people. Many jobs also require physical stamina and a willingness to work in remote areas. E m ploym ent Outlook Employment opportunities for forestry graduates are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. Among the major factors under lying this anticipated demand are the country’s growing popula tion and rising living standards, which will tend to increase the demand for forest products and the use of forests for recreation areas. Forestry and related em ployment also may be favorably influenced by the growing aware ness of the need to conserve and replenish our forest resources. Private owners of timberland are expected to employ increasing numbers of foresters to realize the higher profitability of improved forestry and logging practices. The forest products industries al so will require additional foresters to apply new techniques for uti lizing the entire forest crop, to develop methods of growing su perior stands of trees over a shorter period of time, and to do research in genetics and fertiliza tion. In addition, competition from metal, plastics, and other materials is expected to stimulate further research to develop new and improved wood products. The Federal Government is likely to offer increasing employ ment opportunities for foresters in the years ahead, mainly in the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture. Among the factors expected to contribute to this ex pansion are the demands for the use of national forest resources, the trend toward more scientific management of these lands, and expanding research and conser vation programs in areas such as outdoor recreation, watershed management, wildlife protection, and range management. State government agencies also should offer additional employ ment opportunities for foresters. Forest fire control, protection against insects and diseases, pro vision of technical assistance to owners of private forest lands, and other Federal-State coopera tive programs usually are chan neled through State forestry or ganizations. Growing demands for recreation facilities in forest lands are likely to result in expansion of State parks and other recreational areas. College teaching and research in areas such as forest genetics, forest disease and insect control, harvesting and reforestration methods, forest products utiliza tion, and fire behavior and control are other avenues of favorable employment opportunity for for esters, but primarily for those having graduate degrees. In addition to new positions created by the rising demand for foresters, a few hundred openings will arise each year due to retire ments, deaths, and transfers out of the profession. Opportunities for women in outdoor forestry is somewhat lim ited, largely because of the strenu ous physical requirements of much of the work. The few women presently employed in forestry are engaged chiefly in research, administration, and educational work; future opportunities for women also are likely to be pri marily in these fields. Earnings and W orking Conditions In the Federal Government in late 1968, beginning foresters hav ing a bachelor’s degree could start at either $5,732 or $6,981 a year, depending on their academic rec ord. Those having 1 or 2 years of graduate work could begin at $6,981 or 8,462; those having the Ph. D. degree, at $10,203 or $12,174. District rangers em ployed by the Federal Govern ment in 1968 generally earned be tween $8,462 and $12,174 a year. Foresters in top level positions earned considerably more. Beginning salaries of foresters employed by State governments vary widely; but, with a few ex ceptions, they tend to be lower than Federal salaries. Entrance salaries in private industry, ac cording to limited data, are fairly 49 CONSERVATION OCCUPATIONS comparable levels. to Federal salary The salaries of forestry teach ers are generally the same as those paid other faculty members. (See statement on College and Univer sity Teachers.) Foresters in edu cational institutions sometimes supplement their regular salaries with income from part-time con sulting and lecturing and the writing of books and articles. As part of his regular duties, the forester— particularly in be ginning positions— spends con siderable time outdoors under all kinds of weather condition. Many foresters work extra hours on emergency duty, such as fire fighting. Sources of A dditional Inform ation FORESTRY AIDS (D.O.T. 441.384) N atu re of the W ork Forestry aids, called forestry technicians at higher career lev els, assist foresters in managing and caring for forest lands and their resources. (See statement on Foresters earlier in this chapter.) Their duties include scaling logs, marking trees, and collecting and recording data such as tree heights, diameters, and mortality. On simple watershed improve ment projects, aids install, main tain, and collect records from rain gauges, streamflow recorders, and soil moisture measuring instru ments. They may serve as rod- men, chainmen, or level instrumentmen on road survey crews. Forestry technicians have more responsible and difficult duties, such as supervising on-the-ground operations in timber sales, super vising recreation-area use, and performing laboratory research activities that require the use of practical skills and experience. Forestry technicians also super vise survey crews engaged in road building projects that make tim ber accessible for harvesting. Forestry aids often are engaged in all phases of fire prevention and control. They instruct per sons using the forest in fire pre cautions and prevention. If a fire does occur, they may lead fire fighting crews. After the fire has been suppressed, they take in ventory of the burned out area and plant new trees and shrubs. General information about the profession of forestry, lists of reading material, as well as lists of schools offering training in forestry is available from: Society of American Foresters, 1010 16th St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036 General information available from: also is American Forest Institute, 1835 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006 A booklet entitled “ So You Want to be a Forester” may be obtained from: American Forestry Association, 919 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006 Information on forestry careers in the Forest Service is available from: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 20250 Forestry aid radios to headquarters from jeep. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 50 Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 13,000 persons were employed as forestry aids in 1968. About 5,000 were employed by the Federal Government; the Forest Service of the U. S. De partment of Agriculture employed approximately 3,000 of these. Ap proximately 2,000 were working for State governments. About 6,000 were employed in private industry, primarily by lumber, logging, and paper milling com panies. Forestry aids also work in tree nurseries and in foresta tion projects of mining, railroad, and oil companies. Many forestry aids are em ployed in the heavily forested States of Washington, California, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, and Mon tana, as well as in the forested areas of the Great Lakes States, the Northeast, and the South. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Young persons qualify for be ginning positions as forestry aids either by completing a specialized 1- or 2-year post-secondaryschool curriculum or through work experience. Curriculums de signed to train forestry aids are offered in technical institutes, junior colleges, and ranger schools. Among the specialized courses provided for aid training are for est mensuration (measurement of the number and size of trees in the forest), forest protection, den drology (identification of trees and shrubs), wood utilization, and silviculture (methods of growing and improving forest crops). In addition, the student takes courses, such as drafting, surveying, report writing, mathe matics, and first aid, and spends time in a forest or camp operated by the school where he obtains experience in forestry work. Persons who have not had post secondary-school training usually must have had experience in for est work, such as felling or plant ing trees and fighting fires, to qualify for beginning forestry aid jobs. In the Federal Government, the minimum experience require ment is two seasons of related work. Those who had some tech nical experience, such as estimat ing timber resources, may qualify for more responsible positions. Qualifications considered essen tial for success in this field are an enthusiasm for outdoor work, physical stamina, and the ability to carry out tasks without direct supervision. The forestry aid also should be able to work well with others, for much of his work is with survey crews or involves con tact with users of the forestlands as well as forest owners and pro fessional foresters. Many jobs also require a willingness to work in remote areas. ployment opportunities through the 1970’s, mainly in the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture. Similarly, State gov ernments probably will increase their employment of forestry aids. Growth in Government employ ment will stem from factors such as increasing demand for recrea tional facilities, the trend toward more scientific management of forest land and water supplies, and an increasing amount of tim ber cutting on Federal forest land. Earnings and W orking Conditions Annual earnings of forestry aids range from about $4,000 to over $8,400 a year; those having high earnings usually have had many years of experience. In the Federal Government, beginning forestry aids and technicians earned between $4,231 and $6,981 a year in late 1968, depending on the applicant’s education and ex perience. Beginning salaries in private industry were similar, ac Em ploym ent O utlook cording to limited data. As part of their regular duties, Employment opportunities for forestry aids must spend consid forestry aids are expected to in erable time outdoors during all crease rapidly through the 1970’s. weather conditions. In emergen Prospects will be especially good cies, such as firefighting and flood for those having post-high-school control, forestry aids work many training in a forestry curriculum. extra hours. In addition to those As the employment of foresters employed full time, many forestry continues to grow, increasing aids are hired on a seasonal basis numbers of forestry aids will be and work 3 to 6 months a year. needed to assist them. Also, it is Climatic conditions in some areas expected that forestry aids will1 limit year-round field work and assume some of the more routine some jobs, such as firefighting, are jobs now being done by foresters. seasonal in nature. Private industry is expected to provide many additional employ ment opportunities for forestry Sources of Additional Inform ation aids. Forest products industries Information about a career in are becoming increasingly aware of the profitability of employing the Federal Government as a for technical persons knowledgeable estry aid is available from: in the practical application of sci U.S. Department of Agriculture, entific forest practices. Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 20250. The Federal Government also is likely to offer increasing em 51 CONSERVATION OCCUPATIONS RANGE MANAGERS (D.O.T. 040.081) N a tu re of the W ork Rangelands cover more than 1 billion acres in the United States, mostly in the Southern and West ern States, including Alaska. Range managers, also called range conservationists or range scien tists, are responsible for the man agement, development, and pro tection of these rangelands and their resources. They establish systems and plans for grazing that will yield a high production of livestock while preserving con ditions of soil and vegetation nec essary to meet other land-use re quirements— wildlife grazing, rec reation, growing timber, and watersheds. Range managers evaluate forage resources; decide on the number and appropriate type of livestock to be grazed and the best season for grazing; re store deteriorated rangelands through seeding or plant control; and determine other range con servation and development needs. Range fire protection, pest con trol, and grazing trespass control also are important activities of this occupation. In addition, mul tiple use of rangelands often ex tends the manager’s work into such closely related fields as wild life and watershed management, land classification, forest manage ment, and recreation. The range manager’s activities may include research in range maintenance and improvement, report writing, teaching, provid ing technical assistance to holders of privately owned grazing lands, or performing technical assign ments in foreign countries. Range manager checks grass growing in “ bird cage" as part of test on open range. Places of Em ploym ent In 1968, an estimated 4,000 professional range managers were employed in the United States. The majority were employed by Federal Government agencies, primarily in the Forest Service and the Soil Conservation Service of the Department of Agriculture and in the Bureau of Land Man agement of the Department of the Interior. State governments also employed significant num bers of range managers. In private industry, range man agers are employed by privately owned range livestock ranches. Some are in business for them selves as managers of their own land. Some are self-employed con sultants or are employed by con sulting firms. Others are em ployed by manufacturing, sales, and service enterprises, and by banks and real estate firms which need rangeland appraisals. Col leges and universities also employ range managers in teaching and research positions. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 52 T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The bachelor’s degree with a major in range management or range conservation is the usual requirement for persons seeking employment as range managers in the Federal Government. A bach elor’s degree in a closely related subject-matter field, such as agronomy, forestry, or soil con servation, including courses in range management and range con servation, also is accepted as ade quate preparation. Graduate de grees are generally required for teaching and research work. Training leading to a bachelor’s degree with a major in range man agement was offered in 1968 by 25 colleges and universities, main ly in Western and Southwestern States. Twenty-three of these schools also grant the master’s degree, and 15 award the doctor ate. The essential courses for a de gree in range management are botany, plant ecology, and plant physiology; zoology; animal hus bandry; soils; chemistry; mathe matics; and specialized courses in range management, such as iden tification and characteristics of range plants, range improvement, and range sampling and inventory techniques. Desirable elective courses include economics, statis tical methods, physics, geology, watershed management, wildlife management, surveying, and for age crops. Federal Government agencies — primarily the Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management and the Soil Conservation Ser vice— hire many college juniors and seniors for summer jobs in range management. This experi ence helps students qualify for permanent positions as range managers when they complete college. Because most range managers must meet and deal with other people, individually or in groups, they should be able to communi cate their ideas effectively, both in writing and speaking. Many jobs require the stamina to per form vigorous physical activity and a willingness to work in arid and sparsely populated areas. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for graduates having degrees in range management are expected to be good through the 1970’s. The de mand will be especially good for well-qualified persons having ad vanced degrees to fill research and teaching positions. Opportunities will probably be best in Federal agencies. Favor able opportunities also are ex pected in private industry, since range livestock producers and pri vate timber operators are hiring increasing numbers of range man agers to improve their range hold ings. A few openings are expected in developing countries of the Middle East, Africa, and South America where range managers are needed to give technical as sistance. Among the major factors un derlying the anticipated growth in demand for range managers are population growth, increasing per capita consumption of animal products, and the growing use of rangelands for hunting and other recreational activities. Many openings are expected because of more intensive management of range resources due to increasing emphasis on multiple uses of rangelands. Range managers also will be needed to help rehabilitate deteriorated rangelands, improve semiarid lands, and deal with watershed problems. Opportunities for women in this profession are limited because of the rigorous work generally re quired and the remote locations of employment. However, a few women, usually with training in botany, work on classification and identification of range plants. Earnings and W orking Conditions Starting salaries for range man agers having the bachelor’s degree in the Federal Government in late 1968 were either $5,732 or $6,981 a year, depending upon their col lege record. Beginning salaries for those having 1 or 2 years of grad uate work were $6,981 or $8,462; and for those having the Ph. D., $10,203 or $12,174. Starting salaries for range man agers employed by State govern ments and private industry in 1968 were about the same as those paid by the Federal Government. In colleges and universities, start ing salaries were generally the same as those paid other faculty members. (See statement on Col lege and University Teachers.) Range managers in educational institutions sometimes augment their regular salaries with income from part-time consulting and lecturing and from writing books and articles. Range managers may spend considerable time away from home working outdoors in remote parts of the range. Sources of Additional In fo rm atio n For general information about a career as a range manager as well as a list of schools offering training in the field, write to: American Society of Range Man agement, 2120 South Birch Street, Denver, Colo. 80222. Information about career op portunities in the Federal Gov ernment may be obtained from: 53 CONSERVATION OCCUPATIONS Bureau of Land Management, Denver Service Center, Federal Center Building 50, Denver, Colorado 80225. or Portland Service Center, 710 N. E. Holladay Street, Portland, Ore gon 97208. Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1621 North Kent Street, 20415. Arlington, Virginia Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 20250. C O U N S E L IN G The primary objectives of pro fessional counseling are to help persons understand themselves and their opportunities better so that they can make and carry out decisions and plans that hold po tential for a more satisfying and productive life. Whatever the area of counseling— personal, educa tional, or vocational— counselors need a concern for individuals combined with a capacity for ob jectivity; and a belief in the worthwhileness and uniqueness of each individual, in his right to make and accept responsibility for his own decisions, and in his potential for development. This chapter deals in detail with three generally recognized specialties in the field: School counseling, rehabilitation coun seling, and employment counsel ing. School Counselors are the larg est counseling group. They are concerned with the personal and social development of pupils and the planning and achievement of their educational and vocational goals. Rehabilitation Counselors work with persons who are physically, mentally, or socially handicapped. Their counseling is vocationally oriented but involves personal counseling as well. Employment Counselors are concerned primarily with career planning and job adjustment. They may work with the young, the old, the able-bodied, and the disabled. Some people who are identified with other professional occupa tions also provide counseling ser vices. The occupation most closely related to counselor is counseling psychologist. Many social workers also provide counseling services. These two occupations, as well as others in which workers do some counseling but whose primary work is in teaching, health, law, religion, or other fields, are de scribed elsewhere in the Hand book. For information on counsel ing services provided by college and university staff members and by personnel workers in govern ment and industry, see the state ments on College Placement Offi cers and Personnel Workers. EMPLOYMENT COUNSELORS (D.O.T. 045.108) N ature of the W ork Employment counselors (some times called vocational counsel ors) help people to develop a career goal that will fulfill the in dividual’s potential and bring per sonal satisfaction. They assist cli ents by planning with them on how to prepare for, enter, and progress in their careers. The extent of the counseling assistance available, however, dif fers among agencies. Counselors interview the per son seeking counsel to obtain vo cationally significant information related to his personal traits, in terests, training, work experience, and work attitudes. They may assist the individual in filling out questionnaires concerning his per sonal history and background. Additional data on the person’s general intelligence, aptitudes and abilities, physical capacities, knowledge, skills, interests, and values also are obtained from tests and personal inventories which may be administered or recorded by the counselor or a specialist in testing. Further in formation may be assembled by the counselor or by the client from sources such as former em ployers, schools, and health or other agencies. 55 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 56 In subsequent interviews, coun selors assist the applicant in eval uating and understanding his own work potential and provide him the information he needs in mak ing plans appropriate to his talents and interests. Job requirements and employment opportunities or training programs are discussed. An employment plan is developed jointly by the counselor and his client, and a training or work pro gram may be developed. In some agencies, a vocational plan may be worked out in a staff confer ence— which may be attended by supervisors, the psychologist, the testing specialist, and a job mar ket or occupational analyst. In many cases, the employment counselor will refer the client to another agency for physical re habilitation or for psychological or other services before, or con current with counseling. The em ployment counselor must be fa miliar with the services available in the community and be able to recognize what services might be beneficial to a particular client. Counselor may help the client by suggesting feasible employ ment sources and appropriate ways of applying for work. In in stances where the client needs further support and assistance, the counselors may contact em ployers, although clients seeking employment usually are sent to placement interviewers following counseling. After job placement or entrance into training, coun selors may follow up to determine if additional assistance is needed. The expanding responsibility of public employment counselors for improving the employability of disadvantaged persons has in creased their contacts with these persons during training and on the job. It also has led to group counseling and the stationing of counselors in neighborhood and community centers. Places of Em ploym ent In early 1968, the largest num ber of employment counselors— about 4,400 full time and more than 900 part time— worked in State employment service offices, located in every large city and in many smaller towns. The next largest number— probably about 2,000— worked for various private or community agencies, primarily in the larger cities. In addition, some worked in institutions such as prisons, training schools for de linquent youths, and mental hos pitals. The Federal Government employed a limited number of vocational counselors, chiefly in the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Veterans Administration. Some people trained in employ ment or vocational counseling are engaged in research or graduate teaching. About half of all em ployment counselors are women. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The generally accepted mini mum educational requirement for employment counselors in State employment service offices is a bachelor’s degree, preferably with a major in one of the social sci ences, plus 15 semester hours in counseling and related courses. An increasing number of States are adopting a three-level coun selor classification system which includes a counselor intern or trainee, requiring a bachelor’s de gree with 15 hours of undergradu ate or graduate work in counsel ing related courses; a counselor, requiring a master’s degree or 30 graduate hours in counseling re lated courses; and a master coun selor, requiring a master’s degree and 3 years of experience, 1 of which should be in employment service counseling. Minimum entrance require ments are not standardized among private and community agencies, but most of them pre fer, and many require, a master’s degree in vocational counseling or in a related field such as psy chology, personnel administra tion, education, or public admin istration. Most private agencies prefer to have at least one staff member who has a doctorate in counseling psychology or a related field. For those lacking an ad vanced degree, employers usually emphasize experience in closely related work such as rehabilita tion counseling, employment in terviewing, school or college coun seling, or teaching. The public employment service offices in each State provide inservice training programs for their new counselors or trainees. Their experienced counselors frequently are given additional training at colleges and universities, often leading to a master’s degree in counseling and guidance. Private and community agencies also of ten provide in-service training opportunities. The professional educational curriculum for employment coun selors generally includes, at the undergraduate level, a basic foun dation in psychology with some emphasis on sociology. At the graduate level, requirements usu ally include courses in techniques of appraisal and counseling for vocational adjustment, group guidance methods, placement, counseling followup techniques, psychological tests in vocational counseling, educational psychol o g y psychology of occupations, industrial psychology, job analy sis and theories of occupational choice, administration of guid ance services, and some course work in research methods and statistics. Counselor education programs at the graduate level are available 57 COUNSELING in about 370 colleges and univer sities, most frequently in the de partments of education or psy chology. T o obtain a master’s de gree, students must complete 1 to 2 years of graduate study. All States require counselors in their public employment offices to meet State civil service or merit system requirements that include certain minimum educational and experi ence standards. They also require a written or oral examination, or both. Counselors who are well quali fied may advance, after consider able experience, to supervisory or administrative positions in their own or other organizations; some may become directors of agencies or of other counseling services, or area supervisors of guidance programs; some may be come consultants; and others, may become professors in the counseling field. Em ploym ent Outlook Employment counselors who have a master’s degree, and those who have recognized related ex perience in the field, will have ex cellent employment opportunities in both public and private agen cies through the 1970’s. In addi tion, college graduates having a bachelor’s degree and 15 hours of undergraduate or graduate work in counseling related courses and who are interested in becoming counselor trainees will find many opportunities in State and local employment service offices. The employment of counselors in State employment service of fices is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. Among the factors contributing to the increasing demand for counseling services in these offices are four major Federal laws: the Vocational Education Act, as amended, which provides for vo cational guidance and counseling for people who are out of school and seeking employment; the Manpower Development and Training Act, as amended, which provides for counseling in connec tion with the occupational train ing or retraining of large numbers of unemployed workers; the Eco nomic Opportunity Act, as amended, which provides for counseling to implement programs such as Job Corps, Neighborhood Youth Corps, Work Training, Work Experience, and Urban and Rural Community Action; and the Social Security Act, as amend ed, which established the Work Incentive program. State employ ment service offices also will em ploy additional counselors to work with returning veterans, older persons, American Indians, and inmates of correctional insti tutions. Moreover, population growth, particularly the large number of young workers enter ing the labor force each year, will be reflected in larger numbers seeking employment counseling. In addition to the counselors needed to take care of growth in the occupation, many more will be needed each year through the 1970’s to replace workers who re tire, die, or leave the profession for other reasons. Earnings and W orking Conditions The annual average salary of employment counselors in State employment service offices in 1968 was about $7,500. Salaries often went as high as $10,000 for highly experienced counselors. Trainees for counseling positions in some voluntary agencies in large cities were being hired at about $6,000 a year; annual sal aries reported for experienced counselors ranged up to $15,000 or more in early 1969. Most counselors work about 40 hours a week and have various benefits, including vacations, sick leave, pension plans, and insur ance coverage. Counselors em ployed in community agencies may work overtime. Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information on em ployment or vocational counsel ing may be obtained from: National Employment Counselors Association, 1607 New Hamp shire Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. National Vocational Guidance As sociation, Inc., 1607 New Hamp shire Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. United States Department of La bor, Manpower Administration, U.S. Training and Employment Service, Branch of Counseling and Testing Services, Washing ton, D.C. 20210. Information on entrance re quirements for positions in the public employment service offices may be obtained from the State civil service or merit system office in each State capital, or from local employment offices. A list of private agencies offer ing employment counseling serv ices that meet professional criteria set forth by the American Board on Counseling Services, Inc., is provided in the Directory of Approved Counseling Agencies, 1967— 68 and Supplement, avail able from the American Personnel and Guidance Association, Inc., 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009, for $2.50. 58 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK REHABILITATION COUNSELORS (D.O.T. 045.108) N atu re of the W ork Rehabilitation counselors are primarily concerned with the voca tional and personal adjustment of physically, mentally, and socially handicapped persons. The coun selor interviews handicapped per sons to obtain necessary informa tion about their abilities, inter ests, and limitations. Information developed in the interviews is used with other medical, psycho logical, and social data to help the handicapped person evaluate him self in relation to the kind of work that is suitable to his physi cal and mental capacity, interests, and talents. A plan of rehabilita tion then may be worked out jointly by the counselor, the hand icapped person, and those pro viding medical treatment, occupa tional training, and other special services. The counselor holds reg ular interviews with the disabled person to discuss the program, check on the progress made, and help resolve problems. When the individual is ready for employ ment, the counselor assists in finding a suitable job and often makes followup visits to be sure that the placement is satisfactory. An increasing number of coun selors specialize in a particular area of rehabilitation; for exam ple, some work almost exclusively with the blind, some with alco holics, and others with the men tally ill or retarded. Additional specialties are expected to develop as services for other types of dif ficulties are included in rehabili tation programs. The time spent in the direct counseling of each individual varies with the person and the nature of his disability, as well as with the counselor’s workload. Some rehabilitation counselors are responsible for many persons in various stages of rehabilitation; on the other hand, less experi enced or specialized counselors working with the severely handi capped may handle relatively few cases at a time. In addition to working with the handicapped person, the counselor also must maintain close contact with other professional people working with handicapped persons, members of their families, other agencies and civic groups, and private employ ers who hire the handicapped. The counselor often is responsible for related activities, such as em ployer education and community publicity for the rehabilitation program. Places of Em ploym ent Counselor checks on progress of blind trainee. About 12,000 rehabilitation counselors were employed in 1968; more than 9,000 were full time counselors. About threefourths of all rehabilitation coun selors were employed in State and local rehabilitation agencies fi nanced cooperatively with Fed eral and State funds. The remain der were employed by hospitals, labor unions, insurance compa nies, special schools, rehabilita tion centers, sheltered workshops, and other public and private agen- 59 COUNSELING cies that conducted rehabilitation programs and provided job place ment services for the disabled. In addition, nearly 350 counseling psychologists in the Veterans Ad ministration provided rehabilita tion counseling. An estimated 20 percent of all rehabilitation counselors are women. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A basic educational require ment for entry into this occupa tion is graduation from a college or university with course credits in counseling, psychology, and re lated fields. At present, however, uniform requirements have not been established. Most employers prefer to hire people having a master’s degree in vocational or rehabilitation counseling or in a related discipline such as psychol ogy, education, or social work; a few require a doctorate in coun seling psychology. Employers are placing increasing emphasis on the master’s degree as the mini mum educational standard for the profession. Work experience in re lated fields, such as vocational counseling and placement, social work, psychology, education, and other types of counseling, also is given considerable weight by some employers, especially when considering applicants who have only the bachelor’s degree. Some agencies assist employees having bachelor’s degrees to attain grad uate degrees through work-study programs. Two years usually are required to complete the master’s degree in the fields of study preferred for rehabilitation counseling. The curriculum for the master’s degree may include a basic foundation in psychology and courses in med ical aspects of rehabilitation, cul tural and psycho-social aspects of disability, survey of therapeutic care and rehabilitation, legislative aspects of rehabilitation, counsel ing theories and techniques, occu pational and educational informa tion, community resources, place ment and follow-up, and tests and measurements. To earn the doctorate in reha bilitation counseling or in coun seling psychology may require a total of 4 to 6 years of graduate study. Intensive training in psy chology, other social sciences, and the biological sciences, as well as research methodology, is required for the doctorate. In the 1968-69 school year, 69 colleges and universities offered financial assistance to a limited number of graduate students spe cializing in rehabilitation counsel ing through training grants pro vided by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Rehabilitation Services Adminis tration. In these graduate pro grams, an internship (supervised work in a rehabilitation setting) is required. In approximately three-fourths of the State Rehabilitation Agen cies, applicants are required to comply with State civil service and merit system rules. In most cases these regulations require ap plicants to pass a written compe titive examination, which some times is supplemented by an in dividual interview and evaluation by a board of examiners. A few States require counselors to be residents of the State in which they work. Counselors having limited ex perience usually are assigned the least difficult cases; experienced and highly trained counselors are assigned persons having extreme or multiple disabilities that rep resent difficult rehabilitation problems. After obtaining consid erable experience, rehabilitation counselors may be advanced to supervisory positions or to top ad ministrative jobs. Among the personal qualifica tions needed for success in this field are an understanding of hu man behavior, patience, and a ca pacity for working with people in solving their problems. Em ploym ent O utlook The outlook for well-qualified rehabilitation counselors is ex pected to remain excellent through the 1970’s. Persons who have graduate work in rehabilita tion counseling or in related fields will have the best opportunities for employment. Opportunities also will be available for persons with a bachelor’s degree and re lated work experience. The supply of qualified reha bilitation counselors was inade quate to meet the counseling needs of the mentally and physic ally handicapped in 1968. The Rehabilitation Services Adminis tration estimates that at least 3,000 new counselors will be needed annually through the 1970’s to staff new and expand ing programs and to replace coun selors who leave the profession. This annual demand exceeds con siderably the number presently being trained at graduate levels and entering the field. Over the next few years, the supply of re habilitation counselors may be augmented to some extent by people from related fields, such as psychology, social work, and education. Among the factors contributing substantially to the long-run de mand for the services of rehabili tation counselors will be popula tion growth, with related in creases in the number of handi capped to be served; the exten sion of vocational rehabilitation to greater numbers of more se verely disabled persons; increas- 60 ing support for social welfare in general; and the growing aware ness that expenditures for reha bilitation often are returned as savings on the appropriations for custodial care or health and social welfare programs. Earnings and W orking Conditions According to the U.S. Depart ment of Health, Education, and Welfare the beginning salaries of rehabilitation counselors em ployed in State agencies generally ranged from $6,000 to $8,500 a year in mid-1968. Counselors hav ing a doctorate in psychology working with the disabled in the Veterans Administration were hired in late 1968 at annual sal aries ranging generally from $12,243 to $14,889, depending on the applicant's experience and other qualifications. Counselors may spend only part of their time counseling in their offices, and the remainder in the field working with prospective employers, training agencies, and the disabled person's family. The ability to drive a car often is nec essary for field work. Rehabilitation counselors gen erally work a 40-hour week or less with little overtime work re quired; however, they often attend community and civic meetings in the evenings. They usually are covered by sick and annual leave benefits, and pension and health plans. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information on re habilitation counseling as a career may be obtained from: American Psychological Associa tion, Inc., 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK American Rehabilitation Counsel ing Association, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20009. National Rehabilitation Counsel ing Association, 1522 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. A list of colleges and universi ties that have received grants to provide rehabilitation traineeships on a graduate level is avail able from: U.S. Department of Health, Edu cation, and Welfare, Rehabili tation Services Administration, Washington, D.C. 20201. SCHOOL COUNSELORS (D.O.T. 045.108) N atu re of the W ork School counselors are con cerned with the educational, voca tional, and social development of students. In carrying out their responsibilities, counselors work with students individually and in groups, with their teachers and other school personnel, their par ents, and with community agen cies. Counselors in secondary schools obtain information relevant to 61 COUNSELING educational and vocational plan ning from student interviews, school and other records, and tests that assist in estimating a student’s chances of success in a given course of study or occupa tion. The counselor may supervise or administer the tests. The coun selor helps the student analyze and interpret the data and de velops with him, and sometimes with his parents, a course of study and an educational plan fitting his abilities, interests, and voca tional oportunities. In their work, counselors may provide occupational information, including description of the work, training requirements, earnings, and outlook. They maintain files or libraries of occupational litera ture for students and parents to use. They also arrange trips to factories and business firms and show vocational films. Many counselors conduct “ career day” programs. School counselors also provide information about high school academic and vocational education programs and the vari ous opportunities for education and vocational training beyond high school, including 2- and 4year colleges; trade, technical and business schools; apprenticeship programs, and programs under the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962. Counselors in secondary schools also may help students find parttime work while in school to en able them to stay in school or as part of their vocational prepara tion. They also may assist stu dents in locating fulltime employ ment after leaving school or may refer them to community employ ment services. Some counselors conduct followup studies of recent graduates and dropouts, partici pate in surveys of local job oppor tunities, and conduct or cooperate in research concerning the effect iveness of the educational and guidance programs. Many secondary school coun selors help students individually with personal and social problems that are common to adolescence. Counselors also lead discussion groups on topics related to stu dent interests and problems. Elementary school counselors assist children to make maximum use of their abilities through early identification of their intellectual, emotional, social, and physical characteristics, and diagnosis of learning difficulties. The methods used in counseling elementary school children necessarily differ in many respects from those used with older students. Classroom observation and play activity are among the techniques used on children in the lower grades. Ele mentary school counselors spend much of their time consulting with teachers and parents. They also work closely with other staff members of the school, including psychologists and social workers. Some school counselors, partic ularly in secondary schools, may teach classes in occupational in formation, social studies, or other subjects in addition to counseling. They also may supervise school clubs or other extracurricular ac tivities, often after regular school hours. Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 54,000 persons performed some counseling func tions in the public secondary schools during the 1968-69 school year. More than 29,000 were full time counselors. Counseling ser vices in the public elementary schools are being steadily expand ed. In 1968-69, about 5,500 per sons performed counseling duties at this level. In addition, an in creasing number of counselors are being employed in private elemen tary and secondary schools. The majority of counselors are in large schools. An increasing number of school districts, how ever, are providing guidance ser vices to their small schools by as signing more than one school to a counselor. About one-half of all high school counselors are women. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Most States require counselors to have both a counseling and a teaching certificate. (See state ment on Elementary and Second ary School Teachers for teaching certificate requirements.) A coun seling certificate requires gradu ate level work and usually from 1 to 5 years of teaching experi ence. A person planning to coun sel should obtain the specific re quirements of the State in which he plans to work, since require ments vary considerably among the States and are changing rapidly. Undergraduate college stu dents interested in becoming school counselors usually enroll in the regular program of teacher education, preferably taking ad ditional courses in psychology and sociology. After graduating from college, they may acquire the teaching or other experience re quired either before or while studying for their advanced de grees. A few States substitute counseling internship for teaching experience. In some States, teach ers who have completed part of the courses required for the mas ter’s degree are eligible for pro visional certification and may counsel under supervision while taking additional courses. The subject areas of the required grad uate level courses usually include individual appraisal, vocational development and informational services, counseling theory, sta- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 62 tistics and research, group proce dures, professional relations and ethics, and program development and management. Supervised field experience or internship is provided in an increasing number of programs. Counselor education programs at the graduate level are available in about 370 colleges and universities, most frequently in the departments of education or psychology. To obtain a mas ter’s degree, a student must com plete 1 to 2 years of graduate study. School counselors may ad vance to counselor supervisors or directors of pupil personnel services, or to other administra tive positions within the school system. E m ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for well-trained school counselors are expected to be excellent through the 1970’s. In 1968, the supply of qualified counselors was inade quate to meet the existing de mand, and this imbalance is ex pected to persist in the years ahead. Job openings for counsel ors are expected to increase rapid ly due to continued strengthening of counseling services and some increase in secondary school en rollments. The average ratio of counselors to students as a whole is still well below generally ac cepted standards, despite the fi nancial aid which the Federal Government has provided to States for school counseling pro grams under the National Defense Education Act of 1958, as amend ed, and other legislation. In addition to the number of counselors needed to take care of enrollment growth in secondary schools and strengthening of counseling services, many thou sands of new counselors also will be required each year to replace those leaving the profession. A c cording to data from the U.S. Of fice of Education, about 10 per cent of all counselors leave the field annually because of family responsibilities, retirement, pro motion to administrative jobs, or for other reasons. Among the factors affecting the employment growth of school counselors is the increasing recog nition of counseling as an essen tial educational service for all pupils— the average, the gifted, the slow, the disadvantaged, and the handicapped. Moreover, re cent Federal legislation such as the Elementary and Secondary Education Act amendments of 1966, the National Defense Edu cation amendments of 1966, and the Vocational Education amend ments of 1968 has extended sup port of school counseling services to elementary schools, vocational and technical schools, and junior colleges. Also contributing to the in creased demand for counseling services is the growing public awareness of the value of guidance services in helping students with personal and social problems which, in turn, may help reduce the number of school dropouts. Students also will be seeking ad vice from school counselors about educational requirements for en try jobs, the job changes caused by automation and other tech nological advances, college en trance requirements, and places of employment. Earnings and W orking Conditions According to the U.S. Office of Education, the average annual salary of school counselors was about $8,500 in the 1967-68 school year. Many school coun selors had annual earnings higher than those of classroom teachers with comparable educational preparation and experience. (See statements on Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers and Secondary School Teachers.) In most school systems, coun selors receive regular salary in crements as their counseling ex perience increases, and as they obtain additional education. Some counselors supplement their in come by part-time consulting or other work with private or public counseling centers, government agencies, or private industry. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on colleges and universities offering training in guidance and counseling, as well as on the certification require ments of each State, may be ob tained from the State department of education at the State capital. Additional information on this field of work may be obtained from: American School Counselor Asso ciation, 1605 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. E N G IN E E R IN G Engineers contribute in count less ways to the welfare, techno logical progress, and defense of the Nation. They develop com plex electric power, water supply, and waste disposal systems to meet the problems of urban liv ing. They design industrial ma chinery and equipment needed to manufacture goods on a mass pro duction basis, and heating, air conditioning, and ventilation equipment for the comfort of man. Also, they develop scientific equipment to help probe the mys teries of outer space and the depths of the ocean, and design and supervise the construction of highways and rapid transit sys tems for safe and more convenient transportation. In addition, they design and develop consumer products such as automobiles and refrigerators. They also provide the raw materials that make all this possible. This chapter contains an over all discussion of engineering, fol lowed by separate statements on several branches of the field— aerospace, agricultural, ceramic, chemical, civil, electrical, indus trial, mechanical, metallurgical, and mining engineering. Al though most engineers specialize in these or other specific branches of the profession, a considerable body of basic knowledge and methodology is common to most areas of engineering. Also, unified curriculums in engineering (with out specialty designation) and in engineering science are increasing in popularity. Therefore, young people considering engineering as a career should become familiar with the general nature of engi neering as well as with its various branches. N atu re of the W ork Engineers develop methods for converting the raw materials and sources of power found in nature into useful products at a reason able cost in terms of time and money. They use basic scientific principles to solve the problems involved in designing goods and services and developing methods for their production. The empha sis on the application of scientific principles, rather than on their discovery, is the main factor that distinguishes the work of the en gineer from that of the scientist. For example, a physicist may dis cover that the properties of a gas change when it is converted into a liquid at extremely low temper atures, but it is the engineer who develops uses for the liquid, or economical methods for its pro duction. In designing or developing a new product, engineers must con sider many factors. For example, in designing a space capsule, they must calculate how much heat, radiation, air pressure, and other forces the capsule must withstand during its flight. Experiments must be conducted which relate these factors to various construc tion materials, as well as to the many possible capsule sizes, shapes, and weights. Equally im portant are the human needs and limitations of the people who must operate the equipment. In addi tion, the engineer must take into account the relative cost of the required materials and the cost and time of the fabrication pro cess. Similar factors must be con sidered by engineers who design and develop a wide variety of products ranging from transistor radios and washing machines to electronic computers and indus trial machinery. Besides design and develop ment, engineers are engaged in many other activities. Many work in inspection, quality control, and other activities related to produc tion in manufacturing industries, mines, and agriculture. Others are in administrative and manage ment positions where knowledge of engineering methods is of great importance. A large number plan and supervise the construction of buildings and highways. Many are employed in sales positions, where they must discuss the technical aspects of a product or assist in planning its installation or use. (See statement on Manufactur ers’ Salesmen.) Some conduct re search aimed at supplying the basic technological data needed for the design and production of new or improved products. Some engineers having considerable ex perience work as consultants. A relatively small group teach in the engineering schools of colleges and universities. Most engineers specialize in one of the many branches of the pro fession. More than 25 engineering specialties are recognized by the profession or in engineering school curriculums. Besides these major branches— 10 of which are dis cussed separately in this chapter — there are many subdivisions of the branches. Structural and highway engineering, for example, are subdivisions of civil engineer ing. Engineers may also become specialists in the engineering problems of one industry, or in a particular field of technology such as propulsion or guidance sys tems. Nevertheless, the basic knowledge required for all areas of engineering often makes it pos sible for engineers to shift from one field of specialization to an other, particularly for those be ginning their careers. Engineers within each of the branches may apply their spe cialized knowledge to engineering problems in many fields. For ex ample, electrical engineers may 63 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 64 work in the fields of medicine, missile guidance, or electric power distribution. Because engineering problems are usually complex, the work in some applied fields cuts across the traditional branches. Thus, engineers in one field often work closely with specialists in other scientific and engineering occupations. Places of E m ploym ent Engineering is the second larg est professional occupation, ex ceeded in size only by teaching; for men it is the largest profession. More than 1 million engineers were employed in the United States in 1968. Manufacturing industries em ployed more than half of all engi neers— about 575,000 in 1968. The manufacturing industries em ploying the largest numbers of engineers were the electrical equipment, aircraft and parts, machinery, chemicals, ordnance, instruments, primary metals, fab ricated metal products and motor vehicles industries. About 300,000 engineers were employed in non manufacturing industries in 1968, primarily in the construction, public utilities, engineering and architectural services, and busi ness and management consulting services industries. Federal, State, and local gov ernment agencies employed an other large group of engineers— more than 150,000 in 1968. Over half of these were employed by the Federal Government, chiefly by the Department of Defense. Other Federal agencies which em ployed significant numbers of en gineers were the Departments of the Interior and Agriculture, Transportation and the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis tration. Most engineers in State and local government agencies were employed by highway and public works departments. Educational institutions em ployed almost 40,000 engineers in 1968, in research as well as in teaching positions. A small num ber were employed by nonprofit research organizations. Engineers are employed in ev ery State, in small cities as well as large, and in some rural areas. The profession also offers oppor tunities for employment overseas. Some branches of engineering are concentrated in particular indus tries, as indicated in the state ments presented later in this chapter. 65 ENGINEERING T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A bachelor’s degree in engineer ing is the generally accepted edu cational requirement for entrance into engineering positions. Wellqualified graduates having train ing in physics, one of the other natural sciences, or in mathemat ics may qualify for some begin ning positions in engineering. Some persons without a degree are able to become engineers after long experience in a related occu pation— such as draftsmen or en gineering technician— and some college level training. Advanced training is being em phasized for an increasing number of jobs. Graduate degrees are de sirable for beginning teaching and research positions, and are help ful for advancement in most types of work. Furthermore, in some en gineering specialties, such as nu clear engineering, training is gen erally available only at the grad uate level. Education leading to a bache lor’s degree in engineering is of fered by about 265 colleges, uni versities, and engineering schools located throughout the country. Although curriculums in the larg er branches of engineering are of fered in most schools, some of the smaller engineering specialties are taught in relatively few insti tutions. A student who desires to specialize in one of the smaller branches should, therefore, inves tigate the curriculums offered by the various schools before select ing his college. For admission to an undergraduate program, engi neering schools usually require high school courses in mathemat ics and the physical sciences and place emphasis on the general quality of the applicant’s high school work. In the typical 4-year engineer ing curriculum, the first 2 years are spent mainly in studying ba sic science— mathematics, phys ics, and chemistry— and the hu manities, social sciences, and Eng lish. The last 2 years are devoted chiefly to the engineering sci ences, and to engineering courses with emphasis on the branch of engineering in which the student is specializing. Some engineering programs offer only general en gineering training in the under graduate curriculum, allowing the student to choose a specialty in graduate school or acquire one through work experience. Some engineering curriculums require more than 4 years to com plete. Approximately 25 institu tions have 5-year programs lead ing to the bachelor’s degree. In addition, about 50 engineering schools have arrangements with liberal arts colleges whereby a student spends 3 years in the col lege and 2 years in the engineer ing school, receiving a bachelor’s degree from each. This type of program usually offers the student an opportunity for greater diver sification in his studies. Some institutions have 5-or 6year cooperative plans under which students spend alternate periods in engineering school and in employment in industry or gov ernment. Under most of these plans, classroom study is coordi nated with practical industrial ex perience. In addition to the prac tical experience he gains in this type of program, the student is provided an opportunity to fi nance part of his education. Engineering graduates usually begin work as trainees or as as sistants to experienced engineers. Many large companies have spe cial training programs for their beginning engineers which are de signed to acquaint them with spe cific industrial practices. These programs are valuable in deter mining the type of work for which the individual is best suited. As they gain experience, engineers may move up to positions of greater responsibility. Those with proven ability are often able to advance to high-level technical and administrative positions, and increasingly large numbers are being promoted to top executive posts. All 50 States and the District of Columbia have laws providing for the licensing (or registration) of those engineers whose work may affect life, health, or prop erty; or who offer their services to the public. In 1968, about 325,000 engineers were registered under these laws in the United States. Generally, registration re quirements include graduation from an accredited engineering curriculum, plus at least 4 years of experience and the passing of a State examination. Examining boards may accept a longer period of experience as a substitute for a college degree. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for engineers are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. Engi neering has been one of the fastest growing professions in recent years and requirements for engi neers are expected to increase very rapidly. However, engineers who are not well grounded in en gineering fundamentals and those whose specialization is very nar row could be affected adversely by skill obsolescence caused by shifts in defense activities and by rapidly changing technology. There will probably be an espe cially strong demand for new en gineering graduates who have training in the most recently de veloped engineering principles and techniques, and for engineers who can apply engineering principles to the medical, biological, and other sciences. New graduates having advanced degrees will have OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 66 excellent opportunities in research and teaching. Among the factors underlying the anticipated increase in de mand for engineers is the growth in population, and the resulting expansion of industry to meet the demand for additional goods and services. The need for engineers probably also will rise as a result of the increasingly larger amount of engineering time required for the development of complex in dustrial products and processes and the increasing automation of industry. Another factor which will tend to increase the demand for engi neers is the expected continued growth of expenditures for re search and development. These expenditures have increased ra pidly in past years, and it is likely that they will continue to rise through the 1970’s, although somewhat more slowly than in the past. The growth of research ac tivities will result in the expansion of existing fields of work and in the creation of new ones, especially in the fields of automated ma chinery and computers. The level of defense expendi tures is an important determinant of the demand for engineers be cause a large proportion (about 30 percent in 1967) of all engi neers are engaged in activities re lated to national defense. The out look for engineers presented here is based on the assumption that defense activity (as measured by expenditures) will be somewhat higher than the level prior to the Vietnam buildup, approximating the level of the early 1960’s. If defense activity should differ sub stantially from that level, the de mand for engineers will be af fected accordingly. In addition to the engineers needed to fill new positions, thou sands more will have to be trained to replace those who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. These losses to the profession are expected to create more than 35,000 job openings annually through the 1970’s. The preceding analysis relates to the outlook for the engineering profession as a whole. The em ployment outlook in various branches of engineering is dis cussed in the statements on these branches later in this chapter. Earnings and W orking Conditions Average starting salary offers for engineering graduates having the bachelor’s degree were about $9,200 a year in private industry during the 1967-68 academic year, according to a survey con ducted by the College Placement Council. Graduates having the master’s degree and no experience received offers averaging almost $11,000 a year, while those having the doctor’s degree averaged about $15,000 to start. Starting salaries for new engi neering graduates having the bachelor’s degree varied some STARTING SALARIES FOR ENGINEERS BY BRANCH, 1968 Branch Aeronautical Engineering ................. ............... Chemical Engineering ....................... ............... Civil ..................................................... ............... Electrical ............................................ ............... Industrial ............................................ ............... Mechanical .......................................... ............... Metallurgical ...................................... ............... 1 90 percent earned more than the amount shown. 2 10 percent earned more than the amount shown. A v e ra g e Lower decile1 $9,100 $9,500 $9,000 $9,300 $9,100 $9,200 $9,200 $8,500 $8,900 $8,400 $8,600 $8,400 $8,600 $8,600 Upper decile1 $9,700 $10,000 $9,600 $9,900 $9,700 $9,800 $9,700 what by branch, as shown in the accompanying tabulation based on the same 1968 survey. In the Federal Government in late 1968, engineers having the bachelor’s degree and no experi ence could start at $7,456 or $9,078 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning engi neers having the bachelor’s degree and 1 or 2 years of graduate work could start at $9,078 or $10,154. Those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $11,563 or $12,580. In colleges and universities, the salary of beginning engineers with the master’s degree averaged about $9,000 a year; and with the Ph. D. degree, $11,500. (Also see statement on College and Univer sity Teachers.) Most engineers can expect an increase in earnings as they gain experience. For example, in in dustry in 1968, according to an Engineering Manpower Commis sion Survey the average (median) salary of engineers having 21 to 23 years of experience was about $17,000, 80 percent higher than beginning engineers. Only 10 per cent of those having 21 to 23 years of experience earned less than $12,500 a year, and over 10 percent earned $24,000 or more. Some in top-level executive posi tions had much higher earnings. Although engineers generally work under quiet conditions found in modem offices and re search laboratories, they may be involved in more active work— at a missile site preceding the launching of a space vehicle, in a mine, at a construction site, or at some other out-of-doors location. Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n General information on engi neering careers— including stu dent selection and guidance, pro fessional training and ethics, and ENGINEERING salaries and other economic as pects of engineering— may be ob tained from: Engineers’ Council for Profes sional Development, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Engineering Manpower Commis sion, Engineers Joint Council, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. National Society of Professional Engineers, 2029 K St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information on engineering schools and curriculums and on training and other qualifications needed for entrance into the pro fession also may be obtained from the Engineers Council for Profes sional Development. Information on registration of engineers may be obtained from the National Society of Professional Engineers. In addition to the organizations listed above, other engineering societies represent the individual branches of the engineering pro fession; some are listed with the branches presented later in this chapter. Each can provide infor mation about careers in the par ticular branch of engineering. Many other engineering organi zations are listed in the following publications available in most libraries. Engineering Societies Directory, published by Engineers Joint Council. Scientific and Technical Societies of the United States and Can ada, published by the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council. Some engineers are members of labor unions. Information on en gineering unions may be obtained from: The American Federation of Technical Engineers (AFLCIO), 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. 67 AEROSPACE ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 002.081) N ature of the W ork Aerospace engineers play a vital role in America’s space age acti vities. Engineers in this branch of the profession work on all types of aircraft and spacecraft includ ing missiles, rockets, and conven tional propeller-driven and jetpowered planes. They are con cerned with all phases of the de velopment of aerospace products from the initial planning and de sign to the final manufacture and testing. Aerospace engineers usually specialize in a particular area of work, such as structural design, guidance and control, instrumen tation, propulsion, materials, test ing, or production methods. They also may specialize in a particular type of aerospace product such as passenger planes, jet-powered military aircraft, rockets, satel lites, or manned space capsules. Engineers working in the aircraft field are usually called aeronaut ical engineers. Those in the field of missiles, rockets, and space craft often are referred to as astronautical engineers. Places of Em ploym ent Nearly 65,000 aerospace engi neers were employed in 1968, mainly in the aircraft and parts industry. Some worked for Fed eral Government agencies, pri marily the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Department of Defense. Small numbers worked for commercial OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 68 airlines, consulting firms, and col leges and universities. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 013.081) E m ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for aerospace engineers are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. Continuing developments in supersonic, subsonic, and verti cal lift aircraft, and advancement in space and missile activities should result in a moderate in crease in requirements for aero space engineers. Additional job opportunities also will rise from the need to replace engineers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. However, engineers who are not well grounded in en gineering fundamentals, and those whose specialization is very nar row, could be affected adversely by skill obsolescence caused by shifts in defense activities and by rapidly changing technology. The outlook for aerospace en gineers presented here is based on the assumption that defense ac tivity (as measured by expendi tures) will be somewhat higher than the level prior to the Viet nam buildup, approximating the level of the early 1960’s. If de fense activity should differ sub stantially from that level, the de mand for aerospace engineers will be affected accordingly. (See in troductory section of this chapter for discussion on training require ments and earnings. See also chapter on Occupations in Air craft, Missile, and Spacecraft Manufacturing.) Sources of A dditional Inform ation American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10019. ment of Agriculture. Some are employed by colleges and univer sities and a few are employed by State and local governments. N ature of the W ork Agricultural engineers use basic engineering principles and con cepts to develop machinery, equipment and methods to im prove the efficiency and economy of the production, processing, and distribution of food and other agricultural products. They are concerned primarily with the de sign of farm machinery, equip ment, and structures; the utiliza tion of electrical energy on farms and in food and feed processing plants; the conservation and man agement of soil and water re sources; and the design and op eration of processing equipment to prepare agricultural products for market. They usually special ize in a particular area of work, such as research and develop ment, design, testing and appli cation, production, sales, or management. Em ploym ent Outlook Employment of agricultural en gineers is expected to grow mod erately through the 1970’s. Among the factors which will con tribute to a greater demand for these engineers are the growing mechanization of farm operations, increasing emphasis on conserva tion of resources, expanding pop ulation— with a corresponding demand for food and fibre— and the broadening use of agricultural products and wastes as industrial raw materials. Additional engi neers will be needed to work on problems concerning the enor mous energy and power require ments of farms. (See introduc tory section of this chapter for discussion on training require ments and earnings. See also chapter on Occupations in Agriculture.) Places of Em ploym ent Sources of A dditional Inform ation Most of the estimated 12,000 agricultural engineers in 1968 were employed in private indus try, especially by manufacturers of farm equipment and specialized lines of field, barnyard, process ing, and household equipment; electrical service companies; and distributors of farm equipment and supplies. Some worked for en gineering consultants who supply technical or management services to farmers and farm related in dustries; others were independent consultants. The Federal Government em ploys about 700 agricultural en gineers— chiefly in the Soil Con servation Service and Agricultural Research Service of the Depart American Society of Agricultural Engineers, P.O. Box 229, Jo seph, Mich. 49085. CERAMIC ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 006.081) N ature of the W ork Ceramic engineers develop methods for processing clay, sili cates, and other nonmetallic min erals into a wide variety of ceram ic products, ranging from glass ware, cement, and bricks, to coat ings and refractories for missile ENGINEERING nose cones. They may also design and supervise the construction of the plant and equipment used in the manufacture of these prod ucts. Many ceramic engineers are engaged in research and develop ment work. Some are employed in administration, production, and sales; others work as consult ants or teach in colleges and universities. Ceramic engineers usually spe cialize in one or more products— for example, products of refrac tories (fire- and heat-resistant materials, such as firebrick); whiteware (such as porcelain and china dinnerware or high voltage electrical insulators); structural materials (such as brick, tile, and terra cotta); electronic ceramics (such as ferrites for memory sys tems and microwave devices); protective and refractory coatings for metals; glass; abrasives; and fuel elements for atomic energy. Places of E m ploym ent Most of the estimated 10,000 ceramic engineers in 1968 were employed in manufacturing in dustries— primarily in the stone, clay, and glass industries. Others worked in the iron and steel, elec trical equipment, aerospace, and chemical industries which pro duce or use ceramic products. Some were employed by educa tional institutions, independent research organizations, and the Federal Government. 69 having degrees in ceramic engi neering also is small. Thus, op portunities for new graduates should be excellent. The growth of programs related to nuclear energy, electronics, and space exploration will provide many of the opportunities for ceramic engineers. Ceramic ma terials which are corrosion-resist ant, and capable of withstanding radiation and extremely high tem peratures are becoming increas ingly important in the develop ment of nuclear reactors and space vehicles. Increasing use of the more traditional ceramic prod ucts, such as whiteware and abra sives, for consumer and industrial use also will require additional ceramic engineers to improve and adapt these products to new re quirements. The growing use of structural clay and tile products in construction will add to em ployment opportunities in the production of these items. Fur thermore, the development of new glasses of unusual properties and the expanding use of conventional glasses in the construction and container field probably will cre ate additional openings for ceram ic engineers. (See introductory section of this chapter for discus sion on training requirements and earnings.) required to manufacture chemi cals and chemical products. They also determine the best combina tion of chemical operations that will result in the most efficient manufacturing process. They of ten test their work by designing and operating pilot plants. The work in this branch of engineering is so diversified and complex that chemical engineers frequently become specialists in a particular type of chemical op eration such as oxidation, poly merization, distillation, or hydro genation. Others specialize in the manufacture of a specific product such as plastics, paper, or rubber. Chemical engineers may be en gaged in research and develop ment, production, plant opera tion, design, sales, management or teaching. Sources of Additional Inform ation American Ceramic Society, 4055 North High St., Columbus, Ohio 43214. Em ploym ent O utlook The outlook is for moderate growth in the employment of ce ramic engineers through the 1970’s. Although ceramic engi neering is a small field and the number of openings in any one year will be small compared with those in the large branches of en gineering, the number of graduates CHEMICAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 008.081) N ature of the W ork Chemical engineers design the chemical plants and equipment Chemical engineer checks water quality. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 70 Places of Em ploym ent Approximately four-fifths of the more than 50,000 chemical engineers in the United States in 1968 were employed in manufac turing industries— primarily in the chemicals industry. Some were employed by government agencies and by colleges and uni versities. A small number worked for independent research insti tutes or engineering consulting firms, or as independent consult ing engineers. chemical engineers. (See intro ductory section of this chapter for discussion on training re quirements and earnings. See al so the statement on Chemists and chapter on Occupations in the Industrial Chemical Industry.) Sources of A dditional Inform ation American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. CIVIL ENGINEERS E m ploym ent O utlook (D.O.T. 005.081) The outlook is for rapid growth of employment in chemical engi neering through the 1970’s. The major factors underlying this ex pected growth are expansion of industry— the chemicals industry in particular— and continued high levels of expenditures for research and development, in which a large portion of chemical engi neers are employed. The growing complexity of chemical processes and the automation of these proc esses, will require additional chemical engineers for work re lated to designing, building, and maintaining the necessary plants and equipment. Chemical engi neers also will be needed in many relatively new areas of work, such as the design and development of nuclear reactors and nuclear fuel processing for industrial use, and research aimed at developing new and better solid and liquid fuels for rockets. Furthermore, the de velopment of new chemicals for use in the manufacture of con sumer goods such as fertilizers, drugs, and paints will probably create additional openings for N atu re of the W ork Civil engineers design and su pervise the construction of roads, harbors, airfields, tunnels, bridges, water supply and sewage systems, buildings, and many other types of structures. Civil en gineering is so broad that many specialties have developed with in it— among them are structural, highway, hydraulic, sanitary en gineering, and soil mechanics. Many civil engineers are in su pervisory or administrative posi tions, ranging from site super visor of a construction project or city engineer to top-level execu tive positions. Some are engaged in design, planning, research, in spection, or maintenance activi ties. Others teach in colleges and universities or work as consultants. Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 180,000 civil en gineers were employed in the Civil engineer measures model for one of its structural elements. United States in 1968. The ma jority were employed by Federal, State, and local government agen cies and the construction indus try. Large numbers were employ ed by consulting engineering and architectural firms, or worked as independent consulting engineers. Some were employed by public utilities, railroads, and education al institutions. Others worked in the iron and steel industries and other major manufacturing industries. Civil engineers work in all parts of the country, in every State and city— usually in or near the maj or industrial and commercial cen ters. However, since these engi neers are frequently called upon to work at construction sites, they are sometimes stationed in re mote areas of the United States 71 ENGINEERING or in foreign countries. Further more, civil engineers in some po sitions often are required to move from place to place to work on different projects. E m ploym ent O utlook The outlook in civil engineer ing— one of the largest and oldest branches of the profession— is for continued growth through the 1970’s. The expanding employment op portunities for civil engineers will result from the growing needs for housing, industrial buildings, and highway transportation systems created by an increasing popula tion and expanding economy. Work related to the problems of urban environment, such as water and sewage systems, air and wat er pollution, and giant urban re development projects, may also require additional civil engineers. Large numbers of civil engi neers will also be needed each year to replace those who retire or die. The number of civil engineers needed annually to fill these va cancies— estimated to be about 3,400 in 1968— will probably rise slowly in the future. (See intro ductory section of this chapter for discussion on training require ments and earnings.) Sources of A dditional Inform ation American Society of Civil Engi neers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 003.081, .151, and .187) N atu re of the W ork Electrical engineers design, de velop, and supervise the manu facture of electrical and electronic equipment— including electric motors and generators; communi cations equipment; electronic ap paratus such as television, radar, computers, and missile guidance systems; and electrical appli ances of all kinds. They also de sign and participate in the opera tion of facilities for generating and distributing electric power. Electrical engineers usually spe cialize in a major area of work such as electronics, electrical equipment manufacturing, com munications, or power. Many spe cialize in subdivisions of these broad areas; for example, elec tronics engineers may specialize in computers or in missile guid ance and tracking systems. A large number of electrical engineers are engaged in research, development, and design activi ties. Another large group is em ployed in administrative and management positions. Others are employed in various manufactur ing operations or in technical sales or teaching positions. Places of Em ploym ent Electrical engineering is the largest branch of the profession. It is estimated that approximate ly 230,000 electrical engineers were employed in the United States in 1968. They were em ployed chiefly by manufacturers of electrical and electronic equip ment, aircraft and parts, business machines, and professional and scientific equipment. Many were employed by telephone and tele graph and electric light and pow er companies. Sizable numbers were employed by government agencies and by colleges and uni versities. Others worked for con struction firms, for engineering consultants, or as independent consulting engineers. