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Bulletin No. 13.75 Occupational Outlook Handbook 1963-64 EDITION Career Information for Use in Guidance UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR \Y. \\ i]lard \\ irtz. Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS E w an Clague, Commissioner / Pointers on Using the Handbook To find out what is in this book and how it is arranged, Guide to the Handbook, page 3. see see: Table of Contents, page XI. Alphabetical Index, page 775. Edge Index. This index is designed to speed up the process of locating listings in the Handbook. Simple instructions on how to use the Edge Index are included on the yellow page in the center of the book. For a general view of work and jobs in the United States, read the chapter on Choosing a Career—The Economic Framework, page 10. Forecasts of the future are precarious! In interpreting the statements on the outlook in each occupation, keep in mind the points made on page 4. The job picture is constantly changing. To find out how you can keep your informa tion up to date, see the chapter on Where To Go for More Information or Assistance, page 6. You may need local information too. This book gives facts about each occupation for the United States as a whole. For suggestions on where to get information for your own locality, see page 8. To locate an occupation or industry in this book, O C C U P A T IO N A L O U T L O O K HANDBOOK EM P LO Y M EN T IN FO R M A T IO N O N M A JO R O C C U P A T IO N S FO R USE IN G U ID A N C E 1963-64 Edition A Revised Edition of the HANDBOOK is published every 2 years Bulletin No. 1375 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR W. Willard Wirtz, Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Ewan Clague, Commissioner For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $4.75 ?/erv (Revision of Bulletin 1300) This volume was prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, with the cooperation of the following offices of the Department— Office of Manpower, Automation, and Training Seymour L. Wolfbein, Director Bureau of Employment Security Robert C. Goodwin, Administrator Women’s Bureau Esther Peterson, Director Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training Edward E. Goshen, Director Bureau of Labor Standards Arthur W. Motley, Director and the— U.S. Department of Agriculture U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Foreword This new and revised edition of the Department of Labor’s Occupational Outlook Handbook provides current information on nearly 700 kinds of jobs. For those planning their careers or seeking their first jobs, this Handbook is a reliable guide to the qualifications and conditions governing a vast range of American employment. This book makes several direct points. The most important is that the* young jobseeker today will find—regardless of occupational choice—that opportunities for employment and advancement are directly related to the quality and the kind of skill he or she possesses. The technological change that has reduced the number of production jobs by nearly 700,000 between 1957 and 1962 has also lifted entrance requirements and upgraded qualifications needed across the entire economic range. A high school diploma, once a stand ard of competence in employment, has become a minimum requirement. The difference in potential earnings over a lifetime between a high school graduate and nongraduate has been estimated at $50,000. But more important to the individual, the trained and skilled employee is also the person with a rewarding and fulfilling job. In its sum, this Handbook also suggests that the pattern of working life has undergone a fundamental change in recent years. A man’s career started tomorrow will probably cover a series of different jobs, each requiring the acquisition of a different or a new skill, before his eventual retirement. Even within the same occupations, there is hardly one that will not demand of those who practice it continued periods of education and training to keep pace with change. In its scope and range, the list of occupations in this volume reflects the achievement of America’s past. Perhaps in no other nation have so many choices been open to so many millions of individuals. But one may find here as well the aspirations of the future in the complex and highly specific occupations for space and scientific development. Whether we fully realize those aspirations will depend upon the decisions that our young people make. We hope that this guide assists them—as it has others in the past—in that most basic decision of all, the selection of a satisfying and rewarding career. W. W illard W irtz , Secretary of Labor Prefatory Note This sixth edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook is designed to provide the occupational information young people need to help them in career planning. It presents a reappraisal of the employment outlook in the occupations and industries discussed in the fifth edition of the Handbook, together with the most recent information available in early 1963 on earnings, training requirements, and other related topics. In addition, the occupational coverage of the Handbook has been significantly expanded. This edition includes a new chapter on counseling which includes employment outlook state ments on three specialized areas: School, vocational, and rehabilitation counseling. Other occupations that have been added are cashiers, floor covering installers, gasoline service station attendants, hospital administrators, industrial designers, landscape archi tects, oceanographers, shipping and receiving clerks, surveyors, technical writers, and urban planners. This Handbook reflects the results of more than two decades of research by the Occupational Outlook Service, which was established in the Bureau of Labor Statistics by the Congress in 1940. The first edition of the Handbook was published in 1949, with subsequent editions in 1951, 1957, 1959, and 1961. Provision has been made by the Congress for the maintenance of the Occupational Outlook Handbook on a regular basis. Two related publications are also published regularly by the Occupational Outlook Service—a periodical, the Occupational Outlook Quarterly, which provides a continuous flow of current information between editions of the Handbook; and the Occupational Outlook Report Series, a set of reprints of the Handbook statements on different fields of work. The Bureau of Labor Statistics wishes to acknowledge with gratitude the cooperation received in connection with the preparation of the Handbook from hundreds of officials in industry, labor organizations, trade associations, professional societies, government agencies, educational institutions, and other organizations. Without their help the quality of the Handbook could not be maintained. E w a n C l a g u e , Commissioner oj Labor Statistics Letter From the American Personnel and Guidance Association It seems appropriate that during this 50th anniversary year of vocational guidance the new Occupational Outlook Handbook should be published with an unprecedented number of employment outlook statements—nearly 700. The great number of occupa tions and industries covered illustrates the need for vocational guidance. The Ameri can economy has become so complex and rapidly changing that neither our youth nor their elders can be expected to be sufficiently well informed on the basis of their own experiences and observations to insure wisdom of vocational selection. The Handbook is invaluable in collating a significant amount of vocational information in a single volume and in reflecting new areas of employment as well as those which are expanding or declining. It pleases me especially to note that this edition of the Handbook introduces a new chapter on the field of counseling covering three specialized areas—school, voca tional, and rehabilitation. Certainly all these counselors as well as teachers and the many others who work with youth should have their own copy of this book. And I urge all guidance personnel to make sure they have available the most recent edition of the Handbook. Indeed, it is possible for some occupations to become obsolete or changed in character between editions of the Handbook. I am told, for example, that one of the new occupations, that of programer, which appeared for the first time in the 1959 edition of the Handbook carries* with it the seed of change. While growing in employment now, new technological developments suggest that the computer may soon become, in part, its own programer, and the character of the occupation may change significantly. On behalf of the American Personnel and Guidance Association, I would like to take this opportunity to congratulate the Bureau of Labor Statistics and its Occupa tional Outlook Handbook staff for maintaining comprehensive coverage and a high qual ity of research for the Occupational Outlook Handbook and its companion periodical, the Occupational Outlook Quarterly. W il l is E. D u g a n , President American Personnel and Guidance Association Letter From the Veterans Administration The Veterans Administration has been actively engaged in the counseling, training, and rehabilitation of veterans since Congress established its vocational rehabilitation and education programs over 20 years ago. The Occupational Outlook Handbook was created to satisfy the need for current and reliable occupational information for use in these Veterans Administration counseling and training activities. It has developed over the years into a basic resource of the whole counseling field and is used equally effectively in counseling not only veterans but also schoolchildren and other youth, the nonveteran handicapped, the unemployed, and those who would like to make a voca tional change. All of these groups require sound occupational information. They need an accurate picture of each kind of work under consideration, the different entrance requirements, preparation needed, advancement possibilities, information on employ ment outlook, and authoritative estimates of probable earnings. These needs are expertly satisfied by the Occupational Outlook Handbook. The Veterans Administration commends this Handbook to all counselors as a major source of occupational information. It is with real respect for its qualities that this agency has supported its development and encourages its continuation and extensive use. J. S. G l e a s o n , J r . Administrator of Veterans Affairs Letter From the Department of Defense The Occupational Outlook Handbook is of considerable value in preparing members of the Armed Forces for their return to civil life. Many of those who are serving only limited periods of time in the Armed Forces, as well as those persons who are completing lengthy periods of service and who are planning to enter the civilian labor force upon their retirement, seek advice and assistance in planning their future civilian careers. Such advice and assistance is needed not only near the termination of their military service but also at those times when servicemen are making decisions with respect to their participation in off-duty education programs which are available to them through out their military careers. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a primary source of information for these purposes. It is on the basis of our experience with this valuable publication that we are most eager to commend it to all who are concerned with career planning. L. K a t z e n b a c h , J r. Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Education E dw ard Letter From the Bureau of Employment Security The Bureau of Employment Security again welcomes a new edition of the Occupa tional Outlook Handbook—the sixth and the most comprehensive yet issued. This Handbook has long been a necessary tool in carrying out the counseling functions of the Employment Service and will be in even greater use as its programs continue to expand. A copy of the Handbook is available for reference in each of the 1,900 local employment service offices. In 1962, nearly 10/2 million job seekers came to the local employment service offices and a record 7 million placements in nonagricultural jobs were made, a postwar high. Many who come to the Public Employment Service for help in finding a job need counsel ing and more than 2 million counseling interviews were conducted last year. One of the difficulties faced by most people in choosing a vocation is insufficient exposure to the variety of opportunities open to them. If left alone, they measure themselves only against the kind of work done by others with whom they come in close contact, and they may choose their job without consideration of other possibilities. An orderly and comprehensive comparison of one field with another is desirable, and the Occupational Outlook Handbook makes this possible with a minimum of effort for the counselor. R o b e r t C. G o o d w in , Administrator Bureau of Employment Security Letter From Vocational Rehabilitation Administration The Occupational Outlook Handbook has proved to be an invaluable reference in the 90 State vocational rehabilitation agencies. In the rehabilitation process, where the ultimate goal is suitable employment for the handicapped, the counselor needs facts on training end other job requirements and on employment opportunities in a wide variety of occupations. With the continuing growth of rehabilitation counseling, there will be an increasing need for up-to-date vocational information of high quality. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is to be congratulated for providing such information through its editions of the Handbook. M a r y E. S w it z e r , Commissioner Vocational Rehabilitation Administration Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Contributors This Handbook was prepared in the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Division of Manpower and Oc cupational Outlook, Sol Swerdloff, Chief, under the general direction of Harold Goldstein, Assist ant Commissioner for Manpower and Employ ment Statistics. Mary Corre, counseling specialist, served as advisory consultant. The general planning of the Handbook was done under the direction of Cora E. Taylor, Chief of the Branch of Occupational Outlook and Spe cialized Personnel, who also provided general supervision over the research program on pro fessional, technical, clerical, sales, service, and related occupations. The research and preparation of the chapters on these fields of work were carried on under the direct supervision of Morton Levine, Jane H. Palmer, and Howard V. Stambler. Bernard Yabroff, Chief of the Branch of Skilled Manpower and Industrial Employment Studies, provided general supervision over the research program on skilled trades and other manual occupations and major industries and their occupations. The research and preparation of the chapters on these fields of work were car ried on under the direct supervision of Allan F. Salt and Joseph F. Fulton. Members of the Division staff who contributed sections were: Stella P. Manor, Maxine G. Stew art, Eose K. Wiener, Norman P. Brand, Eussell B. Flanders, Jr., Annie Lefkowitz, Sheldon H. VIII Luskin, Helen O. Nicol, Dorothy M. Orr, Jose phine C. Stein, Morris Cobern, Clare S. Frisby, William J. Kelley, Irving P. Phillips, David P. Lafayette, Frank H. Montgomery, Neal H. Eosenthal, Joe L. Eussell, Max L. Carey, Joseph J. Eooney, and Paul M. Eyscavage. Catherine F. Delano was in charge of assem bling and editing photographs and charts as well as supervising the checking of the manuscripts. Delores F. Booker, Maxine J. Mitchell, Olive B. Clay, Louise B. Crader, and Jean F. Whetzel pro vided research assistance, helped check manu scripts for accuracy, and assisted in other ways. Gladys B. Wash prepared the manuscripts for the printer and coordinated the various processes of preparation and publication. The chapter on Agricultural Occupations was prepared in the Farm Economics Division, Eco nomic Eesearch Service, U.S. Department of Ag riculture, under the direction of Wylie D. Goodsell and Earle E. Gavette. The graphic work in the Handbook was done under the supervision of Alice L. Wells, Chief, Branch of Graphic Presentation, Bureau of Labor Statistics, by Sylvia B. DeMeritt, Eobert E. Lembcke, Carole F. White, Lionel F. White, and Charles F. Wood. Eobert Cummings and Eichard L. Townsend prepared the illustrations for the charts. Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor Statistics wishes to acknowledge with gratitude the cooperation of the following organizations which either con tributed photographs for the Handbook or made their facilities available for Labor Department photographers: Acacia Mutual Life Insurance Co.; Addressograph-Multigraph Corp.; Air Line Dispatchers Association; Air Deduction Sales Co.; American Airlines, Inc.; American Associa tion of Oil Well Drilling Contractors; American Dental Association; American Dietetic Associa tion ; American Electroplaters Society; American Forest Products Industries; American Institute of Planners; American Iron and Steel Institute; American Marketing Association; American Oc cupational Therapy Association; American Opti cal Company; American Optometric Association; American Physical Therapy Association; Ameri can Podiatry Association ; American Society of Landscape Architects; American Security and Trust Co.; American Telephone and Telegraph Co.; Applied Physics Laboratory; Argonne Na tional Laboratory; Armstrong Cork Co.; Associa ted General Contractors of America, Inc.; At lantic Coast Line; Beech Aircraft Corp.; Blue Bird Cab Co.; Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers International Union of America ; Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators, and Paperhangers of America; Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen; Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Em ployes; Brown and Sharpe Manufacturing Co.; Bulova Watch Co.; Caterpillar Tractor Co.; Celanese Corporation of America; Chamberlain Vocational High School; Chrysler Corp.; Cin cinnati Milling Machine Co.; Cities Service Co.; Clissold Publishing Co.; Congoleum-Nairn, Inc.; Columbia Broadcasting Co.; Cummins En gine Co., Inc.; D.C. Transit System, Inc.; Drop Forging Association; E. I. Dupont deNemours and Co.; Famous Artists Schools; Harold J. Flicknoe; Harris Intertype; General Motors Corp.; Government Employees Insurance Co.; Higger’s Drugs, Inc.; Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bartenders International Union; Hughes Engi neering and Manufacturing Co., Inc.; Interna tional Association of Electrotypers and Stereotypers; International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers; Interna tional Association of Machinists; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Business Machines Corp.; International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union; Henry J. Kaufman and Associates; International Union of Operating Engineers; Kimberly Clark Corp.; Litton Indus tries; The Madison; Malleable Founders’ Society; McDonnell Aircraft Corp.; Metropolitan Opera Association, Inc.; Milk Industry Foundation; Jack Morton Productions, Inc.; National Associa tion of Dental Laboratories; National Association of Home Builders; National Association of Real Estate Boards; National Broadcasting Co.; Na tional Cash Register Co.; National Restaurant As sociation; New York Central System; New York Employing Printers Association; The New York Times; Nordberg Manufacturing Co.; North American Aviation, Inc.; Ohio State School of Cosmetology; Otis Elevator Co.; Penton Publish ing Co., Inc.; Pharmaceutical Manufacturers’ As sociation; Pittsburgh Corning Corp.; Potomac Electric Power Co.; Public Library of D.C.; Radio Corporation of America; Retail Clerks In ternational Association; Santa Fe Railway; Sheffield Corp.; Sidwell Friends School; Sloan’s House of Carpets, Inc.; Standard Brands, Inc.; Standard Oil Co.; Super Service Station Maga zine; Textile Machine Works; Traffic World Magazine; Trailways Bus System; Trane Co.; Union Bag-Camp Paper Corp.; United States Steel Corp.; Washington National Ballet Founda tion, Inc.; The Washington Post; Westinghouse Electric Corp.; Williamette Iron and Steel Co.; and Yale and Towne Manufacturing Co. Some photographs were supplied by various Federal Government agencies as shown by the credit lines accompanying the pictures. IX Note A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions, and other organizations in industry are in a position to supply valuable information to counselors or young people seeking information about careers. For the convenience of users of this Handbook, the reports on separate occupations or industries list some of the organizations or other sources which may be able to provide further information. Although these references were assem bled with care, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has no authority or facilities for investigating organizations. Also, since the Bureau has no way of knowing in advance what information or publications each organization may send in answer to a request, the Bureau cannot evaluate the accuracy of such informa tion. The listing of an organization, therefore, does not in any way constitute an endorsement or recommendation by the Bureau or the U.S. Department of Labor, either of the organization and its activities or of the information it may supply. Such information as each organization may issue is, of course, sent out on its own responsibility. The occupational statements in this Handbook are not intended, and should not be used, as standards for the determination of wages, hours, jurisdictional matters, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. These descriptive statements are presented in a general, composite form and, there fore, cannot be expected to apply exactly to specific jobs in a particular in dustry, establishment, or locality. x Contents USING THE HANDBOOK IN GUIDANCE_____________________________ GUIDE TO THE HANDBOOK_________________________________________ How the handbook is organized______________________________________________________ Some important facts about the occupational reports__________________________________ Page 1 3 3 4 WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION OR ASSISTANCE_______ 6 CHOOSING A CAREER—THE ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK_____________ 10 Keeping up to date on the occupational outlook_______________________________________ Services to jobseekers at public employment offices____________________________________ The population and the people who work_____________________________________________ The kinds of jobs there will be_______________________________________________________ The outlook for occupational change__________________________________________________ Implications of the outlook for education and training_________________________________ 6 7 11 14 20 25 PROFESSIONAL, ADMINISTRATIVE, AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. _ 27 Teaching___________________________________________________________________________ Kindergarten and elementary school teachers_____________________________________ Secondary school teachers_______________________________________________________ College and university teachers___________________________________________________ Counseling_________________________________________________________________________ School counselors_______________________________________________________________ Rehabilitation counselors________________________________________________________ Vocational counselors___________________________________________________________ Health service occupations___________________________________________________________ Registered professional nurses____________________________________________________ Physicians______________________________________________________________________ Pharmacists____________________________________________________________________ Dentists_______________________________________________________________________ Medical X-ray technicians_______________________________________________________ Medical technologists___________________________________________________________ Chiropractors___________________________________________________________________ Dietitians______________________________________________________________________ Dental laboratory technicians____________________________________________________ Veterinarians___________________________________________________________________ Optometrists___________________________________________________________________ Osteopathic physicians__________________________________________________________ Hospital administrators_________________________________________________________ Dental hygienists_______________________________________________________________ Physical therapists______________________________________________________________ Podiatrists_____________________________________________________________________ Occupational therapists_________________________________________________________ Medical record librarians________________________________________________________ Engineering________________________________________________________________________ Aeronautical engineers__________________________________________________________ Agricultural engineers___________________________________________________________ Ceramic engineers______________________________________________________________ Chemical engineers_____________________________„_______________________________ Civil engineers__________________________________________________________________ Electrical engineers_____________________________________________________________ Industrial engineers_____________________________________________________________ Mechanical engineers___________________________________________________________ Metallurgical engineers__________________________________________________________ Mining engineers_______________________________________________________________ XI 32 33 37 39 43 43 46 49 52 53 56 59 62 65 67 69 71 73 75 78 80 82 85 87 89 91 93 96 100 101 101 102 103 104 105 106 106 107 XII OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Physical sciences____________________________________________________________________ Chemists_______________________________________________________________________ Physicists______________________________________________________________________ Astronomers____________________________________________________________________ Earth sciences______________________________________________________________________ Geologists______________________________________________________________________ Geophysicists____________________________________ Meteorologists_____________________________ Oceanographers_______________________ Biological sciences__________________________________ Mathematics and related fields_______________________________________________________ Mathematicians________________________________________________________________ Statisticians_________________________ Actuaries_______________________________________________________________________ Technician occupations______________________________________________________________ Engineering and science technicians______________________________________________ Draftsmen___________________________________________________ „________________ Surveyors_________________________________ Social sciences__________________________ Anthropologists_________________________________________________________________ Economists______________ Historians______________________________________________________________________ Political scientists_______________________________________________________________ Sociologists_________ The clergy_________________________________________________________________________ Protestant clergymen___________________________________________________________ Roman Catholic priests_________________________________________________________ Rabbis_________________________________________________________________________ Business administration and related professions_______________________________________ Accountants____________________________________________________________________ Advertising workers_____________________________________________________________ Industrial traffic managers_______________________________________________________ Marketing research workers_____________________________________________________ Personnel workers______________________________________________________________ Public relations workers_________________________________________________________ Purchasing agents______________________________________________________________ The performing arts_________________________________________________________________ Musicians and music teachers_______________________________________________ - ___ Singers and singing teachers_____________________________________________________ Actors and actresses____________________________________________________________ Dancers___________________________________________________________________ Other professional and related occupations____________________________________________ Architects______________________________________________________________________ Commercial artists___________________________________________ Foresters______________________________________________________________________ Geographers__________________________________ Home economists_______________________________________________________________ Industrial designers_____________________________________________________________ Interior designers and decorators_________________________________________________ Landscape architects____________________________________________________________ Lawyers_______________________________________________________________________ Librarians______________________________________________________________________ Newspaper reporters____________________________________________________________ Photographers__________________________________________________________________ Programers_____________________________________________________________________ Psychologists___________________________________________________________________ Social workers__________________________________________________________________ Technical writers_______________________________________________________________ Urban planners_________________________________________________________________ Page 109 109 112 115 120 120 123 126 129 133 139 139 142 145 148 148 157 159 163 164 166 169 170 172 175 176 178 180 182 184 187 190 193 195 198 201 204 204 207 210 213 217 217 219 222 224 227 230 233 235 238 241 245 248 250 254 257 261 263 XIII CONTENTS Page CLERICAL AND SALES OCCUPATIONS________________________________ 267 Clerical and related occupations_______________________________________________________ 267 Stenographers and secretaries______________________________________________________ 269 Typists__________________________________________________________________________ 272 Bookkeeping workers_____________________________________________________________ 274 Cashiers_________________________________________________________________________ 275 Office machine operators__________________________________________________________ 278 Electronic computer operating personnel__________________________________________ 282 Shipping and receiving clerks______________________________________________________ 285 Sales occupations_____________________________________________________________________ 287 Salesmen and saleswomen in retail stores___________________________________ Salesmen in wholesale trade_____________________________________________________ 291 Manufacturers’ salesmen__________________________________________________________ 294 Life insurance agents_____________________________________________________________ 296 Property and casualty insurance agents and brokers_________________________________ 299 Real estate salesmen and brokers__________________________________________________ 301 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS_____________________________________________ 304 Protective service occupations_________________________________________________________ FBI agents______________________________________________________________________ Firemen_________________________________________________________________________ Policemen and policewomen_______________________________________________________ Other service occupations_____________________________________________________________ Barbers_________________________________________________________________________ Beauty operators_________________________________________________________________ Licensed practical nurses__________________________________________________________ 306 306 308 311 315 315 317 320 SKILLED TRADES AND OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS___________ 323 Skilled workers________________ ,2___________________________________________________ 324 Other manual workers________________________________________________________________ 326 Building trades_______________________________________________________________________ 329 Carpenters______________________________________________________________________ 335 Painters and paperhangers________________________________________________________ 338 Plumbers and pipefitters__________________________________________________________ 341 Bricklayers___________________________________________________________________ 344 Operating engineers (construction machinery operators)_____________________________ 346 Electricians (construction)_______________________________________________________ 349 Structural-, ornamental-, and reinforcing-iron (rodmen) workers______________________ 352 Plasterers________________________________________________________________________ 355 Roofers__________________________________________________________________________ 358 Cement masons (cement and concrete finishers)_____________________________________ 360 Floor covering installers___________________________________________________________ 362 Sheet-metal workers______________________________________________________________ 365 Asbestos and insulating workers___________________________________________________ 368 Lathers__________________________________________________________________________ 369 Marble setters, tile setters, and terrazzo workers____________________________________ 371 Glaziers________________________________________________________________________ 373 Elevator constructors_____________________________________________________________ 375 Stonemasons_____________________________________________________________________ 377 Construction laborers and hod carriers.____________________________________________ 378 Printing (graphic arts) occupations____________________________________________________ 381 Composing room occupations______________________________________________________ 386 Photoengravers__________________________________________________________________ 389 Electrotypers and stereotypers____________________________________________________ 391 Printing pressmen and assistants__________________________________________________ 393 Lithographic occupations_________________________________________________________ 395 Bookbinders and related workers__________________________________________________ 397 288 XIV OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Mechanics and repairmen___________________________________________________________ Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics___________________________________.__ Appliance servicemen____________________________________________________________ Automobile mechanics__________________________________________________________ Business machine servicemen____________________________________________________ Diesel mechanics_______________________________________________________________ Industrial machinery repairmen__________________________________________________ Instrument repairmen___________________________________________________________ Maintenance electricians________________________________________________________ Millwrights____________________________________________________________________ Television and radio servicemen_________________________________________________ Watch repairmen_______________________________________________________________ Machining occupations______________________________________________________________ All-round machinists____________________________________________________________ Machine tool operators__________________________________________________________ Tool and die makers____________________________________________________________ Instrument makers (mechanical)_________________________________________________ Setup men (machine tools)______________________________________________________ Layout men____________________________________________________________________ Forge shop occupations_____________________________________________________________ Driving occupations________________________________________________________________ Over-the-road truckdrivers______________________________________________________ Local truckdrivers______________________________________________________________ Routemen______________________________________________________________________ Intercity busdrivers____________________________________________________________ Local transit busdrivers_________________________________________________________ Taxi drivers________________ „__________________________________________________ Some factory occupations not requiring specialized training---------------------------------------Assemblers_____________________________________________________________________ Inspectors______________________________________________________________________ Power truck operators__________________________________________________________ Production painters_____________________________________________________________ Stationary firemen (boiler)______________________________________________________ Other trades and manual occupations_________________________________________________ Blacksmiths____________________________________________________________________ Boilermaking occupations_______________________________________________________ Dispensing opticians and optical laboratory mechanics_____________________________ Electroplaters__________________________________________________________________ Gasoline service station attendants_______________________________________________ Jewelers and jewelry repairmen__________________________________________________ Stationary engineers____________________________________________________________ Welders and oxygen and arc cutters----------------------------------------------------------------------- Pa&e 399 400 402 405 408 414 417 418 421 424 426 420 433 437 439 441 443 445 446 448 452 453 457 460 463 466 469 472 472 474 476 478 479 482 482 484 486 490 492 495 498 501 SOME MAJOR INDUSTRIES AND THEIR OCCUPATIONS____________ 505 Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing________________________________________ Apparel industry___________________________________________________________________ Atomic energy field_________________________________________________________________ Baking industry______________________________________________________________________ Banking___________________________________________________________________________ Bank clerks and related workers___________________________________________________ Tellers__________________________________________________________________________ Bank officers___________________________________________________________________ Civil aviation________________________________________________________________________ Pilots and copilots____________________________________________._________________ Flight engineers__________________________________________________________________ Stewardesses_____________________________________________________________________ Airplane mechanics_______________________________________________________________ Airline dispatchers_______________________________________________________________ Air traffic controllers_____________________________________________________________ Ground radio operators and teletypists_____________________________________________ Traffic agents and clerks__________________________________________________________ 505 515 524 538 545 548 550 551 553 556 560 562 564 566 568 570 571 XV CONTENTS Electric light and power industry____________________________________________________ Powerplant occupations_________________________________________________________ Transmission and distributionoccupations------------------------------------------------------------Customer service occupations____________________________________________________ Electronics manufacturing___________________________________________________________ Foundries___________________________________________________ Molders_______________________________________________________________________ Coremakers____________________________________________________________________ Patternmakers_________________________________________________________________ Hotels________________________________ Bellmen and bell captains---------------------Front office clerks______________________________________________________________ Housekeepers and assistants_____________________________________________________ Managers and assistants--------------------------------Industrial chemical industry-----------------------------------------Insurance business------------------------------------------------Iron and steel industry______________________________________________________________ Motor vehicle manufacturing________________________________________________________ Petroleum production and refining___________________________________________________ Petroleum production occupations_______________________________________________ Petroleum refining occupations__________________________________________________ Pulp, paper, and paper products industry_____________________________________________ Radio and television broadcasting____________________________________________________ Radio and television announcers_________________________________________________ Broadcast technicians___________________________________________________________ Railroads__________________________________________________________________________ Locomotive engineers___________________________________________________________ Locomotive firemen (helpers)____________________________________________________ Conductors____________________________________________________________________ Brakemen_____________________________________________________________________ Telegraphers, telephoners, andtowermen__________________________________________ Station agents____________________________‘------------------------------------------------------Clerks_________________________________________________________________________ Shop trades____________________________________________________________________ Signal department workers______________________________________________________ Track workers_________________________________________________________________ Bridge and building workers_____________________________________________________ Restaurants________________________________________________________________________ Waiters and waitresses____ _____________________________________________________ Cooks and chefs________________________________________________________________ Managers and assistants________________________________________________________ Telephone industry_________________________________________________________________ Telephone operators____________________________________________________________ Linemen and cable splicers____ *______________________________ Telephone and PBX installersand repairmen--------------------------------------------------------Central office craftsmen_________________________________________________________ Central office equipment installers_______________________________________________ OCCUPATIONS IN AGRICULTURE Opportunities on farms______________________________________________________________ Opportunities on specific types of farms______________________________________________ Occupations related to agriculture_____________________________ Agricultural extension service workers----- -------Soil scientists__________________________________________________________________ Soil conservationists------------------------------Other professional workers______________________________________________________ Farm service jobs______________________________________________________________ Page 574 578 581 584 587 598 502 504 506 608 611 613 614 616 618 625 630 641 651 652 658 662 670 677 679 683 688 690 692 693 695 696 697 698 700 702 703 705 708 709 711 714 718 720 722 724 726 728 729 732 738 738 739 741 742 745 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK XVI OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT___________________________________ Civilian employment________________________________________________________________ Federal Government____________________________________________________________ State and local governments_____________________________________________________ Post office occupations__________________________________________________________ Mail carriers_______________________________________________________________ Postal clerks_______________________________________________________________ Armed Forces______________________________________________________________________ Page 746 748 748 755 758 762 765 769 TECHNICAL APPENDIX______________________________________________ 772 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES_______________________ 775 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U T L O O K HANDBOOK Using the Handbook in G uidance Services The Occupational Outlook Handbook, now in its sixth edition, lias become an invaluable tool in school guidance and placement programs. Over the years, as both the Handbook and guidance services have matured, they have become mutually dependent on each other. In the guidance field, the Handbook is used by several groups. At the college level, the counselor educator explains its contents to counselor train ees to help them understand specific job patterns, characteristics of related occupations, and trends affecting the nature and number of jobs. More im portant, the counselor educator teaches the future counselors to use this reference in everyday guid ance activities. At the secondary school level, the teacher of occupations finds this volume organized and writ ten in such readable language that his students can use it as a reference book in understanding different kinds and levels of work, and in discover ing information about careers of personal interest. However, at both secondary and collegiate lev els, the Handbook is most valued by the counselor on the job, and the student who seeks help in choosing a career. The counselor utilizes all avail able facts about the youth sitting across the desk, .and about the jobs that might be suitable for him. J. A. Stratton, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, said, over 4 years ago, that half of all we knew in science had been learned in the past 10 years, and that our scien tific knowledge would double in the next 5 years and continue to multiply at an ever-increasing rate. How true his predictions have been to date! Consequently, most occupations which are affected by scientific knowledge—and what job is not?— 692-408 O—63-----2 will be subject to change. As work patterns move with the times, worker functions, too, will shift. Since many occupations which will be impor tant a decade hence have not yet evolved, a stu dent with some years of preparation before him may be encouraged to elect a broad program of courses and perhaps identify a general area of in terest such as science, social studies, or art. Spe cialization may be delayed until a later date. The further he goes in school, the more time he will have to select his major field. The more familiar he is with areas of work as described in the Hand book, the better prepared he will be to plan his own future as he goes along. Most of the career information in the Hand book follows a uniform outline: Nature of Work; Where Employed; Training and Other Qualifica tions; Employment Outlook; Earnings and Working Conditions; and Where To Go for More Information. The comprehensive coverage in cludes basic information from which the counselor can deduce values that contribute to job satisfac tion. Planning for the future requires interpreta tion of economic facts, anticipation of the effect of science and invention on various vocational fields, and estimates of changing occupational em phasis. Few counselors possess this information and the ability to correlate it for use in the guid ance program. The Handbook does part of the job and also enables the counselor to assist the student in considering vocational goals or areas which will utilize his strongest potentials—intelli gence, special talents, personality, interests, and values. School counselors all over the country use the Handbook as one of their essential tools. It is 1 2 among the few volumes they keep on their desks for constant reference. One counselor-trainer re ports that she always cautions her counselors-intraining: “Don’t rely on your memories for facts about occupations. Consult the Handbook.” Surely the counselor who fails to avail himself of this and other materials published by the Occupational Outlook Service lacks some of the most authentic and current data about occupations. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is fre quently used by counselors in conferring with students who have completed a vocational interest test and find certain occupational areas indicated by test results. The use of the reference makes it easy to refer a pupil to a number of occupations related to his vocational goals. For many coun selors, this book is their first reference, and from this as a start they encourage the use of other materials. The various descriptions of occupations in cluded in the Handbook are also available as re prints. Counselors may place these under specific occupational headings in their reference file and make them available to individual students who express interest in particular occupations. Counselors use the Handbook and related ma terials not only with students but also in helping parents to counsel their children. Here the re prints are especially valuable, as they may be borrowed easily for home reading. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The Handbook should broaden each student’s background of occupational information and understanding of the important factors influenc ing occupations, thus helping him to develop de sirable and satisfying plans for the future. Care ful study of it by counselors, parents, and pupils should help them to realize the many ways in which occupations are changing, growing, and declining. Such realization will emphasize the need for flexible planning for the choice of a major interest area as well as related occupations to which these interests and abilities may lead. Guidance services are permissive in nature and should always be available in career planning. A student matures and jobs evolve, making the coun selor function, in the present, one of effecting a compatible union of worker and work at some time in the future. Intelligent use of this book can give a counselor the assurance that after he understands what the counselee brings to his po tential vocation, he can suggest the various areas of work which will meet these qualifications. A wise counselor and the Handbook make a good team. F r a n k L. S ievers , Director Guidance and Counseling Programs Branch and D o lph C a m p , Acting Chief Occupational and Career Guidance Section Office of Education, U.S. Department of Healthy Education, and Welfare G uide to the Handbook This book answers many questions young people ask when they are interested in choosing an occu pation. It gives information on occupations—on the employment outlook in each field, the nature of the work, training and other qualifications needed for entry, lines of advancement, where jobs are located, and earnings and working con ditions. How the Handbook Is Organized Introductory Chapters The Handbook starts with three introductory chapters designed to help counselors and students make effective use of the book and to give them a general view of the world of work. This chapter, the Guide to the Handbook, de scribes the contents and organization of the book. It tells how the information was assembled and discusses a number of points which need to be borne in mind in interpreting the statements. The second introductory chapter gives sugges tions regarding supplementary sources of occupa tional information and tells how readers can keep up to date on developments affecting the employ ment outlook in different occupations. It also con tains a brief description of the counseling, place ment, and other services available to jobseekers at local offices of State employment services affiliated with the U.S. Employment Service. The final in troductory chapter describes some of the most important trends in population and employment, both past and prospective, and provides a back ground for interpreting the reports on particular occupations. Occupational Reports The reports on different fields of wrork make up the main body of the book. They are arranged in chapters dealing with groups of related occupa tions. These chapters are grouped, in turn, into seven major divisions of the book: Professional, administrative, and related occupations; clerical and sales occupations; service occupations; skilled trades and other manual occupations; some major industries and their occupations; occupations in agriculture; and occupations in government. Indexes and Appendix To help readers locate information on the occu pations in which they are interested, a list of the occupational reports is included in the table of contents at the front of the book. The index at the back of the book lists occupations and industries alphabetically. An edge index has also been intro duced to facilitate locating reports. (See yellow page insert.) The technical appendix contains a discussion of the sources and methods used in analyzing the occupational outlook in different fields of work. It is designed for readers wishing more information on this subject than is included in the present chapter. The appendix also contains an explana tion of the D.O.T. numbers given in the occupa tional reports, to indicate where each occupation fits into the classification system of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. 3 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 4 Some Important Facts About the Occupational Reports Occupations Covered The nearly 700 occupations discussed include those of greatest interest to young people. Most of the large ones requiring long periods of education or training are discussed, as are a number of small but rapidly growing fields and other occupations of special interest. Altogether, the occupations covered account for about 90 percent of all work ers in professional and related and in sales occu pations; nearly as high a proportion in skilled occupations; over half in clerical and in service occupations (outside private households); and smaller proportions in administrative and semi skilled occupations. The main types of farming are also discussed. General information on many fields of work not covered in the occupational reports is con tained in the introductions to the major divisions of the book. These introductions are also designed to aid the reader in interpreting the reports on individual occupations. Sources of Information Information on employment trends and outlook and the many related topics discussed in the occu pational reports was drawn from a great variety of sources. It is based in part on extensive field investigation carried out by the Bureau of Labor Statistics professional staff; interviews with hun dreds of persons in industry, unions, trade asso ciations, and public agencies provided a wealth of up-to-date information. In addition, the Bureau’s other research programs supplied data on employ ment in different industries, productivity and technological developments, wages and working conditions, trade union agreements, industrial hazards, and a number of other topics. Other agencies of the Federal Government—among them, the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training and Bureau of Employment Security in the De partment of Labor; the Bureau of the Census of the Department of Commerce; the Office of Edu cation of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; the Civil Service Commission; the Interstate Commerce Commission; the Civil Aero nautics Administration; and the Federal Commu nications Commission—provided additional data regarding the nature of the work in various occu pations, training and licensing requirements, wages, and employment trends. Many other public and private organizations—including State li censing boards, educational institutions, business firms, professional societies, trade associations, and trade unions—also made available published and unpublished data and supplied much helpful information through interviews. After the information from these many sources was brought together and analyzed, conclusions were reached as to prospective employment trends in the occupations. In addition, estimates were made of the numbers of job openings which will be created by retirements and deaths. The supply of new workers likely to be available in particular fields was also analyzed, by studying statistics on high school and college enrollments and gradua tions and data on the numbers of apprentices in skilled trades. Preliminary drafts of the occupational reports were reviewed by officials of leading companies, trade associations, trade unions, and professional societies, and by other experts. The information and conclusions presented in each report thus re flect the knowledge and judgment not only of the Bureau of Labor Statistics staff but also of lead ers in the field discussed, although the Bureau, of course, takes full responsibility for all statements made. Points To Bear in Mind in Using the Reports In using the information which this book con tains about employment prospects, it is important to keep in mind that all conclusions about the economic future necessarily rest on certain as sumptions. Among the assumptions stated on page 10, which underlie the statements on employ ment outlook in this Handbook, are that high employment levels will be maintained and no cataclysmic events will occur. A catastrophe such as a war or a severe and prolonged economic de pression would, of course, create an entirely differ ent employment situation from that likely to develop under the assumed conditions. But young GUIDE TO THE HANDBOOK people would find it impossible to build their life time plans in expectation of such unpredictable catastrophes, though, on the basis of historical experience, they must be prepared to weather economic ups and downs during their working lives. To avoid constant repetition, the assumptions are seldom mentioned in the reports on the many fields of work where the impact of a general de cline in business or a change in the scale of mobili zation would probably be about the same as in the economy as a whole. On the other hand, in the statements on occupations where employment tends to be either unusually stable or especially subject to ups and downs, these facts are indi cated. Even in the latter occupations, howTever, long-term trends in employment are more im portant than short-run fluctuations in appraising the outlook in connection with an individual’s choice of a lifetime career. The picture of employment opportunities given in this book applies to the country as a whole unless otherwise indicated. People who want sup plementary information on job opportunities in their communities should consult local sources of information, as suggested in the next chapter. 5 The information presented on earnings and working conditions, as on other subjects, repre sents the most recent available when the Hand book was prepared early in 1963. Much of the information came from Bureau of Labor Statis tics surveys, but many other sources were also utilized. For this reason, the earnings data pre sented in the various occupational reports often refer to different periods of time, cover varying geographic areas, and represent different kinds of statistical measures. Comparisons between the earnings data for different occupations should, therefore, be made with great caution. Finally, it should be borne in mind that infor mation on occupations and the employment op portunities they offer is only part of that needed in a career decision, which means matching a person and an occupation. The other part relates, of course, to the aptitudes and interests of the potential worker himself. People can obtain help in assessing their own abilities and interests and in selecting the occupation for which they are best suited from vocational counselors in schools and colleges, State employment service offices, Veterans Administration regional offices and guid ance centers, and many community agencies. W here To G o for M ore Information or A ssistance Persons using this Handbook may want more detail on the occupations discussed in the occupa tional reports, or information on fields of work which are not covered in this publication. Suggestions as to sources of additional informa tion on the occupations discussed are given in most of the occupational reports. In addition, several types of publications of the U.S. Department of Labor, including periodicals described on pages 790-792, provide further information on topics such as earnings, hours of wTork, and working con ditions. Other sources likely to be helpful include the following: music, printing, and shorthand can often give information about occupations related to the sub jects they teach. Public Libraries Business Establishments These libraries usually have many books, pam phlets, and magazine articles giving information about different occupations. They may also have several books and current indexes which list the great numbers of publications on occupations, and the librarians may be of assistance in finding the best ones on a particular field of work. Schools School libraries and guidance offices often have the same kinds of reading materials on occupa tions. In addition, school counselors and teachers usually know of any local occupational informa tion wffiich has been assembled through special surveys made by schools or other community agencies. Teachers of special subjects such as State Employment Services Counselors in local public employment offices are in a particularly good position to supply in formation about job opportunities, hiring stand ards, and wages in their localities. (The services available through the public employment offices are described in the concluding section of this chapter.) Employers and personnel officers can usually supply information about the nature of the work performed by employees in their industry or busi ness and the qualifications needed for various jobs, as well as other facts about employment condi tions and opportunities. The names of local firms in a particular industry can be found in the classi fied sections of telephone directories or can be ob tained from local chambers of commerce. Trade Unions, Employers9 Associations, and Professional Societies Frequently, these organizations have local branches, with officials who can supply informa tion relating to the occupations with wffiich they are concerned. Keeping Up To Date on the Occupational Outlook This edition of the Handbook, like all previous editions, incorporates the most recent occupational information available when the book was prepared for publication early in 1963. 6 The Bureau of Labor Statistics also issues a periodical, the Occupational Outlook Quarterly, to keep readers up to date between editions of the Handbook, on developments affecting employment WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION opportunities and on the findings of new occupa tional outlook research. In addition, the Bureau issues at irregular intervals occupational outlook bulletins which give much more detailed informa tion on various fields of work than can be in cluded either in the Handbook or in the Occupa tional Outlook Quarterly. Further information about these publications, and directions for order ing them, will be found on page 790. 7 The Bureau will be glad to place the name of any user of this Handbook on its mailing lists to receive announcements of new publications and re leases summarizing the results of new studies. Anyone wishing to receive such materials should send the request, with his address, to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., 20210. Services to Jobseekers at Public Employment Offices Many of the readers of this Handbook want assistance in choosing a suitable type of work and in finding the right job. The reader who wants professional assistance from trained employment counselors should know about the services of his local public employment office. The U.S. Employment Service and affiliated State employment services form a nationwide organization which plays an important part in our economy. Through 1,900 local offices in cities and towns throughout the United States, this employ ment service finds jobs for workers and workers for jobs. Although the employment service is a FederalState system, each employment office is basically a local community organization. It is concerned with facilitating suitable and stable employment for the community’s working population and with adequately meeting the manpower needs of em ployers. The local office tries to do more than merely refer a worker to a job—it tries to match the worker and job so that the requirements of each are satisfied. To do this, the public employ ment office has developed a number of services that are available to all jobseekers. Many of these are particularly important to young men and women entering the world of work for the first time. Counseling Services Employment service counseling assists young people who are starting their careers, as well as experienced workers who wish or need to change their occupation, in choosing and adjusting to a suitable field of work. The major purposes of employment counseling are to help people gain insight into their actual and potential abilities, their interests, and their personal traits; to understand the nature of occu pations; and to make the best use of their capaci ties and preferences in the light of available job opportunities. In the employment service, the counselor has a great store of resources, including testing fa cilities and labor market and occupational infor mation. Testing. Most local offices provide testing services, including the General Aptitude Test Battery which measures basic abilities for many and varied broad fields of work and for about 850 specific jobs within these fields. These tests help the applicant appraise his abilities. They may re veal aptitudes the jobseeker did not know he had. Labor Market Information. The State employ ment office counselor has information about jobs in the community. He knows what kinds of jobs prevail in local industry, which jobs are more plentiful, what the hiring requirements and the opportunities for promotion are, and what the jobs pay. In many labor market areas, the coun selor has information about future occupational opportunities, based on area skill surveys which usually cover employers’ forecasts of their longrange requirements. He may also have detailed occupational guides covering specific jobs in the community. Since his office is a part of the nation wide employment service, the counselor also has information regarding employment opportunities in other areas throughout the country. 8 Occupational Information. The employment serv ice office has occupational information which helps the job applicant decide whether he is suited to a particular kind of work. The Dictionary of Occu pational Titles, Job Descriptions, Estimates of Worker Traits for 1^,000 Jobs, and other compila tions describe the work performed in various occu pations and the training required, lines of ad vancement, physical demands, and working con ditions for most occupations. Recent publications of the type on file in the employment offices in clude: Occupations in Electronic Data-Process ing Systems, Technical Occupations in Research, Design, and Development Considered as Directly Supporting to Engineers and Physical Scientists, and Selected Occupations Concerned with Atomic Energy. Cooperative Arrangements With Other Com munity Groups. Local employment office counse lors work closely with other public and private agencies and organizations which provide special services that the jobseeker may need in order to become better prepared for employment. These groups include educational, training, vocational rehabilitation, and health and welfare agencies. Placement Services The primary objectives of the placement serv ice in the local employment office are to fill em ployers’ job openings with occupationally quali fied workers and to locate for workers employ ment which is suited to their skills, knowledge, and abilities. The employment office placement service is designed to eliminate the waste of “hitor-miss” job hunting. The public employment offices provide jobseek ers not only with assistance in finding employment but also with information on the basic elements for getting and holding a job. The employment service personnel explain what to look for in a job; what the sources are for job leads; how to plan for job hunting; how to prepare for an inter view with an employer; what information and papers to have ready; and what the proper atti tude and dress should be. Local Openings. State employment office person nel maintain regular contacts with local employ ers and know their hiring needs and their jobs. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Placement interviewers receive requests from em ployers for all kinds of workers. Through the local office, therefore, the job applicant has ac cess to a variety of job vacancies with many em ployers, just as the employer has access to many applicants. When no suitable job exists for an in dividual worker, the employment .service may attempt to solicit an opening for him from likely employers. Jobs Throughout the Country. The job clearance system of the nationwide network of State em ployment offices offers the applicant an oppor tunity to apply for jobs outside his area, else where in the State and the Nation, and even in foreign countries. Each State employment service prepares frequent inventories of hard-to-fill jobs which are distributed to all other State employ ment services. This makes it possible for them to refer local workers to out-of-area jobs for which they qualify. In addition, a national network of highly specialized professional placement offices has been established with the State employment service to speed the matching of jobs and appli cants in professional fields. Placement Aids. As in counseling, the informa tion on local job opportunities for industries, occu pations, and areas, and on occupational require ments which is available in the employment of fices contributes greatly to getting the right job for the worker and the right worker for the job. Also available to the jobseeker are aptitude and proficiency tests which help determine whether an applicant is qualified to perform satisfactorily on specific jobs. Services to Special Worker Groups The employment service has developed tech niques and procedures for particular applicant groups who may encounter special problems in their search for suitable jobs. For young people, special services include coun seling graduating students and school dropouts, and intensive efforts to promote employment op portunities. In many cities, employment service offices have cooperative arrangements with high schools to provide counseling, testing, occupa tional information, and placement services to sen WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION iors prior to their graduation, as well as to those who leave school earlier. More than 10,500 high schools had such arrangements in the school year 1961-62. The State employment offices have long main tained an active program for helping applicants with vocational handicaps. The emphasis is on what these people can do wTith their abilities rather than on what they cannot do because of a disa bility. Special services for veterans are provided by the employment service. In each local office, there is a veterans’ representative who is fully informed regarding veterans’ rights and benefits and who carries on job promotion for veterans. In addition, he assists veterans in making use of the usual counseling, placement, and other services provided by local office staff. The employment service also has developed techniques to deal with job problems of middleaged and older workers. Special attention is given 9 to assist them to make realistic job choices and to overcome problems related to getting and holding a job. Employers have been encouraged to remove age restrictions on hiring and to hire only accord ing to the qualifications of the individual. Similar attention is also given to job problems of members of minority groups and others facing special difficulties in obtaining suitable employ ment. How To Locate the Local Employment Office The addresses and telephone numbers of local offices of State employment services affiliated with the U.S. Employment Service may be found in local telephone directories. Jobseekers, employ ers, schools, and public and private agencies aid ing clients to find employment are invited to utilize the services of the public employment offices in their communities and to avail themselves of the job information maintained in these offices. Choosing A Career— The Economic Framework In considering the choice of one’s life work, economic developments—past, present, and future —become of vital importance as a background against which to evaluate individual interests and abilities. Counselors, teachers, parents, and others who assist young people in making their voca tional choices need to understand the factors which will affect future employment opportuni ties and careers. Young people themselves may want to gain a greater understanding of the forces at work which are likely to shape their work lives. This chapter of the Handbook is, therefore, ad dressed to them as well as to those who may coun sel them. It describes past trends and anticipated changes in those aspects of our economy which strongly influence employment opportunities— changes in population, work force, industries, and occupations. It also discusses the implications of these developments for education and training in relation to occupational choice. Of course, some aspects of the future are easier to predict than others. For example, the number of people who will be 18 years old in 1975 can be estimated with a very high degree of accuracy, be cause these are the individuals counted as 3-yearolds in the Census of 1960. Their number in 1975 will be affected only by the number who die before then, and this can be estimated quite accurately from past experience. On the other hand, fore casting employment of automobile assemblers in 1975 is extremely difficult since their employment depends not only upon population growth—which affects both the supply of workers and the demand for automobiles—but also on changes in buyers’ preferences (toward European or American makes, for instance, or toward “compact” or “econ omy” models); changes in production methods which may use fewer workers or different kinds of workers in the future; changes in the level of overall economic activity, employment, and per sonal income; and other developments outside of the automobile industry that are almost impos 10 sible to foresee. Nevertheless, reasonable estimates of employment based on the best information available are much better than sheer speculation. And the longer the training period required to prepare for the occupation, and the greater the expense, the more important is an awareness of the possible future employment picture. Although no one can accurately forecast all the developments of the future, it is possible to project trends and to estimate, at least in broad terms, future levels of employment in many in dustries and occupations. To do this, however, requires not only basic factual data, but certain given conditions or assumptions, as well. The pic ture of future employment as reflected in this Handbook is based on four fundamental as sumptions : (1) That a higher rate of economic growth will be achieved and that high general levels of em ployment will be realized over the long run, even though there may be temporary recessions; (2) that there will be no major war but that, at the same time, the defense program, including maintenance of the Armed Forces, will continue at about the current level; (3) that scientific and technological advances will continue; and (4) that there will be no abrupt change in work patterns and trends of the population, or in the fundamental economic structure of the United States. Starting with these assumptions and making use of detailed information collected from a great variety of sources, this Handbook attempts to provide answers to some questions of major im portance to students as they make educational and vocational plans. Some of these questions are: What kinds of jobs will there be? What industries will provide which kinds of jobs? What fields of work look especially promising? What competition will one face from other workers? CHOOSING A CAREER----THE ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK Of particular importance also is an understand ing of the dynamic changes going on in our econ omy. New ways of making things, new products, and new patterns of living are continually caus ing changes in the kinds of jobs available to work ers. This process of change calls for a broad foundation of training and education, so that, if a shift in plans becomes necessary, a transition from one occupation or field of work to another may be made more easily. 11 To throw light on the changing character of oc cupational life and to provide background for an understanding of the trends and outlook in par ticular occupations, the next few sections will review the growth and changing composition of the Nation’s population as a whole and of that portion of the population that makes up the work force. The discussion will also tell something about the major trends in employment in broad industry and occupation groups. The Population and the People W ho Work The Population Work and jobs exist because there is a popu lation to be served. The larger the population, the more needs there are to be met, hence more jobs. The changing age composition and other characteristics of the population will also affect to some extent the kinds of goods and services that will be needed, which in turn will influence the kinds of jobs that will develop. The basic fact about our population is its enor mous growth since the beginning of our life as an independent Nation. The first census, in 1790, counted 4 million people (only half the population of New York City today) occupying 889,000 square miles of territory. During the first 150 years of our history, from 1790 to 1940, the popu lation grew to 132 million people, occupying 3 million square miles. The growth in population was particularly rapid in the several decades preceding World War I, when there was a combination of a high birth rate, large-scale immigration principally from European countries, and a sharp reduction in death rates. After World War I, the rate of population increase slackened for two principal reasons—the birth rate declined and our immi gration laws were so changed that the flow of peo ple coming to the United States as immigrants virtually stopped. During the depression years of the 1930’s, there was an especially sharp decrease in marriages and therefore in births because of widespread unemployment, low incomes, and lim ited job opportunities. The low birth rates of the depression years are reflected clearly in the age distribution of the working population today, and will continue to result in a shortage of experi enced, middle-aged workers right through this decade. Since most of the young people using this book were born after 1940, this discussion of popu lation changes will concentrate on what has hap pened since the beginning of World War II. Chart 1 shows recent and anticipated population changes. CHART 1 POPULATION WILL REACH 226 MILLION IN 1975 — 25 PERCENT MORE THAN IN 1960.... M illio n s 250 - 225 - 200 - 175 - 150 - 125 - 100 - P ro je cte d 75 50 - 25 - 0L Source: Data fo r 1940-60. U S. Bureau of the Census-. p ro je ctio ns: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 12 During the war years, but particularly after 1945, when young veterans began to return home, the birth rate rose spectacularly. In 1947, 3.8 mil lion births were recorded, compared with fewer than 2.5 million a year during the late 1930’s. Since that time, the rate has remained high, with the number of births passing the 4 million mark in 1954 and continuing to rise until 1961, then de clining slightly in 1962. The 1960 Census counted 180 million people, almost 50 million more than 20 years earlier; by 1975, the population is ex pected to reach a total of 226 million, or an in crease of 45 million in only 15 years. The presence of so many young people in the population has changed its age distribution con siderably since 1940. For example, people under 14 then equaled 23 percent of the total popula tion, but by 1960 this age group had risen to almost 30 percent. It will drop only a little (to 28 percent) between 1960 and 1970 and remain at about that level through 1975 (table 1). The population declines have been in the age groups which are the primary suppliers of experienced workers. In 1940, the broad age group from 25 to 44 was 30 percent of the total population; by 1960, it had dropped to 26 percent and by 1970, it will have dropped still further to 23 percent, almost the exact reverse of the changes that took place in the young group, over the same period of time. After 1970, of course, as today’s flood of young people grow older, the proportion of those age 25-44 in the total population will begin to rise again. T able 1. P ercent D istr ibu tio n of P o pulatio n , by A ge , 1940-75 Age, Total population_____ Under 14 years-----------------14-19 years_______________ 20-24 years_______________ 25-34 years----------------------35-44 years_______________ 45-54 years_______________ 55-64 years----------------------65 years and over__________ 1940 1950 1960 1965 1970 1975 100.0 23.1 11.2 8.9 16.2 13.9 11.8 8.1 6.8 100.0 25.4 8.5 7.7 15.8 14.2 11.5 8.8 8.1 100.0 29.5 9.0 6.1 12.7 13.4 11.4 8.7 9.2 100.0 28.8 10.6 7.0 11.5 12.6 11.4 8.8 9.4 100.0 28.0 11.0 8.2 12.0 11.1 11.3 9.0 9.6 100.0 27.7 10.9 8.4 13.7 10.0 10.6 9.0 9.8 So u r c e : U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 98, and Series P-25, No. 187. Of most immediate significance to young peo ple now making their occupational plans is the number who will be reaching age 18 during the CHART 2 NUMBER OF PERSONS REACHING AGE 18 WILL BE MUCH HIGHER EACH YEAR AFTER 1964.... Millions of persons 18 years old present decade. To look back for a moment, in 1955, young people 18 years old totaled only 2.2 million. In 1960, they totaled 2.6 million, but, by the mid-1960’s, a spectacular rise will occur and bring the number to 3.8 million in 1965. These are the post-World War II babies growing up, and their numbers are a measure of the competi tion for college education or other advanced train ing and for jobs that every 18-year-old will have to face. After a slight decline, the number of 18-year-olds will again rise to reach 4.1 million in 1975. (See chart 2.) For the majority of young people, age 18 is a crucial turning point. It is the age at which most of them graduate from high school, if they do not drop out before, and either go on to further edu cation or training or start to work on a full-time basis. Some may decide on full-time work and part-time school or on full-time school and parttime work. Many girls will decide to marry. Whatever the specific decision, it will be, for most young people, as vital a one as they will ever make. CHOOSING A CAREER— THE ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK The People Who Work Statisticians often use terms whose meanings are not obvious and need to be explained. One of these terms, which is used frequently in the Hand book, is “labor force.” This group of people is only a part of the total population. First, no one under 14 years of age is counted in this group be cause child labor and school attendance laws gen erally make it illegal for children under this age to hold regular jobs. Among persons 14 and over, only two groups are counted as being in the labor force: (1) Persons who work, either as full-time or part-time employees (including those in the Armed Forces) or as self-employed; and (2) per sons who are unemployed and actively looking for work. From 1960 to 1975, the labor force will grow even faster than the population as a whole, mainly because of the large number of young people reaching working age. From 73 million in 1960 the labor force is expected to grow, by 1975, to 93 million, an increase of 20 million or 27 percent. At the same time, the population will grow about 25 percent. This 20 million is, of course, only the net increase over this period. The total number of new workers entering the labor force will far exceed this figure. Those under 25, alone, will equal 42 million in the 15-year period. The difference be tween the total entering or reentering and the net growth of the labor force represents persons ab sorbed into the labor force as replacements for those workers who, during the same 15 years, will have died, retired, or left for other reasons, such as disability or, among women, for marriage or to take care of children. Thus, the first notable characteristic of the work force during the next 10 to 15 years will be the presence of much larger numbers of young people than in the past, despite the fact that higher proportions of youth are remaining in school longer. Second will be the continuing im portance of women workers. Young people under 25 will account for almost half of the net increase of 12.5 million in the labor force between 1960 and 1970. Their proportion in the labor force will rise from less than 19 to more than 23 percent. From 1970 to 1975, workers from 25 through 34 years of age will account for the greatest increase. How ever, over the 15-year period from 1960 to 1975, young people under 25 and adult women over 25 13 will, together, account for two-thirds of the net increase in the labor force. Young girls just finishing school and planning for their future should therefore realize the implications of the increasing proportion of women over 25 years of age in the United States who will be in the work force. The proportion is declining only in the 18-19 age group and this results primarily from increasing college enrollment. (See chart 3.) Based on studies by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, most girls can expect the following life pattern as they move from school to middle and old age. Most unmarried girls will go to work at age 17 or 18 (unless they go to college). Within 3 or 4 years, most of these girls will marry. Some of them will then stop working for pay in order to get a new home organized, but a majority will continue to work, either to help put a husband through school, to supplement a husband’s income, or to permit purchase of a home, a car, or laborsaving equipment. Then, when the first baby arrives, the vast majority of young mothers give up their jobs and remain out of the labor market until their youngest child is old enough to go to school. It is true that as many as 1 in 5 women with preschool-age children do continue to work, usually because of economic necessity, but the general pattern is that the age group 25-34 sup plies the lowest proportion of women workers. CHART 3 PROPORTION OF W O M EN W HO W O RK CO NTINUES TO RISE Percent of women in labor force OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK; 14 When the youngest child no longer needs con stant care, the trek of mothers back to paid em ployment begins. This usually happens when the women are approaching their middle thirties, after they have been nonwage earners for about 8 to 10 years. Once back, the tendency is for them to remain in the labor force, perhaps not con tinuously, but certainly for a substantial propor tion of their years to age 65. By 1975, nearly half of all women between 35 and 65 will probably be either working or looking for work. Unless things change radically and unexpectedly in the years ahead, the highest participation rate will be among women age 45 to 54. (See chart 3.) These comments have concentrated on the life pattern of married women because these women will be in the vast majority. But for the girl who remains single—and 1 in 10 does—the length of her working life will be little different from that of a man. Since most single women must support themselves, and often parents or other relatives, they must continue to hold a job. The awork-life expectancy,” as it is often referred to, looks like this for women: For single women, 40 years at work; for childless married women, about 30 years; and for married women with children, some what less. Girls, then, may well give serious thought to the kind of work they want to do and can do best. The Kinds of Jobs There W ill Be What can young people anticipate about the kinds of jobs that will be available? In what in dustries will the jobs be found? Just as the .size of our work force has changed sharply over the years, so has the size and character of major in dustries, and these changes greatly affect employ ment opportunities and occupational choice. Some industries which flourished at the turn of the century are all but gone; others unknown 50 years ago are now among the largest employers. Two dramatic examples of the new industries are air craft and chemicals. But even these are now old, compared with those in the spacecraft and missile fields and in the production and servicing of electronic equipment. There is little doubt that there are industries and occupations which are so small now as to be hardly noticeable but which will, one day, become major fields of employment. Changes in Important Industries Most people, when thinking about what they want to do for a living, think in terms of a specific occupation such as secretary, airplane mechanic, clerk, doctor, machinist, truckdriver, or carpenter, rather than in terms of industrial activities such as manufacturing, retail trade, or construction. This being the case, it might seem more logical to discuss the trends in major groups of occupa tions first rather than trends in major industries. Although it is true that the occupation is of pri mary interest, the same occupation often exists in so many different industries that the individual can better visualize the broader opportunities if he first finds out something about industry trends. Knowing these trends, he can then decide not only on the occupation to train for, but what industries offer the best possibilities for using that occupa tional training. Farming The terms “technology” and “mechanization” bring to mind images of great auto assembly plants or oil refineries or an army of robots doing man’s work. Actually, however, the greatest tech nological revolution in the United States has taken place on the farm. A hundred years ago, more than half of the Nation’s workers were engaged in agri culture. Today, only 1 worker in 12 makes his liv ing from farming, either as a farm owner or as a laborer. The implications of this fact are enor mous. In 1870, the average farmer could supply food for only about 6 people; today, 1 farmer can meet the food needs of 27 people. We can readily see why this has been possible. Today’s farmer has machinery which enables him to put into use much greater acreage than a man could handle in 1870. This has contributed to the great growth in size of individual farms. More over, the replacement of horses and mules by trac- CHOOSING A CAREER— THE ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK tors and trucks in both the city and on the farm has freed millions of acres for the production of food for human beings instead of for livestock. The use of scientific methods, chemicals, fertiliz ers, better seeds, and improved cattle and hogs has also greatly increased farm productivity. As a result of these many changes, farm em ployment has continued to decline to the present. Chart 4 shows this decline since 1930. From 10.3 million farm workers, the number has dropped by about one-half to 5.2 million in 1962. By 1975, the total will have dropped still further, to about 4 million, less than 4.5 percent of the labor force. In view of this continuing decline and the com petition from large farms, the young man who has been dreaming of making a living by operat ing his own small family acreage may want to con sider training for something else. Many scientific and professional occupations and specialized serv ices associated with agriculture are developing rapidly and offer greater economic promise than farming on a small scale. CHART 4 MORE WORKERS IN BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY — FEWER ON FARMS.... Millions of workers Source: Data to r 1930-1 962. U.S. Bureau ot the Census. p rojections: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 15 CHART 5 EMPLOYMENT IN EIGHT MAJOR INDUSTRY GROUPS, 1962.... Millions of wo rkers M anufacturing Trade G overnm ent Service and Miscellaneous Transportation and Public Utilities C onstruction Finance, insurance, and real estate M ining Nonfarm Industries Most workers are employed in industries other than farming; in fact, more than 90 percent now earn their living in one of the following ma jor types of activity: Mining, manufacturing, construction, transportation and public utilities, trade, finance, service, and government. These are broad designations referred to as “industry groups7’ by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and other Government agencies that collect and pub lish information on employment. (See chart 5.) Each of these groups includes a variety of indi vidual industries, and in each industry there are many different kinds of jobs. One should not think of “trade,77 for example, only in terms of clerks selling things over the counter, or of “manufac turing” as offering only jobs on an assembly line, or of “service” as being mainly waiting on tables in a restaurant or pressing a suit in a dry cleaning shop. The number and kind of jobs in any specific industry wfill depend on whether the industry is growing or declining, and wThat kind of processes and machines it uses to carry out its work. Actu 16 ally, a young person making his work choice will be most interested in whether employment in an industry is increasing or decreasing, and whether or not workers are available to perform the tasks in that particular industry. We can get some idea of how the eight major industry groups have been changing in the past 40 years by looking at some figures which the Bureau of Labor Statistics has been collecting di rectly from employers over that period. First, the total number of employees in all eight groups has practically doubled, and in 1962 averaged more than 55 million. But the same amount of growth did not occur in each of the eight groups. Employ ment in transportation and public utilities, for example, hardly grew at all, despite the tremen dous jump in air and bus travel. There are now only half as many jobs in mining as there were 40 years ago. On the other hand, the service indus tries, government employment, construction, and wholesale and retail trade grew very rapidly. Em ployment in government is now more than three times what it was in the early twenties and in the services almost three times what it was 40 years earlier. In both construction and wholesale and retail trade, employment has more than doubled. Employment in manufacturing, while continuing to expand, grew more slowly, increasing little more than 1% times since 1922. A closer look at some aspects of each broad industry group will help to show what each has to offer in terms of employment prospects. Although manufacturing as a whole has not grown at as fast a rate as some others, it still em ploys many more people than any of the other seven industry groups. In 1962, about 16% million people earned their living in the multitude of oc cupations found in this very diversified segment of the economy. “Operative” jobs, the biggest group in manufacturing, provide work for 2 out of every 5 manufacturing employees and include three or four main types of semiskilled workers: (1) Those who operate machines or equipment used in manufacturing; (2) those who assemble various parts to make a single final product such as a radio or television set; (3) those who inspect and test the product to see that it is made properly and will work satis factorily ; OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK (4) those who serve as helpers to more skilled workers—such as the stationary fireman who helps the skilled stationary engineer run and re pair the steam boilers in a plant. There are many other kinds of jobs in manufac turing besides operatives—machinists, engineers, stenographers, production managers, tool and die makers, traveling salesmen, and unskilled laborers, to name a few. The number of people employed in the different branches of manufacturing is shown in chart 6. The industries making durable goods (things that last a long time), such as machinery, refrigerators, and automobiles, employed a total of almost 9% million people in 1962. The nondurable-goods manufacturers, who process food, make clothing, print newspapers, and produce many other things that are used up quickly, employed almost 7% mil lion people. Employment in the durable-goods branch was highest in those industries producing machinery and transportation equipment (autos, aircraft, ships, and railway cars) and electrical equipment and supplies, and was lowest in indus tries making such specialized items as instruments and ordnance (guns, ammunition, etc.). Employ ment in the nondurable-goods branch was highest in food and clothing, and the fewest workers were employed in making cigarettes and other tobacco products. The second largest industry group in 1962 was retail and icholesale trade, employing about HV2 million people, almost three-fourths of them in the retail branch. Although various kinds of sales jobs make up the largest group of these employees, the industry also has jobs for large numbers of clerical workers, truckdrivers, delivery men, ele vator operators, porters, packagers, and often repair services of various kinds. Wholesale and retail trade has been a “growth” industry—its present employment being more than double its number 40 years earlier. One of its significant fea tures is the fact that it employs high proportions of women in both full-time and part-time jobs, principally in retail sales work, and is one of the principal “absorbers” of middle-aged and older women who are reentering the labor force. In 1962, government was the third largest em ployer, with more than 9 million workers. Threefourths of these workers were State and local employees, such as teachers, policemen, firemen, CHOOSING A CAREER— THE ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK CHART 6 EMPLOYMENT IN MAJOR BRANCHES OF MANUFACTURING, 1962.... DURABLE GOODS 0 0.5 M illio n s o f w age ^and salary w orkers 1.0 1.5 2.0 Transportation equipm ent E lectrical equipment M achinery Prim ary m etal industries Fabricated m etal products Lumber and wood products Stone, clay, and glass products Furniture and fixtures Instruments and related products O rdnance and accessories M iscellaneous NONDURABLE GOODS Food and kindred products A pparel and related products Printing and publishing Textile mill products Chemicals and allied products Paper and allied products Rubber and plastic products Leather and leather products Petroleum and related products Tobacco manufactures sanitation workers, and welfare workers. As the population continues to rise, the need for more and more of such workers will increase and will continue the long-range upward trend. The 6.8 million people who were working for State and local governments in 1962 were three times the number so employed 40 years earlier. Federal em ployment, which rises to higher levels in times of war, has been stabilized at close to 2 million since the end of the Korean conflict. As in other indus692—408 0—63------3 17 tries, there is considerable turnover in the Federal service and the government often finds it neces sary to put on special recruitment programs for young professional and clerical workers. In 1962, the service industries stood fourth among employers, providing jobs for more than 7% million people. These millions were employed in such diverse places as auto and other kinds of repair shops, laundries, dry cleaning establish ments, hotels, barber shops, theaters, movie pro duction, advertising firms, and a host of others. The service industry group has also been one of the fastest growing and is now almost three times its size 40 years ago. This reflects a very important fact about our way of life—that as we grow and prosper, higher and higher proportions of people will be engaged, not in manufacturing, but in performing the multitude of services that make life more pleasant and easier for people generally. The remaining 4 of the 8 major industry groups employed far fewer people in 1962, about 10 mil lion all together. The largest of the four was transportation (trains, buses, trucks, airplanes, ships), communications, and public utilities (tele phone, telegraph, gas, and electric light and power) with a total of almost 4 million workers. Despite the many new activities in this general area and all the new inventions involved, this group is one of the slowest growing in overall employment, with the number now employed virtually the same as 40 years ago. This reflects the great decline in rail road employment, owing to mechanization, com petition from other forms of public transporta tion and the increased use of private automobiles, and the increasing mechanization in many other branches of the industry group. Employment in the finance, insurance, and real estate group reached 2.8 million in 1962, more than 2Vs times the number 40 years ago. This group of industries, although not one of the largest, is growing rapidly. Some of its growth has a direct relation to the building of newT homes, and the phenomenal increase since the depression of the 1930’s in installment buying and credit facilities has contributed to its expansion. Most of the jobs are white-collar ones, and almost half of the em ployees are women. The contract construction industry includes the building of such structures as homes, factories, schools, public buildings, office buildings, apart- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, 18 ment houses, roads, bridges, and dams. In the past 40 years, employment in this industry has more than doubled, reflecting again the rapid growth of the Nation’s population and industries. In 1962, this industry employed 2.7 million people (almost all of them men), half of them skilled craftsmen. Employment in construction fluctuates greatly, from one season to another and also from year to year, reacting to business activity generally. When business conditions are good, people buy new homes and companies invest in new plants; when business is slack, businessmen and private citizens both tend to put off this kind of spending. Every year, when the weather turns bad, outdoor work declines. Sometimes, as during a war, resources of material and skills go into construction of camps, defense plants, and ships, and private building may almost cease. This happened during World War II, but after 1947, the accumulated, unsatis fied civilian demand boosted construction employ ment by about 50 percent over the next 10 years. Maximum employment in any single year of the past decade, however, occurred in 1956 when it reached almost 3 million. Other than agriculture, mining is the one indus try group where a decline in jobs has persisted over many years. Employment was 647,000 in 1962, only about half of what it was 40 years ago. Mechanization of coal mining and competition from other sources of fuel and power have com bined to reduce employment significantly in this industry group. The silent, abandoned coal mines that scar so much of West Virginia, Illinois, Kentucky, and western Pennsylvania are mute evidence of rapid decline in this industry whose deep pits once produced the fuel that fed the furnaces of American industry. forecasts based on the best available information and on the assumption that the national goal of full employment can be realized. If this is the case, the total number of wage and salary workers in nonagricultural industries is expected to reach 74.2 million by 1975—an increase of 37 percent over 1960. What then are the prospects for employment growth in the eight broad industry groups over this 15-year period? (See chart 7.) As individual incomes rise and the population spends more and more on all kinds of services, the service industries are expected to grow faster than any of the other groups, probably increasing their employment by 61 percent, to 11.9 million workers. Construction activity is also expected to grow very rapidly as the rising population and new families demand more homes and.apartments, and as government funds are used to spur the construc tion of schools, hospitals, and roads. If national goals for economic growth and overall employ ment are reached, construction employment may reach 4.4 million by 1975, an increase of 52 percent over 1960. CHART 7 PROJECTED PERCENT CHANGE IN EMPLOYMENT BY MAJOR INDUSTRY GROUPS, 1960 -75 Percent change -30 -20 0______ 10 -10 Services and miscellaneo Construction Government Finance, insurance, and real estate The Industrial Forecast The preceding paragraphs tell where American industry stood in 1962. They describe what has happened over a period of years and illustrate the point that changes occur at varying speeds and often in different directions. What is perhaps more important for those about to choose a career, how ever, is “What can be expected to happen next?” What industries will employ the expected increase of 20 million workers over the 15-year period from 1960 to 1975? This is where projections come in— Trade Manufacturing Transportation and public utilities Mining 20_____ 30 40 _____ 50_____ 60 1---------------1---------------1---------------1---------------1--------------- T No change Ag riculture CHOOSING A CAREER— THE ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK Government employment is expected to con tinue its rapid rise, chiefly in State and local units providing services such as education, health, wel fare, sanitation, and police and fire protection. By 1975, the total may reach nearly 13 million, an increase of 51 percent in 15 years. Not much change is anticipated in Federal employment, however, which has remained at about the same level for the past decade. Another small but rapidly growing industry group is finance, insurance, and real estate. Its growth reflects mainly the needs of our increas ing city population and industrial activity. The number of workers may rise by 14 percent from 1960 to 1975, reaching almost 4 million. Banking, a part of this group, will grow especially fast, partly as a result of an increasing variety of fi nancial activities and services, and by 1975 may account for two-fifths of the workers in this group. The growth of population and rising incomes are expected to account for a substantial increase in tvholesale and retail trade. This industry group employs more people than any other except manu facturing. Over the 1960-75 period, the number may increase by more than one-third, reaching beyond 151/2 million. Manufacturing employment is expected to in crease more slowly than employment in nonagricultural industries as a whole. As it is the largest group, by 1975 it may number well over 20 million workers, or about one-fifth more than in 1960. Some of its branches, however, will grow much faster than others. Durable goods industries will probably continue to grow much faster than non durable goods, as they have since World War II. This is partly because of government spending on missiles, spacecraft, and electronic products and partly also because of the growing utilization of automation and other equipment involved in ad vanced technology. Chemicals, printing, and paper are expected to grow faster than the other nondurable goods industries. Employment in transportation, communica tions, and public utilities as a group is expected to grow rather slowly to about 4^2 million in 1975, only a half-million (13 percent) more than in 1960. But individual industries in the group will grow rapidly, while others are expected to decline. For example, the railroad industry is expected to con 19 tinue to decline, though at a somewhat slower rate than in the past, while air transportation and trucking are expected to grow at a rapid rate. Continuing technological advances in communica tions and public utilities as well as railroads will strongly influence employment in this industry group. No growth is expected in the mining industry group as a whole, which has been declining, but employment is expected to remain at about the 1960 level, to 1975. The factors affecting employ ment in mining have already been mentioned in the discussion of past trends. Finally, agricultural employment is expected to decline substantially, releasing thousands of workers to be absorbed elsewhere. Nevertheless, the professional and technical jobs connected with agriculture, such as those of agricultural research specialist, soil scientist, and soil conservationist, will actually grow. Before leaving the subject of industry growth and change, one more factor should be mentioned, i.e., that the changes discussed above will not be spread evenly over all areas of the country. Although nonfarm employment, between 1947 and 1962, increased in all States expect Rhode Island and West Virginia, the rate of growth has been quite different in various parts of the country. (See chart 8.) Nationally, employment grew 27 percent between 1947 and 1962, but in California, the Rocky Mountain States, the Southwest, and CHART 8 EMPLOYMENT IS INCREASING MOST RAPIDLY IN WESTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES.... { ' 1 Under 27 percent ftSSNM 27 and under 50 percent 50 percent and over National average increase for 15-year period: 27 percent excluding Alaska and Hawaii. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, 20 Florida, employment growth doubled or more than doubled the rise in the national average. Air craft and spacecraft, missiles, electronics, and tourism account for much of this growth. Non farm employment in many primarily agricultural States of the central plains and Southeast has been growing at a rate above the national average, but not as fast as in the West and Southwest. On the other hand, in New England, the Middle Atlantic, and East North Central States, nonfarm employment has increased less than the national average. In spite of these shifts, the geographic con centration of industry and commerce remains sub stantially in the areas where it was at the end of World War II. Even though in two of the fastest growing areas, the Pacific and Mountain States, manufacturing jobs have increased greatly since 1947, more than half of all manufacturing jobs are still found in the New England, Middle Atlantic, and East North Central States. These three regions also still provide half the jobs in trade, finance, service, and transportation, and more than 2 out of 5 of those in construction and gov ernment. Only in the extractive industries has the concentration of employment definitely shifted— from the coal-producing areas of the Middle Atlantic to the petroleum- and gas-producing States of Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma. This reflects not so much the migration of an industry, however, as a shift in sources of fuel and power. The Outlook for Occupational Change Changes in industries, which are the suppliers of jobs, have been accompanied by changes in the nature of occupations and the numbers of people employed in them. These changes have been going on for many decades in every major occupational group. Some groups of occupations have been growing rapidly, others declining, and still others rising or falling from one decade to the next with out consistent pattern. The professional and other white-collar occupations have grown fastest over the past 50 years; farm owmers and farm labor ers have declined most rapidly. Some groups— the skilled, semiskilled, and service workers— have fluctuated, with net gains of about 20 per cent or slightly more over the half century. Chart 9 shows the changing proportions of each of these groups in the experienced work force, since 1910. Probably the most significant overall change in the Nation’s occupational structure has been the shift toward white-collar jobs. While this shift has been apparent since the beginning of the century, it has been accelerated in recent years. In 1956, for the first time in the Nation’s history, white-collar workers (professional, managerial, office, and sales workers) outnumbered blue-collar or manual workers (craftsmen, operatives, and laborers). (See chart 10.) In the 15 years since 1947, white-collar occupations increased by 9.7 million, totaling almost 30 million in 1962. This increase represented most of the total growth dur ing the period. In contrast, blue-collar occupa tions in 1962 numbered less than a million more than they did in 1947. Among the reasons for this shift is the rapid growth of many service-produc ing industries—including government services, as well as financial and other business and profes sional services wdiich employ large numbers of white-collar workers—and the relatively slow growth of goods-producing industries, including manufacturing and mining, which employ larger proportions of blue-collar workers. Chart 11 shows the proportions of white-collar, blue-collar, and service workers in each major industry group in 1962. Much of the overall growth in the white-collar group reflects the Nation’s technological advancement, the shift from a predominantly agricultural economy to a predominantly industrial economy, the growing needs of a growing population for educational and medical services, the increasing size and com plexity of business organizations, and the accele rating tendency in all types of enterprises for more research and more recordkeeping. Chart 12 projects the changes that are expected to take place between 1960 and 1975 in the major nonfarm occupational groups if the assumed con ditions stated previously prevail. In developing these projections, many things were taken into account: the expected increase in the size of the CHOOSING A CAREER— THE ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK 21 C HART 9 PROPORTION OF EXPERIENCED LABOR FORCE IN EACH OCCUPATIONAL GROUP, 1910-60..... P ro fessio nal, c le r ic a l, and s a le s occupations have shown consistent growth Percent Clerical workers Sales workers Farm and unskilled occupations have lost ground Percent Laborers, except farm O thers have shown less consistent trend Percent Service workers m Proprietors, managers, and officials m. 1910 ’20 ’30 ’40 ’50 ’60 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 22 CHART 10 EMPLOYMENT HAS SHIFTED TOWARD WHITE-COLLAR OCCUPATIONS.......... M illio ns of persons labor force, the changing demands of the popula tion for various goods and services, the changing occupational requirements of each industry, and continuing changes in technology, as well as the industrial developments discussed in the preced ing section. Chart 12 also shows which occupations will grow faster than the expected average increase of 31 percent for all employment. The vertical line at the 31-percent point permits a quick grasp of the relationship of one occupational group to another. All the growing occupations except the operators and kindred workers will exceed the average increase. In contrast with this, the num ber of laborers (excluding farm and mine) is not expected to increase at all, and the numbers of farmers, farm managers, foremen, and farm workers will continue to decline. workers. While the group as a whole may increase by about 45 percent from 1960 to 1975, the pro fessional and technical occupations may increase by as much as 65 percent. This would raise the number of workers in this latter group to more than 12 million. Some professions will grow much faster than others. For example, engineers and scientists may roughly double their numbers by 1975, in meeting the needs of a growing economy and rapid advances in electronics, jet aircraft, guided missiles, chemicals, health-related research, and communications. Technicians, who assist these specialists, are increasing in number at least as fast as engineers and scientists. Together, these workers are developing the newest type of eco nomic activity in the country, aptly named “the industry of discovery”—the pursuit of new inven tions, new techniques, new materials, and new weapons. These developments, plus an ever in creasing demand for school and college teachers, and medical and other health specialists will re sult in a rate of growth in the professional group more than twice that of the labor force as a whole. Today’s numerically largest white-collar oc cupation, the clerical workers (close to 10 milCHART 11 PROPORTION OF W HITE-COLLAR, BLUE-COLLAR, AND SERVICE W ORKERS IN SEVEN MAJOR INDUSTRY GROUPS, 1 9 6 2 ..... 80 Percent 100 ALL NONAGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES Finance, insurance, and real estate W holesale and retail trade Services (including educational, m edical, and other) T ransportation, com muni cation,and other pu blic utilities M anufacturing Forestry, fishing, and mining White-Collar Jobs Rapid growth is expected in the white-collar group, especially among professional and technical W hite-co lla r workers B lue-collar w orkers M Service w orkers CHOOSING A CAREER— THE ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK CHART 12 PROJECTED PERCENT CHANGE IN EMPLOYMENT OF WORKERS IN MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS, 1960-75. .. -30 -20 Percent change -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Professional, technical, and kindred workers Managers, officials, and proprietors, except farm Clerical and kindred workers Sales workers Craftsmen, formen, and kindred workers Operatives and kindred workers Service workers Laborers, except > change . I I Farmers and farm managers, laborers, and foremenl lion), have grown at a faster rate than any other except the professional group. Relatively rapid growth is expected during the next 10 to 15 years, increasing the number to 14 million by 1975, or 45 percent more than in 1960. Between 1950 and 1960, the number of clerical workers grew over 30 percent; a further increase of about the same magnitude is expected during the decade of the 60’s despite the introduction of laborsaving electronic computers and other office machines and more efficient management methods. The supply of typists, stenographers, secretaries, and other office workers never seems to catch up with the demand. Girls graduating from high school with skills in these “commercial arts” almost certainly will find jobs waiting for them. The more complex a society becomes, the greater its need for records and communications, not only to keep modern business operating, but to provide the expanded tax and other reports required by government. Moreover, use of highspeed office and business machines will create some new jobs requiring more skill than many of the clerical tasks with which we are now so familiar. The third largest group of white-collar workers is the proprietor-managerial group, consisting mainly of owners of small enterprises and salaried 23 officials in both private businesses and government agencies. This group in 1962 numbered more than 7 million. The proportion of these workers in the total labor force, however, is relatively static, despite their increase in numbers. The noticeable replacement of small groceries, general stores, and hand laundries, often run as a family business, by supermarkets and big chains is cutting into the number of proprietors. On the other hand, sal aried managerial positions, with their demand for better education and training, are increasing rapidly. Even though the proprietor-managerial group as a whole is not showing the same growth as some other white-collar occupations, its num bers are expected to increase as fast as the total la bor force, and to reach almost 9y2 million by 1975. Among the white-collar occupations, the small est numerically (about 4y2 million) is the sales group, but it is expected to rise to nearly 6 million, or by about 34 percent between 1960 and 1975— slightly faster than the labor force as a whole. Except for some specialized sales personnel, this is the white-collar group that requires less exten sive training. One of its great advantages is that it can and does absorb considerable numbers of older women, many of them on a part-time basis. Although such mechanical devices as vending machines, and the increasing availability of selfservice in groceries and variety stores will prob ably act as brakes in the growth of retail sales employment, nevertheless, as the population grows and personal incomes rise, substantial increases are expected. Blue-Collar Jobs The most highly trained workers in this group, and the highest earners as well, are craftsmen and foremen sometimes referred to, in more gen eral terms, as “skilled workers.” These workers will continue to have a more favorable employ ment outlook than the less skilled operatives and unskilled laborers. Examples of skilled workers are carpenters, plumbers, electricians, and all the other skilled building trades workers who make possible not only our convenient and efficient homes and offices, but also our roads, bridges, harbors, and airfields. Then there are the skilled metalworkers (such as machinists, tool and die makers, and molders) who read the blueprints, 24 and prepare models, dies, and tools from which production machines and instruments are made. Before the factory operative can turn out his product on his machine, the machine itself must be manufactured; the construction of this machine from engineering designs is the responsibility of the skilled metalworking craftsman. Another important group are the mechanics and repair men, who keep automobiles and factory machinery in running order, fix radios and television sets, maintain airplanes in safe flying condition, and do all manner of other repair work that helps our machine-based society to run smoothly. Included also among the skilled workers are the foremen, who direct the work of others, and in many cases also do skilled work themselves. All together, this group totaled about million workers in 1960 and is expected to grow to more than 11 million by 1975. Different industries employ quite different pro portions of craftsmen. Manufacturing employs a greater number than any other industry *(3.2 million). In construction, however, these skilled workers are a much higher proportion of em ployees than in any other industry group—1 out of every 2, compared wflth 1 in 5 in manufacturing and in transportation, and fewer than 1 in 10 in other industries. The young man who prepares himself, through apprenticeship or otherwise, for one of the skilled occupations can therefore antici pate pretty well where his greatest job op portunities are apt to be. Another point to re member is that certain occupations within the skilled worker group have grown and will grow faster than others, as is true of so many other aspects of the economy. Mechanics and repair men, building trades craftsmen, skilled metal workers, and foremen will probably account for most of the growth in this group. Next to the skilled workers in importance, within the blue-collar group, are the operatives, chiefly semiskilled workers. The most numerous of all major occupational groups (about 12 million in 1962), they hold jobs in almost every major industry. In 1960, they were 18 percent of the employed work force. This wTas a drop, how ever, from 20 percent in 1950, and indicates the direction of change for such workers. Pros pects for 1970 are that the group will probably increase in numbers to something over 14 mil OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK lion, but its relative position in the labor force will drop still further and it will not share the growth rate either of the skilled worker or of some white-collar groups. Changing technology which, in the early part of the century, created so many new jobs through mechanization of manu facturing processes and thereby the development of giant mass-production industries, shows signs, in the future, of braking the growth of semiskilled jobs, at least in manufacturing. Newly found ways of getting machines to do the work of men, popularly known as “automation,” permit larger output without a corresponding increase in semi skilled machine operators. The automobile indus try is a prime example of this recent kind of change. On the other hand, the increasing use of trucks, buses, and motor vehicles, for both human and freight transport, will continue to create a demand for truck and bus drivers, who are also classified with operatives. The third main group among blue-collar work ers are the laborers, who follow^ such vocations as deckhand, street cleaner, ditch digger, and carnival roustabout. The least skilled of all work ers, they do the hardest physical work, except perhaps farm laborers, and usually are the lowest paid. Over the past half century their place in the labor force has dropped from 12y2 percent to less than 6 percent in 1960. In numbers, the need for unskilled workers will remain about the same during the decade, but their proportion in the labor force will continue to drop—to less than 4% percent by 1975. Even in some of these hard, labo rious tasks, growing mechanization will displace much of the physical labor that was once so crucial to industrial production. The growing occupational group of “service workers” offers a great variety of job opportuni ties ranging from some quite unskilled jobs to those requiring specialized education and training. For example, janitors are included here, but also waiters, cooks, barbers, laundry workers, beauticians, policemen, firemen, practical nurses, and FBI agents. Over many decades up to the end of World War II, this group rose only slightly as a proportion of the entire labor force, but since then it has sprinted ahead of labor force growth as a whole. The increased demand for services of all kinds reflects not only the needs of CHOOSING A CAREER— THE ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK; a growing population but of the greater con centration of people in urban areas, an increas ing number of women who go out to w^ork and hence need these services, and generally rising income levels. By 1975, we can expect a numerical growth of service workers to about 12% million, half again as many as in 1960. This increase would place them on a par numerically and proportion ately with professional workers. Growth of this group, nevertheless, will not escape some of the slowing down effects of mech anization and new kinds of equipment. For ex ample, barbers and beauticians are feeling the ef fects of widespread use of electric razors and home permanent-wave kits, and certain groups of household workers, such as laundresses, are being supplanted by commercial laundry services and housewives who use coin-operated laundry equipment or their own electric washing machines, dryers, and ironers. On the other hand, many occupations in this group will groAv substantially 25 —the policemen and firemen who guard our safety, the hospital attendants and practical nurses who guard our health, and others whose basic function can not be supplanted by machines. These are the occupations which also require more training than many of the service occupations that are declining. To sum up, the principal occupational changes expected in the 15 years between 1960 and 1975 will be: (1) A continuing rapid growth in white-collar occupations, especially in the professional and technical occupations; (2) among blue-collar workers, about average growth in skilled occupations, a slower-than-average growth in semiskilled occupations, and no change in employment in unskilled occupations; (3) a somewhat faster-than-average growth among service workers; and (4) a further decline in the number of farmers and farm laborers. Implications of the Outlook for Education and Training It is clear that multitudes of opportunities will open up for jobseekers during the years ahead. The ability of young people to embrace these opportunities, however, will depend to an important extent on their education and train ing. The job world of the future obviously calls for people who have a marketable skill. The day of the “I can do anything,-’ applicant is definitely past. In these days of increasing com plexity of jobs and of professional specialization, no one, whether young or old, will be able to offer such versatility in the job market. Since the fastest growing occupations also call for the most education or specialized training, it becomes obvious that a young worker’s chances for a steady, well-paying job in many areas of our economy will be substantially less if he does not have at least a high school education. For many “growth” jobs, especially in the professions, he must have considerably more. The need for educational upgrading of the work force will not be confined to the professions alone. The burgeoning field of technician jobs also increasingly calls for special preparation beyond the high school. And, as newT, automated equipment is introduced on a wider scale in offices, banks, insurance companies, and government operations, the skill requirements for clerical and other office jobs wfill rise also. The demand of employers for better trained personnel to oper ate complicated and expensive machinery is al ready apparent. Just how fast industrial processing will yield to an emerging pushbutton era is difficult to predict, but gains in production in many manufac turing industries without equivalent gains in em ployment suggest that the effects of automation on production jobs may be great. In some segments of the sales field, too, new developments in machine design, use of new materials, and the complexity of equipment are making it necessary for demonstrators to have greater understanding of technical matters; and repairmen must become familiar with ever more complicated machines. The rising educational level of the younger population is a partial response to these develop ing labor market requirements. In 1962, twothirds of the population 18 years of age had com pleted high school, compared with only about 1 26 in 15 in 1900. College enrollments are also rising rapidly. For example, of 1.9 million high school graduates in 1962, half were enrolled in college in the fall immediately following completion of high school. Additional thousands were enrolled in special training courses such as nursing, ap prenticeships of various kinds, and others. Estimates covering the 25-year period, between 1950 and 1975, give an even sharper indication of the continuing rise in the numbers of high school and college graduates. By 1975, high school enrollment will be more than double the Gbo million of 1950 and college enrollment will be almost four times the 2.2 million of 1950. With so much competition from young people with higher levels of education, the boy or girl who does not get good preparation for work, either by completing high school or college or by some other effective means, will find the going OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK rougher and rougher in the years ahead. Labor Department studies indicate the possibility of 7y2 million school dropouts during the 1960’s, of whom 2y2 million will not have completed even the 8th grade. These young people will find jobs harder and harder to get because employers prefer the worker who has “stayed the course” through high school. At the same time, the unskilled jobs that once absorbed many untrained people will be a narrowing field of employment. Young people who have acquired a skill or a good basic education will have a better chance at interesting work, good wages, steady employment, and greater satisfaction with life in general. Get ting as much education and training as one's abil ity and circumstances permit should, therefore, be high on the list of things to be done by today’s youth. Professional, Administrative, and Related Occupations Professional and administrative occupations have many attractions for young people consider ing the choice of a career. These occupations offer opportunities for interesting and responsible work and lead to relatively high earnings. As a rule, however, they can be entered only after long periods of specialized education or other prepara tion, since a broad knowledge of one’s field and judgment of a high order are outstanding require ments for success in these types of work. Approximately one-fourth of all workers in 1962 were in professional, administrative, and related occupations. These occupations—employ ing about 15% million people—accounted for about half of all white-collar employment. Professional occupations are of two main types. The largest group of professions—including those of engineer, architect, physician, lawyer, and teacher—requires formal education in well-or ganized fields of knowledge. The other group— including occupations such as editor and actor— does not require as much specialized, theoretical knowledge, but demands a great deal of broad background knowledge or creative talent and skill acquired chiefly through experience. Generally, the professions require either college graduation —often with an advanced degree—or experience of such kind and amount as to provide a compa rable background. Licenses are required for prac tice in many professions—medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy, for example—wuth licensing author ities determining the minimum qualifications which members must have. Professional societies also set up membership standards, vdiich tend to define their respective fields. In many areas of work, hovTever, there is no clear-cut line between professional and other classes of workers. It is not easy to prepare for and enter pro fessional vrork. For most professions, one must complete a long period of education and train ing. Often, applicants are not accepted for pro fessional training unless their school grades are high, and employers generally give preference in hiring to graduates wLose grades in profes sional school put them high in their class. Closely related to the professions—and some times overlapping them—is a wide variety of technical occupations. People in these occupations vrork wTith engineers, scientists, mathematicians, physicians, and other professional personnel. Their job titles include, for example, those of draftsman, engineering aid, programer, and electronics, laboratory, or X-ray technician. Em ployment in these technical occupations usually requires a combination of basic scientific know l edge and specialized education or training in some particular aspect of technology or science. Such training may be obtained in technical institutes, junior colleges, and other schools, or through equivalent on-the-job training. Many of the duties of technicians may be performed also by beginning professional workers. However, because of their more limited educational back ground, technicians generally find it much more difficult to advance to high-level positions than do professional workers. The major professional, technical, and related occupations are shown in chart 13. People in administrative and related occupa tions run the Nation’s businesses and manage a wude variety of other organizations, both pri vate and governmental. The problems they deal with are as varied as the affairs they manage. They may have to decide, for example, whether and how to manufacture a new model of auto mobile, furnish a hotel lobby, advertise a store, or build a highway. Whether their organizations are small or large, employing only a few people or many thousands, the decisions administrators reach and their effectiveness in getting these decisions carried out contribute greatly to the suc cess or failure of the enterprise. 27 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 28 C H A R T 13 ABOUT 4 OUT OF EVERY 10 PROFESSIONAL WORKERS ARE TEACHERS OR ENGINEERS Employment in selected professional, technical, and kindred occupations 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Thousands of workers, 1962^ 900 1,000 1/100 1,200 Teachers, elementary school Engineers Teachers, secondary school Engineering and science technicians Nurses Accountants 3 Clergymen Draftsmen Physicians Lawyers Teachers, college These occupations showed the greatest employment increase between 1950 and 1960 Social workers Percent increase Chemists 40 _I_ —1 , 20 Pharmacists Biological scientists Physicists Musicians and music teachers Personnel workers Personnel workers 60 _ j __ 80 100 _J______ ! >■ ■„^ Engineers Draftsmen Dentists Social scientists Singers and singing teachers Biological scientists Librarians \ N X ■V \ VX V \\\ 3 Librarians Photographers Teachers, elementary school Social scientists Nurses Mathematicians Teachers, college Teachers, secondary school Physicists Counselors □ Architects : ,1 " V I V S V v:A \ v V. \ \ \ \ \ \ x x-; ^ v x ^ XNNS \ \ ' Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1/Estimated. PROFESSIONAL, ADMINISTRATIVE, AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS About 6.3 million men and 1.1 million women, not counting farm owners or farm managers, were managers, officials, or proprietors in 1962. Of these nearly 7.5 million people, managers and officials in salaried positions accounted for slightly more than half. The largest group of proprietors—about half of the total number—are owners of stores, restau rants, gasoline service stations, or other kinds of retail establishments. In addition, large numbers manage their own factories or construction busi nesses. Executives and other managerial personnel in business firms form the largest group of salaried managers and officials. In addition, several hun dred thousand people in this category are officials of Federal, State, and local government agencies and nonprofit organizations of many kinds; and there is a very large number of other workers— purchasing agents, credit men, and many others— in specialized jobs closely related to administra tive and managerial work. Also grouped with administrative workers in the occupational statis tics are persons in a variety of official and man agerial positions—for example, members of Con gress, ship captains, railroad conductors, trade union officials, and building managers and super intendents—whose functions and background are quite different from those of most administrative personnel and who are, therefore, not covered by the rest of the information presented in this part of the Handbook. (Some of these occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook, however; see index for page numbers.) Employment Trends Employment in professional, technical, and related occupations has risen rapidly over the years. From less than half a million in 1870, the number of these workers has grown to about 8 million in 1962. (See chart 14.) Moreover, while the professions accounted for only about 4 percent of all workers at the turn of the century, by 1962 they represented 12 percent. During the 1950 decade, the rate of growth in the professions was more than twice that for clerical workers, the second fastest growing occupational group. More over, thus far in the 1960?s the professional, tech nical, and related worker group continues to exceed in growth all other occupational groups. 