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for electrical engineers are expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. An increased demand for electrical equipment to auto matically control production processes, using such items as computers and sensing devices, is expected to be among the major factors contributing to this growth. The anticipated growing demand for electrical and elec tronic consumer goods also is ex pected to create many job open ings for electrical engineers. The outlook for electrical en gineers presented here is based on the assumption that defense activity (as measured by ex penditures) will be somewhat higher than the level prior to the Vietnam build-up, approximating the level of the early 1960’s. If defense activity should differ substantially from that level, the demand for electrical engineers would be affected accordingly. In addition to those needed to fill new positions, many electrical engineers will be required to re place personnel lost to the pro fession because of retirement or death. The number needed to fill these vacancies, estimated to be about 2,400 in 1968, will probably rise slowly in the future. (See in troductory section of this chapter for discussion of training require ments and earnings. See also chapter on Occupations in Elec tronics Manufacturing.) Sources of A dditional Inform ation Institute of Electrical and Elec tronic Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 72 INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 012.081, .168 and .188) N atu re of the W ork Industrial engineers determine the most effective methods of us ing the basic factors of produc tion— manpower, machines, and materials. They are concerned with people and “ things,” in con trast to engineers in other speci alties who generally are concern ed more with developmental work in subject fields, such as power, mechanics, structures, or mate rials. They may design systems for data processing and apply opera tions research techniques to com plex organizational, production, and related problems. Industrial engineers also develop manage ment control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analy sis; design production planning and control systems to insure co ordination of activities and to control the quality of products; and may design and improve sys tems for the physical distribu tion of goods and services. Other activities of industrial engineers include plant location surveys, where consideration is given to sources of raw materials, avail ability of a work force, financing, and taxes; and the development of wage and salary administration and job evaluation programs. Places of E m ploym ent More than two-thirds of the estimated 120,000 industrial en gineers employed in early 1968 were in manufacturing industries. They were more widely distribut ed among manufacturing indus tries than were those in other branches of engineering. Some worked for insurance companies, construction and mining firms, Industrial engineer works with machine tool operator to set up production job. and public utilities. Others were employed by retail organizations and other large business enter prises to improve operating effi ciency. Still others worked for government agencies and educa tional institutions. A few were in dependent consulting engineers. Em ploym ent Outlook The outlook is for continued rapid growth of employment in this branch of the profession through the 1970’s. The increas ing complexity of industrial oper ations and the expansion of auto mated processes, coupled with the continued growth of the Na tion’s industries, are among the major factors expected to in crease the demand for industrial engineers. Growing recognition of the importance of scientific man agement and safety engineering in reducing costs and increasing 73 ENGINEERING productivity also is expected to stimulate the demand for persons in this branch of engineering. Besides those needed to fill new positions, additional numbers of industrial engineers will be re quired each year to replace those who retire or die. The number needed to fill these vacancies, es timated to be approximately 1,300 in 1968, will probably rise slowly in the future. (See intro ductory section of this chapter for discussion on training require ments and earnings.) Sources of A d ditional Inform ation American Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. MECHANICAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 007.081, .151, .168, .181, and .187; 011.081; and 019.187) N atu re of the W ork Mechanical engineers are con cerned with the production, trans mission, and use of power. They design and develop machines which produce power, such as in ternal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, jet and rocket engines, and nuclear reactors. They also design and develop a great variety of machines which use power— refrigeration and airconditioning equipment, eleva tors, machine tools, printing presses, steel rolling mills, and many others. Many specialized areas of work have developed within mechani cal engineering. Among these specialties are those concerned with motor vehicles, marine equipment, railroad equipment, rocket engines, steam-power, heating, ventilating and air con ditioning, hydraulics or fluid me chanics, instrumentation, ord nance, and machines for special ized industries, such as petro leum, rubber and plastics, and construction. Large numbers of mechanical engineers are engaged in research, development, and design. Many also are employed in administra tive and management activities. Others work in maintenance, sales, and activities related to production and operations in manufacturing industries. Some teach in colleges and universities or work as consultants. Places of Em ploym ent About 215,000 mechanical engi neers were employed in the Unit ed States in 1968. Nearly all manufacturing and nonmanufac turing industries employed some members of the profession. How ever, nearly three-fourths of all mechanical engineers were em ployed in manufacturing indus tries— mainly in the primary and fabricated metals, machinery, transportation equipment, and electrical equipment industries. Others were employed in govern ment agencies, educational insti tutions, and consulting engineer ing firms. Some worked as inde pendent consulting engineers. Em ploym ent O utlook The outlook in mechanical en gineering— the second largest branch of the profession— is for rapid growth through the 1970’s. The expected expansion of indus try with the consequent demand for industrial machinery and ma chine tools, and the increasing technological complexity of in dustrial machinery and processes will be among the major factors contributing to greater employ ment. Continued growth of ex penditures for research and de- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 74 velopment also will be a factor in the growth of this branch of the profession. Moreover, newer areas of work, such as atomic energy and aerospace development, will probably provide additional openings for large numbers of mechanical engineers. Besides those needed to fill new positions, large numbers of me chanical engineers will be re quired each year to replace those who retire or die. The number needed to fill these vacancies, estimated to be about 3,000 in 1968 probably will rise slowly in the future. (See introductory sec tion of this chapter for discussion on training requirements and earnings.) Sources of A dditional Inform ation The American Society of Mechan ical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. METALLURGICAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 011.081) N ature of the W ork Metallurgical engineers develop methods of processing and con verting metals into useful prod ucts. These engineers usually work in 1 of 2 main branches of metallurgy— extractive or physi cal. Extractive metallurgy in volves the extraction of metals from ores and their refining to obtain pure metal. Physical metallurgy deals with the prop erties of metals and their alloys, and with methods of converting refined metals into useful final products. Scientists working in this field are known as metallurg ists, but the distinction between scientists and engineers in this field is small. Persons working in the field of metallurgy are some times referred to as either mate rials scientists or materials engineers. ductory section of this chapter for discussion on training require ments and earnings. Also see chapter on Occupations in the Iron and Steel Industry.) Places of Em ploym ent Sources of A dditional Inform ation The metal working industries — primarily the iron and steel and nonferrous metals industries — employed over one-half of the estimated 5,000 to 10,000 metal lurgical engineers in 1968. Many metallurgical engineers worked in the machinery, electrical equip ment, and aircraft and parts in dustries. Others were employed in the mining industry, government agencies, consulting firms, inde pendent research organizations, and educational institutions. The Metallurgical Society of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. American Society of Metals, Metals Park, Ohio 44073. MINING ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 010.081 and .187) N ature of th e W ork Em ploym ent O utlook Employment in this small branch of the profession is ex pected to grow rapidly through the 1970’s. Increasing numbers of metallurgical engineers will be needed by the metal-working in dustries to work on problems in volving the development of new metals and alloys as well as the adaption of current ones to new needs. For example, the develop ment of such products as super sonic jet aircraft, missiles, satel lites, and spacecraft has brought about a need for lightweight metals capable of withstanding both extremely high and ex tremely low temperatures. Metal lurgical engineers also will be needed to solve metallurgical problems connected with the ef ficient use of nuclear energy. Fur thermore, as the supply of highgrade ores diminishes, more metallurgical engineers will be needed to find ways of processing low-grade ores now regarded as unprofitable to mine. (See intro Mining engineers are respon sible for the finding and extrac tion of minerals from the earth and for the preparation of min erals for use by manufacturing industries. They design the lay outs of mines, supervise the con struction of mine shafts and tun nels in underground operations, and devise methods of transport ing extracted minerals to process ing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the efficient oper ation of mines and mine safety, including ventilation, water sup ply, power, communications, and maintenance of equipment. Some mining engineers work with geolo gists, locating and appraising new ore deposits. Others conduct re search to develop new mining equipment and to devise im proved methods of processing extracted minerals. Mining engineers frequently specialize in the extraction of specific metal ores or coal and other non-metallic minerals. En gineers who specialize in the ex- 75 ENGINEERING traction of petroleum and natural gas are usually considered mem bers of a separate branch of the engineering profession— Petrol eum Engineering. In addition to mining engi neers, many other engineers in different branches also are em ployed in the mining industry. Em ploym ent O utlook Places of Em ploym ent Most of the estimated 5,000 mining engineers were employed in the mining industry in 1968. Some worked in colleges and uni versities or government agencies, or as independent consultants. Others worked for firms produc ing equipment for the mining industry. Mining engineers are usually employed at the location of min eral deposits, often near small communities. However, those en gaged in research, teaching, man agement, consulting, or sales are often located in large metro politan areas. Employment opportunities for mining engineers are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. The number of new graduates in mining engineering entering the industry is expected to be fewer than the number needed to pro vide for the anticipated growth in requirements and to replace those who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die. Exploration for minerals is in creasing, both in the United States and in other parts of the world. Easily mined deposits are being depleted, creating a grow ing need for engineers to mine newly discovered mineral de posits and to devise more ef ficient methods for mining lowgrade ores. Additional employ ment opportunities for mining enengineer in the future. (See inment of new alloys and discovery of new uses for metals increases the demand for less widely used ores. Recovery of metals from the sea and the development of oil shale deposits could present major challenges to the mining engineer in the future. (See in troductory section to chapter for discussion on training require ments and earnings. See also chapter on Mining.) Sources of A dditional Inform ation The Society of Mining Engineers of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Pe troleum Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. H E A L T H S E R V I C E O C C U P A T IO N S Almost everyone knows some thing about the professional services provided by doctors, den tists, and pharmacists. Many people also have some firsthand knowledge of the duties per formed by nurses, attendants, and other workers who take care of patients in hospitals. Less well known, but also of great impor tance to the public health, is the work of large numbers of people employed behind the scenes in other health service occupations, such as laboratory or X-ray tech nician. Altogether, about 3.5 mil lion people were employed in health related occupations in 1968. Employment in this field has increased rapidly in recent years. Nurses, physicians, pharmacists, and dentists constituted the larg est professional health occupations in 1968, and ranged from nearly 100,000 dentists to about 660,000 registered nurses. Other profes sional health occupations are dietitian, veterinarian, optome trist, chiropractor, osteopathic physician, and hospital admini strator. Other health service workers include technicians of various types, such as medical technologist, medical X-ray tech nician, dental hygienist, and den tal laboratory technician. Large numbers— more than 1.1 million — worked as practical nurses and auxiliary nursing workers, includ ing orderlies, nursing aids, hospi tal attendants, and psychiatric assistants. Workers in the health field are employed in hospitals, clinics, laboratories, pharmacies, nursing homes, industrial plants, public health agencies, mental health centers, private offices, and pa tients’ homes. Those employed in health occupations work mainly in the more heavily populated and prosperous sections of the Nation. Many women are employed in the health field. Nursing, the largest of the major health serv ice occupations, is second only to teaching as a field of professional employment for women. Other health service occupations in which women predominate are practical nurse, radiologic tech nologist, medical technologist, dietitian, physical therapist, oc cupational therapist, speech pa thologist and audiologist, dental hygienist, dental assistant, and medical record librarian. On the other hand, most dentists, op tometrists, physicians, veterinari ans, pharmacists, hospital ad ministrators, and sanitarians are men. The educational and other re quirements for work in the health field are as diverse as the health occupations themselves. For ex ample, professional health work ers— physicians, dentists, phar macists, and others— must com plete a number of years of pre professional and professional col lege education and pass a State licensing examination. On the other hand, some health service occupations can be entered with little specialized training. A continued rapid expansion of employment in the health field is expected through the 1970’s, al though the rates of growth will differ considerably among in dividual health ocupations. The factors that are expected to con tribute to an increase in the de mand for health care are the fol lowing: The country’s expanding population; rising standards of living; increasing health con sciousness; growth of coverage under prepayment programs for hospitalization and medical care, including Medicare; rapid ex pansion of expenditures for medi cal research; and increasing ex penditures by Federal, State, and local governments for health care and services. In addition, many new workers will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or— particularly for women— leave the field for other reasons. Thus, many opportunities will be available for employment in the health services. PHYSICIANS (D.O.T. 070.101 and .108) N ature of th e W ork Physicians diagnose diseases and treat people who are ill or in poor health. In addition, they are concerned with preventive medicine and with the rehabilita tion of people who are injured or ill. Physicians generally examine and treat patients in their own offices and in hospitals, but they also visit patients at home when necessary. Some physicians com bine the practice of medicine with research or teaching in medical schools. Others hold full time research or teaching posi tions or perform administrative work in hospitals, professional as sociations, and other organiza tions. A few are primarily en gaged in writing and editing medical books and magazines. About one-third of the physi cians engaged in private practice are general practitioners; the other two-thirds are specialists in 1 of the 33 fields recognized by the medical profession. In recent years, there has been a marked trend toward specialization. Among the largest specialties are internal medicine, surgery, ob stetrics and gynecology, psy chiatry, pediatrics, radiology, 77 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 78 anesthesiology, and pathology. ophthalmology, Places of Em ploym ent Nearly 295,000 physicians— of whom 7 percent were women— were professionally active in the United States in early 1968. The great majority— about 190,000— were engaged in private practice. Approximately 45,000 were in terns or residents in hospitals. About 37,000 held full-time staff positions in hospitals, nearly three-fifths of whom were in gov ernment hospitals. The remainder were employed in private indus try, State and local health de partments, medical schools, re search foundations, and profes sional organizations. In 1968, more than 40 percent of all physicians were in five States: New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. In general, the Northeastern States have the highest ratio of physicians to population and the Southern States, the lowest. Gen eral practitioners are much more widely distributed geographically than specialists, who tend to be concentrated in large cities. Train in g and O ther Q ualifications A license to practice medicine is required in all States and the District of Columbia. T o qualify for a license, a candidate must graduate from an approved medi cal school, pass a licensing ex amination, and— in 32 States and the District of Columbia— serve a 1-year hospital internship. As of 1968, 18 States permitted a phy sician to be licensed immediately after graduation from medical school, but even in these States, an internship is always necessary for full acceptance by the profes sion. Twenty-three States and the District of Columbia require can didates to pass an examination in the basic sciences to become eli gible for the medical licensing examination. Licensing examinations are given by State boards. The Na tional Board of Medical Exam iners also gives an examination and the District of Columbia as a substitute for State examinawhich is accepted by 46 States tions. Although physicians li censed in one State usually can obtain a license to practice in an other without further exam ination, some States limit this reciprocity. In 1968, there were 88 ap proved schools in the United States in which students could begin the study of medicine. Eighty-four awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine (M .D .) to those completing the 4-year course; 4 offered 2-year programs in the basic medical sciences to students who could then transfer to regular medical schools for the last 2 years of study. Five addi tional new schools were enrolling medical students, but had not yet graduated a class. Because the number of people applying to medical schools exceeds the be ginning enrollment capacity, pref erence is given to the most highly qualified applicants. Most medical schools require applicants to have completed at HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS least 3 years of college education for admision to their regular pro grams, and some require 4 years. A few medical schools allow se lected students having excep tional qualifications to begin their professional study after com pleting 2 years of college. The great majority of students enter ing medical schools have a bachelor’s degree. Premedical study must include undergraduate courses in English, physics, biology, and inorganic and organic chemistry in an ac credited college. Students should acquire a broad general education by taking courses in the humani ties, mathematics, and the social sciences. Other factors considered by medical schools in selecting students include the individual’s college record; the standing of the college where his premedical work was taken; and his scores on the Medical College Admission Test, which is taken by almost all applicants. Consideration also is given to the applicant’s character, personality, and leadership quali ties, as shown by personal inter views, letters of recommendation, and extracurricular activities in college. In addition, many Statesupported medical schools give preference to residents of their particular States and, sometimes, those of nearby States. The first 2 years of medical training are spent in laboratories and classrooms, learning basic medical sciences, such as anatomy, biochemistry; physiology, pharm acology, microbiology, and pa thology. During the last 2 years, students spend most of their time in hospitals and clinics under the supervision of experienced phy sicians. They learn to take case histories, perform examinations, and recognize diseases. New physicians increasingly are acquiring training beyond the 1year hospital internship. Those who plan to be general practi 79 tioners often spend an additional Those who have completed their year or two as interns or residents internships and enter active mili in a hospital. T o become recog tary duty initially serve as cap nized as specialists, physicians tains in the Army or Air Force must pass specialty board exami or as lieutenants in the Navy; nations. T o qualify for these ex those who choose the military as aminations, they must spend a career advance to higher ranks. from 2 to 4 years— depending on Graduates of accredited medical the specialty— in advanced hos schools are eligible for commis pital training as residents, fol sions as senior assistant surgeons lowed by 2 years or more of prac (equivalent to lieutenants in the tice in the specialty. Some doc Navy) in the U.S. Public Health tors interested in teaching and Service, as well as for Federal research take graduate work lead Civil Service professional medical ing to the master’s or Ph. D. de positions. gree in a field such as biochemis try or microbiology. Em ploym ent O utlook Many graduates of foreign medical schools serve as hospital Excellent opportunities are an interns and residents in this country. In early 1968, this group ticipated for physicians through numbered about 14,000 foreign the 1970’s. Because the number citizens and 1,400 U.S. citizens. of new physicians being trained To be appointed to approved is restricted by the present lim internships or residencies in U.S. ited capacity of medical schools, hospitals, however, these gradu the employment of physicians is ates (citizens of foreign countries expected to grow only moderately, as well as U.S. citizens) must despite a steady increase in the pass the American Medical Quali demand for their services. How fication Examination given by ever, some expansion in medical the Educational Council for For school facilities is expected be cause of recent Federal legisla eign Medical Graduates. Medical training is very costly tion which provides Federal funds because of the long time required to assist in the construction of to earn the medical degree. How new training facilities for phy ever, the Health Professions Edu sicians. Nonetheless, any increase cational Assistance Act of 1963, in the supply of physicians result as amended, provides Federal ing from the implementation of funds for loans and scholarships this legislation may not be signifi of up to $2,500 a year to help cant until the late 1970’s. needy students pursue full-time The expected increase in de study leading to the degree of mand for physicians’ services will Doctor of Medicine. result from factors such as the Among the personal qualifica anticipated population growth; tions needed for success in this the rising health consciousness of profession are a strong desire to the public; and the trend toward become a physician, above-aver higher standards of medical care. age intelligence, and an interest The demand for physicians also in science. In addition, prospec will increase because of the ex tive physicians should possess tension of prepayment programs good judgment, be able to make for hospitalization and medical decisions in emergencies, and be care, including Medicare and emotionally stable. Medicaid; continued Federal The majority of newly qualified Government provision of medical physicians open their own offices. care for members of the Armed 80 Forces, their families, and veter ans; and the continuing growth in the fields of public health, re habilitation, industrial medicine, and mental health. In addition, more physicians will be needed for medical research and to teach in medical schools. In addition to those needed to fill new openings, many newly trained doctors will be required to replace those who retire or die. The number needed to fill vacancies caused by losses to the profession is estimated at about 7,000 each year through the 1970’s. T o some extent, the rise in the demand for physicians’ services will be offset by developments that are enabling physicians to care for more patients. For ex ample, increasing numbers of medical technicians are assisting physicians; new drugs and new medical techniques are shorten ing illnesses; and growing num bers of physicians are able to use their time more effectively by engaging in group practice. In ad dition, fewer house calls are be ing made by physicians because of the growing tendency to treat patients in hospitals and physi cians’ offices. However, these de velopments are not expected to offset the overall need for more physicians. Earnings and W orking Conditions New graduates serving as in terns in 1968 had an average an nual salary of $4,893 in hospitals affiliated with medical schools and $5,030 in other hospitals. Residents during 1968 earned average annual salaries of $4,755 in hospitals affiliated with medi cal schools and $5,532 in nonaffiliated hospitals, according to the American Medical Associa tion. Many hospitals also pro vided full or partial room, board, and other maintenance allow OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ances to their interns and resi dents. Graduates employed by the Federal Government in late 1968 could expect to receive an annual starting salary of about $13,300 if they had completed their in ternship, and about $15,800 if they had completed 1 year of residency or demonstrated su perior achievement during their internship. Newly qualified physicians who establish their own practice must make a sizable financial in vestment to open and equip a modem office. It is estimated that during the first year or two of independent practice, phy sicians probably earn little more than the minimum needed to pay the expenses for maintaining their offices. As a rule, however, their earnings rise rapidly as their practice develops. The net income of physicians in private practice was generally be tween $23,000 and $31,000 in 1968, according to the limited in formation available. Earnings of physicians depend on factors such as the region of the country in which they practice; the patients’ income level; and the physician’s skill, personality, and professional reputation, as well as his length of experience. Physicians engaged in private practice usually earn more than those in salaried posi tions, and specialists usually earn considerably more than general practitioners. Many physicians have long working days and ir regular hours. Most specialists work fewer hours each week than general practitioners. As doctors grow older, they may not accept new patients and tend to work fewer hours. However, many con tinue in practice well beyond 70 years of age. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Persons wishing to practice in a given State should find out about the requirements for licensure di rectly from the board of medical examiners of that State. Lists of approved medical schools, as well as general information on pre medical education and medicine as a career, may be obtained from: Council on Medical Education, American Medical Association, 535 North Dearborn St., Chica go, 1 1 60610. 1. Association of American Medical Colleges, 2530 Ridge Ave., Evanston, 1 1 60201. 1. OSTEOPATHIC PHYSICIANS (D.O.T. 071.108) N ature of the W ork Osteopathic physicians diag nose, prescribe remedies, and treat diseases of the human body, paying particular attention to impairments in the musculo skeletal system. They emphasize manual manipulative therapy, but in most States, they also use sur gery, drugs, and all other ac cepted methods of medical care. Most osteopathic physicians are “ family doctors” who engage in general practice. These physicians usually see patients in their of fices, make house calls, and treat patients in osteopathic and some city and county hospitals. A few doctors of osteopathy are engaged primarily in research, teaching, or writing and editing scientific books and journals. In recent years, there has been an increase in specialization. The specialties include: Internal medicine, neu rology and psychiatry, ophthal mology and otorhinolaryngology, pediatrics, anesthesiology, physi cal medicine and rehabilitation, dermatology, obstetrics and gyne cology, pathology, proctology, radiology, and surgery. 81 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Places of Em ploym ent More than 12,000 osteopathic physicians were practicing in the United States in early 1968. Nearly all of them were in private practice. Less than 5 percent had full-time salaried positions, main ly in osteopathic hospitals and colleges. A few were employed by private industry or government agencies. Osteopathic physicians are lo cated chiefly in those States which have osteopathic hospital facilities. In 1968, about half of all osteopathic physicians were in five States: Michigan, Pennsyl vania, Ohio, Missouri, and Texas. Twenty-four States and the Dis trict of Columbia each had fewer than 50 osteopathic physicians. More than half of all general practitioners are located in towns and cities having less than 50,000 people; specialists, however, prac tice mainly in large cities. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications A license to practice as an osteopathic physician is required in all States. In early 1968, li censed osteopathic physicians were qualified to engage in all types of medical and surgical practice in 42 States and the Dis trict of Columbia. The remaining States limit in varying degrees the use of drugs or the type of surgery that can be performed by osteopathic physicians. T o obtain a license, a candidate must be a graduate of an ap proved school of osteopathy and pass a State board examination. In 22 States and the District of Columbia, the candidate must pass an examination in the basic sciences before he is eligible to take the professional examina tion; 31 States and the District of Columbia also require a period of internship after graduation from an osteopathic school. All States except Alaska, California, Florida, and Mississippi grant li censes without further examina tion to properly qualified osteo pathic physicians already li censed by another State. Although 3 years of preosteopathic college work is the mini mum requirement for entry to schools of osteopathy, 4 years is often preferred. Osteopathic col leges require successful comple tion of 4 years of professional study for the degree of Doctor of Osteopathy (D .O .). Preosteopathic education must include courses in chemistry, physics, bi ology, and English. During the first 2 years of professional train ing, emphasis is placed on basic sciences such as anatomy, physi ology, pathology and on the prin ciples of osteopathy; the last 2 years are devoted largely to work with patients in hospitals and clinics. After graduation, almost all doctors of osteopathy serve a 12month internship at 1 of the 80 osteopathic hospitals which the American Osteopathic Associa tion has approved for intern training. Those who wish to be come specialists must have 2 to 5 years of additional training, fol lowed by 2 years of supervised practice in the specialty. The osteopathic physician’s training is very costly because of the length of time it takes to earn the degree of Doctor of Osteo pathy. However, the Health Pro fessions Educational Assistance Act of 1963, as amended, provides Federal funds for loans and schol arships of up to $2,500 a year to help needy students pursue full time study leading to the degree. Every year, more young people apply for admission to the five ap proved schools of osteopathy than can be accepted. In selecting stu dents, these colleges consider grades received in preprofessional education, scores on medical apti tude tests, and the amount of preosteopathic college work com pleted. In 1968, 95 percent of the students entering osteopathic col leges had bachelor’s degrees. The applicant’s desire to serve as an osteopathic physician rather than as a doctor trained in other fields of medicine is a very important qualification. The colleges also give considerable weight to a fa vorable recommendation by an osteopathic physician familiar with the applicant’s background. Newly qualified doctors of ostepathy usually establish their own practice. A few work as assistants to experienced physicians or be come associated with osteopathic hospitals. In view of the variation in State laws regulating the prac tice of osteopathy, the osteo pathic physician should study carefully the professional and legal requirements of the State in which he plans to practice. The availability of osteopathic hospi tals and clinical facilities also should be considered when choos ing a location. Em ploym ent O utlook Opportunities for osteopathic physicians are expected to be ex cellent through the 1970’s. Great est demand for their services probably will* continue to be in States where osteopathy is a widely accepted method of treat ment, such as Pennsylvania and a number of Midwestern States. Generally, prospects for begin ning a successful practice are likely to be best in rural areas, small towns, and city suburbs, where the young doctor of osteo pathy may encounter less compe tition and therefore establish his professional reputation more easily than in the centers of large cities. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 82 The demand for the services of osteopathic physicians is expected to grow through the 1970’s be cause of factors such as the an ticipated population growth, the extension of prepayment pro grams for hospitalization and medical care including Medicare and Medicaid, and the trend tow ard higher standards of health care. Furthermore, there is a like lihood of greater public accept ance of osteopathy, liberalization of certain State restrictions on the use of drugs and surgery by osteopathic physicians, and the establishment of additional osteo pathic hospitals. Despite the expected growth in demand, the employment of osteopathic physicians is expected to increase only moderately be cause the number of new osteo pathic physicians being trained is restricted by the limited capacity of osteopathic colleges. Approxi mately half of all graduates ex pected each year through the 1970’s probably will be needed to replace osteopathic physicians who retire, die, or leave the pro fession for other reasons; hence the number of new graduates will be barely sufficient to maintain the present ratio of osteopathic physicians to population. Al though some expansion in osteo pathic college facilities is antici pated because of recent Federal legislation, which provides Fed eral funds to assist in the con struction of new teaching facili ties for osteopathic physicians, no significant increase in graduates is expected through the 1970’s. Women osteopathic physicians will find good opportunities not only in private practice but also on faculties of osteopathic col leges and on the staffs of hospi tals and clinics. Approximately 7 percent of all osteopathic phy sicians are women. Women stu dents, however, represented only about 3 percent of the total en rollment in osteopathic colleges in 1968, although men and women are equally eligible for admission. Earnings and W orking Conditions In osteopathy, as in many of the other health professions, in comes usually rise markedly after the first few years of practice. Earnings of individual practition ers are determined mainly by such factors as ability, experi ence, the income level of the com munity served, and geographic lo cation. The average income above business expenses of general prac titioners, in early 1968, ranged from $18,000 to $25,000, accord ing to the limited data available. Specialists usually had higher in comes than general practitioners. Many osteopathic physicians work more than 50 and 60 hours a week. Those in general practice work longer and more irregular hours than specialists. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Persons wishing to practice in a given State should find out about the requirements for licensure directly from the board of exam iners of that State. A list of State boards, as well as general in formation on osteopathy as a ca reer, may be obtained from: American Osteopathic Association, 212 East Ohio St., Chicago, 1 1 1. 60611. DENTISTS (D.O.T. 072.108) N ature of the W ork Dentists look for and fill cavi ties in the teeth, straighten teeth, take X-rays of the mouth, and treat gum diseases. Dentists also extract teeth and substitute arti ficial dentures especially de signed for the individual patient. In addition, they clean teeth and examine the mouth for diseases. They spend most of their time with patients, but some time may be devoted to laboratory work such as making dentures and in lays. Many dentists, however— particularly in large cities— send most of their laboratory work to commercial firms. Some dentists employ dental hygienists to clean patients’ teeth. (See statement on Dental Hygienists.) They also employ other assistants who per form office work and assist in “ chairside” duties. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Most dentists are general prac titioners who provide many types of dental care; only about 9 per cent are recognized as specialists. About half of these specialists are orthodontists, who straighten teeth. The next larger number, oral surgeons, perform operations in the mouth and jaws. The re mainder specialize in periodontology (treating the tissues that support the teeth), prosthodontics (making artificial teeth or dentures), pedodontics (dentistry for children), oral pathology (diseases of the mouth), en dodontic (root canal therapy), and public health dentistry. About 3 percent of all dentists are employed primarily in work that does not involve “ chairside” practice, such as teaching and re search. Many dentists in private practice, however, do this work on a part-time basis. Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 100,000 den tists were at work in the United States in 1968. About 9 of every ten were in private practice. Of the remainder, about 6,800 served as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces; about 1,300 had other types of Federal Govern ment positions— chiefly in the hospitals and clinics of the Vet erans Administration and the Public Health Service; and some what less than 2,000 held full time positions in schools, hospi tals, or State and local health agencies. Women dentists repre sented only about 2 percent of the profession. Dentists tend to be concen trated in large cities and in popu lous States. In early 1968, about a third of all dentists were lo cated in the four States of New York, California, Pennsylvania, and Illinois. 83 Train in g , O ther Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent A license to practice dentistry is required in all States and the District of Columbia. T o qualify for a license, a candidate must be a graduate of an approved dental school and pass a State board examination. In 1968, 46 States and the District of Columbia rec ognized the examination given by the National Board of Dental Ex aminers as a substitute for the written part of the State board examinations. One State, Dela ware, also requires new graduates to serve 1 year of hospital intern ship. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both gen eral and specialized practice. In 10 States, however, a dentist can not be licensed as a “ specialist” unless he has 2 or 3 years of graduate education, several years of specialized experience, and passes a special State examina tion. Few States permit dentists licensed in other States to prac tice in their jurisdictions without further examination. The minimum education re quirements for graduation from an approved dental school is 2 years of predental college work followed by 4 years of profes sional dental school training; 12 of the 51 dental schools in opera tion in the United States in 1968 required 3 years of predental study. Predental education must include at least a half-year course in organic chemistry and full-year courses in English, biology, phy sics, and inorganic chemistry. In dental college, the first 2 years are usually devoted to classroom instruction and labora tory work in basic sciences such as anatomy, bacteriology, and pharmacology. The last 2 years are spent chiefly in the school’s dental clinic, treating patients. The degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D .S.) is awarded by most dental colleges. An equiva lent degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine (D .M .D .) is conferred by a few schools. Competition is keen for admit tance to dental schools. In select ing students, schools give con siderable weight to college grades and amount of college education; more than half of the students enrolling in dental schools have bachelor’s degrees. In addition, all dental schools participate in a nationwide aptitude testing pro gram, and scores earned on these tests are considered along with information gathered about the applicant through recommenda tions and interviews. Many Statesupported dental schools also give preference to residents of their particular States. Dentists interested in research or teaching, or in becoming spe cialists, often take graduate work. Graduate training may be ob tained at most schools of den tistry, or by serving an internship or residency at 1 of the 270 ap proved hospitals that offer these programs. Dental education is very costly because of the length of time re quired to earn the dental degree. However, the Health Professions Educational Assistance Act of 1963, as amended, provides Fed eral funds for loans and scholar ships up to $2,500 a year to help needy students pursue full-time study leading to the degree. The profession of dentistry re quires both manual skills and a high level of intelligence. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment of space and shape, delicacy of touch, and a high degree of manual dexterity, as well as scientific ability. A lik ing for people and a good business sense are helpful in achieving success in private practice. The majority of newly qualified dentists open their own offices or purchase established practices. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 84 Some start in practice with estab lished dentists, to gain experience and to save the money required to equip an office; others may en ter residency or internship train ing programs in approved hospi tals. Dentists entering the Armed Forces are commissioned as cap tains in the Army and Air Force and as lieutenants in the Navy, and may progress to higher ranks. Graduates of recognized dental schools are eligible for Federal Civil Service positions and for commissions (equivalent to lieu tenants in the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Service. Em ploym ent O utlook Opportunities for dentists are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. The demand for dental services is expected to increase along with an expanding popula tion; the growing awareness of the importance of regular dental care; and the development of pre payment arrangements which make it easier for people of mod erate means to obtain dental serv ice. Expanded dental research ac tivities will require more trained personnel; dental public health programs will need qualified ad ministrators; and dental colleges will need additional faculty mem bers. Many dentists will continue to serve in the Armed Forces. Improved dental hygiene and fluoridation of community water supplies may prevent some tooth and gum disorders, but such measures— by preserving teeth that might otherwise be extracted — may tend to increase rather than decrease the demand for dental care. Other new techni ques, equipment, and drugs, as well as the more extensive use of dental hygienists, assistants, and laboratory technicians may per mit individual dentists to care for more patients. However, these de velopments are not expected to offset the need for more dentists. Newly trained dentists will be needed not only to fill new open ings, but also to replace dentists who retire or die. The number needed to fill vacancies caused by losses to the profession is esti mated at about 2,000 each year through the 1970’s. Despite the favorable outlook for dentists, the number of men and women who will be able to enter this field will be restricted by the present limited capacity of dental schools. However, op portunities to obtain dental train ing are expected to increase be cause of recent Federal legisla tion which provides Federal funds to assist in the construction of additional training facilities for dentists. Earnings and W orking Conditions During the first year or two of practice, dentists often earn little more than the minimum needed to cover expenses, but their earn ings usually rise rapidly as their practice develops. Specialists gen erally earn considerably more than general practitioners. Aver age income above expenses for all self-employed dentists in 1968 was estimated at about $25,000 a year. In the Federal Government, new graduates of dental schools could expect to receive starting yearly salaries, depending on col lege records and other qualifica tions, ranging from $10,203 to $12,174. Location is one of the major factors affecting the income of dentists who open their own of fices. For example, in high-in come urban areas dental services are in great demand; however, a practice can be developed most quickly in small towns where new dentists easily become known and where there may be less compe tition with established practi tioners. Although the income from practice in small towns may rise rapidly at first, over the long run the level of earnings, like the cost of living, may be lower than that in larger communities. Most dental offices are open 5 days a week and some dentists have evening hours. Dentists us ually work between 40 and 50 hours a week, although many spend more than 50 hours a week in the office. Dentists often work fewer hours as they grow older, since the hours of work are usu ally determined by the dentist himself. A considerable number continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Sources of A dditional Inform ation People wishing to practice in a given State should get the re quirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of that State. Lists of State boards and of accredited dental schools, as well as information on dentistry as a career, may be obtained from: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chica go, 1 1 60611. 1. American Association of Dental Schools, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 11 . 60611. 1 DENTAL HYGIENISTS (D.O.T. 078.368) N ature of the W ork Dental hygienists work under the supervision of a dentist; they clean teeth by removing stains and calcium deposits, polish teeth, and massage gums. While per- 85 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS forming this work (oral prophyl axis), they chart conditions of decay and disease for diagnosis by the dentist. They also may take and develop X-rays, mix fill ing compounds, apply solutions to the teeth for the control of dental decay, administer pre scribed medicaments, sterilize in struments, and act as chairside assistants to the dentists. Hygien ists provide dental health educa tion, including the techniques of mouth care and proper diet. work part time. The large major ity of all dental hygienists were employed in private dental of fices; others worked for public health agencies, school systems, industrial plants, clinics, hospi tals, dental hygiene schools, and as civilian employees of the Armed Forces. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications Dental hygienists working in school systems promote dental health by examining children’s teeth, assisting dentists in deter mining the dental treatment needed, and reporting their find ings to parents. They also per form oral prophylaxes and give in struction on correct care and brushing of teeth. Some help to develop classroom projects or as sembly programs on oral health. Dental hygienists employed by health agencies work on dental health projects or perform clin ical duties. A few assist in re search projects. Those having ad vanced training may teach in schools of dental hygiene. Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 16,000 dental hygienists were employed in 1968; most of them were women. Many Dental hygienists must pass an examination to be licensed by the State in which they wish to prac tice. In all States except Alabama and Georgia, eligibility for a li cense is limited to graduates of accredited dental hygiene schools. In 1968, candidates in 44 States could complete part of the State licensing requirements by passing a written examination given by the National Board of Dental Ex aminers. Upon being licensed, a hygienist becomes a Registered Dental Hygienist (R .D .H .). In order to practice in a different State, a licensed dental hygien ist must pass that State’s examination. In 1968, 67 schools of dental hygiene in the United States were accredited or provisionally accredited by the Council on Dental Education of the Amer ican Dental Association. Most of these schools provide a 2-year certificate or associate degree pro gram. Some have 4-year programs leading to the bachelor’s degree in dental hygiene and others offer both programs. Programs leading to a master’s degree are offered in three schools. For dental hygienists interested in practicing in a private dental office, completion of the 2-year program generally is sufficient. In order to work in research, teach ing, and in public or school health programs, the completion of a 4year program usually is required. The minimum requirement for 86 admission to a school of dental hygiene is graduation from high school. Several schools which of fer the bachelor’s degree admit students to the dental hygiene program only after they have completed 2 years of college. Many schools also require that applicants take aptitude tests conducted by the American Den tal Hygienists’ Association. The curriculum at a school of dental hygiene consists of courses in the basic sciences, dental sci ences, and liberal arts. These schools offer laboratory work, clinical experience, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, chemistry, histology, pathology, pharmacology, and nu trition. The ability to work well with people, patience, manual dexterity, and attentiveness to detail are essential in this field. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK desire part-time positions can ex pect to find very good opportuni ties for employment. Earnings and W orking Conditions school systems, health agencies, and the Federal or State govern ments have the same hours, vaca tion, sick leave, and retirement benefits as other workers in these organizations. Earnings of dental hygienists Sources of Additional Inform ation are affected by the type of em Information about approved ployer, education, and experience of the individual hygienist, and schools and the educational re the area where the job is located. quirements needed to enter this Dental hygienists working in pri occupation may be obtained from: vate dental offices usually are American Dental Hygienists’ As sociation, 211 East Chicago Ave. salaried employees, although some Chicago, 11 . 60611. 1 are paid a commission for work performed or a combination of Other material on opportunities salary and commission. Those em for dental hygienists is available ployed in research, administra from: tive, supervisory, or teaching Division of Dental Health, Public positions generally earn higher Health Service, U.S. Depart salaries. ment of Health, Education, and Salaries of dental hygienists Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20201. employed full time in private of fices averaged about $6,700 a Information concerning licens Em ploym ent O utlook year in 1968, according to a sur ing requirements can be obtained vey conducted by the American from the State Board of Dental Employment opportunities for Dental Association. The annual Examiners in each State. dental hygienists are expected to beginning salary for a dental hy be very good through the 1970’s. gienist employed by the Federal Despite an anticipated rise in the Government was either $5,145 or number of graduates from schools $5,732 in late 1968, depending on DENTAL ASSISTANTS of dental hygiene, the demand is education and experience. Dental hygienists employed full expected to be greater than the (D.O.T. 079.378) number available for employment. time in private offices usually The demand for hygienists is work between 35 and 40 hours a expected to increase as a result of week. They may work on Satur N ature of the W ork the expanding population and the days or during evening hours. growing awareness of the import Some hygienists work for two or Dental assistants work with ance of regular dental care. In more dentists. Most dental hygienists are em dentists as they examine and creasing interest in dental care treat patients. The assistant programs for children will lead to ployed in clean, well-lighted of makes the patient comfortable in more employment opportunities. fices but may have to stand for the dental chair, prepares him for Increased participation in dental long periods of time. Regular prepayment plans and more group medical checkups and strict ad treatment, and obtains his dental records. As the dentist works, the practice among dentists also may herence to established procedures result in new jobs for dental hy for using X-ray equipment and assistant hands the proper instru gienists. In addition, a great num for disinfection are important ments and materials to him and ber of job openings will be created health protections for persons in keeps the patient’s mouth clear by using suction or other devices. by young women leaving their this occupation. A paid vacation of 2 or 3 weeks Dental assistants may prepare jobs for marriage and family is common among hygienists who impression and restorative ma responsibilities. Mature women who wish to re work full time in dental offices. terials for the dentists’ use, and turn to the field, and those who Dental hygienists employed by also may expose X-rays and pro- HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 87 cess dental X-ray film as directed by the dentists. In addition, they sterilize and care for dental instruments. Although dental assistants spend most of their time at chairside, they also perform a variety of other duties that do not re quire the dentist’s professional knowledge and skill. Some assist ants perform simple technical work in the office laboratory such as making casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions taken by the dentist. These casts are used by dentists and dental laboratory technicians to make prosthetic de vices. Some dental assistants are responsible for managing the of fice, and may arrange and con firm appointments, receive pa tients, keep treatment records, send statements and receive pay ment, and order dental supplies and materials. The work of the dental assist ant should not be confused with that of the dental hygienist. Den tal assistants do not, for instance, perform work in the patient’s mouth, such as oral prophylaxis (scaling and cleaning the teeth); this is done by hygienists. (See statement on Dental Hygienists.) Places of Em ploym ent 1968; practically all were women. About one out of five assistants were employed part-time. Most dental assistants worked in private dental offices, either for individual dentists or for groups of dentists. Many of the remain der were employed in dental schools, hospital dental depart ments, State and local public health departments, or private clinics. Nearly 100,000 persons were employed as dental assistants in The Federal Government em ployed about 2,000 dental assistante in 1968, chiefly in the Public Health Service, the Veterans Ad ministration, and the Department of the Army. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Most dental assistants em ployed in 1968 learned their skill on the job. In recent years, how ever, an increasing number of den tal assistants have entered the oc cupation through formal posthigh school dental assisting programs. About 130 such programs were accredited by the Council on Den tal Education of the American Dental Association (A D A ) in mid-1968. Some of these were supported under Federal legisla tion, including the Manpower De velopment and Training Act of 1962, the Vocational Education Act of 1963 and the Allied Health Professions Personnel Training Act of 1966. Most post high school courses in dental assisting are given in junior and community colleges or in vocational or technical schools. More than two-thirds of these pro grams provide a full academic year of training leading to a cer tificate or diploma. Graduates of 2-year programs— offered only in junior and community colleges— earn an associate degree upon completion of specialized training and 1 year of liberal arte courses. A few schools provide both 1- and 2-year programs. Completion of high school or its equivalent is the standard admission requirement of all the approved schools that offer courses in dental assisting. Some schools also may require typing or a science or business course. Approved dental assisting curriculums include instruction in both skills and related theory— in laboratory and classroom— and usually a general occupational orientation. Trainees receive prac- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 88 tical experience in an affiliated dental school, in local clinical facilities, or in selected dental offices. Two American Dental Associa tion approved correspondence courses are available for employed dental assistants who are learning on the job, or who otherwise are unable to participate on regular dental assisting programs on a full-time basis. The correspond ence programs are equivalent to 1 academic year of study but gen erally require about 2 years to complete. Some proprietary schools also offer a 4- to 6-month course in dental assisting, but these are not accredited by the dental profession. Graduates of approved dental assisting programs who meet cer tain experience requirements and who successfully complete an ex amination administered by the American Dental Assistants Asso ciation may become Certified Dental Assistants. Certification is acknowledgement of an assistant’s qualifications but is not a general prerequisite for employment. After working 1 or 2 years, den tal assistants sometimes seek to further their skills by becoming dental hygienists. Prospective dental assistants who forsee this possibility should plan carefully, since credit earned in a dental assistant program usually is not applicable toward requirements for a dental hygiene certificate. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for dental assistants are expected to be excellent through the 1970’s, especially for graduates of aca demic programs in dental assist ing. Part-time opportunities also will be very favorable. Growing awareness of the im portance of regular dental care and the increasing ability of per sons to pay for care are among the factors underlying an anti cipated rapid growth in the de mand for the services of dental assistants. Other factors affecting demand are an increased partici pation in dental prepayment plans, and the expansion of public programs such as Medicaid and Head Start, which extend dental care services to the disadvan taged. Another important factor in the growing need for more dental assistants is the slow in crease in the supply of dentists in proportion to population growth, resulting in the greater use of auxiliary workers. In addition to the rapid growth of the occupation, many assist ants also will be needed each year to replace the large number of women who leave the field for marriage and family responsibil ities. Earnings and W orking Conditions Weekly salaries of assistants employed in private dental offices ranged from $70 to $125 in late 1968 according to the limited data available. Salary depends largely on the assistant’s education and experience, the duties and respon sibilities attached to the particu lar job, and the part of the coun try in which the job is located. In the Federal Government, ex perience and the amount and type of education govern entrance sal aries. In late 1968, a person who had 6 months’ related experience started at $4,231 a year; gradu ates of an ADA approved 1-year training program who had an ad ditional year of general experience could expect to start at $5,145 a year. Although the 40-hour work week prevails for dental assist ants, the schedule is likely to in clude work on Saturday. A 2- or 3-week paid vacation is common. Sick leave and other benefits are dependent on the individual den tist. Dental assistants employed by the Federal Government re ceive the same employee benefits as other workers. Dental assistants generally work in a well-lighted, clean en vironment. They must exercise caution in handling X-ray and other equipment, where strict ad herence to proper procedure is in dispensable for safety. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information about career op portunities; scholarships; accred ited dental assistant programs, in cluding the correspondence pro grams; and requirements for cer tification may be obtained from: American Dental Assistants Asso ciation, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 1 1 60611. 1. Other material on opportunities for dental assistants is available from: Division of Dental Health, Public Health Service, U.S. Depart ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20201. DENTAL LABORATORY TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 712.381) N ature of the W ork Dentures— artificial teeth, crowns, bridges, and other dental and orthodontic appliances— used to be made by dentists. Now, dental laboratory technicians do most of this highly skilled work. The technicians do not see pa tients but follow dentists’ written instructions. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS In making many kinds of den tal appliances, dental laboratory technicians form models in artifi cial stone (hard plaster) from im pressions of patients’ mouths taken by dentists. They also make metal castings for dentures, finish and polish dentures, construct metal or porcelain crowns or in lays for partially destroyed teeth, make gold and other metal bridges, and make appliances to correct abnormalities such as cleft palates. 89 areas such as fabricating crowns and bridges, arranging artificial teeth on dental appliances so that they function properly, process ing plastic materials, working with dental ceramics (porcelain), or making castings of gold or non precious metal alloys used in dentistry. In performing their work, dental laboratory techni cians use small handtools, special electric lathes and drills, highheat furnaces, and other kinds of specialized laboratory equipment. Places of Em ploym ent In beginning jobs, trainees usu ally perform relatively simple tasks such as mixing and pouring plaster into casts and molds. As they gain experience, they do more difficult laboratory work. Some dental laboratory techni cians do all types of dental labora tory work. Others specialize in An estimated 27,000 dental lab oratory technicians were em ployed in 1968. Most of them worked in commercial laborato ries, either as employees or as owners of the business. Commer cial laboratories, which handle orders from dentists, usually em ploy fewer than 10 technicians. However, a few large laboratories employ many technicians. More than 4,000 dental labora tory technicians were employed full-time by individual dentists. Some worked in hospitals that provided dental services. Others were employed by the .Federal Government, chiefly in the Veter an’s Administration hospitals and clinics and in the Department of the Army. Women, who account for a little more than 10 percent of all dental laboratory techni cians, worked mainly in large commercial laboratories. Dental laboratory technicians, like the dentists who use their services, are located mainly in cities and in States that have large populations. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Although no minimum formal education is needed to enter this occupation, a high school diploma is an asset. Most dental labora tory technicians learn the craft on the job, usually in a commer cial laboratory, a dental office, or a hospital offering dental services. Typically, on-the-job training lasts 3 or 4 years, depending on factors such as the trainee’s pre vious experience, his ability to master the techniques, and the number of specialized areas to be learned. Courses in dental lab oratory work, offered in a few public vocational high schools and junior colleges, may be taken in conjunction with on-the-job train ing. Persons also may qualify by enrolling in 1- or 2-year programs in dental laboratory technology offered by several schools. Re gardless of a student’s educational background, employers consider actual work experience to be nec essary for a person to qualify as a full-fledged technician. In 1968, 2-year educational programs accredited by the Amer ican Dental Association were of fered by 19 schools to high school graduates (or those with equiva lent education). The first year of training in these schools in cludes formal classroom instruc tion in dental law and ethics, chemistry, ceramics, metallurgy, and other related subjects. Dur ing the second year, the student is provided supervised practical experience in the school or a den tal laboratory. After completion of the 2-year training program, an additional 3 years of practical experience in a dental office or a laboratory generally is needed to become recognized as a well-qual ified dental technician. The National Association of Certified Dental Laboratories sponsors a certification program for dental laboratory technicians who can meet certain training and other requirements. Certification may become increasingly import- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 90 ant for obtaining employment as a dental laboratory technician be cause many employers are likely to regard it as evidence of the technician's competence. Among the personal qualifica tions which employers look for in selecting trainees are a high de gree of manual dexterity, good color perception, patience, and a liking for detailed work. Prefer ence also may be given to young people who have completed high school courses in art, ceramics and pottery, sculpturing, blue print reading, plastics, and metal working. Em ploym ent O utlook Job opportunities for well-qual ified dental laboratory techni cians are expected to be very good through the 1970's. Oppor tunities for trainees also should be very favorable. In addition to an expected rapid increase in em ployment, many openings for den tal laboratory technicians will oc cur because of the need to replace technicians who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Opportunities for salaried em ployment for both experienced and trainee dental laboratory technicians will be best in com mercial laboratories and in the Federal Government. Some ex perienced technicians also should be able to establish laboratories of their own. A technician whose work has become known to sev eral dentists in a community will have the best prospect of building a successful business. Among the factors underlying the expected rapid growth in de mand are the availability of new dental prepayment plans and the increasing number of older people with an accompanying increase in the number of persons requiring artificial dentures. Moreover, the number of dentists is not expected to keep pace with the demand for their services; hence, to devote more time to treatment of pa tients, dentists will send more and more of their laboratory work to commercial firms. Earnings and W orking Conditions Apprentice or trainee dental laboratory technicians employed in commercial laboratories in 1968 usually earned between $65 and $75 a week. Technicians having 10 years experience or more in commerical laboratories generally earned between $150 and $200 a week, depending on their skill lev el and experience. Ceramist tech nicians and crown and bridge technicians received the highest salaries. Foremen and managers in large dental laboratories may earn $250 or more per week. In general, net earnings of self-em ployed technicians are higher than those of salaried workers. The starting salary for inex perienced dental laboratory tech nicians employed in the Federal Government was about $100 a week in 1968. The majority of ex perienced dental laboratory tech nicians employed in the Federal Government generally earned be tween $148 and $163 a week. Salaried technicians usually work the standard 40-hour week, but self-employed technicians fre quently work longer hours. Many technicians in commercial labora tories receive paid holidays and vacations, and some also are pro vided paid sick leave, bonuses, and other fringe benefits. Techni cians employed by the Federal Government have the same bene fits as other Federal employees. The work of dental laboratory technicians is not strenuous, and most jobs can be done by handi capped workers provided they have good use of their hands and fingers. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information about the training and lists of approved schools are available from: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 1 1 60611. 1. Information on career oppor tunities in commercial laborato ries, scholarships, requirements for certification, and apprentice ship programs may be obtained from: National Association of Certified Dental Laboratories, Inc., 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22305. REGISTERED NURSES (D.O.T. 075.118 through .378) N atu re of th e W ork Nursing care plays a major role in the treatment of persons who are ill. Registered nurses, in carry ing out the medical treatment plan prescribed by physicians, ad minister medications and treat ments; observe, evaluate, and re cord symptoms, reactions, and progress of patients; assist in the education and rehabilitation of patients; help maintain a physical and emotional environment that promotes patient recovery; in struct auxiliary personnel or stu dents; and perform other duties concerned with the care of the sick and injured, prevention of illness, and promotion of good health. Nurses also engage in other ac tivities such as research and serv ing on the staffs of nursing and community organizations. 91 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Office nurses assist physicians, dental surgeons, and occasionally dentists in the care of patients in private practice or clinics. Some times, they perform routine lab oratory and office work. Public health nurses care for patients in clinics or visit them in their homes. Their duties include instructing patients and families, and giving periodic nursing care as prescribed by a physician. They instruct groups of patients in proper diet and arrange for im munizations. These nurses work with community leaders, teachers, parents, and physicians in com munity health education pro grams. Some public health nurses work in schools. Nurse educators teach students the principles and skills of nurs ing, both in the classroom and in direct patient care. They also may conduct refresher and in-ser vice courses for registered nurses. Hospital nurses are the largest group of registered nurses. Most are staff nurses, who perform skilled bedside nursing such as caring for a patient after an op eration, assisting with blood transfusions and intravenous feedings, and giving medications. They also supervise auxiliary nursing workers. Hospital nurses usually work in a specialty area such as operating room, recovery room, intensive care unit, coro nary care unit, emergency room, medical-surgical ward, obstetrics, or orthopedics. Others limit their work to nursing children, the eld erly, or the mentally-ill. Still oth ers are engaged primarily in ad ministrative work. Private duty nurses give indi vidual nursing care to patients needing constant attention. In hospitals, one private duty nurse may sometimes take care of sev eral patients who require special nursing care but not full-time attention. Occupational health or indus trial nurses provide nursing care to employees in industry and gov ernment, and along with physi cians are responsibile for promot ing employee health. As pre scribed by a doctor, they treat minor injuries and illnesses oc curring at the place of employ ment, provide for the needed nursing care, arrange for further medical care if necessary, and of fer health counseling. They also may assist with health examina tions and inoculations to help prevent or control diseases. (Licensed practical nurses who also perform nursing service are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) Places of Em ploym ent Nearly 660,000 registered nurses were employed in the United States in early 1968. More than two-thirds worked in hospi tals, nursing homes, and related in s t it u t io n s . A p p r o x im a te ly 60.000 were private duty nurses who cared for patients in hospitals and private homes, and more than 50.000 were office nurses. Public health nurses in government agen cies, schools, visiting nurse asso ciations, and clinics numbered more than 40,000; nurse educa tors in nursing schools accounted for about 25,000; and occupation al health nurses in industry, ap proximately 20,000. Most of the others were staff members of pro fessional nurse and other orga nizations, State boards of nurs ing, or were employed by research organizations. More than one-fourth of all nurses employed in 1968 worked on a part-time basis. About 1 per cent of all employed registered nurses are men. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A license is required to practice professional nursing in all States and in the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, a nurse must have graduated from a school ap proved by a State board of nurs ing and pass a State board exam ination. A nurse may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination or endorsement of a license issued by another State. Graduation from high school is required for admission to all schools of nursing. Three types of educational programs— diploma, baccalaureate, and associate de gree— offer the basic education required for careers in registered nursing. Diploma programs are conducted by hospital and inde pendent schools and usually re quire 3 years of training; bache lor’s degree programs usually re quire 4 years of study in a college or university, although a few re quire 5 years; associate degree OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 92 programs in junior and commu nity colleges require approximate ly 2 years of nursing education. In late 1968, about 1,300 pro grams of these three types were offered in the United States. In addition, more than 60 colleges and universities offered master’s and doctoral degree programs in nursing. Programs of nursing include classroom instruction and super vised nursing practice. Students take courses in anatomy, physi ology, microbiology, nutrition, psychology, and basic nursing care. Under close supervision, in hospitals and health facilities, they are given clinical experience in the care of patients who have different types of health prob lems. Students in colleges offer ing bachelor’s degree programs and in some of the other schools are assigned to public health agencies to learn how to care for patients in clinics and in the pa tients’ homes. General education is combined with nursing educa tion in baccalaureate and associ ate degree programs and in some diploma programs. Qualified students in need of financial aid may obtain a nurs ing educational opportunity grant or a low-interest loan under the Nurse Training Act of 1964. Up to 50 percent of the amount of the loan may be cancelled at the rate of 10 percent for each year of full-time employment in nurs ing after graduation. The Nurse Training Act also provides traineeship funds to cover tuition, fees, and a stipend and allowances for nurses seeking advanced training for positions as adminis trators, supervisors, nursing spe cialties, and nurse educators. Desired personal qualifications for young people considering a nursing career include depend ability, good judgment, patience, good physical and mental health, and a desire to care for the sick and injured. Hospital nursing usually begins with staff positions from which experienced nurses may be ad vanced to progressively more re sponsible supervisory positions, such as head nurse, supervisor, assistant director, and director of nursing service. A master’s degree, however, often is required for supervisory and administrative positions, as well as for positions in nursing education, clinical spe cialization, and research. In public health agencies, advancement op portunities are usually limited for nurses without degrees in public health nursing. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for registered nurses are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. For nurses who have had gradu ate education, the outlook is ex cellent for obtaining positions as administrators, teachers, clinical specialists, public health nurses, and for work in research. The principal factors underly ing the anticipated rise in the demand for nurses include the country’s rising population; im proved economic status of the population; extension of prepay ment programs for hospitalization and medical care, including Medi care and Medicaid; expansion of medical services as a result of new medical techniques and drugs; and increased interest in preven tive medicine and rehabilitation of the handicapped. In addition to the number of nurses required for new positions, large numbers will be needed to replace those who leave the field each year be cause of marriage and family responsibilities. Nurses wishing to return to work will find very good employ ment opportunities, either fullor part-time. Earnings and W orking Conditions Annual starting salaries of reg istered nurses employed by hos pitals in 1968 averaged about $6,400, according to limited data available. Salaries of industrial nurses averaged $127.50 a week in early 1968, according to a sur vey conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (B LS). Fees for private duty nurses generally were between $22 and $37 for a basic 8-hour day in early 1968, according to the American Nurses’ Association (A N A ). Average hourly earnings of nonsupervisory nurses in nongovern mental nursing homes were $3.04, according to an early 1968 BLS survey. Average (median) annual sal aries of public health nurses em ployed by local government agen cies were $7,225 in 1968, as indi cated by a National League for Nursing study. Nurse educators and administrators earned an average (median) salary of $8,820 a year in schools of professional nursing, according to a survey by the American Nurses’ Association. In late 1968, the Veterans Ad ministration offered inexperi enced nurses, who had either a diploma or an associate degree, an annual salary of $6,321; and baccalaureate graduates were of fered $7,330. In other Federal Government agencies, graduates of associate programs having 1 year of experience or those having a diploma or baccalaureate degree entered at $5,732. The beginning salary, in late 1968, for nurse of ficers (second lieutenants and en signs) in military service was $5,715 including allowances. Those having bachelor’s degrees who were commissioned in the U.S. Public Health Service re ceived salary and allowances to taling $6,507 a year. The majority of hospital nurses receive extra pay for work on eve- HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS ning or night shifts. Nearly all are provided at least 2 weeks of paid vacation after 1 year of service. Most hospital nurses receive from 5 to 13 paid holidays a year and also some type of health and re tirement benefits. Sources of A dditional Inform ation I n f o r m a t i o n on a p p r o v e d schools of nursing, nursing ca reers, loans, scholarships, salaries, working conditions, and employ ment opportunities may be ob tained from: ANA-NLN Committee on Nursing Careers, American Nurses’ Asciation, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, N.Y. 10019. Information about employment opportunities in the Veterans Ad ministration is available from: Department of Medicine and Sur gery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. 20420. 93 LICENSED PRACTICAL NURSES (D.O.T. 079.378) N ature of th e W ork Licensed practical nurses assist in caring for medical and surgical patients, convalescents, handi capped people, and others who are physically or mentally ill. Under the direction of physicians and registered nurses, they provide nursing care which requires tech nical knowledge but not the pro fessional training of a registered nurse. (See statement on Regis tered Nurses.) In California and Texas, licensed practical nurses are known as licensed vocational nurses. In hospitals, licensed practical nurses provide much of the bed side care needed by patients such as taking and recording tempera tures and blood pressures, chang ing dressings, administering cer tain prescribed medicines, and bathing bed patients and helping them in other ways with personal hygiene. Other duties include assisting physicians and registered nurses in examining patients and in car rying out complex nursing proce dures; assisting in the delivery, care, and feeding of infants; and helping registered nurses in re covery rooms by reporting any adverse changes in patients re covering from the effects of anes thesia. Some licensed practical nurses help in the supervision of hospital attendants. (See state ment on Hospital Attendants.) Licensed practical nurses em ployed in private homes care mainly for patients whose day-today care seldom involves highly technical procedures or compli cated equipment. In addition to providing the nursing care ordered by physicians, they prepare pa tients’ meals and perform other tasks essential to patients’ com fort and morale. Licensed prac tical nurses also teach family members how to perform simple nursing tasks. In doctors’ offices and in clinics, licensed practical nurses help phy sicians by preparing patients for examinations and treatments. In addition, they make appointments and record information about patients. Places of Em ploym ent About 320,000 licensed prac tical nurses were employed in 1968. The great majority were women. About one-half of all licensed practical nurses were employed in hospitals. Most of the others worked in nursing homes, clinics, doctor’s offices, sanitariums, and other long-term care facilities. Public health agencies and wel fare and religious organizations OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 94 also employed many licensed practical nurses. Some worked in the homes of their patients. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent All States and the District of Columbia regulate the prepara tion and licensing of practical nurses. Usually, licenses are is sued only to those candidates who have completed a course of instruction in practical nursing which has been approved by the State board of nursing, and who have also passed a licensing examination. Young people seeking to enroll in State-approved training pro grams usually must be at least 17 (or 18) years old and have completed at least 2 years of high school or its equivalent. Physical examinations are required and ap titude tests given. Some States accept candidates who have com pleted only the eighth or ninth grade. Other States require high school graduation. Many schools that do not require completion of high school nevertheless give pref erence to graduates. In 1968, nearly 1,200 Stateapproved programs provided training in practical nursing. More than one-half were offered by public schools as a part of vo cational and adult education pro grams. Other programs were available at junior colleges, or were sponsored by local hospitals, health agencies, and private edu cational institutions and were usually 1 year in length. Many of the training programs receive fi nancial assistance under the Man power Development and Training Act and the Vocational Educa tion Act. The training offered includes both classroom study and clinical practice. Classroom instruction covers nursing concepts and prin ciples and related subjects such as anatomy, physiology, medicalsurgical nursing, administration of drugs, nutrition, first aid, and community health. This work is supplemented by laboratory prac tice and by supervised work in hospitals where students apply their skills to actual nursing situations. Essential personal qualities needed in practical nursing in clude mental alertness, patience, understanding, emotional stabil ity and dependability. Good health is extremely important. Opportunities for advancement are limited, unless workers take additional training. Through inservice educational programs, some licensed practical nurses may prepare for work in special ized areas such as rehabilitation. Practical nurses cannot become registered nurses, however, un less they undertake additional schooling. Em ploym ent Outlook Licensed practical nurses are expected to be in strong demand during the years ahead. Employ ment is expected to continue to rise very rapidly through the 1970’s, and a large number of new jobs will have to be filled each year as health facilities con tinue to expand. In addition, many workers will be needed an nually to replace licensed prac tical nurses who retire or stop working for other reasons. Many positions will be available for those wishing to work part time. Factors contributing to increased employment are a greater need for health services because of growth in the population, the in creasing ability of persons to pay for health care, and the continu ing expansion of both public and private health insurance plans. Also, greater utilization of li censed practical nurses for work which does not require the skills of a registered nurse is expected to continue to create many job opportunities. Earnings and W orking Conditions Licensed practical nurses em ployed in hospitals and medical schools received average starting salaries of about $90 a week in 1968, according to limited data available. Many hospitals give licensed practical nurses periodic pay in creases after specific periods of satisfactory service. Some hospi tals also provide free laundering of uniforms; less frequently, meals and uniforms are furnished with out charge. A few institutions provide free lodging. The sched uled work-week generally is 40 hours but often includes some work at night and on weekends and holidays. Provisions for paid holidays and vacations, and for health insurance and pension plans are common in many hospitals. Licensed practical nurses em ployed full time in nongovern mental nursing homes and related facilities averaged weekly earn ings of $85 in early 1968, accord ing to a Bureau of Labor Statis tics survey. In private homes, li censed practical nurses usually are on duty for 8, 10, or 12 hours a day and go home at night. A few, on 24-hour duty, live at the homes where they are employed. The basic 8-hour fee in 1968 ranged from $13.50 to $28, ac cording to the American Nurses’ Association. Salaries of licensed practical nurses employed by public health agencies averaged $5,063 a year in 1968. The beginning annual sal ary in the Federal Government for persons having completed a State-approved program of study 95 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS in practical nursing was $4,600 in late 1968. Veterans Administration hospi tals is available from: Sources of A dditional Inform ation Department of Medicine and Sur gery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. 20420. A list of State-approved train ing programs and information about practical nursing may be obtained from: ANA-NLN Nursing Careers, Committee on American Nurses’ Association, 10 Columbus Cir cle, New York, N.Y. 10019. National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, Inc., 535 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., 250 West 57th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. Information about employment opportunities in United States OPTOMETRISTS (D.O.T. 079.108) N ature of the W ork Optometrists help people im prove and protect their vision. They examine eyes, make tests to determine defects in vision, and, when needed, prescribe eye glasses, contact lenses, corrective eye exercises, or other treatment that does not require drugs or surgery. Most optometrists supply the eyeglasses prescribed, and sometimes do minor repair work such as straightening eyeglass frames. Some optometrists spe cialize in work such as treating visual problems of children; fit ting partially sighted persons with microscopic and telescopic lenses or other high-magnification aids; and analyzing lighting and other conditions that affect the efficiency of workers. A few are engaged in teaching, research, or a combination of the two. Optometrists should not be con fused with either ophthalmol ogists, sometimes referred to as oculists, or with dispensing opti cians. Ophthalmologists are phy sicians who specialize in eye dis eases and injuries, perform eye surgery, and prescribe drugs or other treatment, as well as lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and ad just eyeglasses according to pre scriptions written by ophthal mologists or optometrists; they do not examine eyes or prescribe treatment. (See statement on Dispensing Opticians.) Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 17,000 optome trists were in practice in the United States in 1968. More than nine-tenths of all optometrists were self-employed. Several hun dred served in the Armed Forces and some taught in colleges of optometry. The remainder worked for established practi tioners, health clinics, hospitals, optical instrument manufactur ers, or government agencies. About 4 out of 10 optometrists are located in five States— Cali fornia, Illinois, New York, Pen nsylvania, and Ohio. Many small towns and rural areas, es pecially in the South, have no optometrists. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 96 T rain in g , O th er Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A license is required to practice optometry in all States and the District of Columbia. Applicants for licenses must be graduates of an accredited school of optome try and pass a State board ex amination. In some States, only graduates of certain schools of optometry are admitted to these examinations. A student planning to become an optometrist should, therefore, choose a school ap proved by the Board of Optome try in the State where he expects to practice. There were 10 schools of optometry in the country in 1968. Applicants having the nec essary qualifications have an ex cellent chance for admission to these schools. Needy students may obain loans and scholarships up to $2,500 a year to pursue full time study leading to a degree in optometry from Federal funds provided by the Health Profes sions Educational Assistance Act of 1963, as amended. At least 6 years of college are needed to become an optometrist — 2 years of preopometry educa tion in an approved college, fol lowed by 4 years of training in an optometry school. Preoptome try courses include mathematics, physics, biology, and chemistry, as well as English and other lib eral arts courses. Students in schools of optometry have class room and laboratory work and obtain professional experience in the out-patient clinics operated by the schools. All schools award the degree of Doctor of Optome try (O .D .). Optometrists who wish to specialize often take graduate training. A master’s or Ph. D. de gree in physiological optics or in a related field is usually required for teaching and research work. A prospective optometrist should have a liking for mathe matical and scientific work, the ability to use delicate precision instruments, mechanical aptitude, and good vision. In addition, to become a successful practitioner, he must be able to deal with peo ple tactfully. Many beginning optometrists either set up a new practice or purchase an established one. Some take salaried positions to obtain experience and the neces sary funds to enter their own practice. vision for efficiency at work and in school; and the greater accept ance of the use of eyeglasses and contact lenses to counteract eye strain and visual defects. Al though expanded demand will be met in part by opthalmologists, optometrists will continue to sup ply a substantial proportion of all eye care services. Earnings and W orking Conditions Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for new optometry graduates are ex pected to remain favorable through the 1970’s. The demand for optometric services is ex pected to increase, but the total number of new graduates will probably be little more than the number needed to replace op tometrists who retire, die, or stop practicing for other reasons. Opportunities to establish a new practice will be best gener ally in small towns and in resi dential areas of cities, where the new optometrist can become known easily. Communities, es pecially in the South, that have no optometric services available also will offer opportunities for new graduates. A good office lo cation is of major importance for a successful practice. The optom etrist should consider the number of optometrists and ophthalmolo gists in the vicinity in relation to the size, occupations, age, and in come level of the population in the area. Among the factors underlying the expected increase in demand for eye care services are a growing population having larger numbers of older people and white collar workers, the groups most likely to need glasses; the wider recog nition of the importance of good New optometry graduates who go into practice for themselves generally have a low income dur ing the first few years. They usu ally earn less than new optome trists who take salaried positions. After a few years of experience, the situation is usually reversed, since the income of independent practitioners generally exceeds the earnings of salaried optome trists. In early 1968, starting salaries of new optometry graduates ranged from about $8,000 to $10,000 a year, according to the lim ited information available. The average net income of experi enced optometrists was about $19,000. Incomes varied greatly, depending on location, specializa tion, and other factors. Most optometrists work 40 to 49 hours a week, regardless of whether they practice in a small town, medium-size city, or large city. Since the work is not strenu ous, optometrists can often con tinue to practice after the normal retirement age. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information on op tometry as a career is available from: American Optometric Association, 7000 Chippewa St., St. Louis, Mo. 63119. 97 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Information on required pre optometry courses may be ob tained by writing to the optome try school in which the prospec tive student wishes to enroll. The Board of Optometry in the capital of the State in which the student plans to practice will provide a list of optometry schools ap proved by that State, as well as licensing requirements. PHARMACISTS (D.O.T. 074.181) N atu re of th e W ork Pharmacists dispense drugs and medicines and provide informa tion on their use to help protect people’s health. They dispense prescriptions ordered by physi cians and other medical practi tioners, and supply and advise people on the use of many medi cines that can be obtained with out prescriptions. Pharmacists must understand the use, com position, and effect of drugs and be able to test them for purity and strength. Compounding— the actual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and solutions— is only a small part of present-day pharmacists’ work, since many drugs now are produced by manu facturers in the form used by the patient. Many pharmacists in drug stores or community pharmacies have sales and managerial as well as professional duties. Besides dispensing drugs, these pharma cists buy and sell other merchan dise, hire and supervise store per sonnel, and oversee the general operation of the store. Some pharmacists, however, operate prescription pharmacies that sell only drugs, medical supplies, and health accessories. Pharmacists in hospitals dispense prescriptions and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs; they also may make sterile solu tions, buy medical supplies, teach in schools of nursing, and perform administrative duties. An increas ing number of hospital pharma cists are “ clinical pharmacists” , who work in patient care areas as active members of the medical team. Some pharmacists, em ployed as medical sales represen tatives or “ detail men” by drug manufacturers and wholesalers, sell medicines to pharmacies and inform practicing pharmacists, doctors, dentists, and nurses about new drugs. Others teach in colleges, perform research, super vise the manufacture of pharma ceuticals, develop new drugs, edit or write articles for pharmaceuti cal journals, or do administrative work. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 98 Places of Em ploym ent Of the more than 121,000 li censed pharmacists working in 1968, about 103,000 were in retail pharmacies. Of these retail pharmacists, almost half had their own pharmacies or owned them in partnership; the others were sal aried employees. Most of the sal aried pharmacists were employed by hospitals, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and wholesalers. Others were civilian employees of the Federal Government, working chiefly in hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service. Some served as pharmacists in the Armed Forces, taught in col leges of pharmacy, or worked for State and local government agencies. Nearly every town has at least one drugstore with one or more pharmacist in attendance. Most pharmacists, however, practice in or near cities, and in those States which have the greatest popu lations. Women, who represent about 8 percent of all pharmacists, are e m p l o y e d in all branches of the profession. Women students are accepted by all colleges of pharmacy. In 1968 they consti tuted almost one-sixth of under graduate enrollments. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States and the District of Columbia. T o obtain a license, one must be a graduate of an accredited pharmacy col lege, pass a State Board exami nation and, in most States, also have 1 year of practical experi ence or internship under the su pervision of a registered pharma cist. In 1968, 28 States required that part or all of this experience be acquired after graduation. All States except California, Florida, and Hawaii grant a license with out examination to qualified pharmacists already licensed by another State. In 1968, there were 74 accred ited colleges of pharmacy. Some of these were not filled to capac ity and qualified applicants usu ally could expect to be accepted. Needy students may obtain loans or scholarships up to $2,500 a year to pursue full-time study leading to a degree in pharmacy from Federal funds provided by the Health Professions Educacational Assistance Act of 1963, as amended. Several scholarships are awarded annually by drug manufacturers, chain drug stores, and State and National pharm acy associations. To graduate from a college of pharmacy, one must have at least 5 years of study beyond high school. Two colleges that require 6 years award a Ph. D. degree in pharmacy at the completion of the program. A few colleges ad mit students directly from high school and offer all the education necessary for graduation. Most provide 3 or 4 years of profes sional instruction and require all entrants to have completed their prepharmacy education in an ac credited junior college, college, or university. A prepharmacy cur riculum usually emphasizes mathematics and basic sciences, such as chemistry and biology, but also includes courses in the humanities and social science. The bachelor’s degree in pharm acy is the minimum educational qualification for most positions in the profession. However, the master’s or doctor’s degree in pharmacy or a related field— such as pharmaceutical chemistry, pharmacology (study of the ef fects of drugs on the body), pharmacognosy (study of the drugs derived from plant or ani mal sources), or pharmacy ad ministration— usually is required for research work or college teach ing. Graduate study also is desir able for pharmacists planning to work in hospitals. Those inter ested in becoming hospital phar macists can sometimes secure 1or 2-year internships which com bine graduate or advanced profes sional study and practical experi ence in a hospital pharmacy. Prospective pharmacy students should have a good high school background in mathematics and science. Orderliness and a liking for detail are desirable qualities. In addition, for those planning to become community pharmacists, the ability to deal with people and perform managerial duties is of special importance. Pharmacists often begin as em ployees in community pharma cies. After obtaining some experi ence and the necessary funds, they may become owners of pharmacies. A pharmacist who gains experience in a chain drug store may advance to managerial positions and, later, to a higher executive position within the company. Hospital pharmacists having the necessary training and experience may advance to chief pharmacist or to other admin istrative positions. Em ploym ent O utlook Most new pharmacy graduates will find employment readily avail able through the 1970’s. From 3,500 to 4,000 openings will arise each year as pharmacists retire, die, or transfer out of the profes sion. These openings, together with the anticipated gradual in crease in new positions for pharm acists, are expected to provide enough employment opportunities to absorb each year’s graduates. Some employment growth for pharmacists will result from the 99 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS establishment of new pharmacies, particularly in residential areas or suburban shopping centers; the country’s expanding population; and the rising standard of medi cal care. Many community pharm acies may hire additional pharm acists because of a trend towards shorter working hours. Employ ment in hospitals probably will rise with the construction of ad ditional facilities and the more extensive use of pharmacists for hospital work. Continued expan sion in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products and in research are expected to provide more opportunities for pharma cists in production, r e s e a r c h , distribution, and sales. Pharma cists in production, r e s e a r c h , will be needed for college teach ing and laboratory research. Earnings and W orking Conditions Beginning pharmacists general ly received salaries ranging from $7,800 to $13,000 a year in 1968, according to the American Pharmaceutical Association. The entrance salary in the Federal Civil Service in late 1968 for new graduates of 5-year pharmacy programs was $8,462; graduates of 4-year programs began at $6,981. Experienced pharmacists prac ticing in community pharmacies in 1968 generally were paid an nual salaries of between $10,000 and $14,000, according to limited data available. Owners and man agers earned an average of $15,900 a year. Community pharmacists gener ally work more than the standard 40-hour workweek. Drugstores often are open in the evenings and on weekends, and all States require a registered pharmacist to be in attendance during store hours. Despite the general trend toward shorter hours, 48 hours is still the basic workweek for many salaried retail pharmacists, and some work 50 hours or more a week. Self-employed pharmacists often work more hours than those in salaried positions. Those who teach or work for industry, gov ernment agencies, or hospitals have shorter workweeks. Salaried pharmacists usually receive paid vacations, health insurance, and other fringe benefits. PODIATRISTS (D.O.T. 079.108) N ature of the W ork Podiatrists (sometimes called chiropodists) diagnose and treat diseases and deformities of the feet. They perform foot surgery, use drugs and physical therapy, Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information on pharm acy as a career can be obtained from: American Pharmaceutical Asso ciation, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. Information about student fi nancial aid and chain drug stores may be obtained from: National Association of Chain Drug Stores, 1625 Eye St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information about retail pharm acies may be obtained from: National Association of Retail Druggists, 1 East Wacker Dr., Chicago, 1 1 60601. 1. A list of accredited colleges may be obtained from: American Council on Pharmaceu tical Education, 77 West Wash ington St., Chicago, 1 1 60602. 1. Current requirements for licen sure in a particular State may be obtained from the Board of Pharmacy of that State or from: National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, 77 West Washington St., Chicago, 1 1 60602. 1. Information on college entrance requirements, curriculums, and fiancial aid is available from the dean of any college of pharmacy. prescribe proper shoes, and fit corrective devices. T o help in diagnoses, they take X-rays of the feet and perform blood and other tests. Among the conditions po diatrists treat are corns, bunions, calluses, ingrown toenails, skin and nail diseases, deformed toes, and arch disabilities. They refer patients to medical doctors when ever they observe symptoms in the feet that may be evidence of medical disorders— such as arth ritis or heart or kidney trouble. As a rule, podiatrists provide complete foot care. Some, how ever, specialize in orthopedics (bone, muscle, and joint disor ders), podopediatries (children’s diseases), or foot surgery. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 100 Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 8,500 podia trists were actively engaged in the profession in 1968; less than 4 percent were women. Nearly all podiatrists were self-employed. The few who had full-time salar ied positions worked mainly in hospitals, podiatric colleges, or for other podiatrists. Small numbers were employed by the Veterans Administration or were commis sioned officers in the Armed Forces. Podiatrists practice mainly in large cities. In 1968, nearly half were in four of the most heavily populated States— New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Cali fornia. In many small towns and rural areas, especially in the South and the Northwest, there were no podiatrists. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatry. T o qualify for a license, an applicant must be a graduate of an accredited 4year program in a college of po diatry and must pass a State board examination. In addition, three States— Michigan, New Jersey, and Rhode Island— re quire applicants to serve a 1-year internship in a hospital or clinic after graduation from a podiatric college; the State of Oklahoma requires 1 year of practice under the direct supervision of an experienced podiatrist. Threefourths of the States grant li censes without further examina tion to podiatrists already li censed by another State. The five colleges of podiatric medicine in the United States will admit only students who have already completed at least 2 years of college. This education must include courses in English, chemistry, biology or zoology, and, in some instances, also phy sics and mathematics. The first 2 years of podiatry education are devoted chiefly to classroom instruction and labora tory work in such basic sciences as anatomy, bacteriology, chem istry, pathology, and physiology. During the final 2 years, students spend most of their time obtain ing clinical experience. The de gree of Doctor of Podiatric Medi cine (D .P.M .) is awarded upon graduation. Additional education and experience are generally nec essary in order to qualify for work in a specialized area of po diatry. Needy students may ob tain loans and scholarships up to $2,500 a year to pursue full-time study leading to a degree in po diatry from Federal funds pro vided by the Health Professions Educational Assistance Act of 1963, as amended. Among the personal qualifica tions considered desirable for a career in this profession are scien tific aptitude, manual dexterity, and a good business sense. The ability to get along well with people also is important. Most newly licensed podiatrists set up their own practices. Some purchase established practices. Others begin by obtaining salar ied positions to gain experience and to save the money needed to establish their own practices. Em ploym ent O utlook The employment outlook for podiatrists is expected to be good through the 1970,s. Although po diatrists are a relatively small oc cupational group, the number of new graduates in podiatry also is small. Opportunities for new grad uates to establish their own prac tices, as well as to enter salaried positions, should continue to be favorable. The demand for podiatrists’ services is expected to grow with the demand for other health serv ices. An important factor under lying this anticipated growth is an expanding population with a greater number of older people. This age group, the one needing most foot care, is entitled to cer tain podiatrists’ services under Medicare. Furthermore, the trend toward providing preventive foot care for children is increasing. Earnings and W orking Conditions In podiatry, as in many of the other professions, incomes usually rise markedly after the first years of practice. Earnings of individual podiatrists are determined mainly by such factors as ability, experi ence, the income level of the com munity served, and location. Starting salaries of new podia trists ranged from $8,000 to $10,000 in 1968, according to lim ited information available. The average net income of experi enced podiatrists was about $17,500. Income was generally higher in large cities. Podiatrists generally work 40 hours a week. They may set their hours to suit their practice. Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n Applicants for licenses to prac tice podiatry in a particular State may obtain information on the requirements for licensure from the State board of examiners in the State capital. Information on entrance requirements, curriculums, and scholarships is available from the colleges of podiatric medicine. Additional information on po diatry as a career, as well as a list of colleges, may be obtained from: 101 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS American Podiatry Association, 3301 16th Street, NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20010. CHIROPRACTORS (D.O.T. 079.108) N atu re of the W ork Chiropractic is a system of treatment based on the principle that a person’s health is deter mined largely by his nervous sys tem, and that interference with this system impairs his normal functions and lowers his resist ance to disease. Chiropractors treat their patients primarily by manual manipulation of parts of the body, especially the spinal column. Because of the emphasis of the importance of the spine and its position, most chiropractors use X-ray extensively to aid in lo cating the source of patients’ difficulties. Many also use such supplementary measures as water, light, and heat therapy, and pre scribe diet, exercise, and rest. Some State laws restrict the type of supplementary treatment per mitted in chiropractic. Chiroprac tic as a system for healing does not include the use of drugs or surgery. Places of Em ploym ent About 16,000 chiropractors were employed in the United States in 1968; about 9 percent were women. Most chiropractors were engaged in independent pri vate practice. Some were salaried assistants of established practi tioners or worked for chiropractic clinics and industrial firms. Oth ers taught or conducted research at chiropractic colleges. About 45 percent of all chiropractors were located in California, New York, Texas, Missouri, and Pennsylvania. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Chiropractor treats patient's spine. Most States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet certain educational requirements and pass a State board examination. The type of practice permitted and the educational requirements for licensure vary considerably from one State to another. In 1968, the States of Louisiana and Mississippi did not regulate the practice of chiropractic nor issue licenses to chiropractors. Most States require the suc cessful completion of a 4-year chiropractic course following high school graduation. About one-half of the States also require 1 or 2 years of preparatory college work before chiropractic training. About half the States also require OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 102 that chiropractors pass a basic science examination. Chiroprac tors licensed in one State gen erally may obtain a license in another State without further examination. Some of the 11 chiropractic colleges in the United States in 1968 emphasized courses in mani pulation and spinal adjustments, while the others offered a broader curriculum including such sub jects as chiropractic physiother apy and nutrition. In most chiro practic colleges, the first 2 years of the 4-year curriculum are de voted chiefly to classroom and laboratory work in subjects such an anatomy, physiology, and bio chemistry. The last 2 years are spent in obtaining practical ex perience in the colleges’ clinics. The degree of Doctor of Chiro practic (D.C.) is awarded to stu dents completing 4 years of chiro practic training. Chiropractic requires consider able hand dexterity but does not call for unusual strength or en durance. Among the personal qualities considered desirable for a chiropractor is the ability to un derstand people sympathetically. Most newly licensed chiroprac tors either set up a new practice or purchase an established prac tice. Some start as salaried chiro practors to acquire experience and funds necessary to establish their own practice. A moderate financial investment is usually necessary to open and equip an office. E m ploym ent O utlook The employment outlook for chiropractors is expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. Only a slight increase in the de mand for chiropractic services is expected. However, the antici pated small number of new grad uates of chiropractic colleges probably will be insufficient to fill openings created by growth, as well as to replace chiropractors who retire, die, or stop practic ing for other reasons. In view of the trend in many States toward raising educational requirements for chiropractic practice, oppor tunities may be best for those hav ing the most thorough training. Opportunities for new gradu ates to begin their own practice are likely to be best in those parts of the country where chiroprac tic is most fully accepted as a method of treatment. Opportuni ties also should be good for those who wish to enter salaried posi tions in chiropractic clinics, chiro practic colleges, and other or ganizations employing chiroprac tors. The expected slight growth in demand for chiropractors’ serv ices will be related to an expand ing population and its increasing demand for various types of health care, including chiroprac tic treatment. Women are expected to have good opportunities in chiroprac tic, since some women and chil dren prefer to be treated by women chiropractors. All chiro practic colleges accept women as students. Earnings and W orking Conditions In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning but rise after the first few years. Incomes of chiroprac tors vary widely. Experienced chiropractors generally had aver age yearly incomes ranging from $12,000 to $25,000 in 1968, ac cording to the limited data available. Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n Information on State licensing requirements may be obtained from the State Board of licensing in the capital of the State in which the individual plans to practice. General information on chiro practic as a career may be ob tained from: American Chiropractic Associa tion, American Building, 2200 Grand Ave., P.O. Box 1535, Des Moines, Iowa 50306. International Chiropractors Asso ciation, 741 Brady St., Daven port, Iowa 52805. OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS (D.O.T. 079.128) N ature of th e W ork Occupational therapists plan and direct educational, voca tional, and recreational activities designed to help mentally and physically disabled patients be come self-sufficient. They work as members of a medical team which, in addition to physicians, may include physical therapists, vocational counselors, nurses, so cial workers, and other specialists. About one-third of the total number of occupational thera pists work with emotionally handicapped patients, and the rest with persons having physical disabilities. These patients repre sent all age groups and varying degrees of illness. The treatment or training goals for patients referred for occupa tional therapy may include re gaining physical, mental or emo tional stability; developing maxi mum self-sufficiency in the rou tine of daily living (such as eat ing, dressing, writing, and using a 103 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS telephone); and, in the latter stage of treatment, performing jobs in a practical work situation for eventual return to employ ment. As part of the treatment pro gram for adults, occupational therapists teach manual and creative skills, such as weav ing, clay modeling, and leather working, as well as business and industrial skills such as typing, operating some business machines, and using power tools. In programs for children, they initiate and direct activities ap propriate to the child’s matura tion level. Therapists may design and make special equipment or splints to aid some disabled patients in performing their activities. Places of Em ploym ent About 7,000 occupational thera pists were employed in 1968; more than 9 out of 10 were women. About three-fifths of all occu pational therapists work in hos pitals. Most of the remainder are employed in rehabilitation centers, custodial care and nuring homes, schools, out-patient clinics, community mental health centers, and research centers. Some work in special workshops, sanitariums, camps for handicap ped children, and in State health departments. Others are em ployed in home-care programs for patients unable to attend clinics or workshops. Still others are members of the Armed Forces. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Duties other than patient care include supervising student thera pists, occupational therapy assist ants, volunteer workers, and aux ilary nursing workers. The chief occupational therapist in a hos pital may teach medical and nurs ing students the principles of oc cupational therapy. Many occu pational therapists have admini strative duties such as directing occupational therapy programs, coordinating patient activities, or acting as consultants to local and State health departments and mental health authorities. Some occupational therapists are fac ulty members at colleges and uni versities offering programs in oc cupational therapy. The minimum requirement for entry into the profession is a de gree or certificate in occupational therapy. In 1968, 32 colleges and universities in the United States offered programs in occupational therapy which were accredited by the American Medical Associa tion and the American Occupa tional Therapy Association. All of these schools offer a bachelor’s degree program for high school graduates or transfer students who have completed 2 years of college. Some of the schools also offer shorter programs leading to a certificate in occupational ther apy for students having a bach elor’s degree in another field. The academic work in a 4-year program emphasizes the physical, biological, and behavioral sciences and the application of occupa tional therapy skills. In addition to the academic work, the train ing includes 6 to 9 months of supervised clinical experience in hospitals or health agencies. Some programs give part of the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 104 clinical experience during the summer or during part of the senior year. The Armed Forces offer programs whereby graduates of approved schools of occupa tional therapy, who meet the re quirements to become commis sioned officers, may receive the clinical part of their training while in the service. Upon graduation and the com pletion of the clinical practice period, therapists are eligible to take the examination given by the American Occupational Ther apy Association. Those who pass this examination may use the initials O.T.R. (Occupational Therapist Registered). Eight universities offer a pro gram for occupational therapists leading to a master’s degree in occupational therapy. The mas ter’s degree also is offered at six universities as the first profes sional degree for persons holding a baccalaureate degree in related fields. A graduate degree often is required for teaching, research, or administrative work. Newly graduated occupational therapists generally begin as staff therapists. After several years on the job, they may qualify as sen ior therapists. Experienced thera pists may become directors of oc cupational therapy programs in large hospitals or clinics, or may become teachers. Some high-level positions, such as program co ordinators and consultants, also are available in large institutions and agencies. Personal qualifications needed in this profession include emo tional stability and a sympathetic but objective approach to illness and disability. An ability to teach, ingenuity, and imagination also are needed. E m ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for occupational therapists are ex pected to be excellent through the 1970’s. Despite anticipated increases in the number of gradu ates of occupational therapy pro grams, the demand for therapists is expected to exceed the supply as public interest in the rehabili tation of disabled persons and the success of established occupa tional therapy programs in creases. Many occupational ther apists will be needed to staff the growing number of community health centers and extended care facilities. There will continue to be numerous opportunities to children, and aged persons, as work with psychiatric patients, well as with persons suffering from cerebral palsy, tuberculosis, and heart disease. In addition to openings that will result from growth, many openings will arise because of the need to replace the high proportion of young women who leave the field for marriage and family responsibili ties. Opportunities for experi enced women who wish to return to work part time after rearing their children should be excellent. Earnings and W orking Conditions Annual salaries of staff occu pational therapists ranged from $6,500 to $13,000 in 1968, accord ing to the American Occupational Therapy Association. Directors of services, coordinators, consult ants, and others in top admin istrative positions generally earned annual salaries of $15,000 or more in 1968. In the Federal Government, the beginning annual salary for inexperienced occupational thera pists was $6,321 in late 1968. About two-fifths of all occupa tional therapists in the Federal Government earned $8,500 or more a year. Most occupational therapists work an 8-hour day, 40-hour week, including some evening work required in a few organiza tions. Vacation leave usually ranges from 2 to 4 weeks a year, and many positions offer health and retirement benefits. Sources of A dditional Inform ation American Occupational Therapy Association, 251 Park Avenue South, New York, N.Y. 10010. PHYSICAL THERAPISTS (D.O.T. 079.378) N atu re of the W ork Physical therapists help per sons with muscle, nerve, joint, and bone diseases or injuries to overcome their disabilities. They evaluate and treat patients who are referred to them by phy sicians through the use of exer cises, mechanical apparatus, mas sage, and appplications of heat or cold, light, water, or electricity. Most of their patients are acci dent victims, crippled children, and disabled older persons. To obtain information needed to develop programs for treat ment, physical therapists perform muscle, nerve, and other func tional tests. They also keep rec ords of their patients’ progress during treatments and attend conferences with physicians and other medical personnel to dis cuss this progress. In many in stances, they help disabled per sons to accept their physical handicaps and learn how to ad just to them. Therapists teach patients how to perform exercises and to use and care for braces, crutches, and artificial limbs. They also may show members of 105 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS About four-fifths of all physical therapists work in general hospi tals; in hospitals that specialize in the care of pediatric, ortho pedic, psychiatric, or chronically ill patients; and in nursing homes. Most of the remainder are em ployed by rehabilitation or treat ment centers, schools or societies for crippled children, and public health agencies. Most of these or ganizations provide treatment for patients having chronic diseases, and some have home visiting programs. Some therapists work in phy sicians’ offices or clinics, teach in schools of physical therapy, or work for research organizations. Others serve as consultants in government and voluntary agen cies. In addition, a few hundred are members of the Armed Forces. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent the patients’ families how to con tinue treatments at home. Physical therapists are mem bers of a health care team that is directed by a physician and may include a nurse, clinical social worker, occupational therapist, psychologist, vocational coun selor, and other specialists. Al though qualified physical ther apists may treat many types of patients, some specialize in caring for children, or for patients hav ing amputations, arthritis, or paralysis. They also may instruct physical therapy students, as well as students of related professions and other health workers. Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 14,000 licensed physical therapists were em ployed in 1968. Nearly threefourths of all therapists were women. A license is required to practice physical therapy in 48 States and the District of Columbia. To ob tain a license, an applicant must have a degree or certificate from a school of physical therapy and pass a State board examination. In the remaining two States (Texas and Missouri), employers require a degree or certificate from an approved school of phy sical therapy. In 1968, 48 schools of physical therapy (including the Army Medical Service School) were approved by the American Medical Association and the American Physical Therapy As sociation. Most of the schools are part of large universities; a few are operated by hospitals, which usually have university affiliations. Most of the approved schools of physical therapy offer bach elor’s degree programs. Some schools provide 1- to 2-year pro grams for students who have completed some college courses. Other schools accept those who already have a bachelor’s degree and give a 12- to 16-month course leading to a certificate in physical therapy. Many schools offer both degree and certificate programs. Among the courses included in a physical therapy program are anatomy, physiology, pathology, clinical medicine, psychology, electrotherapy, hydrotherapy, massage, therapeutic exercise, and administration. In addition to classroom instruction, students are assigned to a hospital or treatment center for supervised clinical experience in the care of patients. Several universities offer the master’s degree in physical ther apy. A graduate degree, combined with clinical experience, increases the opportunities for advance ment to positions of responsibil ity in teaching, research, and ad ministration, as well as in the treatment area of physical therapy. Because an important function of a therapist’s job is to help pa tients and their families under stand the treatments and adjust to their handicaps, therapists must have patience, tact, re sourcefulness, and emotional sta bility. In addition, physical thera pists should have manual dex terity and physical stamina. For those who wish to determine whether they have the personal qualities needed for this occupa tion, summer or part-time work as a volunteer in the physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic may prove helpful. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for physical therapists are expected to be excellent through the 1970’s. The demand for qualified workers 106 is likely to continue to exceed the supply. The demand for physical thera pists is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s as the result of increased public recog nition of the importance of re habilitation. Many new positions for physical therapists are ex pected to be created as programs to aid crippled children and re habilitation activities are ex panded to serve the increasing number of disabled people who require physical therapy. Rapid growth in the number of nursing homes also should result in the need for many more physical therapists to work as staff mem bers. In addition, many openings will continue to arise each year to replace the large number of women who leave the profession for marriage and family respon sibilities. Part-time positions will con tinue to be available in many communities. These positions are particularly attractive to married women who wish to work on a part-time basis. Increased demands for physical therapy services also will result in greater opportunities for phy sical therapy assistance who gen erally obtain their training in junior colleges or on the job in hospitals and other instiitutions. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tive positions earned salaries of $12,000 or more. In late 1968, beginning thera pists employed by the Federal Government received annual starting salaries of $6,321; those having high academic standing, however, were offered $6,981. More than one-fourth of all physi cal therapists employed by the Federal Government were earn ing salaries of $9,300 or more a year. Most physical therapists work 40 hours a week. Almost all re ceive 2 weeks of vacation or more, and the majority receive sick leave and other fringe benefits. Sources of A dditional Inform ation American Physical Therapy As sociation, 1740 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019. SPEECH PATHOLOGISTS AND AUDIOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 079.108) N atu re of the W ork The inability to speak or hear clearly is a severe hardship to persons of all ages. Children who have difficulty speaking or hear ing are usually unable to play freely with others or to partici pate fully in normal classroom ac tivities. Adults suffering from speech or hearing impairments often face problems of job ad justment. Speech pathologists and audiologists help people hav ing such disorders by identifying and evaluating their problems and by providing treatment. In addition, they may conduct re search in the speech and hearing field. Some are engaged in train ing programs in speech pathology Earnings and W orking Conditions New physical therapy gradu ates received starting salaries ranging between $6,500 and $7,500 in 1968, according to the American Physical Therapy As sociation. Annual salaries of ex perienced therapists generally ranged from $8,500 to $11,000. Physical therapists in consulta tive, educational, or administra Speech pathologist works with cerebral palsy youngster. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS and audiology at colleges and universities. Speech pathologists are con cerned primarily with speech and language disorders and audiolog ists with hearing problems. Speech and hearing, however, are so interrelated that to be com petent in either of these occupa tions, one must have a familiar ity with both. The speech path ologist works with children and adults who have speech, language and voice problems resulting from brain injury, cleft-palate, mental retardation, emotional problems, foreign dialect, or other causes. The audiologist also works with children and adults, but concerns himself primarily with the assess ment and treatment of hearing problems such as those caused by certain otological or neurological disturbances. The duties performed by speech pathologists and audio logists vary with their education, experience, and employment set ting. In a clinical capacity, they identify and evaluate speech and hearing disorders using various diagnostic procedures. This is followed by an organized program of therapy, with the coopera tion of other specialists, such as physicians, psychologists, social workers, physical therapists, counselors, and teachers. Some perform research work, which may consist of investigating com municative disorders and their causes and improving methods for clinical services. Others may supervise clinical activities or perform other administrative work. Speech pathologists and audio logists working in colleges or uni versities provide instruction in the principles and bases of com munication, communication dis orders, and clinical techniques. Many also participate in educa tional programs for physicians, nurses, teachers, and other pro 107 fessional personnel. In addition, they may work in university clinics and conduct research, usu ally at university centers. Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 18,000 persons were employed as speech patho logists and audiologists in 1968. Women represented about threefourths of total employment. The majority of speech pathologists and audiologists work in public school systems. Colleges and uni versities employ the next largest number of these specialists in classrooms, clinics, and research centers. The remainder are dis tributed among hospitals, reha bilitation and community speech and hearing centers, State and Federal Government agencies, industry, and private practice. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications Most States require a master’s degree in speech pathology or audiology or its equivalency for a beginning job as a speech pa thologist or audiologist. In other States, the bachelor’s degree is required for entry positions. Undergraduate training in speech pathology and audiology should include course work in anatomy, biology, physiology, physics, and in other related areas such as linguistics, seman tics, and phonetics. Some special ized course work in speech and hearing, as well as in child psy chology and mental hygiene, also is helpful. This training is usu ally available at colleges and uni versities offering a broad liberal arts program. Graduate education in speech pathology and audiology was of fered at 189 colleges and univer sities in 1968. Professional prepa ration at the graduate level in volves extensive training in the fundamental areas of speech and hearing, including anatomy and physiology, acoustics, and psy chological aspects of communica tion; the nature of speech and hearing disorders; and the assess ment, evaluation, and analysis of speech production, langauge abilities, and auditory processes; as well as familiarity with various research methods used in study ing speech and hearing. Persons who wish to work in public schools should complete not only the education and other require ments necessary for a teacher’s certificate in the State in which they wish to work, but also may have to fulfill special require ments, prescribed by some States, for people who are going to work with handicapped children. Many scholarships, fellowships, assistantships, and traineeships are available in colleges and uni versities; however, most of these are at the graduate level. The U.S. Rehabilitation Services Ad ministration, the Children’s Bu reau, the U.S. Office of Educa tion, and the National Institutes of Health allocate funds for teaching and training grants to colleges and universities offering graduate study in the field of speech and hearing. The Veterans Administration provides stipends for a predoctoral training program. Speech pathologists and audio logists should have an interest and liking for people, and the ability to approach problems with objectivity. T o work effectively with persons having speech and hearing disorders, one must be sensitive, patient, and have emo tional stability. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for well-qualified speech pathologists and audiologists are expected to be good through the 1970’s. In- 108 dividuals who have completed graduate study in speech path ology and audiology will have the best employment opportunities. Opportunities for part-time em ployment also will be good. Al though employment will be avail able for individuals having only the bachelor’s degree and some professional experience, increas ing emphasis is being placed on the master’s degree as the mini mum educational standard for the profession. Many speech pathologists and audiologists will be needed an nually through the 1970’s to staff new and expanding programs in schools, clinics, colleges and uni versities, and hospitals. In addi tion, many will be needed to re place those who die, retire, or leave the profession for other reasons. Several factors are expected to increase demand for the services of speech pathologists and audio logists during the 1970’s: Popu lation growth, which will result in an increase in the absolute number of persons having speech and hearing problems; a length ening life span, which" will in crease the number of persons having speech and hearing prob lems that are common to later life; a rapid expansion in ex penditures for medical research; the growing public interest and awareness of the serious prob lems connected with speech and hearing disorders, as illustrated by the 1966 Title VI Amendment to the Elementary and Second ary Education Act of 1965, which provides for the education of handicapped children; and ex panded Federal programs such as Medicare and Medicaid. Earnings and W orking Conditions Median salaries of speech path ologists and audiologists em ployed in colleges and universi OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ties ranged from $8,300 to $15, 000 for a 9-to 10-month contract period in 1968, according to the American Speech and Hearing Association. Median salaries may be as much as $3,000 higher for an 11- to 12-month contract. Many experienced speech path ologists and audiologists in educa tional institutions supplement their regular salaries by incomes from consulting, special research projects, and writing books and articles. The average annual salary for speech pathologists and audio logists in elementary and second ary schools in 1968 was about $8,900, according to an American Speech and Hearing Association survey of members employed in these schools. In late 1968, the annual start ing salary in the Federal Govern ment for speech pathologists and audiologists who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree was $8,462. Those having doctoral degrees were eligible to start at $12,243. Most speech pathologists and audiologists work 40 hours a week; however, personnel en gaged in research may work longer hours. Almost all employ ment situations provide fringe benefits such as paid vaca tions, sick leave, and retirement progams. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on certification re quirements for persons wishing to work in public schools can be ob tained from the State department of education at the State capital. General career information and a list of colleges and universities that have received grants to pro vide traineeships at the graduate level may be obtained from: American Speech and Hearing Association, 9030 Old George town Rd., Washington, 20014. D.C. MEDICAL LABORATORY WORKERS (D.O.T. 078.128; .168; .281; and .381) N atu re of the W ork Laboratory tests play an im portant part in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of can cer, tuberculosis, diabetes, menin gitis, and other diseases. Medical laboratory workers, often called clinical laboratory workers, in clude three levels of workers; medical technologists, techni cians, and assistants. They per form these tests under the direc tion of pathologists (physicians who specialize in diagnosing the causes and nature of disease) or other physicians or scientists specializing in clinical chemistry, microbiology, or the other bio logical sciences. Medical labora tory workers analyze the blood, tissue, and fluids of the human body using precision instruments, such as microscopes, automatic analyzers, electronic counters, and spectrophotometers. Find ings of such tests help physicians treat patients. Medical technologists, who re quire 4 years of post-secondary training, perform the more com plicated chemical, microscopic, and bacteriological tests and pro cedures. These tests may include chemical tests to determine blood cholesterol level, or microscopic examination of the blood to de tect the possibility of leukemia. Other body fluids may be ex amined microscopically; cultured to determine the presence of bacteria, parasites, or other mi cro-organisms; and analyzed for chemical content or reaction. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 109 stained and unstained sediment. In basal metabolism and electro cardiography work, they prepare patients for tests as well as oper ate and maintain testing equip ment. In small laboratories, med ical laboratory assistants general ly work in many areas. In addition to performing rou tine laboratory tests, assistants may store and label plasma; clean and sterilize laboratory equip ment, glassware, and instruments; prepare solutions following stan dard laboratory formulas and pro cedures; keep records of tests; and identify specimens. Medical laboratory technicians Medical technologist dilutes serum sample. Technologists also may type and cross-match blood samples. Technologists who work in small laboratories often perform many types of tests. Those em ployed in large laboratories usu ally specialize in making several kinds of related tests in areas such as microbiology, parasit ology, biochemistry, blood bank ing, hematology (the study of blood cells), histology (tissue preparation), cytology (analysis of body cells), and nuclear med ical technology (the use of radio active isotops to help detect diseases). Most medical technologists con duct tests related to the examina tion and treatment of patients. However, some do research on new drugs or on the improvement of laboratory techniques. Others teach or perform adminstrative duties. Medical laboratory assistants, who generally do not require col lege training, assist the medical technologist by performing sim ple, routine tests and related work that can be learned in a relatively short time. Medical laboratory assistants employed in large laboratories may concentrate in one of the several^ areas of laboratory work. Laboratory assistants working in bacteriology, serology, and para sitology prepare and stain slides for study, apply sensitivity disc to culture plates and record results; and prepare specimens for mi croscopic studies. Those working in hematology collect and per form blood counts and perform tests to determine bleeding time, coagulation time, sedimentation rate, and prothrombin time. In clinical chemistry, assistants ana lyze samples of body fluids to assist in the diagnosis and treat ment of diseases. Assistants working in the blood bank carry out slide and test tube procedures to identify blood groups and keep blood-bank records. They assist in such laboratory techniques as centrifuging urine samples, pre paring the samples for micro scopic study, and examining having various combinations of education and experience perform tasks that require, in general, a higher level of skill than is re quired for certain routine work done by assistants but which d 6 not involve the technical know ledge of the highly trained tech nologists. Like technologists and assistants, they may function as generalists in several areas of the Technician examines slides. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 110 laboratory or may specialize in one or more fields. Places of E m ploym ent An estimated 100,000 medical laboratory workers were em ployed in 1968— two-fifths were medical technologists. Approxi mately 80 to 90 percent of all medical laboratory workers were women. However, the number of men in the field has been increas ing in recent years. About three-fourths of all med ical laboratory workers are em ployed in hospitals. Other places of employment include independ ent laboratories, physicians’ of fices, clinics, public health agen cies, pharmaceutical firms, and research institutions. The Federal Government em ployed about 1,600 medical tech nologists and about 3,000 medical laboratory technicians and assist ants in 1968 mostly in the hospi tals and laboratories of the Vet erans Administration. The re mainder were employed largely by the Armed Forces and the U.S. Public Health Service. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The usual minimum educa tional requirement for beginning medical technology approved by of college plus completion of a specialized training program in medical technology approved by the American Medical Associa tion. Undergraduate work must include courses in chemistry, bio logical science, and mathematics. Such studies give the technologist a broad understanding of the sci entific principles underlying lab oratory work. The specialized training usually requires 12 months of study and includes extensive laboratory work. In 1968, such training was given in nearly 800 hospitals and schools, most of which were affiliated with colleges and universities. A bache lor’s degree is often awarded upon completion of the college affiliated program. A few schools require a bachelor’s degree for entry into the program. About 30 universities also offer advanced degrees in medical tech nology and related subjects for technologists who plan to special ize in the laboratory or in teach ing, administration, or research. Medical laboratory technicians employed in 1968 had obtained their training in a variety of edu cational settings. Many had re ceived one or more years of post secondary education in junior or 4-year colleges and universities. Some technicians have attended private schools, which offer 12 to 18-month | programs to high school graduates. Some technicians have gained experience in the Armed Forces. The Navy, for example, conducts a 14-month program to train clinical laboratory and blood bank technicians and the Army has a 50 week “ senior medical laboratory specialist” program. A few technicians re ceived training in non-profit vo cational and technical schools. Most medical laboratory assist ants employed in 1968 obtained received their training on the job. In recent years, however, an in creasing number have received their training in academic pro grams conducted by hospitals or by vocational schools and junior colleges in cooperation with hos pitals. In the future, academic training probably will be required by most employers. Hospitals of fer the greatest number of train ing programs, some of which were established under the Man power Development and Training Act and the Vocational Educa tion Act. For entry into these programs, graduation from high school with courses in science and mathematics is required gener ally. The programs last a year and include classroom instruction and practical training in the lab oratory. These programs often begin with a general orientation to the clinical laboratory and are followed by courses in bacteri ology, serology, parasitology, hematology, clinical chemistry, blood banking, urinalysis, basal metabolism, and electrocardi ography. Medical laboratory assistant programs in junior colleges usu ally last about 2 years. Students spend the first 9 months in a liberal arts curriculum. During the next year they take courses in clinical laboratory procedures, including practical laboratory experience. Certification examinations, ad ministered by the Board of Medi cal Technologists of the Ameri can Society of Clinical Patholo gists (A S C P ), are available to graduates of AM A approved schools. Such registration is im portant because it indicates that a graduate has maintained edu cational standards recognized by the medical profession. ASCPregistered medical laboratory per sonnel are preferred by most em ployers. In California, Florida, Hawaii, Tennessee, New York City, and Puerto Rico, medical technologist and technicians also must be licensed. Technologists may be pro moted to supervisory positions in certain areas of laboratory work or, after several years’ experi ence, to chief medical technologists in a large hospital. Graduate edu cation in one of the biological sciences or chemistry usually speeds advancement in all areas. Technicians and Assistants may have difficulty advancing to medical technologists unless they continue their education and ob- HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 111 sciousness; expanding medical $150 to $200 a month less than services resulting from new medi tnose paid medical technologists. received salaries cal techniques and drugs; ex Technicians panding medical research activi ranging between those paid tech ties; and extension of prepayment nologists and assistants. Newly graduated medical tech programs for medical care, in nologists at the baccalaureate cluding Medicare. Advances in technology in gen level employed by the Federal eral are expected to stimulate the Government in late 1968 received demand for workers in this oc $5,732. Those having experience, cupation. Many new technologi superior academic achievement, cal developments permit greater or a year of graduate study en numbers and more varieties of tered at $6,981. About one-fourth tests to be performed. Newly de of all technologists in Federal veloped automated equipment is Government agencies earned an not expected to limit the growth nual salaries of $8,462 or more. of medical technologists. How Depending on the amount and ever, the development of new type of education and experience, automated equipment that re medical laboratory assistants and duces the need for personnel to technicians in the Federal Gov do simple repetitive tasks may ernment earned starting salaries tend to partially offset the growth ranging from $4,231 to $5,145 a in demand for the services of year in late 1968. Em ploym ent O utlook Medical laboratory personnel medical laboratory assistants. In addition to medical labora generally work a 40-hour week. Employment opportunities for medical laboratory workers are tory workers who will be needed In hospitals, they can expect expected to be excellent through to fill openings resulting from the some night or weekend duty. the 1970’s. New graduates hav rapid growth of this field, large Hospitals generally provide vaca ing a bachelor’s degree in medi numbers also will be needed as tion and sick leave benefits; some because many have retirement plans. cal technology will be sought for replacements Laboratories are in general well entry technologist positions in workers are young women who may leave their jobs for marriage lighted and clean. Although un hospitals. A particularly strong demand is anticipated for tech and family responsibilities. Op pleasant odors and specimens of nologists having graduate train portunities for part-time employ many kinds of diseased tissue of ing in biochemistry, microbiology, ment will continue to be avail ten are present, few hazards ex immunology, and virology. Em able. Opportunities also should ist if proper methods of steriliza ployment opportunities for medi be good for qualified older work tion and handling of specimens, materials, and equipment are cal laboratory technicians and ers and handicapped persons. used. assistants also are expected to be very favorable. Employment opportunities for Earnings and W orking Conditions medical laboratory personnel are Sources of A dditional Inform ation Salaries of medical laboratory expected to expand as physicians increasingly depend upon labora workers vary by employer and Information about education tory tests in routine physical geographic location of employ and training for medical tech checkups as well as in the diag ment. In general, medical labora nologists, technicians, and labora nosis and treatment of disease. tory workers employed on the tory assistants meeting stand Also, the construction of addi West Coast and in large cities ards recognized by the medical tional hospital and medical fa received the highest salaries. profession and the U.S. Office of The average starting salary for Education as well as career in cilities will increase the demand for these workers. Other factors medical technologists was about formation on these fields of work affecting growth in this field in $6,600 in 1968, according to lim may be obtained from: clude the country’s expanding ited data available. Beginning Registry of Medical Technologists population; rising standards of salaries for medical laboratory as of the American Society of living; increasing health con sistants generally ranged from Clinical Pathologists, 710 S. tain a bachelor’s degree in biology or chemistry, or a degree or cer tificate in medical technology. Personal characteristics impor tant for medical laboratory work include accuracy, dependability, and the ability to work under pressure. Manual dexterity and the ability to discriminate colors accurately are highly desirable. Young people interested in a medical laboratory career should select a training program with considerable care. Information should be obtained about the kinds of jobs obtained by gradu ates, educational costs, the length of time the training program has been in operation, instructional facilities, and faculty qualifica tions. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 112 Wolcott 60612. Ave., Chicago, 11 1. American Society of Medical Technologists, Suite 1600, Her mann Professional Bldg., Hous ton, Tex. 77025. Information about technician training programs offered in pri vate schools may be obtained from: American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Road, Park Ridge, 11 . 60068. 1 International Society of Clinical Laboratory Technologists, 805 Ambassador Building, 411 North Seventh St., St. Louis, Mo. 63101. Information about employment opportunities in government clinical and research hospitals may be obtained from the De partment of Medicine and Sur gery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. 20421, and the Clinical Center, National Insti tutes of Health, Bethesda, Md., 20014. RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 078.368) N atu re of the W ork Medical X-rays play a major role in the diagnostic and thera peutic fields of medicine. Radiologic technologists, also called medical X-ray technicians, oper ate X-ray equipment under the direction of physicians who are usually radiologists (specialists in the use of X-rays). Most radiologic technologists perform diagnostic work, using X-ray equipment to take pictures of internal parts of the patient’s body. They may prepare chemical mixtures, such as barium salts, which the patient swallows to make specific organs appear clearly in X-ray examinations. The technician utilizes proper radiation protection devices and techniques that safeguard against possible radiation hazards. After determining the correct voltage, current, and desired exposure time, the technician positions the patient and makes the required number of radiographs to be de veloped for interpretation by the physician. The technician may use mobile X-ray equipment at a patient’s bedside and in sur gery. The technician also is usu ally responsible for keeping treat ment records. Some radiologic technologists perform radiation therapeutic work. They assist physicians in treating diseases, such as certain cancers, by administering pre scribed doses of X-ray or other forms of ionizing radiation to the affected areas of the patient’s body. They also may assist the radiologist in measuring and handling radium and other radio active materials. Other technicians work in the relatively new field of nuclear medicine in which radioactive isotopes are used for diagnosing and treating diseases. Their du ties in assisting the radiologist may include preparing and ad ministering the prescribed radio isotope and operating special equipment for tracing and meas uring radioactivity. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 75,000 radiologic technologists were employed in 1968; about two-thirds were women. Approximately one-third of all radiologic technologists were em ployed in hospitals; most of the remainder worked in medical laboratories, physicians’ and den tists’ offices or clinics, Federal and State health agencies, and public school systems. A few worked as members of mobile X-ray teams, engaged mainly in tuberculosis detection. Train in g , O th er Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Training programs in X-ray technology are conducted by hos pitals or by medical schools af filiated with hospitals. A program in X-ray technology usually takes 24 months to complete. A few schools offer 3- or 4-year pro grams, and 11 schools award a bachelor’s degree in X-ray tech nology. Also, some junior colleges coordinate academic training with work experience in hospitals in 3-year X-ray technician pro grams and offer an Associate of Arts degree. In 1968, more than 1,100 schools of X-ray technology were approved by the American HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Medical Association (A M A ). In addition to training programs in approved schools, training also may be obtained in the military service. Some courses in X-ray technology are offered by voca tional or technical schools. All of the approved schools ac cept only high school graduates, and a few require 1 or 2 years of college or graduation from a nurs ing school. High school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and typing are desirable. The program in X-ray tech nology usually includes courses in anatomy, physiology, nursing procedures, physics, radiation protection, darkroom chemistry, principles of radiographic ex posure, X-ray therapy, radiographic positioning, medical ethics, department administra tion, and the operation and main tenance of equipment. Registration with the Ameri can Registry of Radiologic Tech nologists is an asset in obtaining highly skilled and specialized po sitions. Registration requirements include graduation from an ap proved school of medical X-ray technology and the satisfactory completion of an examina tion. After registration, the title “ Registered Technologist, R.T. (A R R T )” may be used. To be come certified in radiation ther apy or nuclear medicine, tech nicians must have completed an additional year of combined classroom study and work ex perience. Some technicians employed in large X-ray departments may be advanced to the job of chief X-ray technician as openings oc cur, and may also qualify as in structors in X-ray techniques. Good health and stamina are important qualifications for this field. 113 Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for radiologic technologists are ex pected to be very good through the 1970’s. Part-time opportuni ties also will be very favorable. Very rapid growth is expected in the profession, primarily as a result of the anticipated expan sion in the use of X-ray equip ment in diagnosing and treating diseases; more workers also will be needed to help administer radio therapy as new knowledge of the medical benefits of radioactive material becomes widespread. X-raying of large groups of peo ple will be extended as part of disease prevention and control programs. For example, many em ployers now demand that chest X-rays be taken of all employees, and most insurance companies in clude a chest X-ray as part of the physical examination required for an insurance policy. In addition to the radiologic technologists needed for new jobs, replacement demands are expected to be high because of the large number of women who leave their jobs each year for marriage or family responsi bilities. Earnings and W orking Conditions Salaries of radiologic techno logists employed in hospitals ranged from about $105 to $130 a week in 1968, according to the limited information available. New graduates of AMA-approved schools of X-ray technol ogy employed by the Federal Government received an annual salary of $5,145 in late 1968. About one-sixth of all radiologic technologists working for the Federal Government in 1968, were earning $7,000 or more a year. Full-time technicians generally work 8 hours a day and 40 hours a week but may be “ on call” for some night or emergency duty. Most are covered by the same vacation and sick leave provisions as other workers in the same organization. Precautionary measures to pro tect radiologic technologists from the potential hazards of radiation exposure include the use of safety devices such as individual instru ments that measure radiation, lead aprons, leaded gloves, and other shieldings. Sources of A dditional Inform ation The American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 645 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 1 1 1. 60611. The American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 2600 Wayzata Blvd., Minneapolis, Minn. 55405. MEDICAL RECORD LIBRARIANS (D.O.T. 100.388) N ature of the W ork Medical records contain medical and surgical information on each patient, including case histories of illnesses or injuries, physical examination findings, re ports on X-rays and laboratory tests, physicians’ orders and notes, and nurses’ notes. These records are necessary for correct and prompt diagnosis and treat ment. In addition, they are used for research, insurance claims, legal actions, evaluation of treat ment and medications prescribed, and for instruction in the train ing of medical, nursing, and re lated personnel. The medical in formation found in hospital rec ords is also useful in planning OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 114 community health centers and programs and in hospital and health care administration. Medical record librarians plan, prepare, maintain, and analyze records and reports on patients’ illness and treatments. They as sist medical staff members in re search projects; develop auxiliary records (such as indexes of phy sicians, diseases treated, and op erations perform ed); compile statistics; make summaries or “ abstracts” of medical records; develop systems for documenting, storing and retrieving medical in formation; direct the activities of the medical record department; and train auxiliary personnel. They usually represent their de partment at hospital staff meet ings and may be called to testify in court. The size and type of institu tion employing medical record li brarians will affect the duties and amount of responsibility assigned to these workers. In large hospi tals, chief medical record librar ians supervise other medical rec ord librarians, medical record technicians, and clerical workers. In small hospitals, they may be the only employee in the medical record department and may per form clerical as well as profes sional duties. Medical record librarians should not be confused with the medical librarians who work chiefly with books, periodicals, and other publications. (See statement on Librarians.) Places of Em ploym ent More than 12,000 medical rec ord librarians were employed in 1968. Of these, about 3,800 were Registered Record Librarians, ac cording to the American Associa tion of Medical Record Librari ans. In addition, about 25,000 other medical record personnel were working in this field. Most medical record librarians were employed in hospitals. The re mainder worked in clinics, medi cal research centers, nursing homes or other extended care fa cilities, the medical departments of insurance companies and in dustrial firms, and in local and State health departments. Al though most medical record li brarians are women, the number of men in the occupation is growing. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Medical record librarian analyzes microfilm of patient’s record. In 1968, 26 schools approved by the American Medical Asso ciation offered training in medi cal record library science or medi cal record administration. These schools are located in colleges and universities and in hospitals. The specialized academic training program, about 1 year in length, has about the same curriculum wherever offered. Prerequisites, however, range from 2 to 4 years of college-level work, the latter being increasingly preferred. A certificate is granted upon com pletion of the 1-year specialized training, except when it has been taken for credit as part of a 4year undergraduate program leading to a bachelor’s degree in medical record science. The specialized curriculum in cludes both theoretical instruc tion and practical experience. The required courses include anatomy, physiology, fundamentals of med ical science, medical terminology, HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS medical record science, ethics, management, hospital organiza tion and adminstration, statistics, and data processing. Practical ex perience involves hospital admit ting and discharging procedures; standard indexing and coding practices; compilation of statisti cal reports; analysis of medical data from clinical records; and knowledge of medical record sys tems for the X-ray, pathology, outpatient, and other hospital departments. Graduates of approved schools in medical record science are eli gible for the national registration examination, given by the Ameri can Association of Medical Rec ord Librarians. Upon passing this examination, they receive profes sional recognition as Registered Record Librarians. Medical record librarians must be accurate and interested in de tail. They also must be able to communicate clearly in speech and writing. Because medical in formation is of a confidential na ture, they must be especially dis creet in processing and releasing it. Those in administrative and supervisory positions must be able to organize and analyze work procedures and to work effectively with other hospital personnel. Medical record librarians fre quently occupy supervisory or ad ministrative positions. They may serve as assistant director or di rector of a single department or become the coordinator of medi cal record departments of several hospitals. Others may advance to faculty positions in collegiate or university programs for medical record librarians. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for medical record librarians are ex pected to be excellent through 115 the 1970’s. In addition to the po sitions created by growth, many openings will occur as young women leave the field for mar riage and family responsibilities. High school gradautes will have many opportunities to become medical record technicians to as sist librarians. The increasing number of hos pitals and the volume and com plexity of hospital records will contribute to a growing demand for medical record librarians. The importance of medical rec ords will continue to grow rap idly, owing partly to the in creased demand for clinical data necessary for research on dis eases, the use of new drugs, and other methods of treatment. Spe cial interest in the health care of the aged has necessitated re cording data on the conditions of persons in nursing homes and home care programs. More con sultants also will be needed to help standardize records in these and other areas where medical record librarians are not avail able. The increasing use of com puters to store and retrieve medi cal information should permit a greater use of medical records and, in turn, tend to increase the demand for medical record librar ians. Earnings and W orking Conditions The salaries of medical record librarians are influenced by the location, size, and type of em ploying institution, as well as by the duties and responsibility of the position. The average salary for chief medical record librarians (registered) in 1968 was $7,900 a year, according to the American Association of Medical Record Librarians. Newly graduated medical rec ord librarians employed by the Federal Government generally started at $5,732 a year in late 1968; those having bachelor’s de grees and high academic records were eligible to begin at $6,981. More than one-fourth of all medi cal record librarians in the Fed eral Government had annual sal aries of $9,300 or more in late 1968. Medical record librarians usu ally work a regular 40-hour week and receive paid holidays and vacations. Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n Information about approved schools and employment opportu nities may be obtained from: The American Association of Medical Record Librarians, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 1 1 1. 60611. DIETITIANS (D.O.T. 077.081 through .168) N ature of th e W ork Dietitians plan nutritious and appetizing meals to help people maintain or recover good health. Their work includes planning general and modified menus that meet nutritional requirements for health or for medical treatment, supervising the personnel who prepare and serve the meals, managing purchases and ac counts, and providing guidance on good eating habits. Adminis trative dietitians form the largest group in this occupation; the others are therapeutic dietitians, teachers, or research workers. Administrative dietitians apply the principles of nutrition and sound management to large-scale meal planning and preparation, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 116 such as that done in hospitals, universities, schools, and other in stitutions. They supervise the preparation of meals; select, train, and direct food-service su pervisors and workers; arrange for the buying of food, equip ment, and supplies; enforce sani tary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. Die titians who are directors of a die tary department also formulate departmental policy; coordinate dietary service with the activities of other departments; and are re sponsible for the development and management of the dietary de partment budget, which in large organizations may amount to mil lions of dollars annually. Dietitian checks patient’s meal. Therapeutic dietitians plan and supervise the service of meals to meet the nutritional needs of pa tients. They discuss food likes and dislikes with patients and note their intake of food. Other duties of therapeutic dietitians in clude calculating modified diets, conferring with doctors regard ing patients’ diets, instructing pa tients and their families on the requirements and importance of their diets, and suggesting ways to help them stay on these diets after leaving the hospital. In a small institution, one person may serve as both the administrative and therapeutic dietitian. Some dietitians, particularly those in hospitals affiliated with medical centers, teach dietetic, medical, dental, and nursing stu dents such subjects as dietetics, foods and nutrition, and diet therapy. A few dietitians act as consultants to commercial enter prises, including food processors, equipment manufacturers, and utility companies. Other members of the profes sion, called public health nutri tionists, conduct studies or sur veys of food and nutrition. They also take part in research proj ects, such as those concerned with the nutritional needs of the aging, persons having chronic dis eases, or space travelers. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The minimum educational re quirement for dietitians is a bachelor’s degree with a major in foods and nutrition or institution management. This degree can be obtained in about 350 colleges and universities. Undergraduate work should include courses in foods and nutrition, institution management, chemistry, bacteri ology, and physiology, and such related courses as mathematics, psychology, sociology, and eco nomics. To qualify for professional rec ognition, The American Dietetic Association recommends the com pletion of internship programs lasting 12 or 18 months or 3 years of pre-planned experience. The programs and experience must be approved by the Association. Many employers prefer to hire dietitians who have completed an internship. An important phase of the intern’s education is clini cal experience; the remainder of the internship is devoted to class room study of menu planning, Places of Em ploym ent budgeting, management, other advanced subjects, and to special projects. In 1968, 65 internship About 30,000 dietitians were programs were approved by The employed in 1968— less than 10 American Dietetic Association— percent were men. About two- 56 for hospitals, 8 for business thirds of all dietitians worked in firms or colleges and universities, hospitals and related institutions, and 1 for a food clinic. including about 1,100 who were Experienced dietitians may be employed by the Veterans Ad advanced to assistant director or ministration and the U.S. Public director of a dietary department Health Service. A sizable number in a large hospital or other insti were employed by colleges, uni tution. Graduate education is versities, and school systems as usually required for advancement teachers or as dietitians in food- to higher level positions in teach service programs. Most of the ing and research. Those inter remainder worked for public ested in becoming public health health agencies, restaurants or nutritionists must usually earn a cafeterias, and large companies graduate degree in this field. that operate food-service pro Graduate study in institutional grams for their employees. Some or business administration is dietitians were commissioned offi valuable to those interested in cers in the Armed Forces. administrative dietetics. 117 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Qualifications needed for work in this field are an interest in and an aptitude for the sciences, par ticularly chemistry and mathe matics. Ability to organize and manage work programs and to work well with others also is important. ployers increasingly are hiring workers to assist dietitians. Op portunities will be favorable in these positions for college gradu ates who have majored in fields such as chemistry or the life sciences. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on approved di etetic internship programs, schol arships, and employment oppor tunities, and a list of colleges pro viding training for a professional career in dietetics, may be ob tained from: Earnings and W orking Conditions The American Dietetic Associa tion, 620 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 11 . 60611. 1 In 1968, hospitals offered new graduates of approved internship programs annual salaries averag ing $7,500, according to The American Dietetic Association. New graduates without intern ship generally received lower starting salaries. Experienced di etitians in hospitals were paid between $7,500 and $15,000 a year. Staff dietitians employed by college and school food serv ices received annual salaries rang ing from $6,500 to $9,000. The entrance salary in the Fed eral Government in late 1968 for those who had completed intern ship was $6,981 a year. Beginning dietitians who had a master’s de gree could start at $8,462 a year. Most experienced dietitians em ployed by the Federal Govern ment earned between $9,500 and $14,000 a year; a few earned over $15,000. Dietitians employed by State and local governments in 1968 received yearly salaries ranging from about $7,900 to $10,200, according to a survey made by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Most dietitians are employed on a weekly work schedule of 40 hours; however, dietitians in hos pitals may sometimes work on weekends, and those in commer cial food service have somewhat irregular hours. Some hospitals provide laundry service and meals in additon to salary. Paid vacations, holidays, and health and retirement benefits are usu ally received. The U.S. Civil Service Commis sion, Washington, D.C. 20415, has information on the require ments for dietetic interns and dietitians in Federal Government hospitals. E m ploym ent O utlook Opportunities for qualified di etitians are expected to be excel lent through the 1970’s. The sup ply of trained dietitians is ex pected to be considerably less than the demand for them. Em ployment opportunities are ex pected to be favorable for full time and part-time employment. The major factors expected to contribute to increasing oppor tunities for dietitians include the expansion of hospital and nursing home facilities, more widespread use of hospitals and medical serv ices by an increasing population, and the growth of community health programs. An increasing number of dietitians also will be needed to direct food services for schools, industrial plants, and commercial eating places, and to engage in food and nutrition re search programs. In addition, since many women select this field because of their interest in food and homemaking and then leave the profession for marriage and family responsibilities, re placement needs probably will continue to be high. The number of men employed as dietitians has been growing slowly but steadily. Men are likely to find increasing employ ment opportunities, especially as administrative dietitians in col lege and university food services, hospitals, and commercial eating places. In an effort to provide the di etetic services demanded, em HOSPITAL ADMINISTRATORS (D.O.T. 187.118) N ature of the W ork Hospital administrators have the highest executive position in a hospital, directing all adminis trative activities. They usually receive general guidance from a governing board with whom they work closely in developing plans and policies. The day-to-day work of admin istrators involves the direction of the many and varied activities of the hospital. They work closely with the medical and nursing staffs and make available to them the necessary personnel, equip ment, and auxiliary services. They are responsible for hiring and training personnel; preparing and administering the budget; es tablishing accounting procedures; planning current and future space needs; insuring the proper maintenance of buildings and equipment; purchasing supplies and equipment; and providing for laundry, mail, telephone, in- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 118 formation, and other services for the patients and staff. In small hospitals, typically lo cated in rural or suburban areas, the administrator generally as sumes all management functions. In large hospitals, he is assisted by specialists trained in hospital administration or in specialized managerial skills. Under the direction of the governing board, administrators may carry out large projects to expand or develop the hospital’s services. For example, they may organize fund-raising campaigns or plan new building or research programs. Hospital administrator confers with hospital board. Administrators meet regularly with their staff to discuss prog ress, make plans, and solve prob lems concerning the functioning of the hospital. In cooperation with the medical staff and de partment heads, they also may develop and maintain teaching programs for nurses, interns, and other hospital staff members. They may address community gatherings, organize community health campaigns, represent their hospitals at meetings, and par ticipate in planning community health care programs. Places of Em ploym ent About 15,000 hospital admin istrators were employed in hospi tals and related institutions in 1968. About two-thirds of them worked in non-profit or private hospitals and institutions, and the remainder generally worked in Federal, State, and local gov ernment hospitals. Of those em ployed by the Federal Govern ment, most were in Veterans Ad ministration, Armed Forces, and Public Health Service hospitals. About one-fifth of the total num ber of hospital administrators and their assistants are women; many are members of religious orders. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Educational requirements for hospital administrators vary from one institution to another. Most employers prefer persons having at least a master’s degree in hos pital administration. Others look for individuals having formal training in social or behavioral sciences, industrial engineering, or business administration, and also extensive experience in the health field. A few require their administrators to be physicians or registered professional nurses. Specialized hospitals (such as mental or orthopedic hospitals) may prefer administrators to be physicians whose medical special ty is the same as that of the hospital. Hospitals run by religi ous groups may seek administra tors of the same faith. In 1968, master's degree pro grams in hospital administration were offered in 27 colleges and universities in the United States. To enter these programs, appli cants must have a bachelor’s de gree, including courses in the natural sciences, psychology, sociology, statistics, accounting, and economics. The programs usually consist of a year of aca demic study followed by a year of administrative residency in a selected hospital or health agen cy; some require 2 years of aca demic study. The curriculum may include courses such as hos pital organization and manage ment, accounting and bud get control, personnel adminis tration, public health adminis tration, and the economics of health care. The residency in volves an orientation to all hos pital activities under the super vision of the administrator or his assistant. A Ph. D. in hospital administration, which is offered in three universities, is especially helpful for those interested in teaching and research. The American College of Hos pital Administrators provides fi nancial loans and scholarships to a limited number of students for graduate work in hospital ad ministration. The U.S. Public Health Service also gives a few awards for graduate work in this field. New graduates having a mas ter’s degree in hospital adminis tration usually enter the field as assistant administrators or de partment heads and occasionally as administrators in small hospi tals. Some persons without a mas- HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS ter’s degree in hospital adminis tration enter the field by working in one of the specialized adminis trative areas such as personnel, records, budget and finance, or data processing. With this experi ence and some graduate work, they may be promoted to depart ment head, assistant administra tor, and eventually to adminis trator. The position of hospital administrator, especially in a large hospital, represents a career goal, and these positions gener ally are filled by transfers from smaller hospitals or by promotion from within. Personal qualifications needed for success as a hospital adminis trator include good health and vitality, as well as interest in helping the sick. Skills in work ing with people, organizing and directing large-scale activities, and public speaking are impor tant assets. E m ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for new graduates having the mas ter’s degree in hospital adminis tration are expected to be excel lent. Applicants without graduate training will find it increasingly difficult to enter this field. Some positions as administrator are likely to continue to be filled by physicians, nurses, or persons ex perienced in a specialized admin istrative area. The number of positions in hospital administration is ex pected to grow rapidly through the 1970’s. As health facilities and health services are expanded to take care of the increasing popu lation, more positions are likely to be created for hospital ad ministrators, assistants, and de partment heads. Graduates of programs of hospital administra tion also will find increasing em ployment opportunities outside of 119 hospitals in nursing homes and other long-term care institutions, rehabilitation facilities, public health centers, health care plan ning agencies, and hospitalization and health insurance programs. Earnings and W orking Conditions Salaries of hospital adminis trators depend on factors such as the size, type, and geographical lo cation of the hospital, and the size of its administrative staff and budget. Starting salaries for new hospital administration graduates in private hospitals generally ranged from $8,500 to $10,000 a year in 1968; salaries of experi enced administrators generally ranged from $11,000 to $25,000, according to the limited data available. New graduates em ployed in Veterans Administra tion hospitals started at $8,462 a year in late 1968; a few experi enced VA hospital administrators, most of whom are physicians, earned $28,000 a year. Commissioned officers in the Armed Forces working as hospi tal administrators hold ranks ranging from second lieutenant to colonel or from ensign to cap tain. Commanding officers of large Armed Forces hospitals are physicians, and they may hold higher ranks. Hospital adminis trators in the U.S. Public Health Service are physicians. They are commissioned officers, holding the rank equivalent to captain in the Navy. Hospital administrators often work long hours. Since hospitals operate on a round-the-clock basis, the administrator may be called upon to settle emergency problems at any time of the day or night. Fringe benefits usually include paid vacations and holi days, sick leave, and pension and insurance coverage. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information about hospital administration and a list of colleges and universities offer ing this training may be obtained from: American College of Hospital Ad ministrators, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 1 1 60611. 1. Association of University Pro grams in Hospital Administra tion, 1642 East 56th St., Chi cago, 1 1 60637. 1. Information on Federal Gov ernment awards for graduate training in hospital administra tion may be obtained from: Bureau of Health Professions Edu cation and Manpower Training, Na tional Institute of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014. SANITARIANS (D.O.T. 079.118) N ature of th e W ork Sanitarians are specialists in environmental health. To safe guard the cleanliness and safety of the food people eat, the liquids they drink, and the air they breathe, sanitarians perform a broad range of duties. They in spect food manufacturing and processing plants, dairies, water supplies, hotels and restaurants, hospitals and schools, waste dis posal plants, swimming pools and other recreation facilities, hous ing, and other places for health hazards. They seek compliance with local regulations and with State and Federal laws relating to public health. They also plan and conduct sanitation programs, ad minister environmental health programs, and promote the enact ment of health regulations and laws. 120 Sanitarian tests pool for bacteria. Sanitarians entering the pro fession usually begin in public health or agriculture depart ments. They inspect facilities and may collect samples of food, air, and water to test for safety. When necessary, they recommend corrective action according to health laws and regulations. As they progress to more responsible investigational work, they fre quently are required to give ad vice on more complex individual and industrial sanitation prob lems. Sanitarians having supervisory duties analyze reports of inspec tions and investigations made by other environmental health spe cialists, and advise on difficult or unusual sanitation problems. They also may conduct investiga tions and give evidence in court cases involving public health reg ulations. In addition, they pro mote health laws and engage in health education activities, some times teaching classes in hygiene and speaking before student as semblies, civic groups, and other organizations. Those in top man agement positions are involved with the planning and adminis OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tration of environmental health programs and their coordination with programs of other agencies. Other duties may include advis ing government officials on en vironmental health matters and drafting health laws and regula tions. Public health sanitarians work closely with other health special ists in the community (such as the health officer, sanitary engi neer, and public health nurse) to investigate and prevent outbreaks of disease, plan for civil defense and emergency disaster aid, make public health surveys, and con duct health education programs. In large local and State health or agriculture departments, and in The Federal Government, sani tarians may specialize in a par ticular area of work, such as milk and other dairy products, food sanitation, refuse and other waste control, air pollution, occupation al health, housing, institutional sanitation, and insect and rodent control. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range of environmental health activities. The professional sanitarian may be assisted by a sanitarian technician during investigations to determine compliance or lack of compliance with health regu lations and laws. The technician takes samples for testing and of ten performs the required tests. Increasing numbers of sanitatarians are being employed out side government agencies. Many work in industry to prevent or minimize contamination hazards and see that clean, healthful, and safe working conditions exist. For example, in a food processing plant, the sanitarian is concerned with the proper disposal of refuse; the cleaning of plant equipment; the control of micro-organisms; and the proper maintenance of buildings, equipment, and em ployee facilities. W here Employed An estimated 8,000 of the ap proximately 10,000 professional sanitarians employed in 1968 worked for Federal, State, and local governments. Most of the remainder worked for manufac turers and processors of food products; a small number were teachers in colleges and universi ties; a few were consultants; others worked for trade associa tions, in hospitals, or for other organizations. Probably less than 1 percent of all sanitarians are women. Sanitarians are employed by public health departments in ev ery State, and by private indus try in most States. About half of them work in 10 States: Califor nia, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, and Wisconsin. In addition to professional sanitarians, about 5,000 sanitar ian technicians and aides were employed in 1968. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A bachelor’s degree in environ mental health is the preferred preparation for a beginning job as a professional sanitarian, al though a bachelor’s degree in a basic science generally is accept able. High level positions usually require a graduate degree in some aspect of public health. In some cases, sanitarian technicians hav ing 2 years of college and work experience can advance to profes sional sanitarian positions. How ever, rising hiring standards are restricting entrance to profes sional positions for those without a bachelor’s degree. Science courses recommended by the American Public Health Association for the first 2 years of college are mathematics, biolo gy, chemistry, physics, and ele- 121 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS mentary bacteriology. In the sec ond 2 years, the recommended program includes advanced gen eral bacteriology, medical ento mology, and a series of public health courses. Liberal arts courses also are considered useful. Thirty-one colleges and univer sities offered undergraduate pro grams in environmental health in 1968; graduate training in envi ronmental health was available in about 100 universities. Some sti pends are available under Fed eral programs for graduate study in this field. Beginning sanitarians usually start at the trainee level, where they remain up to a year, working under the supervision of experi enced sanitarians. They receive on-the-job training in environ mental health practice and learn to evaluate conditions and rec ommend corrective action. After a few years of experience, they may be promoted to minor super visory positions with more re sponsibilities. Increased responsi bilities usually come with addi tional experience; sometimes spe cialization begins at this level, especially in large local health offices. Further advancement is possible to top supervisory and administrative positions. To keep abreast of new devel opments and to supplement their academic training, many sanitar ians take specialized short-term training courses in subjects such as occupational health, water sup ply and pollution control, air pol lution, radiological health, milk and food protection, metropolitan planning, and hospital sanitation. In 1968, 31 States had laws providing for registration of sani tarians; in some States, registra tion is required to practice. Al though requirements for registra tion vary considerably among the States, the minimum educational requirement for registration usuually is a bachelor’s degree, with emphasis on the biological, phy sical, and sanitary sciences. Among the personal qualities useful to sanitarians is the ability to get along well with people. For example, it is often necessary to be tactful in securing the correc tion of unsanitary conditions. Sanitarians also should be able to speak effectively before civic groups or in court. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for sanitarians are expected to be very favorable through the 1970’s. Young people without a college degree with a major in one of the physical or biological sciences or in sanitary science will find that obtaining professional work in the sanitation field is increasingly difficult. Employment of sanitarians is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s, as State and local health agencies expand their activities in the field of en vironmental health. Radiological health, occupational health, food protection, water pollution, and air pollution are expected to re quire the services of more trained personnel as health dangers grow under the stimulus of an expand ing, highly technological civiliza tion. Air pollution is one example of an existing environmental hazard of public concern that is ex pected to increase the demand for sanitarians. It has attracted at tention throughout the United States, especially in large cities where smog has become a prob lem. The discomfort and danger of air pollution from the exhausts of automobiles and from the fumes of industrial plants and other sources have been recog nized in legislation at all levels of government. The possible re lation of respiratory ailments to air pollution also has served to focus attention on this problem. The expanding population is yet another factor that will in tensify the demand for more trained sanitarians. The migra tion of people from rural to urban areas, along with the growth of industries, will place a greater strain on the food-service, hous ing, water, recreational, and waste-disposal facilities of urban communiities. Some increase in demand for sanitarians is ex pected in private industry, pri marily in the food industry. Earnings and W orking Conditions Beginning sanitarians having a college degree usually earned from $7,000 to $7,500 in 1968, according to the National Asso ciation of Sanitarians. Salaries of experienced professional sani tarians generally ranged from $8,000 to $10,000 a year; and environmental health directors often earned from $14,000 to $16,000. Sanitary aides without a college degree generally earned from $6,000 to $8,000 in 1968. Professional sanitarians em ployed in the Federal Govern ment began at $5,732 or $6,321 in 1968, depending on their aca demic records. Experienced sani tarians in the Federal service generally earned from $8,500 to $14,400. Sanitarians spend considerable time away from their desks. Some come in contact with unpleasant physical surroundings, such as sewage disposal facilities and slum housing. Transportation or gaso line allowances frequently are given, and some health depart ments provide an automobile. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information about careers as 122 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK sanitarians is available from the following associations: American Public Health Associa tion, 1790 Broadway, New York, New York 10019. International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sani tarians, Blue Ridge Road, P.O. Box 437, Shelbyville, Indiana 46176. National Association of Sanitar ians, 1550 Lincoln Street, Den ver, Colorado 80203. Information on stipends for graduate study is available from: Division of Allied Health Man power, Bureau of Health Profes sions Education and Manpower Training, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20014. VETERINARIANS (D.O.T. 073.081 through .281) N a tu re of the W ork Veterinarians (doctors of vet erinary medicine) diagnose, treat, and control numerous diseases and injuries among many species of animals. Their work is impor tant for the Nation’s food pro duction and for public health. Veterinarians perform surgery on sick and injured animals, and prescribe and administer drugs, medicines, serums, and vaccines. Their work helps to prevent the outbreak and spread of diseases among animals. Because many animal diseases can be transmit ted to human beings, this aspect of their work is vital to the public health. Veterinarians treat animals in veterinary hospitals and clinics, or on the farm and ranch. In addi tion, veterinarians give advice on the care and breeding of animals. The majority of veterinarians are general practitioners. Of those who are specialists, the greatest number treat small animals or pets. Some specialize in the health care of cattle, poultry, sheep, swine, or horses. Many veterinari ans inspect meat, poultry, and other foods as a part of the Fed eral and State public health pro grams. Others are on the faculties of veterinary colleges. Some vet erinarians do research related to animal diseases, foods, and drugs; other veterinarians, as part of a medical research team, seek knowledge about the prevention and treatment of human disease. Places of Em ploym ent Zoo veterinarian treats ailing alligator. About 24,000 veterinarians were working in 1968; only 2 per cent were women. Almost twothirds of all veterinarians were in private practice. The Federal Government employed about 2,400 veterinarians, chiefly in the U.S. Government of Agriculture; some worked for the U.S. Public Health Service. About 1,000 vet erinarians were commissioned of ficers in the Veterinary Corps of the Army and the Air Force. In addition, many worked for State and local government agencies and a few worked for interna tional health agencies. Some were emloyed by colleges of veterinary medicine, agricultural colleges, medical schools, research and de velopment laboratories, large live stock farms, animal food com panies, and pharmaceutical com panies manufacturing drugs for animals. In 1968, more than one-third of 123 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS all veterinarians in the United States were in six States— Cali fornia, New York, Texas, Illinois, Iowa, and Ohio. Veterinarians in rural areas chiefly treat farm ani mals; those in small towns usu ally engage in general practice; those in cities and suburban areas frequently limit their practice to pets. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A license is required to practice veterinary medicine in all States and the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, an applicant must have the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D .V .M .), awarded upon graduation from a veterinary school approved by the American Veterinary Medical As sociation; pass a State Board ex amination; and, in a few States, have some practical experience under the supervision of a li censed veterinarian. A limited number of States issue licenses without further examination to veterinarians already licensed by another State. For positions in research or teaching, the master’s or Ph. D. degree in a field such as pathol ogy, physiology, or bacteriology is usually required, in addition to the D.V.M. degree. The minimum requirements for the D.V.M. degree are 2 years of preveterinary college work fol lowed by 4 years of professional study in a college of veterinary medicine. However, most candi dates complete 3 or 4 years of a preveterinary curriculum which emphasizes the physical and bi ological sciences. The veterinary college training includes consider able practical experience in diag nosing and treating animal dis eases and performing surgery on sick animals, as well as laboratory work in anatomy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical subjects. There were 18 colleges of vet erinary medicine in the United States in 1968. Some of the quali fications considered by these col leges in selecting students are scholastic record, amount and character of preveterinary train ing, health, and an understand ing and affection for animals. Since veterinary colleges are largely State supported, residents of the State in which the college is located usually are given pref erence. In the South and West, regional educational plans permit cooperating States without vet erinary schools to send a few stu dents to designated regional schools. In other areas, colleges accept a certain number of stu dents from other States and usu ally give priority to applicants from nearby States which do not have veterinary schools. The number of women students in veterinary colleges is relatively small; about 8 percent of the un dergraduates in 1968 were women. Needy students may obtain loans and scholarships of up to $2,500 a year to pursue full-time study leading to the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine under provisions of the Veteri nary Medicial Education Act of 1966 and the Health Manpower Act of 1968. The U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture offers stu dents who have completed their junior year in schools of veteri nary medicine opportunities to serve as trainees during the sum mer months. Some veterinarians begin as assistants to, or partners of, es tablished practitioners. Many start their own practice with a modest financial investment in essentials such as drugs, instru ments, and an automobile. A more substantial financial invest ment is required to open an ani mal hospital or purchase an estab lished practice. Newly qualified veterinarians may enter the Army and Air Force as commissioned of ficers. New graduates who pass Federal civil service examinations can qualify for Federal positions as meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, epidemi ologists, and research assistants. Em ploym ent O utlook Veterinarians are expected to have very good employment op portunities through the 1970’s. Although an increase in the de mand for veterinary services is anticipated in the years ahead, the number of veterinarians will be restricted by the limited ca pacity of schools of veterinary medicine. However, some expan sion in veterinary school facilities is expected because of the passage of the Veterinary Medical Educa tion Act of 1966 which provides funds to assist in the construction of new educational facilities for veterinary colleges. Nevertheless, most of the veterinarians who will receive degrees will be needed to replace those who retire or die. As a result, the demand for vet erinarians will probably exceed the supply during the 1970’s. Among the factors underlying the increasing need for veteri nary services are the following: An increase in the number of live stock and poultry required to feed an expanding population; a growing pet population resulting from a trend toward suburban living; and an increase in veteri nary research. Emphasis on scien tific methods of raising and breeding livestock and poultry, and the growth in domestic and international public health and disease-control programs will probably also add to the opportu nities for veterinarians. Women will continue to have 124 good opportunities, especially in small animal practice, teaching, and research. Earnings and W orking Conditions Veterinarians beginning their own practice generally can cover their expenses the first year and often add to their earnings by working part time for government agencies. As they gain experience, their incomes usually increase substantially. Newly graduated veterinarians without experience had an annual starting salary of $9,026 in the Federal Government in late 1968. Summer trainees in the U.S. De partment of Agriculture could re ceive $134 each week they worked (representing a rate of $6,981 a year) in 1968. The average annual salary of veterinarians employed as full OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK professors by universities was about $20,000 m 1968, according to the American Veterinary Medical Association. Experienced veterinarians working for the Federal Government generally earned between $12,000 and $23,000 a year. The income of veterinarians in private practice usually is higher than that of other veterinarians, according to the limited data available. Veterinarians sometimes are exposed to danger of physical in jury, disease, and infection. Those in private practice are likely to have long and irregular working hours. Veterinarians in rural areas may have to spend much time traveling to and from farms and may have to work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Veteri narians can continue working well beyond the normal retire ment age because of the many opportunities for part-time em ployment or practice. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information on vet erinary medicine as a career, as well as a list of schools providing training, may be obtained from: American Veterinary Medical As sociation, 600 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 11 . 60605. 1 Information on opportunities for veterinarians in the U.S. De partment of Agriculture is avail able from: Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Hyattsville, Maryland 20782. Consumer and Marketing Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 536 South Clark St., Chicago, 1 1 60605. 1. M A T H E M A T IC S A N D R E L A T E D F I E L D S Mathematics is both a profes sion and a tool essential for many kinds of work. The expression of ideas in mathematical language provides a framework within which these ideas can be under stood. Mathematics always has been fundamental to science, en gineering, and human affairs. The impact of mathematical methods on these fields has increased greatly because of the widespread use of electronic computers. For example, the use of mathematical models made possible by the co m p u te r , h a ve op en ed up broad new horizons, not only in the natural sciences and engi neering, but also in the social sci ences, medicine, and management and administration. As a result, employment opportunities for persons trained in mathematics have expanded remarkably in the past 15 years. MATHEMATICIANS (D.O.T. 020.088) N ature of th e W ork Mathematics is one of the old est and most basic sciences. Yet, it is also one of the most dynamic and rapidly growing professions. Mathematicians today are en gaged in a wide variety of chal lenging activities, ranging from the creation of new mathemati cal theories to the translation of scientific and managerial prob lems into mathematical terms. Mathematical work may be di vided into two broad classes: pure or theoretical mathematics; and applied mathematics, which in cludes mathematical computa tion. Theoretical mathematicians develop mathematical principles and discover relationships among mathematical forms. They seek to increase basic mathematical knowledge without necessarily considering its use. Yet, this pure and abstract mathematical knowledge has been instrumental in many scientific and engineer ing achievements. For example, a seemingly impractical nonEuclidean geometry invented by Bernhard Riemann in 1854 be came an integral part of the theory of relativity developed by Albert Einstein more than a halfcentury later. Mathematicians engaged in ap plied work develop theories, tech niques, and approaches to solve problems in the physical, life, and This chapter includes descrip tions of the occupations of mathe matician and the two closely re lated occupations of statistician and actuary. Entrance into any of these fields requires college train ing in mathematics. For many types of work, graduate educa tion is necessary. In addition to the professions covered in this chapter, workers in many other jobs use mathe matics extensively in performing their work. These workers include engineers, chemists, physicists, astronomers, geophysicists, life scientists, systems analysts, and programers, each of whose work is discussed elsewhere in the Hand book. Secondary school teachers of mathematics are not covered in this chapter but are included in the separate statement on Sec ondary School Teachers. Mathematicians often collaborate with scientists in other fields. 125 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 126 social sciences. They analyze the various parts of a problem and describe the existing relation ships in mathematical terms. Their work ranges from the anal ysis of vibrations and stability of rockets in outer space to studies of the effects of new drugs on disease. Applied and pure mathe matics are not always sharply separated in practice; many im portant developments in theoreti cal mathematics have arisen di rectly from practical problems. For example, in recent years, John Von Neumann developed the theory of games of strategy to improve the methods of ana lyzing conflicts between compet ing interests, such as those occur ring in war and economics. Mathematical statisticians use mathematical theory to design and improve statistical methods for obtaining and interpreting numerical information. They de velop statistical tools in areas such as probability, experimental de sign, and regression analysis. They frequently work with statis ticians when planning and de signing experimental surveys. An important part of the work in applied mathematics involves using mathematical knowledge and modem computing equip ment to obtain numerical answers to specific problems. Some work in this area, requires a very high level of mathematical knowledge, skill, and ingenuity. However, much of this work may not re quire the advanced training and inventiveness of the mathemati cian. (See statements on Pro gramed and Systems Analysts.) More than one-third of all mathematicians are involved in research and development activi ties. Nearly one-fourth are pri marily college teachers, many of whom do research part-time. An other one-fourth are in manage ment and administration— about one-half of whom are concerned with the management and admin istration of research and develop ment programs. Most of the re mainder are concerned chiefly with operations research or pro duction and inspection (quality control) of manufactured prod ucts. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 65,000 mathe maticians (including more than 4,000 engaged in actuarial work) were employed in the United States in 1968; about 10 percent were women. More than one-half of all mathematicians worked in private industry, primarily in in dependent research and develop ment firms, and in the ordnance, aircraft, machinery, and electrical equipment industries. Other mathematicians were employed as consultants. Colleges and universities em ployed about one-third of all mathematicians, some of whom have few or no teaching duties. Others were employed by the Federal Government, mostly by the Department of Defense. A few worked for nonprofit organi zations and State and local gov ernments. Mathematicians were employed in all States. However, they were concentrated in States having large industrial areas and sizable college and university enroll ments. Over half of the total were in 7 States— California, New York, Massachusetts, Pennsyl vania, Illinois, Maryland, and New Jersey. Nearly one-fourth reside in 3 metropolitan areas— New York, N.Y.; Washington, D.C.; and Los Angeles-Long Beach, Calif. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The minimum educational re quirement for most beginning po sitions in mathematics is the bachelor’s degree with a major in mathematics, or with a major in an applied field— such as phys ics or engineering— and a minor in mathematics. For many en trance positions, particularly in research or teaching, graduate training in mathematics is re quired. Graduate study is also valuable for advancement to more responsible positions in all types of work. The bachelor’s degree in mathe matics is offered by about 1,100 colleges and universities through out the country. The undergradu ate mathematics curriculum typi cally includes courses in analyti cal geometry, calculus, differen tial equations, probability and statistics, mathematical analysis, and modem algebra. Advanced mathematics degrees are conferred by more than 300 colleges and universities. In grad uate school, the student builds upon the basic knowledge ac quired in the undergraduate cur riculum. He usually concentrates on a specific field of mathematics, such as algebra, mathematical analysis, statistics, applied mathematics, or topology, by conducting intensive research and taking advanced courses in that field. The bachelor’s degree is ade quate preparation for many posi tions in private industry and the Federal Government, particularly those connected with computer work. Some new graduates hav ing the bachelor’s degree assist senior mathematicians by per forming computations and solv ing less advanced mathematical problems in applied research. Others work as graduate teaching or research assistants in colleges and universities while working toward an advanced degree. Advanced degrees are required for an ever-increasing number of MATHEMATICS AND RELATED FIELDS jobs in industry and Government — in research and in many areas of applied mathematics. The Ph. D. degree is necessary for full faculty status at most colleges and universities, as well as for ad vanced research positions. For work in applied mathe matics, training in the field to which the mathematics will be applied is very important. Fields in which applied mathematics is used extensively include physics, engineering, and operations re search; other fields include busi ness and industrial management, economics, statistics, chemistry, the life sciences, and the behav ioral sciences. Training in nu merical analysis and programing is especially desirable for mathe maticians working with com puters. E m ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunties for mathematicians are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. In addition to opportunities re sulting from the very rapid growth expected in this field, ap proximately 4,500 mathemati cians will be needed each year to replace those who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. As in the early and mid 1960’s, there will be strong demand for mathematicians holding the Ph. D. degree for teaching and re search positions in colleges and universities. N ot only is the num ber of students majoring in mathematics expected to increase sharply, but the number of stu dents majoring in other fields and taking mathematics courses will rise also. Thus, colleges and uni versities will continue to provide most of the employment opportu nities for theoretical mathemati cians. Mathematicians also will be re quired in substantial numbers to solve an increasingly wide variety of complex research and develop ment problems in engineering, natural and social sciences, mili tary sciences, operations research, and business management. This work requires a high degree of mathematical competence and a broad knowledge of one of these fields of application. Expenditures to support these research and development activities have in creased steadily in recent years and are expected to continue to rise, although somewhat more slowly than in the past. Between 1968 and 1980, the number of new graduates having degrees in mathematics is ex pected to nearly triple. Thus, the number of persons seeking profes sional mathematics employment is expected to rise sharply, and competition for entry positions may intensify. Nevertheless, graduates who have advanced de grees and those who have a bach elor’s degree and a good academic record should find favorable em ployment opportunities. The education and training necessary for a degree in mathe matics is also an excellent foun dation for a number of other oc cupations, particularly in fields that rely heavily on the applica tion of mathematical theories and methods. Thus, increasing num bers of mathematics graduates are likely to be hired for jobs in high school teaching, statistics, actuarial work, computer pro graming, systems analysis, eco nomics, engineering, physics, geo physics, and life sciences. Em ployment opportunities in these related fields probably will be best for those students who com bine their mathematics major with a minor in one of these disciplines. Earnings and W orking Conditions Annual starting salaries in pri vate industry for mathematicians 127 and mathematical statisticians having a bachelor’s degree were about $8,600 in 1968, according to the limited information avail able. New graduates having the master’s degree received starting salaries averaging about $1,800 a year higher. Yearly salaries for new graduates having the Ph. D. degree, most of whom have some experience, averaged about $15,000 in 1968. In the Federal Government in late 1968, mathematicians having the bachelor’s degree and no ex perience could start at either $7,265 or $8,845 a year, depend ing on their college records. Be ginning matheticians who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree could start at $8,845 or $10,154; those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at either $11,563 or $12,580 a year. In colleges and universities, starting salaries for mathemati cians having the Ph. D. degree who were employed as teachers in 1968 ranged from about $6,500 to $13,000 for 9 months of teaching. Mathematicians in educational institutions often supplement their regular salaries with income from special research projects, consulting, and writing. The average (median) annual salary for mathematicians in the National Science Foundation’s National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel was $13,000 in 1968. Only 10 percent earned less than $8,000 a year, and about 10 percent earned $22,300 or more. Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information on the field of mathematics— including career opportunities, professional training colleges and universities having degree-credit programs, and earnings— may be obtained from: OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 128 American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box 6248, Providence, R.I. 02904. Mathematical Association of America, 1225 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Specific information on careers in applied mathematics and elec tronic computer work may be ob tained from: Association for Computing Ma chinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 33 South 17th St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. Information on careers in mathematical statistics may be obtained from: Institute of Mathematical Statis tics, Department of Statistics, California State College at Hay ward, Hayward, Calif. 94542. Federal Government career in formation may be obtained from any regional office of the U.S. Civil Service Commission or from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Wash ington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. Other sources of information on related occupations, such as Stat isticians, Actuaries, Programers, and Systems Analysts may be found elsewhere in the Handbook. STATISTICIANS (D.O.T. 020.188) N ature of the W ork More than ever before, the characteristics of the world and its inhabitants are being de scribed in numerical terms. Stat isticians collect, develop, analyze, and interpret these data based on their knowledge of statistics and of a particular field, such as eco nomics, demography, behavioral science, education, life science, physical science, or engineering. They may forecast population growth or economic conditions, predict and evaluate the results of new programs, develop quality control tests for manufactured products, or help decision-makers select from alternative choices. Their studies provide govern ment and business officials with the statistical information needed to make decisions and establish policy. Statisticians sometimes work closely with mathematicians and mathematical statisticians. (See statement on Mathemati cians elsewhere in this chapter.) MATHEMATICS AND RELATED FIELDS Many statisticians plan sur veys, design experiments, or ana lyze data. Those who plan sur veys select the data sources, de termine the type and size of the sample groups, and develop the survey questionnaire or reporting form. They prepare the instruc tions for those who will collect or report the information and for the workers who will code and tabu late the returns. Statisticians who design experiments prepare mathematical models that will test a particular theory. Those in analytical work interpret col lected data and summarize their findings in tables, charts, and written reports. Another large group of statisticians chiefly per form administrative functions in connection with statistical pro grams. A few are teachers who often combine research with teaching. The remainder are in volved in other activities such as quality control, operations re search, production and sales fore casting, and market research. Because statistics has such a wide use, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish statisticians from those subject-matter specialists making a limited use of statistics. For example, a statistician work ing with data on economic condi tions may have the title of econo mist. Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 23,000 statisti cians were employed in 1968; about one-third were women. Statisticians are employed in nearly all industries; about twothirds of all statisticians were employed by private industry. Federal, State, and local Gov ernment agencies employed about one-fourth of all statisticians. The Departments of Commerce; Agriculture; Defense; and Health, Education, and Welfare employed most of those in the Federal Gov ernment. Colleges and universi ties employed some statisticians, and several hundred were em ployed by nonprofit organizations and research institutes. Although statisticians were em ployed in all States and areas, about one-third of them worked in three metropolitan areas— New York, N. Y.; Washington, D.C.; and Los Angeles-Long Beach, Calif. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A bachelor’s degree with a ma jor in statistics or mathematics is the minimum educational re quirement for many beginning positions in statistics. For other beginning positions in statistics, however, a bachelor’s degree, with a major in economics or some other subject-matter field and a minor in statistics, is preferable. A graduate degree in mathemat ics or statistics is essential for faculty positions at most colleges and universities, as well as being an asset for advancement to top administrative and consulting po sitions. Advancement in analyti cal and survey work usually re quires graduate training in the subject-matter field as well as in statistics. Relatively few colleges and universities offer training leading to a bachelor’s degree with a ma jor in statistics. Most schools, however, offer either a degree in mathematics or a sufficient num ber of courses in statistics to qualify graduates for beginning positions. Courses essential for statisticians include college alge bra, plane trigonometry, analyti cal geometry, differential and in tegral calculus, linear algebra, and at least one course in statis tical methods. Other important courses cover sampling correla 129 tion and regression analysis, ex perimental design, probability theory, and computer uses and techniques. For many quality control positions, training in en gineering and in the application of statistical methods to manu facturing processes are desirable. For many market research, busi ness analysis, and forecasting po sitions, courses in economics, busi ness administration, or a related field are helpful. Graduate degrees in statistics were conferred by about 50 col leges and universities in 1968, and many other schools offered one or two graduate level statisti cal courses. Entrance into a grad uate program in statistics usually requires a bachelor’s degree with a good background in mathematics. The student should attend a school where he can pursue re search projects in his subjectmatter field, as well as take ad vanced courses in statistics. Beginning statisticians who have only the bachelor’s degree often spend much of their time performing routine statistical work. Through experience, they usually advance to positions of greater technical and supervisory responsibility. Those who have exceptional ability and interest may be promoted to top manage ment positions. Among the personal qualifica tions needed by statisticians are an interest and facility in mathe matics, and the ability to trans late problems into statistical terms. Em ploym ent O utlook The employment outlook for statisticians is expected to be good through the 1970’s. In addi tion to new positions resulting from the very rapid growth ex pected in the profession, hun dreds of statisticians will be 130 needed annually to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Statisticians will be required in increasing numbers by private industry in quality control work in manufacturing. Those having a knowledge of engineering and physical sciences will be needed to work with scientists and engi neers in research and develop ment. Business firms are expect ed to rely more heavily on statis ticians to forecast sales, analyze business conditions, modernize accounting procedures, and solve other management problems. Government agencies will need statisticians for on-going and new programs in fields such as social security, health, education, and economics. Others will be required to teach the anticipated growing numbers of college and profes sional school students, especially as the more widespread applica tion of statistical methods makes such courses increasingly impor tant to non-mathematics majors. Along with the expected growth in demand for statisticians, a steady increase in the number of statistics graduates is expected. However, in recent years, the number of these graduates was barely enough to replace those statisticians who retired or died. Thus, employment opportunities for new college graduates who have degrees in statistics are ex pected to be very good through the 1970’s. Earnings and W orking Conditions Starting salaries for new col lege graduates employed as stat isticians in private industry gen erally averaged between $6,000 and $8,000 a year in 1968, ac cording to the limited informa tion available. Salaries for begin ning statisticians having the mas ter’s degree averaged about OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK $1,500 a year more than for those having only the bachelor’s degree. In the Federal Government service in late 1968, statisticians who had the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at either $5,732 or $6,981 a year, de pending on their scholastic rec ords. Beginning statisticians who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree could start at $6,981 or $8,462. Those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $10,203 or $12,174. Statisticians employed by col leges and universities generally earn somewhat less than those employed by private industry and the Federal Government. Some indication of the salary levels of statisticians employed as teachers may be obtained from the earn ings data for college and univer sity teachers as a group. (See statement on College and Univer sity Teachers.) In addition to their regular salaries, statisticians in educational institutions some times earn extra income from outside research projects, consult ing, and writing. Sources of Additional Inform ation General information on career opportunities in statistics may be obtained from: American Statistical Association, 810 18th Street, NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20006. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 33 South 17th St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. Information on Federal govern ment careers may be obtained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Wash ington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. A list of reading materials on career opportunities in the data processing field may be obtained from: Association for Computing Ma chinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. ACTUARIES (D.O.T. 020.188) N atu re of the W ork Actuaries are responsible for designing insurance and pension plans and for maintaining these programs on a sound financial basis. They are concerned with rates of mortality (death), mor bidity (sickness), injury, disabil ity, unemployment, retirement, and property loss from accident, theft, fire, and other potential hazards. Actuaries use statistical data and other pertinent infor mation to construct tables on the probability of insured loss. They develop and analyze estimates of the insurer’s future earnings and investment income, expenses, and policyholder claims. Taking all these factors into consideration, actuaries determine the premium rates and policy contract provi sions for each type of insurance offered. Most actuaries specialize in either life and health insurance or property and liability (casu alty) insurance. T o perform their duties ef fectively, actuaries must keep abreast of general economic and social trends and legislative, health, and other developments that may affect insurance prac tices. Because of their broad knowledge of the insurance field, actuaries frequently work on problems arising in investment, underwriting, group insurance, and pension sales and service de- MATHEMATICS AND RELATED FIELDS partments. Actuaries in executive positions may help determine gen eral company policy. In that role, they also may testify before pub lic agencies on proposed legisla tion affecting the insurance business or to justify intended changes in premium rates or con tract provisions. Actuaries employed by the Federal Government usually deal with a particular Government in surance or pension program, such as social security (old-age, sur vivors, disability, and health in surance) or life insurance for veterans and members of the Armed Forces. Acturaries in State government positions are in volved in the supervision and regulation of insurance compa nies, the operation of State re tirement or pension systems, and problems connected with unem ployment insurance or workmen’s compensation. Consulting actuar ies perform services for private companies, unions, and govern ment agencies, such as setting up pension and welfare plans and making periodic actuarial evalua tions of these plans. Places of Em ploym ent More than 4,000 persons were engaged in actuarial work in the United States in 1968. About 2,600 had full professional sta tus. Less than 3 percent of all actuaries were women. About one-half of all actuaries were em ployed in the 3 States that are the major centers of the insur ance industry— New York, Con necticut, and Massachusetts. Private insurance companies employed about four-fifths of all actuaries. The majority of this group worked for life insurance companies; the remainder worked for property and liability (cas ualty) companies. The size of an insurance company’s actuarial staff depends primarily upon the volume of its insurance work. Large companies may employ as many as 50 to 100 actuaries. Small companies may have only a few actuaries on their staffs or rely instead on rating bureaus or consulting firms. Consulting firms and rating bureaus (asso ciations that supply actuarial data to member companies) em ployed most of the remainder. Several hundred actuaries worked for private organizations adminis tering independent pension and welfare plans or for Federal or State Government agencies. A few taught in colleges and universities. 131 the insurance business. Those considering an actuarial career should take the beginning exami nations covering general mathe matics while still in college. Suc cess in passing these first ex aminations helps the beginner to evaluate his potential as an ac tuary. Those who pass these ex aminations usually have better opportunities for employment and a higher starting salary. The advanced examinations, usually taken by those in junior actuarial positions, require extensive home study and experience in insurance work. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and Advancem ent A bachelor’s degree with a thorough foundation in calculus, probability, and statistics is re quired for entry into actuarial work. The new graduate having a major in fields such as mathe matics, statistics, economics, or business administration can usu ally qualify for beginning actu arial positions. The prospective actuary should take courses in algebra, analytical geometry, dif ferential and integral calculus, mathematical statistics, and probability. Other desirable courses include insurance law, economics, investments, account ing, and other aspects of business administration. Although only about 20 colleges and universities offer training specifically design ed for actuarial careers, several hundred institutions offer the necessary courses. It usually takes from 5 to 10 years after entering a beginning actuarial position to complete the entire series of examinations re quired for full professional status. These examinations cover general mathematics, specialized actuar ial mathematics, and all phases of Actuarial assistants discuss research project with senior executive. The 10 actuarial examinations for the life insurance and pension field are given by the Society of Actuaries, and the nine for prop erty and liability (casualty) in surance by the Casualty Actuar ial Society. Since the first two parts of the examination series of either Society are the same, the student may defer the selec tion of his insurance specialty OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 132 until he has acquired more fa miliarity with the field. “ Asso ciate” membership is awarded af ter completion of five examina tions in either specialty; the designation of “ Fellow” is con ferred after the successful com pletion of the entire series of examinations. Employers frequently give pref erence to applicants who have passed one or more of the ac tuarial examinations, or to those who have actuarial experience gained in the special summer training programs for college stu dents offered by some insurance companies. A beginning actuary usually is rotated among different jobs to learn various actuarial operations and to become familiar with different phases of insurance work. At first, his work may be rather routine, such as preparing calculations or tabulations for ac tuarial tables or reports. As he gains experience, he may super vise actuarial clerks and prepare correspondence and reports. Advancement to more respon sible work as assistant, associate, and chief actuary depends largely upon the individuals on-the-job performance and the number of actuarial examinations he has successfully completed. Many ac tuaries, because of their broad knowledge of insurance and re lated fields, qualify for adminis trative positions in other com pany activities, particularly in underwriting, accounting, or data-processing departments. A significant number of actuaries advance to top executive posi tions. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for actuaries are expected to be ex cellent through the 1970’s. New graduates who have the necessary mathematical education and have passed some actuarial examina tions will be in particular demand as trainees. Actuarial employment is ex pected to grow very rapidly pri marily because of the rising num bers of insurance policies of all kinds which result, in part, from the existence of an affluent and more insurance-conscious popu lation and business community. Actuaries will be needed to solve the growing number of problems arising from continuously chang ing and increasingly complex in surance and pension coverage. The expanding number of group health and life insurance plans and pension and other benefit plans will require actuarial serv ices. Additional actuaries will be needed by government regulatory agencies. Demand will continue to be strong for actuaries capable of working with electronic com puters. Some actuaries also will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings and W orking Conditions Starting salaries of new college graduates entering actuarial work as trainees in insurance compa nies ranged from $7,000-10,000 a year in 1968, depending on the individual’s college record and experience. Most insurance com panies paid $400-500 a year more if the trainee had completed his first actuarial examination and another $300-500 with the com pletion of the second examination. In the Federal Government service in late 1968, new gradu ates who have the bachelor’s de gree entering actuarial work could start at $9,078 a year, if their college records were suf ficiently good. The corresponding figure for those who have a mas ter’s degree is $10,154. Beginning actuaries can look forward to a marked increase in earnings as they gain professional experience and successfully com plete either Society’s series of examinations. In insurance com panies, merit pay increases are given to those who pass one or a group of the examination. Fellows of either the Society of Actuaries or the Casualty Actuarial Society earn over $15,000 a year and many actuaries earn more than $25,000 a year. Those in executive posi tions in large companies earn over $30,000. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on professional op portunities and qualifications may be obtained from: Casualty Actuarial Society, 200 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Society of Actuaries, 208 South LaSalle St., Chicago, 1 1 60604. 1. N A T U R A L S C IE N C E S The natural sciences are con cerned with the physical world and the living things in it. These sciences may be divided into three broad groups— physical, life, and environmental sciences — all of which are discussed in this chapter. Mathematics, often considered part of the natural sciences, is discussed in a separ ate chapter elsewhere in the Handbook. The physical sciences are the largest field of employment among the natural sciences; over 200,000 physical scientists were employed in 1968. Chemistry is the largest of the physical science specialties; more than 130,000 chemists were employed in 1968. Smaller numbers were employed as physicists (45,000) and as astronomers (1,400). There were nearly 20,000 other physical scientists; more than half were metallurgists. An estimated 170,000 life sci entists specialized in 1 of 3 broad fields— agriculture, biology, or medicine. The largest number, more than 66,000, worked in bi ological sciences. Nearly 48,000 were employed as agricultural sci entists, and more than 54,000 worked on problems related to medical science. The environmental sciences are relatively small fields of scientific employment. In 1968, the num ber of environmental scientists totaled about 39,000. Of these, the largest group were geologists (23,000). Smaller numbers were employed as geophysicists (7,000) oceanographers (5,200), and me teorologists (4,000). A bachelor’s degree is the usual minimum educational require ment for work in the natural sci ences. Graduate training is needed for many positions, especially in teaching and research, and is helpful for advancement in all types of work. In some fields, ad vanced degrees are needed for most positions. Employment in the natural sci ences has grown rapidly in recent years and the outlook is for con tinued rapid growth through the 1970’s. In general the most im portant factor underlying the ex pected increase in employment is the likely growth of expendi tures for research and develop ment. These expenditures have increased rapidly in recent years and are expected to continue to increase, although somewhat more slowly than in the past. Other factors contributing to the expected employment growth in the natural sciences are the ex pansion of industry, the increas ing complexity of industrial prod ucts and processes, and the sharp increase in science enrollments expected in college and univer sities. The following chapter presents descriptions of some of the major occupations within the natural sciences. In addition to these oc cupations, workers in many other fields may require a strong back ground in the natural sciences. Included are engineering, mathe matics, and health service occu pations, which are described else where in the Handbook. Environm ental sc ie n c e s The environmental sciences are concerned with the history com position, and characteristics of the earth’s land, water, interior, atmosphere, and its environment in space. A large group of the scientists in this field explore for new sources of mineral fuels and ores. Some scientists perform bas ic research to increase scientific knowledge. Others work mainly in applied research use knowledge gained from basic research to solve practical problems. Meteor ologists, for example, apply sci entific knowledge of the atmos phere to forecast weather condi tions for specific localities and times. Some of these scientists teach in colleges and universities. They also may administer scien tific programs and operations. Many environmental scientists specialize in one particular branch of their broad occupational field. Geophysicists, for example, may be specialists in geodesy, hydrol ogy, seismology, or physical oceanography. This chapter dis cusses the specialties and the em- ployment outlook for four en vironmental science occupations — geologist, geophysicist, meteor ologist, and oceanographer. GEOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 024.081) N ature of the W ork Geologists study the structure, composition, and history of the earth’s crust. Many geologists spend a large amount of their time in field work. They study rock cores and cuttings from deep holes drilled into the earth and examine rocks, minerals, and fossils found at or near the sur face of the earth. Geologists also spend considerable time in lab oratories, where they study geo logical specimens, analyze geo logical materials under controlled temperature and pressure, and do 133 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 134 other research on geological pro cesses. T o present the results of their field and laboratory investi gations, geologists prepare re ports, articles, and maps of sur face and subsurface geological phenomena. In their work, geol ogists use a variety of complex instruments, such as the X-ray diffractometer, which determines the structure of minerals, and the petrographic microscope, which permits close study of how rocks have been formed and modified by earth processes. Some geologists administer re search and exploration programs. Others teach in colleges and uni versities, where they also may work on research projects. construction of roads, airfields, tunnels, dams, harbors, and other large structures. Stratigraphers study the distribution and rela tive arrangement of sedimentary rock layers by analyzing their fossil and mineral content. Sedimentologists determine the proc esses and prodcts involved in the formation of sedimentary rocks, and paleontologists iden tify, classify, and determine the significance of fossils found with in the sediments. Petrologists classify and determine the origins of rock masses. Mineralogists examine, analyze, and classify minerals and precious stones ac cording to their composition and stru c tu re . Geo m orphologists study the form of the earth’s sur face and the forces, such as ero sion and glaciation, which change it. Increasing numbers of geol ogists specialize in new fields that require a detailed knowledge of both geology and one or more other sciences. Among these spe cialists are geochemists, who study the chemical composition of and the changes in minerals and rocks, and astrogeologists, who use knowledge of the earth’s geology in studies of surface conditions on the moon and the planets. Geological oceanograph ers study the sedimentary and other rocks on the ocean floor and continental shelf. (See state ment on Oceanographers else where in this chapter.) Places of Em ploym ent Research geologist pans stream sediments for heavy metals. Geologists usually specialize in one branch of the science. Economic geologists find and supervise the development of mineral and fuel resources. Petroleum geologists specialize in the discovery and recovery of oil and natural gas. Engineering geologists apply geological knowledge to engineering problems in the Nearly 23,000 geologists were employed in the United States in 1968; only about 3 percent were women. Nearly three-fifths of all geologists worked for private in dustry, mostly for petroleum and natural gas producers. A number of the employees of American petroleum companies worked in 135 NATURAL SCIENCES foreign countries. Geologists also were employed by companies en gaged in various other types of mining. Some geologists special ized in problems related to the construction of dams, bridges, buildings, and highways. Still other geologists worked as inde pendent consultants offering spe cialized services to industry and government. The Federal Government em ployed approximately 2,000 geol ogists, two-thirds of whom worked for the Department of the In terior in the U.S. Geological Sur vey, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of Reclamation. State agencies also employed geologists, some of whom worked on surveys conducted in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey. Al though a few positions were in foreign countries, most Federal jobs were in the United States. Colleges and universities em ployed more than 4,500 geologists. A few others worked for non profit research institutions and museums. their time to geology courses, such as historical geology, struc tural geology, mineralogy, petrol ogy, and invertebrate paleontol ogy. About another third of the work is in mathematics, the re lated natural sciences— such as physics, geophysics, chemistry, and biology— and in engineering; the remainder is in general aca demic subjects. More than 200 universities award advanced degrees in geol ogy. The student seeking a grad uate degree in geology takes ad vanced courses in geology, with emphasis on the student’s area of specialization. The student planning a career in exploration geology should like outdoor activities and have the physical stamina for geological field work, which frequently in volves camping out. This is not a requirement, even though it is an excellent way to get training. An increasing amount of the work, formerly done in the field, is now accomplished by aerial photography. In addition, a grow ing number of specialties are laboratory-oriented. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Em ploym ent O utlook Young people seeking profes sional careers in geology should plan to earn an advanced degree. The master’s degree is required for beginning research and teach ing positions and for many posi tions in exploration. Advance ment in college teaching as well as in high-level research and ad ministrative posts usually re quires the Ph. D. degree. The bachelor’s degree is considered adequate training for only a few entry jobs, primarily in explora tion work. About 350 colleges and uni versities offer the bachelor’s de gree in geology. In the typical undergraduate curriculum, stu dents devote about one-fourth of Employment opportunities for geologists having advanced de grees are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. However, those having the bachelor’s de gree, including those who rank high in their class, probably will face competition for entry posi tions, depending largely on the hiring practices of petroleum com panies. A number of new gradu ates having the bachelor’s degree may find it necessary to enter semiprofessional positions, such as technician or surveyor. Some may take training to qualify as science teachers in secondary schools, or seek other work out side the field of geology. Replacement needs are expected to be the chief source of openings. More than 800 new geologists will be required each year to re place those who are promoted to managerial positions or who transfer to other fields, retire, or die. As world population expands and nations become more indus trialized, the demand for petro leum, minerals, and fresh water will rise, and increasing numbers of geologists will be required to locate these resources. Geologists will be needed to devise tech niques for exploring deeper with in the earth’s crust, both on land and under the sea, and to work with engineers to develop more efficient methods of recovering natural resources. Space-age acti vities will require some geologists to analyze data on the surface conditions of the moon and the planets. During the next few years, pri vate industry probably will em ploy more geologists than former ly. Domestic petroleum explora tion activities, which declined in the late 1950’s, are expected to continue to expand in the 1970’s. The nature of exploration activi ties is such that the need for geologists may vary widely from one year to the next, and the shortrun demand for geologists occasionally exceeds the number of persons available for these ac tivities. Geologists also will be needed to help solve problems related to construction, water supply, and improved methods of locating mineral resources. Federal agency demand for geologists is expected to grow moderately, primarily in the U.S. Geological Survey. Employment of geologists by colleges and uni versities will probably rise slight ly; the need will be mainly for those having Ph. D. degrees who are capable of performing highlevel research. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 136 The demand for earth science teachers in secondary schools is expected to increase very rapidly in the next decade. Geology grad uates having the bachelor’s de gree, but who have had additional training in educational methods, should have good opportunities in this area. Earnings and W orking Conditions The average (median) annual starting salary for new geology graduates who have a bachelor’s degree was $7,800 in private in dustry in 1968, according to the American Geological Institute’s annual survey. New graduates who have a master’s degree usu ally started at between $1,000 and $1,500 more a year than those having the bachelor’s de gree. Starting salaries for those who have doctor’s degrees aver aged $12,000 a year. Depending on their college rec ords, new graduates who have a bachelor’s degree could begin at either $7,456 or $8,845 a year in late 1968 in the Federal Govern ment. Those who have a master’s degree could start at $8,845 or $9,872, and those who have the Ph.D. degree, at $10,883 or $12,174. Teachers often supplement their regular salaries with income from research, consulting, or writ ing. Extra allowances generally are paid geologists for work out side the United States. The work of geologists is often active and sometimes strenuous. When their work is outdoors, geologists may be exposed to all kinds of weather. Many geologists travel a great deal and may do fieldwork away from home for long periods. Their hours of work often are uncertain because their field activities are affected by weather and travel. Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information on career opportunities, training, and earn ings for geologists may be ob tained from: American Geological Institute, 2201 M St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20037. Information on Federal Gov ernment careers may be obtained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Wash ington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. GEOPHYSICISTS (D.O.T. 024.081) N ature of th e W ork Geophysics is an overall term covering a number of sciences concerned with the composition and physical aspects of the earth — its size and shape, interior, sur face, atmosphere, the land and bodies of water on its surface and underground, and the environ ment of the earth in space. Geo physicists study the earth’s phys ical characteristics, such as its electric, magnetic, and gravita tional fields; the earth’s interior heat flow and vibrations; and solar radiation. T o conduct their investigations, geophysicists ap ply the principles and techniques of physics, geology, meteorology, oceanography, geodesy, mathe matics, chemistry, and engineer ing. They use many instruments, including highly complex preci sion ones such as the seismo graph, which measures and re cords the transmission time and magnitude of earthquake waves or vibrations through the earth; the magnetometer, which meas ures variations in the earth’s magnetic field; and the gravi meter, which measures minute variations in gravitational at- Geophysicist examines seismogram. 137 NATURAL SCIENCES traction. In geophysical explora tion, increasing use is being made of electronic computers to collect and process pertinent data. Ex pl or ati on ge op hysicists search for oil and mineral depos its, using the knowledge of earth quake vibrations, the magnetic field, gravitational attraction, and other basic geophysical tech niques. Others conduct research, usually to develop new or im proved techniques and instru ments for prospecting. Hydrologists study the occur rence, circulation, distribution, and physical properties of surface and underground waters in the land areas of the earth. Some hydrologists are concerned with water supplies, irrigation, flood control, and soil erosion. Seismologists study the struc ture of the earth’s interior and the vibrations of the earth caused by earthquakes and manmade explosions. They may explore for oil and minerals, provide informa tion for use in designing bridges, dams, and buildings in earth quake regions, or study the prob lems involved in detecting under ground nuclear explosions. Geodesists measure the size and shape of the earth, determine the positions and elevations of points on or near the earth’s sur face, and measure the intensity and direction of gravitational at traction. They track satellites or biting in outer space to study the size and shape of the earth and the distributions of mass within the earth. Geomagneticians and aeronomists are concerned with the earth’s magnetic field— its varia tions, courses, and form in space — and with many aspects of space science. Tectonophysicists study the structure of mountains and ocean basins, the properties of materials forming the earth’s crust, and the physical forces that formed the mountains and the ocean basins. Oceanographers and meteorolo gists, sometimes classified as geo physical scientists, are discussed separately in this chapter, as is the closely related occupation of geologist. Places of Em ploym ent Nearly 7,000 geophysicists were employed in the United States in 1968. Private industry employed a majority of all geo physicists, chiefly in the petro leum and natural gas industry. Other geophysicists were em ployed by mining companies, ex ploration and consulting firms, and research institutions. A few were in business for themselves as consultants and provided serv ices on a fee or contract basis to companies and individuals en gaged in prospecting or other activities utilizing geophysical techniques. Geophysicists in private indus try were employed mainly in the southwestern and western sec tions of the United States, includ ing the Gulf Coast, where most of the country’s large oil and natural gas fields and mineral deposits are located. Some geo physicists employed by American firms are assigned to work in foreign countries for varying periods of time. In 1968, Federal Government agencies employed more than 1,200 geophysicists, geodesists, and hydrologists, mainly the U.S. Geological Survey; the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Insti tute for Earth Sciences of the Environmental Science Services Administration; the Army Map Service; and the Naval Oceano graphic Office. Colleges and uni versities, State governments, and nonprofit research institutions employed small numbers of geo physicists. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A bachelor’s degree with a ma jor in geophysics or in one of the geophysical specialties qualifies young persons for many begin ning jobs in exploration geophys ics. A bachelor’s degree in a re lated science or in engineering, including courses in geophysics, physics, geology, mathematics, chemistry, and engineering, also is adequate preparation for many beginning jobs, especially in geo physical exploration. Some back ground in electronic data proc essing is useful. For geophysical specialties other than exploration, and for the more responsible positions in exploration work, graduate edu cation in geophysics or in a re lated physical science usually is required. A doctor’s degree with a major in geophysics, or in a related science with advanced courses in geophysics, generally is required for teaching careers. The Ph. D. is required frequently for positions involving fundamen tal research and for advancement in most types of geophysical work. The bachelor’s degree in geo physics is awarded by less than 20 colleges and universities. These undergraduate programs provide training chiefly in explor ation geophysics. Other curriculums that offer the required training for beginning jobs as geophysicists include geophysical technology, geophysical engi neering, engineering geology, pe troleum geology, and geodesy. The master’s degrees and Ph. D. in geophysics are granted by about 15 universities. For ad mission to a graduate program, a bachelor’s degree with a good background in geology, mathe matics, physics, or engineering, or a combination of these subjects is the usual requirement. In gen- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 138 eral, the graduate student should attend a school in which he can take advanced courses and carry out research projects in the as pect of geophysical science in which he has a special interest. Beginning geophysicists hav ing only the bachelor’s degree are usually given on-the-job training in the application of geophysical principles to their employers’ proj ects. If a new employee has not taken the courses in geophysics needed for his job, he is taught geophysical methods and tech niques on the job. Federal Government agencies also have training programs in which a few geophysicists are sent each year to universities for graduate training. Some Federal Government agencies provide a few summer jobs for promising undergraduates and make per manent positions available to them after graduation. The prospective geophysicist should be energetic and in ex cellent health, since geophysicists often have to work outdooors un der somewhat rugged conditions. A willingness to travel is also im portant, since a geophysicist may be required to move from place to place in the course of his employment. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for the few new graduates having de grees in geophysics are expected to be good through the 1970’s. Opportunities will be best for those having the master’s or doc tor’s degree. There also should be favorable opportunities in geo physical work for well-qualified people having degrees in other sciences if they have had some formal training in geophysics. Moderate growth is expected in this profession through the 1970’s. Federal Government agen cies will need geophysicists for new or expanded geophysical pro grams. The petroleum and mining industries will need geophysicists for exploration activities which are expected to expand in the 1970’s. Several hundred new geo physicists also will be needed each year to replace those who leave the profession, retire, or die. Although the number of job openings for geophysicists is not expected to be large in any one year, the number of new gradu ates having degrees in the science also is expected to be small. As in past years, the number of geo physics graduates who are seek ing work as geophysicists prob ably will be insuffiicent to meet employers’ needs, and well-trained persons having degrees in related sciences and in engineering prob ably will continue to be hired for geophysical positions. Over the long run, further growth in the profession is ex pected. There will be increasing use of petroleum and mineral products by a growing popula tion. As natural resources in the more easily accessible locations become depleted, additional ex ploration geophysicists will be needed by petroleum and mining companies to find the more con cealed sites of fuels and minerals. In addition, the growing impor tance of basic research in the geo physical sciences, as well as the continuing need to develop new geophysical techniques and in struments, will create a demand for personnel having advanced training in hydrology, seismology, geodesy, and other geophysical specialties. In Federal Govern ment agencies, additional geo physicists probably will be needed to study the problems of the Nation’s water supplies and min eral resources; to work on flood control; to do research in radio activity and cosmic and solar ra diation; and to explore the outer atmosphere and space, using such vehicles as sounding rockets and artificial satellites. Earnings and W orking Conditions In private industry in 1968, new graduates having bachelor’s degrees typically received start ing salaries between $7,500 and $9,000 a year, according to the limited information available. New graduates having master’s degrees received about $1,500 more than those having the bachelor’s degree. Those having doctor’s degrees received salaries of between $11,000 and $13,000, depending upon individual quali fications. In private industry, geophysical scientists working outside the United States usually receive bonuses and allowances. In the Federal Government in late 1968, graduates having bachelor’s degrees and no experi ence could enter most types of geophysical work at either $7,456 or $9,078 a year, depending upon their college records. Those who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree could start at $9,078 or $10,154; those having the Ph.D. could start at $11,563 or $12,580. In the Fed eral Government as in industry, geophysicists stationed outside the United States are paid an additional amount. In educational institutions, starting salaries are generally lower than in private industry or in the Federal Government. University teachers, however, may supplement their income by consulting, writing, or research activities. The work of geophysicists is often active and sometimes stren uous. Exploration geophysicists are subject to reassignment in various locations as exploration activities shift. Their working hours may be irregular and fre- 139 NATURAL SCIENCES quently are determined by the requirements of field activities. Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Wash ington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information on career opportunities for geophysicists may be obtained from: METEOROLOGISTS American Geophysical Union, 2100 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. (D.O.T. 025.088) Society of Exploration Geophys icists, P. O. Box 3098, Tulsa, Okla. 74101. N atu re of th e W ork Information on Federal Gov ernment careers may be obtained from: Meteorology is the study of at mospheric phenomena— not only of the earth, but of all celestial bodies. Meteorologists attempt to describe and understand the at mosphere’s constituents, motions, processes, and influences. Their knowledge helps solve many prac tical problems in agriculture, transportation, communications, health, defense, and business. Meteorologists usually special ize in one branch of the science. Weather forecasters known pro fessionally as synoptic meteorol ogists, are the largest group of specialists. They interpret cur rent weather information (such as air pressure, temperature, hu midity, wind velocity) reported by observers in many parts of the world and by radiosondes and weather satellites to make shortand long-range forecasts for spe cific regions. Climatologists an alyze past records on wind, rain fall, sunshine, temperature, and other weather data for a specific area to determine the general pattern of weather which makes up the area’s climate. Dynamic meteorologists investigate the physical laws governing atmos pheric motions. Physical meteor ologists study the physical nature of the atmosphere, including its chemical composition and elec trical, acoustical, and optical properties, the effect of the at mosphere on the transmission of light, sound, and radio waves; and the factors affecting the for mation of clouds, precipitation, and other weather phenomena. Meteorological instrumentation specialists develop the devices that measure, record, and evalu ate data on atmospheric proc esses. Specialists in applied me teorology, sometimes called in dustrial meteorologists, study the relationship between weather and specific human activities, biolog ical processes, and agricultural and industrial operations. For example, they make weather fore casts for individual companies, attempt to induce rain or snow in a given area, and work on problems such as smoke control OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 140 and air pollution abatement. Approximately one-third of all civilian meteorologists perform research on ways to modify weather, weather conditions af fecting the behavior of forest fires, and other problems. An other one-third are engaged pri marily in weather forecasting, and about one-fourth manage or administer forecasting and re search programs. In both weather forecasting and research, meteor ologists use electronic computers to process large amounts of data. A number of meteorologists teach or do research— frequently combining the two activities— in universities or colleges. In col leges without separate depart ments of meteorology, they may teach geography, mathematics, physics, chemistry, or geology, as well as meteorology. Places of Em ploym ent More than 4,000 civilian me teorologists were employed in the United States in 1968; only about 3 percent were women. The En vironmental Science Services Ad ministration (E SSA ), which in cludes the Weather Bureau, em ployed by far the largest number of civilian meteorologists— nearly 2,000— at 300 stations in all parts of the United States, the polar regions, Puerto Rico, Wake Is land, and other Pacific area sites. A few worked for other Federal Government agencies. The Armed Forces employed about 300 civil ian professional meterologists. Nearly 700 meteorologists worked for private industry. Com mercial airlines employed several hundred to forecast weather along flight routes and to brief pilots on atmospheric conditions. Others worked for private weath er consulting firms, which pro vided special weather information for a fee, for companies that de signed and manufactured meteor ological instruments, and for large firms in aerospace, insurance, utilities, and other industries. Colleges and universities em ployed about 800 meteorologists in research and teaching. Several hundred others worked for State and local governments and for nonprofit organizations. In addition to these civilian meteorologists, more than 3,000 officers and 1,500 enlisted mem bers of the Armed Forces were engaged in forecasting and other meteorological work in 1968. About four-fifths were on active duty in the Air Force. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A bachelor’s degree with a ma jor in meteorology is the usual minimum educational require ment for beginning meteorologists in weather forecasting. However, a bachelor’s degree in a related science or in engineering is ac ceptable for many positions, pro vided the applicant has credit for courses in meteorology. For ex ample, the Federal Government’s minimum requirement for begin ning positions is a bachelor’s de gree with at least 20 semester hours of study in meteorology and with additional training in physics and mathematics. For research and teaching and for many top-level positions in other meteorological activities, an advanced degree is essential, pref erably in meteorology, although persons having graduate degrees in other sciences also may qualify if they have taken advance me teorology, physics, mathematics, and chemistry. Nearly 50 colleges and univer sities in 1968 offered degreecredit programs in meteorology or specialized meteorological dis ciplines; 28 of these schools granted Ph. D. degrees in the atmospheric sciences. Many other institutions offered courses in meteorology. Meteorology training is given or supported by the Armed Forces. In 1968, more than 350 commissioned officers received university training in meteorol ogy at either the undergraduate or graduate level. In addition, about 100 enlisted personnel were being sponsored in college and university programs leading to an undergraduate degree and an Air Force commission. Ex-servicemen who have experience as meteorol ogists frequently are qualified for civilian meteorologist positions, not only with the Armed Forces but with other employers as well. The ESS A has an in-service training program under which some of its meteorologists are at tending college for advanced or specialized training. Some college students preparing for careers in meteorology may obtain summer jobs with this agency. Promotions for regular full-time employees are made according to U.S. Civil Service Commission regulations. (See chapter on Occupations in Government.) Airline meteorologists have somewhat limited opportunities for advancement. However, after considerable work experience, they may advance to flight dis patcher or to various supervisory or administrative positions. A few well-trained meteorologists hav ing a background in science, en gineering, and business adminis tration may establish their own weather consulting services. E m ploym ent O utlook The employment outlook for civilian meteorologists is expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. In addition to job oppor tunities resulting from the rapid 141 NATURAL SCIENCES growth expected in this profes sion, several hundred new meteor ologists will be needed each year to replace those who transfer to other fields, retire, or die. Meteorologists having advanced degrees will be in demand to con duct research, teach in colleges and universities, and engage in management and consulting work. The advent of weather satellites, manned spacecraft, world circling weather balloons, new interna tional cooperative programs, and the use of electornic computers to make weather forecasts have expanded greatly the boundaries of meteorology and opened new fields of activity in the study of weather on a global scale. Me teorologists will be in demand to develop and improve instruments used to collect and process weather data. Employment opportunities for meteorologists with commercial airlines, weather consulting ser vices, and other private compa nies also are expected to increase, as the value of weather informa tion to all segments of our econ omy receives further recognition. This recognition also may create opportunities in research posi tions with private research or ganizations and colleges and uni versities. The number of teaching positions for meteorologists also should rise, primarily because of anticipated increases in total col lege enrollments and in meteor ology programs. In addition, there will be a con tinuing demand for meteorol ogists to work in existing pro grams, such as weather measure ments and forecasts, storm and flood forecasts, and research on the problems of severe storms, turbulence, and air pollution. Earnings and W orking Conditions In late 1968, meteorologists having the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start in Fed eral Government service at $7,456 or $9,078 a year, depending on their college records. Meteorol ogists who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree could start at $9,078 or $10,154; those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $11,563 or $12,580. Workers stationed out side the United States were paid an additional amount. Employee benefits for Federal Government meteorologists are the same as for other civil service workers. (See chapter on Occupations in Government.) Airline meteorologists received a starting salary of approximately $8,500 - $9,000 a year in 1968, according to the Air Transport Association. Meteorologists gen erally receive the same benefits as other airline employees. (See chapter on Occupations in Civil Aviation.) According to the National Sci ence Foundation’s National Reg ister of Scientific and Technical Personnel, the average (median) annual salary of meteorologists in 1968 was $13,400. Only 10 per cent of the meteorologists earned less than $9,600 and about 10 per cent earned more than $19,600. Jobs in weather stations, which are operated on a 24-hour, 7-day week basis, often involve nightwork and rotating shifts. Most stations are at airports or at places in or near cities; some are in isolated and remote areas. Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information on career opportunities, educational facili ties, and professional develop ment in meteorology may be ob tained from: American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 02108. American Geophysical Union, 2100 Pennsylvania Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. Information on employment opportunities with the ESSA Weather Bureau and on its stu dent-assistance program may be obtained from: Personnel Division AD42, En vironmental Science Services Administration, 6010 Executive Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20852. Information on the Air Force meteorological training programs may be obtained from the nearest USAF recruiting office or from: Commander, USAF Recruiting Service, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45899. OCEANOGRAPHERS (D.O.T. 024.081 and 041.081) N atu re of th e W ork The ocean, which covers more than two-thirds of the earth’s surface, provides valuable foods and minerals, influences the weather, serves as a “ highway” for transportation, and offers many varieties of recreation. Oceanographers study the ocean — its characteristics, movements, physical properties, and plant and animal life. The results of their studies not only extend basic scientific knowledge, but contribute to the development of practical methods for use in op erations such as forecasting weather, improving fisheries, min ing ocean resources, and defend ing the Nation. Oceanographers plan extensive tests and observational programs and conduct detailed surveys and experiments to obtain informa tion about the ocean. They may collect and study data on the 142 ocean’s tides, currents, and waves; its temperature, density, and acoustical properties; its sedi ments; its subbottom; its shape; its interaction with the atmos phere; and marine plants and animals. They analyze the sam ples, specimens, and data col lected, often using electronic com puters. T o present the results of their studies, they prepare maps and charts, tabulations, reports, and manuals, and write papers for scientific journals. In developing and carrying out tests and observational programs, oceanographers use the principles and techniques of the natural sciences, mathematics, and engi neering. They use a variety of special instruments and devices that measure the earth’s magne tic and gravity fields, the speed Oceanographer hauls plankton net. of sound traveling through water, the oceans’ depths, the flow of heat from the earth’s interior, and the temperature and chemical composition of the water. Spe cially developed cameras using strong lights enable oceanogra phers to photograph marine or OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ganisms and the ocean floor; new research vehicles transport ma rine scientists to the floor of the sea. When their work requires new oceanographic instruments or analytical techniques, they usually develop them. Most oceanographers are spe cialists in one of the branches of the profession. Biological ocean ographers (marine biologists) study the ocean’s plant and ani mal life and the environmental conditions affecting them. Phys ical oceanographers (physicists and geophysicists) study the physical properties of the ocean, such as its density, temperature, and ability to transmit light and sound; the movements of the sea; and the relationship between the sea and the atmosphere. Geological oceanographers (ma rine geologists) study the topo graphic features, rocks, and sedi ments of the ocean floor. Chem ical oceanographers investigate the chemical composition of ocean water and sediments, and chem ical reactions that occur in the sea. Marine meteorologists study the interaction of the atmosphere and the ocean, and the processes by which weather over the ocean is generated. Oceanographic en gineers and electronic specialists design and build the systems, de vices, and instruments used in o c e a n o g r a p h i c r es e a r c h and operations. About 3 out of 4 oceanogra phers are engaged primarily in performing or administering re search and development activities. A number of oceanographers teach in colleges and universities; a few are engaged in technical writing, consulting, and in the administration of activities other than research. Most oceanographers work part of the time aboard oceanographic ships at sea. These voyages may last from a few days to several months. A few oceanographers work nearly all of the time aboard ship. On the other hand, some oceanographers never go to sea, but analyze data collected by other scientists or pursue mathe matical or theoretical studies ashore. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 5,200 oceanogra phers and closely related tech nical personnel were employed in the United States in 1968. About four-fifths were employed by the Federal Government and colleges and universities. Those Federal agencies employing substantial numbers of oceanographers were the Naval Oceanographic Office, the Bureau of Commercial Fish eries, and the Environmental Sci ence Services Administration. A growing number of ocean ographers worked in private in dustry for firms that design and develop instruments and vehicles for oceanographic research. A few worked for fishery laboratories of State and local governments. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The minimum educational re quirement for beginning profes sional positions in oceanography is the bachelor’s degree with a major in oceanography, biology, a geo-science, one of the other basic sciences, mathematics, or engineering. For professional po sitions in research and teaching and for advancement to highlevel positions in most types of work, graduate training in ocean ography or one of the basic sci ences usually is required. U n d e r g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g in oceanography, marine science, ocean engineering, or fisheries was offered by only about 15 col leges and universities in 1968; 143 NATURAL SCIENCES and only seven institutions of fered the bachelor’s degree with a major in oceanography. How ever, since oceanography is an interdisciplinary field, training in the related basic sciences, when coupled with a strong interest in oceanography, is adequate prep aration for most beginning posi tions in the field or for entry into graduate school. Im portant undergraduate courses for the prospective ocean ographer are in the fields of math ematics, physics, c h e m i s t r y , geophysics, geology, meteorology, and biology, In general, the stu dent should specialize in the par ticular science field which is closest to his area of interest in oceanography. For example, stu dents interested in chemical oceanography should obtain a de gree in chemistry. In 1968, about 35 colleges and universities offered advanced de grees in oceanography, and about 30 other institutions offered ad vanced courses in fisheries, ma rine science, or oceanographic en gineering. The academic work of the graduate student in ocean ography consists primarily of ex tensive training in a basic science combined with further training in oceanography. The graduate student usually works part of the time aboard ship— doing ocean ographic research for his disserta tion, and at the same time ac quiring familiarity with the sea and the techniques used to ob tain oceanographic information. A variety of summer courses is offered by universities at the various marine stations along our coasts. These are for both under graduate and graduate students and are recommended particu larly for students from inland universities. The beginning oceanographer with the bachelor’s degree usually starts as a research or laboratory assistant, or in a position involv ing routine data collection, anal ysis, or computation. Most new oceanographers receive on-the-job training related to the specific work at hand. The nature and extent of the training vary with the background and needs of the individual. Thus, the new grad uate who has a degree in a basic science rather than in oceanogra phy usually can be provided enough understanding of oceano graphic principles to enable him to perform adequately in this field. Beginning oceanographers hav ing advanced degrees usually can qualify for research and teaching positions. Experienced oceanog raphers may be selected for ad ministrative positions, in which they may supervise a research laboratory or direct specific sur vey or research projects. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for those having degrees in oceanog raphy— especially the Ph.D. de gree— are expected to be excel lent through the 1970’s. Welltrained persons with bachelor’s degrees in related sciences will find opportunities mainly as re search assistants in routine an alytical positions. The outlook is for very rapid growth in this profession through the 1970’s. Growing recognition of the importance of the oceans to the Nation’s welfare and se curity has heightened interest in oceanography and has opened new fields for specialists. In the years ahead, oceanographers will be needed for research in areas such as underwater acoustics, surface and subsurface ocean cur rents, and ocean floor topography, all of which are important in im proving the Nation’s defense against submarines and surface vessels. There also will be a de mand for oceanographers to sup ply weather and iceberg forecasts; to study air-sea interaction in order to improve long-range weather forecasts; to solve sea mining problems; and to predict, control, and prevent pollution and damage caused by waves and tides. Other oceanographers will be needed to improve methods of deriving foods from the oceans, to manage fisheries, and to de velop economical ways to harness the ocean for energy and to in crease the supply of fresh water. The demand for oceonographers qualified to teach in colleges and universities also is expected to expand. As interest in oceanog raphy grows and more courses in oceanography are offered, more teachers in the science will be needed. Replacement of oceanographers who transfer to other fields, re tire, or die also will provide some opportunities. Since oceanography is a rela tively small profession, job open ings will not be numerous in any one year. On the other hand, the number of new graduates having degrees in this science is small and is expected to remain so. Thus, new oceanography grad uates should continue to have ex cellent opportunities. Earnings and W orking Conditions In the Federal Government service in late 1968, oceanogra phers having the bachelor’s de gree and no experience could be gin at $7,456 or $9,078 a year, depending on their college rec ords. Beginning oceanographers who had completed all require ments for the master’s degree could start at $9,078 or $10,154; those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $11,563 or $12,580. Scientists in geological and bio logical specialties had somewhat lower starting salaries. 144 Beginning oceanographers in educational institutions receive the same salary as other begin ning faculty members. (See state ment on College and University Teachers.) In addition to their regular salaries, many experi enced oceanographers in educa tional institutions earn extra in come from consulting, lecturing, and writing activities. Oceanographers engaged in re search requiring sea voyages are frequently away from home for weeks or months at a time, some times living and working in cramped quarters. Young people who like the sea, however, may find these voyages very satisfying. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Service Examiners for Wash ington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. The bulletin University Cur ricula in the M a r i n e Sciences may be obtained from: Committee on Marine Research, Education and Facilities, Bldg. 159E, Rm. 476, Washington Navy Yard, Washington, D.C. 20390. The booklet, Oceanography In formation Sources, lists the names and addresses of many profes sional, research, and industrial organizations interested in ocean ography. Copies, priced at $1.50 each, may be purchased from: Printing and Publishing Office, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20418. The bulletin, Marine Science Affairs—A Year of Plans and Progress, contains information on the national oceanography pro gram. Copies, priced at $1, may be obtained from: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Some information on oceanog raphic specialties may be ob tained from professional societies listed elsewhere in the Handbook. (See statements on Geologists, Geophysicists, Life Scientists, Meteorologists, and Chemists.) Sources of A d ditional Inform ation General information about oceanography— including career opportunities, professional train ing, colleges and universities hav ing applicable degree-credit pro grams, earnings, and the eco nomic significance of oceanogra phic activities— may be obtained from: American Society for Oceanog raphy, 854 Main Bldg., Hous ton, Tex. 77002. American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, W.K. Kel logg Biological Station, Michi gan State University, Hickory Corners, Mich. 49060. International Oceanographic Foundation, 1 Rickenbacker Causeway, Virginia Key, Mi ami, Fla. 33149. National Oceanography Associa tion, 1900 L St. N W , Wash ington, D.C. 20036. U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, Washington, D.C. 20390. Federal Government career in formation may be obtained from any regional office of the U.S. Civil Service Commission or from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Life sc ie n c e s The life sciences encompass the biophysicists, ecologists, patholo study of all living organisms and gists, and pharmacologists. This the processes that determine the chapter also contains a separate nature of life. They are concerned statement on biochemists. More with men and microbes, plants detailed statements for other pro and animals, and health and dis fessional workers in the life sci ease, as well as how these organi- ences— soil scientists, soil con isms relate to their environment. servationists, foresters, and range Some scientists in this field managers— are discussed else perform research to expand our where in the Handbook. understandings of living things. Others, who teach, pass this knowledge on to students. Many scientists pursue both activities. LIFE SCIENTISTS Still others apply these concepts and principles to the solution of (D.O.T. 040.081, 041.081, 070.081, and 077.128) practical problems, such as the development of new drugs or va rieties of plants. This chapter discusses life sci N atu re of the W ork entists as a group since they re ceive comparable basic training Life scientists study living or and have similar employment and ganisms, their structure, evolu earning prospects. Brief descrip tionary development, behavior, tions are provided about the na and life processes. They place ture of the work of a number of emphasis on the relationship be life scientists— including botan tween these organisms and their ists, zoologists microbiologists, environments. The number and NATURAL SCIENCES variety of plants and animals are so vast and the life processes so varied and complex that life sci entists must of necessity become specialists. Some learn as much as possible about a particular kind of animal, plant, or micro organism. Others, interested in how an animal or the human body functions, study such things as the nervous system, how food is digested, or how organisms are affected by disease. Some are in terested in the evolution of living organisms, the mechanisms of heredity; or the ways environ mental factors, such as light or heat, affect life processes. In gen eral, life scientists specialize in one of three broad areas— agri culture, biology, medicine. Two-fifths of all life scientists are engaged in research and de velopment. Many conduct basic research, which is aimed at add ing to our knowledge of living organisms with only secondary regard to its application. Never theless, the development of in secticides, disease-resistant crops, and antibiotics have resulted from basic research in the life sciences. Much of the basic medi cal knowledge of the treatment of disease has its origin in pure science. Research in the life sciences may take many forms. A botanist exploring the volcanic Alaskan valleys to see what plants live in this strange environment and a zoologist searching the jungles of the Amazon valley for previously unknown kinds of animals are both doing research; likewise, an entomologist in a laboratory tests various chemical insecticides for effectiveness and possible haz ards to human and animal life. Regardless of the type of re search in which they are engaged, life scientists must be familiar with fundamental research tech niques and the use, not only of light and electron microscopes, 145 but of other complex physical and electronic laboratory equipment. Advanced techniques and princi ples from chemistry and physics are applied widely. A knowledge of mathematical and statistical procedures, as well as of the op eration of electronic computers, often is needed in experiments involving a large number of vari able factors. Teaching in a college or uni versity is the major function of nearly one-fourth of all life scien tists. Many teachers combine inde pendent research with their regu lar teaching duties, and in some large educational institutions, use the major portion of their time on research. More than one-fourth of all life scientists are engaged in manage ment and administrative work, primarily the planning, super vision, and administration of pro grams of research or testing of foods, drugs, and other products. Others provide liaison between the Federal Government and the agricultural experiment stations at State universities, assisting in the planning, development, and evaluation of research programs at these stations. The remaining life scientists are engaged in a variety of other types of work, such as consulting, writing, testing, and inspection. A few are employed in technical sales or field service work for in dustrial firms; such work may include, for example, teaching company salesmen and prospec tive purchasers the value and proper use of new chemicals. Some are engaged in research in Botanists study leaves of pepper plant to be launched into earth orbit. 146 natural history museums, zoos, and botanical gardens. Life scientists may be classi fied into three broad groups char acterized by the general type of organism with which they work: Botanists, who study plants; zo ologists, who are concerned with animals; and microbiologists, who work with micro-organisms. Botanists study all aspects of plant life. Plant taxonomists identify and classify plants. Plant ecologists study the interrelation ships between environmental ele ments and plant life and distribu tion. Other botanists include plant morphologists, concerned with the structure of plants and plant cells; plant physiologists, interested in the life processes of plants; and plant pathologists, engaged in determining the cause and control of plant diseases. Zoologists study animal life— its origin, classification, behavior, life processes, diseases, and para sites— and the ways in which ani mals influence and are influenced by their environment. Zoologists who specialize in the study of certain classes of animals may use titles that indicate the kind of animal studied, such as ornitholo gists (birds), herpetologists (rep tiles and amphibians), ichthy ologists (fishes), and mammalogists (mammals). Microbiologists investigate the growth, structure, and general characteristics of bacteria, vi ruses, molds, and other organisms of microscopic or submicroscopic size. Although the terms bacteri ology and microbiology are some times used interchangeably, mi crobiology, the broader term, is preferable when referring to the study of all microscopic organ isms. Microbiologists isolate and make cultures of these organisms in order to examine them with a variety of highly specialized equipment. Some microbiologists pursue medical problems, such as OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the relationship between bacteria and infectious disease, or the ef fect of antibiotics on bacteria. Others specialize in soil bacteri ology (the study of soil micro organisms and their relation to soil fertility), virology (the study of viruses), immunology (the study of the mechanisms that fight infection), or serology (the study of a n i m a l and plant fluids, including blood serums). Life scientists also may be classified according to the type of approach used— some of which are wholly within 1 of the 3 major groupings, and others which may be found in all 3 groups. Some life scientists are classified ac cording to the specific type of or ganism studied. Some life sci entists whose work cuts across more than one of these major groupings, as often in the case of college and university teachers, simply may call themselves bi ologists. A description of the work of some life scientists fol lows. Agronomists are concerned with Ecologist inspects wasp's nests made of radioactive mud. NATURAL SCIENCES field-crop problems. They develop new methods of growing crops for improved quality, higher yield, and more efficient production. They seek new, hardier varieties of crops and better methods of controlling disease, pests, and weeds. Agronomists may special ize in the problems of a geographi cal region, a particular crop, or a technical area, such as crop breeding or production methods. Anatomists study the form and structure of organisms. Those who specialize in the structure of cells are known as cytologists, whereas those who specialize in the structure of tissues and or gans are known as histologists. Anatomists may examine struc tures visible to the naked eye or of microscopic size, or those of submicroscopic size, visible only through the use of the electron microscope. Many anatomists specialize in human anatomy. Biochemists, who are trained in both chemistry and biology, study the chemical processes of living things. A more detailed descrip tion of their work is contained in a separate statement elsewhere in this chapter. Biological oceanographers, or marine biologists, study the plant and animal life in the oceans and the environmental conditions af fecting them. See separate state ment on Oceanographers else where in the Handbook. Biophysicists who are trained in both physics and biology, investi gate the physical principles of living cells and organisms, and their responses to physical forces, such as heat, light, radiation, sound, and electricity. They may use the electron microscope to make tissues visible down to the smallest units and they may use nuclear reactors to study the ef fect of radiation on cells and tissues. Ecologists study the mutual relationship among organisms 147 and between them and their en vironment. They are interested in the effects of environmental in fluences such as rainfall, temper ature, altitude, and kind and quality of food. Embryologists study the devel opment of an organism from fer tilization of the egg through the hatching process or gestation period. They investigate the phys iological, biochemical, and genet ic mechanisms that control and direct the processes of develop ment, how and why this control is accomplished, and the causes of abnormalities in development. Entomologists are concerned with insects and their relation to plant and animal life. They iden tify and classify the enormous number of different kinds of in sects. Some entomologists seek methods of controlling harmful insects that carry disease and spoil food supplies. Others de velop ways to encourage the growth and spread of beneficial insects, such as honeybees. Geneticists explore the origin, transmission, and development of hereditary characteristics. Genet icists engaged primarily in im proving plant and animal breeds of economic importance— such as cereal and tobacco crops or dairy cattle and poultry— may be classified as plant or animal breeders, agronomists, or animal science specialists. Theoretical geneticists search for the mech anisms that determine inheri ted traits in plants, animals, or humans. Horticulturists work with or chard and garden plants, such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants, and other nursery stocks. They develop new or improved plant varieties and better methods of growing, har vesting, storing, and transport ing horticultural crops. Horticul turists usually specialize in either a specific plant or a particular technical problem, such as plant breeding. Husbandry specialists (animal) conduct research on the breeding, feeding, management, and dis eases of domestic farm animals to improve the health and yield of these animals. Nutritionists examine the proc esses through which food is utilized, the kinds and quantities of food elements— such as min erals, fats, sugars, vitamins, and proteins— that are essential to build and repair body tissues and maintain health, and how these food elements are transformed into body substances and energy. Nutritionists also analyze food to determine its composition in terms of essential ingredients or nutrients. Pathologists study the nature, cause, and development of dis ease, degeneration, and abnormal functioning in humans, in ani mals, or in plants. Many special ize in the study of the effects of diseases, parasites, and insect Pathologists usually work in laboratories. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 148 pests on cells, tissues, and organs. Others investigate genetic varia tions and other abnormal effects caused by drugs. The term “ path ologist” is normally reserved for specialists in human pathology (medical pathology). Specialists in animal pathology are usually veterinarians. (See statement on Veterinarians.) Those who study plant diseases may be called plant pathologists or phytopatholog ists; their work is discussed under the section on botanists. Pharmacologists conduct tests to determine the effects of drugs, gases, poisons, dusts, and other substances on the functioning of tissues and organs, and relate their findings with medical data. They may develop new or im proved chemical compounds for use in drugs and medicines. Physiologists study the struc ture and functions of cells, tis sues, and organs and the effects of environmental factors on life processes. They may specialize in cellular activities or in one of the organ systems, such as the diges tive, nervous, circulatory, or re productive systems. The knowl edge gained in such research of ten provides the basis for the work of many other specialists, such as biochemists, pathologists, pharmacologists, or nutritionists. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 170,000 persons were employed in the life sciences in 1968. About 10 percent were women. Of this total, nearly 48.000 worked in agricultural sci ence, more than 66,000 worked in biological science, and about 54.000 worked on problems re lated to medical science. More than half of the total were employed by colleges and universities in teaching and re search positions. Medical schools and their associated hospitals em ployed particularly large numbers of life scientists in the medical field. State agricultural colleges and agricultural experiment sta tions operated by universities in cooperation with Federal and State Governments employed sizable numbers of agronomists, horticulturists, animal husbandry specialists, entomologists, and other agriculture-related special ists. The Federal Government in 1968 employed about 28,000 life scientists, two-thirds of whom were employed in the Depart ment of Agriculture. The D e partment of the Interior em ployed nearly all the fish and wildlife biologists in the Federal Government. Other large num bers of life scientists were em ployed by the Department of the Army and the National Institutes of Health. State and local gov ernments, combined, employed about 19,000 biologists— mostly fish and wildlife specialists, mi crobiologists, and entomologists — for work in conservation, de tection and control of diseases, and plant breeding. Approximately 26,000 life sci entists worked for private indus try in 1968. Among the major in dustrial employers were manu facturers of pharmaceuticals, in dustrial chemicals, and food products. A few were self-em ployed. Nearly 6,000 life scien tists worked for privately financed research o r g a n i z a t i o n s and other nonprofit foundations. Although life scientists were employed in all States, nearly two-fifths were located in five States— California, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Mary land. More than one-tenth of all life scientists were located in only two Metropolitan areas— Washington, D.C., and New York, N.Y. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Young people seeking profes sional careers in the life sciences should plan to obtain an ad vanced degree— preferably a Ph. D.— in their field of interest. The bachelor’s degree with a major in one of the life sciences is ade quate preparation for many be ginning jobs, but promotional op portunities for those without graduate training may be limited to intermediate level positions. The Ph. D. degree generally is required for higher level college teaching positions and for inde pendent research. It is also nec essary for an increasing number of other positions involving the, administration of research pro grams. New graduates having a mas ter’s degree may qualify for most entry positions in applied re search and for some types of po sitions in college teaching and basic research. Those having a bachelor’s de gree may qualify for positions involving testing, production and operation work, technical sales and service, and duties connected with the enforcement of govern ment regulations. They also may obtain positions as advanced technicians, particularly in the medical area. Those who gradu ate near the top of their class may qualify for some research positions, but these positions are mostly of a routine nature or are performed under close super vision. Some graduates having a bachelor’s degree may take courses in education and choose a career as a high school teacher of biology rather than one as a life scientist. (See statement on Secondary School Teachers.) Training leading to a bache lor’s degree with a major in one of the life science specialties is offered by nearly all colleges and NATURAL SCIENCES of their class. New graduates holding the bachelor’s degree will find many opportunities to work as research assistants or in tech nician jobs while continuing their graduate education. Employment in the life sci ences is expected to grow very rapidly throughout the 1970’s. In addition to e m p l o y m e n t opportunities r e s u l t i n g from growth, nearly 9,600 life scien tists will be needed each year to replace those who transfer to other fields, retire, or die. One of the major factors which will tend to increase the employ ment of life scientists is the an ticipated continued growth in re search and development, par ticularly in medical research pro grams sponsored by the Federal Government and voluntary health agencies, including those promot ing studies of heart disease, can cer, and birth defects. Research in such relatively new areas as space biology, radiation biology, environmental health, biological oceanography, and hereditary regulation also will probably in crease. Industry also is expected to in crease its spending for research and development in the biological sciences. Furthermore, the strin gent health standards of the Fed eral regulatory agencies are likely to result in a heightened demand for additional life scientists in industry to perform research and testing before new drugs, chemi Em ploym ent O utlook cals, and processing methods are Employment opportunities for made available to the public. Another factor which should life scientists having graduate de grees are expected to be very good increase employment of life sci throughout the 1970’s. Demand entists is the substantially larger will be strong for those having college and university enroll doctorates to do research on prob ments expected during the 1970’s. lems important to medicine, Although the resulting rise in de health, and environmental qual mand for teachers will be to a ity control. Employment oppor large extent for Ph. D .’s, there tunities are likely to be favorable will be many openings for quali for persons having bachelor’s de fied people holding master’s grees who graduate near the top degrees. universities. Courses differ great ly from one college to another, and it is important that a student determine which college program best fits his interests and needs. In general, liberal arts colleges and universities emphasize train ing in the biological scences and in the medical aspects of life science. State universities and land-grant colleges offer special advantages to those interested in agricultural sciences because their agricultural experiment sta tions provide many opportunities for practical training and research work. Prospective life scientists should obtain the broadest under graduate training possible in all branches of biology and in re lated sciences, particularly bio chemistry, organic and inorganic chemistry, physics, and math ematics. Courses in statistics, calculus, biometrics and com puter programming analysis are becoming increasingly essential. Training and practice in labora tory techniques, in the use of lab oratory equipment, and in field work are also important. Advanced degrees in the life sciences also are conferred by a large number of colleges and uni versities. Requirements for ad vanced degrees usually include fieldwork and laboratory re search, as well as classroom stud ies and preparation of a thesis. 149 Earnings and W orking Conditions In the Federal Government in late 1968, life scientists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $5,732 or $6,981 a year, depend ing on their college records. Be ginning life scientists having a bachelor’s degree and some grad uate study could start at $6,981, $8,462, or $10,203, depending up on academic records and previous experience. Those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $10,203 or $12,174. Pharmacologists had somewhat higher starting salaries than other life scientists. Life scientists having the Ph. D. degree and employed as col lege and university teachers typi cally received starting salaries between $7,000 and $8,500 a year in 1968, according to the limited information available. (For fur ther information, see statement on College and University Teach ers.) Life scientists in educa tional institutions sometimes sup plement their regular salaries with income from writing, con sulting, and special research projects. According to the National Sci ence Foundation’s Register of Scientific and Technical Person nel, agricultural scientists earned about $11,000 a year in 1968. The average (median) annual salary for biological scientists was $13,000 in 1968, according to the Register; only 10 percent earned less than $7,500 a year, and about 10 percent earned $23,000 or more. In general, life scientists in private industry tend to have higher salaries than those in either colleges and unversities or Government employment. Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information on careers in the life sciences may be ob tained from: OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 150 American Institute of Biological Sciences, 3900 Wisconsin Ave. N W , Washington, D.C. 20016. Specific information on Fed eral Government careers may be obtained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Wash ington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. BIOCHEMISTS (D.O.T. 041.081) N atu re of the W ork The biochemist has an important role in modem science’s research for the basis of life and the fac tors that sustain life. His pro fessional interests range from what determines heredity to how living things react to space travel. Biochemists study the chemical composition of living organisms. They identify and analyze the chemical processes related to bi ological functions, such as mus cular contraction, reproduction, and metabolism. Bichemists in vestigate the effects on organisms of such chemical substances as foods, hormones, and drugs. They study the chemical changes in living tissue caused by genetic and environmental factors. Biochemists study a wide va riety of substances, ranging from very small molecules to giant macromolecules. They analyze chemical compounds such as min erals, sugars, amino acids, pro teins polysaccharides, nucleic acids, fats, and steriods. Biochem ists deal with problems in ge netics, enzymology, hormone ac tion, bioenergetics, and the phe nomena of biochemical control. Foremost among the areas of application of biochemistry are Biochemist constructs molecular model. medicine, biomedicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In the medical field, biochemists may investigate the causes and cures of disease or develop diagnostic procedures. In the biomedical area, they con tribute to our understanding of genetics, heredity, brain function, and physiological adaption. In the nutritional field, they may iden tify the nutrients necessary to maintain good health and the ef fects of specific deficiencies on various kinds of performance, in cluding the ability to learn. In agriculture, biochemists investi gate soils, fertilizers, and plants, and undertake studies to dis cover more efficient methods of crop cultivation, storage, and utilization, and the design and use of pest-control agents. Biochemists apply the princi ples and procedures of chemical and physical analysis to their re search problems. They use a va riety of scientific instruments and devices, including electron microscopes and radioactive iso tope counters, and devise new in struments and analytical tech niques as needed. Biochemists usually report the results of their research in scientific journals and sometimes lecture before scien tific groups. 151 NATURAL SCIENCES chemistry by doing intensive re search and writing a thesis. Some graduate schools having extensive research facilities or a staff highly accomplished in a special field have gained a repu tation for training students in that particular field of biochem Training , O ther Q ualifications, istry. For example, a university and Advancem ent affiliated with a medical school or hospital often has the facilities The minimum educational re and equipment available for quirement for beginning positions studying the biochemisty of dis in biochemistry is the bachelor’s ease. Therefore, a student who degree with a major in biochem desires to specialize in a particu istry or chemistry, or with a ma lar field of biochemistry should jor in biology and a minor in investigate the specialties of the chemistry. For most entrance po various schools and make his se sitions in research and teaching, lection carefully. graduate training in biochemistry New graduates having the is required. Graduate work also bachelor’s degree usually begin is needed for advancement to work in industry or government most high-level positions in all as research assistants. These po sitions involve testing and types of work. Fewer than 40 schools award analysis. In the drug manufac the bachelor’s degree in biochem turing industry, for example, re istry. However, all colleges and search assistants may analyze the universities offer a major in ingredients of a product to verify biology or chemistry. The pros and maintain its purity or qual pective biochemist should take ity. Some graduate students be undergraduate courses in chem come research or teaching assist Places of Em ploym ent istry, biology, biochemistry, ants in colleges and universities. Beginning biochemists having Approximately 11,000 bio mathematics, and physics. More than 100 colleges and advanced degrees usually qualify chemists were employed in the United States in 1968; about 15 universities offer graduate degrees for research or teaching positions. percent were women. Biochemists in biochemistry. For entrance in Some experienced biochemists were employed in both large and to a graduate program in bio who have Ph. D. degrees advance chemistry, schools usually require to high-level administrative posi small cities, and in all States. About half of all biochemists the student to have a bachelor’s tions and supervise research pro were employed by colleges and degree in biochemistry, biology, grams. Other highly qualified bio universities in 1968. Many of or chemistry. However, students chemists, who prefer to devote these scientists were teaching and who have the bachelor’s degree their time to research, often be performing research in univer in another basic science but who come leaders in a particular field sity-operated laboratories and have had several undergraduate of biochemistry. hospitals. Another 700 biochem courses in chemistry usually are ists worked for nonprofit organi admitted. In graduate school, the student Em ploym ent O utlook zations, such as research insti builds upon the basic knowledge tutes and foundations. Private industry employed obtained in the undergraduate The employment outlook is several thousand biochemists. curriculum. He takes advanced likely to be very good for bio The largest group of these worked courses and may conduct research chemists through the 1970’s. In in the chemical industry, primar in many areas of biochemistry. addition to new opportunities re ily for manufacturers of drugs, In completing work for the doc sulting from the very rapid toral degree, he usually special growth expected in this field, insecticides, and cosmetics. About one-fifth of all bio izes in a particular field of bio about 450 new biochemists will be About seven out of ten bio chemists are engaged in research. The vast majority pursue basic research designed to increase sci entific knowledge. The small group of biochemists working in applied research use the discov eries of basic research to solve practical problems or develop useful products. For example, through basic research, biochem ists discover how a living organ ism forms a hormone. This knowledge is put to use by syn thesizing the hormone in the lab oratory and then producing it on a mass scale to enrich hormonedeficient organisms. The distinc tion between basic and applied research, however, is often one of degree; biochemists may engage in both types of work. Some biochemists teach in col leges and universities, often com bining research with teaching. Small proportions are engaged in production and testing activities or private consulting. chemists worked for Federal, State, and local government agencies. Most of these scientists were employed by Federal agen cies concerned with health or agriculture. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 152 needed each year to replace work ers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The greatest demand will be for the biochemist who has the Ph. D. degree, to conduct inde pendent research or to teach. The major factor underlying the anticipated growth is the con tinued increase in expenditures for research and development in life sciences. These expenditures, which have risen rapidly in re cent years, are expected to con tinue to rise, although at a some what slower rate. The greatest growth in employ ment of biochemists is expected in medical research as research is expanded on health problems such as cancer, heart disease, muscular dystrophy, and mental illness. Additional biochemists will be needed to implement the more stringent drug standards that have been established by Congress and the Federal regu latory agencies. Biochemistry also is becoming important in other fields, such as environmen tal studies. Growing college enrollments, especially of students majoring in chemistry and the life sciences, will strengthen the demand for biochemists qualified to teach in colleges and universities. Although biochemistry is a relatively small profession and job openings will not be numer ous in any one year, the number of graduates who have degrees in this science also is fairly small and is expected to remain small. Thus, the employment outlook should continue to be favorable for biochemistry graduates. faculty members. Biochemists in educational institutions often supplement their income by en gaging in outside research or con sulting work. In 1968, the average (median) earnings for all biochemists who had a bachelor’s degree was $8,600; for those having a mas ter’s degree, $9,900; and for those having a Ph. D., $14,000. Starting salaries paid to bio chemists employed by colleges and universities are comparable to those for other professional General information on careers in biochemistry may be obtained from: American Society of Biological Chemists, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. Ph ysical sc ie n c e s The physical sciences deal with the basic laws of the physical world. Many physical scientists conduct basic research designed to increase man’s knowledge of the properties of matter and energy. Others conduct applied research, using the knowledge gained from basic research to de velop new products and processes. For example, chemists in applied research use their knowledge of the interactions of various chem icals to develop new fuels for rockets and missiles. Physical sci entists also teach in colleges and universities and supervise re search and development programs. This chapter includes descrip tions of three major physical sci ence occupations— chemist, phys icist, and astronomer— and of biochemists, one of the major groups of chemists. Engineers, life scientists, and earth scientists also require a background in the physical sciences; these occupa tions are described in separate chapters elsewhere in the Hand book. Earnings Sources of A dditional Inform ation CHEMISTS (D.O.T. 022.081, .168, .181, and .281) N ature of the W ork The clothes we wear, the food we eat, the houses in which we live— in fact, most of the things which help to make our lives more comfortable, healthy, and produc tive— have resulted, in part, from the chemist’s continuing search for new knowledge. Although the day-to-day activities of chemists generally receive little notice, some of their discoveries have led to the creation of whole new in dustries, such as the plastics, frozen foods, and manmade fibers industries. Chemists investigate the prop erties and composition of matter, and the laws that govern the com bination of elements in a seem ingly endless variety of forms. They search for new knowledge about substances and try to util ize this knowledge for practical use. In conducting studies, they apply scientific principles and techniques and use a variety of specialized instruments to meas ure, i d e n t i f y , and evaluate changes in matter. Chemists NATURAL SCIENCES 153 Research chemists test plastic interlayer for safer automobile windshields. maintain accurate records of their work and prepare clear and con cise reports showing the results of the tests or experiments. They often present their findings in scientific publications or in lec tures before scientific groups. The activities of chemists are varied. Some chemists develop new substances, such as rocket fuels, solids for transistors, or vaccines. Other chemists, by ob serving how light is absorbed by a substance or how X-rays or beams of electrons are affected when passed through it, deter mine the chemical composition of a substance and the atomic make up of its molecules. Other chemists, are interested in the bulk properties of matter rather than those of individual mole cules; they examine the behavior of solids, liquids, and reactions on surfaces. Another group of chem ists study the rate at which mat ter undergoes changes in compo sition, ranging from the combus tion in a jet engine to the growth of a living organism. A sizable number of chemists make quali tative and quantitative measure ments of the properties of matter and develop analytical instru ments and techniques. Biochem ists challenge the problems re lated to the chemistry of life proc esses. (See separate statement on Biochemists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nearly one-half of all chemists are engaged in research and de velopment. Many research chem ists work on applied research projects to create new products or improve or find new uses for existing ones. Chemists in applied research have helped to develop a vast range of new products, in cluding antibiotics, plastics, syn thetic rubbers, detergents, insec ticides, and manmade fibers. Many other chemists work on basic research to extend scientific knowledge rather than to solve immediate practical problems. Results of basic research fre quently apply immediately to practical problems. For example, basic research on polymerization — how and why small molecules unite to form giant molecules— resulted in the development of synthetic rubber, nylon, and plastics. About one-fourth of all chem ists are employed in management and administration— especially of research and development activi ties. A smaller proportion of chemists devote most of their time to teaching, often combining research with teaching. Analysis and testing is another major ac tivity of chemists because various kinds of tests must be made at practically every stage in the manufacture of a product, from initial development to final pro duction. Others are employed as marketing experts or sales repre sentatives of chemical companies and other manufacturers in posi tions where the employee must be familiar with the technical as pects of products. Some chemists work as private consultants to private industry firms and gov ernment agencies. Places of Em ploym ent Chemistry is by far the largest field of employment in the phys ical sciences. More than 130,000 chemists were employed in the United States in 1968; nearly 10 percent were women. Nearly three-fourths of all chemists were employed by pri vate industry in 1968. The chem icals manufacturing industry em ployed almost half of these chem ists. Relatively large numbers of other chemists were found in the industries manufacturing food, scientific instruments, petroleum, 154 rubber, paper, textiles and ap parel, electrical equipment, and primary metals products. Inde pendent laboratories and research institutes providing consulting services and distributors of chem ical, pharmaceutical, food, and petroleum products also em ployed significant numbers of chemists. Colleges and universities em ployed more than 20,000 chem ists. A smaller number worked for nonprofit research organiza tions. A number of chemists were employed by Federal Govern ment agencies, chiefly by the U.S. Departments of Defense; Health, Education, and Welfare; Agri culture; and Interior. Small num bers worked for State and local governments, primarily in agen cies concerned with health or agriculture. Chemists were employed in all States, in small as well as large cities. However, they were usually concentrated in large industrial areas. Nearly one-fifth of all chemists were located in four met ropolitan areas— New York, Chi cago, Philadelphia, and Newark. About half of the total worked in six States— New York, New Jersey, California, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A bachelor’s degree with a ma jor in chemistry is usually the minimum educational require ment for starting a career as a chemist. Graduate training is es sential for many positions, par ticularly in research and college teaching, and is helpful for ad vancement in all types of work. Training leading to the bache lor’s degree in chemistry is of fered by about 1,000 colleges and universities throughout the coun try. In addition to the required OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK chemistry courses in inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry, and quantitative and qualitative a nal ys i s , t he u n d e r g r a d u a t e c he m i s t r y major also takes courses in mathematics (especial ly analytical geometry and cal culus) and physics. Advanced degrees in chemistry are awarded by nearly 300 col leges and universities, many of which offer financial assistance to students interested in gradu ate study. In graduate school, the student usually specializes by taking several courses in a par ticular field of chemistry. R e quirements for the master’s or doctor’s degree vary by institu tion, but usually include lectures, laboratory work, and a thesis. New graduates having the bachelor’s degree usually qualify for beginning positions in analysis and testing, quality control, tech nical service and sales, or assist senior chemists in research and development work. Most chemists having only the bachelor’s degree start their careers in industry or government. In industry, employ ers often have special training programs for new chemistry grad uates. These programs supple ment college training with spe cific industry techniques and help determine the type of work for which the new employee is best suited. Some chemists who have the bachelor’s degree teach or do research in colleges and universi ties while working toward ad vanced degrees. They also may qualify as secondary school teachers. Chemists having the master’s degree often qualify for applied research positions in government or private industry. They also may qualify for some teaching positions in colleges and univer sities and in 2-year colleges. The Ph. D. degree generally is required for basic research, for higher level faculty positions in a college or university, or for ad vancement to top-level positions in administration and in other activities. Em ploym ent O utlook The employment outlook fo r chemists is expected to be very good through the 1970’s. In ad dition to new opportunities re sulting from the very rapid growth expected in the profes sion, approximately 6,500 new chemists will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Chemists will be required in increasing numbers to perform research and development work. Expenditures for research and de velopment, which have increased rapidly in recent years, probably will continue to rise, although somewhat more slowly than in the past. These expenditures not only create jobs for chemists in research and development, but also produce new products that result in new positions for chem ists in other types of work. Another factor increasing the opportunities for chemists is the growing demand for the products of industry. These products in clude plastics, manmade fibers, drugs, fertilizers, and high energy and nuclear fuels for missiles and space ships. Because of the large increases in college and university enroll ments expected through the 1970’s, requirements for chemists to teach at these institutions are projected to double by 1980. The greatest demand will be for those who have Ph. D. degrees, but many openings, especially in 2year colleges, also should arise for chemists who have master’s degrees. (See statement on Col lege and University Teachers.) Along with the expected growth in demand for chemists, a rapid 155 NATURAL SCIENCES rise is expected in the number of chemistry graduates seeking professional employment through the 1970’s. Nevertheless, the de mand is expected to be somewhat greater than the number of new graduates who will be available for employment. Thus, new chem istry graduates should continue to have very favorable employ ment opportunities, a l t h o u g h some competition may exist for the better paying entry positions. New graduates also will find openings in high school teaching, provided they have completed the professional education courses and other requirements for a State teaching certificate. How ever, they usually are regarded as teachers rather than as chemists. (See statement on Secondary School Teachers.) Earnings and W orking Conditions Inexperienced chemistry grad uates having a bachelor’s degree had an average (median) start ing salary of about $8,400 a year in private industry in 1968, ac cording to a survey conducted by the American Chemical So ciety. Inexperienced graduates having the master’s degree aver aged about $9,600 a year and those having the Ph. D. degree, about $13,500. In academic institutions, the average (median) annual start ing salary for the few entrants having the bachelor’s degree and no experience was about $6,600, according to the American Chem ical Society. The average salary for inexperienced graduates hav ing the master’s degree was about $8,600, and for those having the Ph. D. degree, $10,800. Many ex perienced chemists in educational institutions supplement their regular salaries with income from consulting, lecturing, and writing. In Federal Government posi tions in late 1968, the annual starting salary for inexperienced chemists having the bachelor’s degree was either $7,456 or $9,078, depending on the individ ual’s college record. Beginning chemists who have 1 year of graduate study could start at $9,078 and those who have 2 years of graduate study at $10,154. Chemists having the Ph. D. degree could start at $11,563 or $12,580. The average (median) annual salary for all chemists was $13,500 in 1968, according to the National Science Foundation’s National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel. Only 10 percent of all chemists earned less than $8,500 a year, and about 10 percent earned $21,000 or more. Chemists spend most of their time working in modern, wellequipped, well-lighted laborator ies, offices, or classrooms. Chem ists work with chemicals that can be dangerous if handled careless ly. However, when safety regula tions are followed, health hazards are negligible. Sources of Additional Inform ation General information on career opportunities and earnings for chemists may be obtained from: American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Manufacturing Chemists’ Associa tion, Inc., 1825 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Specific information on Federal Government careers may be ob tained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Wash ington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. For additional sources of in formation, see statements on Bio chemists, Chemical Engineers, and Industrial Chemical Indus try. Information on chemical technicians may be found in the statement on Technician Occu pations. PHYSICISTS (D.O.T. 023.081 and .088) N ature of the W ork The flight of astronauts through space, the probing of the oceans’ depths, or even the safety of the family car depend in numerous ways on research performed by physicists. By determining basic laws governing phenomena such as gravity, electromagnetism, heat flow, and radioactivity, po tential difficulties can be antici pated and overcome. Physicists observe and analyze the various forms of energy, the structure of matter, and the re lationship between matter and energy. From their research, phys icists develop theories and dis cover fundamental laws that de scribe the behavior of the forces at work within the universe. Their studies have continued to broaden man’s understanding of the physical world and have en abled him to make increasing use of natural resources. Physicists have contributed to scientific progress in recent years in areas such as nuclear energy, elec tronics, communications, and aerospace. Nearly three-fifths of all phys icists are engaged in research and development. Some conduct basic research to increase scientific knowledge with only secondary regard to its practical applica tions. Some of these, called the oretical physicists, attempt to describe the interactions between 156 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Physicist studies creation of energy in fuel cell model. matter and energy in mathemati cal terms. Others, called experi mental physicists, make careful systematic observations and per form experiments to identify and quantify these interactions. For example, they try to identify and measure the lifetime of tiny par ticles of matter which may exist within the nucleus of the atom. Experimental physicists use ap paratus such as particle accelera tors, X-ray spectrometers, microwave devices, lasers, and phase and electron microscopes. When their research requires new kinds of instruments, they may design them. The difference between theoretical and experimental physicists is often merely one of emphasis. Some members of the profession are skilled in both types of work. A large number of physicists who are engineering-oriented en gage in applied research and de velopment. They use the knowl edge gained from basic research to solve practical problems or to develop new or improved prod ucts. For example, the work of physicists specializing in solidstate physics led to the develop ment of transistors and micro circuits, now used in place of vac uum tubes in many types of elec tronic equipment ranging from hearing aids to guidance systems for missiles. About one-fifth of all phys icists teach in colleges and uni versities. Others are engaged in management and adminstration, especially of research and devel opment programs. A small num ber work in activities related to the production of industrial prod ucts such as inspection and qual ity control. Some physicists do consulting work. Most physicists specialize in one or more branches of the sci ence— mechanics, thermal phe nomena, high energy physics, optics, acoustics, electromagnet ism, electronics, atomic and mo lecular physics, nuclear physics, physics of fluids, solid-state phys ics, or classical theoretical phys ics. They may concentrate in a subdivision of one of these branches. For example, within solid-state physics they may spe cialize in ceramics, crystallogra phy, or semiconductors, among others. In addition, emerging knowledge continually opens new areas of research. For example, the development of lasers and masers had led to new experi mentation in optics and other fields. However, since all physics specialties rest on the same fun damental principles, the physi cist’s work often overlaps a num ber of specialties. Physicists often apply the the ories and methodology of their science to problems originating in other sciences, including as tronomy, biology, chemistry, and geology. Growing numbers of sci entists have specialized in fields that combine physics and a re lated science. Thus, a number of specialties have developed on the borderline between physics and other fields— astrophysics, bio physics, chemical physics, and 157 NATURAL SCIENCES geophysics. (Information on these occupations is continued else where in the Handbook.) Fur thermore, the practical applica tions of physicists’ work have in creasingly merged with engineer ing. Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 45,000 physi cists were employed in the United States in 1968; only about 3 per cent were women. Private indus try employed about 18,000; more than two-fifths of whom worked in the electrical equipment, ord nance, and chemicals industries. Commercial laboratories and in dependent research institutes employed more than one-fourth of the physicists in private industry. In 1968, colleges and univer sities employed almost 20,000 re search or teaching physicists, many of whom combined both ac tivities. Federal Government agencies employed approximately 6,000 physicists in 1968, nearly three-fourths of whom worked for the Department of Defense. The National Bureau of Standards and the National Aeronautics and Space Aministration also em ployed significant numbers of phy sicists. Nonprofit organizations employed more than 1,000 phys icists. Physicists were employed in all States. However, their em ployment was greatest in those areas having industrial concen trations and large colleges and universities. Nearly one-fourth of all physicists were employed in four metropolitan areas— Wash ington, D.C., Boston, New York, and Los Angeles-Long Beach. More than one-third of the total were employed in three States— California, New York, and Massachusetts. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and Advancem ent A bachelor’s degree with a ma jor in physics is generally the minimum entrance requirement for young people seeking careers as physicists. Graduate training is required for many entry posi tions and is helpful for advance ment in all areas of work. A doctor’s degree usually is re quired for full faculty status at colleges and universities. It usu ally is needed for employment in positions involving responsibility for research and development with any type of employer. Physicists having master’s de grees qualify for many research jobs in private industry, educa tional institutions, and govern ment. Some also instruct in col leges and universities. Usually, graduate students working to ward a doctor’s degree are assign ed to teach elementary college courses, conduct laboratory ses sions, or assist senior faculty members on research projects. Physicists having bachelor’s degrees qualify for a variety of jobs in applied research and de velopment work in private in dustry or the Federal Govern ment. Some become research as sistants in colleges and univer sities while working toward ad vanced degrees. Many persons having a bachelor’s degree in the science do not work as physicists but enter nontechnical work, other sciences, or engineering. About 800 colleges and univer sities offer training leading to the bachelor’s degree in physics. In addition, many engineering schools offered a physics major as part of the general curriculum. The undergraduate program in physics provides a broad back ground in the science, which serves as a base for later spe cialization either in graduate school or on the job. A few of the physics courses typically offered in an undergraduate program are mechanics, electricity and mag netism, optics, thermodynamics, and atomic and molecular phys ics. In addition, courses in chem istry and mathematics are re quired. Approximately 300 colleges and universities offer advanced degrees in physics. In graduate school, the student, with faculty guidance, usually works in a spe cific field The graduate student, especially the candidate for the Ph.D. degree, spends a large por tion of his time in research. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for physicists are expected to be fa vorable through the 1970’s. In addition to opportunities result ing from the very rapid growth expected in this field, approxi mately 2,200 physicists will be needed each year to replace those who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Graduate training is increas ingly the hallmark of full profes sional status in physics. As in recent years, a strong demand is expected for physicists who have advanced degrees to teach in col leges and universities. Among the factors contributing to the de mand for physics teachers are the rapid increase in graduate en rollments and the growing need for physics training in other sci ence and engineering programs. Physicists also will be required in substantial numbers to per form complex and demanding re search and development work re lated to physics, engineering, or other natural sciences. Expendi tures for research and develop ment, which have increased rap idly in recent years, probably will continue to rise, although some what more slowly than in the past. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 158 New graduates also will find opportunities in other occupa tions that utilize their training. For example, they may become high school teachers, provided they complete the required pro fessional educational courses and obtain a State teaching certifi cate. However, they are usually regarded as teachers rather than as physicists. (See statement on Secondary School Teachers else where in the Handbook.) sulting work and special research projects. The average (median) annual salary for physicists was $14,000 in 1968, according to the Na tional Science Foundation’s Reg ister of Scientific and Technical Personnel. Only 10 percent earned less than $9,000 a year, and about 10 percent earned $22,500 or more. Sources of Additional Inform ation Earnings and W orking Conditions Starting salaries for physicists having bachelor’s degrees were usually about $9,000 a year in private industry in 1968, accord ing to the limited information available. Physicists having mas ter’s degrees received starting sal aries about $1,500 higher than those having bachelor’s degrees. Depending on specialty and ex perience, graduates having Ph. D. degrees generally received en trance salaries of around $15,000 annually, although some were paid considerably less. In the Federal Government in late 1968, physicists having the bachelor’s degree and no experi ence could start at either $7,456 or $9,078 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning physicists who had completed all the requirments for the master’s degree could start at $9,078 or $10,154. Physicists having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $11,563 or $12,580. Starting salaries for physicists having the Ph. D. degree on col lege and university faculties ranged from $7,500 to $10,000 for the 1967-68 academic year. (For further information, see statement on College and Uni versity Teachers.) Many faculty physicists supplement their regu lar incomes and satisfy their pro fessional interests through con satellites; and make statistical studies of stars and galaxies. As tronomers also study the size and shape of the earth and the prop erties of its upper atmosphere. Astronomical observations are valuable to navigation and the accurate measurement of time. In making detailed observa tions of the heavens, astronomers use complex photographic tech niques, light-measuring instru ments, and other optical devices. The telescope is the major instru General information on career opportunities in physics may be obtained from: American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Information on Federal Gov ernment careers may be obtained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Wash ington, D.C., 1900 E St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20415. ASTRONOMERS (D.O.T. 021.088) N ature of the W ork Astronomy often is considered the most theoretical of all sci ences, although it has many prac tical applications. Astronomers study all the celestial bodies in the universe. They collect and analyze data on the sun, moon, planets, and stars and attempt to determine the sizes, shapes, sur face temperatures, chemical com position, and motions of these bodies and make studies of the gases and dust between them. They compute the positions of the plants; calculate the orbits of comets, asteroids, and artificial ment used for observation. De vices for making specialized ob servations are usually attached to the telescope. Although most observations are made by means of telescopes permanently mount ed in observatories, astronomers are gathering information in creasingly by means of rockets, balloons, and earth satellites car rying various measuring devices. In processing and analyzing the vast amounts of data derived from from their observations, as tronomers often use electronic computers. Astronomers usually specialize NATURAL SCIENCES in one of the many branches of the science. In astrophysics, they apply physical laws to stellar at mospheres and interiors. Some astronomers work in the field of celestial mechanics, one of the oldest fields of astronomy that has recently acquired new impor tance because it deals, in part, with the motions of objects in the solar system, and hence has a particular application in the cal culation of the orbits of space craft and artificial earth satellites and the paths of ballistic missiles. Radio astronomy is the study of the source and nature of celestial radio waves by means of radio telescopes of extraordinary sen sitivity. Among the other special ties are astrometry (measurement of angular positions and move ments of celestial bodies); photo electric and photographic pho tometry (measurement of the in tensity of light); spectroscopy of astronomical sources (wave length analyses of radiation from celestial bodies); and statistical astronomy (statistical study of large numbers of celestial objects, such as stars, to determine their average properties). More than three-fifths of all astronomers are engaged in re search activities. Another fifth are primarily teachers in colleges and universities. In some schools not having separate departments of astronomy or having only small enrollments in the subject, astronomers may teach courses in mathematics or physics as well as astronomy. Other members of the profession are engaged in a variety of activities, including ad ministration of research pro grams, development and design of astronomical instruments, and consultation in areas to which astronomy is applied. Places of E m ploym ent Astronomy is one of the small 159 est of the physical sciences; in 1968, the total number of astrono mers in the United States was es timated to be about 1,400. More than two-fifths of all astronomers were employed by colleges and uni versities. Many of these worked in university-operated observatories, where they usually devoted most of their time to research, working alone or together with other as tronomers. Other astronomers worked for observatories financed by nonprofit organizations. The Federal Government em ployed about 500 astronomers in 1968. Four-fifths of these worked for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The U.S. Naval Observatory and the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory also employed astronomers. A growing number of astrono mers were employed in private in dustry, mostly by firms in the aerospace field. A few astrono mers worked for museums and planetariums. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and Advancem ent Young people seeking profes sional careers in astronomy should obtain an advanced de gree— preferably the Ph. D. The doctorate usually is required for high-level positions in teaching and research and is important for other types of work in this field. Although the bachelor’s degree is adequate preparation for some entry jobs, astronomers without graduate work usually find that opportunities for promotion are limited. Undergraduate curriculums leading to the bachelor’s degree in astronomy are offered by only about 35 colleges and universities. The undergraduate work of the prospective astronomer is weight ed heavily with courses in physics and mathematics. Courses in chemistry, statistics, and elec tronics also are useful. A few of the courses often taken by astronomy undergradautes are optics, spectroscopy, atomic phys ics, calculus, differential equa tions, solar and stellar systems, introductory astrophysics, and astronomical techniques and instruments. The prospective astronomer is not necessarily handicapped if the college he has selected for his undergraduate study does not of fer a major in astronomy. Wellqualified students having a bach elor’s degree in physics or math ematics with a physics minor usually are able to enter and pur sue graduate programs in astron omy without difficulty. Programs leading to the doc torate in astronomy are available at about 30 institutions located in various sections of the coun try. The academic work of the graduate student consists pri marily of advanced courses in astronomy, physics, and math ematics. A few of the astronomy courses typically offered in grad uate schools are celestial me chanics, galactic structure, radio astronomy, stellar atmospheres and interiors, theoretical astro physics, and binary and variable stars. Some schools require that graduate students spend several months in residence at an ob servatory. In most institutions, the program of work leading to the doctorate is flexible and al lows the student to take the courses which will be of most value to him in his astronomical specialty or particular area of interest. New graduates having a bach elor’s or master’s degree in as tronomy usually begin as assist ants in observatories, planetar iums, large departments of as tronomy in colleges and univer sities, Government agencies, or 160 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK industry. Some persons, having only the bachelor’s degree, work as research assistants while study ing toward advanced degrees; others, particularly those in Gov ernment employment, receive onthe-job training in the applica tion of astronomical principles. New graduates having the doc torate can usually qualify for col lege teaching positions and for research positions in educational institutions, Government, and industry. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for astronomers having the Ph. D. de gree are expected to be good through the 1970’s. Well-quali fied persons with only bachelor’s or master’s degrees in astronomy will have favorable employment prospects, primarily as research and technical assistants. As in the past, however, the higher level professional positions in as tronomy will be filled mainly by persons having the doctorate. The outlook is for a rapid growth of this small profession through the 1970’s. However, be cause astronomy is a small pro fession, the number of job open ings in any one year will not be large. On the other hand, be cause relatively few college stu dents are expected to receive ad vanced degrees in astronomy each year, those who do should have good employment opportunities. Among the factors underlying the expected increase in demand for astronomers is the progress of the space age— the age of rockets, missiles, manmade earth satel lites, and space exploration. As tronomers will be needed to ana lyze the data collected by rockets and spacecraft. They also will be needed to plan and give direction to the astronomical observations that can only be carried out by means of equipment placed in space vehicles. Increased research activities in astronomy by educational insti tutions, Government, and indus try are expected to add to the demand for astronomers. In re cent years, the growth of Federal Government-sponsored research, in the form of grants to educa tional institutions and observa tories (for astronomical research and for new buildings, observa tories, and equipment), has opened many new positions for astronomers. Earnings and W orking Conditions In late 1968, beginning astron omers having the Ph. D. were eligible to enter Federal Govern ment service at a salary of $11,563 or $12,580 a year, de pending on their college record. Astronomers having the bach elor’s degree could start at $7,456 or $9,078 a year; those having a bachelor’s degree and some grad uate study could begin at $9,078 or $10,154. Average starting salaries for the 1967-68 academic year for instructors of astronomy in col leges and universities ranged from about $7,500 to $10,000, according to the limited data available. As the astronomer ad vances to higher level teaching positions, his earnings increase significantly. Some full professors earn over $20,000 a year. As tronomers in educational institu tions often earn extra income by writing books and articles, lectur ing, or consulting. Some astronomers are occupied much of the time in nightwork, making visual photographic or photoelectric observations. Oth ers make observations only 4 or 5 nights each month, or even only a few nights a year, and devote the remainder of the time to studying and analyzing photo graphic plates, photoelectric trac ings, and other material during usual daytime working hours. Observational work at a telescope involves exposure to the outside air through the open dome of the observatory, sometimes on cold winter nights. In general, how ever, the physical requirements of astronomical work can be met by a reasonably healthy person. Sources of Additional Inform ation General information on careers in astronomy may be obtained from: American Astronomical Society, 211 FitzRandolph Rd., Prince ton, N.J. 08540. Specific information on Fed eral Government career opportu nities may be obtained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Wash ington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20415. T H E P E R F O R M IN G A R T S ACTORS AND ACTRESSES (D.O.T. 150.028 and .048) The performing arts include music, acting, singing, and the dance. In these fields, the num ber of first-rate artists seeking employment generally is much larger than the number of full time positions available. As a result, many performers supple ment their incomes by teaching, and others work much of the time in different types of occu pations. The difficulty of earning a living as a performer is one of the facts young people should bear in mind in considering an artistic career. They should consider, therefore, the possible advan tages of making their art a hobby rather than a profession. Aspir ing young artists usually must spend many years in intensive training and practice before they are ready for public performances. They need not only great natural talent but also determination, a willingness to work long and hard, and an overwhelming interest in their chosen field. The statements which follow this introduction give detailed in formation on the musician, sing er, actor, and dancer as perform ing artists and in related work. N ature of the W ork Making a character come to life before an audience is a job that has great glamour and fas cination. It is also hard and de manding work that requires spe cial talent and involves many difficulties and uncertainties. Only a few of the approximate ly 14,000 actors and actresses in the United States in 1968 have achieved recognition as stars— on the stage, in motion pictures, or on television or radio. A some what larger number are wellknown, experienced performers, who frequently are cast in sup porting roles. However, most are struggling for a toehold in the profession, and are glad to pick up small parts wherever they can. New actors generally start in “ bit” parts, where they speak only a few lines. If successful, they may progress to larger, sup porting roles, of which there are several in most stage, television, and screen productions. Actors who have minor parts in stage productions also may serve as un derstudies for the principals. If a leading player misses a per formance, the understudy has a chance to demonstrate his acting ability. Actors who prepare for roles either on the stage, in television, or in the movies spend many hours in rehearsal. They also must memorize their lines and know their cues. Radio actors typically read their parts. They have to be especially skilled in expressing character and emotion through the voice, since this is their sole means of creating an impersonation for their audience. In addition to the actors with speaking parts, “ extras,” who 161 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 162 have no lines to deliver, are used in almost every motion picture and many television shows. In spectacular productions, a large number of extras take part in crowd scenes. Some actors find jobs as dra matic coaches or become directors of stage, television, radio, or mo tion picture productions. A few teach in schools of acting or in the drama departments of col leges and universities. Places of Em ploym ent Stage plays, motion pictures (including films made especially for television), and commercials are the largest fields of employ ment for actors, although some are employed by “ live” television and radio. In the winter, most employ ment opportunities on the stage are in New York and other large cities. In the summer months, stock companies in suburban and resort areas throughout the Na tion provide many opportunities for employment. In addition, many cities now have “ little” theaters, which provide oppor tunities for local talent as well as for professional actors and ac tresses from New York and other centers. Plays that go “ on the road,” moving from city to city, are normally produced in New York with casts selected there. Although employment oppor tunities in motion pictures and film television are centered in Hollywood, a few studios are in Long Island, N.Y., Miami, Fla., and other parts of the country. In addition, many films are shot on location, providing employ ment for “ extras” who live in the area. In live television and radio, most opportunities for actors are at the headquarters of the main networks— in New York, Los Angeles, and, to a lesser extent, Chicago. A few local television and radio stations occasionally employ actors. T rain in g and O th er Q ualifications Young people aspiring to act ing careers should get as much acting experience as possible by taking part in high school and college plays, or working with little theaters and other acting groups in their home towns. Formal training in acting is increasingly necessary. Such training can be obtained at spe cial schools of the dramatic arts, located chiefly in New York, and in over 500 colleges and univer sities. Because college drama curriculums usually include courses in liberal arts, speech, pantomine, play production, and the history of the drama, as well as practical courses in acting, the student develops an appreciation of the great plays and a greater under standing of the roles he may be called on to play. Graduate de grees in the fine arts or in drama are necessary for college teaching positions. Outstanding talent for acting and great interest and determina tion are essential for success in the theater. Ability to memorize, a good speaking voice, good health, and the physical stamina to work long hours are necessary. Ability to sing and dance is also an asset for those who seek an acting career. In all media, whether the stage, motion pictures, radio, or tele vision, the best way to start is to use local opportunities and to build on the basis of such ex perience. Many actors who are successful in local dramatic pro ductions eventually try to appear on the New York stage. Inex perienced actors usually find it extremely difficult to obtain em ployment in New York or Holly wood. The motion picture field is especially difficult to enter, and employment often results from previous experience on Broadway. T o become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by Central Casting, a no-fee agency which works with the Screen Extras Guild and supplies all extras to the major movie studios in Holly wood. Applicants are accepted only when the number of people of a particular type on the list— for example, athletic young men, old ladies, or small children— is below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of the total number of applicants have succeeded in being listed. Extras have very little, if any, opportunity to ad vance to speaking roles in the movies. The length of an actor’s work ing life depends largely on his skill and versatility. Great actors and actresses can work almost indefinitely. On the other hand, employment opportunities be come increasingly limited by mid dle age, especially for those who become typed in romantic, youth ful roles. Em ploym ent O utlook The overcrowding that has ex isted in the acting field for many years is expected to persist. In the legitimate theater and also in motion pictures, radio, and tele vision, job applicants outnumber by many times the jobs available. Moreover, many actors are em ployed in their profession for only a small part of the year. The development of motion pictures, radio, and TV has greatly reduced employment op portunities for actors in the the ater. Although a motion picture production may use a very large number of actors, they are em- THE PERFORMING ARTS ployed only during filming and the films are widely distributed and may be used for years. Radio uses few actors. The number of filmed TV dramas and commer cials using actors is increasing, but not enough to offset the de cline in other media. Moreover, television stations often broad cast “ taped” dramas rather than live productions, and, like motion picture films, these tapes may be widely distributed and used many times. One possibility for future growth in the legitimate theater lies in the establishment of yearround professional acting com panies in more cities. The num ber of communities with such acting groups is growing. The re cent growth of summer stock companies and dinner theaters also has increased employment. Further increases are likely also in the employment of actors on television. In the acting field as a whole, however, employment opportunities are expected to change little through the 1970’s. The number of new entrants to the profession is expected to out number employment opportuni ties. Even highly talented young people are likely to face stiff competition and economic diffi culties in the profession. Earnings and W orking Conditions Actors and actresses em ployed in the legitimate theater belong to the Actors’ Equity As sociation. If employed in motion pictures, including television films, they belong to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or to the Screen Extras Guild, Inc. If em ployed in television or radio, they belong to the American Federa tion of Television and Radio Ar tists. These unions and the show producers sign basic collective bargaining agreements which set 163 minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of employ ment. In addition, each actor en ters into a separate contract which may provide for higher salaries than those specified in the basic agreement. The minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway Produc tions was $150.65 in mid-1969. Those apearing in small “ offBroadway” theaters had consid erably lower earnings. For shows on the road, the minimum rate was $202.60 a week. Earnings for rehearsal time were $150.65 a week in Broadway shows and much lower in small “ off-Broadway” theaters. All minimum sal aries are adjusted upward accord ing to increases in the cost of living as reflected in the Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumer Price Index. Motion picture actors and ac tresses had a minimum daily rate of $112 in mid-1969. For extras, the minimum rate was about $29 a day. Actors on network tele vision received a minimum pro gram fee of $165 for a single halfhour program and 10 hours of rehearsal time; actors on radio received $49.60 for a half-hour performance, including 1 rehears al hour. To encourage more stable employment on radio and TV, minimum guarantees for those actors with contracts for a series of programs are sometimes dis counted below the single pro gram guaranteed fee. Because of the frequent periods of unem ployment characteristic of this profession, annual earnings may be low for many of the lesser known performers. In all fields, many well-known actors and ac tresses have salary rates above the minimums. Salaries of the few top stars are many times the figures cited. Eight performances amount to a week’s work on the legitimate stage, and any additional per formances are paid for as over time. The basic work-week after the opening of a show is 36 hours, including limited time for rehearsals. Before the opening, however, the workweek usually is longer to allow enough time for rehearsals. Evening work is, of course, a regular part of a stage actor’s life. Rehearsals may be held late at night and on week ends and holidays. Traveling over the weekend often is necessary when plays are on the road. Most actors are covered by a pension fund and a growing num ber have hospitalization insur ance to which their employers contribute. All Equity members have paid vacations and sick leave. Most stage actors get little if any unemployment compensa tion, since they seldom have enough employment in any State to meet the eligibility require ments. Consequently, when a show closes, they often have to take any casual work obtainable while waiting for another role. DANCERS (D.O.T. 151.028 and .048) N ature of the W ork Dancing is an ancient and worldwide art, having many dif ferent forms. Professional dancers may perform in classical ballet or modem dance, in dance adapt ations for musical shows, in folk dances, or in tap and other popu lar kinds of dancing. In the classical ballet, movements are based on certain conventional or styled “ positions,” and women dance “ en pointe” (on the tips of their toes). In the modem dance, movements are much more varied but are nonetheless care- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 164 fully planned and executed to follow a pattern. In dance productions, the per formers most often work together as a chorus. However, a group of selected dancers may do special numbers, and a very few top ar tists do solo work. Many dancers combine teach ing with their stage work or teach full time in schools of the dance or in colleges and universities. The few dancers who become choreographers create new ballets or dance routines. Others are dance directors who train dancers in new productions. This statement does not in clude instructors of ballroom and other social dancing. Places of Em ploym ent In 1968, there were approxi mately 23,000 dancers and danc ing teachers in the United States. More than half of this number were teachers employed at schools of the dance and in schools and colleges. Most of the other dancers were performers on the stage, screen, and television. A few teachers trained in dance therapy were employed by hos pitals to work in the treatment of mental disorders. About 80 per cent of all dancers are women, but in some types of dance, par ticularly ballet and modern, women constitute about one-half of the performers. Dancing teachers are located chiefly in large cities, but many smaller cities and towns have schools of the dance. New York City is the hub for the majority of performing dancers; others are situated in Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Chicago. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications Serious training for a dancing career traditionally begins by age 12 or earlier. Girls wishing to become ballet dancers should begin taking lessons at the age of 7 or 8. From 2 to 3 years of prior preparation is needed before the young girl should start danc ing “ en pointe.” Professional training typically takes from 10 to 12 lessons a week for 11 or 12 months in the year and many additional hours of practice. The length of the training period depends on the student’s ability and physical development, but most dancers have their profes sional audition by age 17 or 18. The selection of a professional dancing school is important for two reasons. First, the school must use expert judgment in setting the pace of training, since too early and too severe exercise can permanently damage the legs and feet. Second, the school’s connections with producers may help the students in obtaining employment. Because of the strenuous train ing program in the professional schools, the general education received by students in these schools may not exceed the legal minimum. However, a dancer’s education should include subjects such as music, literature, and 165 THE PERFORMING ARTS history to aid him in his interpre tation of dramatic episodes and music. About 200 colleges and universities confer bachelor’s de grees on students who have either majored in physical edu cation and concentrated on the dance, majored in a dance pro gram designed to prepare stu dents to teach dance, or majored in a dance program designed to prepare students as professional dance artists. Some of these schools also give graduate degrees. A college education is an ad vantage in obtaining employment as a teacher of professional danc ing or choreography. However, dancers who postpone their first audition for openings in classical ballet until graduation may com pete at a disadvantage with younger dancers. A teaching position in profes sional schools usually requires experience as a performer; in colleges and conservatories, grad uate degrees are generally re quired, but experience as a per former often may be substituted. Maturity and a broad educational background are also important for teaching positions. Excellent health and unusual physical vitality are necessary for a dancing career. Height and body build should not vary much from the average. Good feet and normal arches are required. These physical qualifications must be accompanied by a natural apti tude for dancing. For women dancers, employ ment in ballet companies is very difficult to obtain after the age of 30, except for outstanding stars. Women past 25 are rarely hired for Broadway shows unless they have already had experience in such productions. Men who are ballet dancers, and men and women who perform in modem dance productions, usually can continue somewhat longer. After the employable age as performers has passed, some dancers teach in colleges or conservatories, or establish their own schools. The few who become choreographers or dance directors can continue working as long as people in most other occupations. Em ploym ent O utlook Opportunities in this field will be limited both by the small number of full-time jobs avail able and the relatively large supply of applicants seeking full time work. The supply of trained dancers has exceeded the demand for many years. The irregular employment experienced in this profession for many years may persist despite a few recent unionmanagement contracts aimed at guaranteeing some dancers full or near-full employment each year. Among the factors affecting de mand are the decline in the total number of stage productions be cause of competition from motion pictures and television. Few stage shows run more than 26 weeks and many “ fold” after the first week. On the other hand, the number of shows being produced is increasing, and there is a grow ing trend toward using profession al dancers at industrial exhibi tions, such as auto shows. Also, some new professional dance com panies are being developed around the country, and television will offer some additional employment opportunities. Civic and commu nity dance groups are increasing in number, and opportunities for dancers will expand as these de velop into professional groups. Nevertheless, employment oppor tunities for dance performers will remain limited, and most of the openings for dancers in the years ahead will stem from the need to replace those who leave the field. The employment outlook for dancers who have the personal and educational qualifications for teaching will be much better than for those trained only as per formers. The growing interest in the dance as one of the fine arts is contributing to the demand for teachers of dancing. The increase in college enrollments will be another factor which will tend to enlarge teaching opportunities. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) Men dancers face less compe tition for employment than do women dancers, since fewer men than women seek dancing as a career. Earnings and W orking Conditions Dancers who perform profes sionally are members of one of the unions affiliated with the Associated Actors and Artistes of America (AFL-CIO ). Dancers who perform in opera ballets, classical ballet, and the modem dance belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those who perform on television belong to the American Federa tion of Television and Radio Artists; and those who appear in musical comedies join Actors’ Equity Association. Dancers may also be members of other unions, depending upon the field in which they perform. (See statement on Singers and Singing Teachers.) Minimum salary rates, hours of work, and other conditions of employment are specified in basic agreements signed by the unions and the producers. The separate contract signed by each dancer with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement regarding salary, hours of work, and working conditions. The minimum salary for dancers in ballet and other stage produc tions was $140 a week, as of 1968. The minimum rate for rehearsal OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 166 time was $135 a week, except in small ballet companies which provide $110 for a rehearsal week. Salaries are increased when a show goes on tour since dancers pay their own hotel bills. The employer pays the cost of firstclass transportation. If a dancer signs a contract for a brief ap pearance in a performance on television or a few days’ work in a movie, the minimum rate is higher, relative to time worked. However, this difference is offset by the brevity of the engagement and the long period likely to be spent waiting for the next one. A few performers, of course, have much higher salaries. For stars, principals, and choreographers, salaries in stage productions ranged from $215 to over $750 a week in 1968. Some dancers qualified to teach in schools of the ballet are able to combine this work with engagements as performers. A much greater number of dancers have to supplement their incomes by other types of work. Salaries of teachers in the technical schools of the ballet vary with the location and pres tige of the school. Dancers em ployed as teachers in colleges and universities are paid on the same basis as other faculty members. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) The normal workweek is 30 hours spent in rehearsals and matinee and evening perform ances. Extra compensation is paid for hours worked outside the nor mal workweek. Most stage per formances are, of course, in the evening, and rehearsals may re quire very long hours, often on weekends and holidays. When shows are on the road, travel ing over the weekend is often required. Dancers are entitled to some paid sick leave and various health and welfare benefits provided by their unions, to which the em ployers contribute. Sources of Additional Inform ation rants, and at special parties. The best known bands, jazz groups, and solo performers sometimes give concerts and perform on television. Information on colleges and universities and conservatories of music which give a major in the dance or some courses in the dance, and details on the types of courses and other pertinent infor mation may be obtained from the Dance Directory, compiled by the American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recrea tion, a division of the National Educational Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Information on wages and working conditions may be ob tained from: American Guild of Musical Ar tists, 1841 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10023. MUSICIANS AND MUSIC TEACHERS (D.O.T. 152.048 and .028; 090.168; 091.168; and 092.228) N ature of the W ork P r o f e s s i o n a l musicians— whether they play in a symphony orchestra, dance band, or “ jazz combo” — have behind them many years of study and intensive prac tice. As a rule, musicians special ize in either popular or classical music; only a few play both types professionally. Musicians who specialize in popular music usually play the trumpet, trombone, clarinet, sax ophone," or one of the “ rhythm” instruments— the piano, string bass, drums, or guitar. Dance bands play in nightclubs, restau Professional musician gives public school students some musical pointers. Musicians specializing in classi cal music play in opera and the ater orchestras, symphony or chestras, and for other kinds of performances requiring orchestral accompaniments. The instru ments played by most of these musicians are the strings, brass, and wood winds. Some form small groups— usually a string quartet or a trio— to give concerts of chamber music. Many pianists accompany vo cal or instrumental soloists or choral groups or provide back ground music in restaurants or other places. Most organists play in churches, often directing the choir. A very few exceptionally brilliant and well-known musi cians become concert artists. They give their own concerts and ap pear as soloists with symphony orchestras. Both classical and popular musicians often make recordings, either individually or as members of a group. A very high proportion of all 167 THE PERFORMING ARTS musicians teach in the Nation’s schools and colleges and are seldom, if ever, paid for perform ing. These teachers may be mem bers of the faculty of music schools or conservatories or of colleges which offer instruction in instrumental and vocal music. Some are music teachers in ele mentary or secondary schools where they direct vocal and in strumental music programs, teach general classroom music apprecia tion, and give group instruction on an instrument. Private lessons are given by many teachers em ployed by school systems, and by performing musicians, either in their own studios or in pupils’ homes. A few musicians work in the field of music therapy in hospi tals, and in music libraries. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 166,000 musicians were employed in 1968. Most pro fessional musicians who perform work in large cities, principally in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles, where the Nation’s en tertainment activities are con centrated. Music teachers in e l e me nt ar y and s e c o n d a r y schools, as well as in colleges and universities, are employed all over the country. Moreover, al most every town and city has at least one private music teacher. Dance bands and civic orchestras also are located in many com munities, although in the smaller towns, their members usually are part-time musicians with other regular jobs. In addition to the people pri marily employed as musicians or music teachers, thousands of qualified instrumentalists have other full-time jobs and only occasionally work as musicians. Most of these part-time musicians belong to dance bands, which are hired to play at private parties or for special occasions. Others, with a background in classical music, play occasionally in an orchestra, become conductors or composers, or do some part-time teaching. Train in g and O ther Q ualifications Most people who become pro fessional musicians begin study ing an instrument at an early age. To achieve a career as a performer or as a music teacher, young people need intensive training— either through private study with an accomplished mu sician, in a college or university which has a strong music pro gram, or in a conservatory of music. They need to acquire not only great technical skill but also a thorough knowledge of music, and they must learn how to in terpret music. Before a young person can qualify for advanced study in a music conservatory or in a college or university school of music, an audition frequently is necessary. Many teachers in these schools are accomplished artists who will train only prom ising young musicians. Over 550 conservatories of music and college and university schools of music offer 4-year pro grams leading to a bachelor’s degree in music education. Stu dents who complete these pro grams can qualify for the State certificate required for elemen tary and secondary school posi tions. Conservatories and col legiate music schools also fre quently award the degree of bachelor of music to students who major in instrumental or vocal music. The 4-year program lead ing to either of these degrees provides not only training as a performer but also a broad back ground in musical history and theory, together with some lib eral arts courses. Advanced de grees usually are required for college teaching positions, but exceptions may be made for especially well-qualified artists. Musicians who play jazz and other popular music must have an understanding of and feeling for that style of music, but skill and training in classical styles may expand their employment op portunities. As a rule, they take lessons with private teachers when young, and seize every op portunity to play in amateur or professional performances. Some groups of young people form their own small dance bands. As they gain experience and become known, the players may have opportunities to audition for other local bands, and, still later, for the better known bands and orchestras. Em ploym ent O utlook As a field of employment, music performance has been over crowded for many years, and it is expected to remain so through the 1970’s. Opportunities for concerts and recitals are not numerous enough to provide ade quate employment for all the pianists, violinists, and other in strumentalists qualified as concert artists. Competition is usually keen for positions which afford some stability of employment— for example, jobs with major or chestras and teaching positions in conservatories and colleges and universities. Because of the ease with which a musician can enter private music teaching, the num ber of music teachers has been and will probably continue to be more than sufficient to give in struction to all the young people seeking lessons. Although many opportunities for single and short-term engagements playing popular music in night clubs, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 168 theaters, and other places can be expected, the supply of qualified musicians seeking such jobs is likely to remain greater than the demand. On the other hand, a shortage of highly qualified church organists may persist in many communities during the next few years; first-class, ex perienced accompanists and well trained, outstanding players of stringed instruments are likely to remain relatively scarce; and public school systems will prob ably continue to need more fully qualified music teachers and supervisors. Employment opportunities for performers are expected to in crease slightly over the long run. Although the number of civic or chestras in smaller communities has been growing steadily, many of these orchestras provide only part-time employment for musi cians who work chiefly as teach ers or in other occupations. More over, the openings created by the establishment of these orchestras have been more than offset by the decline in opportunities in the theater, radio, motion pictures, and other places, which has re sulted, in part, from the greatly increased use of recorded music. The employment outlook in music education for people who are qualified as teachers as well as musicians is considerably bet ter than for those qualified as performers only. A great increase in the numbers of young people of high school and college age will take place through the 1970’s. Moreover, the number of schools with music programs is growing steadily, and interest in music as an avocation is also rising, as evidenced by the increasing sales of musical instruments. Thus, over the long run, an increase can be expected in the employ ment of elementary and second ary school music teachers and also in the teaching staffs of college schools music. and and university music conservatories of Earnings and W orking Conditions The amount received for a per formance by either classical or popular musicians depends to a large extent on their professional reputations. Musicians who were members of 1 of the 28 major symphony orchestras in the United States had minimum sal aries ranging from about $4,000 to $13,000 a year in 1968, accord ing to the American Symphony Orchestras League, Inc. Five orchestras— New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and Chi cago— have year-round seasons and minimum salaries ranging from $10,500 to $13,000. The remaining 23 orchestras have sea sons ranging from 29 to 47 weeks. Instrumentalists who were mem bers of small ensembles reported ly received as much as $200 a concert. Those who played in dance bands were paid from $60 to $300 a week in 1968, according to the limited information avail able. The salaries of public school music teachers are determined by the salary schedule adopted for all teachers. (See statements on Elementary and Secondary School Teachers.) However, they frequently supplement their earnings by giving private music lessons and taking church posi tions. Earnings from private lessons are uncertain and vary according to the musician’s reputation, the number of teach ers in the locality, the number of students desiring lessons, and the economic status of the community. Musicians who are performers customarily work at night and on weekends. They must also spend considerable time in regular daily practice and in rehearsing new scores. Performers may have relatively long periods of unemployment be tween jobs and, thus, the overall level of their earnings generally is lower than that of many other occupations. Moreover, they do not usually work steadily for one employer. Consequently, some performers cannot qualify for unployment compensation, and few have either sick leave or vacations with pay. Most musicians who play pro fessionally belong to the Ameri can Federation of Musicians (AFL-CIO ). Concert soloists also belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. (AFL-CIO). Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information about wages, hours of work, and working conditions for professional musicians is available from: American Federation of Musicians (AFL-CIO), 641 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. Information about the require ments for certification of organ ists and choir masters may be secured from: American Guild of Organists, 630 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10020. A list of accredited schools of music is available from: National Association of Schools of Music, 1424 16th St., NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Further information about music teaching in elementary and secondary schools is available from: Music Educators National Con ference, The National Educa tion Association of the United States, 1201 16th St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20036. 169 THE PERFORMING ARTS SINGERS AND SINGING TEACHERS (D.O.T. 152.048 and .028; 090.168; 091.168; and 092.228) N ature of the W ork Professional singing is an art that usually requires not only a fine voice but also a highly de veloped technique and a broad knowledge of music. A small number of singing stars make recordings or go on concert tours in the United States and abroad. Somewhat larger numbers of singers obtain leading or support ing roles in operas and popular music shows, or secure engage ments as soloists in oratorios and other types of performances. Most professional singers of clas sical music are soloists in church es or synagogues. Some singers also become members of opera and musical comedy choruses or other professional choral groups. Popular music singers perform in musical shows of all kinds— in the movies, on the stage, on radio and television, and in nightclubs and other entertainment places. The best known popular music singers make and sell many recordings. Since most singers of both classical and popular music have only part-time or irregular em ployment as singers, they often have full-time jobs of other types and sing only in the evenings or on weekends. Some give private voice lessons. A number of singers are employed in elementary and secondary schools, where they are qualified to teach general music courses and lead choruses. Others give voice training or direct chor al groups in churches, music con servatories, or in colleges and universities with schools or de partments of music. Places of Em ploym ent In 1968, about 60,000 people were employed as professional singers or singing teachers. Op portunities for singing engage ments are mainly in New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago— the Nation’s chief entertainment centers. Nashville, Tenn., also is a major place of employment for singers in both “ live” perform ances and recordings, and for those who specialize in folk and country music. Persons trained as singers who teach music in elementary and secondary schools, colleges, universities, and con servatories of music are employed throughout the country. Many singers are employed part-time chiefly as church singers and choir masters. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications Young people who want to per form professionally as singers should acquire a broad back ground in music, including its theory and history. The ability to dance is also helpful, since singers are sometimes required to dance. In addition, those inter ested in a singing career should start piano lessons at an early age. As a rule, voice training should not begin until after the individual has matured physic ally, although young boys who sing in church choirs receive some training before their voices change. Moreover, because of the work and expense involved in voice training— which often con tinues for years after the singer’s professional career has started— it is important that a prospective singer show great determination and audition before a competent voice teacher to decide whether professional training is warranted. Young people can prepare for careers as singers of classical music by enrolling in a music conservatory, a school or depart ment of music connected with a college or university, or by taking private voice lessons. These schools provide not only voice training, but other training nec essary for understanding and interpreting music, including music-related training in foreign languages and sometimes dramat ic training. After completing a 4year course of study, a graduate may be awarded either the degree of bachelor of music, bachelor of science or arts (in music), or bachelor of fine arts. Young singers who plan to teach music in public elementary or secondary schools need at least a bachelor’s degree with a major in music education and must meet the State certification re quirements for teachers. Such training is available in over 550 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 170 colleges and universities through out the country. College teachers usually are required to have a master’s degree and sometimes a doctor’s degree, but exceptions may be made for especially wellqualified artists. Although voice training is an asset for singers of popular music, many with untrained voices have had successful careers. The typi cal popular song does not demand that the voice be developed to cover as wide a range on the musical scale as does classical music, and the lack of voice projection may be overcome by using a microphone. Young singers of popular songs may become known by partici pating in amateur and paid per formances in their communities. These engagements may lead to employment with local dance bands and possibly later with better known ones. In addition to musical ability, perseverance, an outstanding per sonality, an attractive appear ance, good contacts, and luck often are required to achieve a singing career. Furthermore, a singing career is sometimes rela tively short, since it depends on a good voice and public accept ance of the artist, both of which may be affected by age. Em ploym ent Outlook The employment situation for singers will probably remain highly competitive through the 1970’s. Competition among popu lar singers will continue to be especially keen. A great number of short-term jobs are expected in the entertainment field— the opera and concert stage, movies, theater, nightclubs, radio and television, dance bands, and other places— but not enough to pro vide steady employment for all qualified singers. The demand for church singers is expected to expand because of the continued growth in number of religious congregations, but most of these openings will probably be filled either by part-time singers who have steady employment in other fields or by volunteers. Little growth in overall em ployment opportunities for sing ers is likely over the long run. The use of recorded music has practically replaced the “ live” singer on radio; also, the number of television performances given by singers is limited, although it may increase in future years. However, there is a growing de mand for singers to record popu lar music and commercials for both radio and television adver tising. The outlook for singers who can meet State certification requirements for positions as music teachers, or who can qualify for college teaching, will be considerably better than for performers. The demand for music teachers in the Nation’s elementary and secondary schools is expected to grow, and some increased employment of music teachers can be expected in col leges and universities. In addition, music teachers will be needed to replace those who will transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Earnings and W orking Conditions Some singers employed by dance bands and the motion picture industry earn as much as $200 a week, and a few well- known concert soloists, opera stars, and top recording artists of popular music may command more than $1,000 for a perform ance. However, most professional singers experience difficulty in obtaining regular employment and have to supplement their singing incomes by doing other types of work. The salaries of public school music teachers are determined by the salary schedule adopted for all teachers in their school system. The fees that private music teach ers charge depend on the teacher’s reputation, the economic status of the families in the community, and other factors. Singers generally work at night and on weekends. School teachers have regular working hours; pri vate voice teachers often give les sons after school or business hours or on weekends work in the entertainment field is seasonal, and few performers have steady jobs. Singers who perform profes sionally on the concert stage or in opera belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those who sing on radio or tele vision or who make phonograph recordings are members of the American Federation of Tele vision and Radio Artists; singers in the variety and night club field belong to the American Guild of Variety Artists; those who sing in musical comedy and operettas belong to the Actors’ Equity As sociation; and those who sing in the movies belong to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc. All of these unions are branches of the As sociated Actors and Artists of America (AFL-CIO ). THE PERFORMING ARTS Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information about accredited schools and departments of music may be obtained from: National Association of Schools of Music, 1424 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. 171 Further information about music teaching in elementary and secondary schools is available from: Information concerning salary and working conditions is avail able from: Music Educators National Con ference, The National Educa tion Association of the United States, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Guild of Musical Ar tists, 1841 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10023. O T H E R A R T R E L A T E D O C C U P A T IO N S COMMERCIAL ARTISTS (D.O.T. 141.031 and .081, 970.281 and .381, and 979.381) N ature of the W ork The artwork appearing in news paper and magazine advertise ments, on billboard posters, bro chures, catalogs, and television commercials often is created by a team of commercial artists. The art director supervises a group of artists of varying levels of skill and diverse specializations. He may develop the art aspects of an advertising plan which he turns over to a layout man for further refinement. The layout artist works up the construction or ar rangement of the elements of the advertisement, planning the se lection and layout of illustrations, photographs, and typography, and determining color and other elements of design. Then he pre pares a “ rough visual” or sketch. After consulting with the direc tor, he may make changes in the visual and complete a more com prehensive layout for the cus tomer’s consideration. Working with the layout man in turning out the finished prod uct are a variety of specialists such as renderers, who make rough pastel or wash drawings; letterers, who execute appropriate lettering either freehand or with mechanical aids; illustrators, who make sketches and drawings in more finished form; and paste-up and mechanical men, who cut and paste together the basic parts of the advertisement or other art work, using a ruling pen and other drafting tools. Some work ers, called general boardmen, spend nearly all their time at the drawing board performing many of these specializations. Often supporting the general boardmen or other specialists are appren tices, who engage primarily in mechanical, routine, and noncreative functions such as sepa rating colors, ruling pen work, washing paintbrushes, cutting mats, running errands, and so forth. In a small office, the art direc tor may perform the layout and boardwork himself, with the aid of apprentices. In a large office, he may be responsible for devel oping concepts with the copy writer; setting standards; deal ing with clients; and purchasing needed photographs, illustrations, lettering, and other art work from freelancers or art services. Much of the advertising artists’ work is in creating the concept and artwork for a wide variety of promotional items or “ collateral material” (including direct mail advertising, booklets, folders, bro chures, catalogs, counter displays, etc.) used to supplement news paper and magazine ads or tele vision commercials. They also may prepare slides, film strips, and other visual aids. Commercial artists also create the formats of magazines and 173 174 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tions for success in the field of commercial art, but it is essential that these qualities be developed by specialized training in the techniques of commercial and applied art. In addition, extensive education in the fine arts— paint ing, sculpture, or architecture— and in academic studies provides a good foundation for obtaining employment in commercial art and is essential for promotion to Places of Em ploym ent higher level jobs. An estimated 50,000 commer The most widely accepted cial artists were employed in training for commercial art is the 1968; over one-third were women. instruction given in art schools Most commercial artists are em or institutes that specialize in ployed in big cities, such as New commercial and applied art. To York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Los enter art school, a high school Angeles, and Detroit, where the education usually, but not al largest users of commercial art ways, is required. Some schools are to be found. Some, however, admit only those applicants who are employed in nearly every city. demonstrate talent by submitting Most commercial artists are acceptable work samples. The employed as staff artists on a course of study, which may in regular salaried basis by adver clude some academic work, gen tising agencies, commercial art erally takes 2 or 3 years, and a studios, advertising departments certificate is awarded on gradu of large companies, printing and ation. A growing number of art publishing firms, textile compa schools, particularly those in or nies, television and motion pic connected with universities, re ture studios, department stores, quire 4 years or more of study sign shops, mail-order houses, and confer a bachelor’s degree— greeting card companies, and a commonly the bachelor of fine variety of other business organi arts (B.F.A.). In these schools, zations. Many work as freelance commercial art instruction is artists, selling their artwork to supplemented by liberal arts any available customers— chiefly courses, such as English and his to the same kinds of organiza tory. Limited training in com tions that employ salaried artists. mercial art also may be obtained Some salaried commercial artists through public vocational high private home-study also do freelance work in their schools, spare time. A number of commer schools, and practical experience cial artists work for Federal Gov on the job, but supplemental ernment agencies, principally in training usually is needed for the Defense Department. A few advancement. The first year in art school may teach in art schools on a regular be devoted primarily to the study or part-time basis. o f fundamentals— p e r s p e c tiv e , design, color harmony, composi tion— and to the use of pencil, Training , O ther Q ualifications, crayon, pen and ink, and other and A dvancem ent art media. Subsequent study, Artistic ability and good taste generally more specialized, in are the most important qualifica cludes drawing from life, adver other publications, designing or laying out the editorial pages and features and producing or pur chasing the necessary illustrations or artwork. Some commercial artists specialize in fashion il lustrations, greeting cards, book illustrations, or in technical draw ings for industry. tising design, graphic design, let tering, typography, illustrations, and other courses in the student’s particular field of interest. Artis tic judgment, imagination, and ability to visualize ideas on paper are basic requirements for a suc cessful career in commercial art. The various specialties, however, differ in some of the specific abili ties required. For example, letterers and retouchers must be able to do precise and detailed work requiring excellent coordination, whereas illustrators and designers need imagination, a distinctive art style, and, in most cases, the ability to draw well. Some experi ence with photography is useful to those interested in art direc tion or design. For commercial artists engaged in freelance work, the ability to sell both ideas and finished work to clients is im portant. A knowledge of type specifications and printing pro duction is very helpful. Also, a business sense and responsibility in meeting deadlines are assets. Art directors need a strong edu cational background not only in art and business practices but also in the liberal arts. Advertis ing art directors require a special kind of creativity— the ability to conceive ideas that will stimulate the sale of the clients’ products or services. Beginning commercial artists usually need some on-the-job training before they can qualify for other than strictly routine work. Advancement is based largely on the individual’s artis tic talent, creative ability, and education. After considerable ex perience, many commercial artists leave salaried employment for freelance work. Most illustrators are freelancers; many of them have an agent, or artist’s repre sentative. Commercial artists usually assemble their best a r t w o r k into a folder, or “ portfolio,” to use 175 OTHER ART RELATED OCCUPATIONS in displaying their work. A good portfolio is essential in obtaining initial employment and freelance assignments as well as in chang ing jobs. Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1968, beginning commer cial artists having no training beyond vocational high school typically earned $65 a week; graduates of 2-year professional Em ploym ent O utlook schools generally received $75 a Employment and advancement week; and graduates of 4-year opportunities for talented and post-high school programs typ well-trained commercial artists in ically received $85 to $95 a week, most kinds of work are expected according to the limited data to be good through the 1970’s. available. Talented artists having Young people having only aver strong educational backgrounds age ability and little specialized and a good portfolio, however, training, however, will encounter sometimes started at higher sal competition for beginning jobs aries. After a few years of experi and will have limited opportunity ence, qualified artists may expect to earn $100 to $200 a week or for advancement. The demand for commercial more. Art directors, designers, artists will continue to vary with executives, well-known freelance the kind of specialization: For ex illustrators, and others in top ample, demand for paste-up and positions generally have much mechanical artists is expected to higher earnings, from $15,000 to increase but jobs for designers, $20,000 a year or more. art directors, and layout men are The earnings of freelance art fewer, much sought after, and ists have an especially wide range, open only to experienced, highly since they are affected by such talented, and creative artists. factors as the nature of the art Among the factors underlying work he performs, the range of an expected slow-increase in em his board skills, the amount of ployment of commercial artists artwork he sells, and the price through the 1970’s is the upward he receives. In 1968, a freelancer trend in business expenditures received from $25 for a single for all kinds of visual advertis black and white fashion sketch ing. Demand for television graph to $750 for a figure in full color ics, packaging design, poster and with a background; from $1,000 window displays, and greeting to $2,000 for a color cover for a cards will create some increase in national magazine; or from $75 the employment of commercial to $300 for a book jacket or artists. In addition, the growing record album. Freelance artists field of industrial design is ex may be paid for their services by pected to require the services of the hour or an amount for the as more artists who are qualified to signment. Experienced pasteup perform three dimensional work and mechanical artists may be with engineering concepts. (See paid $4 to $8 an hour or more. statement on Industrial Design Salaried commercial artists ers.) Women having exceptional ar generally work 35 to 40 hours a tistic talent will continue to find week, but sometimes they must employment in all aspects of work additional hours and under commercial art work, but par a considerable amount of pres ticularly in the textile industry sure in order to meet deadlines. and as fashion illustrators in de Freelance artists usually have ir regular working hours. partment stores. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information on em ployment opportunities in com mercial art may be obtained from: National Art Education Associa tion, National Education Asso ciation, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERS (D.O.T. 142.081) N ature of the W ork Industrial designers combine technical knowledge of materials, machines, and methods of pro duction with artistic talent to improve the appearance and func tional design of machine-made products. Since the public has a wide choice of styles in products such as radios, television sets, automobiles, refrigerators, and furniture, a primary objective of the industrial designer is to de sign his employer’s product to compete favorably with similar goods. As a first step, the industrial designer does historical research on the product or related prod ucts. He studies competition in the market and the different ways in which the product may be used. Then, he sketches a variety of possible designs, which are ex amined by various departments. For example, the designer con sults engineers, production super visors, and the sales and market research staff for their opinions on the practicability of producing a newly designed product, or changing the design of an old product, and the sales potential of the proposed designs. After the most suitable design is selected by company officials, a model V 176 may be made by the designer. The first model of a new design is often made of clay so that it can be altered easily to reflect modifications. The final or work ing model is usually made of the material to be used in the finished product. If the model is approved OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in this form, it is put into production. Industrial designers also may do related types of work. For example, they may design con tainers and packages, prepare small exhibits for display pur poses, or design the entire layout for industrial fairs. Some also design the interior layout of spe cial purpose commercial build ings, such as gasoline stations and supermarkets. Industrial designers employed by a manufacturing company usually find their work limited to the one or few products made by their employer; many senior de signers, however, are now given a free hand to engage in longrange planning for new or diver sified products. Designers who work as consultants to more than one industrial firm, either as freelance designers or as members of consulting firms, may plan and design a great variety of products. Places of Em ploym ent Most of the estimated 10,000 industrial designers in 1968 were employed by large manufacturing companies and by design consult ing firms. Of the remainder, the greatest number did freelance work or combined salaried em ployment with it. Some also worked for architects, and a few were on the staffs of firms of interior designers. Industrial designers employed by consulting firms are located mainly in large cities. For exam ple, the New York and Chicago areas have the largest number of design consulting organizations. Those employed by industrial firms are found most often in the manufacturing plants of their companies. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The completion of a course of study in industrial design— in an art school, an art department of a university, or a technical col lege— is the usual requirement for entering this field of work. 177 OTHER ART RELATED OCCUPATIONS People from other areas, how stantial amount of studio practice ever, notably engineering and in the actual design of threearchitecture, may qualify as in dimensional products. In the dustrial designers if they have studio course, students learn to appropriate experience and artis make working drawings and models with clay, wood, plaster, tic talent. Formal education in industrial and other easily worked mate design at the college or university rials. In schools that have the level usually takes at least 4 necessary machinery, students years to complete, and a few gain experience in making models schools require 5 years of study. of their designs while learning to These schools award the bach use metalworking and woodwork schools elor’s degree in industrial design ing machinery. Some or fine arts; about half of these require the completion of courses schools also award the master’s in basic engineering and in the degree for advanced study in the composition of materials. All field. Some schools, usually pri schools which offer 4- or 5-year vate art schools or those associ courses leading to a bachelor’s ated with large art museums, of degree also include academic sub fer a 3-year course of study in jects, such as English, history, industrial design which leads to psychology, economics, and sci a diploma. In the past few years, ence, in their curriculums. Creative ability, skill in draw however, some art and museum schools have moved toward ac ing, and the ability to anticipate creditation or affiliation with a consumer needs are the most university. If accredited or affili important personal qualifications ated, they usually offer a 4- needed by young people aspiring year program and the bachelor’s to work in this field. A mechani cal interest also is desirable for degree. Entrance to the course of study some types of work. Applicants in industrial design is limited, for jobs will find it helpful to with rare exceptions, to qualified have previously assembled a high school graduates; in addi “ portfolio” which demonstrates tion, some schools may require their skill in designing and their students to present sketches and creative talent. Since industrial other examples of their artistic designers are required frequently ability. Some schools also require to work cooperatively with engi students to complete their fresh neers and other staff members, man or sophomore years before the ability to work and communi they select an industrial design cate well with others is impor tant. Young people who plan to major. Industrial design curriculums practice industrial designing on a differ considerably among schools. consulting basis should have a Some schools stress the engineer knowledge of business practices ing and technical aspects of the and possess sales ability. New graduates of industrial de field, and others give students a strong cultural background in sign courses frequently start as art. Nevertheless, most industrial assistants to other designers. design curriculums include at They are usually given relatively least one course in two-dimen simple assignments which do sional design (color theory, not involve making structural spatial organization, etc.) and changes in the product. As they one in general three-dimensional gain experience, designers may be design (abstract sculpture and assigned to supervisory positions art structures), including a sub with major responsibility for the design of a product or a group of products. Those who have an established reputation in the field, as well as the necessary funds, may start their own con sulting firms. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment in this relatively small occupation is expected to expand moderately through the 1970’s. Employers will be actively seeking applicants having a col lege degree and outstanding tal ent. Some employment opportu nities also will arise each year from the need to replace design ers who retire or leave the field for other reasons. A number of factors will affect employment of industrial design ers. Rapid obsolescence of house hold and commercial equipment and the rising population will in crease the demand for newly designed products. As in the past, manufacturers will strive to hold or increase their share of these markets through the creation of new products, improvements in the design of existing ones, and change in package designs and other modernizations in the ap pearance and use of their prod ucts. Small companies probably will make increasing use of serv ices offered by industrial design consulting firms to compete more effectively with larger firms. All of these factors, in addition to rising per capita income, will contribute to the long-term growth in the employment of industrial designers. However, as in the past, new entrants trained specifically in industrial design ing are likely to encounter keen competition for beginning jobs from persons with engineering, architectural, and related educa tional backgrounds who have artistic and creative talent. Also, since personnel needs in this pro- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 178 fession are very closely related to general business conditions, any downturn in the economy would tend to affect adversely the employment outlook. INTERIOR DESIGNERS AND DECORATORS (D.O.T. 142.051) N ature of the W ork Earnings Starting salaries for inexperi enced industrial designers em ployed by manufacturing firms ranged from $125 to $150 a week in 1968, according to the limited information available. Beginning salaries for those employed by consulting firms were usually lower. Salaries of experienced industrial designers vary greatly, depending on such factors as individual ability, and size and type of firm in which employed. According to scattered reports, those having several years of experience earned salaries rang ing from $8,000 to $14,000 an nually. Some large manufacturing firms paid $25,000 or more to experienced and talent designers. Earnings of industrial designers who own their consulting firms, alone or as members of a part nership, may fluctuate markedly from year to year. In recent years, earnings of most consult ants were between $12,000 and $20,000, a few outstanding in dustrial designers earned as much as $200,000. The creative work of interior designers and decorators enhances the attractiveness of our homes and other buildings. Designers and decorators plan the func tional arrangement of interior space and coordinate the selec tion (including colors) of furni ture, draperies and other fabrics, floor coverings, and interior ac cessories. They may work on the interiors of residential or com mercial structures, as well as ships and aircraft. Some of them design stage sets used for motion pictures and television. Interior designers are more involved than decorators in space planning and other interior design; they often work for clients on large design projects such as the interior of an entire office building. Gener ally, their plans include the complete layout of the rooms within the space allowed by the exterior walls and other frame work. Sometimes they redesign the interiors of old structures. When their plans have been com pleted, the architect checks them against his blueprints to assure compliance with building re quirements and to solve struc tural problems. Some interior designers also design the furni ture and accessories to be used in interiors and then arrange for their manufacture. Many professionals in this field have their own establishments, either alone or as a member of a firm with other designers and decorators; they may sell some or all of the merchandise with which they work. Some work independently or as an assistant; others have a large staffs, some times including salespeople. Many of the larger depart- Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information about ca reers in industrial design and a list of schools offering courses and degrees in industrial design may be obtained from: Industrial Designers Society of America, 60 West 55th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. interior designer helps clients select fabrics. OTHER ART RELATED OCCUPATIONS ment and furniture stores have separate departments of interior decorating or interior design, or both, to advise customers on decorating and design plans. The main function of these depart ments is to help sell the store’s merchandise, although materials from outside sources may be used when they are essential to the plans developed for the customer. Department store decorators and designers frequently advise the stores’ buyers and executives about style and color trends in interior furnishings. Interior designers and decora tors usually work directly with clients to determine preferences and needs in furnishings. They may do “ boardwork,” particularly on large assignments, which in cludes work on floor plans and e le v a tio n s and c r e a tio n of sketches, or other perspective drawings in such media as watercolor, pastels, or tempera, so clients can visualize their plans. They also provide cost estimates. After the client approves both the plans and cost estimates, ar rangements are made for the purchase of the furnishings; for the supervision of the work of painters, floor finishers, cabinet makers, carpetlayers, and other craftsmen; and for the installation and arrangement of furnishings. Places of Em ploym ent More than 15,000 people were engaged full time in interior de sign and decoration in 1968. About half of them were women. Men, however, predominate in interior design. Many in design and decorating work on a parttime basis. The majority of all workers in this field are located in large cities. In recent years, large de partment and furniture stores have become increasingly impor tant sources of employment for professional interior designers and decorators. Some designers and decorators have permanent jobs with hotel and restaurant chains. Others are employed by architects, antique dealers, office furniture stores, industrial de signers, furniture and textile manufacturers, other manufac turers in the interior furnishing field, or by peridocals that fea ture articles on homefumishings. Some large industrial corpora tions employ interior designers on a permanent basis. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Formal training in interior design and decoration is becom ing increasingly important for entrance into this field of work, although many present members of the profession achieved success without this training. Most de partment stores, well-established design and decorating firms and other major employers will ac cept only professionally trained people for beginning jobs. Usu ally, the minimum educational requirement is completion of either a 2- or 3-year course at a recognized art school or insti tute specializing in interior dec orating and design, or a 4-year college course leading to a bach elor’s degree with a major in interior design and decoration. The course of study in interior design and decoration usually in cludes the principles of design, history of art, freehand and me chanical drawing, painting, the study of the essentials of archi tecture as they relate to interiors, design of furniture and exhibi tions, and study of various ma terials, such as woods, metals, plastics, and fabrics. A knowledge of furnishings, art pieces, and antiques is important. In addi 179 tion, courses in salesmanship, business arithmetic, and other business subjects are of great value. Membership in either the American Institute of Interior Designers (A ID ) or the National Society of Interior Designers (N S ID ), both professional socie ties, is a recognized mark of achievement in this profession. Membership usually requires the completion of 3 or 4 years of posthigh school education, the major emphasis having been on training in design, and several years of practical experience in the field, including responsibility for super vision of all aspects of decorating contracts. New graduates having training in interior design and decorating usually serve a training period, either with decorating firms, in department stores, or in the firm of an established designer. They may act as a receptionist, as a shopper with the task of match ing materials or finding accesso ries, or as a stockroom assistant, assistant decorator, or junior de signer. In most instances, from 1 to 3 years of on-the-job training is required before a trainee is considered eligible for advance ment to the job of decorator. Beginners who do not obtain trainee jobs often work as sales people for fabric, lamp, or other interior furnishings concerns to gain experience in dealing with customers and to become familiar with the merchandise. This ex perience often makes it easier to obtain trainee jobs with a decor ating firm or department; it also may lead to a career in merchandising. After considerable experience, decorators and designers with ability may advance to decorat ing or design department head, interior furnishings coordinator, or to other supervisory positions in department stores or in large 180 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK decorating or design firms; if they have the necessary funds, they may open their own establish ments. Talented workers usually advance rapidly. Artistic talent, imagination, good business judgment, and the ability to deal with people are important assets for success in this field. E m ploym ent O utlook Talented art school or college graduates who majored in interior design and decoration will find good opportunities for employ ment through the 1970’s. Appli cants who can design and plan the functional arrangement of in terior space will be in strong de mand. Young people without formal training will find it in creasingly difficult to enter the field. A slow but steady increase in employment of interior designers and decorators is anticipated through the 1970’s. Population growth, larger expenditures for home and office furnishings, the increasing availability of welldesigned furnishings at moderate prices, a growing recognition among middle-income families of the value of decorators’ services, and increasing use of design serv ices for commercial establish ments should contribute to a greater demand for these workers. In addition to newly created jobs, some openings will arise each year from the need to replace design ers and decorators who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Department and furniture stores are expected to employ an increasing number of trained decorators and designers. These stores also are expected to share in the growing volume of design and decorating work for com mercial establishments and public buildings, formerly handled al most entirely by independent decorators. This development will result in increased opportunities in salaried employment. Interior design firms also are expected to continue to expand. However, em ployment of interior decorators and designers is sensitive to changes in general economic con ditions because people often defer these kinds of expenditures when the economy slows down. Earnings and W orking Conditions Beginning salaries ranged gen erally from $70 to $90 a week in 1968 for art school or college graduates having formal training in interior design and decoration; some graduates of 3 or 4-year design schools received salaries of $100 or more a week, according to limited data available. Some designers and decorators are paid straight salaries; some receive salaries plus commissions which usually range from 5 to 10 percent of the value of their sales; others receive commissions only, which may be as much as one-third of the value of their sales. Many interior decorators hav ing only average skill in this field earn only moderate incomes— from $5,000 to $7,500 a year, even after many years of experi ence. Talented decorators who are well known in their localities may earn up to $15,000 or more. Designers and decorators whose abilities are nationally recognized may earn well beyond $25,000 yearly. Self-employed decorators have an especially wide range of earn ings; their profits are related to factors such as the volume of business, their prestige as a dec orator, economic level of their clients, their own business com petence, and the percentage of wholesale prices they receive from the sale of furnishings. Hours of work for decorators are sometimes long and irregular. They usually adjust their work day to suit the needs of their clients, meeting with them during the evenings or on weekends, when necessary. Designers’ sched ules follow a more regular work day pattern. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information about employment and scholarship opportunities may be obtained from: National Society of Interior De signers, Inc., 315 East 62nd Street, New York, N.Y. 10021. S O C IA L S C I E N C E S The social sciences are con cerned with all aspects of human society from the origins of man to the latest election returns. So cial scientists, however, generally specialize in one major field of human relationships. Anthropol ogists study primitive tribes, re construct civilizations of the past, and analyze the cultures and langauges of all peoples past and present. Economists study how man allocates resources of land, labor, and capital. Geographers study the distribution throughout the world of people, types of land and water masses, and natural re sources. Historians describe and interpret the people and events of the past and present. Political scientists study the theories, ob jectives, and organizations of all types of government. Sociologists analyze the behavior and rela tionships of groups— such as the family, the community, and mi norities— to the individual or to society. Besides these basic social sci ence fields, there are a number of closely related fields, some of which are covered in separate statements elsewhere in this Handbook. (See statements on Statisticians, Psychologists, and Social Workers.) More than 70,000 people were employed professionally in the ba sic social sciences in 1968; about 1 out of 10 was a woman. Overlap ping among the basic social sci ence fields and the sometimes hazy distinction between these and related fields such as busi ness administration, foreign ser vice work, and high school teach ing, make it difficult to determine the exact size of each profession. Economists, however, are the largest social science group, and anthropologists the smallest. The majority of social scien tists are employed by colleges and universities. A large number are employed by the Federal Gov ernment and private industry. There is a trend in some indus tries toward hiring increasing numbers of college graduates who have majored in the social sci ences as trainees for administra tive and executive positions. Research councils and other non profit organizations provide an important source of employment for economists, political scien tists, and sociologists. Employment in the social sci ences has been increasing and is expected to grow very rapidly through the 1970’s, mainly be cause of the anticipated rise in college teaching positions. The reasons for this expected increase are discussed in the statement on College and University Teach ers. A moderate rise in employ ment in government also is ex pected. Employment in govern ment agencies often is greatly affected by changes in public policy. For example, more social scientists will be needed to han dle research and administrative functions resulting from the new programs established by Congress to relieve unemployment and re move poverty. The Economic Op portunity Act of 1964 and the Appalachian Regional Develop ment Act of 1965 are recent pro grams that will increase the de mand for social science personnel. A very rapid rise in employment of social scientists in private in dustry and nonprofit organiza tions also is expected. In addi tion, hundreds of social scientists will be needed each year to re place those who leave the field because of retirement, death, or other reasons. Social scientists having doctor’s degrees will find excellent em ployment opportunities through the 1970’s in both teaching and nonteaching positions. For those having less training, the employ ment situation will differ con siderably among the several so cial science fields. These differ ences are discussed in the occu pational statements that follow. ANTHROPOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 055.088) N ature of th e W ork Anthropologists study man, his origins, physical characteristics, traditions, beliefs, customs, lan guages, material possessions and his structured social relationships and value systems. Although an thropologists may specialize in any one of these aspects of man kind, they are expected to have a general knowledge of them all. Most anthropologists specialize in cultural anthropology— usually archeology or ethnology. Arche ologists excavate the places where earlier civilizations are buried to reconstruct the history and cus toms of the people who once lived there, by studying the remains of homes, tools, clothing, ornaments, and other evidences of human life and activity. For example, arche ologists are digging in the Pacific Coast area between northern Mexico and Ecuador to find evi dences of trade and migration in the pre-Christian Era. Some ar cheologists are excavating ancient Mayan cities in Mexico and re storing temples. Others are work ing in the Missouri River valley to salvage remnants of Indian villages and sites of early mili tary forts and trading posts. Eth nologists may spend long periods living among primitive tribes or in other communities, to learn about their ways of life. The eth181 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 182 nologist takes detailed and com prehensive notes describing the social customs, beliefs, and mate rial possessions of the people. He usually learns their langauge in the process. He may make comparative studies of the cul tures and societies of various groups. In recent years, his in vestigations have included com plex urban societies. Some cul tural anthropologists specialize in linguistics, the scientific study of the sounds and structures of lan guages and of the historical re lationships a m o n g languages. They study the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the language and the social structure of a people, and may assist archeologists in recon structing the prehistory of man kind. ogists occasionally are employed as consultants on projects such as the design of driver seats, space suits, cockpits for airplanes and spaceships, and the sizing of clothing. They also may consult on projects to improve environ mental conditions and on crim inal cases. Most anthropologists teach in colleges and universities and of ten combine research with their teaching. Some anthropologists specialize in museum work, which generally combines management and administrative duties with fieldwork and research on an thropological collections. A few are engaged primarily in consult ing, nontechnical writing, or other activities. Places of Em ploym ent About 3,000 people were em ployed as anthropologists in 1968. About a fifth of them were wom en. Most anthropologists were employed in colleges and univer sities. Several hundred worked in private industry and nonprofit organizations. The Federal Gov ernment employed a small num ber, chiefly in museums, national parks, and in technical aid pro grams. State and local govern ment agencies also employed some anthropologists, usually for museum work or health research. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Physical anthropologists ap ply intensive training in human anatomy and biology to the study of human evolution, and to the scientific measurement of the physical differences among the races and groups of mankind. Be cause of their knowledge of body structure, physical anthropol Young people who are inter ested in careers in anthropology should obtain Ph. D. degrees. College graduates with bachelor’s degrees can obtain temporary positions and assistantships in the graduate departments where they are working for advanced degrees. A master’s degree, plus field experience, is sufficient for many beginning professional posi tions, but promotion to top posi tions is generally reserved for in dividuals holding the Ph. D. de gree. In many colleges and most universities, only anthropologists holding the Ph. D. degree can obtain permanent teaching ap pointments. Some training in both physical and cultural anthropology is nec essary for all anthropologists. A knowledge of mathematics is in creasingly important since sta tistical methods and computers are becoming more widely used for research in this field. Under graduate students may begin their field training in archeology by arranging, through their uni versity department, to accom pany expeditions as laborers. They may advance to supervisors in charge of the digging or col lection of material and finally may take charge of a portion of the work of the expedition. Eth nologists and linguists usually do their fieldwork alone, without di rect supervision. Most anthropol ogists base their doctoral disser tations on data collected through field research; they are, there fore, experienced fieldworkers by the time they obtain the Ph. D. degree. Graduate departments of an thropology in the U.S. numbered about 115 in 1968. Most univer sities having graduate programs also offer undergraduate training in anthropology. The choice of a graduate school is very important. Students interested in museum work should select a school that can provide experience in an as sociated museum having anthro pological collections. Similarly, those interested in archeology should choose a university that offers opportunities for summer experience in archeological field work or should plan to attend an archeological field school else whe re d u r i n g t h e i r s u m m e r vacations. 183 SOCIAL SCIENCES Em ploym ent O utlook The number of anthropologists is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. The largest increase in employment will be in the college teaching field. Some additional positions will be found in museums, archeological re search programs, mental and pub lic health programs, and in com munity survey work. Opportuni ties in other fields are likely to be limited largely to the replace ment of personnel who retire, die, or leave their positions for other reasons. Anthropologists holding the doctorate are expected to have excellent employment opportuni ties through the 1970’s. Employ ment opportunities also should be favorable for those who have ful filled all requirements for the Ph. D. degree except the disser tation. Graduates with only the master’s degree, however, are likely to face persistent competi tion for professional positions in anthropology and may enter re lated fields of work. A few who meet certification requirements may secure high school teaching positions. Others may find jobs in public administration and in non profit organizations and civic groups, which prefer personnel with social science training as a general background. Earnings The average (median) salary of anthropologists employed in 1968 was $12,700. Anthropol ogists employed by educational institutions received a median salary of $13,500 for the calendar year or $12,000 for the academic year, according to the National Science Foundation’s National Register of Scientific and Tech nical Personnel. In the Federal Government, the starting salary for anthropol ogists having an M.A. degree was $8,462 in 1968. Anthropologists having a Ph.D. degree received a starting salary of $10,203. Many experienced anthropologists earned from $12,000 to $20,000 a year. In general, anthropologists holding the Ph. D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those with the master’s degree. Many anthropologists supple ment their regular salaries with earnings from other sources. Summer teaching and research grants are the principal sources of income. Anthropologists em ployed in colleges and universities are the most likely to have addi tional earnings. Sources of Additional Inform ation Additional information con cerning employment opportuni ties and schools offering graduate training in anthropology may be obtained from the following sources: A s A C a reer, (25 cents) Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560. A n th r o p o lo g y The American Anthropological Association, 3700 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20016. ECONOMISTS (D.O.T. 050.088) N atu re of the W ork Economists study man’s activ ities devoted to satisfying his material needs. They are con cerned with the problems that arise in the utilization of limited resources of land, raw materials, and manpower to provide goods and services. In this connection, they may analyze the relation between the supply of and de mand for goods and services, and the ways in which goods are pro duced, distributed, and consumed. Some economists are concerned OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 184 with practical problems such as the control of inflation, the pre vention of depression, and the development of farm, wage, tax, and tariff policies. Others develop theories to explain the causes of employment and unemployment or the ways in which internation al trade influences world eco nomic conditions. Still others are engaged in the collection and in terpretation of data on a wide variety of economic problems. Economists employed in col leges and universities teach the principles and methods of eco nomics and conduct or direct re search. They frequently engage in writing and consulting and for mulate many of the new ideas that directly or indirectly in fluence government and industry planning. Economists in government plan and carry out studies for use in assessing economic conditions and the need for changes in govern ment policy. Their work may in clude the collection of basic data, analysis, and the preparation of reports. Most government eco nomists are in the fields of agri culture, business, finance, labor, or international trade and de velopment. Economists employed by busi ness firms provide management with information for decision making on such matters as the markets for and prices of com pany products, the effect of gov ernment policies on business or international trade, the advis ability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branch operations, or otherwise expand ing the company’s business. Places of Em ploym ent Economics is the largest of the basic social science fields. About 31,000 economists were employed in 1968. Industry and business employed about one-half; colleges and universities, roughly onefourth; and government agencies — chiefly Federal— about onefifth. Most of the remainder worked in private research agen cies. A few were self-employed. Economists are found in all large cities and in university towns. The largest groups are in the New York and Washington, D.C. metropolitan areas. Sub stantial numbers are employed in foreign countries, mainly by the U.S. Department of State, in cluding the Agency for Interna tional Development. Most economists in private in dustry are employed in the home office of large corporations. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Economists must have a thor ough grounding in economic theory, economic history, and methods of economic analysis. An increasing number of univer sities also emphasize the value of mathematical methods of eco nomic analysis. Since many be ginning jobs for economists in government and business involve the collection and compilation of data, a thorough knowledge of basic statistical procedures usu ally is required. A bachelor’s degree with a ma jor in economics is sufficent for many beginning research jobs in government and private industry, although persons employed in such entry jobs are not always regarded as professional econo mists. In the Federal Govern ment, candidates for entrance positions must have a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, account ing, or calculus. Graduate training is very im portant for young people plan ning to become economists. Stu d e n t s i n t e r e s t e d in r e s e a r c h should select schools that em phasize training in research meth ods and statistics and provide good research facilities. Those who wish to work in agricultural economics will find good oppor tunities to gain experience in part-time research work at State universities having agricultural experiment stations. The master’s degree generally is required for appointment as a college instructor, although in large schools graduate assistantships sometimes are awarded to superior students working toward their master’s degree. In many large colleges and universities, completion of all the require ments for the Ph. D. degree, ex cept the dissertation, is necessary for appointment as instructor. In government or private industry, economists holding the master’s degree usually can qualify for more responsible research posi tions than are open to those hav ing only the bachelor’s degree. The Ph. D. degree is required for a professorship in a highranking college or university and is an asset in competing for other responsible positions in govern ment, business, or private re search organizations. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of economists will increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. Colleges and universities will need hundreds of new in structors annually to handle ra pidly increasing enrollments and to replace economists who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Private industry is ex pected to employ many more ecoomists, as businessmen become more accustomed to rely on scien tific methods of analyzing busi ness trends, forecasting sales, and planning purchasing and produc- SOCIAL SCIENCES tion operations. Employment of economists at the Federal, State, and local levels also will increase rapidly to meet the need for more extensive data collection and analysis, and to provide the staff for programs aimed at reducing unemployment and poverty. Economists having the doctor ate are expected to have excellent opportunities for employment. The demand for these economists is expected to be considerably greater than the supply through the 1970’s. As a result, employ ment opportunities for econo mists having a master’s degree will be favorable, especially for those with good training in sta tistics and mathematics. Oppor tunities for persons having a bachelor’s degree will continue to be good in government agencies. Young people having bachelors’ degrees in economics also will find employment as management trainees in industry and business firms. 185 a year; some having greater ad m inistrative responsibilities earned considerably more. Economists having Ph.D.’s are paid the highest salaries by each type of employer in comparison with those that have lesser de grees and similar experience. A substantial number of economists supplement their basic salaries by consulting, teaching, and other activities. nomics and related fields is given in the following publications: C a reers in the S e rv ic e, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. 20523. Free. O versea s A ssig n m e n ts, GEOGRAPHERS Sources of A dditional Inform ation (D.O.T. 059.088) American Economic Association, Northwestern University, 629 Noyes St., Evanston, 11 . 60201. 1 N atu re of the W ork Additional information on em ployment opportunities in eco Geographers study the physical characteristics of the earth, such Earnings According to the National Sci ence Foundation’s National Reg ister of Scientific and Technical Personnel, the median salary of economists employed by colleges and universities for calendar year 1968 was $15,700. The median salary for those in business and industry and in non-profit organi zations was $18,000. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary in late 1968 for beginning economists having a bachelor’s degree was $5,732; however, those with superior aca demic records could begin at $6,981. Those having 2 full years of graduate training or experi ence can qualify for positions at an annual salary of $8,462. The majority of experienced econo mists in the Federal Government earned from $10,000 to $20,000 F o r eig n U.S. Department of State, Pub lication 7924, Washington, D.C. 20520. Free. Geographer engraves road lines on film. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 186 as its terrain, minerals, soils, water, vegetation, and climate. They relate these characteristics to the patterns of human settle ments on the earth— where peo ple live, why they are located there, and how they earn a living. The majority of geographers are engaged in college and uni versity teaching and may com bine teaching and research. Their research may include the study and analysis of the distribution of land forms, climate, soils, vege tation, and mineral and water resources, sometimes utilizing sur veying and meteorological instru ments. They also analyze the distribution and structure of po litical organizations, transporta tion systems, and marketing sys tems. Many geographers spend considerable time in field study, and in analyzing maps, aerial photographs, and observational data collected in the field. There is an increasing use of photo graphs and other data from re mote sensors on satellites. Other geographers construct maps, graphs, and diagrams. Most geographers specialize in one main branch of geography or more. Those working in economic geography deal with the geo graphic distribution of economic activities— including manufactur ing, mining, farming, trade, and communications. Political georaphy is the study of the way political processes affect geo graphic boundaries on subna tional, national, and international scales, and the relationship of geographic conditions to political situations. Urban geography, a growing field for geographers, is concerned with the study of cities and community planning. (See statement on Urban Planners.) Specialists in physical geography study the earth’s physical char acteristics. Regional geography pertains to all the physical, eco nomic, political, and cultural characteristics of a particular region or area, which may range in size from a river basin or an island, to a State, a country, or even a continent. Geographers in the field of cartography design and construct maps, as well as compile data for them. Many professional workers in the field have job titles which describe their specialization, such as cartographer, map cataloger, or regional analyst, rather than the title geographer. Others have titles relating to the subject mat ter of their study such as photo intelligence specialist or climatol ogical analyst. Still others have titles such as community planner, market or business analyst, or in telligence specialist. Most of those who teach in colleges and uni versities are called geographers. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 3,900 geogra phers were employed in the United States in 1968; about 10 percent were women. Approximately two-thirds of all geographers are employed by colleges and universities. Those teaching in institutions which do not have separate departments of geography usually are associated with departments of geology, eco nomics, or other physical or so cial sciences. The Federal Government em ploys a large number of geogra phers. Among the major agencies employing these workers are the United States Army Topographic Command; the United States Air Force Aeronautical Chart and In formation Center; the Central In telligence Agency; the Defense Intelligence Agency; the Depart ment of the Interior; and the Environmental Sciences Services Administration. State and local governments also employ a small number of geographers, mostly on city and State planning and de velopment commissions. Most of the relatively small but growing number of geogra phers employed by private indus try work for marketing research organizations, map companies, textbook publishers, travel agen cies, manufacturing firms, or chain stores. A few geographers work for scientific foundations and other nonprofit organizations and research institutes. A small number are employed as map librarians. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The minimum educational re quirement for beginning positions in geography usually is a bache lor’s degree with a major in the field. For most positions in re search and teaching, and for ad vancement in many other types of work, graduate training is re quired. Training leading to the bache lor’s degree in geography was offered by over 300 colleges and universities in 1968. Undergrad uate study usually provides a general introduction to geogra phic knowledge and research methods and often includes some field studies. Typical courses of fered are physiography, weather and climate, economic geography, political geography, urban geog raphy, and regional courses, such as the geography of North Amer ica, Western Europe, the U.S.S.R., and Asia. Courses in cartography and in the interpretation of maps and aerial photographs are of fered also. Advanced degrees in geography are offered by a relatively small number of schools. In 1968, Ph. D. degrees were awarded by about 40 institutions. For admit tance to a graduate program in geography, a bachelor’s degree SOCIAL SCIENCES with a major in geography is the usual requirement. However, most universities admit students with bachelor’s degrees in fields such as economics, geology, or history if they have a good back ground in geography. Require ments for advanced degrees in clude field and laboratory work, as well as classroom studies and thesis preparation. New graduates having only the bachelor’s degree in geography usually find positions connected with making, interpreting, or an alyzing maps; or in research, either working for the govern ment or private industry. Others enter beginning positions in the planning field. Some obtain em ployment as research or teaching assistants in educational institu tions while studying for advanced degrees. New graduates having the master’s degree can qualify for some teaching and research positions in colleges and for many research positions in government and private industry. The Ph. D. degree usually is required for high-level posts in college teach ing and research and may be nec essary for advancement to toplevel positions in other activities. Em ploym ent Outlook The employment outlook for geographers is likely to be favor able through the 1970’s. The de mand will be especially strong for geographers having graduate de grees to fill research and teaching positions in colleges and univer sities and research jobs in indus try and government. Geographers with advanced training in fields such as economics or business administration also will be in strong demand. Colleges and universities are expected to offer the greatest number of employment oppor tunities as college enrollments in 187 crease very rapidly through the 1970’s. Rising interest in foreign countries and growing awareness of the value of geography train ing in several other fields of work, such as the foreign service, should also result in increased enrollments in geography and in a need for additional teachers at the college level. A growing de mand for geography teachers in secondary schools also is antici pated. Employment of geographers in government is also likely to in crease. The Federal Government will need additional personnel in positions related to regional de velopment; urban planning; re source management; planning, construction, and interpretation of maps; and in intelligence work. State and local government em ployment of geographers also will expand, particularly in areas such as conservation, highway plan ning, and city, community, and regional planning and develop ment. The number of geographers employed in private industry also is expected to rise. Market re search and location analysis should continue to grow rapidly. Opportunities also should in crease in private area planning and development work. Since geography is a relatively small field, job openings are not expected to be numerous in any one year. However, unless the number of persons receiving de grees in the field should grow far beyond current expectations, qualified geographers, particular ly those with advanced degrees, should find employment readily through the 1970’s. E m p l o y m e n t p r o s p e c t s f or women geographers will be best in teaching, especially in junior colleges, women’s colleges, and in the larger co-educational institu tions. Government agencies also should offer good opportunities for women in mapping and plan ning work. Earnings and W orking Conditions In the Federal Government in late 1968, geographers having the bachelor’s degree and no experi ence could start at $5,732 or $6,981 a year, depending on their college record. Geographers hav ing 1 or 2 years of graduate teach ing could start at $6,981 or $8,462; and those having the Ph. D. degree, at $10,203. In colleges and universities, salaries of geographers depend on their teaching rank. (For further information, see statement on College and University Teach ers.) Geographers in educational institutions usually have an op portunity to earn income from other sources, such as consulting work, special research projects, and publication of books and and articles. Working conditions of most geographers are similar to those of other teachers and office work ers. Geographic research fre quently requires extensive travel in foreign countries, as well as in the United States. Sources of Additional Inform ation Association of American Geogra phers, 1146 16th St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. HISTORIANS (D.O.T. 052.088) N ature of the W ork Historians study the records of the past and write books and arti cles describing and analyzing past 188 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Em ploym ent Historian examines new museum acquisitions. events, institutions, ideas, and people. They may use their knowledge of the past to explain current events. They may spe cialize in the history of a specific country or region, or in a par ticular period of time— ancient, medieval, or modern— or in eco nomic, cultural, military, or other phases of history. More historians specialize in either United States or modern European history than in any other field; however, a growing number are now special izing in African, Latin American, Asian, and Near Eastern history. Some are experts in fields such as the history of the labor move ment, art, architecture, or other fields of historical interest. The number of specialties is constant ly growing. The history of busi ness and the relation between technological changes and other aspects of historical development are among the newest fields. Most historians are college teachers who also do some re search, writing, and lecturing. Some, called archivists, specialize in identifying, preserving, and making available documentary materials of historical value. Others edit historical materials, prepare exhibits, write pamphlets and handbooks, and give talks for museums, special libraries, and historical societies. A few serve as consultants to editors, publish ers, and producers of materials for radio, television, and motion pictures. Historians employed in government mainly do research and administrative work in con nection with research projects; they also prepare studies, articles, and books. About 14,000 persons were employed as historians in 1968. Approximately 85 percent of all historians were employed in col leges and universities. About 4 percent were employed in Fed eral Government agencies, prin cipally the National Archives and the Departments of Defense, In terior, and State. Small but grow ing numbers were employed by other government organizations (State, local, and international), nonprofit foundations, research councils, special libraries, State historical societies, museums, and by large corporations. Since history is taught in all institutions of higher education, historians are found in all college communities. About half the his torians in the Federal Govern ment, including three-fourths of those working as archivists, are employed in Washington, D.C. Historians in other types of em ployment usually work in locali ties which have museums or li braries with collections adequate for historical research. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Graduate education usually is necessary for qualification as a historian. A master’s degree in history is the minimum require ment for appointment to the po sition of college instructor; in many colleges and universities, a Ph. D. degree is necessary. The latter is essential for attaining high-level college teaching, re search, and administrative posi tions in the field of history. Most historians in the Federal Govern ment and in nonprofit organiza tions have a Ph. D. degree or the equivalent in training and ex perience. Although a bachelor’s degree 189 SOCIAL SCIENCES with a major in history is suffi cient training for some beginning jobs in Federal, State, and local governments, persons in such jobs may not be regarded as profes sional historians. These beginning jobs are likely to be concerned with the collection and preserva tion of historical data so that a knowledge of archival work is helpful. An undergraduate major in history is considered helpful for jobs in international relations and journalism. high school teaching. Some also will be able to qualify as trainees in administrative and manage ment positions in government agencies, nonprofit foundations, civic organizations and in private industry. POLITICAL SCIENTISTS (D.O.T. 051.088) N ature of the W ork Political science is the study of government— what it is, what it Earnings does, and how and why. Political scientists are interested in gov ernment at every level— local, The median salary of historians county, State, regional, national, employed by colleges and univer and international. Many of them sities was about $11,000 in 1968. specialize in one general area of Em ploym ent O utlook New assistant professors teaching political science, such as political for the first time had average theory, American political insti Employment in this relatively earnings of about $10,000 a year, tutions and processes, compara small occupation is expected to according to the American Coun tive political institutions and continue to increase very rapidly cil on Education. Salaries tended processes, or international rela through the 1970’s. Hundreds of to be lower for those persons em tions and organizations. Some new history teachers probably ployed in junior colleges and specialize in a particular type of will be needed annually to teach teacher’s colleges. In the Federal political institution or in the poli new classes made necessary by Government, the starting salary tics of a specific era. expanding college enrollments, for persons having a bachelor’s Political scientists are em and to replace those faculty mem degree was $5,732 in late 1968. ployed most frequently as college bers who retire, die, or leave for Those having a superior academic and university teachers. They other types of work. The number record or a year of graduate train may combine research, consulta of positions for historians in ing were eligible for positions at tion, or administrative duties archival work also is expected to an annual salary of $6,981. The with teaching. Some teach in rise, although more slowly than median annual salary for histor foreign universities where they the number in college teaching. ians employed by the Federal prepare students for careers in Only a slight rise is foreseen in Government in late 1968 was public administration and assist the number of historians in other about $12,000. in the development of training types of work. Some historians, particularly programs for government person Historians having doctorates those in college teaching, supple nel. Many political scientists are are expected to have very ment their income by summer engaged mainly in research. They good employment opportunities teaching or writing books or arti may make surveys of public through the 1970’s. Historians cles. A few earn additional in opinion on political questions for who have completed all require come from lectures. private research organizations. They may study proposed legis ments for the Ph. D., except the dissertation, also are expected to lation for State or municipal leg have favorable opportunities. islative reference bureaus or con gressional committees. Others However, those with no work be may analyze the operations of yond the master’s degree prob Sources of Additional Inform ation government agencies or specialize ably will encounter considerable in foreign affairs research, either competition for professional posi Additional information on em for government or nongovernment tions. College graduates having only the bachelor’s degree will ployment opportunities for his organizations. Still others are en gaged in administrative or man find it difficult to obtain em torians may be obtained from: agerial duties. Some work in ployment as professional histor American Historical Association, budget analysis, personnel, and ians. On the other hand, history 400 A St. SE., Washington, D.C. 20003. urban planning, or as legislative majors who meet certification re aids to congressmen and as staff quirements will find openings in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 190 members of congressional com mittees. Places of Em ploym ent About 11,400 political scien tists were employed in 1968, largely in colleges and universi ties or in government agencies. Most of the remainder worked in research bureaus, civic and tax payers associations, and large business firms. Political scientists are em ployed in nearly every college in the United States, since courses in political science or government are taught widely. Most other political scientists are located in Washington, D.C., and in other large cities, or in State capitals. Some are employed in overseas jobs, mainly by the U.S. Depart ment of State, particularly for positions with the Agency for In ternational Development and the U.S. Information Agency. a position in a Federal Govern ment agency concerned with for eign affairs. Completion of all requirements for the Ph. D. degree, except the doctoral dissertation, is the usual prerequisite for appointment as a college instructor. The Ph. D. degree generally is required for advancement to the position of professor. Some young people having only a bachelor’s degree in politi cal science may qualify as trainees in public relations or research work, or in jobs such as budget analyst, personnel assist ant, or investigators in govern ment or industry. Many students having the bachelor’s degree in political science go on to study law; others obtain graduate train ing in public administration, in ternational relations, or other specialized branches of political science. Em ploym ent O utlook Train in g and O ther Q ualifications Graduate training generally is required for employment as a political scientist. College grad uates having a master’s degree can qualify for various adminis trative and research positions in government and in nonprofit re search and civic organizations. More than 100 colleges and uni versities offer graduate degrees in political science, and over 50 offer graduate degrees in public administration. Many of these schools provide field training and offer internships which enable the student to obtain experience in government work. Many uni versities award graduate degrees in international relations, foreign service, and area studies, as well as political science in general. A master’s degree in any of these fields is very helpful in obtaining Employment of political sci entists probably will increase very rapidly throughout the 1970’s. The greatest increase will be in colleges and universities. The number of political scientists in administrative jobs in govern ment agencies also probably will rise because of a growing recog nition of the value of specialized training in developing and plan ning new programs. Government agencies concerned with foreign affairs will continue to employ many political scientists. A slow growth is anticipated in employ ment of political scientists in pri vate industry. In addition to those required to staff new posi tions, many political scientists will be needed to fill positions vacated because of retirements, deaths, or transfers to other fields of work. New Ph. D. graduates will find very good opportunities in college teaching and good chances for employment in other fields as well. Those who have completed all the requirements for the doctorate, except the dis sertation, are also likely to find favorable opportunities in college teaching. Employment opportu nities for those having the mas ter’s degree will be more limited, but openings will be available to them in Federal, State, and mu nicipal government agencies; re search bureaus; political organ izations; and civic and welfare agencies. For new graduates having only the bachelor’s de gree, opportunities for employ ment in the political science field probably will continue to be very limited. However, those planning to continue their studies in law, foreign affairs, journalism, and other related fields will find their political science background very helpful. Some who meet State certification requirements will be able to enter high school teaching. Earnings The median salary of political scientists was $12,000 in 1968, according to the National Regis ter of Scientific and Technical Personnel. Political scientists employed in educational insti tutions earned a median salary of $10,800 for the academic year and $13,500 for the calendar year. Generally, those persons hav ing the doctorate had the higher salaries. In the Federal Government, the starting salary for political scientists having a bachelor’s de gree was $5,732 a year in late 1968. Those having a superior academic record or a year of graduate training were eligible for positions at an annual salary of $6,981. Most of the experienced 191 SOCIAL SCIENCES political scientists in the Federal Government earned considerably more. Some political scientists, par ticularly those in college teach ing, supplement their income by doing summer teaching or con sulting work. Sources of Additional Inform ation Additional information on em ployment opportunities in politi cal science and public adminis tration may be obtained from the following organization: American Political Science Asso ciation, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. SOCIOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 054.088) N atu re of the W ork Sociologists study the many groups which man forms— fami lies, tribes, communities, and States, and a great variety of social, religious, political, busi ness, and other organizations which have arisen out of living to gether. They study the behavior and interaction of these groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members. Some sociologists are primarily concerned with the characteris tics of social groups and institu tions; others are more interested in the ways in which individuals are affected by groups to which they belong. Many work in social organization, social psychology, or rural sociology. Others special ize in intergroup relations, family problems, social effects of urban living, population studies, or analyses of public opinion. Some concentrate on research method ology or the conduct of surveys. Growing numbers apply socio logical knowledge and methods in the areas of penology and cor rection, education, public rela tions in industry, and regional and community planning. A few specialize in medical sociology— and study the social factors that affect mental and public health. Most sociologists are college teachers, but, as a rule, these teachers also conduct research. Sociological research often in volves the collection of data, preparation of case studies, test ing, and the conduct of statistical surveys and laboratory experi ments. Sociologists may study in dividuals, families, or communi ties in an attempt to discover the causes of social problems— such as crime, juvenile delinquency, or poverty; the normal pattern of family relations; or the different patterns of living in communities of varying types and sizes. They may collect and analyze data from official government sources to illustrate population trends, including changes in age, sex, race, and other population char acteristics; and also the extent of population movement among rural, suburban, and urban areas and among different geographic areas. Sociologists may conduct surveys which add to basic socio logical knowledge or which may be used in public opinion, mar keting, and advertising research. Others are specialists in the use of mass communication facilities, including radio, television, news papers, magazines, and circulars. Sociologists are sometimes ad m i n i s t r a t o r s — s upe rvi s ing re search projects or the operation of social agencies, including fam ily and marriage clinics. Others are consultants, advising on such diverse problems as the manage ment of hospitals for the men tally ill, the rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents, or the de velopment of effective advertising programs to promote public in terest in particular products. Places of Em ploym ent It is estimated that about 10,000 persons were employed as sociologists in 1968. Numerous others were employed in positions requiring some training in this field, including many in social, recreation, and public health work. About three-fourths of all so ciologists are employed in colleges and universities. The remainder work in Federal, State, local, or international government agen cies, in private industry, in wel fare or other nonprofit organiza tions, or are self-employed. Since sociology is taught in most institutions of higher learn ing, sociologists may be found in nearly all college communities. They are most heavily concen trated, however, in large colleges and universities which offer grad uate training in sociology and opportunities for employment in research. Medical sociologists are most often employed on the teaching or research staffs of medical colleges and their grad uate departments of public health and preventive medicine. They also find employment on hospital staffs and in State and municipal health departments. Rural so ciologists most frequently work at State universities where they are likely to have opportunities for research at the State agricultural experiment stations attached to these universities. Some special ists in rural sociology and com munity development are em ployed in foreign countries by U.S. Government agencies and private foundations. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 192 T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A master’s degree with a major in sociology usually is the mini mum requirement for employ ment as a sociologist. The Ph. D. degree is essential for attaining a professorship in most colleges or universities, and is common ly required for directors of major research projects, impor tant administrative positions, or consultants. Sociologists with master’s de grees may qualify for many ad ministrative and research posi tions, provided they are trained in research methods and statis tics. They may perform work re quiring responsibility for specific portions of a survey or for the preparation of analyses and re ports under general supervision. As they gain experience, they may advance to supervisory po sitions in both public and private agencies. Sociologists with the master’s degree may qualify for some college instructorships. Most colleges, however, appoint as instructors only people with training beyond the master’s level— frequently the completion of all requirements for the Ph. D. degree except the doctoral dis sertation. Outstanding graduate students often can get teaching or research assistantships which will provide both financial aid and valuable experience. Young people with only a bachelor’s degree in sociology are not usually recognized by the profession as sociologists, al though they may be able to se cure other jobs in this or related fields. They may get jobs as in terviewers or as research assist ants working under close super vision. Many are employed as caseworkers, counselors, recrea tion workers, or administrative assistants in public and private welfare agencies. Sociology ma jors with sufficient training in statistics may obtain positions as beginning statisticians. Those who meet State certification re quirements may enter high school teaching. The choice of a graduate school is very important for people plan ning to become sociologists. Stu dents interested in research should select schools which em phasize training in research methods and statistics, and pro vide opportunities to gain prac tical experience in research work. Professors and chairmen of so ciology departments frequently aid in the placement of graduates. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for sociologists are expected to in crease substantially through the 1970’s. Because of expanding en rollments, the majority of new positions will be in college teach ing. However, some openings will result from the growing trend to include sociology courses in the curricula of other professions, such as medicine, law, and educa tion. An estimated 450 teachers may be needed each year, on the average, to fill new positions and to replace college faculty mem bers who leave the profession. A substantial rise in the number of sociologists in nonteaching fields is anticipated to cope with social and welfare problems and to im plement educational and social legislation designed to develop human resources. Sociologists well trained in re search methods and advanced sta tistics will have the widest choice of jobs. Employment opportuni ties are also expected to be very good for research workers in rural sociology, community develop ment, population analysis, public opinion research, and various branches of medical sociology. Employment opportunities also will increase in other applied fields, such as the study of juv enile delinquency and education. Some openings are anticipated in a relatively new area, the soci ology of law. The number of sociologists holding the doctor’s degree is ex pected to rise less rapidly than the number of positions through the 1970’s. As a result, employ ment opportunities for both Ph. D .’s, and those who have com pleted all requirements for the doctorate except the dissertation will probably be very good during this period. Inexperienced grad uates with only the master’s de gree— with the exception of those specifically trained in research methods— will probably continue to face considerable competition for positions as professional sociologists. Earnings New assistant professors of sociology received a median an nual salary of $10,200 for the school year 1968-1969, according to a survey of the American Council on Education. Experi enced teaching faculty in soci ology earned a median salary of $13,500 in 1968, and sociologists in non-profit organizations and industry had average salaries of $14,500 and $15,000 respectively, according to the National Science Foundation. In the Federal Goverment, the beginning salary in 1968 for sociologists having a SOCIAL SCIENCES master’s degree and a superior academic record was $8,462 in late 1968. Salaries of experienced sociologists in the Federal Gov ernment generally ranged be tween $10,200 and $19,780 a year. 193 In general, sociologists with the Ph. D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those with the master’s degree. Many soci ologists supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources. Summer teaching and consulting work are the principal sources of income. Sociologists employed by colleges and univer sities are the most likely to have additional earnings. T E A C H IN G Teaching is the largest of the professions. About 2.5 million men and women were full-time teachers in the Nation’s elemen tary schools, secondary schools, and colleges and universities in the 1968-69 school year. In addi schools. Many other people taught in adult education and recreation programs. tion, thousands taught part time, among them were many scien tists, physicians, accountants, members of other professions and graduate students. Similarly, large numbers of craftsmen in structed part time in vocational College Enrollments W ill Show The Fastest G ro w th Rate Between 1968 A n d 1980 f Rising To O v e r 10 M illion FALL 10 20 IN THOUSANDS 30 40 50 60 70 1955 1960 1965 1968 1980 ^ELEM ENTARY SECONDARY OOLLtGE SOURCE: U.S. DEPARTM ENT OF HEA LTH, ED U C A TIO N , A N D W ELFARE, OFFICE OF EDUCATION Total Teaching Staff W ill Expand By O n e -F ifth To O v e r 2.9 M illion During The 1968-80 Period No other profession offers so many employment opportunities for women. About 1.6 million women are teachers, more than twice the number employed in nursing, the second largest field of professional employment for women. Women teachers far out number men in kindergarten and elementary schools and hold al most half the teaching positions in secondary (junior and senior high) schools. However, only about one-fourth of all college and university teachers are women. The number of teachers needed by the Nation’s schools depends chiefly on the number of stu dents enrolled. At the beginning of the 1968-69 school year, 57.1 million people— more than onefourth of the country’s total population— were enrolled in the Nation’s schools and colleges. Through the 1970’s, continued growth of the school and college population and continued in creases in high school and college attendance rates are expected to produce a moderate increase in school enrollments and a very rapid rate of increase in college enrollments. Total enrollments in all schools and colleges combined, according to U.S. Office of Edu cation estimates, may reach al most 63 million by 1980. T o staff the new classrooms that must be provided for the ris ing numbers of students, and to continue to improve the studentteacher ratio, the Nation’s full time teaching staff in 1980 will need to be about one-tenth or al most 280,000 more than in 1968. An even larger number of teach ers— perhaps as many as 2.2 mil lion— will be required to replace those who leave the profession. The outlook for teachers at each educational level— in ele mentary and secondary schools 195 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 196 and also in colleges and universi ties— is discussed in the following statements. KINDERGARTEN AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS (D.O.T. 092.228) N ature of the W ork Elementary school teaching is the largest field of professional employment for women and is a growing field for men. In the 1968-69 school year, over 1.2 mil lion kindergarten and elementary teachers were employed. In addi tion, an estimated 60,000 princi pals and supervisors were work ing in public and private ele mentary schools. Kindergarten teachers conduct a program of education for young children. Most frequently, they divide the schoolday between two different groups, teaching a morn ing and an afternoon class. Some, however, may work with one group all day. They provide the children with experiences in play, music, artwork, stories, and poetry; and introduce them to science, numbers, language, and social studies. In a variety of ways, kindergarten teachers help to develop children’s curiosity and zeal for learning, as well as to stimulate their ability to think. After school hours, kindergarten teachers may plan the next day’s work, prepare the children’s school records, confer with par ents or professional personnel concerning individual children, participate in teachers’ in-service activities, and locate and become familiar with teaching resources. Elementary school teachers usually work with one group of pupils during the entire schoolday, teaching several subjects and supervising various activities such as lunch and play periods. In some school systems, however, teachers in the upper elementary grades may teach one or two sub jects to several groups of children. Many school systems also employ special teachers to give instruc tion and to assist classroom teachers in certain subjects such as art, music, physical education, industrial arts, foreign languages, and homemaking. Teachers in schools which have only a few students, largely in rural areas, may be required to teach all sub jects in several grades. Programed instruction, including teaching machines and “ talking typewrit ers,” and the increasing use of teacher aids are new develop ments that are freeing growing numbers of elementary school and kindergarten teachers from routine duties and allowing them to give more individual attention to their students. Places of Em ploym ent Elementary school teachers are employed in all cities, towns, vil lages, and in rural areas. As a re sult of reorganization of school districts, many teachers are em ployed in consolidated schools in small towns. Only about 6,500 teach in one-room schools. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent All States require that teach ers in the public schools have a certificate. Several States require certification for teachers in paro chial and other private elemen tary schools. In 1968, 46 States and the Dis trict of Columbia issued regular teaching certificates only to per sons having at least 4 years of approved college preparation. Teacher certification in most States also requires professional education courses. Eighteen 197 TEACHING States require that teachers work toward a fifth year or master’s degree within a certain number of years. Some school systems have higher educational require ments than those for State certification. In nearly all States, certificates are issued by State departments of education on the basis of trans scripts of credits and recommen dations from approved colleges and universities. Certificates may be issued to teachers from other States if the prescribed programs have been completed at accred ited colleges or if the teachers meet the academic and other re quirements of the State to which they are applying. Under certain conditions usually related to a shortage of qualified teachers, most States will issue emergency or temporary certificates to par tially prepared teachers. How ever, these certificates must be renewed annually. All States have certain addi tional requirements for public school teaching. For example, they may require a health certif icate, evidence of citizenship, or an oath of allegiance. The pros pective teacher should inquire about the specific requirements of the area in which he plans to work by writing to the State de partment of education or to the superintendent of the local school system. Most institutions of higher education offer teacher prepara tion. In a 4-year teacher-prepa ration curriculum, prospective ele mentary school teachers spend about one-fourth of the time in professional courses— learning about children, the place of the school in the community, and materials and methods of in struction— in c lu d in g s t u d e n t teaching in an actual school situ ation; the remainder of their time is devoted to liberal arts subjects. Some study of the process of learning and human behavior usu ally is included. After gaining experience, teach ers will find opportunities for ad vancement through annual salary increases in the same school sys tem; by transferring to a system with a higher salary schedule which recognizes e x p e r i e n c e gained in another school system; by appointment to a supervisory, administrative, or specialized po sition in the school system; or by transferring to higher levels of teaching for which their training and experience may qualify them. Among the most important personal qualifications for ele mentary school teaching are an enjoyment and understanding of children. Teachers must be pa tient and self-disciplined, and have high standards of personal conduct. A broad knowledge and appreciation of the arts, sciences, history, and literature also are valuable. Civic, social, and recrea tional activities of teachers may be influenced ,and sometimes are restricted, by the customs and at titudes of their community. Em ploym ent O utlook Young people preparing to teach in elementary schools will find a large number of teaching positions available— an estimated 1.2 million— between 1968 and 1980. By far the largest number of teachers, about 1.1 million, will be needed to replace those who retire, die, or leave the profession for other reasons. Although en rollments in 1980 are expected to be at about the same level as in 1968, teaching positions are ex pected to grow by about 40,000 during the period to reduce the pupil-teacher ratio. In addition, about 56,500 teachers will be needed to replace persons not meeting certification require ments. Increasing emphasis on the education of very young chil dren, children in low-income areas, the mentally retarded, and other groups needing special at tention may result in larger en rollments and smaller studentteacher ratios than indicated above, with an accompanying in crease in the number of teachers required. The number of persons quali fied to teach in elementary schools may exceed the number of openings if present enrollment projections and trends in the number of newly trained teachers continues. As a result, young peo ple seeking their first teaching assignment may find schools placing great emphasis on their academic work and the quality of their training. Nevertheless, 198 employment opportunities may be very favorable in urban ghettos, rural districts, and in all geogra phic areas where teaching salaries are low and better paying oppor tunities are available in other fields in the community. The out look for teachers who are trained to work with children having vari ous handicaps also will be favorable. Earnings and W orking Conditions The average salary for class room teachers in public elemen t a r y s c h o o l s , a c c o r d i n g to National Education Association (NEA) estimates, was $7,676 in 1968-69. In the four highest pay ing States (Alaska, California, Michigan, and Illinois), teachers’ salaries averaged $8,800 or more; in the six States having the low est salaries (South Dakota, North Dakota, Mississippi, South Caro lina, Alabama, and Idaho), they were less than $6,000. An in creasing number of States (31 in the 1968-69 academic year) have established minimum salary levels. Although the average time spent in the classroom (less than 6 hours) usually is less than the average workday in most other o c c u p a t i o n s , t he e l e m e n t a r y school teacher must spend addi tional time each day giving indi vidual help, planning work, pre paring instructional materials, developing tests, checking papers, making out reports, and keeping records. Conferences with par ents, meetings with school super visors, and other professional ac tivities also frequently occur after classroom hours. Since most schools are in ses sion less than 12 months a year, teachers often take courses for professional growth or work at other jobs during the summer. Some school systems, however, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK are extending the teachers’ work ing year to 12 months, including a 1-month vacation in the summer. Employment in teaching is steady and usually is not affected by changes in business conditions. Tenure provisions protect teach ers from arbitrary dismissal. Pen sion and sick leave plans are common, and a growing number of school systems grant other types of leave with pay. An in creasing number of teachers are being represented by professional teacher associations or by unions that bargain collectively for them on wages, hours, and other con ditions of employment. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on schools and cer tification requirements is avail able from the State department of education at each State capital. Information on the Teacher Corps, internships, graduate fel lowships, and other information on teaching may from: be obtained U.S. Department of Health, Edu cation, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D.C. 20202 . Other sources of general in formation are: American Federation of Teachers, 716 North Rush St., Chicago, 1 1 60611. 1. National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS (D.O.T. 091.118 through .228) N atu re of th e W ork Secondary school teachers— those employed in junior and 199 TEACHING senior high schools— usually spe cialize in a particular subject. They teach several classes every day, either in their main subject, in related subjects, or both. The most frequent combinations are English and history or other so cial sciences; mathematics and general science; and chemistry and biology or general science. Teachers in some fields, such as home economics, agriculture, commercial subjects, driver edu cation, music, art, and industrial arts, less frequently conduct classes in other subjects. The teaching method may vary from formal lectures to free discus sions, depending on the subject and the students’ needs and ap titudes. The choice of method usually is left to the teacher. Besides giving classroom in struction, secondary school teach ers plan and develop teaching materials, develop and correct tests, keep records and make out reports, consult with parents, supervise study halls, and per form other duties. The growing use of teaching machines, pro grammed instruction, and teacher aids relieves the teacher of many routine tasks. Many teachers su pervise student activities, such as clubs and social affairs— some times after regular school hours. Maintaining good relations with parents and the community is an important aspect of their jobs. About 940,000 teachers were employed in the Nation’s public and private secondary schools in 1968-69. Slightly more than half the classroom teachers in public secondary schools were men. Men far outnumber women in super visory and administrative posi tions in both public and private schools. Places of Em ploym ent The number of grades in sec ondary schools depends on how the local school system is organ ized. Many secondary school teachers are employed in 6-year combined j u n i o r - s e n i o r high schools (grades 7-12); others are in separate junior high schools of either two or three grades (7-8 or 7-9); and the remainder teach in 4-year high schools (grades 9-12) and in senior high schools (grades 10- 12). T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent In every State, a certificate is required for public secondary school teaching. To qualify for this certificate, the prospective teacher must have at least the equivalent of one-half year of education courses, including prac tice teaching, plus professional courses in one or more subjects commonly taught in secondary schools. Ten States require a fifth year of study or qualification for a master’s degree within a specified period following the teacher’s be ginning e m p l o y m e n t . Many school systems, especially in large cities, have requirements beyond those needed for State certifica tion. Some systems require ad ditional educational preparation, successful teaching exeperience, or special personal qualifications. College students preparing for secondary school teaching usually devote about one-third of the 4year course to their major, which may be in a single subject or a group of related subjects. About one-sixth of the time is spent in education courses— learning about children, the place of the school in the community, and materials and methods of instruc tion— including student teaching in an actual school situation. The remaining time is devoted to gen eral or liberal arts courses. Ac cepted teacher-preparation curriculums are offered by universi ties with schools of education, by colleges with strong education departments and adequate prac tice-teaching facilities, and by teachers’ colleges. Although certification require ments vary among the States, the person who is well prepared for secondary school teaching in one State usually has little trou ble meeting requirements in an other State. A well-qualified teacher ordinarily can obtain temporary certification in a State while preparing to meet its addi tional requirements. Qualified secondary school teachers may advance to depart ment heads, supervisors, assistant principals, principals, superin tendents, or other administrative officers as openings occur. At least 1 year of professional edu cation beyond the bachelor’s de gree and several years of success ful classroom teaching are re quired for most supervisory and administrative positions. Often, a doctorate is required for ap pointment as superintendent. Some experienced teachers are assigned as part- or full-time guidance counselors or as teach ers of handicapped or other spe cial groups of children. Usually, additional preparation and some times special certificates are re quired for these assignments. Probably the most important personal qualifications for sec ondary school teaching are an appreciation and understanding of adolescent children. Patience and self-discipline are desirable traits, as are high standards of personal conduct. In addition to an enthusiasm for the subjects they teach, a broad knowledge and appreciation of the arts, sci ences, history, and literature also are desirable. Civic, social, and recreational activities of teachers may be influenced, and some times restricted, by the customs and attitudes of their community. 200 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Em ploym ent O utlook About 1.2 million new second ary school teachers will be needed between 1968 and 1980 for en rollment growth and replacement of teachers who retire, marry, or leave the field for other reasons. The larger group, almost 90 per cent of the total, will be required for replacement. In addition, 34,000 will be needed to replace persons who do not meet certifi cation requirements. A slowing of enrollment growth in secondary schools is expected to be accompanied by a simul taneous increase in the number of college graduates trained for teaching. If the total number of degrees awarded increases as pro jected by the U.S. Office of Edu cation, and if the proportion of graduates prepared to teach in secondary schools continues through the 1970’s, about the same as in the past, the total number of new graduates avail able for secondary school teach ing positions will increase signi ficantly. In addition, many wom en who wish to reenter teaching after a period of full-time home making, will be available to fill teacher vacancies. Thus, it is likely that new graduates may face increasing competition for entry positions in secondary teaching. Young people planning to teach, therefore, are likely to find school boards placing much greater em phasis on the type and quality of an applicant’s professional training and academic perform ance. Even with an improvement in the supply situation, however, opportunities will be very favor able in some geographic areas and in subject fields such as the phys ical sciences, for which the de mand in private industry and government is also great. In addi tion, increased demands for teach ers trained in the education of chil dren who are mentally retarded or physically handicapped are ex pected. Considerable additional demand for teachers also may be generated by Federal legislation that provides for supplementary educational centers and services and the Teacher Corps. These extensive additions to present teaching services will be avail able to both public and private school children. Further specialized training may qualify many teachers who are prepared for secondary school teaching for positions in voca tional and technical schools and in junior colleges, where demand for teachers is expected to be especially great in future years. Earnings and W orking Conditions The average annual salary for all classroom teachers in public secondary schools was about $8,160 in 1968-69, according to estimates by the National Edu cation Association. In Alaska, California, Illinois, and Michigan, average salaries were $9,500 or more. The average was less than $6,200 in three States, Mississip pi, Alabama, and South Carolina. At the beginning of the 1968-69 academic year, 31 States had minimum teacher salary laws. Teachers of vocational educa tion, physical education, and other special subjects often re ceive higher salaries than other teachers. Under salary schedules in effect in most school systems, teachers in all subject fields get regular salary increases as they gain experience and additional education. Teachers’ salaries usually are lower in towns and small cities than in larger cities or suburbs, but higher educational and ex perience requirements are likely to prevail in large city school sys tems. On the average, salaries of principals in the largest cities, where administrative responsibil ities are great, are much higher than in towns and small cities. Salaries of superintendents are $30,000 or more in many large school systems. Teachers often add to their in comes by teaching in summer school, working as camp and rec reational counselors, or doing other work. Some teachers sup plement their incomes during the regular school year. They may teach in adult or evening classes, work part-time in business or industry, or write for publication. Some form of retirement is pro vided for most teachers. Nearly all school systems have some pro vision for sick leave, and an in creasing number grant other types of leave with pay. According to a recent survey, the average workweek of second ary school teachers is about 46 hours a week, of which 2 3 ^ hours are spent in classroom in struction and the remainder in out-of-class instruction and other duties. An increasing number of teachers is represented by pro fessional teacher associations or by unions that bargain collective* ly for them on wages, hours, and other conditions of employment. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on schools and certification requirem ents is available from the State depart ment of education at the State capital. Information on the Teacher Corps, internships, graduate fel lowships, and other information on teaching may be obtained from: U.S. Department of Health, Edu cation, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. Other sources of information are: 201 TEACHING American Federation of Teachers, 716 North Rush St., Chicago, 11 . 60611. 1 National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY TEACHERS (D.O.T. 090.168 and .228) N ature of the W ork About 600,000 teachers were employed in the Nation’s 2,500 colleges and universities in the fall of 1968. Approximately 286,000 were full-time teachers of degree credit courses; in addi tion, 142,000 taught such courses part-time. The remainder in cluded junior instructional staff (primarily graduate students), and staff who taught non-degree courses and gave instruction by television, radio, or mail. Most full-time college and uni versity teachers instruct in the social sciences, teacher educa tion, English and journalism, fine arts, mathematics, physical or biological sciences, engineer ing, or the health professions. Teaching duties may include preparing and delivering lectures, leading class discussions, direct ing graduate students in teaching freshman courses, preparing tests and instruction materials, coun seling and assisting individual students, and checking and grad ing assignments and tests. Grad ing sometimes is done by teach ing assistants or, for objective tests, by computers. In many 4year institutions, the usual teach ing load is 12 to 15 hours a week. Associate professors and full pro fessors— who advise graduate stu dents and often engage actively in research— may spend only 6 to 8 hours a week in actual class room work. In addition to teaching, many college teachers conduct or direct research, write for publication, or aid in college administration. Some act as consultants to busi ness, industrial, scientific, or gov ernment organizations. Places of Em ploym ent About nine-tenths of all fulland part-time teachers were em ployed by universities and 4-year colleges in 1968, most of the re mainder were in 2-year institu tions. Men predominate in college teaching and hold more than ninetenths of the positions in engi neering, the physical sciences, agriculture, and law. However, most teachers in nursing, home economics, and library science are women. College teachers are concen trated in the States having the largest college enrollments. In the fall of 1968, resident and ex tension enrollments exceeded 1.1 million in California and were over 700,000 in New York. Seven other States had enrollments of from 200,000 to 400,000; Illinois, Texas, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, Massachusetts, and Florida. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent To qualify for most beginning positions, applicants must have at least the master’s degree, and for many, they must have com pleted all requirements for the doctorate except the dissertation. A number of States require State certification to teach in public 2-year colleges. To obtain such a certificate, the master’s degree and certain courses in education are required. T o enter college teaching, spe cialization in some subject field is necessary. In addition, under- 202 graduate courses in the humani ties, social sciences, natural sciences, and the mastery of at least one foreign language are important. Intensive instruction in the selected field of specializa tion is given in graduate school. Outstanding graduate students receive valuable e x p e r i e n c e through part-time teaching assistantships. Some students develop teaching competence by partici pating in informal seminars or meetings on teaching methods. Some prospective college teach ers, especially those in education departments and junior colleges, gain experience in high school teaching. Most 4-year colleges and uni versities recognize four academic ranks: Instructor, assistant pro fessor, associate professor, and full professor. A National Educa tion Association survey indicates that about one-quarter of the teaching faculty are professors, another quarter associate profes sors, over 30 percent are assistant professors, and almost 20 percent are instructors or lecturers. Few institutions grant tenure (permanent appointment) to in structors having less than 3 years of service. Advancement to as sociate professorship generally requires considerable teaching experience and often a doctor’s degree. In some institutions, re search and publication also may be required. A doctor’s degree and 7 or more years of teaching experience usually are necessary to become a full professor. Out standing achievements, generally through research or publications, hastens advancement. Beginning teachers in fields that are in strong demand, such as engineering, mathematics, and medicine, sometimes are ap pointed at higher ranks than other teachers having comparable experience and education. A doc tor’s degree is particularly re OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK quired for advancement in the biological sciences, physical sci ences, psychology, social sciences, philosophy, and religion; it is least likely to be a requirement in business and commerce, engi neering, fine arts, health and physical education, and home economics. Fellowships are available under the National Defense Education Act to candidates for doctoral degrees who plan careers in col lege or university teaching. The Education Professions Develop ment Act of 1967 authorizes Federally supported fellowships for master’s degree study for those planning to enter or already engaged in teaching at two-year colleges, four-year colleges, and universities. E m ploym ent O utlook College teaching opportunities are expected to be good for those having doctoral degrees or having completed all requirements for the doctorate except the disserta tion. Opportunities also will be favorable for new entrants having the master’s degree, particularly in 2-year colleges. A great increase in college en rollment is in prospect. The num ber of young people in the 18- to 21-year age group is expected to rise by nearly 2.7 million between 1968 and 1980. At the same time, larger proportions of young people of college age will attend college — owing to rising family income, recent Federal legislation to help needy college students, and greater demand for college-train ed personnel. The anticipated in crease in the number of com munity colleges and schools of fering evening classes also will permit more young people and adults to attend college. If the proportion of young people at tending college continues to in crease and facilities are available, college enrollments for degree credit will increase from about 6.8 million in 1968 to about 10.2 million in 1980, according to the U.S. Office of Education. Taking all these factors into account, the Office of Education estimates that the full-time col lege teaching staff for resident degree credit courses will increase from 286,000 in 1968 to 394,000 in 1980, or by 38 percent. In addition to the teachers needed to take care of the enrollment growth, an annual average of about 8,200 teachers may be needed to replace those who re tire or die. The supply of new college teachers, which consists largely of students receiving graduate degrees, also is expected to grow. The U.S. Office of Education estimates that the number of doctorates conferred through 1980, will average about 37,000 a year, and the number of mas ter’s degrees about 235,000 an nually. It is difficult, however, to say how many of these will enter teaching. Industry, govern ment, and nonprofit organizations also offer employment opportuni ties to persons having graduate degrees, often at higher salaries than colleges. The supply and quality of col lege teachers may be improved in the years ahead by recent Federal legislation that makes fellowships available to qualifed graduate students, and junior members of the faculty who are interested in teaching in colleges and univer sities. Nevertheless the number of well-qualified persons available for teaching positions probably will continue to be insufficient to meet the demand in some subject fields through the 1970’s. TEACHING Earnings and W orking Conditions The median salary of full-time faculty who were engaged pri marily in teaching in 4-year in stitutions was estimated at $10,885 in 1968-69 (9 m o.), based on National Education As sociation data. Salaries generally were higher in universities than in colleges, and highest in large universities. Highest median sal aries were paid in the Far West and New England. Estimated median salaries by rank were: Professor ......... $15,713 Associate Professor.................. 12,151 Assistant Professor .................. 10,064 Instructor or Lecturer.............. 7,905 The median salary paid full time faculty in public 2-year col leges in 1968-69 was estimated at $9,605. Teachers in nonpublic 2year colleges received an esti mated median salary of $7,662. Faculty members who teach year round usually receive high er salaries than those employed for the academic year only. Teachers in professional schools (medicine, dentistry, etc.) and graduate schools generally re ceive higher salaries than teachers in other colleges. Some faculty members supple ment their regular salaries with earnings from a variety of sources. The chief source is additional teaching (often in summer ses 203 sions). Consulting work may be a major source of extra income, par ticularly in engineering and phy sical sciences; research grants are now common, especially in many large, well-known universities; fees for lecturing and royalties on publications are other possible sources of income. Opportunities for additional income usually in crease as the faculty member gains recognition. For most col lege teachers, additional income is small. Retirement plans differ con siderably among institutions, but an increasing number are partici pating in the Government social security program, often as an accompaniment to plans of their own. The greatest number of in stitutions have set 65 years as the normal retirement age, although most of these extend the age limit if desired. Many colleges and universities provide benefits such as: Sab batical leaves of absence— typi cally, 1 year’s leave with half salar or a half-year’s leave at full salary after 6 or 7 years of em ployment; other types of leave for advanced study; life, sickness, and accident insurance; reduced tuition charges or cash-tuition grants for children of faculty members; housing allowances; travel funds for attending pro fessional benefits. meetings; and other Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on college teach ing as a career is available from: U.S. Department of Health, Edu cation, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. American Association of Univer sity Professors, 1785 Massachu setts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Council on Education, 1785 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Federation of Teachers, 716 North Rush St., Chicago, 1 1 60611. 1. National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Professional societies in the various subject fields will gener ally provide information on teaching requirements and em ployment opportunities in their particular fields. Names and ad dresses of societies are given in the statements on specific professions elsewhere in the Handbook. T E C H N IC IA N O C C U P A T IO N S Technician occupations are growing rapidly, steming from the needs of an expanding and in creasingly technical economy and the growing recognition of the importance of technicians. This chapter is concerned with the technicians who work with engi neers and scientists, and with draftsmen, also usually con sidered technicians. Information on surveyors, often classified as technicians, and on technical occupations in the health field— including dental laboratory tech nicians, radiological technolo gists, and dental hygienists— is presented elsewhere in the Handbook. ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. .002 through .029) N ature of the W ork The term “ technician,” as used here, refers to workers whose jobs require both knowledge and use of scientific and mathemati cal theory; specialized education or training in some aspect of technology or science; and who, as a rule, work directly with sci entists and engineers. There is no generally accepted definition of the term “ technician” . For ex ample, it is used by employers to refer to workers in a great variety of jobs, requiring a wide range of education and training. The term is applied to employees doing relatively routine work, to per sons performing work requiring skills within a limited sphere, and to persons doing highly technical work, among them assistants to engineers and scientists. The workers’ job titles may be descriptive of their technical level (for example, biological aid, or engineering technician) or their work activity (for example), quality-control technician, pro duction analyst, tool designer, materials tester, or time-study analyst). Some employees use the word “ technician,” preceded by adjectives, such as mechanical, electrical, electronics, or chemi cal, which describes areas of technology in which their per sonnel are employed. The jobs of engineering and sci ence technicians are more limited than those of the professional engineer or scientist, and have a greater practical orientation. Many technician jobs require the ability to analyze and solve en gineering and science problems and to prepare formal reports on experiments, tests, or other proj ects. Most of these jobs require some aptitude in mathematics; others, the ability to visualize objects and to make sketches and drawings. Design jobs often re quire creative ability. Many technician jobs require some fa miliarity with one or more of the skilled trades, although not the ability to perform as a craftsman. Others demand extensive knowl edge of industrial machinery, tools, equipment, and processes. Some jobs held by these techicians are supervisory and require both technical knowledge and the ability to supervise people. In carrying out their assign ments, engineering and science technicians frequently use com plex electronic and mechanical in struments, experimental labora tory apparatus, and drafting in struments. Almost all of the tech nicians whose jobs are described in this statement must be able to use engineering handbooks and computing devices, such as the slide rule or calculating machine. Technician prepares radiation study. Technicians engage in virtually every aspect of engineering and scientific work. In research, devel opment, and design, one of the largest areas of employment, they conduct experiments or tests; set up, calibrate, and oper ate instruments; and make cal culations. They also assist sci entists and engineers in develop ing experimental equipment and models by making drawings and sketches and, under the engi neer’s direction, frequently do some design work. Technicians also work in jobs related to production, usually folby the engineer or scientist, but lowing a program course laid out often without close supervision. They may aid in the various phases of production operation, such as working out specifications for materials and methods of manufacture, devising tests to in205 206 sure quality control of products, or making time-and-motion studies (timing and analyzing the work er’s movements) designed to im prove the efficiency of a particu lar operation. They also may perform liaison work between en gineering and production or other departments. Technicians often do work that might otherwise have to be done by engineers. They may serve as technical sales or field repre sentatives of manufacturers; adise on installation and mainte nance problems; or write specifi cations and technical manuals. (See statement on Technical Writers.) The following sections describe a number of technological fields in which engineering and science technicians are trained and em ployed. Aeronautical Technology. Tech nicians specializing in this area of technology work with engineers and scientists in many phases of the design and production of air craft, helicopters, rockets, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Many aid engineers in preparing layouts of structures, control systems, or equipment installations by col lecting information, making cal culations, and performing many other tasks. They work on proj ects involving stress analysis, aerodynamics, structural design, flight test evaluation, or weight control. For example, under the direction of an engineer, a tech nician might estimate weight fac tors, centers of gravity, and other items affecting load capacity of an airplane or missile. Other tech nicians working on engineering projects prepare or check draw ings for technical accuracy, prac ticability, and economy. Technicians sometimes help to estimate the cost of the mate rials and labor needed to manu facture aircraft and missies. They also may be responsible for liai OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK son between the engineers who do the planning and development work, and the craftsmen who con vert the engineers’ ideas into fin ished products. For example, as an aircraft or missile is built, the liaison technician checks it for conformance to specifications, keeps the engineer informed as to progress, and investigates any production engineering problems that arise. He sometimes recom mends minor changes in the de sign, the materials, or the method of fabrication. Other aeronautical technicians are employed as manufacturer’s field service representatives, serv ing as the link between their com pany and the military, commer cial airlines, and other customers. Technicians often prepare in struction manuals, bulletins, catalogs, and other technical ma terials. (See statements on Aero space Engineers and Airplane Mechanics, and chapter on Occu pations in Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Manufacturing.) Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Technology. Airconditioning technology involves the control of air including its heating, cooling, humidity, clean liness, and movement. Techni cians in this field often become specialists in one area of work, such as refrigeration, and some times in a particular type of ac tivity, such as research and de velopment or design of layouts for heating, cooling, or refrigera tion systems. In the manufacture of air-con ditioning, heating, and refrigera tion equipment, technicians work in research and engineering de partments, usually as aids to en gineers and scientists. They may be assigned to such jobs as devis ing methods for testing equip ment or analyzing production methods. Technically trained per sonnel also assist in designing the air-conditioning, heating, or re frigeration systems for a partic ular office, store, or other loca tion and prepare instructions for their installation. In designing the layout for an air-conditioning or heating system, they must de termine the cooling or heating requirements, decide what kind of equipment is most suitable, and estimate costs. Technicians employed as salesmen by equip ment manufacturers must be able to supply contractors who design and install systems with informa tion on such technical subjects as installation, maintenance, operat ing costs, and expected perform ance of equipment. (See also statement on Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Mechanics.) Chemical Technology. Techni cians specializing in this area work mainly with chemists and chemical engineers in the develop ment, production, sale, and utili zation of chemical and related products and equipment. The field of chemistry is so broad that chemical technicians often be come specialists in the problems of a particular industry, such as food processing, or in a partic ular activity such as quality control. Most chemical technicians work in research and develop ment, testing, or other labora tory work. They conduct experi ments and tabulate and analyze the results. In testing work, tech nicians make chemical tests of materials to determine whether the materials meet specifications or whether particular substances are present and, if so, in what quantities. They may, for exam ple, analyze steel for carbon, phosphorous, and sulfur content, or water for the amount of silica, iron, and calcium present. They also perform experiments to de termine the characteristics of sub stances such as the specific grav ity and ash content of oil. Tech nicians employed in research or 207 TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS testing laboratories often assem ble and use such apparatus and instruments as dilatometers (which measure the dilation or expansion of a substance), analy tical balances, and centrifuges. Outside the laboratory, chemi cal technicians are sometmes em ployed to supervise various opera tions in the production of chemi cal products and as technical salesman of chemicals and chemi cal equipment. (See also state ments on Chemists and Chemical Engineers, and chapter on Occu pations in the Industrial Chemi cal Industry.) for example, induction or dielec tric heating, servomechanisms, automation controls, or ultra sonics. Technicians working with engi neers and scientists in the field of electronics do complex techni cal work that is more difficult than routine operating and repair work. (For additional information Civil Engineering Technology. Technicians trained in this area assist civil engineers in perform ing many of the tasks necessary in the planning and construction of highways, railroads, bridges, viaducts, dams, and other struc tures. During the planning stage, technicians may help to estimate costs, to prepare specifications for materials, or participate in sur veying, drafting, detailing, or de signing work. Once the actual construction work has begun, they may assist the contractor or superintendent in scheduling construction activities or inspect ing the work to assure conform ance to bluepnrints and specifi cations. (See also statements on Civil Engineers, Draftsmen, and Surveyors.) Electronics Technology. This field includes radio, radar, sonar, telemetering, television, tele phony, and other forms of com munication; industrial and med ical measuring, recording, indicat ing, and controlling devices; navi gational equipment; missile and spacecraft guidance and control instruments; electronic comput ers; and many other types of equipment ^using vacuum tubes, transistors, semiconductors, and printed circuits. Because the field is so broad, technicians generally become specialist in one area— Engineering technician conducts heavy load test. 208 on broadcast technicians see chapter on Occupations in Radio and Television Broadcasting.) Industrial Production Tech nology. Technicians trained in this area are sometimes called industrial technicians or produc tion technicians. They assist in dustrial engineers on problems involving the efficient use of per sonnel materials and machines in the production of goods or services. Their work includes pre paring layouts of machinery and equipment, planning the flow of work, and making statistical stu dies and analyses of production costs. The industrial technician also may conduct time-and-motion studies. In the course of their duties, many industrial technicians ac quire experience which enables them to qualify for other jobs. For example, those expert in ma chinery and production methods may move into the field of indus trial safety. Others who specialize in job analysis may become in volved in the setting of job stand ards and in the interviewing, testing, hiring, and training of personnel. Still others may move into production supervision. (See statements on Personnel Workers and Industrial Engineers.) Mechanical Technology. Me chanical technology is a broad term usually used to cover a large number of specialized fields, in cluding automotive technology, diesel technology, tool design, machine design, and production technology. Technicians in the above areas of mechanical technology often assist engineers in design and de velopment work by making free hand sketches and rough layouts of proposed machinery and other equipment and parts. They help to determine whether a proposed design change in a product is practical and how much the prod uct will cost to produce. They OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK also may be required to solve de sign problems such as those in volving tolerance, stress, strain, friction, and vibration. The planning and testing of ex perimental machines and equip ment for performance, durability, and efficiency provide a large area of work for technicians. In the testing procedure, they re cord data, make computations, plot graphs, analyze results, and write reports. They sometimes make recommendations for de sign changes to improve perform ance. Their jobs often require skill in the use of instruments, test equipment and gages, such as dynamometers, as well as the ability to prepare and interpret drawings. Some mechanical technicians are employed in manufacturing departments to help develop plans for testing and inspecting machines and equipment, or to work with engineers in eliminat ing production problems. Some obtain jobs as technical salesmen. (See statements on Mechanical Engineers, Automobile Mechan ics, Manufacturers’ Salesmen, and Diesel Mechanics.) One of the better known spe cialties which may be grouped under mechanical engineering technology is that of tool de signer. The tool designer designs tools and devices for the mass production of manufactured arti cles. He originates and prepares sketches of the designs for cutting tools, jigs, dies, special fixtures, and other attachments used in machine operations. He also may make detailed drawings of these tools and fixtures or supervise others in making them. Besides developing new tools, designers frequently redesign tools to im prove their efficiency. Machine drafting, with some designing, is another major area of work often grouped under me chanical technology. The work of technicians who are draftsmen is described elsewhere in this chapter. Some mechanical technicians are employed in manufacturing departments to help develop plans for testing and inspecting machines and equipment, or to work with engineers in eliminat ing production problems. Some obtain jobs as technical sales men. (See statements on M e chanical Engineers, Automobile Mechanics, Manufacturers’ Sales men, and Diesel Mechanics.) As industry becomes increas ingly mechanized, new technical occupations continue to emerge. For example, instrumentation technology has evolved from the introduction of automatic con trols and precision-measuring devices in manufacturing opera tions. In industrial plants and laboratories, instruments are used to record data, to control and regulate the operation of ma chinery, and to measure time, weight, temperature, speeds of moving parts, mixtures, volume, flow, strain, and pressure. Tech nicians in this field work with engineers and scientists who de velop and design these highly complex devices, as well as with those who use them for research and development work. (See also statement on Instrument Mak ers.) Another new area of work for technicians, which has resulted from recognition of the need for a more scientific approach tow ard the reduction of industrial hazards, is safety technology. In the rapidly growing atomic en ergy field, in particular, techni cians work with scientists and engineers on problems of radia tion safety, inspection, and de contamination. (See chapter on Occupations in the Atomic En ergy Field.) TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS Places of E m ploym ent An estimated 620,000 engineer ing and science technicians, not including draftsmen and survey ors, were employed in 1968— about 11 percent were women. Nearly 450,000 of these tech nicians (more than 7 out of 10) were employed by private indus try. The manufacturing industries employing the largest numbers of engineering and science tech nicians were electrical equipment, chemicals, machinery, and aero space. In the nonmanufacturing sector, large numbers of techni cians were employed in the com munications industry and by en gineering and architectural firms. In 1968, the Federal Govern ment employed approximately 85,000 engineering and science technicians; chiefly as engineer ing aids and technicians, elec tronic technicians, equipment specialists, cartographic aids, me teorological technicians, and physical science technicians. Of these engineering and science technicians, the largest number worked for the Department of Defense. Most of the others were employed by the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, and the Interior. State Government agencies em ployed over 40,000 engineering and science technicians in 1968 and local governments over 10,000. The remainder were em ployed by colleges and universi ties, mostly in university-oper ated research institutes, and by nonprofit organizations. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Young men and women who wish to prepare for careers as engineering or science technicians can obtain the necessary training from a great variety of educa 209 tional institutions or can qualify for their work right on the job. Most employers, however, seek workers who have had some form of specialized training for more responsible technician jobs. Spe cialized formal training programs are offered in post-secondary schools— technical institutes, ju nior and community colleges, area vocational technical schools, and extension divisions of colleges and universities— as well as in tech nical and technical-vocational high schools. Other ways in which persons can become qualified for technician jobs are by completing an on-the-job training program, through work experience and for mal courses taken on a part-time basis in post-secondary or corres pondence schools, or through training and experience obtained while serving in the Armed Forces. In addition, many engi neering and science students who have not completed all the re quirements for a bachelor’s de gree, as well as some other per sons having a college education in mathematics and science, are able to qualify for technician jobs after they obtain some additional technical training and experience. In general, post-secondary school technical training is required for a growing number of engineering and science technician jobs. Engineering and science tech nicians usually begin work as trainees or in the more routine positions under the direct super vision of an experienced techni cian, scientist, or engineer. As they gain experience, they are given more responsibility, often carrying out a particular assign ment under only general super vision. Technicians may move in to supervisory positions. Those having exceptional ability some times obtain additional formal education and are promoted to professional engineering positions. For admittance to most schools offering post-secondary techni cian training, a high school diplo ma is usually required. Some schools, however, admit students without a high school diploma if they are able to pass special ex aminations and otherwise dem onstrate their ability to perform work above the high school level. All engineering and science oc cupations require basic training in mathematics and science, thus students should obtain a sound background in these subjects when in high school. Many post secondary schools have arrange ments for helping students make up deficiencies in these subjects. Programs offered by schools specializing in post-high school technical training require 1, 2, 3, or 4 years of full-time study. The majority are 2-year programs, leading to either an associate of arts or science degree. Evening as well as day sessions are gen erally available. The courses of fered in science, mathematics, and engineering are usually at the college level. They include instruction in laboratory tech niques and the use of instru ments, and emphasize the prac tical problems met on the job. Students also are instructed in the use of machinery and tools to give them a familiarity with this equipment rather than to develop skills. Some 4-year bachelor’s degree programs in technology place ad ditional emphasis on courses in the humanities and business ad ministration than the 2-year pro grams, while other 4-year pro grams emphasize additional tech nical training. Because of the variety of edu cational institutions and the dif ferences in the kind and level of education and training, persons seeking a technical education should use more than ordinary care in selecting a school. In formation should be secured OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 210 about the fields of technology in which training is offered, accredi tation, the length of time the school has been in operation, in structional facilities, faculty qual ifications, transferability of cred its toward the bachelor’s degree, and the type of work obtained by the school’s graduates. Briefly discussed here are some of the types of post-secondary educational institutions and other sources where young people can obtain training as technicians. Technical Institutes. Techni cal institutes offer training de signed to qualify the graduate for a specifc job or cluster of jobs immediately upon graduation with only a minimum of on-thejob training. In general, the stu dent receives intensive technical training but less theoretical and general education than is pro vided in curriculums leading to a bachelor’s degree in engineering and liberal arts colleges. A few technical institutes and commu nity colleges offer cooperative programs in which a student spends part of his time in school and part in paid employment related to the occupation for which he is preparing himself. Some technical institutes are operated as regular or extension divisions of colleges and univer sities. Others are separate insti tutions operated by States or municipalities, privately endowed institutions, and proprietary schools. Junior Colleges and Commun ity Colleges. Many junior and community colleges offer the nec essary training to prepare stu dents for technician occupations. Some of these schools offer cur riculums that are similar to those given in the freshman and sopho more years of 4-year colleges. Graduates can transfer the junior year into a 4-year college or qualify for some technician jobs. Most large community colleges offer 2-year technical programs, and many employers express a preference for graduates having this more specialized training. Junior college courses in techni cal fields are often planned around the employment needs of the industries in their locality. Area Voc ational-Technical Schools. Area vocational-techni cal schools are post-secondary public institutions that are estab lished in central locations to serve students from several surround ing areas. In general, the admis sion requirements of vocationaltechnical schools are as rigid as those of other schools offering post-secondary technician train ing. Area school curriculums are usually designed to train the types of technicians most needed in the area. Other Training. Some large corporations conduct training programs to meet their need for technically trained personnel. This type of training is primarily technical and rarely includes any general studies. Training for some occupations in the technician category— tool designer and electronic techni cian, for example— may be ob tained through a formal appren ticeship. Correspondence schools provide technician training for those who wish to learn more about their jobs. Technician training is offered by all branches of the Armed Forces. Many of the technicians trained by the military utilize their training in civilian employ ment, especially in the field of electronics, after they leave the Armed Forces. Em ploym ent Outlook Employment opportunities for engineering and science techni cians are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. The de mand will be strongest for grad uates of post-secondary school technician training programs. Among the factors underlying the increase in demand for tech nicians are the anticipated ex pansion of industry and the in creasing complexity of modern technology. As products and the methods by which they are manu factured become more complex, increasing numbers of technicians will probably be required to as sist engineers in such activities as production planning, main taining liaison between produc tion and engineering depart ments, and technical sales work. Furthermore, as the employment of scientists and engineers contin ues to grow, increasing numbers of technicians will be needed to assist them. The trend toward automation of industrial process es and the growth of new areas of work, such as that related to space exploration or atomic energy, will probably also add to the demand for technical person nel. In addition to the technicians needed to fill new positions, an average of about 32,000 will be needed each year through the 1970’s to replace those who re tire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Another factor supporting the expected increase in demand for engineering and science techni cians is the growth anticipated in research and development ex penditures. These expenditures have increased rapidly in recent years and are expected to con tinue to rise through the 1970’s, although somewhat more slowly than in the past. Expeditures for the defense and space programs also affect the demand for tech nical personnel because a large number are engaged in activities related to the defense and space programs. The above outlook for technicians is based on the as- 211 TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS sumption that defense activity (as measured by expenditures) in the late 1970’s will be some what higher than the level prior to the Viet Nam buildup, ap proximating the level of the early 1960’s. If defense activity should differ substantially from that level, the demand for technicians would be affected accordingly. Well-qualified women techninicians should continue to find favorable employment opportuni ties, chiefly in designing jobs, in chemical and other laboratory work, and in computation and other work requiring the appli cation of mathematics. Over the longrun, it is likely that more women will be trained and will find employment in these and other technician occupations. annual salaries above $10,500 ac cording to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey. Earnings Information on training oppor tunities may also be obtained from the Engineers’ Council for Professional Development, a na tionally recognized accrediting agency for engineering technology programs; the National Council of Technical Schools; and the U.S. Department of Health, Edu cation, and Welfare, Office of Education, Division of Higher Education and/or Division of V o cational and Technical Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. State departments of education at each State capital also have information about approved tech nical institutes, junior colleges, and other educational institutions within the State offering posthigh school training for specific technical occupations. Other sources include: In general, a technician’s earn ings depend upon his education and technical specialty, as well as his ability and work experi ence. Other important factors which influence his earnings are the type of firm for which he works, his specific duties, and the geographic location of his job. In Federal Government agen cies in late 1968, beginning engi neering and science technicians were offered $4,600, $5,145 or $5,732, depending upon the type of job vacancy and the applicant’s education and other qualifica tions. Some Federal Government agencies hire high school grad uates and train them for techni cian jobs. Beginning salaries for these jobs are $4,231 a year. Most technicians can look for ward to an increase in earnings as they move to higher positions. In 1968 annual salaries of work ers in responsible technician posi tions in private industry averaged almost $9,800 and approximately one-fourth of the workers had Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n General information on careers for engineering and science tech nicians may be obtained from: American Society for Engineering Education, 2100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. Engineers’ Council for Profession al Development, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. National Council of Technical Schools, 1835 K. Street, NW., Room 907, Washington, D.C. 20006. American Association of Junior Colleges, 1315 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. DRAFTSMEN (D.O.T. 001. through 019.) N ature of th e W ork In making a space capsule or an electric iron, a nuclear sub marine or a television set, a bridge or a typewriter, detailed draw ings are needed that give the ex act physical dimensions and spec ifications of the entire object and each of its parts. The workers who draw these plans are draftsmen. Draftsmen translate the ideas, rough sketches, specifications, and calculations of engineers, architects, and designers into working plans which are used in making a product. Draftsmen may calculate the strength, reli ability, and cost of materials. In their drawings and specifications, they describe exactly what mate rials and process workers are to use on a particular job. To pre- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 212 pare their drawings, draftsmen use instruments such as com passes, dividers, protractors, and triangles, as well as machines that combine the functions of several devices. They also may use engi neering handbooks and tables to assist in solving technical prob lems. Draftsmen are often classified according to the type of work they do or their level of respon sibility. Senior draftsmen use the preliminary information provided by engineers and architects to prepare design “ ’layouts” (draw ings made to scale of the object to be built). Detailers make drawings of each part shown on the layout, giving dimensions, material, and any other informa tion necessary to make the de tailed drawing clear and com plete. Checkers carefully examine drawings for errors in computing or in recording dimensions and specifications. Under the super vision of draftsmen, tracers make minor corrections and prepare drawings for reproduction by tracing them on transparent cloth, paper, or plastic film. Draftsmen also may specialize in a particular field of work, such as mechanical, electrical, elec tronic, aeronautical, structural, and architectural drafting. Places of E m ploym ent An estimated 295,000 drafts men were employed in 1968; al most 4 percent were women. The large majority of draftsmen— about 9 out of 10— are employed in private industry. The manu facturing industries that employ large numbers of draftsmen are the machinery, electrical equip ment, transportation equipment and fabricated metal prod ucts industries. Nonmanufactur ing industries employing large numbers of draftsmen are engi neering and architectural consult ing firms, construction compa nies and public utilities. About 22,000 draftsmen worked for Federal, State, and local gov ernments in 1968. Of those em ployed by the Federal Govern ment, the large majority work for the Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Draftsmen employed by State and local gov ernments work chiefly for high way and public works depart ments. Several thousand drafts men are employed by colleges and universities and by nonprofit organizations. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Young persons interested in be coming draftsmen can acquire the necessary training from a number of sources, including technical institutes, junior and community colleges, extension di visions of universities, vocational and technical high schools, and correspondence schools. Other persons may qualify for drafts men jobs through on-the-job training programs combined with part-time schooling or through 3or 4-year apprenticeship pro grams. The prospective draftsman’s training, whether obtained in high school or post-high school drafting programs, should include courses in mathematics and phy sical sciences, as well as in me chanical drawing and drafting. The study of shop practices and the learning of some shop skills also are helpful, since many high er level drafting jobs require knowledge of manufacturing or construction methods. Many technical schools offer courses in structural design, strength of ma terials, and physical metallurgy. Young people having only high school drafting training usually start out as tracers. Those having some formal post-high school technical training can often qualify as junior draftsmen. As draftsmen gain skill and experi ence, they may advance to higher level positions as checkers, de tailers, senior draftsmen, or su pervisors of other draftsmen. Some may become independent designers. Furthermore, some draftsmen who take courses in engineering and mathematics are able to transfer to engineering positions. Qualifications for success as a draftsman include the ability to visualize objects in three dimen sions and to do freehand drawing. Although artistic ability is not generally required, it may be very helpful in some specialized fields. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for draftsmen are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. Prospects will be best for those having post-high school draft ing training. Well-qualified high school graduates who have had only high school drafting, how ever, also will be in demand for some types of jobs. Employment of draftsmen is ex pected to rise rapidly as a result of the increasing complex design problems of modem products and processes. In addition, as growth of engineering and scientific oc cupations continues, more drafts men will be needed as supporting personnel. On the other hand, photoreproduction of drawings and expanding use of electronic drafting equipment are eliminat ing some routine tasks done by draftsmen and will probably bring about a reduction in the need for some less skilled draftsmen. In addition to draftsmen needed to fill new positions, many will be required each year to re- 213 TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS place those who retire, die, or move into other fields of work. Earnings In private industry, persons in beginning drafting positions earned an average of about $410 a month in mid 1968, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey. As they gain experience, draftsmen may move up to higher level positions with a substanial increase in earnings. For exam ple, the earnings of senior drafts men averaged about $630 a month in mid 1968. In the Federal Civil Service in late 1968, the entrance salary for high school graduates without work experience who were em ployed in trainee-draftsman po sitions was about $350 a month. For those having post-high school education or some experience in drafting, entrance salaries were higher. The majority of experi enced draftsmen working for the Federal Government earned be tween $525 and $640 a month in late 1968. Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information on careers for draftsmen may be obtained from: American Institute for Design and Drafting, 305 South Andrews Avenue, Suite 610, Fort Lauder dale, Florida 33301. American Federation of Technical Engineers, 1126 16th Street, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. See also section on Sources of Additional Information in the statement on Engineering and Science Technicians. W R IT IN G O C C U P A T IO N S ments, sell subscriptions, and per form general office work. Places of Em ploym ent NEWSPAPER REPORTERS (D.O.T. 132.268) N ature of the W ork Newspaper reporters gather in formation on current events and write stories for publication in daily or weekly newspapers. In covering events, they may inter view people, review public rec ords, attend news happenings, and do research. As a rule, re porters take brief notes while collecting the facts, and write their stories upon return to the office. Sometimes, to meet dead lines, they telephone their stories to other staff members known as “ rewrite men,” who write the stories for them. Large dailies frequently assign some reporters to “ beats,” such as police stations or the courts, to cover news originating in these places. Other local news, such as a story about a lost child or an obituary of a community leader, is handled by general assignment reporters. Specialized reporters, who are well-versed in a subject matter field as well as in writing increasingly are interpreting and analyzing the news in fields such as medicine, politics, science, education, business, labor, and religion. Reporters on small news papers get broad experience; they not only cover all aspects of local news, but also may take photo graphs, write headlines, lay out inside pages, and even write edi torials. On the smallest weeklies, they also may solicit advertise- An estimated 37,000 newspa per reporters were employed in the United States in 1968. The majority worked for daily news papers; most of the others worked for weekly papers. In addition, some reporters were employed by press services and newspaper syndicates. Reporters work in cities and towns of all sizes throughout the country. Of the 1,750 daily and 9,000 weekly newspapers, the great majority are in mediumsize towns. Large numbers of re porters, however, are in cities, since big city dailies employ many reporters, whereas a small town paper generally employs only a few. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Although talented writers who have little or no academic train ing beyond high school sometimes become reporters on city news papers, most reporters without college training begin— and usu ally remain— on rural small-town, or suburban papers. Most news papers will consider only appli cants having a college education, and graduate work is increasingly important. Some editors prefer graduates who have a degree in journalism, which usually pro vides a liberal arts education, as well as professional training. Other editors consider a degree in liberal arts as equally desirable. Professional studies leading to a bachelor’s degree in journalism can be obtained in more than 150 colleges; about two-thirds of these have separate departments or schools of journalism. The typ ical undergraduate journalism curriculum is offered during the 215 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 216 junior and senior years of college, and is divided about equally be tween cultural and professional subjects. Among the professional courses are reporting, copyread ing, editing, feature writing, and the history of journalism. The master’s degree in journal ism is awarded by 47 schools; 12 of them offer the doctor’s degree. Young people who wish to pre pare for newspaper work through a liberal arts curriculum should take English courses that include writing, as well as subjects such as sociology, political science, economics, history, psychology, and speech. Reading and conver sational ability in a foreign lan guage and some familiarity with mathematics also are desirable. Those who look forward to be coming technical writers, or re porters in a special field such as science, should concentrate on course work in their subject mat ter areas to the maximum extent possible. (See statement on Tech nical Writers.) The Armed Forces also provide some training in journalism. The Navy maintains a School of Jour nalism at Navy Training Center, Great Lakes, Illinois. Summer internships on news papers that provide college stu dents an opportunity to learn the rudiments of reporting or editing are available from the Newspaper Fund and individual newspapers. In addition to many loan programs, over 3,700 jour nalism scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships were offered in 1969 by universities, news papers, and professional organi zations. Many beginners work on week ly or small daily newspapers. Some college graduates are hired as general assignment reporters; others start on large city papers as copy editors. Beginning report ers usually are assigned to minor news events such as reporting on civic and club meetings, summar izing speeches, writing obituaries, interviewing important visitors to the community, and covering po lice court proceedings. As they gain experience, they may report more important developments, cover an assigned “ beat,” or spe cialize in a particular field of knowledge. Newspapermen also may advance to reporting for larger papers or for press services and newspaper syndicates. Some experienced reporters become columnists, correspondents, edi tors, top executives, or publish ers; these positions represent the top of the field and competition for them is keen. Other reporters transfer to related fields such as writing for magazines, or prepar ing copy for radio and television news reports. In competing for regular posi tions, it is helpful to have had experience as a “ stringer” — one who covers the news in a partic ular area of the community for a newspaper and is paid on the basis of the stories printed. Ex perience on a high school or col lege newspaper also may be help ful in obtaining employment. Personal characteristics of im portance are a “ nose for news,” curiosity, persistence, initiative, resourcefulness, an accurate memory, and the physical stam ina necessary for an active and often fast-paced life. Skill in typ ing generally is required since reporters usually must type their own news stories. On small pa pers, a knowledge of news photog raphy also is valuable. Em ploym ent O utlook Well-qualified beginners with exceptional writing talent will find good employment opportuni ties through the 1970’s. In early 1969 editors of large newspapers were actively seeking young re porters with exceptional talent. Other beginners, however, were facing competition for jobs, es pecially on large city dailies, and probably will continue to do so. In addition to seeking young re porters with exceptional talent, editors also were looking for re porters who were qualified to handle news about highly spe cialized or technical subjects. Weekly or daily newspapers lo cated in small towns and subur ban areas will continue to offer the most opportunities for begin ners entering newspaper report ing. Openings arise on these papers as young people gain ex perience and transfer to reporting jobs on larger newspapers or to other types of work. Moreover, the number of newspapers in suburban areas is increasing, and many of the existing ones are expanding their staffs to satisfy the need for more detailed com munity news. Preference in em ployment on small papers is likely to be given to beginning reporters who are able to help with photog raphy and other specialized as pects of newspaper work and are acquainted with the community. Large city dailies will provide some openings for the inexperi enced with good educational backgrounds and a flair for writ ing to enter as reporter trainees. Some opportunities may continue to be available for young people who enter as copy boys and ad vance to reporting jobs. In addition to jobs in news paper reporting, new college grad uates who have journalism train ing may enter related fields such as advertising, public relations, trade and technical publishing, radio, and television. The broad field of mass communication, which has grown rapidly in recent years, will continue to expand in the future. Factors pointing to ward this continuing expansion include rising levels of education 217 WRITING OCCUPATIONS and income; increasing expendi tures for newspaper, radio, and television advertising; and a growing number of trade and technical journals and various types of company publications. As newspapers share in this growth, employment of reporters is expected to increase moderate ly. Many job opportunities will be found in teaching journalism. The greatest number of job openings, more than a thousand each year, will continue to arise from the need to replace reporters who are promoted to editorial or other positions, transfer to other fields of work, retire, or leave the pro fession for other reasons. Earnings and W orking Conditions Many daily newspapers have negotiated, with the American Newspaper Guild, contracts which set minimum wages based on ex perience and provide for annual salary increases. In late 1968, the minimum starting salaries on most daily newspapers with Guild contracts ranged between $95 and $125 a week for reporters having no previous experience. On a few small dailies, the Guild mini mum starting salaries were less than $80 a week; on a few large dailies, Guild minimum rates for beginning reporters exceeded $140 a week. Young people work ing as copy boys earn less than new reporters; minimum Guild rates for copy boys with some ex perience ranged from about $60 to $100 a week. On most dailies, minimum Guild rates for reporters who have some experience (usually for those with 4 to 6 years) ranged from $150 to $200 a week in late 1968. Contract minimums for experienced reporters on a few small dailies were less than $140 a week; on a few large dailies, they were over $200 a week. Papers under Guild con tracts often pay salaries higher than the minimum rates called for in their contracts. Particu larly successful, experienced re porters on city dailies may earn over $300 a week. Newspaper reporters on big city papers frequently work 7 to iy<z hours a day, 5 days a week; most other reporters generally work an 8-hour day, 40-hour week. Many of those employed by morning papers start work in the afternoon and finish about midnight. Many newspapers pay overtime rates for work per formed after the regularly sched uled workday, or for more than 40 hours of work a week; they often provide various employee benefits such as paid vacations, group insurance, and pension plans. American Council on Education for Journalism, School of Jour nalism, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65201. Association for Education In Jour nalism, 425 Henry Mall, Uni versity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. Sigma Delta Chi, 35 East Wacker Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60601. Names and locations of daily newspapers and a list of depart ments and schools of journalism are published in the Editor and Publisher International Year book, available in most large newspaper libraries. offices and public TECHNICAL WRITERS (D.O.T. 139.288) Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information about opportunities with daily newspapers may be obtained from: American Newspaper Publishers Association, 750 Third Ave., New York, N.Y., 10017. Information on opportunities in the newspaper field, as well as a list of scholarships, fellowships, assistantships, and loans avail able at colleges and universities, may be obtained from: The Newspaper Fund, Inc., Box 300, Princeton, N.J. 08540. Theta Sigma Phi, 106 Lantern Lane, Austin, Texas 78731. Information on union rates is available from: wage American Newspaper Guild, Re search Department, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. General information on jour nalism opportunities may be ob tained from: N atu re of the W ork The many technical and scien tific developments of recent years have created a growing demand for writers skilled in interpreting these developments. The techni cal writer organizes, writes, and edits material about science and technology so that it is in a form most useful to those who need to use it— be it a technician or repairman, a scientist or engi neer, an executive, or a housewife. When writing for the nonspecial ist, he must present his mate rial in a simple, clear, and factual manner; for the specialist, he must include technological de tail, using a highly specialized vocabulary. Regardless of what kind of writing he does, the tech nical writer serves to establish easy communication between sci entists, engineers, and other technical specialists, and the users of their information. 218 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK may work with technical illustra tors, draftsmen, or photographers. Places of Em ploym ent About 30,000 technical writers and editors were employed in 1968. Most technical writers are employed in the electronics and aerospace industries. Many work for research and development firms or for the Federal Govern ment— mainly in the Depart ments of Defense and Agriculture the Atomic Energy Commission, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Some work in firms that specialize in tech nical writing. Others are in busi ness for themselves as freelance technical writers. Technical writers are employed all over the country, but primar ily in the Northeastern States, Texas, and California. They are concentrated in the Washington, D.C., Los Angeles-Long Beach, Houston, Fort Worth-Dallas, Chicago, New York, Boston, St. Louis, Kansas City, Denver, and Philadelphia metropolitan areas. The technical writer’s product takes many forms, such as a pub licity release on a company’s sci entific or technical ahchievement or a manufacturer’s contract pro posal to the Federal Government. It may be a manual that explains how to operate, assemble, disas semble, maintain, or overhaul components of a missile system or a home appliance. Technical writers also write for scientific and engineering periodicals and for popular magazines. Technical writers, as defined in this statement, include only those people primarily employed to in terpret, write about, or edit tech nical or scientific subject matter. It excludes those primarily em ployed as scientist, engineers, or other technical specialists who also do a considerable amount of writing. Before starting a writing as signment, a technical writer usu ally must research his subject. This process involves studying re ports, reading technical journals, and consulting with the engi neers, scientists, and other tech nical personnel who have worked on the project. Then he prepares a rough draft that may be revised several times before it is in final form. Technical writers usually arrange for the preparation of tables, charts, illustrations, and other artwork, and in so doing Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The bachelor’s degree is the desirable minimum entrance re quirement for work in this field, although talented and experi enced writers having less aca demic training may qualify. Em ployers do not agree on the most appropriate kind of college train ing needed by technical writers, but graduates usually must have a combination of courses in writ ing and scientific and technical subjects. Some employers prefer applicants who have degrees in engineering or science who have had courses in writing. Others seek graduates who majored in English or journalism and have taken some courses in scientific 219 WRITING OCCUPATIONS and technical subjects. Regard less of the college training they prefer, all employers place great emphasis on writing skills. An increasing number of schools offer formal undergradu ate programs leading to a bache lor’s degree in technical writing or technical journalism. Some schools now offer graduate work and degrees in the field. In addi tion, about 170 colleges and uni versities provide professional edu cation leading to a bachelor’s degree in journalism; most of these offer at least one course in technical writing or technical journalism as part of the regular curriculum. Liberal arts colleges and some engineering schools of fer English and other courses that sharpen writing skills. Many col leges and universities conduct short-term summer workshops and seminars for technical writers. When still in high school young people who plan to become tech nical writers should supplement the required science and math ematics courses with as many elective courses in grammar and composition as possible. They also may gain helpful experience by working as editors or writers for their school papers. In addition to the ability to write well, technical writers must be able to think logically. They should have an interest in scien tific and technological develop ments and be able to work and communicate well with others. Beginners often assist experi enced technical writers by doing library research, by editing, and by preparing drafts of portions of reports. Experienced writers in organizations that have large technical writing staffs may be come technical editors or progress to supervisory and administrative positions. After gaining experi ence and contacts, a few may open their own job shops. It also is possible to advance by becoming a specialist in a particular scientific or technical subject. These writers sometimes prepare syndicated newspaper columns or articles for popular magazines. Em ploym ent O utlook Well-qualified and experienced technical writers are expected to find very good employment op portunities through the 1970’s. Beginners who have good writing ability and appropriate education also should find many opportu nities; those who have minimum qualifications will find stiff com petition for jobs. The greatest de mand probably will be for techni cal writers with backgrounds in electronics and communications to work in the aerospace and re lated industries, particularly in research and development ac tivities. The employment of technical writers is expected to increase moderately during the 1970’s be cause of the need to put the in creasing volume of scientific and technical information into lan guage that can be understood by management for decisionmaking and by technicians for operating and maintaining complicated in dustrial equipment. Also, since many products will continue to be assembled from components manufactured by different com panies, technical writers will be in demand to describe, in simple terms, the interrelationships of these components. The growth in this occupation also will be ac celerated by the need for im proved and simplified operating and maintenance instructions for new consumer products . The demand for technical writ ers will continue to be related to research and development ex penditures. These expenditures are expected to remain at high levels in the aerospace industry and to increase somewhat in medical and other fields. Technical writers who have training in journalism also will find opportunities in other fields that employ writers, such as ad vertising, public relations, trade publishing, and radio and tele vision broadcasting. In addition to new opportunities resulting from the moderate growth ex pected in this profession, hun dreds of technical writers will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1968, inexperienced techni cal writers having bachelor’s de grees were hired in private in dustry at starting salaries rang ing from $5,000 to $7,000 a year; those who have moderate experi ence earned from $7,000 to $10,000 a year; highly experienced writers earned from $11,000 to $15,000; and those in supervisory and management positions, up to $20,000. Differences in the earn ings of experienced writers de pended not only on their ability and prior experience, but also on factors such as the type, size, and location of their employing firms. Earnings of freelance technical writers vary greatly and are re lated to the writer’s reputation in the field. In the Federal Government in late 1968, inexperienced technical writers with a bachelor’s degree and credit for about five science courses could start at either $5,732 or $6,981 a year, depend ing on their college records. Those who have 2 years’ experi ence could begin at $8,462, and those having 3 years’ experience could start at $10,203 or $12,174 220 a year, depending on the caliber of the experience. Technical writers usually work the standard 40-hour week. They may work under considerable pressure, frequently working overtime when a deadline has to be met on a publication or report. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK W here To Go fo r M ore Inform ation Additional information on this occupation, including a list of schools offering accepted courses of study and specific training pro grams in accredited colleges and universities, may be obtained from: Society of Technical Writers and Publishers, Inc., Suite 421, 1010 Vermont Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20005. O T H E R P R O F E S S IO N A L A N D R E L A T E D O C C U P A T IO N S ARCHITECTS (D.O.T. 001.081) N atu re of th e W ork Architects plan and design buildings and other structures. Their goal is to design structures which are safe, useful, and pleas ing in appearance. Architects also work with other profession als, such as engineers, urban plan ners, and landscape architects in the designing of cities and towns and in the planning and improve ment of an overall physical environment. When an architect receives a commission to design a building, he meets with the client to dis cuss the purpose, requirements, and cost limitations of the struc ture, as well as the client’s pref erences as to style and plan. Sub sequently, the architect must make hundreds of decisions, con sidering not only the require ments of the building, but also local and State building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other ordinances. For example, in planning a school, the architect must decide, among other things, the amount of corridor and stair case space required to enable stu dents to move easily from one class to another; the type and arrangement of storage space; and the location, size, and inter ior arrangements of the class rooms, laboratories, lunchroom, gymnasium, and administrative offices. The architect makes prelimi nary drawings of the structure and meets with the client to de velop a final design. This design includes floor plans, as well as details of the interior and exter ior of the building. The final de sign then is translated into work ing drawings, which show the ex act dimensions of every part of the structure and the location of the plumbing, heating, electrical, air-conditioning, and other equip ment. Consulting engineers usu ally prepare detailed drawings of the structural, plumbing, heating, and electrical work. Engineers’ drawings are coordinated with the architect’s working drawings, and specifications are prepared listing the construction materials to be used, the equipment, and, in some cases, the furnishings. The architect then assists his client in selecting a building con tractor and in negotiating the contract between client and con tractor, and he acts as the client’s advisor and representative in dealings with the contractor. As construction proceeds, the archi tect makes periodic visits to the construction site to see if the de sign is being followed, and that the materials specified in the con tract are being used. The archi tect’s work is not completed un til the project is finished, all re quired tests are made, and guar antees are received from the contractor. Most self-employed architects plan and design a wide variety of structures, ranging from homes to churches, hospitals, office build ings, and airports. Architects also plan and design multibuilding complexes for urban renewal proj ects, college campuses, industrial parks, and new towns. Some architects, however, specialize in one particular type of structure or project. When working on large-scale projects or for large architectural firms, architects fre- Architect discusses building plans with clients. 221 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 222 quently specialize in one phase of the work, such as design, draft ing, specification writing, or con struction contract administration (insuring that a structure is built according to plans and specifi cations.) Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 34,000 registered (licensed) architects were em ployed in the United States in late 1968. In addition, many other architectural school grad uates who are unlicensed were working in positions requiring a knowledge of architecture. About 4 percent of all architects are women. Approximately two-fifths of all architects are self-employed, either practicing individually or as partners. Most of the others work for architectural firms. Some architects work for engi neers, builders, real estate firms, and for other businesses having large construction programs. Others are employed by govern ment agencies, often in fields such as city and community planning and urban redevelopment. About 1,500 of these are employed by the Federal Government. Architects are employed in all parts of the country. However, they are concentrated in those States with large metropolitan areas. Nearly half of all architects are employed in six States— Cali fornia, New York, Illinois, Texas, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. T rain in g , O th er Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A license for the practice of architecture is required by law in all States and the District of Columbia, mainly to insure that architectural work which may af fect the safety of life, health, or property is done by qualified architects. Requirements for ad mission to the licensing examina tion are set by the individual States. These generally include graduation from an accredited professional school followed by 3 years of practical experience in an architect’s office. As a substitute for formal training, most States accept longer periods of practical experience (usually 10 to 12 years) for admission to the licen sing examination. In 1968, professional training in architecture was offered by 87 colleges and universities in the United States, 63 of which were accredited by the National Archi tectural Accrediting Board. The great majority of these schools offered a 5-year curriculum lead ing to the bachelor of architec ture degree. Many architectural schools also offered graduate edu cation leading to the master’s degree, and a few schools offered the Ph. D. degree. Although grad uate training is not essential for the practice of architecture, it is often desirable for research and teaching positions. Most schools of architecture admit qualified high school grad uates who meet the entrance re quirements of the college or uni versity with which the school of architecture is associated. Some schools require 1 or 2 years of college education before admit ting the student to a 3- or 4-year architectural training program. In general, architectural schools pre fer that students’ preparation in clude mathematics, science, social studies, language, and art. A typi cal curriculum includes not only architectural courses but also other subjects— usually English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, sociology, economics, and a for eign language. Among the personal qualifica tions needed by persons planning a career in architecture are a ca pacity to master technical prob lems, a gift for artistic creation, and a flair for business and for human relations. Students are frequently encouraged to work for architects or for building con tractors during summer vacations to gain some knowledge of prac tical problems. New graduates usually begin as junior draftsmen in architectural firms where they make drawings and models of building projects or draft details in the working drawings. As they gain experi ence, they are given more com plex work. After several years, they may progress to chief or sen ior draftsman, with responsibility for all the major details of a set of working drawings and for the supervision of other draftsmen. Other architects may work as de signers, construction contract ad ministrators, or specification writers. An employee who is par ticularly valued by his firm may be designated an associate and may receive, in addition to his salary, a share of the profits. Usu ally, however, the-architect’s goal is to establish his own practice. Em ploym ent O utlook The outlook is for continued rapid growth of the profession through the 1970’s. Employment opportunities are expected to be good both for experienced archi tects and for new architecture graduates. A major factor contributing to this favorable outlook is the ex pected growth in the volume of nonresidential construction— the major area of work for architects. Moreover, the increasing size and complexity of modern nonresidental buildings, as well as the homeowners’ growing awareness of the value of architects’ services, are likely to bring about a greater demand for architectural services. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Urban redevelopment and city and community planning proj ects, other growing areas of em ployment for architects, also are expected to increase considerably in the years ahead. (See state ment on Urban Planners.) In ad dition, expanding college enroll ments will create a need for addi tional architects to teach archi tectural courses. Besides those needed to fill new positions due to growth, deaths and retirements will account for about 1,000 new openings every year. Along with the anticipated rise in demand for architects, an in crease is expected in the number of architectural graduates. If graduations in this field follow the trend expected in all college graduations, the number of archi tectural degrees awarded each year during the 1970’s should be considerably greater than the es timated 3,200 degrees awarded in 1968. However, many architectur al graduates utilize their training in fields such as sales and admin istration in the building industry and do not enter the profession. Thus, those who choose to enter the field should have good em ployment opportunities through the 1970’s. Earnings and W orking Conditions Starting salaries of architectur al school graduates were generally between $100 and $150 a week in 1968, according to available in formation. Draftsmen having 3 years’ experience or more earned between $135 and $180 a week; job captains, specification writers, and other senior employees usual ly earned from $150 to $250 a week. Senior employees often re ceive yearly bonuses in addition to their salaries. After architects have become well established in private prac tice, they generally earn much more than high-paid salaried em ployees of architectural firms. The range in their incomes is very wide, however. Some architects that have many years of experi ence and good reputations earn well over $25,000 a year. Young architects starting their own prac tices may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income. Most architects work in welllighted, well-equipped offices and spend long hours at the drawing board. However, their routine of ten is varied by interviewing cli ents or contractors or discussing the design, construction proce dures, or building materials of a project with other architects or engineers. Architects involved in construction contract administra tion frequently work out of doors during inspections at construction sites. Sources of Additional Inform ation General information about ca reers in architecture is included in a number of publications of the American Institute of Architects; a catalog of publications is avail able, as well as two free publica tions, “ Designing a Better Tomor row” and “ Your Building, Your Architect.” They can be obtained from: The American Institute of Archi tects, 1735 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. COLLEGE PLACEMENT OFFICERS (D.O.T. 166.268) N atu re of the W ork College placement officers pro vide job placement services to stu- 223 Coilege placement officer and student discuss employment offers. dents and alumni. They interview job applicants, analyze their edu cation and work records, and may administer or arrange for voca tional and psychological tests to help applicants evaluate their spe cial abilities. They furnish infor mation on full-time, part-time, and summer job openings and ar range for job interviews. College placement officers ar range for employer representa tives to visit the campus to dis cuss their firms’ personnel needs and to interview qualified appli cants. Placement officers may provide information about stu dents to employer representatives and assist them in appraising the qualifications of students. They also make new contacts with em ployers to develop additional em ployment opportunities. In addi tion they may suggest improve ments in employer recruitment literature and inform the college staff of any change in job require ments that might warrant adjust ment in curriculum.. Many college placement offi cers assemble and maintain a li brary of career guidance informa- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 224 tion and recruitment literature from public and private sources for the use of students and alum ni. Such material includes infor mation on the nature of various occupations, together with data on current opportunities, educa tional requirements, earnings, ad vancement, and the long-term outlook. Placement officers may special ize in such areas as law, teaching, part-time and summer work, or other specific group placements. However, the extent of specializa tion usually depends upon the size and type of the college, as well as the size of the placement staff. Places of Em ploym ent Placement services are offered in nearly all colleges and univer sities. Large colleges may employ several placement officers work ing under a director of placement activities; in many institutions, however, a combination of place ment functions is performed by one officer and his clerical staff. In some colleges, especially the smaller ones, the functions of placement officers may be per formed on a part-time basis by members of the faculty or admin istrative staff. Universities fre quently have placement offices for each major branch or campus. In most universities, there is a central office which coordinates the work of all placement officers; in some, each office works as a separate unit. An estimated 2,500 placement officers were employed in 4-year colleges and universities in 1968, most of them on a full-time basis. Of this total number, about onefourth were women. In addition, an increasing number of place ment officers were being em ployed full time or part time in 2-year colleges. College placement officers are located in all parts of the country, although they are concentrated in the metropolitan areas where many colleges and universities are situated. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A bachelor’s degree generally is considered the minimum re quirement for entry into the field. Important undergraduate courses for the prospective placement of ficer include psychology, sociol ogy, counseling, and personnel ad ministration or related business subjects. At present, however, no specific educational specialty ex ists for college placement officers. In 1968, more than 100 colleges and universities offered programs leading to a graduate degree in college student personnel work. These programs included such placement oriented subjects as vocational development theory, techniques of interviewing, career counseling, occupational and edu cational information, group dy namics, and college student per sonnel administration. Many people enter college placement after working in other areas. A broad background of business or industrial experience, teaching experience, previous placement training, experience in public or private employment agencies, or knowledge of person nel and guidance techniques are all useful backgrounds for college placement work. In some in stances, an alumnus who has dis played a strong interest in his col lege, and exhibits ability in work ing effectively with people, will be employed as an assistant in the placement office and may advance to more responsible positions as he gains experience. A person who would like to en ter the college placement field should have an interest in people, as well as the ability to gain the confidence of students, faculty, and employers. The ability to de velop a keen insight into the em ployment problems of both em ployers and students and to main tain honest and confidential com munications also is important in college placement work. Advancement for college place ment officers usually is through promotion to placement director, director of student personnel ser vices, or to some other higher level administrative position. However, the extent of such opportunity usually depends upon the type of college or university and the size of the staff. Em ploym ent O utlook The number of job opportuni ties in the college placement field is expected to rise very rapidly through the 1970’s. In general, employment prospects will be best for new or recent college grad uates seeking beginning positions, particularly at their own alma maters. Among the factors expected to contribute to the favorable out look for college placement officers are the increasing number of col lege graduates, and the expansion in the number of college students from lower income families who will seek part-time jobs during their college years to help finance their education. Demand for col lege placement officers also will increase as a result of the trend among colleges and universities toward more emphasis on the stu dent personnel service aspect of higher education. This emphasis has already resulted in increased placement activity for graduate students and alumni, and for un dergraduates seeking summer and part-time employment. The in creasing number of junior colleges and technical schools— the fastest OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS growing segment of higher educa tion— also will increase the de mand for placement personnel. The recent trend toward in creased budget allocations for placement activities is expected to continue, thus leading to a growing demand for college place ment officers in most parts of the country. In addition, regional col leg e p la c e m e n t a s s o c ia tio n s , through their coordinating organ ization, the College Placement Council, are expanding their pro grams to improve operations in existing placement offices of member colleges and to encourage the establishment of placement services where none presently exist. Some openings also will occur each year as placement officers transfer to other positions, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. HOME ECONOMISTS (D.O.T. 096.128) N ature of the W ork Improving products, services, and practices that affect the com fort and well-being of the family 225 is the primary function of home economists. These professional workers have a broad knowledge of the field or are specialists in a particular area, such as food, clothing and textiles, housing, home furnishing and equipment, child development, household management, or family economics. Teachers make up the largest group of home economists. Sec ondary school teachers instruct classes in food, nutrition, cloth- Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1967, annual earnings of placement office directors ranged from less than $5,000 to a high of over $23,500, with the average (m e d ia n ) s a la ry b e in g a b o u t $10,600 according to a National Education Association survey of 990 public and private colleges and universities. In general, the larger institutions paid the high est salaries. College placement officers nor mally work a 40-hour week; ir regular hours and overtime fre quently are necessary during the “ recruiting season.” Most place ment personnel are employed on a 12-month basis. They are paid for holidays and vacations, and receive the same benefits as other professional personnel employed by colleges and universities. Sources of A dditional Inform ation The College Placement Council, Inc., P.O. Box 2263, Bethlehem, Pa. 18001. Home economist gives consumer education pointers to teenagers on buying used cars. 226 ing, textiles, child development, family relations, home furnish ings, home management, and con sumer education. In addition, they may sponsor local chapters of Future Homemakers of Amer ica and conduct related activities. Other work done by home eco nomics teachers is similar to that described in the statement on Secondary School Teachers, else where in this Handbook. Teachers in adult education programs help homemakers to increase their un derstanding of family relations and to improve their homemaking skills. They also train those who wish to prepare for jobs requiring skills in home economics. College teachers may combine teaching and research, and often specialize in one particular area of home economics. Private business firms and trade associations employ home economists to promote the devel opment, use, and care of specific home products. These home econ omists may do research and test products; prepare advertisements and booklets with instructional materials; plan, prepare, and pre sent programs for radio and tele vision; serve as consultants; give lectures and demonstrations be fore the public; and conduct classes for such workers as sales men and appliance servicemen. They also may study consumer needs and help manufacturers translate these needs into useful products. Home economists employed by food manufacturers often work in test kitchens or laboratories to improve products or help create new products; they also may pub licize the nutritional value of spe cific foods. Those employed by utility companies often give ad vice on household problems, in addition to describing the opera tion and benefits of products and services. Home economists em ployed by manufacturers of kitch OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK en and laundry equipment may work with engineers on product development. Those engaged in communications work for maga zines, newspapers, radio and tele vision stations, advertising and public relations agencies, trade associations, and other organiza tions. They usually prepare ar t ic le s , a d v e r tis e m e n ts , and speeches about home products and services. Their work may in clude product testing and analy sis, and the study of consumer buying habits. Still other home economists work for dress-pattern companies, department stores, in terior design studios, and other business firms that design, manu facture, and sell products for the home. A small number of home economists are employed in fi nancial institutions, giving cus tomers advice on spending, sav ing, and budgeting. Some home economists are en gaged in research for the Federal Government, State agricultural experiment stations, colleges, uni versities, and private organiza tions. The U.S. Department of Agriculture employs the largest group of these workers, some of whom study the buying and spending habits of farm families and then develop budget guides. A few in other Federal agencies are engaged in research on space travel, working on such problems as food needs in outer space. Cooperative Extension Service home economists conduct adult education programs for women and 4-H Club programs for girls in such areas as home manage ment, consumer education, family relations, and nutrition. Home economists employed on social-welfare programs by State, county, city, and private welfare agencies may act as advisers and consultants on household budgets and improved homemaking. They may help handicapped home makers and their families adjust to physical limitations by chang ing the arrangements in the home and revising methods of work. Other home economists in welfare agencies supervise or train work ers who provide temporary or part-time help to households dis rupted by illness. Places of Em ploym ent About 100,000 persons were employed in home economics oc cupations in 1968. This figure in cludes an estimated 30,000 dieti tians and approximately 5,000 ex tension workers who are discussed in separate statements on Dieti tians and Cooperative Extension Service Workers in the Handbook. About 58,000 home economists were teachers. Approximately 40.000 were primarily secondary school teachers. About 13,500 were adult education instructors, some of whom also taught parttime in secondary schools. In ad dition, there were about 3,500 col lege and university teachers. The remainder taught in elementary schools, kindergartens, nursery schools, recreation centers, and other institutions. More than 5.000 home economists were in private business firms and asso ciations. Several hundred were primarily government research workers, and a smaller group worked in social welfare programs. A few were self-employed. Although home economics is generally considered a woman’s field, a growing number of men are employed in home economics positions. Most men specialize in foods and institution manage ment, though some are in the family relations and child devel opment field, applied arts, and other areas. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Approximately 400 colleges and universities offer training leading to a bachelor’s degree in home economics, which qualifies grad uates for most entry positions in the field. A master’s or doctor’s degree is required for college teaching, for certain research and supervisory positions, for work as an extension specialist or super visor, and for some jobs in the nutrition field. The undergraduate curriculum in home economics gives students a strong background in science and liberal arts and also includes courses in each of the areas of home economics. Students major ing in home economics may spe cialize in various subject-matter areas. Advanced courses in chem istry and nutrition are important for work in foods and nutrition; science and statistics for research work; and journalism for adver tising, public relations work, and all other work in the communica tions field. T o teach home eco nomics in a high school, a student must complete the professional education courses and other State requirements for a teacher’s certificate. Scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships are available for u n d e r g ra d u a te and g ra d u a te study. Although colleges and uni versities offer most of these finan cial grants, government agencies, research foundations, businesses, and the American Home Econom ics Association provide additional funds. Home economists must be able to work with people of various living standards and backgrounds and should have a capacity for leadership, including an ability to inspire cooperation. G ood grooming, poise, and an interest in people also are essential, par ticularly when dealing with the public. Em ploym ent O utlook Home economists are expected to have very good employment opportunities through the 1970’s. The greatest demand will stem from the need to fill teaching posi tions in secondary schools and in colleges and universities. Many business establishments also are becoming increasingly aware of the contributions that can be made by professionally trained home economists and probably will hire more of them to promote home products and to act as con sultants to customers. Increased national focus on the needs of low-income families may also in crease the demand for home econ omists. In addition, the need for more home economists in research is expected to increase because of the continued interest in improv ing home products and services. Many home economists will be needed to replace those who die, retire, or leave the field because of family responsibilities or other reasons through the 1970’s. Op portunities for those who leave the profession but later wish to return will be good, especially as part-time teachers in adult edu cation programs. Earnings and W orking Conditions Home economics teachers in public schools generally receive the same salaries as other teach ers, as most school districts have a single-salary schedule, based on education and experience. In school districts of 100,000 pupils or more, the median salary of be ginning teachers who have a bachelor’s degree was $5,880 for the school year 1967-68, accord ing to a National Education Asso 227 ciation survey; in districts of 50,000 to 99,999 enrollment, the m ed ia n s ta r tin g sa la ry was $5,500; and in districts of 25,000 to 49,999 enrollment, $5,633. The median salary of home economics instructors teaching in colleges and universities was about $7,458 a year in 1967-68. In 1967, average annual sal aries received in the Cooperative Extension Service were as follows: inexperienced county extension home economists, $6,850; experi enced county extension home economists, $7,900; State super visory home economists, $13,000; and State specialists, $10,800. The Federal Government paid inexperienced workers who have a bachelor’s degree in home econom ics $5,732 or $6,981 in late 1968, depending on their scholastic rec ords. For those having additional education and experience, salaries generally ranged from $8,500 to $14,400 a year, depending upon the type of position and level of responsibility. Many home economists work a regular 40-hour week or less. Those in teaching and extension positions, however, frequently work longer hours as they are ex pected to be available for evening lectures, demonstrations, and other work falling outside the reg ularly scheduled hours. Most home economists receive fringe benefits, such as paid vacation, sick leave, retirement pay, and in surance benefits. Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n A list of schools granting de grees in home economics is avail able from: Home Economics Education, Bu reau of Adult, Vocational, and Library Programs, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20202. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 228 Additional information about careers in this profession, the types of home economic majors offered in each school granting de grees in home economics, and graduate scholarships may be ob tained from: American Home Economics Asso ciation, 1600 20th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTS (D.O.T. 019.081) N ature of the W ork E v e r y o n e e n jo y s w a lk in g through an attractively designed park or taking a drive along a scenic road. Landscape architects plan, design, and supervise the arrangement of these outdoor areas for people to use and enjoy. The attractiveness of parks, high ways, housing projects, campuses, and country clubs reflects the skill of these architects in design ing landscapes that are useful and pleasing. Their knowledge of site planning allows landscape archi tects to serve many types of cli ents, from a real estate firm em barking on a new suburban de velopment to a city preparing to build an airport. Landscape architects may plan the entire arrangement of a site and supervise the grading, con struction, and planting required to carry out the plan. Whether they perform all or only part of these services on a particular pro ject, however, depends on the cli ent’s wishes and the available funds. To plan a site, landscape archi tects first study the nature and purpose of the client’s project, and the various types of struc tures needed. Next, they study the site itself, observing and map ping features such as the slope of the land and the position of exist ing buildings and trees. They also consider the parts of the site that will be sunny or shaded at differ ent times of the day, the structure of the soil, existing utilities, and many other factors. Then, after consultation with the architect and engineer working on the proj ect, they draw up preliminary plans for the development of the site. After the client approves the preliminary plans, working draw ings are made which show all existing and proposed features such as buildings, roads, walks, terraces, grading, and drainage structures in planted areas. Land scape architects outline in detail the methods of constructing fea tures such as walks and terraces and draw up lists of materials to be used. Landscape contractors then are invited to submit bids for the work. Firms of landscape architects usually handle a wide variety of assignments. Some, however, spe cialize in projects such as parks and playgrounds, campuses, ho tels and resorts, shopping centers, roads, or public housing. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 8,500 landscape architects were employed in 1968. The majority were self-employed or worked for other landscape ar chitects in private firms. About one-third of all landscape archi tects were employed by govern ment agencies concerned with public housing, city planning, ur ban renewal, highways, and parks and recreational areas. Some were on the staffs of engineering firms; others were employed by land scape contractors and a few taught in colleges and universities. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A bachelor’s degree in land scape architecture is usually the minimum requirement for enter ing the profession. This training is offered in at least 30 colleges and universities, of which 20 have OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS been accredited by the American Society of Landscape Architects. Another 30 schools offer courses in landscape architecture but not a complete 4-year program. The curriculum for the bachelor’s de gree requires 4 to 5 years of study, depending on the institution. Fif teen universities also offer mas ter’s degrees in landscape archi tecture. Entrance requirements for the landscape architecture course are usually the same as those for ad mission to the liberal arts college of the same university. Some schools also require completion of a high school course in mechanical or geometrical drawing, and most schools advise high school stu dents to take courses in art and more mathematics than the mini mum required for college entrance. Courses in design, including ar chitecture and drawing as well as landscape design, constitute over half of the typical curriculum in landscape architecture. Other ma jor fields of study are civil engi neering and horticulture. In addi tion, courses in English, science, the social sciences, and mathe matics usually are required. A bachelor’s degree in landscape ar chitecture provides a good back ground for graduate work in city planning. Young people who plan to be come landscape architects should be interested in both art and na ture, for the profession demands a talent for design and an under standing of plant life, as well as technical ability. Successful prac tice as an independent landscape architect also requires a good business sense and the ability to deal with people. Working for landscape archi tects or landscape contractors during summer vacations will help the student to discover the phases of landscape architecture that in terest him most and may better qualify him for employment upon graduation. New graduates usually begin as junior draftsmen, or designers tracing drawings and doing other simple drafting work. As their skill increases, they progress to more responsible work. After 2 or 3 years, they are usually known as landscape architects and are qualified to carry a design through a ll sta g e s, fro m p re lim in a ry sketches to finished working drawings. Experienced draftsmen often handle other aspects of landscape architects’ work also, such as preparing specifications and detailing methods of con struction. Employees who demon strate ability for all phases of work may become associates of the firm; landscape architects who progress this far often open their own offices. A license is required for the in dependent practice of landscape architecture in 16 States— Arizo na, California, Colorado, Connect icut, Florida, Georgia, Kansas, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michi gan, Nebraska, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Utah. Candidates for the licensing ex amination are usually required to have 6 to 8 years’ experience, or a degree from an accredited school of landscape architecture plus 2 to 4 years’ experience. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for graduates that have professional training in landscape architecture are e x p e c te d to be fa v o r a b le throughout the 1970’s. The pro fession probably will continue to expand in the years ahead as a result of the continued growth of metropolitan areas with their needs for parks and recreational areas, the growing population’s requirements for outdoor recre ational facilities, the continued 229 increase in public construction (including public housing), and the rising interest in city and re gional planning. The expected in crease in homeownership, coupled with rising per capita incomes and living standards, also will spur the demand for landscape architects. Women represent between 5 and 10 percent of all landscape architects. Well-trained and com petent women landscape archi tects can look forward to interest ing and worthwhile careers in the profession, particularly as special ists in garden and planting design. Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1968, starting salaries in pri vate offices for new graduates having bachelors’ degrees in land scape architecture ranged from about $7,000 to $9,000 annually; holders of master’s degrees gen erally earned starting salaries be tween $10,000 and $12,000. Ex perienced persons employed by private firms typically earned from about $12,000 to $18,000 a year, although it was not unusual for especially well-qualified peo ple to receive annual salaries of more than $20,000. Landscape architects in inde pendent practice often earn more than salaried employees with con siderable experience, but their earnings may vary widely and may fluctuate from year to year. In the Federal Civil Service in late 1968, newly graduated land scape architects were paid annual entrance salaries of either $7,456 or $9,078 depending on their qualifications. Others with ad vanced degrees earned between $10,154 and $12,580. The salary schedule also provides for periodic increases above this amount. Salaried employees in both the government and in landscape ar chitectural firms usually work regular hours. Self-employed per- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 230 sons often work long hours, es pecially during the latter stages of a project. Salaried employees in private firms may also work overtime during seasonal rush periods. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information on the profession and a list of colleges and universities offering accred ited courses of study in landscape architecture may be obtained from: American Society of Landscape Architects, Inc., 2013 I St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For information on a career as a landscape architect in the For est Service, write to: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 20250. LAWYERS (D.O.T. 110.108, .118 and 119.168) N ature of the W ork Most people, at some time in their lives, need legal advice and help. Therefore, they retain law yers, who advise them of their legal rights and obligations and, when necessary, represent them in courts of law. In addition, lawyers (also called attorneys) negotiate settlements out of court and represent clients before quasi judicial and administrative agenices of the government, such as the Internal Revenue Service and the Social Security Administra tion. They may act as trustees, guardians, or executors. Govern ment attorneys play a large part in developing and administering Federal and State laws and pro grams; they prepare drafts of pro posed legislation, establish law enforcement procedures, and ar gue cases. Most lawyers are engaged in general practice, handling all kinds of legal work for clients. However, a significant number specialize in one branch of law, such as corporation, criminal, la bor, patent, real estate, tax, or international law. Some attorneys devote themselves entirely to try ing cases in the courts. Others never appear in court but spend all their time drawing up wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, and other legal documents; conduct ing out-of-court negotiations; and doing the investigative and other legal work necessary to prepare for trials. Still others are primar ily engaged in teaching, research, writing, or administrative activi ties. Many people who have legal training are not employed as law yers but are in other occupations where they can use their knowl edge of law. They may, for exam ple, be insurance adjusters, tax collectors, probation officers, credit investigators, or claims ex aminers. A legal background also is a valuable asset to people seek ing or holding public office. Places of Em ploym ent Lawyer discusses legal rights with client. More than 270,000 lawyers were employed in early 1968, the great majority working full time. Of the total number, more than 3 out of 4 were in private prac tice. More than half of the pri vate practitioners were in prac tice by themselves, and about 47 percent were in partnership or worked for other lawyers or law firms. Government agencies employ the greatest number of salaried attorneys. In 1967, approximately 16,300 attorneys worked for the Federal Government, chiefly in the Department of Justice, the Department of Defense, the Treasury Department, and the OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Veterans Administration. About 7,500 attorneys were employed by State governments, and 7,600 held positions with city or county governments. Other salaried law yers are employed by private companies, including large manu facturing firms, banks, insurance companies, real estate firms, and public utilities. Most of the re mainder teach in law schools. Some lawyers in salaried legal positions also have an independ ent practice; others do legal work on a part-time basis working pri marily in another occupation. Al though lawyers practice in all parts of the country, most of them are in cities and in the States which have the greatest population. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and Advancem ent Before a person can practice law in the court of any State, he must be admitted to the bar of that State. In all States, appli cants for bar admission must pass a written examination; however, a few States waive this require ment for graduates of their own in-State law schools. Other usual requirements are U.S. citizenship and good moral character. If a lawyer has been admitted to the bar in one State, he can usually be admitted to practice in an other State without taking an examination, provided he meets the State’s standards of good moral character and has a speci fied amount of legal experience. The special rules of each court or agency control the right to prac tice before Federal courts and agencies. T o qualify for the bar examina tions in the majority of States, an applicant must have completed a minimum of 3 years of college work and, in addition, must be a graduate of a law school ap proved by the American Bar As sociation or the proper State au thorities. Some States will accept study in a law office instead of, or in combination with, study in a law school— although this method of training is now rare. A few States will accept study of the law wholly in a law office; only two States will accept study of the law by correspondence. A number of States require regis tration and approval by the State Board of Examiners before stu dents enter law school or during the early years of legal study. In a few States, candidates must complete a period of clerkship in a law office before they are ad mitted to the bar. As a rule, 7 years of full-time study after high school is neces sary to complete the required col lege and law school work. The most usual preparation for be coming a lawyer is 4 years of col lege study followed by 3 years in law school. However, many law schools admit students after 3 years of college work. A few schools may accept students after 2 years of college work. On the other hand, an increasing number of law schools are requiring ap plicants to have a college degree. Law schools seldom specify the college subjects which must be in cluded in students’ prelegal edu cation. However, English, history, economics and other social sci ences, logic, and public speaking are all important for prospective lawyers. In general, their college background should be broad enough to give them an under standing of society and its insti tutions. Students interested in a particular aspect of the law may find it helpful to take related courses; for example, engineering and science courses would be use ful to the prospective patent at torney, and accounting would be useful to the future tax lawyer. Of the 167 law schools in exist 231 ence in 1969, 138 were approved by the American Bar Association and the others— chiefly night schools— were approved by State authorities only. A substantial number of full-time law schools have night divisions designed to meet the needs of part-time stu dents; some law schools have only night classes. Four years of parttime study are usually required to complete the night-school cur riculum. In 1968, about one-fifth of all law students in ABA-approved schools were enrolled in evening classes. The first 2 years of law school are generally devoted to funda mental courses such as contracts, criminal law, and property. In the third year, students may elect courses in specialized fields such as tax, labor, or corporation law. Practical experience is often ob tained by participating in legal aid activities sponsored by the school, in the school’s practice court where the students conduct trials under the supervision of ex perienced lawyers, and by writ ing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. Upon gradution, the degree of juris doctor (J.D .) is awarded by many schools, al though some schools confer the bachelor of laws (LL.B.) as the first professional degree. Ad vanced study is often desirable for those planning to specialize in one branch of the law or to en gage in research and law-school teaching. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions, although some go into independent practice im mediately after passing the bar examination. Young salaried at torneys usually act as assistants (law clerks) to experienced law yers or judges. Initially, their work is limited to research such as checking points of law; they rarely see a client or argue a case in court. After several years of progressively responsible sala- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 232 ried employment, during which time they can obtain experience and funds and become better known, many lawyers go into practice for themselves. Some lawyers, after years of practice, become judges. E m ploym ent O utlook Graduates from widely recog nized law schools and those who rank high in their classes will have very good employment pros pects through the 1970’s. They are expected to have good op portunities for obtaining salaried positions with well-known law firms, on the legal staffs of cor porations and government agen cies, and as law clerks to judges. Graduates of the less well-known schools and those who graduate with lower scholastic ratings may experience some difficulty in finding salaried positions as law yers. However, numerous oppor tunities will be available for law school graduates to enter a va riety of other types of salaried positions requiring a knowledge of law. Young attorneys who open their own law offices after being admitted to the bar will, as in most other independent profes sions, generally face a period of low earnings while they establish their practice. Prospects for establishing a new practice will probably con tinue to be best in small towns and expanding suburban areas. In such communities, competition with other lawyers is likely to be less than in big cities; also, office rent and other business costs may be somewhat lower, and young lawyers may find it easier to be come known to potential clients. On the other hand, opportunities for salaried employment will be limited largely to big cities where the chief employers of legal talent — government agencies, law firms and big corporations— are con centrated. For able and wellqualified lawyers, good opportu nities to advance will be available in both salaried employment and private practice. Although the majority of em ployment opportunities for new lawyers will arise from the need to replace those who retire, die, or otherwise leave the field, the total number of lawyers is ex pected to grow moderately over the long run. However, continuing a recent trend, the number of lawyers in independent practice may remain stable or decline somewhat. Most of the growth will result from the continuing expansion of business activity and population. In addition, the increased use of legal services by low- and middle-income groups will add to the long-term growth in demand for lawyers. For exam ple, expansion of legal services for low-income groups has come about through the Community Action Programs authorized under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. The growing complexity of business and government activi ties is expected to create a steadily expanding demand for lawyers who have extensive experience in corporation, patent, adminstrative, labor, and international law. Earnings and W orking Conditions The average salary of lawyers having 1 year’s experience em ployed by manufacturing and other business firms was more than $9,600 a year in early 1968; those having a few years experi ence earned average salaries of $11,800. Average (median) start ing salaries of lawyers employed by cities and counties were about $8,900 in early 1968; those hav ing experience earned average (median) salaries of $11,000, ac cording to the limited data avail able. In the Federal Government, the annual starting salary for at torneys who had passed the bar was either $8,462 or $10,203 in late 1968, depending upon per sonal qualifications. Beginning lawyers working for small law offices or engaged in legal aid work usually receive the lowest starting salaries. New lawyers starting their own prac tices may earn little more than expenses during the first few years and may find it necessary to work part time in another occupation. Lawyers’ earnings generally rise with increased experience. Those employed on a salaried basis receive increases as they demonstrate their ability to as sume greater responsibilities. In early 1968, the average annual salary of attorneys in private in dustry who were in charge of le gal staffs was more than $27,000. Incomes of lawyers in private practice usually grow as their practices develop. Private prac titioners who are partners in law firms generally have greater aver age incomes than those who prac tice alone. Lawyers often work long hours and under considerable pressure when a case is being tried. In ad dition, they must keep abreast of the latest laws and court deci sions. However, since lawyers in private practice are able to de termine their own hours and workload, many stay in practice until well past the usual retire ment age. Sources of A dditional Inform ation The specific requirements for admission to the bar in a particu lar State may be obtained from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the secretary of the Board of Bar Examiners at that State capitol. Information on law schools OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS and on law as a career is available from: The American Bar Association, 1155 East 60th St., Chicago, 1 1 1. 60637. Association of American Law Schools, 1521 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. LIBRARIANS (D.O.T. 100.118 through .388) N ature of th e W ork Making information available the job of librarians. Librar 233 ians select and organize collec tions of books, pamphlets, manu scripts, periodicals, clippings, and reports, and assist readers in their use. In many libraries, they also may make available phono graph records, maps, slides, pic tures, tapes, films, paintings, and braille and talking books. In ad dition to classifying and catalog ing books and other loan items, they publicize library services, study the reading interests of peo ple served by the library, and provide a research and a refer ence service to various groups. Li brarians also may review and ab stract published materials and prepare bibliographies. In a small library, a librarian performs a great variety of tasks. In a large library, each librarian may perform only a single func tion, such as cataloging, publiciz ing library services, or providing reference service, or he may spe cialize in a subject area such as science, business, the arts, or medicine. Librarians may be classified by the type of library in which they are employed: Public library, school library, college or univer sity library, or special library. In each of these types, there are two principal kinds of library work— reader services and technical serv ices. Those who perform reader services— for example, reference librarians and children’s librar ians— work directly with the pub lic. Librarians who perform tech nical services, such as catalogers or acquisition librarians, deal less frequently with the public. Public librarians serve all kinds of readers— children, students, teachers, research workers, and others. Increasingly, librarians are providing special materials and services to culturally and educa tionally deprived people. The pro fessional staff of a large public library system may include the chief librarian, an assistant chief, 234 and several division heads who plan and coordinate the work of the entire library system. This system also may include librarians who supervise branch libraries, and other librarians who are spe cialists in certain areas. The du ties of some of these specialists are briefly described as follows: Acquisition librarians purchase books and other library materials recommended by staff members, keep a well-balanced library in quantity and quality, make sure that the library receives what it orders, and maintain close contact with book jobbers and publishers. Catalogers classify books under various subjects and otherwise describe them so they may be lo cated through catalogs on cards or in other forms. Reference li brarians aid readers in their search for information— answer ing specific questions or suggest ing sources of information. This work requires a thorough under standing of bibliographic material and a general knowledge of li brary materials in various subject fields. Children’s librarians plan and direct special programs for young people. Their duties in clude helping children find books they will enjoy, instructing them in the use and content of the li brary, giving talks on books, and maintaining contact with schools and community organizations. Often, they conduct regular story hours at the library and some times on radio or television. Adult services librarians may select ma terials for and advise mature readers. They are often asked to suggest reading materials, and to cooperate in or plan and conduct educational programs on such topics as community develop ment, public affairs, creative arts, problems of the aging, or home and family life. Young adult serv ices librarians may select books and other materials for young people of junior high school and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK high school age and guide them in the use of these materials. They may arrange book or film discus sion groups, concerts of recorded popular and classical music, and other programs related to the in terests of young adults. They also may help to coordinate the serv ices of the school libraries and the local public library. Bookmo bile librarians take library ma terials to people who live in areas where other public library services are nonexistent or inadequate. School librarians instruct stu dents in the use of the library and visit classrooms to familiarize stu dents with library materials relat ing to the subjects being taught. They also work with teachers and school supervisors who plan the curriculum. They prepare lists of printed and audiovisual materials on certain subjects; meet with faculty members to select mate rials for school programs; and se lect, order, and organize library materials. Many school librarians are employed by school district central offices as supervisors to plan and coordinate library serv ices for the entire school system, as catalogers and as librarians to administer professional libraries for teachers. Very large high schools may employ several pro fessional librarians, each respon sible for a special aspect of the li brary program or for special sub ject materials. College and university librar ians work with students, faculty members, and research workers in general reference work or in a particular field of interest, such as law, medicine, economics, or music. In addition, they may teach one or more classes in the use of the library. Some specialize in acquisition and cataloging. A few librarians who are employed in university research projects op erate docum entation centers. Computers and other modem de vices are being increasingly used to record and retrieve specialized information. Special librarians work in li braries maintained by commer cial and industrial firms, such as pharmaceutical companies, banks, advertising agencies, and research laboratories; professional and trade associations; government agencies; and other types of or ganizations such as hospitals and museums. These librarians plan, acquire, organize, catalog, and re trieve information from collec tions designed to provide inten sive coverage of information re sources about subjects of special interest to the organization. The special librarian utilizes his ex tensive knowledge of the subject matter, as well as of library sci ence, in building library resources, advising and assisting library users, abstracting, and routing available materials. Literature searching and the preparation of summaries, translations, bibliog raphies, and special reports are among the major duties of special librarians. These operations may involve the use of electronic data processing equipment. Science information specialists, like special librarians, work in technical libraries maintained by commercial and industrial firms. However, they must possess a more extensive technical and sci entific background than special li brarians. They not only perform many of the duties of special li brarians, but they also develop coding and programing tech niques for using electronic and electromechanical in fo r m a tio n storage devices and abstract com plicated information into short, readable form, and interpret and analyze data for a highly special ized clientele. Information on a related occu pation, library technician, is found in a separate statement in the Handbook.
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