29 C H A R T 14 GROWTH OF PROFESSIONAL, TECHNICAL, AND KINDRED OCCUPATIONS.... Millions Data prior to 1950 are decennial census figures and are not strictly comparable to later years. A major reason for the increase in the total number of workers in professional and related oc cupations has been the development of new pro fessional fields. The scientific, engineering, mathe matics, and closely related professions have had a spectacular growth over the years. Other major professions, which have developed wholly or largely during the present century include social work, accounting, and personnel work. Growth has been especially rapid since 1950 among phys icists, personnel workers, engineers, draftsmen, social scientists, librarians, and biological scien tists. (See chart 13.) Even more recent has been the growth among mathematicians, programers, other data-processing specialists, and electronics technicians. Some of this growth has accompanied the expansion in scientific and engineering profes sions. As scientific and technical work has become more highly organized, particularly in the labora tories and engineering departments of large firms and in government agencies, more technical as sistance has been provided for the professional workers. Similarly, large numbers of technicians and assistants work in the health fields, thereby freeing the professional personnel for work requir ing more training. 30 Between 1960 and 1970, employment in the pro fessional and technical group is expected to rise by 43 percent—about twice the rate for total em ployment. However, there will naturally continue to be differences in the rate of growth among the professions, as is indicated in the statements on most of the major professions in the chapters that follow. The number of people in administrative and managerial positions in the United States is grow ing, although by no means as fast as the number of professional w7orkers. In 1910, only 1 out of every 15 workers in the country was in an administra tive or related job. By 1962, the proportion had risen to about 1 out of every 10 workers. Employ ment in this field as a whole is expected to continue increasing moderately. By 1970, the total number of people in administrative and related positions may be about 8% million, over a fifth more than in 1960. Most of this increase in employment will be in salaried positions. Growth in the number of self-employed proprietors will be relatively slow in the years ahead, because of the trend towrard the formation of larger businesses. In the retail field, for example, supermarkets and other types of large stores are replacing the small general store, the separate meat market, and the corner grocery store. On the other hand, the number of managers and salaried officials in larger busi ness organizations and government agencies is mounting rapidly. Educational Trends In addition to the many professional occupa tions for which college graduation has long been an entry requirement, demand for college gradu ates is increasing at the entry level in many other professional, administrative, and related occupa tions. Graduates are sought for many positions which either did not exist a few decades ago or which were formerly filled by employees selected primarily on the basis of their experience and personal characteristics. This emphasis on a col lege education will probably be reinforced in the years ahead—in view of the growing complexity of modern industry and technology, which is con stantly increasing the amount of technical knowl OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK CHART 15 NUMBER O F B A C H E L O R ’S D E G R EE S GRANTED- Thousands of degrees Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and W elfare, Office of Education. edge required for effective performance in many professional and administrative jobs. The growth in the professional, administrative, and related occupations has been accompanied by a great increase in the numbers of young men and women graduating from college—who are, of course, the chief source of professionally trained workers. The proportion of young people com pleting college (represented as a percent of all persons 22 years of age) rose from 2 percent in 1920 to 8 percent in 1940, and to nearly 18V2 percent in 1962, as shown in the inset in chart 15. (The high level reached in 1950 is artificial, re flecting the large number of veterans who went to college under the veterans’ education program and who, in many cases, would have completed college earlier if it had not been for the war.) The recent rapid increase in the proportion of young people graduating from college (chart 15) reflects a number of basic social trends. Family incomes are higher, and more people can afford to put off going to work and to pay the costs of education. More families want a PROFESSIONAL, ADMINISTRATIVE, AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS college education for their children. Scholarships and loans are available for more students; parttime work opportunities are also available, par ticularly in times of labor shortages. Finally, a college education is becoming necessary for an increasing proportion of jobs, and in many profes sions the amount of education needed is increas ing. Since these factors will probably continue to be influential in the future, the proportion of young people who are graduated from college is expected to go on increasing for many years. The college-age population is also growing. The number of people age 18 to 21 will rise by 5 million during the 1960’s. These factors, consid ered together, point to a great increase in college graduations, assuming that the Nation’s colleges and universities can build the classrooms, labo ratories, dormitories, and other facilities and hire the faculty members needed to provide for the greatly increased numbers of students. It is likely that the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded annually will be about 80 percent greater by 1970 than in 1961. Projections prepared by the U.S. Office of Education indicate an increase from the 401,656 bachelor’s degrees granted in 1961 to 537,000 in 1965, and 731,000 in 1970. The number of students taking graduate train ing has also risen very rapidly during past decades, and will probably continue to mount in the years ahead. A master’s degree is usually earned through 1 or 2 years of study beyond the bachelor’s degree. To earn the Ph. D. degree usually requires 3 years or more beyond the bachelor’s degree. As a rule, graduate study is concentrated in the major subject field of the stu dent’s interest, whereas undergraduate study is broader in content. Chart 16 shows the vast increase in graduate degrees awarded since 1920 in all fields taken together. The numbers of master’s and doctor’s degrees granted reached unprecedented heights in the early 1950’s, following the record number of bachelor’s degrees granted a few years before. After a slight decline in the mid-1950’s, master’s degrees rose to about 79,000 in 1961 and are ex pected to exceed 100,000 in 1965, if past trends 31 C H A R T 16 N UM BER O F M A S T ER ’S A N D D O C T O R ’S D E G R E E S G R A N T E D ...... 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 Source-. U.S. D e partm ent of Health. Education,and Welfare,Office of Education. continue. The number of doctorates awarded (10,575 in 1961) may reach 13,200 by 1965. Ac cording to projections made by the U.S. Office of Education, the number of master’s degrees con ferred may come close to 150,000 and doctorates may exceed 18,000 in 1970. These projections obviously imply a great in crease in the supply of personnel which will be available for professional employment. Since the demand for personnel is also expected to show continued growth, there is promise of expanding employment opportunities for the increasing num bers of college graduates. The anticipated in creases in college-trained personnel raise the pos sibility, however, of increasing competition dur ing the late 1960’s for the better professional positions in at least some fields of work, as indi cated in the statements on the various fields in following chapters. T E A C H IN G Of all the professions, teaching is the largest. About 2 million men and women in the United States are full-time teachers, and thousands of others teach part time. Many scientists, physicians, accountants, and members of other professions teach one or more classes in colleges and univer sities. Similarly, large numbers of craftsmen teach part time in vocational schools. Also, many other people instruct in adult education and rec reation programs. No other profession offers so many employment opportunities for women; slightly more than 1 million women are teachers, more than twice the number employed in nursing—the second largest field of professional employment for women. Women teachers far outnumber men in kinder garten and elementary schools. Men, however, hold slightly more than half the teaching posi tions in secondary (junior and senior high) schools, and men hold about four-fifths of all college and university teaching positions. The number of teachers needed by the Nation’s schools depends chiefly, of course, on the number of students enrolled. In the fall of 1962, about 51 million people—more than one-fourth of the coun try’s total population—were enrolled in the Nation’s schools and colleges. The extremely high birth rates of the past two decades largely account for this record enrollment. For example, the high birth rates of the 1940’s brought unprecedented increases in elementary school enrollments in the early 1950’s. By the mid-1950’s, these children were beginning to enter the high schools, and toward the end of the decade the colleges were beginning to feel their impact. Furthermore, the proportion of young people of high school and college age who are attending school is higher than ever before. A continuation of both popula tion growth and increased high school and college attendance is expected to produce an impressive rate of increase in high school enrollments by 1970 and an even more rapid increase in college 32 enrollments. (See chart 17.) The proportion of young children of elementary school age enrolled in these schools is not expected to change apprecia bly during the coming decade; nevertheless, a sizable increase in the number of children so en rolled is expected. Total enrollments in all schools and colleges combined, according to U.S. Office of CHART 17 ENROLLMENTS WILL TOTAL NEARLY 60 MILLION BY 1970 Millions of Students 60 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Source: U.S. Department of Health, Educatior, and Welfare, Office of Education. TEACHING 33 Education estimates, may increase to more than 60 million by 1970. To staff the new classrooms that must be pro vided for the rising numbers of students, the Na tion’s teaching staff will need to be about one-fifth larger by 1970. In addition, a still greater number will be required to replace teachers who leave the profession. (See chart 18.) Many new teachers will also be needed in both elementary and secondary schools, to reduce the ratio between pupils and teachers. Moreover, additional teachers must be trained so as to replace teachers who do not meet the minimum standards for certification. This school staffing problem has been one factor that has brought about an increasing interest in tech nological developments and other changes in edu cational methods. Educational television, for ex ample, is already in use on an experimental basis, and its extension may enable many teachers to handle larger classes efficiently in some subject areas. Teaching machines designed to present in formation mechanically and to test student re sponses to the material covered are being con sidered, where appropriate, for use as a teaching aid. Language laboratories where tape recordings are used in foreign language instruction are being set up in many secondary schools and colleges. Other adjustments, including lengthening the school year and providing teachers with clerical assistance, may also affect the demand for teach ers. Although opinions differ concerning the ef fect of these innovations, it seems likely that, for the next few years at least, their chief effect may be to improve the quality of education. The outlook for teachers at each educational level—in elementary and secondary schools, and also in colleges and universities—is discussed in the following statements. Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers (D.O.T. 0-30.02 and .11) Nature of Work Elementary school teaching is the largest field of professional employment for women and is also a growing field for men. In 1962, 1.2 million kin dergarten and elementary teachers were employed in elementary schools. This total included about 900,000 classroom teachers and several thousand principals and supervisors in public schools, and more than 200,000 teachers in parochial and other private schools. Kindergarten teachers provide a program of education for yqung children. Most frequently they divide the schoolday between two groups, teaching two classes a day. Some, however, may work with one group all day. The kindergarten program provides children with experiences in play, music, artwork, stories, and poetry; it also introduces them to science, ‘ numbers, language, and social studies. After school hours, kindergar ten teachers may plan the next day’s work, study and prepare the children’s school records, confer with parents or professional personnel concern ing individual children, participate in teachers’ inservice activities, and locate and become familiar with teaching resources. 692-408 O—63----- 4 Elementary school teachers usually work with one group of pupils during the entire schoolday, teaching several subjects and supervising various activities such as lunch and play periods. In some school systems, however, teachers in the upper elementary grades may teach several groups of children in one or two subjects. Many school sys- Elementary school teaching is the largest field of professional employment for women OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 34 C H A R T 18 GREATEST DEMAND FOR TEACHERS WILL CONTINUE TO BE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (Annual Recruitment Need For Teachers) Thousands Thousands ---------------- ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS------------------- 160 160 140 120 100 - - - 80 60 40 20 J 0 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 * No net increase in teaching positions expected in country as a whole. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES---------------------------------- 40 -\ 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 20 0 Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education; and U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics* TEACHING terns also employ special teachers to give instruc tion and to assist classroom teachers in subjects such as art, music, physical education, industrial arts, foreign languages, and homemaking. Teach ers in schools with only a few students, largely in rural areas, may be required to teach all subjects in several grades. Although the time spent in the classroom is usually less than the average working day in many other occupations, the elementary school teacher must spend additional time each day planning work, preparing instructional materials, develop ing tests, checking papers, making out reports, and keeping records. Conferences with parents, meetings with school supervisors, and other pro fessional activities also frequently occur after classroom hours. According to a recent survey, the average workweek of elementary school teach ers is about 48 hours including* time spent in outof-class instructional and other duties. Where Employed Elementary school teachers are employed in all cities, towns, villages, and in rural areas. As a result of reorganization of school districts, many teachers are employed in consolidated schools in small towns. Only about 20,000 teach in 1-room schools. Kindergarten teachers, however, are em ployed primarily in the large city school systems. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require every teacher in the public schools to hold a certificate. Several States have this same requirement for teachers in parochial and other private elementary schools. In 1963, 44 States and the District of Columbia issued regular teaching certificates only to persons with at least 4 years of approved college prepara tion, and the other 6 States required at least 2 years. Some school systems have higher educa tional requirements than those for State certifica tion. In nearly all States, certificates are issued by State departments of education on the basis of transcripts of credits and recommendations from approved colleges and universities. Certificates may be issued to teachers from other States if the 35 prescribed programs have been completed at ac credited colleges or if the teachers meet the aca demic and personal requirements of the State to which they are applying. Under certain condi tions, usually related to a shortage of qualified teachers, most States will issue emergency or temporary certificates to^partially prepared teach ers. However, these teachers must have their cer tificates renewed every year until all requirements for regular certificates have been met. All States and many individual school systems have certain additional requirements for public school teaching. They may, for example, require a health certificate, evidence of citizenship, or an oath of allegiance. The prospective teacher should find out about the specific requirements of the area in which he plans to wTork by writing to the State department of education or to the super intendent of the local school system. Most institutions of higher education offer teacher preparation. In a 4-year teacher-prepara tion curriculum, the prospective elementary school teachers spend roughly one-fourth of the time in professional courses learning about children, the place of the school in the community, and ma terials and methods of instruction—including student teaching in an actual school situation; the remainder of their time is devoted to studying liberal arts subjects. Some study of the process of learning and human behavior is usually included. Beginning teachers will find opportunities for advancement through annual salary increases in the same school system; by transferring to a sys tem with a higher salary schedule which recog nizes experience gained in another school system; by appointment to a supervisory, administrative, or specialized position; or by obtaining additional preparation. Among the most important personal qualifica tions for elementary school teaching are a love and enjoyment of children. Teachers must be pa tient and self-disciplined, and have high stand ards of personal conduct. A broad knowledge and appreciation of the arts, sciences, history, and literature are also valuable. Civic, social, and recreational activities of teachers may be influ enced, and are sometimes restricted, by the cus toms and attitudes of their community. 36 Employment Outlook Many thousands of openings for elementary school teachers will occur each year in the middle and late 1960’s. Enrollments in kindergarten and grades 1 through 8 will continue to rise during this period, but at a slower rate than in the pre ceding decade. As a result, the demand for teach ers to staff newT kindergarten and elementary school classrooms is expected to level off towards the end of this decade. Nevertheless, it is esti mator that an average of about 20,000 new teachers will be needed annually to take care of the increase in enrollments and, in addition, an average of about 100,000 annually will be required as replace ments. Each year, many teachers will reach retire ment age and a much larger number of young women will withdraw from the teaching profes sion because of marriage or for other reasons. Altogether, the number of additional elemen tary and kindergarten teachers needed will be, on the average, about 120,000 each year during the remainder of the 1960 decade, unless replacement rates are reduced considerably. This figure does not provide for the additional teachers needed to lower the pupil-teacher ratios, to replace persons not meeting regular requirements, to extend kin dergarten facilities to all areas, or to provide for other improvements. On the other hand, class room innovations and technological developments may affect the number of teachers needed. The number of students preparing for elemen tary school positions each year is likely to con tinue to fall short of the demand for new teach ers. For example, in 1962, only 54,000 prepared for such teaching positions, whereas more than twice that number were needed. At the same time about 56,000 public elementary school teachers who did not meet the minimum requirements for certification were employed. Some expansion in the supply of qualified teachers is expected to re sult from the increasing college population and the offering of special incentives such as those provided by the National Defense Education Act of 1958 under which financial aid is available to selected students with superior academic back grounds who are planning to become elementary or secondary school teachers. As in the past dec ade, the deficiency in the supply of elementary OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK school teachers will probably continue to be met by issuing short-term emergency certificates to teachers not meeting regular requirements, by in creasing the size of classes, by the reentry of former teachers into the profession, and by at tracting qualified personnel from other fields of work. Shortages will tend to be greatest where teachers’ salaries are lowest or where better pay ing employment opportunities are available in other fields. Earnings and Working Conditions The average salary for classroom teachers in public elementary schools, according to National Education Association estimates, was $5,560 in 1962-63. In three States (Alaska, California, and New York), teachers’ salaries averaged $6,700 or more; in five States (Alabama, Arkansas, Missis sippi, North Dakota, and South Dakota), less than $4,000. Teachers’ salaries are usually lowest in rural schools and highest in large city systems, where educational and experience requirements are likely to be highest. Teachers generally enjoy a dignified and re spected position in their communities. Their em ployment is steady, and usually not affected by changes in business conditions. Tenure provisions protect teachers from arbitrary dismissal. Pen sion and sick leave plans are common, and a grow ing number of school systems grant other types of leave with pay. Since most schools are in session only 9 months a year, teachers often work at other jobs or take courses for professional growth during the sum mer. Some school systems, however, are extend ing the teachers’ working year to 12 months with a 1-month vacation in the summer. These systems require the teacher to teach in summer sessions or attend workshops during the time beyond the regular school year. Where To Go for More Information Information on schools and certification re quirements in a particular State is available from the State department of education at the State capital. TEACHING 37 General information on teaching may be ob tained from: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D.C., 20202. American Federation of Teachers, 716 North Rush St., Chicago, 111., 60611. National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW, Washington, D.C., 20036. Secondary School Teachers (D.O.T. 0-31.01 and .10) Nature of Work Secondary school teachers—those employed in junior and senior high schools—usually specialize in a particular subject. They teach several classes every day either in their main subject, in related subjects, or both. The most frequent combinations are English and history or other social science subjects; mathematics and general science; and chemistry and biology or general science. Teachers in fields such as home economics, agriculture, com mercial subjects, driver education, music, art, and industrial arts less frequently ponduct classes in other subjects. survey the average workweek of secondary school teachers is about 46 hours including time spent in out-of-class instructional and other duties. Main taining good relations with parents, the commu nity, and fellow teachers is an important aspect of their jobs. About 700,000 teachers, principals, and super visors were employed in the Nation’s public and private secondary schools in 1962-63. Slightly more than half the classroom teachers in public secondary schools were men. Men far outnumber women in supervisory and administrative posi tions in both public and private schools. Where Employed Courtesy of U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare The number of grades in secondary schools de pends on how the local school system is organized. Many secondary school teachers are employed in 6-year combined junior-senior high schools (grades 7-12); another large group of teachers are in separate junior high schools of either two or three grades (7-8 or 7-9); and the remainder teach in 4-year high schools (grades 9-12) and in senior high schools (grades 10-12). Despite increasing urbanization, about half of all secondary school teachers are still employed in rural areas or in cities of less than 30,000 popu lation. Recording equipment is used by high school teacher of foreign languages Besides giving classroom instruction from 20 to 30 hours each week, secondary school teachers develop and plan teaching materials, develop and correct tests, keep records, make out reports, con sult with parents, supervise study halls, and per form other duties. Many supervise student activi ties, such as clubs and social affairs—sometimes after regular schools hours. According to a recent Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In every State, a certificate is required for pub lic secondary school teaching. To qualify for this certificate, the prospective teacher must have a bachelor’s degree. Nearly all States also require at least the equivalent of one-half year of education courses, including practice teaching, plus special ized courses in one or more subjects commonly taught in secondary schools. 38 Ten States require a fifth year of study or a master’s degree within a specified period following the teacher’s beginning employment. Many school systems, especially in large cities, have require ments beyond those needed for State certification. Some systems require additional educational prep aration, successful teaching experience, or special personal qualifications. College students preparing for secondary school teaching usually devote about one-third of the 4-year course to their major, which may be in a single subject or a group of related subjects. About one-sixth of the time is spent in education courses —learning about children, the place of the school in the community, and materials and methods of instruction—including student teaching in an ac tual school situation. The remaining time is de voted to general or liberal education. Satisfactory teacher-preparation curriculums are offered by universities with schools of education, by colleges with strong education departments and adequate practice-teaching facilities, and by teachers’ col leges. Although certification requirements vary among the States, the person who is well prepared for secondary school teaching in one State usually has little trouble meeting requirements in another State. A well-qualified teacher can ordinarily ob tain temporary certification in a State while he prepares to meet any additional requirements. Qualified secondary school teachers may ad vance to positions as supervisors, assistant prin cipals, principals, superintendents, or other ad ministrative officers as openings occur. At least 1 year of professional education beyond the bache lor’s degree, plus several years of successful class room teaching are required for most supervisory and administrative positions. Often a Ph. D. de gree is required for appointment as superintend ent. A few experienced teachers are assigned to the positions of part- or full-time guidance counselors, teachers who instruct in the pupils’ homes, or in structors of handicapped or other special groups. Usually additional preparation, and sometimes special certificates, are required for these assign ments. Probably the most important personal qualifi cations for secondary school teaching are an ap preciation and understanding of adolescent chil dren. Patience and self-discipline are desirable OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK traits as also are high standards of personal con duct. In addition to a special enthusiasm for the subjects they teach, a broad knowledge and ap preciation of the arts, sciences, history, and litera ture are also desirable. Civic, social, and recrea tional activities of teachers may be influenced, and sometimes restricted, by the customs and attitudes of their community. Employment Outlook A growing number of secondary school teachers will be needed during the middle and late 1960’s, when enrollments will expand rapidly as a result of the high birth rates following World War II. The great increase in population reaching high school age, combined with the trend for a growing proportion of young people to enter and graduate from high school, will result in an estimated av erage annual demand for about 25,000 additional teachers. Furthermore, throughout this same period, vacancies created by turnover will be more than double the number of new positions. Alto gether, the projections indicate that more than 80,000 new secondary school teachers must be recruited each year during the remainder of the 1960’s. (See chart 17.) Classroom innovations and technological developments, however, may affect the number of teachers needed. The supply of persons available to fill teaching positions each year is difficult to estimate. Al though most of the new teachers are drawn di rectly from college graduating classes, some posi tions are filled by former teachers (many of whom dropped out to care for their young children), by persons not meeting certification requirements, and by fully qualified persons who have been in other types of employment. Not all qualified new graduates seek teaching positions. For example, in June 1961, about 77,000 college graduates met certification requirements for secondary school teaching; of these, however, only about two-thirds were teaching in the following academic year. The rest were employed in positions other than teach ing, engaged in graduate study, were in the mili tary service, had become homemakers, or were otherwise lost to the teaching field. Similarly, a large proportion of the 88,000 potential teachers graduated in 1962 was not available for teaching positions. Should this situation persist, well-quali TEACHING 39 fied candidates seeking to enter secondary school teaching will find employment opportunities in most geographic areas and in most Subject fields. About 27,000 public school secondary level teach ers who did not meet the minimum certification requirements were employed in 1962. Employment opportunities for secondary school teachers are expected to continue to be best in science, mathematics, foreign languages, industrial arts, and other subject fields for which the demand in private industry and government is also great. When economic conditions are unfavorable, com petition for teaching positions increases. At such a time, certification requirements are often raised. Earnings and Working Conditions The average annual salary for all classroom teachers in public secondary schools was about $5,995 in 1962-63, according to estimates by the National Education Association. In Alaska, Cali fornia, and New York, average salaries exceeded $7,000; the average was less than $4,000 in two States, Arkansas and Mississippi. Junior high school teachers frequently receive somewhat lower salaries than high school teachers in the same school system; however, the trend is toward equalizing salaries of teachers with the same educational preparation, regardless of grade taught or sex. Teachers of vocational education, physical education, and other special subjects of ten receive higher salaries for their work than do other teachers in the same school. Under salary schedules in effect in most school systems, teachers in all subject fields get regular salary increases as they gain experience and additional education. Teachers’ salaries are usually lower in towns and small cities than in larger cities, but higher educational and experience requirements are likely to prevail in large city school systems. On the av erage, salaries of principals in the largest cities, where administrative responsibilities are great, are much higher than in towns and small cities. Salaries of superintendents are $25,000 or more in many large cities. Teachers often add to their incomes by teaching in summer school, working as camp and recrea tional counselors, or doing other work. Many teachers, however, use their vacations to work toward advanced degrees or to take specialized courses. Some teachers supplement their incomes during the regular school year. They may teach in adult or other evening classes, work part time in business or industry, or write for publication. Some form of retirement, often under Govern ment programs, is provided most teachers. Nearly all school systems have some provision for sick leave and an increasing number grant other types of leave with pay. Where To Go for More Information Information on schools and certification re quirements in a particular State is available from the State department of education at the State capital. General information on teaching may be ob tained from: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D.C., 20202. American Federation of Teachers, 716 North R ush St., Chicago, 111., 60611. National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, National Education Association, 1201 16th St. N.W., Washington, D.C., 20036. College and University Teachers (D.O.T. 0-11.50) Nature of Work About 350,000 faculty members are employed in the Nation’s 2,000 colleges and universities. However, it is estimated that in 1963 only about 200,000 were engaged in full-time teaching. Close to 100,000 were teaching part-time in medicine, law, business administration, and other profes sional fields. Other faculty members were em ployed in administration, full-time research, or other educational activities. Men predominated in most college teaching fields and held about 95 per cent or more of the positions in engineering, the physical sciences, agriculture, law, and philoso phy. Only about one-fifth of all college and uni 40 versity teachers were women; however, the ma jority of teachers in the fields of nursing, home economics, and library science were women. College and university teachers instruct stu dents in specific subjects. More than half of all faculty members teach courses in social science, fine arts, English, physical science, education, or engineering. In many 4-year institutions, the usual teaching load is from 12 to 15 hours a week. As sociate professors and full professors—who also serve as advisors to graduate students—may spend only 6 or 8 hours a week in actual classroom work. Besides teaching classes, college teachers spend considerable time preparing tests and other ma terials for classroom use, checking and grading students’ work, and keeping up to date with devel opments in their specialties. Many faculty mem bers carry on research projects, write for publica tion, aid in college administration, or lecture to civic and professional groups. Some professors act as consultants to business, industrial, scientific, or government organizations. Where Employed About half of all faculty members are employed by universities. About 25 percent are in liberal arts colleges. Between 5 and 10 percent are employed by teachers’ colleges, and roughly the same pro portion are on the faculties of community (jun ior) colleges. The rest (5 percent or less) are in technological, theological, and other professional schools. Some States have many more colleges and uni versities than others, partly as a result of differ ences in population size. About half of all college and university teachers are employed in these eight States, in each of which college enrollments exceed 100,000: New York, California, Pennsyl vania, Illinois, Massachusetts, Texas, Ohio, and Michigan. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To qualify for most beginning positions, ap plicants must have at least the master’s degree, and for many they must have completed all re quirements for the doctorate except the disserta tion. The doctor’s degree is often, but not always, required for promotion or appointment to posi tions above the rank of instructor. The doctorate OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK is particularly important for teaching positions in the biological sciences, physical sciences, psy chology, social sciences, philosophy, and religion; it is least likely to be a requirement in the fields of business and commerce, engineering, fine arts, health and physical education, and home econom ics. A number of States that maintain public junior colleges require State certification for teaching in these 2-year schools. To obtain such a certificate, a teacher must have completed the master’s degree and certain courses in education. To enter college teaching, specialization in some subject field is necessary. In addition, undergrad uate courses in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences, and the mastery of at least one foreign language are also an important part of the college teacher’s educational background. In tensive instruction in the selected field of speciali zation is given in graduate school. During gradu ate work, outstanding students may be employed as part-time assistants to aid in teaching under graduates. Such work affords valuable experience for the prospective teacher. Some colleges offer other means, such as informal seminars or meet ings, by which the graduate students can develop teaching competence. A good many beginning col lege teachers—especially those in education de partments—have had some experience in high school or other types of teaching. Most 4-year colleges and universities recognize four academic ranks: Instructor, assistant pro fessor, associate professor, and full professor. Few institutions grant tenure (full status as a member of the staff on a continuing basis) or give advance ment to instructors with less than 3 years of serv ice. Advancement to assistant and associate pro fessorship is generally restricted to candidates with extensive graduate training or teaching ex perience. A doctor’s degree and many years of teaching experience—from 10 to 20 years—is usu ally required to become a full professor. A recent private survey indicates that among the teaching faculty about one-quarter each are professors and associate professors, about 30 percent are assistant professors and close to 20 percent are instructors. Outstanding achievement, generally through re search or publications, often hastens advancement. Teachers of some subjects, such as engineering, law, mathematics, medicine, and natural sciences, TEACHING are sometimes appointed at higher ranks than other teachers with comparable experience and education. Employment Outlook Openings for new entrants to college teaching will be numerous throughout the 1960’s and will increase greatly during the latter part of the dec ade. Opportunities will be best for those with doctoral degrees and for those who have com pleted all requirements for the doctorate except the dissertation. Nevertheless, there will be many employment opportunities for new entrants with the master’s degree, particularly in junior colleges. A great increase in college enrollment is in pros pect. The number of young people in the 18- to 21-year age group will rise by more than 2 million between 1965 and 1970. At the same time, it is likely that the extension of college education to a higher proportion of young people will continue— owing to rising family income, greater demand for college-trained personnel, and the increasing number and proportion of the population who finish high school and are, therefore, eligible to enroll in college. The anticipated increase in the number of community colleges and schools offer ing evening classes will also tend to make it pos sible for more young people to attend college. If the proportion of young people attending college continues to increase moderately and facilities are available, college enrollments are expected to in crease from about 41/2 million at present to nearly 7 million by 1970. To handle this increase in enrollments, thou sands of additional full-time teachers will be needed annually for the rest of the 1960’s. Besides the new teachers needed to take care of expanding enrollments, even larger numbers are likely to be required annually to replace persons who will re tire, die, or otherwise leave the profession. The number leaving teaching each year to enter other types of employment will depend primarily on the level of business activity and on conditions in the academic profession itself. Between 1963 and 1970, an estimated 200,000 new teachers will be needed to take care of enrollment increases and replace ment needs. Teaching innovations and technolog ical developments also may affect the number of college teachers needed. Some educational leaders today advocate larger classes, and more independ 41 ent work on the part of students, to help solve the teaching shortage. The supply of new college teachers is comprised largely of students receiving graduate degrees. The U.S. Office of Education estimates that the number of doctorates conferred during the rest of the 1960 decade will average about 15,000 a year, the number of master’s degrees, close to 115,000 annually. It is difficult, however, to predict the proportion of graduates who will enter teaching. In 1961, when the demand'was for at least 25,000 new teachers, about 90,000 persons received gradu ate degrees; nevertheless, shortages of qualified teaching personnel were reported in several fields, particularly in the physical sciences, engineering, mathematics, and in some social science fields. Some increase in the supply of college teachers is anticipated because of Federal legislation en acted in 1958, which will make more fellowships available to graduate students interested in college teaching as a career. Nevertheless, it is likely that the number of well-qualified persons available for teaching positions will continue to be insuffi cient to meet the demand in many subject fields throughout the 1960’s. (See index for page num bers of separate statements on each profession.) Earnings and Working Conditions According to the TLS. Office of Education, teachers in 4-year colleges and universities had an average salary of $7,680 for 9 months’ work in 1961-62; instructors averaged $5,580; assistant professors, $6,750; associate professors, $7,980; and professors, $10,320. Average salaries of teach ers tend to be lowest in junior colleges and teach ers’ colleges. The Office of Education also reported average salaries (9-10 months’ basis) for teaching faculty of all ranks and for full professors in pub lic and private institutions in 1961-62 as follows: Type of institution Universities___________ Liberal arts colleges------Teachers colleges---- ----Junior colleges------------- All ranks Full professors Public Public Private Private $11,240 $8,300 $11,990 $8,620 10,360 8,410 7,710 6,640 9,010 7,220 . 6,420 7,210 5,180 Faculty members who teach the year round re ceive higher salaries than those employed for the academic year only. Teachers in professional schools (medicine, dentistry, etc.) and graduate schools generally receive higher salaries than teachers in other colleges. 42 Some faculty members have professional income in addition to their regular salaries. The chief source of supplementary income is additional teaching (often in summer sessions) which is not a part of the teachers’ regular duties. Consulting work may be a major source of extra income, particularly for teachers of engineering and physi cal sciences; research grants providing additional income to faculty members are now common, espe cially in many large, well-known universities; and fees for lecturing and royalties on publica tions are other possible sources of income. Op portunities for such additional income usually increase as the faculty member gains recognition. For the majority of colleges teachers, however, the additional income may be small. Retirement plans differ considerably among in stitutions, but an increasing number are partici pating in the Government social security program, often as an accompaniment to plans of their own. The greatest number of institutions have set 65 years as the retirement age, though nearly as many stipulate 70. Many colleges and universities provide benefits such as: Sabbatical leaves of absence—typically, 1 year’s leave with half salary or a half year’s leave at full salary after 6 or 7 years of employ OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ment in the same college; other types of leave for advanced study; life, sickness, and accident insur ance ; reduced tuition charges or cash-tuition grants for children of faculty members; housing allowances; travel funds for attending profes sional meetings; and other benefits. Where To Go for More Information Information on college teaching as a career is available from: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D.C., 20202. American Association of University Professors, 1785 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20036. American Council on Education, 1785 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC., 20036. National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20036. Professional societies in the various subject fields will generally provide information on teach ing requirements and employment opportunities in their particular fields. Names and addresses of societies are given in the statements on specific professions. (See index for page number.) C O U N S ELIN G Counseling is a large, rather loosely defined, field of work and one that overlaps some other professional fields. The objective of all counseling, in its broadest sense, is to help others understand themselves and to improve their capacity to live and work more effectively. But it is difficult to distinguish clearly among counselors either by the setting in which the counseling is conducted or the kind of counseling offered—personal, educa tional, or vocational. Nonetheless, despite differing emphases, counselors are concerned with the well being of the, whole person in their evaluation of an individual’s particular problem, and similari ties among counselors are more numerous than the dissimilarities. For example, people who counsel professionally need to have understanding, toler ance, the ability to accept others as they are, and a concern for people combined with a capacity for remaining objective. The training and other qualifications required are also similar among counselors. This chapter deals in detail only with three areas of counseling that are generally recognized as separate specialties in the field: School counsel ing, vocational counseling, and rehabilitation counseling. School counselors are the largest group engaged in counseling. They are concerned with educa tional and vocational goals as well as with the day-to-day adjustment of pupils to their school environment. Rehabilitation counselors work with the physically or mentally disabled. Although this counseling is, in large part, vocationally oriented, it also involves personal counseling particularly as it relates to the handicapping nature of the person’s disability. Vocational counselors are con cerned primarily with vocational goals, job place ment, and work adjustment. They may work with the young, the old, the able-bodied, and the disabled. Employment outlook statements on these counseling specialities are> contained in this chapter. As already mentioned, some people who are identified with other professional occupations also provide counseling services. The most closely related occupation in this category is that of counseling psychologist. Since it is part of the field of applied psychology, this specialty is de scribed in the statement on psychologists in this Handbook. Similarly, a great many social workers provide counseling services to families and indi viduals, but their work is discussed in the state ment on social workers. Several other groups of professional workers who also do some counseling but whose primary training is in another field (such as teaching, health service, law, or religion) are covered elsewhere in this Handbook. (See index for page numbers.) Student personnel workers and other staff mem bers of colleges and universities make up another large group concerned with providing counseling services. This chapter does not deal with these workers, nor does it include personnel workers in government and industry who may perform some counseling but whose primary concern is with the efficient use of manpower in their organizations. (See index for page number of statement on per sonnel workers.) School Counselors (D.O.T. 0-36.40) Nature of Work School counselors help pupils make and carry out plans for their education and work. They also assist students in understanding and adjusting to their school and social environment, Besides work ing directly with pupils, counselors consult with 43 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 44 classroom teachers, school administrators, and parents to further the development of individual children and the objectives of the general educa tional program. In addition, counselors may lead discussion groups on topics related to improving students’ performance in school. Many counsel only part time, and may also teach classes in oc cupations, social studies, or other subjects. Counselors interview students to obtain relevant information that will help these young people un derstand their own interests and abilities. Addi tional information about each student may be ob tained from tests, administered by a specialist in testing or by the counselor, and from school and medical records. These data are analyzed and interpreted by the counselor who then works with the student to plan an appropriate course of action. i WORK? student’s plans, counselors maintain files or libraries of occupational, college, and other in formation, arrange for showing of educational and vocational films, schedule appointments with college admissions officers, conduct “career day” programs, or arrange trips to factories, business firms, and colleges. A sizable number of counselors make followup studies of recent graduates and dropouts and cooperate in surveys of local job opportunities. They may also conduct or cooperate in research concerning the effectiveness of the educational program. The methods used in counseling elementary school children necessarily differ in many respects from those used with older students. Special tests and play activity are among the additional tech niques used with children in the lower grades. Ele mentary school counselors often serve more than one school. As with classroom teachers, many full-time counselors perform a variety of other duties, such as supervising school clubs or other extra-class activities (often after regular school hours). In some schools, counselors do their own recordkeep ing and other paperwork; however, most large schools provide clerical assistance. Where Employed Courtesy of U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare High school counselor discusses college requirements Counselors in junior and senior high schools assist students in selecting courses which fit in with their career or college plans. They make in formation available on colleges and college ad mission requirements. They may also aid students in selecting other types of post-high school train ing and in finding part-time work while in school or full-time employment after leaving school. To aid students and their parents in developing the Approximately 36,000 persons performed some counseling functions in the public secondary schools during the 1961-62 school year, according to the U.S. Office of Education. Nearly 16,000 persons were full-time counselors; another 10,000 spent at least half (but not full) time in counsel ing activities; and the remainder worked less than half time as counselors. In addition, several thou sand secondary school teachers had 1 hour each week free for counseling. Although no precise in formation is available, it is estimated that about 500 counselors work in elementary schools. The majority of counselors are in large schools. An increasing number of school districts, however, are providing guidance services to their small schools by assigning several schools to a counselor. About one-third of all high school counselors and two-thirds of the elementary school counselors are women. COUNSELING Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement As a rule, school counselors must meet the re quirements for a State teaching certificate. (See statements for Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers and for Secondary School Teach ers.) In addition, all but five States (as of mid1962) issue certificates for school counseling only to applicants who meet certain minimum qualifi cations concerning training and experience in the counseling and guidance field. For certification, all of these States require some graduate level work in the guidance field, and over half stipulate a master’s degree or its equivalent in counselor education. Experience requirements for such cer tification range from 1 to 5 years in teaching; in many States at least 1 year of work experience outside the teaching field is also required. A pri vate survey of high school counselors conducted in early 1960 indicated that of the counselors spending at least half their time in counseling activities, 43 percent were certified at that time. Undergraduate college students interested in be coming school counselors usually take the regular program of teacher education, preferably with additional courses in psychology and sociology. After graduating from college, they may acquire the needed teaching or other experience, either before or while studying for their advanced de grees. In some school systems, teachers who have completed half of the courses required for the master’s degree may counsel under supervision while taking additional courses. The subjects of the required graduate level courses usually include lectures on the counseling process, understanding the individual, educational and occupational op portunities, and testing and measurement. Some knowledge of statistics is also necessary for inter preting tests. Counselor education programs at the graduate level are available in more than 200 colleges and universities, most frequently in the departments of education or psychology. To ob tain a master’s degree, a student must complete 1 to 2 years of graduate study. Supervised practice in guidance is provided in an increasing number of training programs. Advancement for school counselors is most frequently related to supervisory or other ad ministrative positions within the school system. For those with a Ph. D. degree, advancement may 45 be to college teaching positions in the guidance field. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-trained school counselors are expected to be excellent throughout the 1960’s. A persistent shortage of qualified counseling personnel has existed in all States for many years, according to the U.S. Office of Education, and this situation is likely to con tinue for at least several years. The recent tend ency among the States to increase minimum en trance requirements for counselors, particularly as they relate to graduate level training, has tended to intensify, at least temporarily, the exist ing shortage of qualified workers. Many hundreds of new counselors will be re quired each year to replace those leaving the pro fession. According to recent data from the U.S. Office of Education, about 10 percent of all counse lors leave the field annually because of family re sponsibilities, retirement, promotion to adminis trative jobs, or for other reasons. In addition, counseling services will have to be expanded con siderably each year during the decade just to keep pace with the growth in school enrollments. Thus, a substantial need for new counselors will exist without allowing for any further strengthening of counseling services. The average ratio of counse lors to students in the country as a whole is still well below generally accepted standards—despite the financial aid which the Federal Government has provided to States for school counseling pro grams under the National Defense Education Act of 1958, as amended. Over the long run, the demand for counseling services will remain strong. Vocational counseling will be needed by the great number of young stu dents who will be preparing to enter the labor force for the first time, on a permanent basis, dur ing the late 1960’s. These students will need in formation such as that on rising educational re quirements for entry jobs, the job changes effected by automation and other technology, and on where employment is to be found. Public concern over the employment problems of school dropouts is placing increasing pressure on the school counse lors to help prepare these students for employ ment before they leave school. Also contributing OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 46 to the increased demand for counseling services is the growing public awareness of the value of guidance services in helping students with per sonal and social problems which, in turn, may help reduce the number of school dropouts. In addition, there is increasing recognition of the need to identify and counsel talented children at an early age, so they may develop with maximum benefit both to themselves and to the Nation. In addition to limitations in the supply of quali fied counselors, the extent of guidance services in different localities will continue to be related to the wealth of the community and to the priority which school administrators and the community assign to guidance services in school planning. Although communities may favor the expansion of counseling services, the necessary money may not be made available because of competing needs for funds. In recent years, however, budget alloca tions for counseling activities have been increas ing, and this trend is expected to continue, leading to a growing demand for counselors in most parts of the country. Earnings and Working Conditions A private survey of counselors found that the average annual salaries of most counselors in 1962 were within the range of $6,000 to $7,000. Many school counselors have annual earnings higher than those of classroom teachers with comparable educational preparation and experience. (See statements on Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers and Secondary School Teachers.) Some of these counselors have extra earnings be cause they work 1 or 2 months longer each year than the classroom teachers. However, some school systems pay counselors an additional amount un related to months worked. In most school systems, counselors receive regu lar salary increases as their counseling experience increases and as they obtain additional education. Some counselors supplement their income by parttime employment in consulting or other work with private or public counseling centers, government agencies, or private industry. Those with superior qualifications may have opportunities for summer employment, especially as teachers in counselor training institutes. Where To Go for More Information Information on colleges and universities offer ing training in guidance and counseling, as well as on the certification requirements of each State, may be obtained from the State department of education at the State capital and from the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Guidance and Counseling Programs Branch, Washington, D.C., 20202. Additional information on this field of work may be obtained from; American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1605 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20009. Rehabilitation Counselors (D.O.T. 0-36.40) Nature of Work The rehabilitation counselor interviews each physically or mentally disabled person to obtain as much information as possible about him, his emotional problems, and the nature of his disabil ity. During the early interviews, the counselor attempts to establish free and easy communication to ensure a relationship of mutual trust and con fidence. Information developed in the interviews is used with other medical, psychological, and social data to help the handicapped person in evaluating himself in relation to the kind of work that is suitable to his physical and mental capacity, interests, and talents. A plan of rehabilitation may then be worked out jointly by the counselor, the handicapped person, and those providing medical treatment and other special services. The counselor holds regular interviews with the dis abled person to discuss the program, check on the progress made, and help resolve problems. When employment becomes appropriate the counselor assists in finding a suitable job and often makes followup visits to be sure that the placement is satisfactory. COUNSELING 47 An increasing number of counselors specialize in a particular area of rehabilitation; for example, some work almost exclusively with the blind, some with alcoholics, and others with the mentally ill or retarded. Additional specialities are expected to develop as services for other types of difficult cases are included in rehabilitation programs. Where Employed Every State provides a public rehabilitation program that is financed cooperatively with Fed eral and State funds. In 1962, about three-fourths of the estimated 3,000 full-time rehabilitation counselors worked in these State and local re habilitation agencies. In addition, more than 350, most of whom were counseling psychologists, worked for the Federal Government in the Veter ans Administration. The remainder were em ployed by hospitals, labor unions, insurance com panies, special schools, rehabilitation centers, shel tered workshops, and by other public and private agencies that conduct rehabilitation programs and job placement for the disabled. An estimated 10 to 15 percent of all rehabilita tion counselors are women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Courtesy of National Institutes of Health Rehabilitation counselor checks a handicapped worker’s job adjustment The time spent in the direct counseling of each individual depends upon the person and the na ture of his disability as well as the counselor’s workload. Some rehabilitation counselors may have the responsibility for as'many as 200 persons in various stages of rehabilitation; on the other hand, those with less experience, or specialized counselors working with the severely handi capped, may handle relatively few cases. In addi tion to working directly with the handicapped person, the counselor must also maintain close con tact with other professional people working with handicapped persons, members of their families, other agencies and civic groups, and private em ployers and business groups who hire the handi capped. The counselor is often responsible for related activities, such as employer education and community publicity for the rehabilitation pro gram. A general requirement for entry into this occu pation is graduation from a college or university with course credits in counseling, psychology, and related fields. At present, however, there are no uniform requirements as to the specific kind and amount of education needed to qualify for work in this field. Some employers prefer to hire people with a master’s degree who have majored in voca tional or rehabilitation counseling; others find the master’s degree with a major in a related dis cipline—social science, psychology, education, or social work—satisfies their needs; a few require the Ph. D. degree, with a major in counseling psy chology. Work experience in related fields, such as vocational counseling and placement, social work, psychology, education, and other types of counsel ing, is also given considerable weight by some em ployers, especially when considering applicants with only the bachelor’s degree. It usually takes from iy 2 to 2 years to complete the master’s degree in the fields of study preferred for rehabilitation counseling. The curriculum for the master’s degree in rehabilitation counseling may include a basic foundation in psychology and such courses as Medical Aspects of Rehabilitation, Cultural and Psycho-Social Aspects of Disability, Survey of Therapeutic Care and Rehabilitation, Legislative Aspects of Rehabilitation, Counseling Techniques, Occupational and Educational In 48 formation, Community Resources, and Placement and Follow-Up. To earn the Ph. D. degree in rehabilitation counseling or in counseling psychology may re quire 4 to 6 years of graduate study. For the doctorate, intensive training in psychology, other social sciences, and the biological sciences as well as research methodology is required. In 1962, 32 colleges and universities offered fi nancial assistance to a limited number of graduate students specializing in rehabilitation counseling through training grants provided by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Vocational Rehabilitation Administration. In these graduate programs an internship (super vised work in a rehabilitation setting) is required. About three-fourths of State rehabilitation agencies require applicants to comply with State civil service and merit system rules, and this pro portion is steadily increasing. In most cases these regulations require the applicants to take a written competitive examination, which is sometimes sup plemented by an individual interview and evalua tion by a board of examiners. A few States require counselors to be residents of the State in which they work. Counselors with little experience are usually assigned the least difficult cases; experienced and highly trained counselors are assigned persons with the extreme or multiple disabilities that rep resent difficult rehabilitation problems. After ob taining considerable experience, rehabilitation counselors may be advanced to supervisory posi tions or to top administrative jobs. Among the personal qualifications needed for success in this field are an understanding of human behavior, patience, and a capacity for working with people in solving their problems. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities' for well-qualified rehabilitation counselors are expected to remain excellent throughout the 1960 decade. The short age of counselors that has been evident since World War II seems likely to persist for a number of years. Persons with graduate work in rehabili tation counseling or in a related field will have the best opportunities for employment. Opportunities will also be available to applicants with a bache OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK lor’s degree and some related work experience, but employers are placing increasing emphasis on the master’s degree as the minimum education stand ard for the profession. The present supply of rehabilitation counselors is inadequate to meet the counseling needs of the mentally and physically handicapped. Most of the disabled war veterans have been rehabilitated, but the number of other people needing rehabili tation counseling is nevertheless increasing. It is estimated by the Vocational Rehabilitation Ad ministration that at least 2 million persons in the Nation need rehabilitation counseling now; and that an average of about 600 new counselors will be needed annually during the rest of the 1960 decade to staff new and expanding programs and to replace counselors who leave the profession. This annual demand exceeds considerably the number presently being trained and entering the field. Over the next few years, the supply of rehabilitation counselors will probably be aug mented to some extent by people from related fields, but the most closely related disciplines (psy chology, social work, and education) are those in which the demand for graduates also generally exceeds the supply. Among the factors contributing substantially to the long-run demand for the services of reha bilitation counselors will be: population growth, with related increases in the number of handi capped to be served; the extension of vocational rehabilitation to the more difficult and chronic disabilities; and the anticipated increases in public and private funds allocated to these serv ices, because of the increasing support for social welfare in general, and because of the growing awareness that expenditures for rehabilitation are often returned as savings on appropriations for programs involving health and custodial care, public assistance, and other types of welfare. Earnings and Working Conditions In mid-1962, the beginning average (median) salary paid rehabilitation counselors employed in State agencies was $5,400 according to the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, and the average salary of experienced counselors was $6,660. Counselors with a doctorate in psy COUNSELING 49 chology working with the disabled in the Veter ans Administration were hired in early 1963 at annual salaries ranging generally from $8,045 to $11,150, depending on the applicant’s experience and other qualifications. Counselors may spend only part of their time counseling in their offices and the remainder in the field working with prospective employers, training agencies, and the disabled person’s family. For the field work it is often necessary to be able to drive a car. Generally, rehabilitation counselors work a 40hour week or less with little overtime work re quired; however, they often attend community and civic meetings in the evenings. They are usually covered by sick and annual leave benefits, and pension and health plans. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on rehabilitation coun seling as a career may be obtained from: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1605 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20009. American Psychological Association, Inc., Division of Counseling Psychology, 304 East 45th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. National Rehabilitation Association, 1025 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20005. A list of colleges and universities that have re ceived grants to provide rehabilitation traineeships on a graduate level is available from: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Vocational Rehabilitation Administration, Washing ton, D.C., 20201. Vocational Counselors (D.O.T. 0-36.40) Nature of Work Vocational counselors (including employment counselors) help people develop and accept an adequate career goal that will bring personal satis faction. They assist clients by planning with them on how to prepare for, enter, and progress in their work. The extent of the counseling assistance available, however, differs among agencies pro viding such service. In State employment service offices, for example, counseling most commonly relates to short-run employment goals and in volves a limited amount of counseling. In private agencies, on the other hand, the focus, typically, is on longrun vocational goals with more extensive analysis and counseling. Counselors interview the person seeking their counsel to obtain vocationally significant informa tion about his personal traits, interests, training, work experience, and work attitudes. During or after such sessions, counselors record the appli cant’s responses to their questions as well as their own general observations about the interview. They may assist the individual in filling out questionnaires concerning his personal history and background, which are then reviewed together. Additional data on the person’s general intelli gence, aptitudes and abilities, physical capacities, 692-408 O— 6i -5 knowledge, skills, interests, and values are also obtained from tests and personal inventories which may be administered or recorded by the counselor or a specialist in testing. Further in formation may be assembled by the counselor or by the client from sources such as former em ployers, schools, and health or other agencies. In subsequent interviews, and to the extent that time permits, counselors assist the applicant in evaluating and understanding his own work po tential and provide him the information he needs Vocational counselor seeks information from client about his interests, training, and work experience 50 in making plans appropriate to his talents and interests. Job requirements and employment op portunities or training facilities are discussed. An employment plan is jointly developed by the coun selor and his client, and a training or work pro gram may be developed. In some agencies a voca tional plan may be worked out in a staff con ference—which may be attended by supervisors, the psychologist, the testing specialist, and a labor market or occupational analyst. In many cases, counselors help find a suitable job by suggesting possible employment sources and appropriate w^ays of applying for w^ork. They may also contact prospective employers on be half of applicants. After job placement has been completed, counselors may follow up to see if help with work adjustment is needed. Counselors may also devote some time to de veloping job contacts in the community through conferences with employers. Often they conduct group meetings on employment opportunities. Where Employed The great majority of counselors—1,000 full time and 2,000 part time—are employed in State employment service offices where the main focus is on employment counseling. The next largest number—probably about 500—work for various private or community agencies offering vocational counseling, primarily in the larger cities. In addition, some work in institutions such as pris ons, mental hospitals, and training schools for delinquent youths. The Federal Government em ploys a limited number of vocational counselors, chiefly in the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Veterans Administration. Some people trained in vocational counseling are engaged in research or graduate teaching in the vocational guidance field. About half of all vocational counselors are women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The generally accepted minimum educational requirement for employment counselors in State employment service offices is a bachelor’s degree, preferably with a major in one of the social sciences, with some course work in counseling and psychology. Private and community agencies have not agreed upon minimum entrance requirements, but most of them prefer, and many require, a OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK master’s degree in vocational counseling or in a related field such as psychology, personnel ad ministration, education, or public administration. Most private agencies prefer to have at least one staff member with a Ph. D. in counseling or a re lated field. For those lacking an advanced degree, employers usually emphasize experience in closely related work such as rehabilitation counseling, em ployment interviewing, school or college counsel ing, or teaching. The public employment service offices in each State provide in-service training programs for their new counselors or trainees; their experienced counselors are often given some additional outservice training in counseling at nearby colleges and universities or, in some cases, at summer in stitutes. Private and community agencies also often provide in-service training opportunities. The professional educational curriculum for employment counselors generally includes, at the undergraduate level, a basic foundation in psy chology with some emphasis on sociology. At the graduate level, requirements usually include courses such as Techniques of Appraisal and Counseling for Vocational Adjustment, Group Guidance Methods, Counseling Followup Tech niques, Psychological Tests in Vocational Coun seling, Educational Psychology, Psychology of Occupations, Industrial Psychology, Job Analysis and Theories of Occupational Choice, and some course work in research methods and statistics. Counselor education programs at the graduate level are available in more than 200 colleges and universities, most frequently in the department of education or psychology. To obtain a master’s degree, students must complete 1 to 2 years of graduate study which often includes supervised practice in counseling. An increasing number of States require counse lors in their public employment offices to meet State civil service or merit system requirements that include certain minimum educational and ex perience standards. They may also require a written or oral examination, or both. Counselors who demonstrate that they are well qualified may, after considerable experience, ad vance to supervisory or administrative positions in their own or other organizations; some may be come directors of agencies or of other counseling services, or area supervisors of guidance; some be COUNSELING came consultants; and others, with the doctorate, may obtain teaching appointments as professors in the guidance field. 51 upon community or private funds which may be limited because of competing demands. Earnings and Working Conditions Employment Outlook Vocational counselors with a master’s degree and those with recognized related experience in the field will have excellent employment oppor tunities in both public and private agencies for the rest of the 1960 decade. In addition, college graduates with only a bachelor’s degree who are interested in trainee positions as employment counselors will find many opportunities in State and local employment service offices. The demand for well-qualified vocational coun selors is expected to be strong for some time to come, owing in part to new Federal legislation (the Manpower Development and Training Act and the Trade Expansion Act, both passed in 1962) that provides for counseling in connection with the occupational training or retraining of large numbers of unemployed workers. In addi tion to the expanding counseling activities result ing from these programs, a sharp increase is ex pected in the number of young workers entering the labor force for the first time during the late 1960’s. These young people will need guidance to prepare them adequately for employment in a fast-changing job world. Furthermore, vocational counseling is being recognized increasingly as a valuable tool in combating many social problems; for example, it aids in restoring persons receiving public assistance to independence, in keeping young people in school, and in identifying desira ble employment goals for school dropouts. In ad dition to counselors needed for expanding pro grams, many are needed each year to replace work ers who retire, die, or leave the profession for other reasons. In the future, as in the past, the chief limita tion on the expansion of both public and com munity vocational counseling services will be the availability of funds. Counseling in public em ployment agencies is dependent on the allocation of Federal and State moneys for these services; counseling in the community agencies is dependent The annual average (median) salary for begin ning employment counselors in the State employ ment service offices was $4,760 in mid-1962; for experienced employment counselors, the average salary was $5,915. Scattered reports from a few voluntary agencies in large cities indicate that trainees for vocational counseling positions were being hired at about $5,500 a year; annual salaries reported for experienced counselors ranged up to $8,500. In early 1963, trainees in Federal agencies generally started at $5,540 a year; experienced counselors were hired at salaries ranging between $6,675 and $8,045 depending on their qualifications and experience. Most counselors work 40 hours a week or less and have various benefits, including vacations, sick leave, pension plans, and insurance coverage. Counselors employed in community agencies may often work overtime. Where To Go for More Information General information on employment or voca tional counseling may be obtained from : American Personnel and Guidance Association, Inc., 1605 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20009. U.S Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Guidance and Counseling Pro grams Branch, Washington, D.C., 20202. Information on entrance requirements for posi tions in the public employment service offices may be obtained from the State civil service or merit system office in each State capital or from local employment offices. A list of about 160 private agencies offering vocational counseling services that meet certain professional criteria set forth by the American Board on Counseling Services, Inc., is provided in the “Directory of Approved. Counseling Agencies, 1963-64,” available from the American Personnel and Guidance Association, Inc., at $2 a copy. H E A L T H SER V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S Nearly everyone knows something about the professional services provided by doctors, dentists, and pharmacists. Many people also have some first-hand knowledge of the duties of nurses, at tendants, and other workers who take care of pa tients in hospitals. Less well known, but likewise of great importance to the public health, are the large number of people employed behind the scenes in other health service occupations such as laboratory or X-ray technician. Altogether, more than 2 million people were employed in the health field in 1962. Employment in this field has in creased by more than 40 percent since 1950— nearly three times the increase for all employed persons. Nurses, physicians, pharmacists, and dentists make up the largest of the professional health occupations; in 1962, the numbers in these occu pations ranged from about 100,000 dentists to 550,000 registered professional nurses. Other pro fessional health occupations with sizable employ ment are dietitian, veterinarian, optometrist, chiropractor, osteopathic physician, and hospital administrator. Other health service workers in clude technicians of various types, such as medical technologists, medical X-ray technicians, dental hygienists, and dental laboratory technicians. Large numbers—nearly three-quarters of a mil lion—work as practical nurses and auxiliary nurs ing workers, including orderlies, nursing aids, hospital attendants, and psychiatric assistants. Workers in the health field are employed in many kinds of places including hospitals, clin ics, laboratories, pharmacies, nursing homes, in dustrial plants, private offices, and patients’ homes. Those employed in health-related occupa tions are concentrated in the more heavily popu lated and prosperous sections of the Nation and in big cities, but some are in every village and town. 52 Many women are employed in the health field. Nursing, the largest of the major health service occupations, is second only to teaching as a field of professional employment for women. Other health service occupations in which women pre dominate are practical nurse, medical X-ray technician, medical technologist, dietitian, physi cal therapist, occupational therapist, dental hy gienist, and medical record librarian. On the other hand, the majority of dentists, optometrists, phy sicians, veterinarians, and pharmacists are men. The educational and other requirements for work in the health field are as diverse as the health occupations themselves. For example, professional health workers—physicians, dentists, pharmacists, and others—must complete a number of years of preprofessional and professional college educa tion and pass a State licensing examination. On the other hand, some health service occupations can be entered with little specialized training. A continued rapid expansion of employment in the health field is expected during the middle and late 1960’s, although the rate of growth will differ considerably among the various health service occupations. In general, the factors which have contributed to an increase in the demand for health care in the recent past will probably con tinue to operate. Among these factors are the country’s expanding and aging population, the rising health consciousness of the general public, the extension of hospitalization and medical in surance plans, the rapid expansion of expenditures for medical research, and the continued provision of health care for veterans and members of the Armed Forces and their families. In addition, many new workers will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or—particularly in the case of women—leave the field for other reasons. Thus, there will be many opportunities for employment in the health field over the rest of the decade and in the longer run. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 53 Registered Professional Nurses (D.O.T. 0-33.) Nature of Work Registered professional nurses provide nursing services to patients, either by giving direct care or through supervising allied nursing personnel. They administer medications and treatments pre scribed by physicians; observe, evaluate, and re cord symptoms, reactions, and progress of pa tients; assist in patient education and rehabilita tion ; improve the physical and emotional environ ment of patients; instruct auxiliary personnel or students; and perform other duties concerned with the care of the sick and injured, prevention of illness, and promotion of good health. Student nurse sets practical experience in caring for a patient The largest group of professional nurses are hospital nurses who care for patients in hospitals or related institutions. Most of these are general duty nurses, who perform skilled bedside nursing such as caring for a patient after an operation, assisting with blood transfusions and intravenous feedings, and giving medications. They also often supervise auxiliary nursing workers. Some hospi tal nurses serve primarily in the operating room, assisting surgeons with operations. Others limit their work to certain types of patients such as children or the mentally ill; still others are en gaged primarily in administrative work in hospitals. Private duty nurses are employed directly by patients or their families to give individual nurs ing care, usually to one patient, when constant at tention is needed. Sometimes, in a hospital, one private duty nurse may take care of a few pa tients who require special nursing care but not full-time attention. Office nurses are employed mainly by physicians in private practice or in clinics, and occasionally by dentists, to assist in the care of patients. Some times, they perform routine laboratory and office work. Public health nurses work for health agencies and visiting nurse associations, caring for pa tients in clinics or visiting them in their homes. Their duties may include giving first aid treat ment or periodic nursing care as prescribed by a physician, demonstrating diet plans to groups of patients, and arranging for immunizations. These nurses may work with community leaders, teachers, parents, and physicians in planning or conducting community health education pro grams. Some public health nurses work in schools, although not all school nurses are public health nurses. Occupational health or industrial nurses pro vide nursing care to employees in industry and government, and are responsible for promoting employee health. They may work alone (with a doctor on call), or they may be part of a health service staff in a large organization. According to a doctor’s instructions, they treat minor injuries and illnesses occurring at the place of employment, provide continued nursing care when needed, ar range for further medical care if necessary, and offer health counseling. They may also assist with health examinations and inoculations, keep and analyze health records of employees, and help de velop programs to prevent or control diseases and accidents. Nurse educators teach students the principles and skills of nursing, both in the classroom and at 54 the bedside. They may also conduct refresher and in-service courses for nurses. Nurses also engage in numerous other activities such as research, editing nursing journals or text books, and serving on the staffs of nursing or ganizations. Where Employed Two-thirds of the estimated 550,000 profes sional nurses employed in 1962 were hospital nurses. Approximately 22,000 were employed by the Federal Government, mainly by the Veterans Administration and the Public Health Service, and about 8,500 were serving as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces. Nearly 70,000 were private duty nurses who cared for patients in hos pitals and private homes; about 40,000 were office nurses; public health nurses in government agen cies, visiting nurse associations, and clinics num bered 35,000; nurse educators accounted for 20,000; and occupational health *nurses, 17,000. Most of the remainder were staff members of professional nurse organizations or were em ployed by research organizations. Approximately one-fifth of all nurses employed in 1962 worked on a part-time basis. Less than 3 percent of all employed professional nurses are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is required to practice professional nursing in all States and the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, a nurse must have graduated from a school approved by the State board of nursing and pass a State board examination. A nurse may be registered in more than one State, either by examination or endorsement of a license issued by another State. Graduation from high school is required for ad mission to all schools of nursing. Many schools accept only graduates in the upper third or half of their class. Demonstrated competence in science and mathematics may also be required. Young people considering a nursing career should have an interest in people and a desire to care for the sick and injured. Other personal qualifications needed are dependability, good judgment, pa tience, and good physical and mental health. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Three types of educational programs—diploma, baccalaureate degree, and associate degree—offer the basic preparation required for professional nursing. Diploma programs are conducted by hospital schools and usually require 3 years of training; bachelor’s degree programs usually re quire 4 years of study in a college or university, although a few require 5 years; associate degree programs in junior and community colleges last approximately 2 years. In late 1962, there were 1,126 programs of these 3 types in the United States. Nearly 80 percent were diploma; 15 per cent, baccalaureate degree; and the rest, associate degree programs. All professional nursing programs include class room instruction and supervised nursing prac tice. Students generally begin their program by studying such subjects as anatomy, physiology, microbiology, nutrition, psychology, and basic nursing care. Subsequently, they are given instruc tion and supervised experience in the care of patients with different types of illnesses, in hospi tals and health facilities. Students in colleges and some other schools are also assigned to public health agencies and learn how to care for patients in clinics and in the patients’ homes. General edu cation is combined with nursing education in bac calaureate and associate degree programs and in some diploma programs. Hospital nursing usually begins with general duty work, from which nurses with experience may be advanced to progressively more respon sible supervisory positions, such as head nurse, supervisor, assistant director, and director of nurs ing service. A bachelor’s or master’s degree, how ever, is customarily required for supervisory and administrative positions, as well as for positions in nursing education and public health nursing. Al though some public health agencies hire nurses who do not have degrees in public health nursing, their advancement in these agencies is usually limited. Employment Outlook Registered professional nurses are expected to have excellent employment opportunities through out the remainder of the 1960’s. The outlook is especially favorable for nurses with graduate training to fill positions as administrators, teach ers, clinical specialists, and public health nurses. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Shortages have been reported in the nursing profession for many years and are likely to persist even though the number of professional nurses in relation to population is rising. Although the number of active professional nurses per 100,000 people rose from 249 in 1950 to 297 in 1962, the demand in 1962 exceeded the supply in many parts of the country. The supply is primarily deter mined by the number of girls graduating from high school who enter and complete nurses’ train ing. At present, not enough students are entering the field to meet growth and replacement needs; however, this situation is likely to improve some what as a result of the substantial increase in the number of high school graduates, beginning with the school year 1964-65. The supply of nurses will also continue to come partly from reentry—at least on a part-time basis—of inactive nurses, who represent a very high proportion of all registered professional nurses. Among the principal factors which will con tinue to contribute to the rising demand for nurses, over the long run, are population growth and the increased proportions of very young and old people in the population. Other factors in clude: Improved economic status of the popula tion ; widespread membership in hospital and medical insurance plans; expansion of medical services as a result of new medical techniques and drugs; and increased interest in preventive medi cine and rehabilitation of the handicapped. Re placement needs are high—many professional nurses leave active nursing each year, primarily because of marriage and family responsibilities. Thus, in addition to the many nurses required to fill new positions, at least 25,000 will be needed annually throughout the remainder of the 1960’s as replacements. Earnings and Working Conditions Information on the earnings of professional nurses is scattered and refers to different time periods. The most recent information available is summarized below. The average annual salary of general duty nurses in non-Federal general hospitals was $3,900 in early 1963, according to the National League for Nursing. Head nurses and supervisors usually earned more. 55 Fees for private duty nurses generally were be tween $15 and $20 for a basic 8-hour day in 1961, according to the American Nurses’ Association (ANA). Office nurses were earning $4,320 a year, on the average, when surveyed by the ANA in 1962. Average salaries of public health nurses employed by local government agencies in 1962 were $4,902, as indicated by a National League for Nursing study. Industrial nurses earned aver age weekly salaries ranging from $75 in Green ville, S.C., and $100 in Toledo, Ohio, to $118.50 in the Beaumont—Port Arthur, Tex., area, according to a survey by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in late 1961 and early 1962. Average salaries of in dustrial nurses in about half the 61 areas for which earnings data on nurses were reported ranged be tween $95 and $105 a week. Nurse educators and administrators had an average (median) salary of $5,150 in schools of professional nursing when surveyed by the ANA in 1960. The Veterans Administration offered inexperi enced nurses with diploma and associate degrees an annual salary of $5,035, and baccalaureate graduates, $5,820 in early 1963. In other Federal Government agencies, the entrance rate for nurses was $4,565 for graduates of 3-year training pro grams or for graduates of 2-year schools who had 1 year of experience or additional nursing educa tion. The beginning salary in early 1963 for nurse officers (second lieutenants and ensigns) in mili tary services was $4,265, including allowances. Those with bachelor’s degrees who were commis sioned in the U.S. Public Health Service received salary and allowances totaling $4,828 a year. Virtually all nurses receive extra pay for work on evening or night shifts and at least 2 weeks of paid vacation after 1 year of service. Most hospital nurses receive from 5 to 13 paid holidays a year and also some type of health and retirement benefits. Where To Go for More Information Information on approved schools of nursing, nursing careers, Future Nurses Clubs, and scholar ships may be obtained from: National League for Nursing, Committee on Careers, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, N.Y., 10019. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 56 Information on salaries, working conditions, and employment opportunities may be obtained from: American Nurses’ Association, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, N.Y., 10019. Information about employment opportunities in the Veterans Administration is available from: Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C., 20420. Physicians (D.O.T. 0-26.10) Nature of Work Physicians diagnose diseases and treat people who are ill or in poor health. In addition, they are concerned with the prevention of disease and with the rehabilitation of people who are injured or ill. Physicians generally examine and treat patients in their own offices and in hospitals, but they also visit patients at home when necessary. Some phy sicians combine the practice of medicine with re search or teaching in medical schools. Others hold full-time research or teaching positions or perform administrative work in hospitals, professional as sociations, and other organizations. A few are primarily engaged in writing and editing medical books and magazines. About one-third of the physicians engaged in private practice are general practitioners—often referred to as “family doctors” ; the others are specialists in 1 of the 32 fields recognized by the medical profession. In recent years, there has been a marked trend toward specialization. Among the largest specialities are internal medicine, surgery, obstetrics and gynecology (childbirth and wo men’s diseases), psychiatry (mental disorders), pediatrics (medical care of children), radiology (use of X-ray and other radioactive sources), ophthalmology (the eye and its diseases), and pathology (diagnosing changes in body tissues). Where Employed About 250,000 physicians were professionally active in the United States in mid-1962. The great majority—over 175,000—were engaged in private practice. About 34,000 were interns or residents in hospitals, and another 10,000 held regular posi tions on hospital staffs. More than 20,000 physi cians were serving as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces or were employed in Federal Gov ernment agencies, chiefly in the hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the Public Health Service. The remainder were em ployed in private industry, State and local health departments, medical schools, research founda tions, and professional organizations. In 1962, nearly 40 percent of all physicians were in the five most populous States: New York, Cali fornia, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. In gen eral, the Northeastern States have the highest ratio of physicians to population and the South ern States, the lowest. General practitioners are much more widely distributed geographically than specialists, who tend to be concentrated in the larger cities. Training and Other Qualifications Courtesy of National Institutes of Health Surgery is one of the largest medical specialties A license to practice medicine is required in all States and the District of Columbia. To qualify for a license, a candidate must graduate from an HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS approved medical school, pass a licensing exam ination, and—in 32 States and the District of Columbia—serve a 1-year hospital internship. As of 1962, 18 States permitted a physician to be licensed immediately after graduation from medi cal school, but even in these States an internship is always necessary for acceptance by the profes sion. Twenty-two States and the District of Co lumbia require candidates to pass an examination in the basic sciences to become eligible for the medical licensing examination. Licensing examinations are given by State boards. The National Board of Medical Examin ers also gives an examination which is accepted by 43 States and the District of Columbia as a substi tute for State examinations. Although physicians licensed in one State can usually obtain a license to practice in another without further examina tion, some States limit this reciprocity. In early 1963, there were 86 schools in the United States in which students could begin the study of medicine. Eighty-two awarded the de gree of doctor of medicine (M.D.) to those com pleting the 4-year course; 3 offered 2-year courses in the basic sciences to students who could then transfer to regular medical schools for the last 2 years of study. The remaining school (set up as a 4-year institution) had not yet graduated its first class and was, therefore, only provisionally approved. Because the number of people apply ing to medical schools exceeds the beginning en rollment capacity, preference is given to the most highly qualified applicants. Most medical schools require applicants to have completed at least 3 years of college education for admission, and a few require 4 years. The great majority of students entering medical schools have completed 4 years of college. A few medical schools allow^ selected students with exceptional qualifications to begin their professional study after completion of 2 or 3 years of college. These students are usually awarded a bachelor’s degree while in medical school. Premedical study must include courses in Eng lish, physics, biology, and inorganic and organic chemistry in an accredited college. Students are also encouraged to acquire a broad general educa tion by taking courses in the humanities, mathe matics, and the social sciences. Other factors con sidered by medical schools in selecting students 57 include the individual’s college record; the stand ing of the college where his premedical work was taken; and his scores on the Medical College Ad mission Test, which is taken by almost all appli cants. Consideration is also given to the appli cant’s character, personality, and leadership qualities, as shown by personal interviews, letters of recommendation, and extracurricular activities in college. In addition, many State-supported medical schools give preference to residents of their particular States and, sometimes, nearby States. The first 2 years of medical training are spent in laboratories and classrooms, learning basic medical sciences, such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, microbiology, and pathology. During the last 2 years, students spend most of their time in hospitals and clinics under the supervision of experienced physicians and learn to take case histories, perform examinations, and recognize diseases. New physicians are increasingly taking train ing beyond the 1-year hospital internship. Those who plan to be general practitioners often spend an additional year as interns or residents in a hospital. To become recognized as specialists, physicians must pass specialty board examina tions. To qualify for these examinations, they must spend from 2 to 4 years—depending on the specialty-—in advanced hospital training as resi dents, followed by 2 or more years of practice in the specialty. Doctors interested in teaching and research may take graduate work leading to the master’s or Ph. D. degree in a field such as bio chemistry or microbiology. A growing number (in 1962, about 1,500 U.S. citizens and 8,500 of foreign citizenship) who re ceived their medical training abroad wTere serving as interns and residents in this country. To be appointed to approved internships or residencies in U.S. hospitals, however, graduates of foreign medical schools (citizens of foreign countries as well as U.S. citizens) must pass the American Medical Qualification Examination given by the Educational Council for Foreign Medical Gradu ates. Among the personal qualifications needed for success in this profession are a strong desire to become a physician, above-average intelligence, and an interest in science. In addition, prospective 58 physicians should possess good judgment, be able to make decisions in emergencies, and have emo tional stability. Although some aspects of physicians’ practice may appear to be glamorous or dramatic, much of their work involves dealing with human tragedy. The majority of newly qualified physicians open their own offices. New graduates entering the Armed Forces are usually commissioned as first lieutenants or lieutenants (j.g.). Physicians who have completed their internships and enter on active duty serve as captains in the Army and Air Force and as lieutenants in the Navy. Gradu ates of accredited medical schools are eligible for Federal Civil Service positions and for commis sions in the U.S. Public Health Service. Employment Outlook Excellent opportunities are anticipated for physicians throughout the remainder of the 1960’s. The number of medical school graduates is expected to increase moderately. Many medical schools have recently expanded their facilities and a few new schools are being planned. The number of graduates will, therefore, rise from about 7,200 in 1962 to an estimated 7,700 by 1970, according to projections of the U.S. Public Health Service. Moreover, graduates of foreign medical schools—both U.S. citizens and others— may continue to add to the supply. (In 1962, about 2.000 foreign-trained physicians were licensed in the United States.) On the other hand, about 5.000 new doctors will be needed each year for the remainder of the 1960’s to replace those who retire or die. The remaining number will not be suf ficient to maintain the current ratio of physicians to population in spite of expected increases in medical school facilities and the establishment of new schools. A steady increase is expected in the demand for physicians’ services, in both the near future and the long run. The need for medical services will be increased by the anticipated population growth and change in the age composition of the popula tion, the rising health consciousness of the public, and the trend toward higher standards of medi cal care. Extension of prepayment plans for medi cal care and hospitalization, continued Federal Government provision of medical care for mem bers of the Armed Forces, their families, and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK veterans, and the continuing growth in the fields of public health, rehabilitation, industrial medi cine, and mental health will also tend to bring about a need for more doctors. In addition, ex panded medical research activities will require more trained investigators; medical schools will have openings for additional faculty members; and the growing number of hospital training pro grams will require more interns and resident physicians. The rise in demand for physicians’ services will be limited, to some extent, by advances in medical science and more efficient use of medical person nel. The introduction of new drugs and medical techniques, the more extensive use of assistants trained in other health occupations, and the in creasing proportion of patients treated in hospi tals and physicians’ offices rather than at home will probably enable individual physicians to care for more patients. In addition, the growing tendency of doctors to work in groups is expected to result in a more effective use of the physician’s time. Nevertheless, population expansion and the general rise in use of medical services are ex pected to outweigh any lessening in demand for physicians caused by other developments. For all these reasons, the longrun outlook is very bright for young people who have proper qualifications and are able to gain admittance to medical school. Women physicians, who represent about 6 per cent of the profession, will continue to find good opportunities as general practitioners and as specialists. In 1962, about 6 percent of all medical school students were women. They were enrolled in all schools, and one school accepted only women. Earnings and Working Conditions New graduates serving as interns in 1962 had an average (median) stipend, during this train ing period, of $191 a month in hospitals affiliated with medical schools and $249 a month in other hospitals. In many cases, interns also received room, board, and other maintenance allowances. The average stipend of residents during 1962 was $248 a month in hospitals affiliated with medical schools and $302 a month in nonaffiliated hospi tals. Many hospitals also provided full or partial room, board, and maintenance allowances. During the first year or two of independent practice, HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 59 physicians may earn little more than the mini mum needed to pay expenses but, as a rule, their earnings rise rapidly as their practice develops. Earnings of individual physicians depend on factors such as the region of the country in which they practice, income level of the patients, and the physician’s skill and personality as well as his length of experience. Physicians engaged in private practice usually earn more than those in salaried positions, and specialists usually earn considerably more than general practitioners. According to a survey by the U.S. Public Health Service, the average (median) annual net income of physicians in group practice was $22,607 in 1959; the net incomes among these physicians ranged from $6,800 to $91,268. Those in the West had the highest average net incomes and those in the Northeast had the lowest. Many physicians work long and irregular hours. Most specialists work fewer hours each week than general practitioners. As doctors grow older, they tend to work shorter hours. Many, however, continue in practice wTell beyond 70 years of age. Where To Go for More Information Persons wishing to practice in a given State should find out about the requirements for li censure directly from the board of medical ex aminers of that State. Lists of approved medical schools, as well as general information on pre medical education and medicine as a career, may be obtained from: Council on Medical Education and Hospitals, American Medical Association, 535 North Dearborn St., Chicago, IU., 60610. Association of American Medical Colleges, 2530 Ridge Ave., Evanston, 111., 60201. Pharmacists (D.O.T. 0-25.10) Nature of Work Pharmacists help to protect people’s health by making drugs and medicines available and pro viding information on their use. They dispense prescriptions ordered by physicians and other medical practitioners and may also sell many medicines which can be bought without prescrip tions. Pharmacists must understand the composi tion and effects of drugs and be able to test them for purity and strength. Compounding—the ac tual mixing of ingredients to form powders, pills, capsules, ointments, and solutions—is only a small part of present-day pharmacists’ work, since many drugs are now produced by manufacturers in the form used by the patient. Many pharmacists in retail drugstores or com munity pharmacies have sales and managerial as well as professional duties. Besides dispensing drugs, these pharmacists may hire and supervise salesclerks and buy and sell other kinds of mer chandise. Some pharmacists, however, operate prescription pharmacies which sell only drugs and medical supplies. Pharmacists in hospitals fill prescriptions and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs; they may also make sterile solutions, buy medical supplies, teach in schools of nursing, and perform administrative duties. Some pharmacists, employed as technical sales representatives or “detail men,” by drug manufacturers and wholesalers, inform doctors and dentists about new drugs and sell medicines to other pharmacists. Others teach in colleges, perform research, supervise the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, develop new drugs, write for pharmaceutical journals, or do administrative work. Where Employed About 103,000 of the 117,000 licensed pharma cists in early 1962 worked in retail pharmacies. About half of these retail pharmacists owned their drugstores, alone or as members of a part nership, and the others were salaried employees. The remaining pharmacists were employed by pharmaceutical manufacturers and wholesalers or worked for hospitals. Approximately 850 were civilian employees of the Federal Government, working chiefly in hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public 60 In compounding prescriptions, pharmacists must know about new drugs Health Service. In addition, some served as phar macists in the Armed Forces, taught in colleges of pharmacy, or worked for other employers such as State and local government agencies. Nearly every town has at least one drugstore with one or more pharmacists in attendance. Most members of the profession, however, are employed in or near cities and in those States which have the greatest population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States and the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, one must be a graduate of an accredited pharmacy college, pass a State Board examina tion and, in most States, also have 1 year of prac tical experience under the supervision of a regis OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tered pharmacist. In 12 States, part or all of this experience must be acquired after graduation. All States except California, Florida, Hawaii, and New York grant a license without an examination to properly qualified pharmacists already licensed by another State. In 1963, there were 76 pharmacy colleges in the United States. Some of these were not filled to capacity and qualified applicants could usually expect to be accepted. To graduate from a pharmacy college, one must have at least 5 years of study beyond high school; two schools require a longer period of education. Some pharmacy colleges with a 5- or 6-year course admit students directly from high school and provide all the education necessary for gradua tion. Others provide 3 or 4 years of professional instruction and require all entrants to have com pleted their prepharmacy education in an ac credited college or university. Prepharmacy edu cation usually emphasizes mathematics and basic sciences, such as chemistry and biology, but also includes courses in the humanities and social sciences. The bachelor’s degree awarded upon gradua tion from a pharmacy college is sufficient educa tional qualification for most positions in the pro fession. However, the master’s or doctor’s degree in pharmacy or a related field—such as pharma ceutical chemistry, pharmacology (the study of the effects of drugs on the body), pharmacognosy (the study of the drugs derived from plant or animal sources), or pharmacy administration— is usually required for research work or college teaching. Graduate study is also considered de sirable for pharmacists planning to work in hos pitals. Those interested in becoming hospital pharmacists can sometimes secure 1- or 2-year internships which combine graduate study and practical experience in a hospital pharmacy. Prospective pharmacy students should have a good high school background in mathematics and science. In addition, orderliness and a liking for detail are desirable qualities for young people entering the profession. For those planning to become retail pharmacists, the ability to deal wfith people and manage a business is of special im portance. Pharmacists often begin as employees in retail pharmacies. After obtaining some experience and HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS the necessary funds, they may open their own pharmacies or buy established drugstores. A pharmacist who gains experience in a chain drug store may advance to store manager and, later, to a higher executive position within the company. Hospital pharmacists with the necessary training and experience may be advanced to chief pharma cist or other administrative positions! Employment Outlook Most new pharmacy graduates are expected to be able to find employment readily through the middle and late 1960’s. From 3,000 to 4,000 open ings will arise each year as pharmacists retire, die, or transfer out of the profession. These open ings, together with the anticipated gradual increase in new position for pharmacists, are ex pected to provide enough employment opportuni ties to absorb each year’s graduates. In 1963, em ployers in some localities w^ere having difficulty in meeting their needs for pharinacists, and not enough people with graduate degrees in pharmacy and related fields were available for college teach ing and laboratory research positions. In the long run, a moderate increase in employ ment of pharmacists is expected. New drugstores will be added, particularly in residential areas or suburban shopping centers; the country’s expand ing population—especially the growing number of old people and children—and the rising stand ard of medical care point to an ever-increasing demand for pharmacists’ services. The trend to ward larger drugstores, however, will enable pharmacists to spend more of their time in pro fessional activities, thus lessening the overall de mand for retail pharmacists. Nevertheless, be cause of the trend toward shorter working hours, many drugstores will hire additional pharmacists. Continued expansion in pharmaceutical manu facturing and research is expected to provide more opportunities for pharmacists not only in production and research but also in distribution and sales positions. Employment in hospitals will probably rise with the construction of additional facilities and the more extensive use of pharma cists for hospital wrork. In both the pharmaceuti cal industry and hospitals, the demand will be greatest for pharmacists with graduate education. Thus, many factors point toward continuous 61 growth in this profession. It should be borne in mind, however, that employment of pharmacists is closely related to the prosperity of the retail drug industry which, in turn, depends to a large degree on the general level of economic activity. Women, who represent about 7 percent of all pharmacists, will continue to find their best op portunities in hospital pharmacies, prescription pharmacies, and in laboratory work, although some are employed in all branches of the profes sion. Women students are accepted by all colleges of pharmacy and in 1962 constituted about 13 percent of undergraduate enrollments. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning pharmacists employed in drugstores earned between $125 and $175 a week in 1962, ac cording to reports from cities in various parts of the country. Pharmacists who owned and oper ated drugstores generally made more than this; however, their earnings, and also to a lesser ex tent those of salaried pharmacists, are greatly affected by the length of their workweek, the size and geographic location of the store, and many other factors. Beginning pharmacists employed in hospitals generally earned from $4,500 to $6,500 a year, and those in drug manufacturing firms between $5,700 and $6,900 annually. The entrance salary for newly graduated pharmacists in the Federal Civil Service was $5,540 in early 1963; however, pharmacists with a year of ex perience could start at $6,675. According to a survey made by the U.S. Public Health Service, the average (median) annual earnings of all full-time pharmacists w7ere $8,310 in 1961; for self-employed pharmacists, average net earnings were $9,930, and for salaried phar macists, $7,800. Among salaried pharmacists, those wrho worked in retail chain stores had the highest average annual earnings—about $8,600; for those employed in independent drugstores, the average was about $7,600, and for those in hospital or clinic pharmacies, it wTas about $7,100. Ketail pharmacists generally work more than the standard 40-hour week. Drugstores are often open in the evenings and on weekends and all States require a registered pharmacist to be in attendance during store hours. Despite the gen eral trend toward shorter hours, 48 hours is still OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 62 the basic week for many salaried retail pharma cists, and some work 50 hours a week or more. Self-employed pharmacists often work more hours than those in salaried positions. In 1961, according to the U.S. Public Health Service, al most half of all self-employed pharmacists worked 60 hours a week or more. Those who teach or work for industry, government agencies, or hospitals have shorter workweeks. Salaried phar macists frequently receive paid vacations, health insurance, and other fringe benefits. Where To Go for More Information General information on pharmacy as a career may be obtained from: American Pharmaceutical Association, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20037. Information about retail pharmacies may be obtained from: National Association of Retail Druggists, 1 East Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111., 60601. A list of accredited colleges may be obtained from: American Council on Pharmaceutical Education, 77 West Washington St., Chicago, 111., 60602. Current requirements for licensure in a particu lar State may be obtained from the Board of Pharmacy of that State. Information on college entrance requirements, curriculums, and scholar ships is available from the dean of any college of pharmacy. Dentists (D.O.T. 0-13.10) Nature of Work Dentists look for and fill cavities in the teeth, straighten teeth, take X-rays of the mouth, and treat gum diseases. Dentists also extract teeth and substitute artificial dentures especially designed for the individual patient. In addition, they clean teeth and examine the mouth for diseases that may affect a patient’s general health. They spend most of their time with patients, but devote some time to laboratory work—making dentures, in lays, and other dental appliances. Many dentists, however—particularly in large cities—send most of their laboratory work to commercial firms. Some dentists employ dental hygienists to clean patients’ teeth. They also employ other assistants who perform office work and assist the dentist in his “chairside” duties. Most dentists are general practitioners who pro vide many types of dental care; only about 4 per cent are recognized as specialists. Approximately half of these specialists are orthodontists, who straighten teeth. The next larger number, oral surgeons, perform operations in the mouth and jaws. The remainder specialize in periodontology (treating the tissues that support the teeth), prosthodontics (making artificial teeth or dentures), pedodontics (dentistry for children), oral pathol ogy (diseases of the mouth), and public health dentistry. A few dentists—about 3 percent of the total number—are primarily employed in work that does not involve “chairside” practice, such as teaching and research. Many dentists in private practice, however, do this work on a part-time basis. Where Employed About 95,000 dentists wTere at work in the United States in mid-1962. Nine out of every 10 were in private practice. Of the remainder, nearly 6,000 served as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces; about 1,200 had other types of Federal Government positions—chiefly in the hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the Public Health Service; and about 1,500 held full-time positions in schools, hospitals, or State and local health agencies. Women dentists repre sented only about 2 percent of the profession. Dentists tend to be concentrated in large cities and in certain States. In 1961, about a third of the dentists were in the 4 most populous States (New York, California, Pennsylvania, and Illi nois) , whereas 20 States had less than 10 percent. The region including Delaware, the District of HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Dentist checks a young patient's teeth Columbia, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia had the highest ratio of dentists to population, with 1 dentist for every 1,442 persons in 1961. The Far West had the second highest ratio and New England, the third. At the other extreme was the Southeast with an average of only 1 dentist for every 2,796 residents in 1961. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice dentistry is required in all States and the District of Columbia. To qualify for a license, a candidate must be a gradu ate of an approved dental school and pass a State Board examination. In early 1963, 38 States and the District of Columbia recognized the examina tion given by the National Board of Dental Ex aminers as a substitute for the written part of the State Board examinations. One State, Dela 63 ware, also requires new graduates to serve 1 year of hospital internship. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and specialized practice. In 10 States, however, a dentist cannot call himself a “specialist” unless he has been li censed as such after passing a special State ex amination. Few States permit dentists licensed in other States to practice in their jurisdictions with out further examination. Two years of predental college work followed by 4 years of professional training in a dental school are the minimum educational requirements for the profession; 7 of the 47 dental schools in operation in the United States in early 1963 required 3 years of predental study. Predental education must in clude at least a half-year course in organic chemis try and full-year courses in English, biology, physics, and inorganic chemistry. In dental college, the first 2 years are usually de voted to classroom instruction and laboratory work in basic sciences such as anatomy, bacteri ology, and pharmacology. The last 2 years are spent chiefly in the school’s dental clinic, treating patients. The degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.) is awarded by most dental colleges; the degree of Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D. or D.D.M.) is conferred by a few schools. Keen competition exists for admittance to den tal schools. In selecting students, these schools give considerable weight to college grades and amount of college education; about 80 percent of the students enrolled in 1961 had at least 3 years of college education and nearly half had bache lor’s degrees. In addition, all dental schools par ticipate in a nationwide dental aptitude testing program, and scores earned on these tests are con sidered along with information gathered about the applicant through recommendations and in terviews. Many State-supported dental schools also give preference to residents of their particu lar States. Dentists interested in research or teaching often take graduate work in one of the basic sci ences. To become recognized as a certified special ist, a dentist must pass specialty board examina tions. To qualify for these examinations, he needs 2 or 3 years of graduate education and several years of specialized experience. Graduate train ing may be obtained at most schools of dentistry or by serving an internship or residency at 1 of 64 the 233 approved hospitals that offer these pro grams. The profession of dentistry requires both manual skills and a high level of intelligence. Dentists should have good visual memory, excel lent judgment of space and shape, delicacy of touch, and a high degree of manual dexterity, as well as scientific ability. A liking for people and a good business sense are helpful in achieving success in private practice. The majority of newly qualified dentists open their own offices or purchase established prac tices. Some start in practice with dentists who are already established, to gain experience and to save the money required to equip an office; others may enter residency or internship training programs in approved hospitals. Dentists entering the Armed Forces are commissioned as captains in the Army and Air Force and as lieutenants in the Navy, and may progress to higher ranks. Gradu ates of recognized dental schools are eligible for Federal Civil Service positions and for commis sions in the U.S. Public Health Service. Employment Outlook The demand for dental services is likely to in crease faster than the supply of new dentists dur ing the remainder of the 1960’s. The number of dentists graduated each year is expected to in crease only slightly—from about 3,300 in 1961 to an average of 3,500 per year in the second half of the 1960 decade—and about three-fourths of each year’s graduating class will be needed to replace dentists who retire or die. Thus, unless the in crease in dental school facilities is greater than was contemplated in early 1963, it appears that it will be impossible to retain the present ratio of dentists to population. The demand for dental services is expected to increase steadily over the long run, because of the growth in population, the growing awareness of the importance of regular dental care, and the development of new payment arrangements which make it easier for people of moderate means to obtain dental service. Expanded dental research activities will require more trained personnel; dental public health programs will need qualified administrators; and dental colleges will need ad ditional faculty members. A number of dentists will continue to serve in the Armed Forces. Al OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK though better dental hygiene and fluoridation of community water supplies may prevent some tooth and gum disorders, such measures—by pre serving teeth that might otherwise be extracted —may tend to increase rather than decrease the demand for dental care over the long run. Individual dentists will be able to care for more patients, as a result of the use of new tech niques, equipment, and drugs, and more extensive and effective use of dental hygienists, assistants, and laboratory technicians. These developments, however, will not completely offset the need for more dentists. Location is one of the major factors in deter mining success of dentists who open their own offices. For example, people who are well educated and well paid are most likely to visit dentists regularly. Also, a practice can be developed most quickly in small towns where new dentists can easily become known and where there may be less competition with established practitioners. Al though the income from practice in small towns may rise rapidly at first, over the long run the level of earnings may be lower than that in larger communities. Earnings and Working Conditions During the first year or two of practice, den tists often earn little more than the minimum needed to cover expenses, but their earnings usu ally rise rapidly as their practice develops. In 1961, average (median) income above expenses for all self-employed dentists was about $14,750 a year, and $10,250 for all salaried dentists, ac cording to an American Dental Association sur vey. About 50 percent of all dentists had net earn ings between $9,950 and $19,949 annually; ap proximately 25 percent earned less than $9,950; and 25 percent earned more than $19,949. Nearly 7 percent of all dentists reported net incomes of $30,000 or more. In 1961, the median net income of dentists un der the age of 30 was $8,890. The highest average earnings were for dentists between the ages of 40 and 44, who reported a median net income of $17,400. Practitioners in cities of 50,000 to 100,000 population earned more, on the average, than those in either larger or smaller cities. Specialists generally earned considerably more than general HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 65 practitioners, with orthodontists reporting the highest incomes, on the average. Most dental offices are open 5 days a week and some dentists have evening hours. Dentists usu ally work between 40 and 50 hours a week, al though many spend more than 50 hours a week in the office. Dentists often work fewer hours as they grow older, since the hours of work are usu ally determined by the dentist himself. A con siderable number continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Where To Go for More Information People wishing to practice in a given State should find out about the requirements for li censure directly from the board of dental exam iners of that State. Lists of State boards and of accredited dental schools, as well as information on dentistry as a career, may be obtained from: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 222 East Superior St., Chicago, 111., 60611. Medical X-Ray Technicians (D.O.T. 0-50.04) Nature of Work Medical X-ray technicians—also called medical X-ray technologists—operate X-ray equipment under the general direction of physicians, who are usually radiologists (specialists in the use of X-rays). Most technicians perform diagnostic work, us ing X-ray equipment to take pictures of internal parts of the body which the doctor wishes to ex amine. They may prepare a prescribed X-ray “opaque,” such as barium salts, which the patient swallows in order to shade various organs to pro vide proper visibility in the X-ray picture. To prepare patients for X-ray, technicians position them between the X-ray tube and the film and cover body areas not to be exposed to the rays with a protective lead plate. When necessary, they set up or adjust devices to prevent the patient from moving. After determining the proper volt age, current, and desired exposure time, the tech nician operates the controls to obtain the pictures for interpretation by the physician. Other technicians perform therapeutic X-ray work. They regulate special X-ray equipment used for treatment of diseases, such as certain types of cancer. After placing the patient in the proper position, these technicians operate the equipment from an adjoining room. They may also assist radiologists by preparing radium and other radioactive materials. Some technicians perform duties involved in both diagnostic and therapeutic X-ray work. Medical X-ray technicians keep equipment in good working order by cleaning it and making 692-408 0—63- 6 minor repairs. Other duties may include process ing film and keeping records of services per formed for patients. Some X-ray technicians operate other kinds of equipment such as that used in diagnosing heart disease or brain damage. Chief technicians in some hospitals, in addition to their usual duties, instruct nurses, interns, and students in X-ray techniques. Where Employed About one-fourth of the approximately 60,000 X-ray technicians employed in 1962 worked in hospitals. Most of the remainder worked in medi cal laboratories, physicians’ and dentists’ offices or clinics, Federal and State agencies, and for school systems. Most technicians work in or near large cities where medical facilities and services are con centrated; however, some are employed in hospi tals and clinics in small towns or rural areas. A few work as members of small mobile X-ray teams, engaged mainly in tuberculosis detection. Most X-ray technicians are women, although the number of men in the field has increased dur ing recent years. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training programs in X-ray technology are conducted by hospitals or by medical schools af filiated with hospitals. In 1962, 715 schools of X-ray technology were approved by the American Medical Association (AMA). The program in X-ray technology usually takes 24 months to OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 66 radiographic exposure, X-ray therapy, radiographic positioning, department administration, and equipment operation and maintenance. Technicians who have had at least 2 years’ ex perience under the direction of a radiologist (which may include training time) may apply for registration with the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists. If they pass the exam ination, they may use the title, “Registered Tech nologist,” R.T. (ARRT). Registration is import ant for obtaining highly skilled and specialized positions. Technicians employed in large X-ray depart ments may advance to the job of chief X-ray tech nician and may also qualify as teachers of X-ray techniques. Good health and stamina are important qualifi cations in this field. Because of the possible ex posure to radiation, people with a tendency to ward anemia should avoid working with X-ray equipment. Employment Outlook Courtesy of National Institutes of Health X-ray technology is being used increasingly in diagnosis and treatment of disease complete. A few schools, however, offer longer courses and, to students who also complete the academic requirements, some award the bachelor’s degree. In addition to training programs in approved hospital schools, some courses in X-ray technol ogy are offered by vocational or technical schools. Training also may be obtained in the military service, or through on-the-job experience under the supervision of a radiologist. All of the -approved schools require that appli cants be high school graduates, and a few require 1 or 2 years of college or graduation from a nurs ing school. High school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and typing are con sidered desirable. Preference is generally given to applicants between the ages of 18 and 30. The program in X-ray technology usually in cludes courses in anatomy and physiology, nurs ing procedures, physics, radiation protection, darkroom chemistry, medical ethics, principles of Shortages of trained medical X-ray technicians are likely to persist throughout the remainder of the 1960’s unless the supply of these workers is increased substantially. In early 1963, for exam ple, the American Society of X-Ray Technicians reported that the demand for technicians was much greater than the number of persons ex pected to graduate from approved courses in Xray technology. Many employers prefer to hire only graduates of approved courses. Although enrollments have risen in recent years, approved schools were not filled to capacity in early 1963. The increased use of X-ray equipment in the diagnosis and treatment of disease and the con tinuing expansion of such programs are the lead ing factors pointing toward growth in this field. In addition, more workers will be needed to help administer radiotherapy, as new knowledge of the medical benefits of radioactive material becomes more widespread. Routine X-raying of large groups will continue to be performed as part of programs for disease prevention and control. For example, many employers now demand chest Xrays of all employees, and most insurance com panies include a chest X-ray as part of the phys ical examination required for an insurance policy. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 67 Replacement needs will probably remain high in this occupation, since many of the large num ber of women in it will leave their jobs because of marriage or family responsibilities. The short age of trained technicians who are available for full-time work will make it necessary for em ployers to continue to hire part-time workers. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a private survey, about threefourths of the X-ray technicians employed by State and local government hospitals in 1962 earned between $3,600 and $5,400 annually. New graduates of AMA-approved schools of X-ray technology, or X-ray technicians with 1 year of general and 1 year of specialized experi ence, were employed by the Federal Government at an annual salary of $4,110 in early 1963; those with no experience or specialized training, but who have passed an aptitude test, received $3,560 per year. Full-time technicians generally work 8 hours a day, 40 hours a week, and may be “on call” for some night or emergency duty. Most are covered by the same vacation and sick leave provisions as other workers in the organizations which employ them. Care must be taken to protect medical X-ray technicians from the potential hazards of radia tion exposure. Precautionary measures include the use of safety devices such as individual instru ments that measure radiation, lead aprons, rubber gloves, and other shieldings. Where To Go for More Information The American Society of X-Ray Technicians, 537 South Main St., Fond du Lac, Wis., 54935. The American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 2600 Wayzata Blvd., Minneapolis, Minn., 55405. Medical Technologists (D.O.T. 0-50.01) Nature of Work Medical technologists perform laboratory tests to aid physicians in detecting, diagnosing, and treating diseases. They usually work under the direction of a pathologist (a physician who spe cializes in diagnosing the causes and nature of disease) or a scientist specializing in a clinical science. Among the tests which medical technologists may make are blood counts, urinalyses, and skin tests. Other body fluid and tissue samples are also examined microscopically, cultured to determine the presence of bacteria, fungus, or other organ isms, and analyzed for chemical content or reac tion. Technologists may also type and cross match blood samples, determine blood coagulation time and sedimentation rates, measure basal me tabolism, and analyze water, food products, or other materials for bacteria. Medical technologists sometimes prepare slides from sample tissues and body cells, as in cases of suspected cancer. Both speed and accuracy are required in this prepara tion. Technologists who work in small laboratories often perform many types of tests. Those em ployed in large laboratories usually specialize in making several kinds of related tests in areas such as bacteriology, parasitology, biochemistry, Courtesy of Veterans Administration M edical technologist uses automatic analyzers to make laboratory tests 68 blood banking, hematology (blood analysis), his tology (tissue preparation and examination), virology (the study of viruses), and cytology (analysis of body cells). Most medical technologists conduct tests in connection with the examination and treatment of patients; some do research on new drugs or on the improvement of laboratory techniques, and others teach or perform administrative duties. The occupation of the medical technologist should not be confused with that of the medical technician or laboratory assistant. This statement does not include these workers, who usually per form simple, routine tests and related work that can be learned in a relatively short period. Where Employed It is roughly estimated that between 30,000 and 40,000 medical technologists were employed in 1962; most of them were women. In recent years, however, the number of men in the field has been growing. The great majority of medical technolo gists work in hospitals; most of the others are em ployed by laboratories, public health agencies, re search institutions, and pharmaceutical manu facturers. The Federal Government is the largest single employer of medical technologists. In 1962, over 800 were employed in hospitals and laboratories of the Veterans Administration, U.S. Public Health Service, and the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The completion of at least 3 years of college, including courses in chemistry, the biological sci ences, and mathematics is required for entry into most of the 757 schools of medical technology that were approved by the American Medical Associa tion (AMA) in 1962. A few schools require candi dates for admission to have received the bache lor’s degree. Most approved courses in medical technology last 12 months, although some schools have courses that vary in duration from 15 to 18 months. Most of the approved schools are con nected with hospitals and are affiliated with col leges or universities. Usually the bachelor’s degree is awarded upon completion of 3 years of college OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and the prescribed courses in medical technology, including laboratory work. Several universities also offer advanced degrees in medical technology for those who plan to specialize in research or teaching. Graduates of AMA-approved schools who pass an examination may qualify for listing with the Registry of Medical Technologists of the Ameri can Society of Clinical Pathologists (ASCP). Technologists registered with the ASCP are pre ferred by many employers, especially large hos pitals and research laboratories. In four States— Alabama, California, Florida, and Hawaii—med ical technologists must also be licensed. Promotion may be to supervisory positions in certain areas of laboratory work or, after several years’ experience, to the position of chief medi cal technologist in a large hospital. Graduate edu cation in one of the biological sciences or in chem istry may be required for advancement in research laboratories. Personal characteristics considered important for medical laboratory work include accuracy, patience, dependability, and the ability to work under pressure. Manual dexterity and good eye sight (with or without glasses) are essential. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-qualified medical technologists are expected to remain ex cellent throughout the remainder of the 1960’s. Many employers will seek new graduates with bachelor’s degrees in medical technology to fill entry positions in hospitals; a particularly strong demand is anticipated for technologists with graduate training in biochemistry, bacteriology, immunology, and virology. Over the long run, employment opportunities for medical technologists are expected to expand as a result of the increasing dependence of physi cians upon laboratory tests and because of the construction of additional hospital and medical facilities. Other factors pointing toward growth in this field are the increasing complexity of lab oratory work and the development of new drugs and techniques. Newly developed automatic ana lyzers are not expected to affect materially the demand for highly qualified medical technolo gists. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 69 Replacement needs are likely to continue high because many workers in this field are young women who may leave their jobs for marriage and family responsibilities. Many opportunities for part-time employment are likely to continue to be available. Earnings and Working Conditions Average weekly salaries of women medical tech nologists employed by private and non-Federal Government hospitals in 15 metropolitan areas in 1960 ranged from $69 in Philadelphia to $109 in the Los Angeles-Long Beach area. Men usually received slightly higher salaries. In general, higher salaries were paid by government hospitals than by private hospitals in the same areas. Newly graduated medical technologists em ployed by the Federal Government in early 1963 received a salary of $4,565 a year. Most experi enced technologists in Federal Government agen cies earned annual salaries of between $5,540 and $7,205, and a few earned about $10,000. The average workweek of medical technologists is 40 hours. They generally receive vacations and sick leave benefits, and some are covered by re tirement plans. The laboratories in which medical technologists work are usually well-lighted and clean, although unpleasant odors and specimens of many kinds of diseased tissue are often present. Few hazards exist in laboratories using proper methods of sterilization and handling of specimens, materials, and equipment. Unless technologists exercise care while working, they may be cut by laboratory in struments and glassware or burned by chemicals. Where To Go for More Information: Information about employment opportunities, as well as costs of and entrance requirements for schools of medical technology approved by the American Medical Association, may be obtained from: American Society of Medical Technologists, Suite 25, Hermann Professional Bldg., Houston, Tex., 77025. Registry of Medical Technologists of the American Society of Clinical Pathologists, P.O. Box 44, Muncie, Ind., 47344. Information about employment opportunities in Veterans Administration hospitals may be ob tained from the hospitals or the Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C., 20421. Chiropractors (D.O.T. 0-39.90) Nature of Work Chiropractic is a system of treatment based on the belief that the nervous system largely deter mines the state of health and that any interfer ence with this system impairs normal functions and lowers the body’s resistance to disease. Chiro practors treat their patients primarily by specific adjustment of parts of the body, especially the spinal column. Many also use such supplementary measures as diet, exercise, and rest, and water, light, and heat therapy. Because of the emphasis on the importance of the spine and its position, most chiropractors use X-ray extensively to aid in locating the source of patients’ difficulties. Chiropractic as a system of healing does not in clude the use of drugs or surgery. Where Employed About 25,000 chiropractors were employed in the United States in early 1963. The greatest num ber were engaged in independent private practice. Some were employed by athletic organizations and industrial firms; others taught or did research work at chiropractic schools, or worked on the staffs of chiropractic clinics or as salaried assist ants to established practitioners. About 40 percent of all chiropractors were located in California, New York, Texas, Missouri, and Ohio. Training and Other Qualifications Most States and the District of Columbia regu late the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses 70 to chiropractors who meet certain educational re quirements and pass a State board examination. The type of practice permitted and the educa tional requirements for licensure vary considera bly from one State to another. As of early 1963, four States—Louisiana, Massachusetts, Missis sippi, and New York—did not regulate the prac tice of chiropractic nor issue licenses to chiro practors. Most States require 4 years of training in a chiropractic school following high school gradua tion. Over one-third of the States also require l or 2 years of preparatory college work before chiropractic training. In a few States, less than 4 years of chiropractic education is sufficient to qualify for a license. About half the States also require that chiropractors pass a basic science ex amination. Chiropractors licensed in one State may generally obtain a license in another State without further examination. Approximately two-thirds of the 16 chiroprac tic schools in the United States in 1962 restricted their teaching to manipulation and spinal adjust ments. The others offered a broader curriculum in cluding such subjects as chiropractic physio therapy and nutrition. In most chiropractic schools, the first 2 years of the 4-year curriculum are devoted chiefly to classroom and laboratory work in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry. The last 2 years are spent in obtain ing practical experience in the schools’ clinics. The degree of doctor of chiropractic (D.C.) is awarded by all schools to students completing chiropractic training. Most newly licensed chiropractors open their own offices or purchase an established practice. Some start as assistants to other chiropractors in order to acquire experience and funds. A consid erable financial investment is usually necessary to open and equip an office. Among the personal qualities considered desirable for a practitioner is the ability to deal with people sympathetically. The work does not call for unusual strength or endurance, but does require considerable dexterity with the hands. Employment Outlook The success of the new practitioner will depend in large part on proper selection of a location for OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK practice. Opportunities for beginning chiroprac tors will continue to be best in those parts of the country where chiropractic is most fully accepted as a method of treatment. Small towns or sub urban areas, where the young practitioner can become known more quickly than in a big city, offer the best prospects for developing a practice. The wide variation in community acceptance and in State laws is reflected in the concentration of chiropractors in certain areas. The ratio of chiropractors to population is highest in the West ern States. Employment opportunities are expected to be best for new entrants who are able to meet the highest State licensing requirements, including graduation from a 4-year course of 4,000 or more hours. In view of the trend in many States toward raising the educational requirements for chiro practic practice, thorough training will become in creasingly important. Women are expected to continue to find good opportunities, since some women and children pre fer to go to women chiropractors for treatment. In 1960, about 10 percent of the chiropractors in practice were women. All chiropractic schools ac cept women as students. Earnings and Working Conditions In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low at the begin ning but rise after the first few years. Though in comes of chiropractors vary widely, the average income above expenses was $12,000 a year in early 1963, according to the limited data available. Where To Go for More Information Information on State licensing requirements may be obtained from the State board of licensing in the capital of the State in which the individual plans to practice. General information on chiropractic as a career may be obtained from: International Chiropractors Association, 741 Brady St., Davenport, Iowa, 52800. National Chiropractic Association, National Bldg., Webster City, Iowa, 50595. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 71 Dietitians (D.O.T. 0-39.93) Nature of Work Dietitians plan and supervise the preparation and serving of appetizing and nutritious meals to help people maintain or recover good health. Their work usually includes planning general menus and modified diets that meet nutritional requirements for medical treatment, supervising the personnel who prepare and serve the meals, managing purchases and accounts, and providing guidance toward good eating habits. Administra tive dietitians form the largest group in this oc cupation; the remainder are therapeutic dieti tians, teachers, or research workers. Administrative dietitians apply the principles of nutrition to large-scale meal planning and preparation such as that done in restaurants, and in schools, hospitals, and other institutions. They supervise the preparation of meals; select, train, and direct food-service supervisors and workers; arrange for the buying of food, equipment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. Dietitians who are directors of a dietary department also formu late departmental policy, coordinate dietary serv ice with the activities of other departments, and are responsible for the development and manage ment of the dietary department budget, which in large organizations may amount to millions of dollars annually. Therapeutic dietitians plan special meals for patients who have been placed on modified diets, by taking into consideration the nutritional value of foods, including vitamin and mineral content. They also supervise the serving of meals, discuss food likes and dislikes with patients, and note their intake of food. Other duties of therapeutic dietitians include conferring with doctors regard ing patients’ diets, instructing patients and their families on the requirements and importance of their diets, and suggesting ways to help them stay on these diets after leaving the hospital. In a small hospital, one person may serve as both the ad ministrative and therapeutic dietitian. Some dietitians, particularly those in hospitals affiliated with medical centers, teach subjects such as dietetics, foods and nutrition, diet therapy, menu planning, budgeting, and institution man agement to dietetic, medical, dental, and nursing students. They may also supervise dietetic interns and provide dietary instruction to individuals or groups of patients. Other dietitians conduct studies or surveys of food and nutrition and take part in research projects, such as those concerned with the nutritional needs of the aging, persons with chronic diseases, or space travelers. A few dietitians act as consultants to public health agencies and food manufacturers. Where Employed Of the approximately 26,000 dietitians em ployed in 1962, about half worked in hospitals, in cluding about 1,200 who were employed by the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service. A sizable number were employed by colleges, universities, and public school systems as teachers or as dietitians in food-service pro grams. Most of the remainder worked for public health agencies as consultants, in public restau rants or cafeterias, and in large companies that operate food-service programs for their em ployees. About 300 dietitians were commissioned officers in the Armed Forces. Most of the workers in this occupation are women. In 1960, only about 7 percent of all dieti tians were men. Therapeutic dietitian discusses food preferences with young patients 72 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational requirement for dietitians is a bachelor’s degree with a major in foods and nutrition or institution management. This education can be obtained in the home eco nomics departments of about 500 colleges and uni versities. Undergraduate work should include courses in foods and nutrition, institution man agement, chemistry, bacteriology, and physiology, and such related courses as mathematics, psy chology, sociology, and economics. To qualify for professional recognition, The American Dietetic Association recommends the completion of a 1-year dietetic internship program approved by the Association or, in lieu of this, 3 years of experience with 1 year of this experience under the supervision of a dietitian who is a mem ber of the Association. Many employers prefer to hire dietitians who have completed an internship. An important phase of the intern’s education is on-the-job experience; the remainder is spent in the classroom and on special projects. In 1962, 59 internship programs were approved by the Ameri can Dietetic Association; 50 of these were con ducted in hospitals, 8 in business firms or colleges and universities, and 1 in a food clinic. Experienced dietitians may be advanced to as sistant director or director of a dietary depart ment in a large hospital. Graduate education is usually required for advancement to the higher level positions in teaching and research. Those interested in becoming public health nutritionists must usually earn a graduate degree in this field. Graduate study in institutional or business admin istration is valuable to those interested in adminis trative dietetics. Qualifications considered essential for work in this field are an interest in and an aptitude for the sciences, particularly chemistry and mathe matics. Ability to organize and manage work pro grams and to work well with others is also import ant. Employment Outlook Opportunities for qualified dietitians are ex pected to continue to be excellent throughout the remainder of the 1960’s. The number of people completing dietetic internships in recent years has been considerably less than the demand for dieti OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tians. Because of the shortage, some hospitals and other establishments employ college graduates with suitable undergraduate education to assist dietitians. Small hospitals and some other institu tions that cannot obtain full-time dietitians employ them on a part-time basis. Over the long run, new and expanding hospital facilities and more widespread use of hospitals and medical services by the increasing population will intensify the need for dietitians in hospitals. In addition, the expected expansion in community health programs will increase the need for dieti tians and nutritionists to act as consultants. An increasing number of dietitians will also be sought to direct food services for schools, industrial plants, and commercial eating places. Expansion of food and nutrition research programs may also contribute to the overall demand for dietitians. In addition, since many women select this field be cause of their interest in food and homemaking and then leave the profession for marriage and family responsibilities, replacement needs will probably continue to be high. The number of men employed as dietitians has been growing slowly but steadily. Men are likely to find increasing employment opportunities, especially as administrative dietitians in college and university food services and in commercial eating places. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1962, hospitals offered new graduates of ap proved internship programs annual salaries rang ing from $4,500 to $5,500, according to the Ameri can Dietetic Association. College and school food services offered annual salaries ranging from $4,500 to $6,000 for staff dietitians, and from $5,000 to $12,000 or more for directors and super visors. Teachers in colleges and universities were paid between $6,000 and $10,000 a year. The entrance salary in the Federal Govern ment for those who had completed their intern ship was $5,540 a year in early 1963. New college graduates usually started at $4,565 per year. Most experienced dietitians employed by the Federal Government earned between $5,540 and $8,700 per year; a few earned over $12,000 annually. Dieti tians who entered the Armed Forces with the rank of second lieutenant or ensign received an annual starting salary of $4,265, including allowances, in HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 73 early 1963. Those who make the service a career can advance to higher ranks. Nearly half the dietitians employed by State and local governments in 1962 earned between $4,800 and $6,000 a year, according to a private survey; one-fourth received salaries between $3,600 and $4,800, and the rest earned more than $6,000. Most dietitians work a regular 40-hour week; however, dietitians in hospitals may sometimes have to work weekends, and those in restaurants have somewhat irregular hours. Some hospitals provide room, laundry service, and meals in addi tion to salary. Paid vacations, holidays, and health and retirement benefits are usually received. Where To Go for More Information Information on approved colleges and dietetic internship programs, scholarships, and employ ment opportunities may be obtained from: The American Dietetic Association, 620 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, m., 606ll. The U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washing ton, D.C., 20415, has information on the require ments for dietetic interns and dietitians in Fed eral Government hospitals. Dental Laboratory Technicians (D.O.T. 0-50.06) Nature of Work Making artificial dentures—teeth, crowns, bridges, or other dental and orthodontal appli ances—used to be done chiefly by dentists. Now dental laboratory technicians do much of this highly skilled work. These technicians do not deal directly with patients but receive prescriptions from dentists, which are often accompanied by im pressions of patients’ mouths. Since no two pa tients have exactly the same dental problems, technicians must do varied work in carrying out dentists’ prescriptions. A first step in making many kinds of appliances is forming models in hard plaster (dental stone) from the impressions taken by dentists. Techni cians may also make metal castings for dentures; polish and finish dentures; construct metal or porcelain crowns or inlays for partially destroyed teeth; make gold and other metal bridges; and make appliances to correct such abnormalities as cleft palates. In performing this work, dental laboratory technicians use small handtools, elec tric lathes and drills, high-heat furnaces, and other kinds of specialized laboratory equipment. Some dental laboratory technicians are “gen eralists” who do all types of dental laboratory work. Others specialize in such areas as making crowns and bridges, arranging artificial teeth on dental appliances so that they function properly and look natural, processing plastic materials, working with ceramics (porcelain), or making castings of gold or other metal alloys used in dentistry. The level of the work done ranges from semi-skilled to highly skilled, depending upon the qualifications of the individual technician and the requirements of the job. Technicians with limited training and experience ordinarily per form relatively simple jobs—for example, mixing and pouring plaster into casts and molds. Wellqualified dental laboratory technicians are as signed to the more difficult laboratory processes and may work with expensive metals. Dental laboratory technician uses a small handtool to work on artificial teeth 74 Where Employed It is estimated that roughly 25,000 dental labora tory technicians were employed in early 1963. Most of them worked in commercial laboratories, either as employees or as owners of the business. Commercial laboratories, which handle orders from any dentist, are typically small businesses; in mid-1959 (the latest year for which this informa tion is available), more than one-fourth of all laboratories were 1-man shops and less than 15 percent had 10 workers or more. Between 1,000 and 2,000 laboratory technicians worked for indi vidual dentists. Others worked in -hospitals that provided dental services. Most of the remainder— about 650—were employed by the Federal Govern ment, chiefly in the Veterans Administration and in the Department of the Army. Women, who ac count for less than 10 percent of all dental labora tory technicians, worked mainly in large com mercial laboratories. Dental laboratory technicians, like the dentists who use their services, are located mainly in big cities and in the States with the largest popula tions. More than half of all dental laboratory technicians are in cities of over 50,000 population. Moreover, they are concentrated in New York, California, Illinois, and Pennsylvania. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The most common means of entering this occu pation is to secure a trainee position and learn the craft on the job—usually in a commercial labo ratory or a hospital offering dental services. Typi cally, an on-the-job training program lasts 3 or 4 years, depending on such factors as the student’s previous experience and training, his ability to master the techniques, and the number of special ized areas to be learned. Courses in dental labora tory work are offered in some public vocational high schools and junior colleges. In addition, a few private schools offer 1- to 2-year courses in dental laboratory technology. But regardless of the stu dent’s educational background, actual work ex perience is always considered necessary by em ployers to qualify as a full-fledged technician. The National Association of Dential Labora tories and the American Dental Association sponsor a certification program for dental labora tory technicians who can meet certain training and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK other requirements. In early 1963, four schools had been accredited by the American Dental As sociation to provide high school graduates (or those with equivalent education) with the 2 years of training required under this program. Some scholarships are available in the accredited schools. The first year of training consists of formal classroom instruction in medical law and ethics, chemistry, ceramics, metallurgy, and other related subjects. During the second year, the stu dent must complete 12 months of supervised practical experience in the school or a dental laboratory. He may receive some pay for work performed during this period. After completion of the 2-year training program, 3 years of experi ence in a dental office or a laboratory are required before the dental laboratory technician is eligible to take the examination for certification in one or more of five areas—generalist, full denture fabrication, partial denture fabrication, ceramic technique, and crown and bridge fabrication. Among the personal qualifications which em ployers look for in selecting trainees are a high degree of manual dexterity, good color percep tion, patience, and a liking for detailed work. Preference may also be given young people who have completed high school courses in art, cera mics and pottery, sculpturing, blueprint reading, plastics, metalworking, and physiology. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for the well-qualified, all round craftsmen and for specialists in ceramics, gold, and other metalwork are expected to be very good throughout the 1960’s. Job opportunities for trainees will also arise each year. As in the recent past, the demand for dental laboratory technicians will probably stem largely from the need to re place technicians who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Most opportunities for sala ried employment, for both experienced and inex perienced dental laboratory technicians, will be with large commercial laboratories and in the Federal Government. Some experienced techni cians will find favorable opportunities for estab lishing their own laboratories. A technician whose work has become known to several dentists in a community will have the best prospect of building a successful business. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 75 A moderate increase in employment of dental laboratory technicians is anticipated over the long run. The anticipated growth in population, rising income, the growing public awareness of the importance of preventive dentistry, the mount ing number of people in the older age groups and, with it, the number of people requiring artificial dentures, all point toward the need for more dental laboratory technicians. Moreover, the number of dentists is not expected to keep pace with population growth, and it is likely that den tists will send more and more of their laboratory work to commercial firms, to free themselves in creasingly for “chairside” practice, research, and other professional activities. In the future, certification may become impor tant for obtaining employment as a dental labora tory technician, since many employers are likely to regard the certificate as the best readily avail able evidence of the technician’s competence. Earnings and Working Conditions Inexperienced dental laboratory technicians em ployed in commercial laboratories in early 1963 typically earned between $50 and $65 a week, ac cording to the National Association of Dental Laboratories. Experienced technicians in com mercial laboratories generally earned between $80 and $150 a week, depending on their skill level and experience. Technicians who work with cera mics or gold and other metals received the highest salaries. Foremen and managers in large dental laboratories may earn $200 or more per week. In general, earnings of self-employed technicians are higher than those of salaried workers. Trainees employed in the Federal Government started at about $75 a week in early 1963. The ma jority of experienced dental laboratory technicians employed in the Federal Government earned be tween $106 and $153 a week. Salaried technicians usually work the standard 40-hour week, but self-employed technicians fre quently work longer hours. Many technicians in commercial laboratories receive paid holidays and vacations, and some are also provided paid sick leave, bonuses, and other fringe benefits. Techni cians employed by the Federal Government have the same benefits as other government workers. The work of dental laboratory technicians is not strenuous and most jobs can be done by handi capped workers provided they have use of their hands and fingers. Where To Go for More Information Information about the training and other re quirements for certification, as well as a list of approved schools, is available from: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 222 East Superior St., Chicago, 111., 60611. Information on career opportunities in com mercial laboratories may be obtained from: National Association of Dental Laboratories, Inc., 201 Mills Bldg., Washington, D.C., 20006. Information about employment in dental labo ratories in veterans’ hospitals may be obtained from local veterans’ hospitals and offices through out the country. Veterinarians (D.O.T. 0-34.10) Nature of Work Veterinarians (doctors of veterinary medicine) treat sick and injured animals. They also give ad vice regarding the care and breeding of animals and help to prevent the outbreak and spread of diseases among them, by physical examinations, tests, and vaccinations. Because many animal di seases can be transmitted to people, this work is important to the public health. About 40 percent of all veterinarians are general practitioners who take care of both large and small animals. Of those who are specialists, the greatest number treat small animals, often operating hospi tals with boarding facilities for dogs and cats. Others specialize in the treatment of certain kinds of animals, such as prize livestock, poultry, or thoroughbred horses. Many veterinarians inspect meat, poultry, and other foods as a part of the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 76 Federal and State public health programs. A small number teach in colleges or do public health or other research related to animal diseases, drugs, and foods. Since animals cannot describe how they feel, veterinarians must diagnose diseases and injuries on the basis of appearance and behavior, and by taking temperatures and making tests. When necessary, veterinarians operate on animals and prescribe and administer drugs, medicines, biologicals, serums, and vaccines. They use X-ray machines, hypodermic needles, syringes, and other medical equipment especially adapted for use with animals. They may treat animals on the farm —sometimes in open fields—or in veterinary clin ics or hospitals. Where Employed About 21,000 veterinarians—fewer than 5 per cent of whom were women—were at work in the United States in 1962. Of these, more than twothirds were in private practice. The second largest number worked for the Federal Government— chiefly in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which employed about 2,200 veterinarians; a few worked for the U.S. Public Health Service. More than 800 were commissioned officers in the Veterinary Corps of the Army and the Air Force. In addition, a substantial number worked for State and local government agencies and a few Courtesy of U.S. Department of Agriculture Veterinarians use special equipment to examine dairy cow worked for international health agencies. Some were also employed by schools of veterinary medi cine, agricultural colleges, large livestock farms, animal food companies, and pharmaceutical com panies that manufacture drugs for animals. In 1962, more than one-third of all veterinarians in the United States were in six States—Cali fornia, with about 2,000, and New York, Illinois, Iowa, Texas, and Ohio, each with over 1,000. Vet erinarians in rural areas chiefly treat large ani mals; those in small towns usually engage in gen eral practice; those in cities and suburban areas frequently limit their practice to pets. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To practice veterinary medicine in any State or the District of Columbia, one must have a license. An applicant for a license is required to be a graduate of an approved veterinary school and to pass a State Board examination. A few States also require some practical experience un der the supervision of a licensed veterinarian. A limited number issue licenses without examination to veterinarians who have been licensed in another State. For positions in public health or other re search or college teaching, the master’s or Ph. D. degree in a field such as pathology, public health, or bacteriology may be required, in addition to the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.), awarded upon graduation from vet erinary school. Two years of preveterinary college work fol lowed by 4 years of professional study in a school of veterinary medicine are the minimum require ments for the D.V.M. It may take 3 years, how ever, to complete the preveterinary curriculum, which emphasizes chemistry and other science courses. The veterinary school training includes considerable practical experience in treatment of animals, as well as laboratory work in anatomy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical fields. There were 18 colleges of veterinary medicine in the United States in 1963. Each year many more young people apply for admission than can be accepted. Some of the qualifications con sidered in selecting students are a good scholastic record, amount and character of preveterinary HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS training (in 1962, about one-fifth of the students selected had a bachelor’s degree), a farm back ground, good health, and a liking for animals. Since veterinary colleges are largely State sup ported, residents of the State in which the school is located are almost always given preference. In the South and West, regional educational plans have been developed that permit cooperating States without veterinary schools to send a few students to designated regional schools. In other areas, schools may informally decide to accept a certain number of students from other States, of ten giving priority to applicants from nearby States without veterinary schools. The number of women admitted to schools of veterinary medicine is relatively small. Some veterinarians begin as assistants to, or partners of, established practitioners. Many estab lish their own practice and start with a modest financial investment in such essentials as drugs, in struments, and a car. To open an animal hospital or purchase an established practice requires a substantial investment. Neyly qualified veterinar ians who enter the Army or Air Force are com missioned as first lieutenants. New graduates of accredited veterinary schools can also qualify for Federal civil service positions as meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, and research assistants. In addition, the U.S. Department of Agriculture offers students who have completed their junior year in schools of veterinary medicine opportunities to serve as trainees during the sum mer months. Employment Outlook Graduates of schools of veterinary medicine will probably continue to have good employment op portunities throughout the remainder of the 1960’s. The supply of graduates is not expected to meet the total demand for veterinarians in pri vate practice, government service, and colleges and universities. Many of the opportunities to enter private practice or salaried employment will arise from the need to replace veterinarians lost to the profession through retirement or death. Be cause many veterinarians are in the older age groups, it is anticipated that these replacement needs will continue to absorb almost half of the nearly 900 veterinarians who will graduate each year from existing schools. 77 A gradual expansion in employment of vet erinarians can be expected in the long run. More veterinarians will be needed to care for the in creased number of animals required to feed the country’s expanding population. The trend toward suburban living is expected to bring about a large growth in the pet population and thus create a greater demand for small pet animal specialists. Emphasis on scientific methods of raising and breeding livestock and poultry will continue to in crease, and veterinary research will expand fur ther. In addition, public health and disease-control programs are expected to grow. Developing pro grams in international public health will also offer some employment opportunities. The need for replacements and the anticipated growth in demand for veterinary services, when related to the limited number of veterinarians who can be trained each year by existing schools, point toward continued favorable opportunities for vet erinarians in the long run. However, the demand for veterinary service for large animals is closely related to economic conditions. Since the market value of a farm animal largely determines how much its owner will spend on its care, any major economic recession would greatly affect incomes and employment opportunities in this type of practice. Earnings and Working Conditions Veterinarians beginning their own practice can generally cover their expenses the first year and may often add to their earnings by working part time for government agencies. As they gain ex perience, their incomes usually increase substan tially; however, income of the veterinarian in private practice depends largely on his location with respect to the availability of other veterinary services, and the attitude of potential clients to ward the use of professional care for animals. Ac cording to a survey of a sample of the membership of the American Veterinary Medical Association, the average net income of reporting veterinarians was $13,255 in 1960. Forty-five percent reported net incomes between $8,000 and $14,000; 17 per cent earned less than $8,000; and 38 percent, $14,000 or more. About 1 out of 7 of the reporting veterinarians had net incomes of $20,000 or more. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 78 Newly graduated veterinarians had an annual starting salary of $7,350 in the Federal Govern ment in early 1963. Summer trainees in the U.S. Department of Agriculture were paid $107 per week actually employed (representing a rate of $5,540 per year). Veterinarians commissioned as first lieutenants in the Army and Air Force re ceived pay and allowances totaling approximately $6,300 per year. Veterinarians are sometimes exposed to danger of physical injury, disease, and infection. Those in private practice are likely to have long and irregular working hours; those in rural areas may have to spend much time traveling to and from distant farms and may have to work outside in all kinds of weather. Veterinarians can continue working well beyond the normal retirement age because of the many opportunities for part-time employment or practice. Where To Go for More Information* Additional information on the earnings of vet erinarians and on veterinary medicine as a career, as well as a list of schools providing training, may be obtained from: American Veterinary Medical Association, 600 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111., 60605. Information on opportunities for veterinarians in the U.S. Department of Agriculture is available from: Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. Optometrists (D.O.T. 0-39.92) Nature of Work Optometrists examine eyes and perform other services to safeguard and improve vision. They use special instruments and tests to find and measure defects in vision and, when needed, pre scribe eyeglasses, contact lenses (invisible lenses), and eye exercises or other treatment that does not require drugs or surgery. Most optometrists sup ply their patients with the eyeglasses prescribed, though some do only minor repair work, such as straightening frames or replacing nose pieces on glasses. A few optometrists specialize in work such as fitting persons who are nearly blind with tele scopic spectacles, studying the relationship of vi sion to highway safety, and analyzing lighting and other conditions that affect the efficiency of workers in industry or business. A few are en gaged primarily in teaching, research, or a com bination of the two. Optometrists should not be confused with oph thalmologists, oculists, or dispensing opticians. Ophthalmologists and oculists are physicians who specialize in the medical and surgical care of the eyes and may prescribe drugs or other treatment, as well as lenses. Dispensing opticians (see index) fit and adjust eyeglasses according to prescrip tions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists; they do not examine eyes or prescribe treatment. Where Employed Most of the 17,000 optometrists employed in 1962 were in private practice. However, some were salaried employees, working as assistants to estab lished practitioners or for health clinics, hospitals, optical instrument manufacturers, or government agencies. A few taught in colleges of optometry or served as optometrists in the Armed Forces. Optometrists are located chiefly in large cities and industrial areas, where many people are en gaged in office work or other occupations which tend to create or emphasize vision problems. About 40 percent are in five States—California, New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Many small towns and rural areas, especially in the South, have no optometrists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is required to practice optometry in all States and the District of Columbia. Applicants for licenses must be graduates of an accredited school of optometry and pass a State board ex amination. In some States, only graduates of cer tain schools of optometry are admitted to these examinations. A student planning to become an optometrist should, therefore, choose a school ap proved by the Board of Optometry in the State HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 79 lated field is usually required for teaching and research work. A prospective optometrist should have a liking for mathematical and scientific work, the ability to use delicate precision instruments, mechanical aptitude, and good vision. In addition, to become a successful practitioner, he must be able to deal with people tactfully. The majority of optometrists start either by setting up a new practice or by purchasing an established one. Some begin as assistants to estab lished practitioners, and young graduates are fre quently advised to do this in order to acquire experience and the funds necessary to equip an office. Employment Outlook Optometrist works with special instruments to improve patient's visual coordination where he expects to practice. There were 10 schools of optometry in the country in 1963. Applicants with the necessary qualifications have an excellent chance of being admitted to one of these schools. At least 5 years of college are needed to become an optometrist. The usual requirement is 2 years of preoptometry education in an approved college, followed by 3 years of training in an optometry school. However, completion of a 4-year course is required by some optometry schools after the 2 years of preoptometry study which are a pre requisite for admission. Preoptometry courses in clude mathematics, physics, biology, and chemis try, as well as English and other liberal arts courses. Students in schools of optometry have both classroom and laboratory work, as well as an opportunity to gain professional experience in the clinic run by the school. Most schools award the degree of Doctor of Optometry (O.D.), but some confer bachelor’s degrees in science or op tometry instead. Optometrists who wish to special ize often take additional training. A master’s or Ph. D. degree in physiological optics or in a re Employment opportunities for new optome try graduates are expected to remain favorable throughout the 1960’s. During this period, the number of new graduates is likely to be consid erably less than the number of experienced op tometrists who retire or stop practicing for other reasons. As in the past, opportunities to set up a new practice will generally be best in small towns and in residential areas of cities, where the new optometrist can easily become known and where competition is not as keen as in large business centers. Communities, especially in the South, that have no optometric services available will also offer opportunities for new graduates. A good of fice location is of major importance for a success ful practice. The optometrist should consider the number of optometrists and medical eye specialists in the vicinity, in relation to size, occupations, age, and income level of the population in the area. Over the long run, the demand for eye-care services will continue to grow. The importance of good vision to efficiency at work and in school is becoming more widely recognized; eye strain has been increased by many aspects of modem living; and the use of eyeglasses has come to be generally accepted. The volume of eye-care serv ices needed will also be increased by the antici pated growth in population, especially by the expected sharp rise in the number of older people —the group most likely to need glasses—and be cause of the growing number of people employed in white-collar occupations. Although the ex OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, 80 panded demand will be met in part by medical doctors who are eye specialists, optometrists will continue to supply a substantial proportion of all eye-care services. Women optometrists, who constitute about 5 percent of the profession, have many opportuni ties to work as salaried assistants in the field of visual training. Those in private practice have been particularly successful in work with children. large cities. However, some successful practition ers in big cities have very high incomes. Although optometrists in salaried positions may at first earn more than those who go into practice for them selves, the situation is likely to be reversed after a few years of experience. Working hours in this profession are usually regular. Since the work is not strenuous, optome trists can often continue to practice after the nor mal retirement age. Earnings and Working Conditions In optometry, as in some of the other health fields, a low income must be expected during the first few years of practice. As a practice becomes established, earnings usually rise significantly. In 1962, over half the optometrists had annual net incomes between $7,000 and $20,000, according to the American Optometric Association. Newly graduated optometrists employed by clinics or other optometrists earned an average weekly salary of $160 in early 1963, according to the limited data available. Experienced optome trists generally received $200 or more a week. Optometrists practicing in towns and small cities have higher average earnings than those in Where To Go for More Information! Additional information on optometry as a ca reer is available from: American Optometric Association, 4030 Chouteau Ave., St. Louis, Mo., 63110. Information on required preoptometry courses may be obtained by writing to the optometry school in which the prospective student wishes to enroll. The Board of Optometry in the capital of the State in which the student plans to practice will provide a list of optometry schools approved by that State. Osteopathic Physicians (D.O.T. 0-39.96) Nature of Work Where Employed Osteopathic physicians emphasize manual ma nipulation in treating patients, and in most States also use surgery, drugs, and all other accepted methods of medical care. Most are “family doc tors” who engage in general practice. These physi cians usually see patients in their offices, make house calls, and treat patients in osteopathic and some city and county hospitals. A few doctors of osteopathy are engaged primarily in research, teaching, or writing and editing scientific books and journals. A growing number specialize in 1 of the following 12 fields: Internal medicine, neu rology and psychiatry, ophthalmology and oto rhinolaryngology, pediatrics, anesthesiology, physical medicine and rehabilitation, dermatology, obstetrics and gynecology, pathology, proc tology, radiology, and surgery. Nearly all of the 12,000 osteopathic physicians professionally active in the United States in early 1963 were in private practice. (This does not in clude about 1,500 osteopathic physicians in Cali fornia who, since 1962, have been classified as medical doctors.) Less than 5 percent of all osteo pathic physicians held full-time salaried positions, mainly in osteopathic hospitals and colleges. A few osteopathic physicians are employed by pri vate industry or government agencies. Osteopathic physicians are located chiefly in those States which have osteopathic hospital fa cilities. In 1962, about half of all osteopathic phy sicians were in the following five States: Michi gan, Pennsylvania, and Missouri, each with more than 1,000; Ohio, with more than 900; and Texas, with more than 700. Twenty-one States and the HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS District of Columbia each had fewer than 50 osteopathic physicians. Over half of all general practitioners are located in towns and cities with under 25,000 population; the specialists, however, practice mainly in big cities. Training and Other Qualifications A license to practice as an osteopathic physician is required in all States. As of 1963, licensed osteo pathic physicians were qualified to engage in all types of medical and surgical practice in threefourths of the States and the District of Columbia. The remaining States, however, limit in varying degrees the use of drugs or the type of surgery that may be performed. To obtain a license, a candidate must be a gradu ate of an approved school of osteopathy and pass a State board examination. In 21 States and the District of Columbia, the candidate must pass an examination in the basic sciences before he is eligi ble to take the professional examination; some States also require a period of internship after graduation from osteopathic school. All States ex cept Florida and Rhode Island will usually grant licenses, without further examination, to properly qualified osteopathic physicians already licensed by another State. Three years of preosteopathic college work fol lowed by 4 years of professional study in an osteo pathic college are the minimum requirements for the degree of doctor of osteopathy (D.O.) Pre osteopathic education must include a specified number of credits in chemistry, physics, biology, and English. During the first 2 years of profes sional training, emphasis is placed on basic sci ences such as anatomy, physiology, and pathology and on the principles of osteopathy; the last 2 years are largely devoted to work with patients in hospitals and clinics. After graduation, almost all doctors of osteop athy serve a 12-month internship at 1 of the 85 osteopathic hospitals which the American Osteo pathic Association has approved for intern train ing. Those who wish to become specialists must have at least 3 years of additional training fol lowed by 2 years of supervised practice in the specialty. Every year, more young people apply for ad mission to the five approved schools of osteopathy 692-408 0—63------7 81 than can be accepted. In selecting students, con sideration is given to grades received in preprofes sional education, scores on medical aptitude tests, and the amount of preosteopathic college work completed (in 1962, about 70 percent of the stu dents had bachelor’s degrees). Also of great im portance in the desire to serve as an osteopathic physician rather than as a doctor trained in other schools of medicine. Considerable weight is also given to a favorable recommendation by an osteo pathic physician familiar with the applicant’s background. Newly qualified doctors of osteopathy usually establish their own practice. A few work as assist ants to experienced physicians or become asso ciated with osteopathic hospitals. In view of the variation in State laws regulating the practice of osteopathy, the osteopathic physician should care fully study the professional and legal require ments of the State in which he plans to practice. The availability of osteopathic hospitals and clini cal facilities should also be taken into account when choosing a location. Employment Outlook Opportunities for osteopathic physicians will remain excellent through the rest of the 1960’s in those parts of the country where osteopathy is a commonly accepted form of medical care. Greatest demand will probably continue to be in Pennsyl vania and a number of Midwestern States; fur ther growth in employment opportunities is also anticipated in the Southwest and Northwest. Pros pects for beginning a successful practice are likely to be best in rural areas, small towns, and city suburbs, where the young doctor of osteopathy can become known more easily than in the centers of large cities. In the long run, opportunities for osteopathic physicians will probably continue to be good. There is likelihood of greater public acceptance of osteopathy, liberalization of certain State li censing laws, and the establishment of additional osteopathic hospitals. In addition, the demand for all kinds of medical care—including the services of osteopathic physicians—will continue to grow as a result of the increase in population, govern ment provisions of medical services for veterans and members of the Armed Forces, the develop- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 82 ment of prepayment plans for medical care and hospitalization, and the underlying trend toward higher standards of health care. At the same time, growth in the number of osteopathic physicians in the country will be slow, unless training facili ties are expanded. Approximately 360 doctors of osteopathy were graduated in 1962 but most of these are needed to replace those who retire and die. Women osteopathic physicians will find good opportunities not only in private practice but also on faculties of osteopathic colleges and on the staffs of hospitals and clinics. Approximately 7 percent of all osteopathic physicians are women. Women students, however, represented only about 2 percent of the total enrollment in osteopathic colleges in 1962, although men and women are equally eligible for admission. Earnings and Working Condifions In osteopathy, as in many of the other health professions, incomes usually rise markedly after the first years of practice. Earnings of individual practitioners are determined mainly by such fac tors as ability, experience, the income level of the community served, and geographic location. Ac cording to the most recent survey made by the American Osteopathic Association (1960), the av erage income above business expenses of general practitioners was $15,400 a year, and of special ists, $23,100 a year. Many osteopathic physicians work more than 50 and 60 hours a week. Those in general practice work longer and more irregular hours than specialists. Where To Go for More Information Persons wishing to practice in a given State should find out about the requirements for licen sure directly from the board of examiners of that State. A list of State boards, as well as general information on osteopathy as a career, may be obtained from: American Osteopathic Association, 212 East Ohio St., Chicago, 111., 60611. Hospital Administrators (D.O.T. 0-99.84) Nature of Work Hospital administrators hold the top-level ex ecutive jobs in a hospital. They have responsibil ity for directing the housekeeping and other administrative activities of hospitals and coordi nating them with the medical services. General guidance for their work comes from a governing board with which they work closely in the devel opment of plans and policies. The day-to-day work of administrators involves keeping track of all the many and varied activities of the hospital, generally with the aid of a staff. They work closely with the doctors and nurses in charge of the medical and nursing services and make available to them the necessary person nel, equipment, and auxiliary services. Adminis trators are responsible for other management functions such as those concerned with hiring and training personnel; handling the budget, includ ing setting the fee schedule to be charged patients and establishing the accounting procedures for billing them; planning current and future space needs; adopting measures to insure the proper maintenance of buildings and equipment; pur chasing supplies and equipment; and providing for laundry, mail, telephone, information, and other services for the patients and staff. Many of these duties, particularly in a large hospital, are delegated to assistants or department heads, de pending on the size and nature of the hospital organization. Following the direction of the governing board, the administrators may carry out large projects concerned with expanding or developing the hos pital’s services. For example, they may organize fund-raising campaigns or plan new research pro grams. Administrators meet regularly with their staff to discuss progress, make plans, and solve prob lems concerning the functioning of the hospital. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 83 Hospitals are located in communities of all sizes and in rural areas. In small hospitals, typically located in rural or suburban areas, the adminis trator generally handles all management func tions. In large hospitals, they are assisted by specialists who have been trained in hospital ad ministration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The background needed to qualify for this work depends, to a large extent, on the qualifications established by individual employers. Most hospital boards and other employers prefer persons with a graduate degree in hospital administration. A few require that their administrators be qualified physicians or registered professional nurses. Others look for people who have formal training in law or business administration and also exten sive experience in the health field. At least one Hospital administrator makes sure attendants are properly trained to operate a sterilizer State (Minnesota) requires all administrators of hospitals licensed in the State to be registered with State Board of Health; to register, applicants In cooperation with the medical staff and depart the must a minimum of 2 years of experience or ment heads, they may also develop and maintain 1 yearhave of formal training in hospital administra teaching programs for nurses, interns, and other tion. hospital staff members. They may address com In 1962, a master’s degree in hospital adminis munity gatherings, organize community health tration was offered in 17 colleges and universities. campaigns, represent their hospitals at meetings, These programs usually involve a year of grad or participate in study groups. uate work followed by a year of administrative residency in a selected hospital. The graduate training may include such courses as Introduction Where Employed Medical Care Administration, Hospital Organ In 1961, an estimated 7,000 administrators were to ization and Management, Introduction to Data employed in hospitals; about two-thirds of them Processing, Hospital in the Community, Ac worked in nonprofit or private hospitals, and the counting andThe Budgeting Control, Personnel Man remainder worked in Federal, State, and local agement, and Advanced Administrative Manage government hospitals. Of those employed by the ment. The residency involves an orientation to all Federal Government, the largest numbers were in of the hospital’s activities under the supervision Veterans Administration hospitals; most of the of the administrator or his assistant. In 1962, three remainder were employed in Army, Navy, Air universities offered a curriculum leading to a Force, and Public Health Service hospitals. In Ph. D. degree in this field. The American College addition to the administrators, about 5,000 people of Hospital Administrators provides financial were working as assistants to hospital adminis loans to a limited number of students for graduate trators. It is estimated that one-third of all the work in hospital administration. The U.S. Public people in the field of hospital administration are Health Service also offers awards for graduate women; many are members of religious orders. work in this field. Some women administrators are registered pro Some persons gain experience that may qualify fessional nurses. them for advancement to the administrator’s job OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 84 by working in one of the specialized administra tive areas, such as personnel, records, budget and finance, or data processing. With this experience or graduate work, they may be promoted to de partment head, assistant to the administrator, and eventually to administrator. Personal qualifications needed for success in this field include good health and vitality as well as an interest in helping the sick. Skills in working with people, organizing and directing large-scale activ ities, and public speaking are important assets. Administrators of specialized hospitals (such as orthopedic or mental hospitals) are most fre quently physicians whose medical specialty is the same as that of the hospital; hospitals that are run by religious groups usually seek administra tors of the same faith. Employment Outlook New hospital administration graduates are ex pected to have good opportunities to enter the field during the remainder of the 1960 decade. Most of the opportunities for beginners will result from vacancies on administrative staffs. The position of hospital administrator, especially in a large hos pital, represents a career goal, and these positions are likely to continue to be filled by promotion from within or by transfers from smaller hospi tals. Some positions, including that of the administrator, are likely to continue to be filled by physicians and nurses; however, trained adminis trative specialists will be preferred for most positions. The great expansion in hospital services in recent years has contributed to the demand for specialists to handle the related increase in admin istrative-management functions. As more and larger hospitals are built to take care of the increasing population, and as services are expanded, more staff positions are likely to be created. These positions will provide additional employment and promotional opportunities, es pecially for graduates of schools of hospital ad ministration. Such graduates will also find in creasing employment opportunities outside of hospitals in hospitalization and health insurance programs and other related areas. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of hospital administrators depend on factors such as the type of hospital, the size of its administrative staff and budget, and the policy of the governing board. New graduates in hospital administration received beginning annual salaries in 1962 of between $6,000 and $8,000, on the aver age, and administrators with several years of ex perience generally earned $15,000 or more a year, according to the limited data available. New grad uates employed in Veterans Administration hos pitals started at about $6,700 a year in late 1962. VA hospital administrators, most of wdiom are physicians, earned over $16,000 a year. Commissioned officers in the Armed Forces and in the U.S. Public Health Service working in the field of hospital administration hold ranks rang ing from second lieutenant to colonel. In late 1962, the corresponding pay and allowances for these ranks ranged from about $4,300 to $14,000. Com manding officers of large hospitals of the Armed Forces are physicians, and they may hold higher ranks. Hospital administrators often work long hours. Since hospitals operate on a round-the-clock basis, the administrator may be called upon to settle emergency problems at any time of the day or night. Many administrators receive free meals and, sometimes, housing and laundry service. Fringe benefits usually include paid vacations and holidays, sick leave, and pension and insurance coverage. Where To Go for More Information. Additional information about hospital admin istration and a list of colleges and universities offering such training may be obtained from: American College of Hospital Administrators, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111., 60611. Information on awards available from the U.S. Public Health Service for graduate training in hospital administration may be obtained from that agency’s Division of Community Services, Training Resources Branch, Washington, D.C., 20202. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 85 Dental Hygienists (D.O.T. 0-50.07) Nature of Work Dental hygienists, working under the super vision of dentists, clean teeth by removing stains and calcium deposits, polish teeth, and massage gums. While performing this work (oral prophy laxis), they chart conditions of decay and disease for diagnosis by the dentist. Some dental hygien ists apply a fluoride solution to children’s teeth to aid in preventing decay. They may also provide dental health education, including the techniques of mouth care and proper diet. Dental hygienists who work in private dental offices may, in addition, take and develop X-rays, mix filling compounds, prepare solutions, sterilize instruments, and act as chairside assistants to the dentist. They may also make appointments and keep records. Those employed by school systems promote dental health by examining children’s teeth, assisting dentists in determining dental treatment needed, and reporting their findings to parents. They also perform oral prophylaxes and give instruction on correct care and brushing of teeth. Some help to develop classroom projects or assembly programs on oral health. Dental hy gienists employed by health agencies work on dental health projects or perform clincial duties. A few assist in research projects. Those with ad vanced training may teach in schools of dental hygiene. Courtesy of U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Dental hygienists often work with children Where Employed Approximately 10,000 dental hygienists were in practice in the United States in 1962; almost all were women. The majority were employed in private dental offices; about one-fourth worked for public health agencies or school sys tems; a few worked in industrial plants, clinics, hospitals, and dental hygiene schools, and as civil ian employees of the Armed Forces. Although the majority of hygienists worked in the eastern section of the country, the number employed in other areas has been growing in the past decade. Training and Other Qualifications Dental hygienists must pass an examination and be licensed by the State in which they wish to practice. In all States except Alabama and Geor gia, eligibility for the licensure examination is limited to graduates of accredited dental hygiene schools. In early 1963, candidates who passed the examination given by the National Board of Den tal Examiners were eligible for certification in 32 States without taking a State examination. Upon being licensed, a hygienist becomes a Registered Dental Hygienist (R.D.H.). To practice in a dif ferent State, a licensed dental hygienist usually must take another examination. In 1962, 43 schools of dental hygiene in the United States were accredited or provisionally accredited by the American Dental Association. Most of these schools provide a 2-year dental hygiene certification course. A few have 4-year programs leading to the bachelor’s degree, and some offer both programs. Most of the schools admit only women. For dental hygienists interested in practicing in a private dental office, completion of the 2-year program is usually sufficient. Those who wish to work in public health or school-health programs, or in research or teaching, generally take the 4-year program. The minimum requirement for admission to a school of dental hygiene is graduation from high school. Several schools which offer the bachelor’s degree admit students to the dental hygiene pro 86 gram only after they have completed 2 years of college. The majority of schools also require that applicants take aptitude tests conducted by the American Dental Hygienists’ Association. The curriculum at a school of dental hygiene consists of courses in the basic sciences, dental sciences, and liberal arts. These schools offer class room instruction, laboratory work, and clinical experience. Classroom work includes subjects such as anatomy, chemistry, histology, pathology, pharmacology, and English. The ability to work well with people, and patience as well as manual dexterity and attentiveness to detail are essential for work in this field. Employment Outlook The current shortage of qualified dental hygien ists is expected to continue during the 1960 decade. In 1962, the American Dental Hygienists’ Asso ciation reported twice as many job openings as qualified applicants, despite the sharp rise in the number of graduates from schools of dental hy giene in recent years. Over the long run, the demand for hygienists will continue to grow as a result of the expanding population with higher income and educational levels. Growing interest in dental care programs for children will lead to more employment op portunities in school systems. Increased participa tion in dental prepayment' plans and more group practice among dentists may also result in new jobs for dental hygienists. In addition, a great number of job openings will be created by young women who leave their jobs for marriage and family responsibilities. Mature women who wish to return to the field and those who desire part-time positions can ex pect to find good opportunities for employment. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK survey made in 1960. Hygienists employed in large metropolitan centers earned between $100 and $125 a week in 1960, according to limited data available. Dental hygienists employed in re search, administrative, supervisory, or teaching positions often earned higher salaries. Those working in private dental offices are most often salaried employees, though some are paid a com mission for work performed or a combination of salary and commission. The annual beginning salary for a dental hy gienist employed by the Federal Government was either $4,110 or $4,565 in early 1963, depending on education and experience. Most of those in the Federal Government earned between $4,565 and $6,005 per year. Dental hygienists employed full time in private offices usually work between 35 and 40 hours a week. They may work on Saturdays or during evening hours. Some hygienists work for two or more dentists. Many hygienists work part time in private dental offices. Working conditions are usually pleasant. Most hygienists are employed in clean, well-lighted offices, but may have to stand for long periods of time. The hygienist generally provides her own uniforms. Regular medical checkups and strict adherence to established procedures for using X-ray equipment and for disinfection are impor tant health protections for persons in this occupa tion. A paid vacation of 2 or 3 weeks is common among hygienists who work full time in dental offices. Dental hygienists employed by school sys tems, health agencies, and the Federal or State governments have the same hours, vacation, sick leave, and retirement benefits as other workers in these organizations. Where To Go for More Information. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of dental hygienists are affected by the type of employer, education and experience of the individual hygienist, and the part of the country in which the job is located. More than four-fifths of all dental hygienists employed full time had annual incomes of be tween $2,000 and $8,000, according to a private Information about approved schools and the educational requirements needed to enter the field may be obtained from: American Dental Hygienists’ Association, 100 East Ohio St., Chicago, 111., 60611. Information concerning licensing requirements can be obtained from the State Board of Dental Examiners in each State. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 87 Physical Therapists (D.O.T. 0-39.935) Nature of Work Physical therapists (formerly called physio therapists) help persons with muscle, nerve, joint, or bone diseases or injuries to overcome their disabilities. Following physicians’ instructions, they treat a variety of disorders through physical exercise, the use of mechanical apparatus, and applications of massage, heat, light, water, or electricity. Most of their patients are accident victims, crippled children, and disabled older persons. To obtain information needed in developing a treatment program, physical therapists perform muscle and nerve tests. They also keep records of their patients’ progress during treatments and at tend conferences at which the progress of patients is discussed. In many instances, they help disabled persons to accept their physical handicaps and learn how to live with their limitations. Thera pists teach patients how to perform exercises and to use and care for braces, crutches, and artificial limbs. They may also show members of patients’ families how to continue treatments at home. Physical therapists are members of a rehabilita tion team which is directed by a physician and may include a nurse, clinical social worker, oc cupational therapist, psychologist, vocational counselor, and other specialists. Although quali fied physical therapists may treat all types of pa tients, some specialize in working with children, amputees, paraplegics, or victims of poliomyelitis, cerebral palsy, arthritis, or muscular dystrophy. They may instruct physical therapy students, as well as students of related professions and other health workers. Where Employed An estimated 9,000 qualified physical therapists were employed in 1962; about 80 percent were women. In recent years, the number of men enter ing this occupation has been growing. The majority of physical therapists work in hospitals. About half of this group are employed by private hospitals, approximately one-fourth in State or local government hospitals, and most of the remainder—about 700—in Federal Govern M an y physical therapists specialize in working with children ment hospitals operated primarily by the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Serv ice. Nearly 300 are commissioned officers in the Armed Forces. Most hospitals employing physical therapists are general hospitals, but some special ize in the care of pediatric, orthopedic, psychi atric, or chronically ill patients. In 1961, approx imately one-half of the nearly 7,000 hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association had physical therapy facilities. Approximately one-fourth of all physical thera pists are employed by rehabilitation or treatment centers, schools or societies for crippled children, and public health agencies. Most of these organi zations provide treatment for patients with chronic diseases, and some have home visiting programs. Some therapists work in physicians’ offices or clinics, teach in schools of physical therapy, or 88 perform research. A few serve as consultants in government and voluntary agencies. Training and Other Qualifications Professional education for physical therapists in the United States may be obtained in 41 schools of physical therapy (including the Army Medical Service School) which have been approved by the American Medical Association and the Ameri can Physical Therapy Association. The majority of approved schools are part of large universities; the others are operated by hospitals, which usually have university affiliations. Graduation from an approved school of physical therapy is necessary for licensing in some States. In 1962, 39 States and the District of Columbia required licensing or registration of physical therapists. Membership in the American Physical Therapy Association and registration with the American Registry of Physical Therapists also require graduation from an approved school. About half of the approved schools offer 4-year programs in physical therapy leading to a bache lor’s degree. Some approved schools provide 1- to 2-year undergraduate programs to students who have completed required courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences and through which students may earn either a degree or a certificate in physical therapy. Other schools accept those who already have a bachelor’s degree, including the required courses, and give a 12- to 24-month course leading to the certificate. Many schools of fer both degree and certificate programs. The curriculum of approved schools includes anatomy, physiology, pathology, clinical medicine, and psycnology, as well as courses in electro therapy, heat therapy, hydrotherapy, massage, and exercise. In addition to classroom instruction, students are assigned to a hospital or treatment center for supervised clinical experience in the care of patients. Several universities offer the master’s degree in physical therapy. A graduate degree, combined with clinical experience, increases the opportuni ties for advancement to positions of responsibility in teaching, research, and administration, as well as in the treatment area of physical therapy. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Since an important part of a therapist’s job is to help patients and their families understand the treatments and prepare them emotionally for the changes that occur, therapists must have pa tience, resourcefulness, and a sympathetic attitude toward people. Their work also requires good verbal expression, and the ability to plan their work and to schedule treatments so as to insure maximum use of time. In addition, physical thera pists should have manual dexterity and physical stamina. For those wishing to determine whether they have the personal qualities needed for this occupation, summer or part-time work as a volun teer in the physical therapy department of a hos pital or clinic may prove helpful. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for physical thera pists are expected to remain excellent throughout the remainder of the 1960’s. The demand for quali fied physical therapists is likely to continue to exceed the supply unless the number of graduates from approved programs rises sharply. In recent years, schools of physical therapy have not been filled to capacity. In the long run, more new positions will be available as rehabilitation centers are enlarged and new ones are built to meet the demands cre ated by the increasing number of disabled people who require physical therapy and by the increas ing public interest in rehabilitating handicapped persons. In addition, a sizable number of vacan cies will continue to arise each year because many workers are young women who may leave the pro fession for marriage and family responsibilities. Programs to aid crippled children and vocational rehabilitation activities in which States are as sisted by Federal funds, and possible expansion of public health services at the State and local levels will further add to the demand for physical therapists. More physicians are expected to recom mend physical therapy for patients as techniques and equipment for treatment are improved. Part-time positions will continue to be avail able in many communities. These positions are particularly attractive to married women who have physical therapy training and wish to re turn to work on a part-time basis. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 89 Earnings and Working Conditions Annual salaries of inexperienced physical thera pists averaged $5,250 in 1961, and those of experi enced therapists, $7,000, according to the Ameri can Physical Therapy Association. Salaries of co ordinators, directors, and administrators were generally higher. In early 1963, newly graduated therapists em ployed by the Federal Government received an nual starting salaries of $5,035; those who were exceptionally well qualified, however, were of fered $5,540. At the same time, an entrance salary of $4,265, including allowances, was paid to physi cal therapists commissioned in the Armed Forces as second lieutenants or ensigns and to junior assistants in the U.S. Public Health Service. Most physical therapists work 40 hours a week. Almost all receive 2 or more weeks’ vacation and the majority receive sick leave and other fringe benefits. Where To Go for More Information American Physical Therapy Association, 1790 Broadway, New York, N.Y., 10019. Podiatrists (D.O.T. 0-39.901) Nature of Work Podiatrists (sometimes called chiropodists) di agnose and treat diseases and deformities of the feet. They perform foot surgery, use drugs and physical therapy, prescribe proper shoes, and fit corrective devices. To help in diagnoses, they also take X-rays of the feet and utilize blood and other tests. Among the conditions podiatrists treat are corns, bunions, calluses, ingrown toenails, skin and nail diseases, deformed toes, and arch condi tions. They refer patients to medical doctors whenever they observe symptoms in the feet and legs that may be evidence of diseases—such as arthritis or heart or kidney trouble—which also affect other parts of the body. As a rule, podiatrists provide most types of foot care. Some, however, treat particular ail ments, and others devote most of their practice to children. A few act as consultants to shoe manufacturers, and some do research or teach in colleges of podiatry-chiropody. Podiatrists practice mainly in large cities. More than half are in five of the most heavily populated States—New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Cali fornia, and Ohio. There are many small towns and rural areas, especially in the South and the North west, where there are no podiatrists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatry. To qualify for a license, an applicant must have been gradu ated from a college of podiatry, and must pass a State board examination. In addition, three States —Michigan, New Jersey, and Rhode Island—re quire applicants to have completed a 1-year intern- Where Employed Nearly all of the approximately 8,000 podia trists actively engaged in the profession in early 1963 were in private practice. The few who held full-time salaried positions worked mainly in hos pitals or podiatry colleges, or for other podiatrists. A few were employed by the Veterans Adminis tration; others were commissioned officers in the Armed Forces. Women represented between 3 and 4 percent of the profession. Podiatrist uses model of patient’s foot to explain proposed treatment 90 ship in a hospital or clinic after graduation from a podiatry college; the State of Oklahoma re quires those seeking a license to have completed 1-year of practice under the direct supervision of an experienced podiatrist. Over half the States grant licenses without further examination to podiatrists already licensed by another State. The five podiatry colleges in the United States will admit only students who have already com pleted at least 2 years of college. This education must include courses in English, chemistry, biol ogy or zoology, and, in some instances, also phys ics or mathematics. The first 2 years of podiatry training are de voted chiefly to classroom instruction and labora tory work in such basic sciences as anatomy, bac teriology, chemistry, pathology, and physiology, though in the second year students obtain some limited experience in the school clinics. During the final 2 years, students spend most of their time obtaining clinical experience. The degree of Doc tor of Podiatry (Pod.D.), Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.) or Doctor of Surgical Chirop ody (D.S.C.) is awarded upon graduation. Ad ditional education and experience are necessary to qualify for membership in any one of the fol lowing specialty groups recognized by the Ameri can Podiatry Association: American College of Foot Surgeons, American College of Foot Ortho pedists, American College of Foot Roentgenolo gists, American Society of Podiatric Dermatology, and the American Association of Hospital Podiatrists. Among the personal qualifications considered desirable for a career in this profession are scien tific aptitude, manual dexterity, and a good busi ness sense. The ability to get along well with people is also important. Most newly licensed podiatrists open their own offices or purchase established practices. Some be gin by taking salaried positions in hospitals, or with podiatrists already in practice, to gain ex perience and to save the money needed to equip an office. Podiatrists entering the Armed Forces are commissioned as second lieutenants or ensigns and may progress to higher ranks if they make the service a career. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook The employment outlook for podiatrists is ex pected to be good for the rest of the 1960’s, espe cially in those parts of the country where the serv ices of podiatrists are widely used. New graduates of colleges of podiatry should generally be able to find favorable opportunities for establishing prac tices and some will also have opportunities for salaried employment. In recent years, the number of new graduates has only slightly exceeded the number needed to replace members of the profession who retire or die. In 1963, the American Podiatry Association reported that there were unmet needs for podia trists in some parts of the country. In the long run, the demand for podiatrists’ services is likely to grow, along with the demand for other health care. The rising population and the growing proportion of older people are two factors pointing in this direction; the American Podiatry Association estimates that over half the population, particularly people in the older age groups, need podiatrists’ services. In addition, the trend toward providing preventive foot care for children is increasing. Additional podiatrists may be needed to fill salaried positions in schools, fac tories, and with organizations that provide all kinds of health services. Location is one of the major factors in deter mining success of podiatrists opening their own offices. A practice can be developed most quickly in small cities and suburban areas, where the new podiatrist can easily become known in the com munity and where there is less competition from established practitioners. Earnings and Working Conditions In podiatry, as in many of the other professions, incomes usually rise markedly after the first years of practice. Earnings of individual podiatrists are determined mainly by such factors as ability, experience, the income level of the community served, and location. In 1959—the most recent year for which this information is available—the aver age income above expenses for self-employed po diatrists was $10,364, according to a survey by the American Podiatry Association. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 91 Podiatrists do not have a standard workweek but set their hours to suit the needs of their practice. Where To Go for More Information. Current information on the requirements for licensure in a particular State may be obtained from the State board of examiners in the State capital. Information on entrance requirements, curriculums, and scholarships is available from the colleges of podiatry. Additional information on podiatry as a career, as well as a list of colleges, may be obtained from: American Podiatry Association, 3301 16th St., NW., Washington, D.C., 20010. Occupational Therapists (D.O.T. 0-32.04) Nature of Work Occupational therapists, following physicians’ instructions, select and direct educational, voca tional, and recreational activities designed to meet the specific needs of patients. They work as mem bers of a medical team whose purpose is to restore maximum function to mentally or physically disa bled patients. In addition to physicians, the team may include physical therapists, nurses, social workers, and other specialists. The rehabilitation goals set for the patient may include regaining physical, mental, or emotional stability; combating boredom during a long-term illness; developing maximum self-sufficiency in the routine of daily living (such as eating, dress ing, writing, and using a telephone); and, in the latter stage of treatment, to perform jobs in a practical work situation. As part of the treatment program, occupational therapists teach manual and creative arts such as weaving, clay modeling, and leatherworking, as well as business and industrial skills such as typ ing, operating some business machines, and using power tools. Therapists may be required to de sign and make special equipment or splints to aid some disabled patients in performing their activities. Other duties may include supervision of volunteer workers, student therapists, occupa tional therapy assistants, and auxiliary nursing workers. The largest group of occupational therapists work with psychiatric patients; the next largest number work with persons having physical disa bilities; a sizable number work with children, in cluding those with cerebral palsy; and most of the remainder work with the mentally retarded or elderly patients. The chief occupational therapist in a hospital may teach medical and nursing stu dents the principles of occupational therapy. Many occupational therapists have administrative duties such as directing occupational therapy pro grams, coordinating patient activities, and acting as consultants to local and State health depart ments and mental health authorities. Occupational therapist helps young patient regain the use of her hands 92 Where Employed Most occupational therapists work in hospitals, rehabilitation centers, homes for the aged, nursing homes, school and out-patient clinics, and research centers. Some are employed in special workshops, sanitariums, camps for handicapped children, and in State health departments. A few are employed in home-visiting programs for patients unable to attend clinics or workshops. In 1962, about 6,700 occupational therapists were registered with the American Occupational Therapy Association. Of these, nearly 5,000 worked in hospitals, including about 600 in hos pitals operated by the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service. In addition, about 130 were in the Armed Forces. The great majority of occupational therapists are women; in recent years, however, an increasing number of men have been entering the field. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A general requirement for entry into the profes sion is graduation from a college or university offering courses in occupational therapy approved by the American Medical Association and the American Occupational Therapy Association. In 1962, 30 colleges and universities in the United States offered approved courses leading to a bachelor’s degree with a major in occupational therapy. Nearly all of these schools offer 4-year programs to high school graduates, and the rest offer 2-year programs to students who have com pleted 2 years of college. About half of the schools also offer shorter programs to students with a bachelor’s degree in another field; a certificate in occupational therapy is granted upon completion of these programs. In addition to the required academic work, which emphasizes the health sciences and the ap plication of occupational skills, a clinical practice period—9 to 10 months of supervised practice in hospitals or health agencies—is required to qualify for professional registration. Some colleges permit their students to take the clinical practice during the summer or during part of their senior year in college. The Armed Forces offer programs whereby graduates of approved schools of occu pational therapy, who meet the requirements to OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK become commissioned officers, may receive the clin ical part of their training while in the service. Upon graduation and completion of the clinical practice period, therapists are eligible to take the examination given by the American Occupational Therapy Association. Those who pass this exami nation may use the initials O.T.R. (Occupational Therapist Registered). Many hospitals require that their occupational therapists be registered. Five universities offer a program leading to a master’s degree in occupational therapy. A gradu ate degree is often required for teaching, research, or administrative work. Newly graduated occupational therapists usu ally begin as staff therapists and may qualify as senior therapists after several years on the job. Experienced therapists may become directors of occupational therapy programs in large hospitals, clinics, or workshops, or may become teachers. Some positions are available as program coordi nators and as consultants with large institutions and agencies. Personal qualifications needed in this profession include emotional stability, a sincere interest in helping people, and a sympathetic but objective approach to illness and disability. Manual dex terity, ingenuity, and imagination are also needed. Employment Outlook Opportunities for occupational therapists are expected to be excellent during the middle and late 1960’s. A shortage of therapists existed in early 1963; the greatest demand was in and near metro politan areas where medical and health facilities are generally located. Despite the increasing num ber of persons enrolled in occupational therapy courses, classes were not filled to capacity in the fall of 1962. Over the long run, the demand for occupational therapists is expected to increase, owing to the growing public interest in the rehabilitation of disabled persons and the success of occupational therapy programs in helping to restore people to health. There will be numerous opportunities for work with psychiatric patients, children, and aged persons, as well as with persons suffering from cerebral palsy, poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, and heart disease. In addition, many openings will arise because of the need to replace the high pro HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 93 portion of young women who leave the field for marriage and family responsibilities. Although hospitals and other employers prefer to hire registered occupational therapists, their shortage will probably create continuing good employment opportunities for therapists who are not registered but have some of the required train ing and skills. Opportunities for part-time em ployment should be excellent in many areas. Earnings and Working Conditions Staff occupational therapists were most fre quently paid annual salaries between $4,800 and $5,500 in late 1962, and senior therapists had earn ings of $5,300 to $6,000, according to the American Occupational Therapy Association. Directors of occupational therapy programs received from $5,800 to $8,000; a few consultants earned between $6,800 and $11,000 a year. In the Federal Government, the beginning an nual salary for an occupational therapist without experience was $5,035 in early 1963. About onethird of all occupational therapists in the Federal Government earned $6,675 or more a year; a few in top positions earned between $10,000 and $12,000. Most occupational therapists work an 8-hour day, 40-hour week, with some evening work re quired in a few organizations. Vacation leave usu ally ranges from 2 to 4 weeks a year, and many positions offer health and retirement benefits. Where To Go for More Information American Occupational Therapy Association, 250 West 57th St., New York, N.Y., 10019. Medical Record Librarians (D.O.T. 0-23.25) Nature of Work Medical record librarians plan, prepare, main tain, and analyze records and reports on patients’ illnesses and treatments. They assist the medical staff in research projects; develop auxiliary rec ords (such as indexes of physicians, diseases treated, and operations performed); compile sta tistics, especially those pertaining to services given patients; make summaries or “abstracts” of medi cal records; develop systems for preserving medi cal records; and direct the activities of the medical record department. The number and kind of duties medical record librarians perform vary markedly, depending on the size and type of institution in which they are employed. In a large hospital, the chief medical record librarian supervises a staff of other medical record librarians, medical record technicians, and clerical workers. She usually represents her de partment at hospital staff meetings and may testify in court actions that involve medical rec ords. In small hospitals, she may be the only em ployee in the medical' record department, and may perform clerical as well as professional duties. The records maintained by the medical record librarian contain medical and surgical informa tion on each patient, including history of the ill ness, physical examination findings, doctors’ or ders and progress notes, nurses’ notes, and reports on X-rays and laboratory findings. These records are used for research, insurance claims, legal ac tions, evaluation of treatment and medications, and for training medical, nursing, and related per sonnel. Medical information found in hospital rec ords is also important in planning community health programs. Courtesy of Veterans Administration Chief medical record librarian explains preparation of records to interns 94 The occupation of medical record librarian should not be confused with that of medical li brarian, whose work is chiefly confined to books, periodicals, and other publications. (See state ment on Librarians.) Where Employed About 3,000 Registered Record Librarians were employed in 1962, according to the American Association of Medical Record Li brarians. In addition, over 22,000 other medical record personnel were working in the field. Most of these people were employed in hospitals; the remainder worked in clinics, medical research centers, medical departments of insurance com panies, industrial firms, and local and State health departments. Of those who worked in hospitals, about three-fourths were in general hospitals and the rest were in specialized hospitals. Although most medical record librarians are women, the number of men in the occupation is growing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum requirement for registration as a medical record librarian is 2 years of general college work and 1 year of study in medical record science. However, the trend is toward higher educational requirements—a bachelor’s degree in medical record science or a bachelor’s degree sup plemented by a 1-year course in medical record science. Twenty-seven schools were approved by the American Medical Association for training medi cal record librarians in early 1963. Most of the schools were affiliated with colleges. About half of the schools admitted both men and women, and the rest admitted only women. Enrollment in these programs has been rising in recent years, but some classes still are not filled to capacity. Curriculums at these schools lead to a bachelor’s degree or a certificate in medical record science. In general, schools granting degrees require high school graduation for admission. Schools granting certificates upon completion of a 12-month course usually require that applicants have 2 or more years of college training or that they be registered nurses. A few schools require an applicant to have a college degree before entering the medical record science program. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Approved schools provide at least 50 weeks of theoretical instruction and practical experience. Included are courses in anatomy and physiology, fundamentals of medical science, medical termi nology, medical record science, organization and administration, legal aspects of medical records, and ethics. Practical experience involves hospital admitting and discharging procedures; standard indexing and coding practices; compilation of statistical reports; analysis of medical data from clinical records; and knowledge of medical record systems for the X-ray, pathology, outpatient, and other hospital departments. Graduates of approved schools in medical record science are eligible to take the national registration examination given by the American Association of Medical Record Librarians. Upon passing this examination, they receive professional recognition as Registered Record Librarians. Medical record librarians must be accurate, meticulous, interested in detail, and willing to persist in obtaining data. Because the information is of a confidential nature, they must be especially discreet in processing and releasing it. They should be able to maintain accuracy despite pres sure, since the work is exacting and yet subject to frequent interruption. Those in administra tive and supervisory positions must be able to work effectively with other personnel, including physicians, nurses, heads of other departments, and the general public. A medical record librarian may advance by be ing assigned to a supervisory or administrative position. She may be promoted to chief of a single department or become the coordinator of med ical record departments of several hospitals. Employment Outlook Opportunities for qualified medical record li brarians are expected to be excellent during the rest of the 1960’s. For many years, shortages of personnel have been reported, despite the increase in newly trained persons. The shortage was so great in early 1963 that many hospitals were un able to hire registered personnel, and the Ameri can Association of Medical Record Librarians esti mated that 3,000-4,000 more Registered Record Librarians were needed. Because of this shortage, many opportunities exist for high school gradu HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS ates to become medical record technicians who as sist the librarians with record work requiring less responsibility. The increasing number of hospitals and the vol ume and complexity of hospital records will con tribute to a growing demand for medical record librarians over the long run. The importance of medical records will continue to grow rapidly, owing partly to the increased demand for clinical data to be used in research on diseases and on the use of new drugs and other methods of treatment. Special interest in the aged may necessitate re cording data on the conditions of persons in nurs ing homes and home care programs. More consul tants and group supervisors will also be needed to help standardize records in areas where medical record librarians are not available. Replacement needs will probably remain high because many young women leave the field for marriage and family responsibilities. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of medical record librarians are influ enced by the location, size, and type of employing agency, as well as by the nature of duties and responsibility of the position held. Average weekly salaries ranged from $80 to $112, according to a 95 survey of hospital employees in 15 metropolitan areas in mid-1960. The average salary for chief medical record li brarians (registered) in 1960 was estimated by the American Association of Medical Record Li brarians to be $5,200 a year. Those with the bache lor’s degree in medical record science from an ap proved school earned, on the average, about $300 more a year than graduates of schools that did not offer such degrees. Newly graduated medical record librarians em ployed by the Federal Government started at $4,565 a year in early 1963. Annual salaries of experienced medical record librarians in the Fed eral Government generally ranged between $5,540 and $8,700; a few in top positions earned over $11,000 a year. Medical record librarians usually work a regu lar 40-hour week and receive paid holidays and vacations. Working conditions are generally pleasant. Where To Go for More Information Information about approved schools and em ployment opportunities may be obtained from: The American Association of Medical Record Librarians, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111., 60611. EN G IN EER IN G Engineers contribute in countless ways to the welfare, technological progress, and defense of the Nation. They design and supervise the con struction of highways, dams, and power and com munications systems; design new industrial ma chinery and manufacturing processes; develop new consumer products; and plan rockets and spacecraft. They also conduct research aimed at supplying the basic technological data needed for the design and production of new or improved products or manufacturing processes. Engineers frequently provide technical and managerial lead ership in industry and government, Although most engineers eventually specialize in a specific branch of the profession, there is a considerable body of basic knowledge and method ology which is common to most areas of engineer ing. Therefore, it is useful for young people con sidering engineering as a career to become familiar with the general nature of engineering as well as with the various branches or fields within it. This chapter contains an overall discussion of engineer ing, followed by separate statements on the tra ditional branches of aeronautical, agricultural, ceramic, chemical, civil, electrical, industrial, me chanical, metallurgical, and mining engineering. Nature of Work Engineers are concerned with determining the most practical methods of converting the raw materials and sources of power found in nature into goods and services. They apply the basic scientific principles discovered by scientists to the solution of the practical problems involved in creating a product or process at a reasonable cost in time and money. For example, a physicist may discover a new characteristic of electromagnetic waves which makes possible the amplifying of microwaves, but the engineer determines the prac tical applications of the discovery and how these applications can be produced effectively and eco nomically. This emphasis on the practical applica tion of scientific principles, rather than on their 96 discovery, is one of the main factors which dis tinguishes the work of the engineer from that of the scientist, In designing or developing a new product, en gineers must take many factors into consideration. In designing a space capsule, for example, they must calculate just how much heat, radiation, air pressure, and other forces the capsule must withstand during its flight. Experiments must be conducted which relate these factors to various construction materials, as well as to the many pos sible capsule sizes, shapes, and weights. In addi tion, the engineer must take into account the relative cost of the required materials and the cost and time of the fabrication process. Similar fac tors must be considered by engineers who design and develop a wide variety of products ranging from transistor radios and washing machines to electronic computers and industrial machinery. Besides design and development, engineers en gage in many other activities. A large number are in administrative and management positions, par ticularly in industries such as chemicals, elec tronics, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft, where engineering methods are of great importance. Many plan and supervise factory and highway construction, or supervise production in mines and manufacturing plants. Others do inspection, qual ity control, analysis, or testing. Still others con duct research. Some engineers with considerable experience work as independent consultants or for consulting firms. Others are employed in sales positions, where they must be able to discuss the technical aspects of a product or assist in plan ning its installation or use. (See statement on Manufacturers’ Salesmen.) A relatively small group of engineers teach in colleges and universi ties or engineering schools. Most engineers eventually specialize in one of the many branches of the profession. More than 25 engineering specialties are recognized by the profession or in engineering school curriculums. Besides the major branches—10 of which are dis- ENGINEERING, 97 Courtesy of U.S. Department of the Nary Engineers design complex equipment used in thermonuclear research cussed separately in this chapter—there are many subdivisions of these branches. Structural and highway engineering, for example, are subdivi sions of civil engineering. Engineers may also be come specialists in the engineering problems of one industry, or in a particular field of technology such as propulsion or guidance systems. Neverthe less, the basic knowledge required for all areas of engineering often makes it possible for engineers to shift from one field of specialization to another, particularly early in their careers. Where Employed Engineering is the second largest professional occupation, exceeded in size only by teaching; for men it is the largest profession. Approximately 925,000 engineers were employed in the United States in mid-1962; Manufacturing industries employ more than one-half of all engineers—primarily in the air craft, missiles, and spacecraft, and electrical equipment industries. Other manufacturing indus tries employing large numbers are machinery, fabricated metal products, chemicals and allied products, and primary metals. Sizable numbers, approximately 225,000, are also employed by non manufacturing industries, primarily the construc tion and transportation industries, engineering and architectural services (including consultants), and public utilities (including electric light and power and communication companies). Federal, State, and local government agencies employ another large group of engineers—ap 692-408 0 — 63 -8 proximately 120,000 in 1962. Most of the 62,000 engineers employed by the Federal Government in 1962 worked for the Department of Defense. Other Federal agencies which employ significant numbers are the Departments of the Interior, Agriculture, and Commerce, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most en gineers in State and local government service are employed by highway and public works depart ments. Educational institutions employed approxi mately 30,000 engineers in 1962, in research as well as in teaching positions. A small number were employed by nonprofit organizations. Engineers are employed in every State, in small cities as well as large, and in some rural areas. The profession also offers opportunities for em ployment overseas. Some branches of engineering are concentrated in particular industries, as in dicated in the statements on these branches later in this chapter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering is the gen erally accepted educational requirement for en trance into engineering positions. Well qualified graduates with training in physics, one of the other natural sciences, or in mathematics may qualify for some beginning positions in engineer ing. Some persons are able to enter the field with out a degree, but only after long experience in a related occupation—such as draftsman or en gineering technician—and some college-level training. Advanced training is being emphasized for an increasing number of jobs. Graduate degrees are desirable for many beginning teaching and re search positions and are helpful for advancement in most types of work. Furthermore, training in some engineering specialties, such as nuclear en gineering, is generally available only at the gradu ate level. Education leading to a bachelor’s or higher de gree in engineering was offered in 1962 by 244 col leges, universities, and engineering schools. Al though admission requirements vary considerably, engineering schools usually require a strong back ground in mathematics and the physical sciences, and place great emphasis on the general quality of an applicant’s high school work. 98 In the typical 4-year engineering curriculum, the first 2 years are spent mainly in studying basic science courses—mathematics, physics, and chem istry—and the humanities, social sciences, and English. The last 2 years are devoted chiefly to en gineering and to advanced mathematics and science courses, with some difference in courses depending on the branch of engineering in which the student is specializing. Some engineering curriculums require more than 4 years to complete. Approximately 25 in stitutions have 5-year programs leading to the bachelor’s degree. In addition, about 55 engineer ing schools have arrangements with liberal arts colleges whereby a student spends 3 years in the college and 2 years in the engineering school and receives a bachelor’s degree from each. This type of program usually offers the student an oppor tunity for greater diversification in his studies. Some institutions have 5- or 6-year cooperative plans under which students spend alternate pe riods in engineering school and in employment in industry or Government. Under most such plans, classroom study is coordinated with practical in dustrial experience. In addition to the practical ex perience gained in this type of program, the stu dent is provided an opportunity to finance part of his education. Engineering graduates usually begin work as trainees or as assistants to experienced engineers. Many large companies have special training pro grams for their beginning engineers which are de signed to acquaint new graduates with specific industrial practices. These programs are valuable in determining the type of work for which the in dividual is best suited. As they gain experience, engineers may move up to positions of greater re sponsibility. Those with proven ability are often able to advance to high level technical, supervi sory, and administrative positions and may even tually be promoted to top executive posts. All 50 States and the District of Columbia have laws providing for licensing (or registration) of engineers whose work may affect life, health, or property. In 1962, about 265,000 engineers were registered under these laws in the United States. Generally, requirements for registration are grad uation from an accredited engineering curric ulum plus at least 4 years of experience and the passing of a State examination. Examining boards OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK may accept a longer period of experience as a sub stitute for a college degree. Employment Outlook The outlook is for continued rapid expansion of the engineering profession throughout the re mainder of the 1960’s and over the longer run. En gineering has been one of the fastest growing pro fessions in the past 50 years, and there is every indication that the demand for engineers will con tinue to grow. The major factors which will tend to increase the need for engineering personnel are: The fur ther growth of expenditures by both Government and industry for research and development, mostly in the realm of space and defense activi ties; and anticipated continued high levels of Government spending for space programs and for national defense, accentuated by the increasingly large amount of engineering time necessary for the development of modern weapons. The large sums already spent for research and development, in particular, have broadened existing areas of employment and have opened up new ones, such as those concerned with rocket propulsion, missile and spacecraft guidance, tracking and communi cation systems, and nuclear energy. Other factors which will tend to increase the demand for en gineers are growth of population and the conse quent demand for additional goods and services, expansion of industry, the growing complexity of industrial products and processes, and the in creasing automation of industry. In addition to the engineers needed to fill new positions, thousands more will have to be trained to replace those who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. These losses to the profession—esti mated to be about 18,000 in 1962—are expected to rise in the future. Despite the anticipated growth in demand for engineers, little or no increase in the annual num ber of bachelor’s degrees awarded in engineering is expected during the middle and late 1960’s. In 1962, 34,735 graduates received bachelor’s degrees in engineering. Classes of this size are expected to fall short of meeting the demand for engineers in the years ahead. Thus, employment prospects for engineering graduates should continue to be very favorable throughout the remainder of the ENGINEERING 99 1960’s. For engineering graduates with ability and thorough training, there is every reason to be lieve that employment opportunities will remain very good for many years to come. Women engineers, who represent less than 1 per cent of the profession, are also expected to have favorable employment opportunities throughout the rest of the decade. Furthermore, there are some indications that employers are eliminating salary and other employment differences between men and women engineers of comparable education and experience who are doing similar work. The preceding analysis relates to the outlook for the engineering profession as a wThole. The em ployment outlook in various branches of engineer ing is discussed in the statements on these branches later in this chapter. Earnings Engineering graduates with the bachelor’s de gree and no experience had an average (median) starting salary of $6,925 in private industry in mid-1962, according to a survey made by the En gineering Manpower Commission. Graduates with the master’s degree and no experience usually re ceived from $800 to $1,500 a year more than those with only the bachelor’s degree. Salaries for graduates with the doctor’s degree were generally between $9,700 and $12,500 a year. Salaries for beginning engineering graduates with the bachelor’s degree vary by industry, as may be seen in the following tabulation based on the same survey. I n d u s tr y M e d ia n 1 Chemicals $6, 850 Communications 6, 275 Construction. 6, 700 Consulting services 6, 300 Electrical machinery and electronics. 7, 175 Instruments 6, 975 Machinery (except electrical) 6, 775 Missiles, aircraft, and parts. 7, 275 Motor vehicles 6, 875 Petroleum 6, 725 Research and development activities. 7, 100 Utilities (electric and gas) 6, 750 U pper d ecile 2 $7, 450 6, 825 7, 500 6, 925 7, 925 8, 500 7, 675 8, 975 7, 400 7, 350 8, 250 7, 350 L ow er d ecile 3 $6, 525 6, 025 6, 000 5, 425 6, 575 6, 525 6, 125 6, 525 6, 450 6, 100 6, 375 6, 175 150 percent earned more and 50 percent earned less than amounts shown. 210 percent earned more than amounts shown. 3 90 percent earned more than amounts shown. In the Federal Government service in early 1963, engineers with the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at $5,525 or $6,650 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning en gineers with the bachelor’s degree and 1 or 2 years of graduate work could start at $6,650 or $7,125. Those with the Ph. D. degree could begin at $8,575 or $9,475. In colleges and universities, the total profes sional income of beginning engineers with the bachelor’s degree averaged about $5,425 a year; with the master’s degree, $7,000 a year; and with the Ph. D. degree, $8,950. (See also statement on College and University Teachers.) Most engineers can look forward to a marked increase in earnings as they gain experience. Thus, in industry in 1962, the average (median) salary of engineers with 20 years of experience was nearly twice that of beginning engineers. Only 10 percent of those with 20 years of experience earned less than $9,700 a year, and about 10 per cent earned $18,000 or more. A small number in top-level executive positions had much higher earnings. Where To Go for More Information. General information on engineering careers— including student selection and guidance, profes sional training and ethics, and salaries and other economic aspects of engineering—may be obtained from: Engineers’ Council for Professional Development. 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. Engineers Joint Council, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. National Society of Professional Engineers, 2029 K St. N W , W ashington, D.C., 20006. Information on engineering schools and curriculums and on training and other qualifications needed for entrance into the profession may also be obtained from the Engineers’ Council for Pro fessional Development. Information on registra tion of engineers may be obtained from the Na tional Society of Professional Engineers. The following organizations can furnish infor mation on the respective branches of engineering: American Ceramic Society, 4055 North High St., Columbus, Ohio, 43214. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2 East 64th St., New York, N.Y., 10021. American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 100 American Institute of Industrial Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 420 Main St., St. Joseph, Mich., 49085. American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. The above list does not include all the many engineering organizations; others are listed in the following publications available in most li braries : Engineering Societies Directory, published by Engineers Joint Council Scientific and Technical Societies of the United States and Canada, published by the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council. Some engineers are members of labor unions. Information on engineering unions may be ob tained from: The American Federation of Technical Engineers (AFL-CIO), 900 F St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20004. Aeronautical Engineers (D.O.T. 0-19.03) Nature of Work Aeronautical engineers have played a vital role in America’s space-age achievements. Engineers in this branch work on missiles and spacecraft, and on conventional aircraft. They are concerned with all phases of missile and aircraft develop ment—from structures to propulsion systems and from the initial planning to the final design, manu facture, and testing. Engineers working in the missiles and spacecraft field may also be called aerospace or astronautical engineers. Aeronautical engineers usually specialize in a particular area of work, such as structural design, instrumentation, propulsion systems, materials, reliability testing, or production methods. They may also specialize in a particular type of aircraft, such as conventional propeller-driven planes, jetpowered or nuclear-powered aircraft, or space craft or missiles. Employment Outlook The outlook is for continued expansion of em ployment in aeronautical engineering throughout the remainder of the 1960’s and over the longer run. Employment opportunities will increase chiefly as a result of continued growth expected Where Employed More than 55,000 aeronautical engineers were employed in mid-1962. Approximately four-fifths of all aeronautical engineers are employed in the aircraft, missile, and spacecraft industries. Some work for Federal Government agencies, primarily the Department of Defense and the National x\.eronautics and Space Administration. Small numbers work for commercial airlines, consulting firms, and colleges and universities. Courtesy of U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Aeronautical engineer uses low density wind tunnel in aerodynamic studies at simulatea altitudes ENGINEERING 101 in Government expenditures for missiles and spacecraft. Recent technological developments have shifted the focus of aeronautical engineering from pro peller-driven and jet-powered aircraft to rocketpowered missiles and spacecraft. The radically new and difficult problems created by space flight and the ever-increasing complexity of aerospace products are expected to continue to raise the de mand for aeronautical engineers. Research aimed at developing new aircraft—such as vertical take off and landing and supersonic passenger planes— and improving those now in use will probably also require additional engineers. (See introduc tory section of this chapter for discussion on training required, earnings, and where to go for more information. See also chapter on Occupa tions in Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Manu facturing. ) Agricultural Engineers (D.O.T. 0-19.10) Nature of Work Agricultural engineers use basic engineering principles and concepts to develop equipment and methods to make farming easier, more produc tive, and more economical. They are concerned primarily with the design of farm machinery, equipment, and structures; the utilization of elec trical energy on farms; the conservation and management of soil and water resources; and the processing of agricultural products for market. They usually specialize in a particular area of work, such as research and development, design, testing and application, production, sales, or management. Where Employed The relatively small number of agricultural en gineers are employed primarily by private in dustry, especially manufacturers of heavy farm equipment and specialized lines of field, barnyard, and household equipment; electrical service com panies; and distributors of farm equipment and supplies. Some work for engineering consultants who supply technical or management services to farmers; others are independent consultants. The Federal Government employs some agri cultural engineers—chiefly in the Soil Conserva tion Service and Agricultural Research Service of the Department of Agriculture. A few are em ployed by State and local governments and by col leges and universities. Employment Outlook Employment of agricultural engineers is ex pected to grow throughout the remainder of the 1960’s and over the longer run. Among the factors which will contribute to a greater demand for these engineers are the growing mechanization of farm operations, increasing emphasis on conserva tion of resources, and the broadening use of agri cultural products and wastes as industrial raw ma terials. Additional engineers will also be needed to work on problems characteristic of the modern farm, such as the enormous energy and power re quirements. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on training required, earn ings, and where to go for more information. See also chapter on Occupations in Agriculture.) Ceramic Engineers (D.O.T. 0-15.11) Nature of Work Ceramic engineers are concerned with the proc essing and manufacture of clay, silicates, and other nonmetallic minerals into a wide variety of ceramic products, ranging from glassware, ce ment, and bricks to coatings for missile nose cones. They may also design and supervise the construc tion of the plant and equipment used in the manufacture of these products. Many ceramic engineers are engaged in research and develop OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 102 the 1960’s and over the longer run. Ceramic en gineering is a small field, however, and opportuni ties for new entrants in any one year will be small compared with those in the large branches of engineering. Growth of programs related to nuclear energv, electronics, and space exploration will provide many of the opportunities for ceramic engineers. Ceramic-coated metals which are corrosion-re sistant and capable of withstanding radiation and extremely high temperatures are becoming in creasingly important in the development of nu clear reactors and space vehicles. Increasing use Where Employed of the more traditional ceramic products such as Most of the estimated 5,000 to 10,000 ceramic whiteware and abrasives, both for consumer and engineers are employed in manufacturing indus industrial use, will also require additional ceramic tries—primarily in the stone, clay, and glass in engineers to improve these products and adapt dustry. Others work in industries which produce them to new requirements. The growing use of or use ceramic products such as the iron and steel, structural-clay and tile products in construction electrical equipment, and chemicals industries. will also add to the opportunities for ceramic en Some are employed by educational institutions gineers. Furthermore, research aimed at develop and independent research organizations. A few ing new glass products—such as malleable glass work for Federal Government agencies. that can be worked like plastic, or glass timber to be used in construction—probably will create ad ditional openings for ceramic engineers. (See in Employment Outlook troductory section of this chapter for discussion The outlook is for rapid growth in employment on training requirements, earnings, and where to of ceramic engineers throughout the remainder of go for more information.) ment work. Some are employed in administration, management, production, and sales; others work as consultants or teach in colleges and universities. Ceramic engineers usually specialize in one or more products—for example, products of refrac tories (fire- and heat-resistant materials, such as firebrick); whiteware (such as porcelain and china dinnerware or high voltage electrical in sulators) ; structural materials (such as brick, tile, and terra cotta); protective and refractory coat ings for metals; glass; and abrasives. Chemical Engineers (D.O.T. 0-15.01) Nature of Work Chemical engineers are concerned primarily with designing and operating the chemical plants and equipment and developing the processes re quired to manufacture chemicals in large quanti ties. The manufacturing processes used are made up of various combinations of operations such as mixing, crushing, heat transfer, distillation, oxi dation, hydrogenation, and polymerization. The chemical engineer determines the combination of operations which will result in the most effective manufacturing process. The work in this branch of engineering is so complex that chemical engineers frequently be come specialists in a particular type of opera tion, such as oxidation or polymerization, or in the products of one industry, such as petroleum, plas tics, paper, or rubber. Chemical engineers may be engaged in research and development, production, plant operation, design, sales, management, ur teaching. Where Employed Approximately four-fifths of the nearly 45,000 chemical engineers in the United States in 1962 were employed in manufacturing industries—pri marily in the chemicals and petroleum industries. Some are employed by government agencies and by colleges and universities. A smaller number work for independent research institutes or en gineering consulting firms, or as independent con sulting engineers. ENGINEERING 103 Employment Outlook Chemical engineering is one of the youngest of the major branches of engineering. The outlook is for continued growth in this branch of engineer ing throughout the remainder of the 1960’s and over the longer run. The major factors which should continue to be important to the growth of the chemical engineer ing profession are expansion of industry—the chemicals industry in particular—and increases in research and development activities, in which about one-third of all chemical engineers are employed. The increasing complexity of chemical processes and the growing trend toward auto mation of these processes, especially in the chemi cals and petroleum industries, will require addi tional chemical engineers for work related to designing, building, and maintaining the neces sary plants and equipment. Chemical engineers wull also be needed in many relatively new areas of work, such as the design and development of nu clear reactors for industrial use, and research aimed at developing new and better solid and liquid fuels for rockets. Furthermore, the develop ment of new chemicals for use in the manufacture of consumer goods such as plastics, drugs, and paints will probably create additional openings for chemical engineers. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on training required, earnings, and where to go for more information. See also statement on Chemists and chapter on Occupations in the Industrial Chemical In dustry.) Civil Engineers (D.O.T. 0-16.01) Nature of Work Civil engineering is one of the oldest and larg est branches of engineering. In 1962, about 170,000 engineers were employed in this branch of the profession. Civil engineers design and supervise the con struction of roads, harbors, airfields, tunnels, bridges, watersupply and sewage systems, build ings, and many other types of structures. Civil engineering is so broad that many specialties have developed within it—among them, structural, highway, hydraulic, and sanitary engineering. Many civil engineers are in supervisory or ad ministrative positions, ranging from that of site supervisor of a construction gang or head of a drafting department to top-level executive posts. Others are engaged in design, planning, research, inspection, and maintenance activities. stitutions. Still others are employed in the iron and steel industries and other major manufactur ing industries. Civil engineers work in all parts of the country, in every State and city—usually in or near the major industrial and commercial centers. How ever, since these engineers are frequently called upon to work at construction sites, they are some times stationed in remote areas of the United States or in foreign countries. Furthermore, civil engineers in some positions are often required to Where Employed The great majority of civil engineers are em ployed by Federal, State, and local government agencies and the construction industry. Large numbers are also employed by consulting engineer ing and architectural firms, or work as independ ent consulting engineers. Others are employed by public utilities, railroads, and by educational in Courtesy oi Bureau of Reclamation Civil engineers study model of a canyon in designing a bridge OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 104 move from place to place to work on different projects. Employment Outlook Employment in civil engineering is expected to grow, both in the near future and over the long run. Growth in this field, hqwever, is not likely to be as rapid as in electrical and mechanical en gineering, the other large branches of the profes sion. Growing needs for housing, industrial build ings, and highways created by an increasing population and expanding economy will provide expanding employment opportunities for civil engineers. New programs in areas related to water and sewage systems, flood control, air and water pollution, and reclamation, as well as urban re development, will also probably require additional civil engineers. Large numbers of civil engineers will also be needed each year to replace those leaving the field. As a group, civil engineers are older than en gineers in other specialties and the proportion lost to the profession each year by retirement or death is therefore relatively high. The number of civil engineers needed annually to fill such vacancies— estimated to be 3,300 in 1962—will probably rise slowly throughout this decade. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on training required, earnings, and where to go for more in formation.) Electrical Engineers (D.O.T. 0-17.01 and .02) Nature of Work Electrical engineering (including electronics engineering) is the largest and one of the most rapidly growing branches of the profession. In 1962, about 195,000 electrical engineers were em ployed in the United States. Electrical engineers design, develop, and super vise the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment—including electric motors and genera tors; communications equipment; electronic ap paratus such as television, radar, computers, and missile guidance systems; and electrical appli ances of all kinds. They also design and partici pate in the operation of facilities for generating and distributing electric power. Electrical engineers usually specialize in a major area of work such as electronics, electrical equipment manufacturing, communications, or power. Many specialize in subdivisions of these broad areas; for example, electronics engineers may specialize in computers, or in missile guidance and tracking systems. A large number of electrical engineers are en gaged in research, development, and design activi ties. Another large group are employed in ad ministrative and management positions. Others are employed in various manufacturing opera tions or in technical sales or teaching positions. Where Employed Electrical engineers are employed chiefly by manufacturers of electrical and electronic equip ment, aircraft and missiles, business machines, and professional and scientific equipment. Many are employed by telephone and telegraph and electric light and power companies. Sizable numbers are employed by government agencies and by colleges and universities. Others work for construction firms, for engineering consultants, or as independ ent consulting engineers. Courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation Electrical ensineer uses A .C . network analyzer to study operating conditions of a power system ENGINEERING 105 Employment Outlook The outlook is for continued rapid growth of employment in this branch of the engineering pro fession throughout the remainder of the 1960’s and over the longer run. Kequirements of the military and space programs for new and im proved types of electronic and electrical equip ment are expected to continue to be a major factor in increasing the demand for electrical engineers. These needs, added to those of producers of con sumer goods, are expected to result in continued rapid growth of the electrical and electronics equipment industry. The electric utility and the telephone and telegraph industries are also ex pected to grow. Newer areas of work such as those concerned with nuclear energy, missiles and space craft, communication and weather satellites, elec tronic computers, and automation will probably continue to require large numbers of electrical engineers. In addition to those needed to fill new positions, many electrical engineers will be required to re place personnel lost to the profession because of retirement or death. The number needed to fill such vacancies, estimated to be about 2,500 in 1962, will probably rise slowly throughout the 1960’s. (See introductory section of this chapter for dis cussion on training required, earnings, and where to go for more information. See also chapter on Occupations in Electronics Manufacturing.) Industrial Engineers (D.O.T. 0-18.01) Nature of Work Industrial engineers are concerned primarily with the effective utilization of machines, ma terials, and personnel. They often specialize in planning plant layouts so that the production process will be efficient, or in selecting and design ing the machines and equipment to be used in manufacturing operations. They are also con cerned with the planning of automated manu facturing processes and the installation of indus trial equipment. Among their numerous other specialties are time, motion, and incentive studies; production methods and standards; cost control and records; quality control; safety engineering; systems engineering; and operations research. Where Employed More than two-thirds of the estimated 100,000 industrial engineers employed in 1962 were in manufacturing industries. Some worked for in surance companies, construction and mining firms, and utilities. Others were employed by retail or ganizations, mail order houses, and other large business enterprises to improve the efficiency of clerical and other operations. Still others worked for government agencies, educational institutions, and consulting engineering firms. A few were independent consulting engineers. Employment Outlook The increasing complexity of industrial opera tions and the expansion of automated processes, coupled with the continued growth of the Na tion’s industries, are among the factors expected to increase the demand for industrial engineers in the middle and late 1960’s and over the longer run. Growing recognition of the importance of scientific management and safety engineering in reducing costs and increasing productivity is ex pected to stimulate further the demand for per sons in this branch. Besides those needed to fill new positions, addi tional numbers of industrial engineers will be required each year to replace those who retire or die. The number needed to fill such vacancies, estimated to be approximately 1,600 in 1962, will probably rise slowly in the future. (See introduc tory section of this chapter for discussion on train ing required, earnings, and where to go for more information.) OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 106 Mechanical Engineers (D.O.T. 0-19.01, .05, .81, and .91) Nature of Work The field of mechanical engineering is exceeded in size only by electrical engineering. In 1962, more than 170,000 engineers were employed in this branch of the profession. Mechanical engineers are concerned with the production, transmission, and use of power. They design and develop machines which produce power, such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, jet and rocket engines, and nu clear reactors. They also design and develop a great variety of machines which use power— refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment, elevators, machine tools, printing presses, steel rolling mills, and many others. Large numbers of mechanical engineers are engaged in research and development, design, and administrative and management activities. Others work in produc tion, operations, maintenance, and sales positions. Many specialized areas of work have developed within mechanical engineering. Among the spe cialties are those concerned with motor vehicles, marine equipment, railroad equipment, rocket en gines, steam power, heating, ventilating and air conditioning, hydraulics or fluid mechanics, in strumentation, ordnance, and machines for spe cialized industries, such as petroleum, rubber and plastics, and construction. Where Employed Nearly three-quarters of all mechanical engi neers are employed in manufacturing industries —mainly in the primary and fabricated metals, machinery, transportation equipment, and elec trical equipment industries. However, nearly all manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries employ some members of the profession. Many are employed in government agencies, educational institutions, and consulting engineering firms. Some work as independent consulting engineers. Employment Outlook The outlook is for rapid growth in this branch of engineering throughout the remainder of the 1960’s and over the longer run. Growth of in dustry, and the increasing technological com plexity and automation of industrial machinery and processes will be major factors contributing to greater employment. Expansion of research and development activities in the industries which are major employers of mechanical engineers will also be a factor in their growth. Moreover, newer areas of work, such as atomic energy, missile and spacecraft development, and automation will probably provide additional openings for large numbers of mechanical engineers. Besides those needed to fill new positions, large numbers of mechanical engineers will be required each year to replace those who retire or die. The number needed to fill such vacancies was estimated to be 2,600 in 1962; the annual replacement need will probably rise slowly throughout the remain der of the 1960’s. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on training required, earn ings, and where to go for more information.) Metallurgical Engineers (D.O.T. 0-14.10 and .20) Nature of Work Metallurgical engineers are concerned with the processing of metals and their conversion into useful products. These engineers usually work in one of two main branches of metallurgy—ex tractive or physical. Extractive metallurgy deals with the extraction of metals from their ores, and with refining it to obtain pure metah Physical metallurgy deals with the properties of metals and their alloys, and with methods of converting refined metals into useful final products. Persons working in the field of metallurgy may be referred to as either metallurgists or metallur gical engineers. However, metallurgists are gen erally engaged in such activities as research and development or analysis and testing, whereas ENGINEERING 107 metallurgical engineers are engaged mainly in directing the extraction and processing of ores. Where Employed The metalworking industries—primarily the iron and steel and nonferrous metals industries— employ over one-half of the relatively small num ber of metallurgical engineers. Many metallurgi cal engineers work in the machinery, electrical equipment, and aircraft, missile, and spacecraft industries. Others are employed in the mining in dustry, and in government agencies, consulting firms, independent research organizations, and educational institutions. Employment Outlook Employment in this small branch of the pro fession is expected to grow rapidly, both in the near future and over the long run. Increasing numbers of metallurgical engineers will be needed by the metalworking industries to work on prob lems involved in the adaptation of metals and alloys to new needs. For example, the development of such products as supersonic jet aircraft, mis siles, satellites, and spacecraft has brought about a need for light-weight metals capable of with standing both extremely high and extremely low temperatures. Metallurgical engineers will also be needed to solve metallurgical problems connected with the efficient use of nuclear energy. As the supply of high-grade ores diminishes, more metal lurgical engineers will be needed to find ways of processing low-grade ores now regarded as un profitable to mine. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on training required, earnings, and where to go for more information. See also chapter on Occupations in the Iron and Steel Industry.) Mining Engineers (D.O.T. 0-20.01 and .11) Nature of Work Mining engineers are responsible for the effi cient extraction of minerals from the earth. They plan and supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels, devise means of extracting minerals, and plan the methods to be used in transporting the minerals to the surface. They also direct the operation of mines and are responsible for mine safety. Some mining engineers work with geologists and other specialists in searching for ore-bearing rock or for deposits of petroleum, coal, or other minerals. Mining engineers frequently specialize in the extraction of metals, coal, nonmetallic minerals, or petroleum and natural gas. Petroleum engi neering, for example, has become so specialized that it is, in some cases, considered a separate branch of the engineering profession. Specializa tion of mining engineers may also extend to a particular type of work, such as mine safety, mine appraisal, or exploration. Where Employed Approximately three-quarters of the estimated 13,000 mining engineers were employed in the mining and petroleum industries in 1962. Most of the remainder worked for colleges and universi ties or government agencies, or as independent consultants. Mining engineers are usually employed at the location of mineral deposits. They may work near small communities or in out-of-the way places— in mountains or deserts. However, those engaged in research, teaching, management, or consulting, are often located in large metropolitan areas. Employment Outlook In the middle and late 1960’s, the opportunities for employment in mining engineering will proba bly be less favorable than in most other branches of engineering. Exploration for most minerals has declined in recent years and it is unlikely that these activities will expand significantly in the near future. Furthermore, since mining engineer ing is one of the smaller branches of the profes sion, opportunities for many engineers to fill new positions and to replace those retiring or other wise leaving the field will be small compared with such opportunities in the larger branches of engi neering. 108 In the long run, however, as easily mined de posits are exhausted and as needs for metals in crease with the expansion of industry, mining engineers will be needed to devise ways of mining poorer deposits and those which are difficult to mine at a competitive cost. Additional areas of employment for mining engineers will arise as the development of new alloys and the discovery of new uses for metals increase the demand for less OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK widely used ores. In the petroleum industry, some mining engineers will be needed to locate and utilize new oil fields, both in the United States and abroad. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on training required, earn ings, and where to go for more information. See also chapter on Petroleum Production and Refin ing Occupations.) P H Y S IC A L SCIEN CES The physical sciences deal with the basic laws for continued rapid growth over the remainder of of the physical world. Many scientists in this the 1960’s. The single most important factor in broad field conduct basic research designed to in this anticipated growth will be the likely increase crease man’s knowledge of the properties of mat in research and development expenditures. Such ter and energy. Others conduct applied research, expenditures, which nearly tripled in the 8-year using the knowledge gained from basic research period ending in 1962, are expected to continue to to develop new products and processes. For ex rise during the remainder of the decade. Missiles ample, chemists in applied research use their and spacecraft, atomic energy, and electronics are knowledge of the interactions of various chemicals but a few of the fields in which large increases in to develop new fuels for rockets and missiles. employment opportunities for physical scientists Physical scientists also teach in colleges and uni are anticipated. Other factors in the expected versities and supervise research and development growth of employment are the increasing complex programs. ity of industrial products and processes and sharp The physical sciences are usually subdivided increases in science enrollments in colleges and into four broad specialties—chemistry, physics, universities. This chapter includes descriptions of three ma metallurgy, and astronomy. The largest of these fields is chemistry, with 120,000 chemists employed jor physical science occupations—chemist, physi in mid-1962. Smaller numbers are in physics cist, and astronomer. Many other professions also (35.000) , metallurgy (15,000), and astronomy require a good background in the physical sci ( 1.000) . ences. Among these are engineering and the earth In recent years, employment in the physical science occupations described in separate chapters sciences has grown rapidly, and the outlook is in this Handbook. Chemists (D.O.T. 0-07.02 through .85) Nature of Work The work done by chemists helps to provide many products which make our lives healthier, more productive, and more comfortable. They may develop vaccines and medicines, new methods of preserving food, and new and improved materials and rocket fuels for use in the exploration of space. As a result of their discoveries, entirely new industries have been created, for example, plastics, frozen foods, and synthetic textile fibers. Chemists are concerned with the composition and properties of substances and changes in their composition; they search for new knowledge of the chemistry of substances and for ways of using this knowledge. To study and measure substances, chemists use instruments such as balances, spectro graphs, radioactive isotope counters, titrimeters, refractometers, and microbalances. They maintain accurate records of the work performed and pre pare clear and concise reports showing the results of the tests or experiments. About one-half of all chemists are engaged in research and development. Most research chemists work on applied research projects aimed at creat ing new products or improving and finding new uses for existing ones. Chemists in applied re search have helped to develop a vast range of new products, including antibiotics and other won der drugs, plastics, foam rubber, detergents, in secticides, and fabrics made from synthetic fibers. Many chemists work on basic research projects to 109 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 110 Courtesy of U.S. Department of the Navy Chemists use protective equipment in metallurgy tests extend scientific knowledge rather than to solve immediate practical problems. However, many im portant practical applications have resulted from basic research. For example, research on poly merization—how and why certain small molecules unite to form giant molecules—resulted in the de velopment of synthetic rubber, nylon, and plastics. Analysis and testing is another major activity of many chemists, since various kinds of tests must be made at practically every stage in the manufacture of a product, from its initial develop ment to final production. Sizable numbers of chemists are employed in activities such as college teaching and administrative work. Smaller num bers are employed as sales representatives by chemical companies and other manufacturers, usu ally when the product is such that the salesmen must be able to discuss its technical aspects and tell the customers how it can be used. Other chem ists are employed in supervision of production processes, patent work, technical writing, ma terials purchasing, and marketing research. A few work as independent consultants. Chemists usually specialize in one or more branches of chemistry, and sometimes in a sub division of one of these branches. Organic chem ists, the largest group, deal primarily with carbon compounds, most of which are substances origi nally derived from animal and vegetable matter. Inorganic chemists are chiefly concerned with compounds of elements relatively free of carbon, including most of the minerals and metals. Physi cal chemists study the quantitative relationships between chemical and physical properties of both organic and inorganic substances—for example, how these substances are affected by electricity, pressure, heat, and light. Analytical chemists de termine the exact chemical composition of sub stances and test them to determine their quality, purity, and other characteristics. Biochemists are concerned with chemical reactions occurring in plants and animals, such as the effects of foods, drugs, or chemicals on plant and animal tissues, and with the influence of chemicals in life proc esses. Agricultural and food chemists are bio chemists who specialize in problems related to food production and preservation. Some chemists specialize in a particular indus try or product, such as petroleum, plastics, or rubber. Such work often requires a knowledge of more than one branch of chemistry. The specialist in plastics, for example, may need a knowledge of physical as well as organic chemistry. However, all chemists must know the fundamentals of chem istry—the composition and properties of sub stances and how they can be changed. Where Employed Chemistry is by far the largest field of employ ment in the sciences. There were approximately 120,000 chemists in the United States in mid-1962; about 5 percent were women. Chemists are em ployed in all States, and in small cities as well as large. Approximately three-fourths of all chemists are employed by private industry. The major in dustrial employer of chemists is the chemicals in dustry, which employed more than two-fifths of all chemists in private industry in mid-1962. Other industries utilizing relatively large numbers of chemists are petroleum, food, primary metals, electrical equipment, aerospace, paper, and rub ber. Many chemists are employed in colleges and universities. Although most of these chemists teach, some work full or part time in research and development, often on projects for the Federal Government. Sizable numbers of chemists are also employed directly by government agencies, chiefly by the U.S. Departments of Defense; Health, Education, and Welfare; Agriculture; the In- PHYSICAL SCIENCES terior; and Commerce. A few work for research institutes, foundations, and other nonprofit orga nizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in chemistry is usually the minimum educational requirement for young people seeking careers as chemists. Graduate training is essential for many positions, particularly in research and teaching. Graduates with the bachelor’s degree usually qualify for positions in analysis and testing, quality control, technical service, and sales, or as trainees for administrative or laboratory research and development work. Most chemists with the bachelor’s degree are employed by private in dustry and the government. In industry, employ ers often have special training programs for be ginning chemistry graduates. These programs are designed to supplement college training with specific industry techniques and to aid in deter mining the type of work for which the individual is best suited. Some chemists with the bachelor’s degree and above average grades are employed in colleges and universities as research or teaching assistants while working toward advanced de grees. Many new graduates go into high school teaching positions; these are usually regarded as teachers rather than as chemists. Chemists with the master’s degree can often qualify for applied research positions in govern ment or private industry. They can also qualify for many teaching positions in colleges and uni versities. The Ph. D. degree is generally required for positions in basic research and for higher level teaching positions in a college or university. It may also be important for advancement to toplevel positions in other activities. Many colleges and universities offer an under graduate major in chemistry. In the typical 4year chemistry curriculum, about two-fifths of the work consists of chemistry courses. A few of the courses usually taken by undergraduates in the field of chemistry are quantitative and qualitative analysis, inorganic, organic, and physical chemis try. Courses in mathematics (especially analytical geometry and calculus), physics, biology, English, and one foreign language are also required. 111 Advanced degrees in chemistry are awarded by a large number of colleges and universities, many of which offer financial assistance to above aver age undergraduates interested in further study. In graduate school, the academic work of chemis try students consists heavily of courses in his specialty or field of interest. Requirements for the master’s or doctor’s degree usually include class room studies, laboratory research, library re search, and preparation of a thesis. Personal qualifications needed for a career in chemistry include an orderly mind, above average intelligence, and an interest and facility in mathe matics. Since chemists usually work in teams, an ability to communicate and work with others is important. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-trained chemistry graduates are expected to be good throughout the 1960’s, and the longrun outlook is for continued expansion of the profession. As in recent years, there will be a particular need for chemists with advanced degrees for research and teaching positions. For women chemists qualified to do research and teaching, employment oppor tunities are also expected to be good. One of the major factors which will tend to in crease employment of chemists is the anticipated growth in expenditures for research and develop ment, in which about one-half of all chemists are engaged. Total expenditures for research and de velopment have increased rapidly in* recent years and are expected to continue to grow during the next decade. Continued expansion of the indus tries employing the largest numbers of chemists will also be an important factor increasing em ployment opportunities for these scientists. The chemical industry, especially, is expected to ex pand rapidly in response to growing demands for such products as drugs and pharmaceuticals, syn thetic fibers, detergents, fertilizers, plastics, and high energy fuels for missiles and rockets. The demand for chemists to fill college and university teaching positions will also rise sub stantially, because of the large increases in college enrollments expected during the late 1960’s. The greatest demand will be for those with Ph. D. de grees, but there will be many positions for chem OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 112 ists with the master’s degree. (See index for page number of statement on College and University Teachers.) In addition to those needed to fill new positions, many chemists will also be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. These losses to the profession were estimated to be approximately 2,000 in 1962 and may rise considerably during the late 1960’s. Along with the expected growth in demand for chemists, a steady increase is expected in the num ber of chemistry graduates, particularly at the bachelor’s level. If chemistry graduates continue to represent the same proportion of all college graduates as in recent years, the number seeking employment in the profession will rise rapidly throughout the 1960’s. Thus, there may be com petition for the better paying entry positions in chemistry, particularly among graduates with only the bachelor’s degree. However, the rising de mand will continue to provide favorable opportu nities for chemists with ability and thorough training for many years to come. Earnings and Working Conditions Inexperienced chemistry graduates with a bachelor’s degree had an average (median) start ing salary of $6,300 a year in private industry in 1962, according to a survey conducted by the American Chemical Society. Inexperienced gradu ates with the master’s degree averaged about $7,400 a year and those with the Ph. D. degree, about $10,200. In academic institutions, the average (median) annual starting salary for the few entrants with the bachelor’s degree only and with no experience was $4,500, according to the American Chemical Society. The average salary for inexperienced graduates with the master’s degree was about $5,600, and for those with the Ph. D. degree, $6,900. Many experienced chemists in educational institutions supplement their regular salaries with income from consulting, lecturing, and writ ing books and articles. In Federal Government positions in early 1963, the annual starting salary for inexperienced chem ists with the bachelor’s degree was either $5,525 or $6,650, depending on the individual’s college rec ord. Beginning chemists with 1 full year of graduate study could start at $6,650, and those with 2 full years of graduate study at $7,125. Chemists with the Ph. D. degree could start at $8,575 or $9,475. Most chemists can look forward to a marked increase in earnings as they gain experience. Ac cording to preliminary data from the National Science Foundation’s 1962 National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel, the average (median) salary of chemists with 5 to 9 years of experience was $9,000 a year and that of chemists with 20 or more years of experience was about $13,000, compared with $7,000 for chemists with only 1 year of experience. Chemists spend most of their time working in modern, well-equipped, well-lighted laboratories, offices, or classrooms. Chemists may be subjected to minor hazards such as inhalation of fumes, con tacts with acids, and open flames. However, if safety regulations are followed, health hazards are negligible. Where To Go for More Information* American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20036. Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, Inc., 1825 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20009. For additional sources of information, see also statements on Chemical Engineers and Indus trial Chemical Industry. (Refer to index for page numbers.) Physicists (D.O.T. 0-35.73) Nature of Work Physics, one of the most rapidly growing scien tific professions, is concerned with energy in all its forms, with the structure of matter, and with the relationship between matter and energy. Physicists investigate and attempt to understand the fundamental laws of nature and how these laws may be formulated and put to use. Much of PHYSICAL SCIENCES the scientific progress in the past several decades stems from discoveries made by physicists in such critical fields as nuclear energy, cosmic rays, and electronics. Most physicists are engaged in research and development. A sizable number conduct basic re search, designed to increase scientific knowledge with only secondary regard to its practical appli cations. Some of these, called theoretical physi cists, seek to work out mathematical descriptions of the relationships between physical phenomena. Others, called experimental physicists, make care ful, systematic observations and perform experi ments to identify and measure the elements of matter and energy and their interactions. For ex ample, they try to identify and measure the life time of tiny antiparticles of matter which may exist within the core of the atom. Experimental physicists use apparatus such as particle accelera tors, X-ray spectrometers, electron diffraction cameras, microwave devices, and phase and elec tron microscopes. When their research requires new kinds of instruments, they may design them. The difference between theoretical and experi mental physicists is often merely one of emphasis. Some scientists are skilled in both types of work. A large number of physicists do applied re search. They use the knowledge gained from basic research to solve practical problems and to create new products for industry or for national defense. For example, the work of physicists specializing in solid-state physics led to the development of transistors, now used in place of vacuum tubes in many types of electronic equipment ranging from hearing aids to guidance systems for missiles. Many physicists teach in colleges and universi ties, often combining research with teaching. Some are engaged in the management and administra tion of scientific activities, especially research and development. Still others do work related to the production of industrial products, including in spection and quality control. A few physicists do technical writing or consulting work. Most physicists specialize in one or more branches of the science—mechanics, heat, optics, acoustics, electricity and magnetism, electronics, atomic and molecular physics, nuclear physics, physics of fluids, solid-state physics, or classical theoretical physics. In addition, new fields are continually emerging; for example, cryogenics, 692-408 o — 63----- 9 113 Courtesy of U.S. Department of the Nary Nuclear physicist uses power-driven manipulators to handle irradiated research materials plasma physics, and ultrasonics have developed in recent years. Since all physics specialties rest on the same fundamental principles, nearly all are closely related and the physicist’s work may over lap a number of specialties. Physicists often apply the theories and method ology of their science to problems originating in other sciences, including geology, biology, chemis try, and astronomy. Some people have become specialists in both physics and a related science. Thus, a number of specialties have developed on the borderline between physics and other fields— geophysics, biophysics, physical chemistry, and astrophysics. (Information on these occupations is contained elsewhere in the Handbook. See index for page numbers.) Furthermore, the practical applications of physicists’ work has increasingly merged with engineering. Where Employed Approximately 35,000 physicists were employed in the United States in mid-1962. About 15,000 114 were employed by private industry. Nearly twothirds of this group are employed in the aero space and electrical equipment industries. Other industries using relatively large numbers of phys icists include chemicals, professional and scientific instruments, telecommunications and broadcast ing, petroleum, and machinery. A few physicists are employed by independent laboratories and re search institutes. Colleges and universities employed about 14,000 physicists in mid-1962. Although teaching is the main activity of most physicists in colleges and universities, a sizable number employed by such institutions work full time in research, often on projects conducted for Federal Government agen cies such as the Atomic Energy Commission and the National Aeronautics and Space Administra tion. Federal Government agencies also employ large numbers of physicists—approximately 4,700 in mid-1962. The agencies employing the most physi cists are the Department of Defense, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the National Bureau of Standards. A few members of the profession work for the Atomic Energy Com mission, the Department of the Interior, and the Department of Agriculture. Relatively few physicists are women—only about 3 percent, according to the National Science Foundation’s National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in physics is the minimum entrance requirement for young people seeking careers as physicists, and graduate training is highly desirable. A doctor’s degree is required for high-level re search positions in academic institutions, industry, and the Federal Government. It is also helpful for promotion in many areas of work including advancement in most colleges and universities. Physicists with master’s degrees are able to qualify for many research activities in private in dustry, educational institutions, and government; some also obtain positions as instructors in colleges and universities. Frequently, graduate students working toward a doctor’s degree are assigned to teach elementary college courses, conduct labora OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tory sessions, or aid senior faculty members on research projects. Physicists with bachelor’s degrees can qualify for a variety of jobs in applied research and de velopment work in private industry or the Federal Government. Some become research assistants in colleges and universities while working toward advanced degrees. Some persons with only a bach elor’s degree in the science do not work as physi cists but go into nontechnical work or, sometimes, into engineering positions. Training leading to the bachelor’s degree in physics was offered by approximately 740 col leges and universities in 1962. In addition, many engineering schools offered a physics major as part of the general engineering curriculum. A few of the physics courses typically offered in an undergraduate program are mechanics, electricity and magnetism, optics, thermodynamics, and light and atomic physics. In addition, courses in chemis try and mathematics are required. Master’s degrees in physics were offered by ap proximately 200 colleges and universities in 1962, and the Ph. D. was offered by approximately 100. In graduate school, the student builds upon the broad background in the fundamentals of physics acquired in his undergraduate studies, placing emphasis on his major field of interest. Among the chief personal qualifications needed for a career in physics are a creative imagination and a highly inquisitive mind. Strong interest and facility in mathematics are also essential. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for physicists are expected to be excellent throughout the remainder of the 1960’s, and continued growth in the profes sion is anticipated over the long run. As in recent years, there will probably be a particular demand for physicists with Ph. D. degrees who are quali fied to teach advanced physics courses and do high-level research and development work. Re search organizations, whether those of govern ment, universities, or industry, have had con siderable difficulty in filling their requirements for physicists with advanced degrees, and their needs for such physicists will probably continue to in crease. PHYSICAL SCIENCES 115 Among the major factors which should continue to make physics one of the most rapidly growing science fields throughout the 1960’s is the con tinued increase in expenditures for research and development by both industry and government. Such expenditures, which nearly tripled in the 8-year period ending in 1962, are expected to con tinue to rise during the next decade. Moreover, much of this increase will take place in those in dustries which employ large numbers of physi cists—particularly the electrical equipment, and aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft industries. Demand for physicists qualified to teach in col leges and universities is also expected to increase substantially, both to provide for the much larger enrollments of physics students expected in the late 1960’s and to meet the growing need for ad vanced physics training in other science fields and in engineering. During the early 1960’s, many col leges were unable to recruit sufficient numbers of well qualified physics teachers, and this problem may well become more acute during the next decade. (See index for page number of statement on College and University Teachers.) Along with the anticipated rise in demand for physicists, an increase is expected in the number of physics graduates, especially at the bachelor’s degree level. If physics graduates continue to represent the same proportion of all college gradu ates as in recent years, the number seeking em ployment in the profession will rise rapidly dur ing the late 1960’s. Nevertheless, the demand for physicists is expected to be greater than the num ber of new graduates available for employment. Thus, for graduates with advanced degrees and for well qualified graduates with the bachelor’s degree, excellent employment opportunities are in prospect in the profession throughout the rest of the decade. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for physicists with bachelor's degrees were usually between $5,800 and $6,700 a year in private industry in 1962, according to the limited information available. Physicists with master’s degrees received starting salaries about $500 to $1,000 higher than those with bachelor's degrees. Annual salaries for new graduates whin Ph. D. degrees ranged roughly from $7,500 to as high as $15,000. In the Federal Government service in early 1963, physicists with the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at either $5,525 or $6,650 a year, depending on their college records. Begin ning physicists who had completed all require ments for the master’s degree could start at $6,650 or $7,125. Physicists with the Ph. D. degree could begin at $8,575 or $9,475. Starting salaries for physicists with the Ph. I). degree employed as college and university teachers were about $7,000 to $8,000 a year in mid-1962. (For further information, see statement on Col lege and University Teachers.) In addition to their regular salaries, many physicists in educational institutions obtain income from other sources, such as consulting work and special research projects. Most physicists can look forward to a marked increase in earnings as they gain experience. Ac cording to the National Science Foundation's 1962 National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel, the average (median) salary of physi cists with 15 to 19 years’ experience was $14,000 a year, twice the average for physicists with 1 year’s experience. Where To Go for More Information American Institute of Physics, 335 Bast 45th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. Astronomers (D.O.T. 0-35.61) Nature of Work Astronomy, often considered the most theoreti cal of all sciences, has many practical applications. Astronomical observations of the sun, moon, plan ets, and stars are the basis for sea and air naviga tion, the calendar, and the accurate measurement of time. Astronomy provides both a proving ground for theories of time and space and a laboratory where matter may be observed under the most extreme conditions of temperature and density. Astronomy also helps fill in gaps m the understanding of the physical world. For ex OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 116 ample, astronomers who have studied the behavior of atoms under stellar temperatures have made valuable contributions to thermonuclear research and to knowledge of the atom. Astronomers study the universe and all its celestial bodies. They collect and analyze data on the sun, moon, planets, and stars and attempt to determine sizes, shapes, brightnesses, and motions of these bodies. They compute the positions of the stars and planets; calculate the orbits of comets, asteroids, and artificial satellites; and make statis tical studies of stars and galaxies. Astronomers also study the size and shape of the earth and the properties of its upper atmosphere. In making their detailed observations of the heavens, astronomers use complex photographic techniques, light-measuring instruments, and other optical devices. The telescope is the major instrument used for observation, and specialized devices for making particular types of observa tions are often attached to it. Among these devices are the spectrometer, which produces a spectrum and enables the wave lengths of radiant energy Courtesy of U.S. Department of the Navy Astronomer uses a 12-inch refracting telescope to measure visually the position of stars to be measured; the photometer, which measures the intensity of light; and various other photo electric, photographic, and electronic instruments and devices. Although most observations are made by means of telescopes permanently mounted in observatories, astronomers are increasingly gath ering information by means of spacecraft and earth satellites containing various measuring de vices. In processing and analyzing the vast amounts of data derived from their observations, astronomers often make use of high-speed elec tronic computers. Astronomers usually specialize in one of the many branches of the science. In astrophysics, they are concerned with the application of physical laws to stellar atmospheres and interiors. Some astronomers work in the field of celestial mechan ics., one of the oldest fields of astronomy and one that has recently acquired new importance. Celes tial mechanics deals, in part, with the motions of objects in the solar system, and hence has a par ticular application in the calculation of the orbits of spacecraft and artificial earth satellites and the paths of guided missiles. Radio astronomy is the study, by means of radio telescopes of extra ordinary sensitivity, of the source and nature of celestial radio waves. Among the other specialties are astrometry (measurement of apparent posi tions of celestial bodies); photoelectric and photo graphic photometry (measurement of the inten sity of light); spectroscopy of astronomical sources (wave length analyses of radiation from celestial bodies); and statistical astronomy (statistical study of large numbers of celestial objects, such as stars, to determine their average properties). More than 3 out of every 4 astronomers are en gaged in teaching, research, or a combination of the two. In colleges and universities without separate departments of astronomy or with small enrollments in the subject, astronomers may teach courses in mathematics or physics as well as astronomy. Other members of the profession are engaged in a variety of activities, including de velopment and design of astronomical instru ments, administration, technical writing, and con sulting. Where Employed Astronomy is one of the smallest of the science fields; in mid-1962, the total number of astrono PHYSICAL SCIENCES mers in the United States was estimated to be approximately 1,000. More than half of all astronomers are employed by colleges and uni versities. Many of these work in universityoperated observatories, where they usually devote most of their time to research, working alone or in cooperation with other astronomers. The Federal Government provides employment opportunities for approximately 150 astronomers. Among the major Government agencies employ ing astronomers are the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, which is responsible for directing and implementing the Nation’s re search efforts in aeronautics and the exploration of space; the U.S. Naval Observatory, which determines the Nation’s official time, provides data for air and sea navigation, and conducts research in astrometry and stellar astronomy; the Naval Research Laboratory, which does research in radio astronomy and space astronomy; and the Army Map Service, which utilizes astronomers in measuring exact distances and in determining the positions of points on the earth’s surface. Government positions in astronomy are also found at the Air Force Cambridge Research Center (Bedford, Mass.), the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the National Bureau of Standards, and other agencies. A very small but growing number of astrono mers are employed in private industry, mostly by firms in the aircraft, missile, and spacecraft field. A few astronomers work for museums, planetariums, and other nonprofit organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young people seeking professional careers in astronomy should obtain an advanced degree— preferably the Ph. D. The doctorate is usually required for high-level teaching and research posi tions and is important for other types of work. Al though the bachelor’s degree is adequate prepara tion for some entry jobs, promotional opportuni ties for astronomers without graduate training are usually limited. Undergraduate training leading to the bache lor’s degree in astronomy is offered by a relatively small number of schools. In 1962, only about 35 colleges and universities offered such a degree. The undergraduate work of the prospective astrono 117 mer is weighted heavily with courses in physics and mathematics (in addition to astronomy). A reading knowledge of at least one foreign lan guage (German, French, or Russian) is required in the undergraduate program, and training in chemistry, statistics, and electronics is useful. A few of the courses often taken by undergraduates in the field of astronomy are optics, spectroscopy, atomic physics, calculus, differential equations, solar and stellar systems, introductory astro physics, and astronomical techniques and instru ments. The prospective astronomer is not necessarily handicapped if the college he has selected does not offer a major in astronomy. Well-qualified stu dents with degrees in physics or mathematics are usually able to qualify for positions in astronomy or to pursue graduate work leading to the Ph. D. degree in the science, since the undergraduate work required is similar. Training leading to the doctorate in astronomy may be obtained in about 25 institutions located in various sections of the country. The academic work of the graduate student consists primarily of advanced courses in astronomy, physics, and mathematics. A few of the astronomy courses typically offered in graduate schools are celestial mechanics, galactic structure, radio astronomy, stellar atmospheres and interiors, theoretical as trophysics, and binary and variable stars. A read ing knowledge of two foreign languages (Ger man, French, or Russian) is required. Some schools require that graduate students spend sev eral months in residence at an observatory. In most institutions, however, the program of work lead ing to the doctorate is flexible and allows the stu dent to take the courses which will be of most value to him in his astronomical specialty or par ticular area of interest. New graduates with bachelor’s or master’s de grees in astronomy usually begin as assistants in observatories, planetaria, large departments of astronomy in colleges and universities, Govern ment agencies, or industry. Some persons with only the bachelor’s degree work as research assist ants while studying toward advanced degrees; others, particularly those in Government employ ment, receive on-the-job training in the applica tion of astronomical principles to the problems at hand. New graduates with the doctorate can 118 usually qualify for college teaching positions and for research positions in educational institutions, Government, and industry. Among the personal qualifications needed by prospective astronomers are a deep curiosity about the nature of the physical world, precise and logical thought processes, a strong interest and facility in mathematics and physics, and a fertile imagination. Astronomers should also be able to express themselves clearly and simply, both in writing and speaking, since their work often re quires them to communicate not only with other astronomers and scientists, but with the public as well. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for astronomers with the Ph. D. degree are expected to be excellent throughout the remainder of the 1960’s. Welltrained persons with only bachelor’s or master’s degrees in astronomy will also have good employ ment prospects, primarily as research and tech nical assistants. As in the past, however, the higher level professional positions in astronomy will be fil led mainly by persons with the doctorate. The outlook is for rapid growth of this small profession, both through the remainder of the 1960's and over the longer run. The advent of the space age—the age of rockets, missiles, manmade earth satellites, and space exploration—has height ened interest in astronomy and is opening up large new fields for astronomers. These scientists will be needed to aid in the development of guidance systems and other instrumentation for missiles and satellites and to help solve many of the practi cal problems connected with the flights of missiles and spacecraft. Increased research activities in astronomy by educational institutions, government, and indus try are also expected to add to the demand for astronomers. In recent years, the growth of Fed eral Government-sponsored research, in the form of grants to educational institutions and observa tories (for astronomical research and for new buildings, observatories, and equipment), has opened many new positions for astronomers. In all probability, government support for research in this area will continue, and additional astrono mers will be needed to conduct further research, especially on problems in exploration of space. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The growing public interest in satellites and space exploration has created a demand for a greater amount of information on astronomy. Furthermore, enrollments in astronomy courses in colleges and universities are likely to increase, not only as a result of this heightened public in terest but also because of the growing awareness of the value of astronomical training in many other scientific and engineering specialties. These factors, coupled with the anticipated rapid in creases in college enrollments in the late 1960’s, are expected to create many new openings for teachers of the science. Since astronomy is a small profession, the num ber of job openings in any one year will not be large. On the other hand, the number of college students receiving degrees in astronomy has so far been small. Thus, the young men or women who obtain the necessary training should have excel lent employment opportunities during the 1960’s. The most favorable opportunities for women astronomers—particularly those with the Ph. D. —will be in research positions in Government agencies and in the larger observatories. Women’s colleges and other educational institutions are also expected to offer some employment opportuni ties for women astronomers. In addition, some openings for research assistants in observatories or universities will probably arise for women with bachelor’s or master’s degrees in astronomy. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government service, in early 1963, beginning astronomers with the Ph. D. de gree were eligible to enter at $8,575 or $9,475 a year, depending on their college record. Astrono mers with the bachelor’s degree could start at $5,525 or $6,650 a year; those with a bachelor’s degree and some graduate study could begin at $6,650 or $7,125. The provision for salary in creases, vacations, sick leave and other benefits are the same as for other civil service employees. (See chapter on Occupations in Government.) Astronomers in educational institutions receive roughly the same salary as other faculty members. (See statement on College and University Teach ers.) Astronomers in educational institutions of ten add to their professional income by doing consulting work or summer school teaching. A PHYSICAL SCIENCES few astronomers earn extra income from lectures and from writing books and articles. Some astronomers spend much time in nightwork, making visual photographic or photoelec tric observations. Others make observations only 4 or 5 nights each month and devote the remainder of the time to studying and analyzing photo graphic plates, photoelectric tracings, and other material during usual daytime working hours. Observational work at a telescope involves ex posure to the outside air through the open dome of the observatory, sometimes on cold winter 119 nights. In general, however, the physical require ments of astronomical work are not heavy and can be met by a reasonably healthy person. Where To Go for More Information The American Astronomical Society, Princeton University Observatory, 265 FitzRandolph Rd.t Princeton, N.J., 08540. Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Scientific and Technical Personnel of the Potomac River Naval Command, Washington, D.C., 20415. EA R TH SCIEN CES The earth sciences are concerned with the his tory, composition, and characteristics of the earth, its oceans, and its atmosphere. Most scientists in this field are engaged in exploration for new ‘■ ources of oil and minerals. Some do basic research designed to increase scientific knowledge with little regard to its practical applications. Others are concerned mainly with applied research, using lhe knowledge gained from basic research to solve practical problems. Meteorologists, for example, apply their scientific knowledge of the atmosphere to forecast weather for specific localities. Earth scientists also teach in colleges and universities and administer scientific programs and operations. The earth sciences are relatively small fields of scientific employment. In mid-1962, the number of earth scientists at all levels of professional edu cation totaled about 27,000—only about 7 percent of all natural scientists. The-largest earth science occupation is geology, with 15,000 scientists em ployed in mid-1962. Smaller numbers are em ployed in geophysics (6,000),meteorology (3,000), and oceanography (2,500). Many earth scientists specialize in one particu lar branch of their broad occupational field. Geo physicists, for example, may be specialists in hy drology or seismology; oceanographers, in physi cal or biological oceanography. This chapter dis cusses the specialties and the employment outlook for the four major earth science occupations— geologist, geophysicist, meteorologist, and ocean ographer. Geologists (D.O.T. 0-35.63) Nature of Work Geology is the science of the earth. Geologists study the earth’s history, structure, and composi tion as revealed by rock formations and by animal and vegetable fossils. They search for fuels, miner als, and water supplies and study the physical and chemical processes which bring about changes in the earth’s structure and surface. Most geologists spend a large amount of their time in field exploration. They study rock cores and cuttings from deep holes drilled into the earth; collect and examine rocks, minerals, and fossils found at or near the surface of the earth; record data; and prepare geological maps. Geolo gists also spend considerable time in laboratories, where they study geological specimens, analyze geological materials under controlled temperature and pressure, and do other research on geological processes. In offices, they assemble and analyze field and laboratory data, and prepare reports, articles, maps, and other illustrations. Geologists use a variety of instruments such as the X-ray 120 diffractometer, which determines the structure of minerals, and the petrographic microscope, which permits close study of how rocks have been formed and modified by earth processes. Some geologists administer research and ex ploration programs. Others teach in colleges and universities, where they may also engage in and administer research projects. Geologists usually specialize in one branch of the science. Economic geologists find and super vise the development of mineral and fuel re sources. Petroleum geologists, who make up a large majority of all geologists, are economic geologists specializing in the discovery and re covery of oil and natural gas. Engineering geolo gists apply geological knowledge to engineering problems in the construction of roads, airfields, tunnels, dams, harbors, and other structures. Stratigraphers study the distribution and rela tive arrangement of sedimentary rock layers in the earth’s crust; sedimentologists determine the processes and products involved in the formation EARTH SCIENCES of sedimentary rocks; and 'paleontologists identify and classify fossils found within the sediments. Petrologists and petrographers study the arrange ment of minerals within rocks, to classify the rocks and determine their origins. Mineralogists are concerned with the classification and the physi cal and chemical properties of minerals which compose rocks and mineral deposits. Geomorphologists analyze the form of the earth’s surface and the processes—such as erosion and glaciation— which change it. Increasing numbers of geologists specialize in new and rapidly growing fields that require a de tailed knowledge of both geology and one or more other sciences. Among these specialists are geo chemists, who are concerned with the chemical composition of and the changes in minerals and rocks, and astro geologists, who apply geological knowledge to interpretation of data on surface conditions on the moon and the planets, as col lected by various means. Where Employed In 1962, there were approximately 15,000 geolo gists in the United States. About 3 out of every 4 worked for private industry. The petroleum and natural gas industry employs most of these scien tists, chiefly in Texas, Louisiana, California, Okla homa, and Colorado; some, employed by American companies, are assigned to work in foreign coun tries for varying periods of time. Geologists are also employed by mining and construction com panies, by railroads and other public utilities, and by manufacturing concerns, especially in the pri mary metals and stone and clay products indus tries. Others work for consulting firms or as in dependent consultants, providing services on a fee or contract basis to companies interested in ex ploration for and extraction of minerals and fuels. A number are employed by the Federal Gov ernment, mostly the U.S. Geological Survey. Other Federal agencies employing geologists in clude the Army Corps of Engineers, the Soil Con servation Service, and the Bureau of Beclamation. State agencies also employ geologists, some of whom work on surveys conducted in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey. Most govern ment positions are located in the United States, though some Federal jobs are outside the United States. 121 Some geologists are employed in colleges and universities. A few work for nonprofit research institutions and museums. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young people seeking professional careers in geology should obtain an advanced degree. The master’s degree is required for beginning research and teaching positions and for most positions in exploration. For advancement in college teach ing as well as for high-level research and ad ministrative posts, the Ph. D. degree is required. The bachelor’s degree is considered adequate training for only a few entry jobs, primarily closely supervised routine work in exploration or preparation of geological maps. Many colleges, universities, and institutes of technology offer education in geology. In the typical undergraduate curriculum, students de vote about a fourth of their time to geology courses, including physical geology, historical geology, mineralogy, and invertebrate paleon tology. About a third of the work is in related natural sciences and in mathematics, and the re mainder in subjects such as English composition, economics, and foreign languages. The academic work of the graduate student seeking an advanced degree in geology consists primarily of advanced courses in geology, with major emphasis on the student’s field of interest. The student planning a career in geology should have an aptitude not only for geology, but for physics, chemistry, and mathematics as well. He should be energetic, like outdoor activities, and have the physical stamina to participate in geo logical fieldwork, which sometimes necessitates camping out under somewhat primitive condi tions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for geologists with the Ph. D. or the master’s degree are expected to be favorable throughout the 1960’s. For those with only the bachelor’s degree, including those who rank high in their class, there will be keen competition for the few available entry positions. A number of new graduates with only the bache lor’s degree may find it necessary to enter semiprofessional positions, take training in teaching OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 122 Courtesy oi U.S. Department of the Interior Geologists may do much of their work out of doors methods and related subjects to qualify as science teachers in secondary schools, or seek other work outside the field of geology. However, should the recent decline in the number of graduates receiv ing the bachelor’s degree in geology continue, beginning geologists with this level of education would have improved employment opportunities. Private industry is expected to increase its em ployment of geologists moderately during the next few years. Exploration for oil and most minerals has declined in recent years and these activities are unlikely to expand significantly during the 1960’s. There will, however, be increasing opportunities for geologists to help in solving engineering prob lems; work on programs related to water supplies in many parts of the country; and do research on the development of new devices and processes for geological investigations. In Federal agencies, demand for geologists is also expected to grow moderately, primarily ow ing to expansion in the programs of the U.S. Geological Survey. Employment of geologists in colleges and universities will probably rise slightly; the need will be primarily for those with Ph. D. degrees who are capable of doing high-level research. However, if the recent declining trend in the number of students majoring in geology should be reversed, an increased demand by edu cational institutions would result. Replacement needs are expected to be the chief source of openings during the remainder of the 1960’s. Several hundred new geologists will be needed each year to replace those who are pro moted to managerial positions or who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The longrun employment outlook in the pro fession is more favorable. As the world’s popula tion expands and nations become increasingly industrialized, the demand for petroleum, min erals, and water supplies will increase, and there will be a rising demand for geologists to locate these resources. Geologists with advanced training will be needed to devise new techniques for exploring deeper within the earth’s crust and to search underseas areas; to do more intensive re search and analysis of geological data; and to work with petroleum engineers in developing more efficient methods of finding and recovering crude oil. It is likely that increasing space-age activities will require some geologists to study data concerning the surface conditions of planets. Only a small number of women are professional geologists, primarify because fieldwork positions usually are considered unsuitable for them. Some well-qualified women wfith advanced degrees will be able to find positions as teachers in colleges and universities, or to obtain laboratory or office posi tions in industry and government. Earnings and Working Conditions Annual starting salaries for new geology grad uates with bachelor’s degrees were typically be tween $5,500 and $6,000 in private industry in 1962, according to the limited information availa ble. New graduates with master’s degrees usually started at between $6,500 and $7,000 a year. Start ing salaries for those with doctor’s degrees ranged from $8,000 to $11,000, depending upon individual qualifications. In the Federal Government, new graduates with bachelor’s degrees could begin at either $5,365 or $6,465 a year in early 1963, depending on their college records. Those with master’s degrees could start at $6,465 or $6,675, and those with the Ph. D. degree at $8,045 or $9,475. In general, earnings of geologists are usu ally somewhat higher in industry and in gov ernment than in educational institutions. How ever, teachers often supplement their salaries by research, consulting, or other work done during EARTH SCIENCES 123 vacation periods. Extra allowances are generally paid geologists for work outside the United States. The work of geologists is often active and some times strenuous. Because much of their work is out of doors, geologists may be exposed to all kinds of weather. Many geologists travel a great deal and may do fieldwork away from home for long periods. Their hours of work are often uncertain because their field activities are affected by weather and travel. Where To Go for More Information American Geological Institute, 2101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20418. Geophysicists (D.O.T. 0-35.65) Nature of Work Geophysics is an overall term covering a num ber of sciences concerned with the composition and physical aspects of the earth—its interior and atmosphere, as well as the land and bodies of water on its surface and underground. Geophysi cists make use of the principles and techniques of physics, geology, mathematics, chemistry, and engineering in studying the earth’s physical char acteristics, including magnetism, electrical effects, gravity, radioactivity, seismology, and the earth’s interior heat flow, and solar radiation. They use many instruments, including highly complex pre cision ones such as the seismograph, which meas ures and records the transmission time of vibra tions through the earth; the magnetometer, which measures variations in the earth’s magnetic field and the different ways this field is affected by par ticular kinds of rocks; and the gravimeter, which measures minute variations in gravitational at traction. Exploration geophysicists , sometimes known as prospecting geophysicists, are the largest group of geophysical scientists. Most of these scientists search for oil and mineral deposits, though some are engaged in research, usually aimed at develop ing new or improved techniques and instruments for prospecting. Hydrologists study the occur rence, circulation, distribution, and chemical and physical properties of surface and underground waters in the land areas of the earth. Some hy drologists are concerned with water supplies, irri gation, flood control, and soil erosion. Others specialize in studies of glaciers and sedimentation and in forecasting the flow of rivers. Seismologists study the structure of the earth’s interior and the vibrations of the earth caused by earthquakes or manmade explosions. They may explore for oil Courtesy of U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Geophysicist uses seismology instruments in a cave to study earth vibrations and minerals, provide information for use in de signing bridges and buildings in earthquake re gions, or study the problems involved in detecting underground nuclear explosions. Geodesists meas ure the size and shape of the earth, determine the positions and elevations of points on or near the earth’s surface, and measure the intensity and direction of the force of gravity. They also help track satellites orbiting in outer space. Geomagneticians are concerned with the variations in the earth’s magnetic field, and with many aspects of space science. Teetonophysicists study the struc ture of mountains and ocean basins, the proper ties of the materials forming the earth’s crust, and the physical forces that cause movements and changes in it. Oceanographers and meteorologists, often clas sified as geophysical scientists, are discussed sepa 124 rately, as is the closely related occupation of geolo gist. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ploration work, graduate education in geophysics or in a related physical science is usually required. A doctor’s degree with a major in geophysics or a related science, including advanced courses in geo Where Employed is generally required for teaching careers. The number of geophysicists in the United physics, The Ph. degree is also frequently required for States (excluding oceanographers and meteorol positions D.involving research and for ogists) was estimated to be approximately 6,000 advancement in mostfundamental types of geophysical work. in mid-1962. Private industry employs a ma The bachelor’s degree in geophysics may be ob jority of all geophysicists, chiefly in the petroleum tained in only a very small number of schools. industry. Some are employed by mining compa These undergraduate provide training nies, exploration and consulting firms, and re chiefly in explorationprograms geophysics, the search institutions. A few are in business for curriculums may have titles such asalthough geophysical themselves as consultants and provide services on technology or geophysical engineering. Some stu a fee or contract basis to companies and individ take undergraduate training at colleges of uals engaged in prospecting or other activities dents fering degree programs in engineering geology or utilizing geophysical techniques. petroleum geology. Geophysicists in private industry are employed Master’s and Ph. D. degrees in geophysics also mainly in the southwestern and western sections were by only a few colleges and universi of the United States, where most of the country’s ties ingranted 1962. undergraduate major in geo large oil and natural gas fields and mineral de physics is not An usually required for admission to posits are located. Some geophysicists, employed these schools; a bachelor’s degree with a good by American firms, are assigned to work in for background in geology, mathematics, physics, or eign countries for varying periods of time. engineering, or a combination of these is Geophysicists are also employed by the Federal the usual requirement. In general, thesubjects graduate Government—mainly by the Coast and Geodetic student should attend the school in which he can Survey, the U.S. Geological Survey, the Army advanced courses and carry out research Map Service, and the Naval Oceanographic Of take projects the particular aspect of geophysical fice. Colleges and universities, State governments, science ininwhich he is interested. and nonprofit research institutions also employ Beginning geophysicists with only the bache small numbers of geophysicists. lor’s degree are usually given on-the-job train ing in the application of geophysical principles to Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement their employers’ projects. If a new employee’s A bachelor’s degree with a major in geophysics college work did not include courses in geophys or in one of the geophysical specialities qualifies ics, he is taught geophysical methods and tech young persons for many beginning jobs in geo niques on the job. physics. However, a bachelor’s degree in a related Government agencies also have train science or in engineering, and with courses in ingFederal programs which a few geophysicists are geophysics, physics, geology, mathematics, chem sent each year into universities for graduate train istry, and engineering is also adequate preparation for many beginning jobs, especially in geophysical ing. Some Federal Government agencies provide exploration. For example, in the Federal Govern a few summer jobs for promising undergraduates ment the minimum educational requirement for and make permanent positions available to them beginning positions in geophysical exploration is after graduation. The prospective geophj^sicist should have an ap a bachelor’s degree with at least 30 semester hours in a combination of courses consisting of 12 hours titude and interest in mathematics and the physi in geology, 12 hours in physics, and the remaining cal sciences. He should be energetic and in excel lent health, since geophysicists often have to work 6 hours in geology, physics, or geophysics. For geophysical specialties other than explora outdoors under somewhat rugged conditions. A tion, and for the more desirable positions in ex willingness to travel is also important, since geo EARTH SCIENCES physicists may be required to move from place to place in the course of their employment. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for the few new graduates with degrees in geophysics are ex pected to be favorable throughout the 1960’s. Op portunities will be best for those with the master’s or doctor’s degree. There should also be some op portunities in geophysical work for well-qualified graduates with degrees in other sciences who have some formal training in geophysics. The demand for geophysicists is expected to grow moderately during the decade. Federal Gov ernment agencies will most likely need some addi tional men and women geophysicists for new or expanded geophysical programs. The petroleum and mining industries may also need a few addi tional geophysicists for exploration work. How ever, exploration for oil and mineral deposits, which has declined in the last few years, is not expected to rise significantly in the next few years. In colleges and universities, employment of teach ers of the geophysical sciences will probably in crease because of the anticipated rise in the num ber of students majoring in the geophysical sci ences. Some additional geophysicists will also be needed to replace those who leave the profession, retire, or die. Although the number of job openings for geo physicists is not expected to be large in any one year, the number of new graduates with degrees in the science is also expected to be small. In 1962, only 87 degrees in the geophysical sciences were granted—26 bachelor’s, 44 master’s, and 17 doc tor’s degrees—according to the U.S. Office of Education. As in past years, the number of gradu ates with degrees in geophysics will probably be insufficient to meet employers’ needs, and welltrained persons with degrees in related sciences and in engineering will probably continue to be hired to fill geophysical positions. Over the long run, further growth in the profes sion is expected. There will be increasing use of petroleum and mineral products by a growing population. As natural resources in the more easily accessible locations become depleted, additional exploration geophysicists will be needed by petro leum and mining companies to find sites of fuels 125 and minerals which are more concealed. In addi tion, the growing importance of basic research in the geophysical sciences, as well as the continuing need to develop new geophysical techniques and instruments, will create a demand for personnel with advanced training in hydrology, seismology, geodesy, and other geophysical specialties. In Federal Government agencies, additional geo physicists will probably be needed to study the problems of the Nation’s water supplies; work on flood control; do research in radioactivity and cosmic and solar radiation; and explore the outer atmosphere and space, using such vehicles as sounding rockets and artificial satellites. Opportunities for women have been and will continue to be limited, mainly because of the strenuous nature of much of the work. However, a small number of well-qualified women will be able to find positions in offices and laboratories or as teachers in colleges and universities. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government in early 1963, new graduates with bachelor’s degrees could enter most types of geophysical work at either $5,525 or $6,650 a year, depending on their college records. Those who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree could start at $6,650 or $7,125; those with the Ph. D. degree could start at $8,575 or $9,475. Exploration geophysicists had some what lower starting salaries. Geophysicists sta tioned outside the United States are paid an addi tional amount. The provisions for salary increases, vacations, sick leave, pensions, life and health insurance, and other benefits are the same for geo physicists as for other civil service employees. (See chapter on Occupations in Government.) In private industry in 1962, new graduates with bachelor’s degrees typically received starting sala ries between $5,500 and $6,000 a year, according to limited information available. New graduates with master’s degrees received between $6,500 and $7,000; those with doctor’s degrees between $8,000 and $11,000, depending upon individual qualifica tions. In industry, as in Government, geophysical scientists working outside the United States usu ally receive extra bonuses and allowances. In general, starting salaries in educational in stitutions are lower than in private industry or OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 126 in the Federal Government. However, university teachers may supplement their income by doing consulting, writing, or research work. The work of geophysicists is often active and sometimes strenuous. Because much of their work is done out of doors, they may be exposed to all kinds of weather conditions. Geophysicists fre quently have to be away from home for long periods of time. Their working hours are usually irregular and are frequently determined by travel, weather conditions, and the requirements of field activities. Where To Go for More Information American Geophysical Union, 1515 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20005. Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Box 1536, Tulsa, Okla., 74101. Meteorologists (D.O.T. 0-35.68) Nature of Work Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere. Its aim is understanding of the atmosphere—not only its physical characteristics and movements, but also its effects upon the earth and upon people. Weather forecasting is the best known application of the science and the type of work in which most meteorologists are engaged. However, they may do many other types of meteorological work. Research is the major activity of a growing number of meteorologists. These workers investi gate such subjects as atmospheric electricity, cloud and precipitation mechanisms, hurricane dynam ics, and the best and quickest means of using the vast amount of weather data collected from orbit ing weather satellites. They may also conduct re search on radioactive fallout, severe weather phenomena, weather modification, weather condi tions affecting the behavior of forest fires, and other problems. In both weather forecasting and research, meteorologists make use of electronic computing machines to process large amounts of data. Some meteorologists teach in universities or col leges, where they may also engage in research. In colleges without separate departments of meteorology, they may teach subjects such as geography, mathematics, physics, and geology, as well as meteorology. Meteorologists usually specialize in one branch of the science. Weather forecasters, technically known as synoptic meteorologists, are the largest group of specialists. They interpret current weather information (air pressure, temperature, humidity, wind velocity) reported by observers Courtesy of U.S. Weather Bureau Meteorologist receives weather chart transmitted by a facsimile network in many parts of the world and make short- and long-range forecasts for given regions. Climatolo gists analyze past records on wind, rainfall, sun shine, temperature, and other weather data for a given area to determine the overall, general pat tern of weather which makes up the area’s climate. Dynamic meteorologists investigate the physical laws governing air currents. Physical meteorolo gists study the physical nature of the atmosphere, including its chemical composition and electrical, acoustical, and optical properties, the effect of the atmosphere on the transmission of light, sound, and radio waves, and the factors affecting the for mation of clouds, precipitation, and other weather phenomena. Specialists in applied meteorology, EARTH SCIENCES sometimes called industrial meteorologists, are concerned with the relationship between weather and specific human activities, biological processes, and agricultural and industrial operations. For example, they make special forecasts for individ ual companies, attempt to induce rain or snow in a given area, and wTork on such problems as smoke control and air pollution. 127 Only a small number of women are meteorolo gists. Of these, some work as forecasters for the Weather Bureau; a few are on active duty in the Armed Forces; small numbers are employed by colleges and universities, primarily in research positions; and a very few work for commercial airlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Where Employed More than 3,000 civilian meteorologists were employed in the United States in mid-19fe2. The U.S. Weather Bureau, by far the largest employer of meteorologists, employed approximately 1,900 of these scientists at 300 stations maintained by the Bureau in all parts of the United States, the polar regions, Puerto Kico, Wake Island, and other sites in the Pacific area. A growing number of meteorologists work for other Government agencies, such as the Forest Service of the Depart ment of Agriculture, the Department of the In terior, the Federal Aviation Agency, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Armed Forces also employ civilian meteor ologists, chiefly in research work. Aside from the Federal Government, the largest fields of employment for meteorologists are com mercial airlines, educational institutions, and weather consulting services. In mid-1962, the air lines employed about 300 meteorologists to fore cast the weather along the companies’ flight routes and to brief pilots on weather conditions. Colleges and universities employed another 300, princi pally in teaching and research. Private weather consulting firms, which provide special weather information for a fee, employed more than 150. In addition, some were working for companies that design and manufacture meteorological in struments, as well as for a number of large firms in the aircraft, insurance, utilities, and other in dustries. A few worked for nonprofit organiza tions, presented radio and television weather pro grams, or worked as editors and librarians. In addition to the meteorologists in civilian employment, more than 3,000 members of the Armed Forces were engaged in meteorological work in 1962. Of these, approximately 2,800 were on active duty in the Air Force. Meteorologists in the Armed Forces usually make weather forecasts that are needed to plan military operations. A bachelor’s degree with a major in meteorology is the usual minimum educational requirement for beginning meteorologists in weather forecast ing. However, a bachelor’s degree in a related sci ence or in engineering is acceptable for many positions, provided courses in meteorology are in cluded. For example, the Weather Bureau’s mini mum requirement for beginning positions is a bachelor’s degree with at least 20 semester hours of study in meteorology and with training in physics and mathematics. For research and teaching positions and for many top-level positions in other activities, an advanced degree in meteorology is highly desira ble, although persons with graduate degrees in other sciences may also qualify if they have taken advanced courses in meteorology, physics, mathe matics, and chemistry. The Ph. D. degree is usu ally essential for high-level teaching and research positions. Degrees in meteorology were awarded by about 25 colleges and universities in 1962. However, many other institutions offered courses in meteor°l°gy. Meteorological training is also given by the Armed Forces. For example, each year the U.S. Air Force selects over 250 new college graduates who have received Air Force commissions and sends them to civilian universities for a special 1-year program in meteorology. Graduates of this program are then assigned to meteorological work. The Armed Forces also send a number of military meteorologists to universities or to military train ing centers for advanced training leading to the master’s or doctor’s degree. Ex-servicemen with military training and experience as meteorologists are given preference for civilian positions with the Armed Forces; they can also qualify for positions with other employers of weather personnel. The Weather Bureau has an in-service training program in which scholarships are granted to 128 some of its meteorologists to enable them to take advanced and specialized training. In addition, college students preparing for careers in meteor ology may obtain summer jobs with the Weather Bureau, where they may get permanent positions after they receive their bachelor’s degrees. Promotions in the Weather Bureau, as in other Federal Government agencies, are given accord ing to Civil Service regulations. (See section on Occupations in Government.) With the airlines, the chances for advancement are somewhat limited. However, after considerable w^ork experi ence, some meteorologists in the largest airline companies may advance to the position of flight dispatcher, or to various supervisory or adminis trative positions. A few well-trained meteorolo gists with a background in science, engineering, and business administration may be able to estab lish their own weather consulting services. Among the personal characteristics needed by meteorologists are mathematical aptitude and an interest in the physical sciences. For some jobs, the ability to draw quickly and neatly is impor tant. Since most of the work is done in an office, the physical requirements are not heavy and can be met by any reasonably healthy person. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for meteorologists are expected to be very good throughout the 1960’s and, over the long run, further expansion of the profession is anticipated. The age of supersonic aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft has broadened considerably the scope of meteorology and opened up new fields of mete orological activity. Opportunities will be particu larly good for meteorologists who can perform research on the information obtained by missiles, satellites, and spacecraft, and on methods of proc essing, analyzing, interpreting, and disseminating the information quickly and accurately. Meteor ologists will also be in strong demand for work in developing and improving weather instruments for collecting and processing weather data. In addition, there will be a continuing demand for meteorologists to work on improving short- and long-range forecasts which are indispensable for spacecraft flights and which are becoming in creasingly valuable to government, industry, and individuals. Replacement of meteorologists who OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK retire or otherwise leave the profession will also provide some opportunities. The Weather Bureau anticipates that it will seek both new graduates and experienced men and women throughout the 1960’s to fill vacancies in existing programs such as weather forecasting, severe storm research, storm warnings, flood fore casting, and air pollution research. The Bureau estimates that each year during this decade, it will hire more than 150 meteorologists with bache lor’s or advanced degrees to fill new positions and to replace workers who resign, retire, or die. The Bureau also expects continuing increases in its professional staff over the long run, primarily be cause of intensified research activities and expan sion in civilian aviation which will require new airports and weather stations. An increase is also expected in the number of meteorologists employed by the airlines. As the speed of aircraft and the number of flights in crease, more meteorologists will be needed to as sist in determining the routes and flight levels for the safest and smoothest flights. Employment op portunities for meteorologists with other private companies and research organizations and in weather consulting services are also expected to increase somewhat, as the value of weather in formation receives further recognition. The num ber of teaching positions for meteorologists in col leges and universities should also rise in the years ahead, primarily because of increases in total col lege enrollments. Opportunities for civilian mete orologists in the Armed Forces are not expected to increase significantly during the next decade. However, there will probably be a growing need for military meteorologists throughout the latter 1960’s, mostly to replace those reaching retire ment age. Since meteorology is a relatively small profes sion, job openings will not be numerous in any year. On the other hand, the number of new graduates with degrees in meteorology probably will continue to be small. In 1962, only 179 bachelor’s, 81 master’s, and 13 doctor’s degrees were granted. Furthermore, graduates with ma jors in other fields and with some training in mete orology have not recently entered the profession because of the opportunities in other scientific fields. Military meteorologists who leave the Armed Forces have usually left the profession al EARTH SCIENCES 129 together. Unless there is an unexpected change in these conditions, new graduates should have fa vorable employment opportunities. Earnings and Working Conditions In early 1963, meteorologists with the bachelors degree and no experience could start in the Fed eral Government service at $5,525 or $6,650 a year, depending on their college records. Meteorologists who had completed all requirements for the mas ter’s degree could start at $6,650 or $7,125; those with the Ph. D. degree could begin at $8,575 or $9,475. Workers stationed outside the United States are paid an additional amount. The provi sions for salary increases, vacations, sick leave, pensions, life and health insurance, and other benefits are the same for meteorologists as for other civil service employees. (See section on Oc cupations in Government.) In mid-1962, airline meteorologists were receiv ing a starting salary of approximately $6,000 a year, according to the Air Transport Association. Meteorologists generally receive the same bene fits as other.airline employees. (See chapter on Occupations in Civil Aviation.) Jobs in weather stations, which are operated on a 24-hour, 7-day week basis, often involve nightwork and rotating shifts. Most stations are at air ports or at places in or near cities; some are in isolated and remote areas. Where To Go for More Information American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, Mass., 02108. The U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C., 20235, will provide information on employment opportunities with that agency and on its studenttrainee program. Information on the Air Force meteorological training programs may be obtained from the near est USAF recruiting office or by writing to Com mander, USAF Recruiting Service, WrightPatterson AFB, Ohio, 45899. Oceanographers (D .O .T. 0-35.65) Nature of Work The ocean, which covers more than two-thirds of the earth’s surface, supplies food and minerals, influences the climate, provides a medium of trans portation, and offers means of recreation. Ocean ographers are the scientists who study the ocean in all its aspects—its characteristics, movements, and plants and animals. The results of their stud ies not only extend basic scientific knowledge, but also contribute to the development of practical methods for use in such operations as charting and forecasting currents, ice conditions, and ocean waves; improving fisheries; and providing defense against enemy attack. Oceanographers plan extensive tests and obser vational programs and conduct detailed surveys and experiments to obtain information about the ocean. They collect and study data on such sub jects as the ocean’s chemical and physical composi tion, including its tides, currents, waves, tempera ture, density, and acoustical properties; its bottom contours and composition; ice floes; and sea plants 692-408 0—63------10 and animals. They analyze the samples, specimens, and data collected, often using electronic com puters. To present the results of their studies, they compile special charts, tabulations, reports, and manuals. In developing and carrying out their tests and observational programs, oceanographers make use of the principles and techniques of physics, chem istry, geology, biology, meteorology, mathematics, and related sciences. They use a variety of special instruments and devices such as the magnetometer, which measures the earth’s magnetic field; the echo sounder, which measures distances to the sea bottom by means of sound impulses; the heat flow probe, which penetrates the ocean bottom and measures flow of heat from the earth’s interior; and special thermometers and bathythermographs which measure water temperature at and below the surface. Oceanographers use specially developed cameras with lights and flash attachments to pho tograph marine organisms and the ocean bottom. When their work requires new oceanographic in- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ministration of activities other than research, and in technical writing, consulting, and other activi ties. Most oceanographers spend at least part of their time aboard oceanographic ships at sea; such voy ages may last from 3 weeks to several months. A few oceanographers in survey positions spend nearly all their time aboard ship. On the other hand, a few oceanographers never go to sea, but analyze data collected by other scientists or pur sue mathematical studies ashore. Where Employed Courtesy of U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey G eological dredges are used to collect ocean specimens for examination struments or analytical techniques, they usually devise and test them. Oceanographers are usually specialists in one of the four main branches of the profession. Bio logical oceanographers (marine biologists) study the ocean’s plant and animal life, which ranges from microscopic plankton to giant squid and whales. Physical oceanographers study the physi cal aspects of the ocean, such as its density, tem perature, and ability to transmit light and sound, and the movements of the sea, such as waves, tides, and currents, and the relationship between the sea and the atmosphere. Geological oceanographers (marine geologists) study the ocean bottom—its topographic features, and the rocks and sediments found there. Chemical oceanographers investigate the chemical composition of the ocean waters and bottom, which include at least traces of more than half of the total number of known physical ele ments. Nearly 3 out of every 4 oceanographers are en gaged primarily in performing or administering research and development activities. A small but growing number of oceanographers teach in col leges and universities; a few are engaged in ad Oceanography is one of the smallest of the science fields; the total number of oceanographers and closely related scientists in the United States was estimated to be approximately 2,500 in mid1962. The largest number of oceanographers are employed by colleges and universities and univer sity-operated oceanographic laboratories, where they are usually engaged primarily in research. The Federal Government also employs a sub stantial number of oceanographers, mainly in the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries of the Depart ment of the Interior, the Naval Oceanographic Office of the Department of the Navy, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey of the Department of Commerce. There are also a few positions in ocean ography in other parts of the Department of the Navy, in the Weather Bureau, and other Govern ment agencies. A small but growing number of oceanographers are employed in private industry, mostly by con sulting or other firms which design and develop instruments for oceanographic research. Some oceanographers work for nonprofit laboratories other than those operated by colleges and univer sities. A few work for fishery laboratories of State and local governments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational requirement for be ginning positions in oceanography is the bache lor’s degree with a major in physics, chemistry, biology, or some other science, and preferably with some courses in oceanography. For professional positions in research and teaching, and for ad vancement to high-level positions in most types EARTH SCIENCES of work, graduate training in oceanography or in a related field is usually required. Undergraduate training in oceanography was offered by relatively few colleges and universities in 1962, and only one institution offered the bache lor’s degree with a major in the subject. A prospec tive oceanographer is not unduly handicapped, however, if he is unable to obtain undergraduate training in oceanography, provided that while in college he obtains a broad knowledge and under standing of the related sciences. Such training, when coupled with a sincere interest in oceanog raphy, is usually adequate preparation for many beginning positions in the field, or for entry into graduate school. Important undergraduate courses for the pro spective oceanographer include, in addition to oceanography, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, meteorology, biology, and zoology. In general, the student should specialize in the par ticular science field which is closest to his area of interest in oceanography. For example, those stu dents interested in physical oceanography should major in physics or mathematics, whereas those interested in chemical oceanography should obtain a bachelor’s degree in chemistry. Training leading to advanced degrees in ocean ography is offered by about a dozen colleges and universities, and about 35 institutions offer ad vanced courses in the subject or in related fields, such as marine biology or fisheries. The academic work of the graduate student in oceanography consists primarily of extensive training in ocean ography combined with further training in the marine aspects of his selected area of marine specialization—usually chemistry, geology, biology, or physics. A few of the oceanography courses typically offered in graduate school con cern underwater acoustics, waves, and tides, ma rine vertebrates and invertebrates, marine ecology, marine sediments, ocean circulation, and marine hydrodynamics. Some institutions also require the graduate student to spend part of his time aboard ship—doing oceanographic research, acquiring familiarity with the sea and the techniques used to obtain oceanographic information, and learning the basic elements of navigation and seamanship. Beginning oceanographers with the bachelor’s degree usually start as research or laboratory assistants, or in routine positions involving data 131 collection, analysis, or computation. Most new graduates are given on-the-job training in the application of oceanographic principles to the problems at hand. If a beginner has had no basic courses in oceanography, he is often given these courses as part of his on-the-job training. Beginning oceanographers with advanced de grees can usually qualify for teaching and re search positions. Experienced oceanographers, particularly those with the Ph. D. degree, may advance to administrative positions, in which they may supervise a research laboratory or lead spe cific oceanographic or survey research projects. Among the qualities desirable in the prospective oceanographer are an aptitude and interest in mathematics and the sciences, a disciplined and creative imagination, and a highly inquisitive mind. Since the oceanographer’s work entails dealing with scientists in many other fields, he must be able to work effectively with people and to express himself well. A liking for the sea and for life aboard ship is also important. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for oceanographers are expected to be excellent throughout the 1960’s, particularly for those with advanced degrees. Well-trained persons with bachelor’s degrees in related sciences and with some formal training in oceanography should also have favorable oppor tunities, primarly as research assistants and in routine analytical positions. The outlook is for rapid growth of this small profession, both during the 1960 decade and over the long run. In recent years, the growing realiza tion of the importance of the oceans to the Na tion’s welfare and security has heightened inter est in oceanography and has opened up new fields for specialists in the science. Oceanographers will be needed for research in such areas as underwater acoustics, surface and subsurface ocean currents, and ocean floor topography, all of which are of great importance in improving the Nation’s de fense against submarines and surface vessels and in planning and conducting amphibious military operations. There will also be a demand for oceanographers to supply improved navigational charts, sailing directions, and weather and iceberg forecasts; to study the air-sea interaction in order to improve weather forecasts; to solve problems 132 related to the mining of the sea and sea bottom, to predict or control damage caused by tidal and storm waves, and to prevent beach erosion. Addi tional oceanographers will be needed to make studies of marine plants and animals for use in improving methods for deriving food supplies from the oceans, in developing and managing fisheries, and in classifying marine animals and plants. The demand for oceanographers qualified to teach in colleges and universities is also expected to expand. Increased student interest in oceanog raphy will likely result in a rise in the number of courses in oceanography, and this will create open ings for more teachers of the science. Replacement of oceanographers who retire or otherwise leave the profession will also provide some opportuni ties in Government and private industry, as well as in colleges and universities. Since oceanography is a relatively small pro fession, job openings will not be numerous in any one year. On the other hand, the number of new graduates with degrees in this science is extremely small and is expected to remain so. Thus, oceanography graduates should continue to have excellent opportunities. Opportunities for women have been and prob ably will continue to be limited because much of oceanographic work is carried on at sea, where living quarters for women are usually not avail able. However, some well-qualified women may be able to find employment in shore laboratories and in teaching. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government service in early 1963, most oceanographers with the bachelor’s de OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK gree and no experience could begin at $5,525 or $6,650 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning oceanographers who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree could start at $6,650 or $7,125; those with the Ph. D. degree could begin at $8,575 or $9,475. Oceanographers in biological and geological specialties had somewhat lower starting salaries. The provisions for salary increases, vacations, sick leave, pensions, life and health insurance, and other benefits are the same as for other Civil Service employees. (See chapter on Occupations in Government.) Beginning oceanographers in educational insti tutions have roughly the same salary as other be ginning faculty members. (See College and Uni versity Teachers. Consult index for page number.) In addition to their regular salaries, many experi enced oceanographers in educational institutions obtain income from consulting, lecturing, and writing books and articles. Oceanographers engaged in research requiring seagoing voyages are frequently away from home for weeks or months at a time, sometimes under somewhat cramped living and working conditions. Young people who like the sea, however, may find this aspect of oceanographic work very satisfying. Where To Go for More Information: American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, Sapelo Island Research Foundation, Sapelo Island, Ga., 31327. Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Scientific and Technical Personnel of the Potomac River Naval Command, Washington, D.C., 20415. Interagency Committee on Oceanography, Room 1714, Bldg. T-3, 17th and Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20360. B IO L O G IC A L SCIEN CES The biological sciences are concerned with the world of living things—men and microbes, wild and domestic animals, plants and insects, birds and fish. Some scientists in this field conduct re search to expand our knowledge about living or ganisms ; others teach in colleges and universities. Still others apply biological knowledge to the so lution of practical problems, such as the develop ment of new drugs and vaccines or new strains of plants. Among professional workers in applied fields are foresters, soil scientists, and soil conser vationists, whose work is discussed elsewhere in this Handbook. (See index for page numbers.) Nature of Work Biological scientists, who may also be called life scientists, study the structure of living organisms, their life processes and evolutionary development, and the relation between these organisms and their environment. The number and variety of plants and animals are so vast and the life processes so varied and complex that biologists must, of neces sity, become specialists. Some biologists learn as much as possible about a particular kind of animal or plant. Others, interested in how an animal or human body functions, study such things as the nervous system, how food is digested, or how or ganisms are affected by disease. Some are inter ested in the evolution of living organisms, the mechanism of heredity, or the ways environmental factors, such as major changes in climate or radio activity, affect life processes. In general, biological scientists specialize in one of the three broad areas of the life sciences—biological, medical, or agri cultural science. A substantial number of biological scientists are engaged in research and development. Many con duct basic research, aimed at adding to our knowl edge of living organisms regardless of its immedi ate practical use. Nevertheless, the development of insecticides, disease-resistant crops, and antibiotics have all stemmed from basic research in the bio logical sciences. Courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation Biological scientists study effects of a herbicide on water weeds Biological research may take many forms. A botanist exploring the volcanic Alaskan valleys to see what plants live in this strange environment and a zoologist searching the jungles of the Ama zon valley for previously unknown kinds of ani mals are both doing research, as is an entomologist working in a laboratory testing various chemical insecticides for effectiveness and for possible haz ards to human and animal life. Regardless of the type of research in which they are engaged, biologists must be familiar with fundamental biological research techniques and with the use of microscopes and other laboratory equipment. In the experimental research fields, which include microbiology, physiology, genetics, biochemistry, biophysics, and pharmacology, ad vanced techniques and tools drawn from chemistry or physics are frequently used. Also, because of the enormous number of variable factors involved in biological research, a knowledge of mathemati cal and statistical procedures, as well as of the operation of electronic computers, is often needed. Teaching in colleges and universities is the ma jor function of a sizable number of biological sci133 134 entists. Many college teachers of biological sciences combine independent research with their regular teaching duties, and in some large institutions spend the major portion of their time on research. Some biological scientists are engaged in man agement and administrative work, primarily the planning, supervision, and administration of pro grams of research or testing of foods, drugs, and other products. Others act as liaison between the Federal Government and the agricultural experi ment stations at State universities, and aid in the planning, development, and evaluation of research programs at these stations. Relatively small numbers of biologists are en gaged in a variety of other types of work, such as consulting, writing, testing, and inspection. A few are employed in technical sales or field service work for industrial firms; such work may include, for example, teaching company salesmen and pros pective purchasers the value and proper use of new chemicals. Biological scientists may be classified into three broad groups characterized by the type of organ ism with which they work: Botanists, who study plants; zoologists, who are concerned with ani mals ; and microbiologists, who work with micro organisms. Some biological scientists whose work cuts across more than one of these major group ings, as is frequently the case with college teachers, may simply call themselves biologists. Biological scientists may also be classified ac cording to their specialities—some of which are wholly within one of the three major groupings, and some of which cut across them. For example, some biological scientists are classified according to the specific type of organism studied, as in the case of mycologists, who are botanists concerned with the study of fungi; others are classified ac cording to the sort of approach used in studying organisms, as in the case of geneticists, who may be botanists, zoologists, or microbiologists study ing the mechanisms of the heredity of a particular plant, animal, or micro-organism. A description of the work of some biological scientists follows. Botanists (D.O.T. 0-35.23) study plant life. Some, known as plant taxonomists, specialize in the identification and classification of plants. Others are plant morphologists, primarily con cerned with the structure of plants and plant cells; plant physiologists, whose primary interest OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK is in the life processes of plants; or specialists in still other phases of plant life. Microbiologists (D.O.T. 0-35.33) investigate bacteria, viruses, molds, and other organisms of microscopic or submicroscopic size. They work with test tubes, cultures, microscopes, and a vari ety of other specialized laboratory equipment. The terms bacteriology and microbiology are sometimes used interchangeably, but microbiology, the broader term, is preferable when referring to the study of all microscopic organisms. Some microbiologists study medical problems, such as the relationship between bacteria and infectious disease. Others specialize in soil bacteriology (the study of bacteria, molds, algae, protozoa, and other micro-organisms in soils, and the relation of such organisms to soil fertility), virology (the study of viruses which may cause diseases in ani mals or plants), immunology (study of mecha nisms by which the body fights off infection), or serology (the study of animal and plant fluids, including blood serums). Still others specialize in the study of the fermentations involved in the manufacture of beer, wine, flax, tobacco, and leather, or in the search for new or better antibi otics. Many specialize in the production and test ing of biological products or in the testing of food products and water supplies. Zoologists (D.O.T. 0-35.28) study animal life —its origin, classification, behavior, life processes, diseases, and parasites—and the ways in which animals influence and are influenced by their en vironment. Zoologists who specialize in the study of certain classes of animals usually use titles which indicate the kind of animal studied; thus, ornithologists study birds; herpetologists study reptiles and amphibians; ichthyologists study fishes; and mammalogists, mammals. Agronomists (D.O.T. 0-35.01) are concerned with the growing, breeding, and improving of field crops, such as corn, wheat, tobacco, cotton, and sugar. They develop new, hardier varieties of crops and search for better methods of controlling disease, pests, and weeds. Agronomists may spe cialize in the problems of a geographical region, a particular crop, or a technical area such as crop breeding or production methods. Anatomists (D.O.T. 0-35.36) study the form and structure of organisms and the structure and organization of specialized organs. They may BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES study structures visible to the naked eye or of microscopic size, or those of submicroscopic size, visible only through the use of the electron micro scope. Many anatomists specialize in human anat omy ; others compare animal and plant species. Biochemists (D.O.T. 0-07.02) use chemical methods to study the composition of biological materials and the molecular mechanism of biologi cal processes. They may conduct research on the chemical reactions involved in the functioning of living tissues and organs, or the relationships of nutrients contained in food to plant and animal nutrition, digestion, energy, metabolism, growth, health, and disease. (Biochemistry is often consid ered a branch of chemistry and is also discussed in the statement on Chemists. See index for page number.) Biophysicists (D.O.T. 0-35.49), who are trained in both physics and biology, are concerned with the physical properties and relationships of liv ing cells and organisms, and with the response of living organisms to physical forces—including heat, light, radiation, sound, and electricity. They may use the electron microscope to make tissues visible down to their smallest units, or they may use nuclear reactors to study the effect of high energy radiation on cells and tissues. Embryologists study the development of an organism from the fertilization of the egg until it becomes a complete organism. They study the physiological, biochemical, and genetic mecha nisms which control and direct the processes of de velopment and how this control is accomplished. Entomologists (D.O.T. 0-35.30) study insects and their effect on people, animals and plants. Some entomologists specialize in identifying and classifying the enormous number of different kinds of insects. Many entomologists do research on methods of controlling harmful insects which carry disease and spoil food supplies. Others study ways to utilize beneficial insects such as honey bees. Geneticists (D.O.T. 0-35.35) are concerned with the nature and transmission of hereditary charac teristics. Geneticists engaged primarily in improv ing plant and animal breeds of economic impor tance—such as cereal and tobacco crops or dairy cattle and poultry—may be classified as plant or animal breeders, agronomists, or animal science specialists. Theoretical geneticists search for the 135 fundamental laws of heredity and the mecha nisms which produce heritable traits in plants, animals, or humans. Horticulturists (D.O.T. 0-35.05) are concerned with orchard and garden plants such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants, and nursery stocks. They develop new or improved plant varieties and try to find better methods of growing, harvesting, storing, and transporting horticultural crops. Horticulturists usually spe cialize in either a specific plant or a particular technical problem, such as plant breeding. Husbandry specialists (animal) (D.O.T. 0-35 .13, .14, and .15) carry out investigations and ex periments on the breeding, feeding, management, and diseases of farm livestock and other domestic animals to improve the health and yield of these animals. Nutritionists study the processes through which human beings and animals utilize food; the kinds and quantities of food elements, such as the min erals, vitamins, fats, sugars, and proteins essential to build and repair body tissues and maintain health; and how these food elements are trans formed into body substances. Nutritionists also analyze foods to determine their composition in terms of essential ingredients or nutrients. Pathologists study the causes and processes of disease, degeneration, and abnormal functioning in human or animal organisms. They may special ize in the study of the effects of diseases, parasites and insect pests on organs and tissues; in his tology, which is the microscopic study of animal and plant tissues; or in the structure or anatomy of diseased organs. The term “pathologist’7is nor mally reserved for students of human pathology (medical pathology). Specialists in animal path ology are usually veterinarians. (See statement on Veterinarians.) Those who study plant diseases may be called plant pathologists or phytopathol ogists; their work is discussed later under the latter heading. Pharmacologists (D.O.T. 0-35.34) are con cerned primarily with the effect of drugs on life processes and with the discovery and develop ment of new or improved chemical compounds which will have certain desired effects on orga nisms. They conduct tests on animals to determine the physiological effects of drugs, gases, dusts, poisons, and chemicals on tissues and organs, and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 136 correlate their findings with clinical medical data on the effects of such substances on human beings. Physiologists (D.O.T. 0-35.13) study the func tioning of cells, tissues, and organisms and the effects of environmental factors on life processes. They may specialize in the study of the heart, circulatory system, glands, nerves, or cellular ac tivities, or of the digestive, excretory, reproduc tive, or other systems. The knowledge gained in such studies provides the basis for the work of many other specialists, such as pathologists, pharmacologists, or nutritionists. Courtesy of Argonne National Laboratory Physiologist uses rat in research on cell behavior Phytopathologists (D.O.T. 0-35.26), also called plant pathologists, specialize in the causes and control of plant diseases produced by parasitic organisms, viruses, chemicals, and other agents. Some specialize in the pathology of a specific plant or group of plants, such as forest trees, vegetable crops, ornamental plants, and field crops. Others work only with certain organisms or groups of organisms affecting plants, such as fungi, viruses, or bacteria. Where Employed About 100,000 persons were employed in mid1962 in the biological sciences and in the closely related fields of medical and agricultural sciences. The largest number of these—about half of the total—are employed by colleges and universities. Although higher institutions employ scientists in almost all the biological specialties, they employ particularly large numbers of biochemists, physi ologists, microbiologists, zoologists, and botanists. State agricultural colleges and universities and agricultural experiment stations operated by uni versities in cooperation with Federal and State Governments employ sizable numbers of agrono mists, horticulturists, animal husbandry special ists, entomologists, and other agriculture-related specialists. The Federal Government employed about 25,000 biological scientists in mid-1962. The Depart ment of Agriculture, the principal Government employer of these scientists, employs primarily en tomologists, agronomists, plant pathologists, plant physiologists, and animal husbandry specialists. The Interior Department employs nearly all the fish and wildlife biologists in the Federal Govern ment. The Defense Department—principally the Army—and the National Institutes of Health employ many bacteriologists, physiologists, and pharmacologists, as well as smaller numbers of specialists in other branches of biology. State and local governments also employ sizable numbers of biologists—mostly fish and wildlife specialists, microbiologists, and entomologists—for work in conservation, detection and control of disease, and plant breeding. Some biological scientists—primarily microbi ologists, pharmacologists, and entomologists— work for private industry. Among the major industrial employers are firms manufacturing pharmaceuticals and chemicals, seed processors, dairy companies, and food manufacturers. A small number of biological scientists work for nonprofit organizations—mainly hospitals, clinics, and privately financed research organizations or foundations. A few are self-employed. An estimated 10 percent of biological scientists are women; the largest numbers specialize in microbiology, biochemistry, botany, zoology, and physiology. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young people seeking professional careers in the biological sciences should plan to obtain an advanced degree—preferably a Ph. D.—in their field of interest. The bachelor’s degree with a ma jor in one of the biological sciences is adequate preparation for many beginning jobs, but promo tional opportunities for those without graduate training may be limited to intermediate level positions. The Ph. D. degree is generally required for higher level college teaching positions and for independent research in experimental biology. It is also necessary for an increasing number of other positions involving the administration of research programs. Biologists with master’s degrees can qualify for most entry positions in applied research and for sortie types of positions in college teaching and basic research. New graduates with bachelor’s degrees can qual ify for positions involving inspection and testing, production and operation work, technical sales and service, and administrative duties in connec tion with the enforcement of government regula tions. They may also obtain positions as senior technicians, particularly in the area of medical biology. Those who graduate near the top of their class may have opportunities to do research, al though mostly of a routine nature or under close supervision. Some graduates with bachelor’s de grees take courses in education and choose a career as a high school teacher of biology rather than one as a biological scientist. (See statement on Secondary School Teachers.) Training leading to a bachelor’s degree with a major in biology or in one of the biological or agricultural specialties is offered by most colleges and universities. Courses differ greatly from one college to another and it is important that a stu dent find out which college program best fits his interests and needs. In general, liberal arts col leges and universities emphasize training in the basic biological sciences and in the medical aspects of biological science. State universities and landgrant colleges offer special advantages to those interested in agricultural sciences, because their agricultural experiment stations provide many opportunities for practical training and research work. 137 Prospective biological scientists should obtain the broadest undergraduate training possible in all branches of biology and in related sciences, particularly organic and inorganic chemistry, physics, and mathematics. Courses in statistics and biometrics are becoming increasingly essen tial. Important also are training and practice in laboratory techniques, in the use of laboratory equipment, and in fieldwork. Advanced degrees in the biological sciences are also conferred by a large number of colleges and universities. Requirements for advanced degrees usually include fieldwork and laboratory research, as well as classroom studies, library research, and preparation of a thesis. Qualities needed by young persons planning a career in the biological sciences include consider able interest in and curiosity about living things; an aptitude for biology, chemistry, and mathe matics ; keen powers of observation; logical thought processes; imagination; and patience. The biological scientists must also be able to communi cate his findings simply and clearly, both in writ ing and speaking. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for biological sci entists with graduate degrees are expected to be very good throughout the rest of the 1960’s, and continued growth in the profession is anticipated over the long run. There will be particular need for biological scientists with doctorates in bio physics, biochemistry, microbiology, physiology, pathology, and pharmacology to do research on problems important to medicine, and for scientists with advanced degrees in microbiology, animal and plant science, and entomology for research positions in agriculture. Employment opportuni ties are also likely to be favorable for persons with master’s degrees and for those with bache lor’s degrees who graduate near the top of their class, particularly in the fields of entomology, fish and wild life biology, and microbiology. There will also be many opportunities for new graduates with the bachelor’s degree to work as research assistants or in technician jobs while continuing their graduate education. One of the major factors which will tend to in crease employment of biological scientists is the anticipated growth in research and development 138 activities. Research in the biological and agricul tural sciences, which has increased greatly in re cent years, is likely to continue to grow because of expanding programs conducted or sponsored by the National Institutes of Health, Department of Agriculture, National Science Foundation, and Department of Defense. Moreover, in the years ahead, especially rapid growth is anticipated in such relatively new areas as space biology (study of problems concerned with physical, chemical, and biological stresses of space flight and survival of men in space and on other planets) and radia tion biology (research on the effects of high en ergy radiation on the human body). Medical re search programs sponsored by voluntary health agencies, including those promoting study of heart disease, cancer, and tuberculosis, will also proba bly increase. Industry is expected to increase its spending for research and development. Furthermore, the more stringent health standards established by Congress and the Federal regulatory agencies are also ex pected to result in a need for additional biological scientists to perform industrial research and test ing before new drugs, chemicals, and processing methods may be used in medicine and agriculture. Another factor which will tend to increase employment of biological scientists will be the substantially larger college and university enroll ments expected during the remainder of the 1960’s. The resulting rise in demand for teachers will be to a large extent for Ph. D.’s, but there will also be many openings for qualified people holding master’s degrees. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government, in early 1963, bi ological scientists with the bachelor’s degree could begin at $4,565 or $5,540 a year, depending on their college record. Beginning biological scien tists with the bachelor’s degree and some graduate OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK ‘HANDBOOK study could start at $5,540, $6,675, or $8,045; those with the Ph. D. degree could begin at $8,045 or $9,475. Pharmacologists had somewhat higher starting salaries than other biological scientists. Biological scientists with the Ph. D. degree em ployed as college and university teachers typi cally received starting salaries between $6,000 and $8,000 a year in 1962, according to the limited in formation available. (For further information, see statement on College and University Teachers.) Biologists in educational institutions sometimes supplement their regular salaries with income from consulting work and special research proj ects. In general, biological scientists in private in dustry tend to have higher salaries than those in either colleges and universities or Government employment. For example, the median annual sal ary of biological scientists was about 25 percent greater in private industry than in either educa tional institutions or Federal Government employ ment, according to the National Science Founda tion’s 1962 Register. Biologists can usually look forward to an in crease in salary as they gain experience. According to the 1962 Register, the average (median) salary of biologists with 20 years or more of experience was $12,000 a year, roughly double the average yearly salary of biologists with only 1 year of experience. Where To Go for More Information American Institute of Biological Sciences, 2000 P St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20036. Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 9650 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20014. Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. Employment Officer, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md., 20014. M A T H E M A T IC S A N D R ELA TED FIELD S Mathematics is both a profession and a tool essential for many kinds of work. Although mathematics has always been of fundamental importance in science and engineering, it is only since electronic computers have become widely available that its potentialities as a field of employ ment have been as fully realized as they are today. Electronic computing equipment has opened up broad new horizons for the application of mathe matics—not only in the natural sciences and en gineering, but also in connection with medicine, social science research, and the solution of man agement and administration problems. As a re sult, employment opportunities for mathemati cally trained persons have expanded remarkably in the past 15 years. This chapter includes descriptions of the occu pation of mathematician and two closely related occupations—statistician and actuary. For en trance into any of these fields, college training in mathematics is required. For many types of work, graduate education is necessary. In addition to the professions covered in this chapter, workers in many others use mathematics extensively in performing their jobs. These include engineers, chemists, physicists, astronomers, geo physicists, and oceanographers, whose work is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Secondary school teachers of mathematics are not covered in this chapter but are included in the statement on Secondary School Teachers. Mathematicians (D.O.T. 0-35.76) Nature of Work Mathematics is one of the oldest and most basic fields of science. It is also one of the most dynamic and rapidly growing professions. Mathe maticians today are engaged in a wide range of activities, including research on the behavior of the atom, calculating orbits of earth satellites, and translating business and scientific problems into mathematical terms for solutions by electronic computers. Mathematical work may be divided into two broad classes: pure or theoretical mathematics; and applied mathematics, which includes mathe matical computation. Theoretical mathematicians are concerned with the development of mathemati cal principles and the discovery of relationships among mathematical forms. They seek to increase basic mathematical knowledge without necessarily considering its use. Yet, this pure and abstract mathematical knowledge has been instrumental in many scientific and engineering achievements. For example, a seemingly impractical non-Euclid ean geometry invented by Bernhard Riemann in 1854 became an integral part of the theory of relativity developed by Albert Einstein more than a half century later. Mathematicians engaged in applied work de velop techniques and approaches to solve practical problems in the physical, biological, and social sciences. They analyze the various parts of a problem and describe the existing relationships in mathematical terms. Applied mathematicians work on problems ranging from analysis of vibra tions and stability of rockets in outer space to studies of the effects of new drugs on disease. Applied and pure mathematics are not always sharply separated in practice; many important developments in theoretical mathematics have arisen directly from practical problems. For ex ample, Isaac Newton developed differential calcu lus to describe and analyze the velocity and accel eration of moving objects—something which could not be done satisfactorily by earlier systems of mathematics. 139 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 140 three-fourths of the mathematicians employed in private industry in 1962. Colleges and universities employ about twofifths of all mathematicians; many of these work full time on research projects in the university laboratories. A substantial number are employed by Government agencies, chiefly the Department of Defense, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Bureau of Standards of the Department of Commerce. A few work for nonprofit organizations. Courtesy of National Bureau of Standards Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in mathe matics is the minimum educational requirement An important part of the work in applied for entrance into this field. Graduate training is mathematics involves using mathematical knowl required for many mathematical positions, partic edge and modern computing equipment (ranging ularly in research and teaching, and for advance from desk calculators to complex electronic com ment in many areas of mathematical work. puters) to obtain numerical answers to specific Advanced degrees are required for an ever-inproblems. Some work in this area, such as devel creasing number of jobs in industry and Govern oping advanced techniques for solving complex ment—in research and many other areas of ap engineering problems, requires a very high level of plied mathematics. The Ph. D. degree is necessary mathematical knowledge and skill. However, for most high-level college and university teach much of this work, such as that of programers for ing positions and for the more advanced research digital computers, does not require the advanced work, such as formulating mathematical theories training and inventiveness of the mathematician. to describe an engineering or scientific situation. (See index for page number of statement on Pro The bachelor’s degree is adequate preparation gramers. For other occupations related to the for many private industry and Federal Govern mathematics profession, see statements on Statisti ment positions, particularly those connected with cians and Actuaries in this chapter.) computer work. Some new graduates with The largest number of mathematicians are en bachelor’s degree assist senior mathematicians the by gaged in research to increase the knowledge of working out computations and solving minor basic mathematics or to solve practical problems. mathematical problems in applied research. Many teach in colleges and universities, where Others work as graduate teaching or research as they often combine teaching and research. Others sistants in colleges and universities while working are engaged in the management and administra toward advanced degrees. tion of scientific activities, and a few do consult For teaching and other work in applied mathe ing work. matics, training in the field to which the mathe matics will be applied is important. For many applied mathematicians, the fields of application Where Employed are physics and engineering; other fields include Approximately 38,000 mathematicians were em business industrial management, economics, ployed in the United States in mid-1962; about 10 statistics, and chemistry, biology. Some college percent were women. Nearly one half of all mathe graduates with majorsand in these fields and a good maticians are employed by private industry, pri background in mathematics can qualify as applied marily in the aircraft, missiles, spacecraft, and mathematicians. the electrical equipment industries. These, together The recent development of high-speed electronic with the machinery, fabricated metal products, computers has brought a growing need for mathe and chemical industries, accounted for more than maticians who are qualified to work with these Mathematicians work differential equations for reactor research MATHEMATICS AND BELATED FIELDS machines. Training in numerical analysis and pro graming is especially desirable for this work. A small but growing number of colleges and univer sities are offering such training. Some personal qualifications needed by mathe maticians are: A keen logical mind, imagination, intellectual curiosity, and the desire and ability to analyze and solve new and difficult problems. Mathematicians must also be able to express mathematical ideas clearly and concisely for scientists, engineers, and others who use mathe matics but are not mathematicians. Employment Outlook The outlook is for continued rapid growth in employment of mathematicians throughout the 1960’s and over the long run. As in the early 1960’s, there will be a particular demand for mathematicians with Ph. D. degrees—for re search, teaching, and many applied mathematics positions. Women mathematicians who are quali fied for research and teaching should have good employment opportunities. A major factor which should continue to make mathematics one of the most rapidly growing sci entific fields is the growth in research and develop ment, in which two-fifths of all mathematicians are engaged. Since 1953-54, total expenditures for research and development have nearly tripled, to more than $15 billion in 1961-62, and they are expected to continue to rise rapidly during the 1960’s. Much of the expected increase will take place in industries which employ large numbers of mathematicians, particularly the electrical equipment and aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft 'industries. The demand for mathematicians in research and development is closely associated with the use of high-speed electronic computers. These computers have made it possible to solve a wide variety of complex problems in the physical, biological, and social sciences, and also have opened broad new fields for mathematics in business management. Using these computers, mathematicians can pro vide information to business managers and offi cials to help them solve problems in such areas as production programing, operations research, prod uct distribution, sales promotion, advertising, and inventory control. 141 The demand generated by these computers is not only for mathematicians but also for people who can apply mathematics to specific problems. Part of this demand will be satisfied by including more advanced mathematical training in the edu cation of engineers, physicists, biologists, and spe cialists in other fields. However, there will be a growing need for applied mathematicians who have a high degree of mathematical competence and a broad knowledge of the field of application. The demand for people to do mathematical com putation work will also expand. Employment of mathematicians as college and university teachers should also rise substantially during the late 1960’s when enrollments are ex pected to grow rapidly. Not only will the number of students majoring in mathematics increase, but the number of mathematics courses taken by those majoring in other fields will also rise. The great est demand in college teaching will be for mathe maticians with Ph. D. degrees. Colleges and universities will continue to provide most of the employment opportunities for specialists in theo retical mathematics. Along with the anticipated rise in demand for mathematicians, a significant increase is expected in the number of graduates with degrees in mathe matics, particularly at the bachelor’s level. If graduates in this field continue to increase as rapidly as they have in recent years, the number seeking employment in the profession will rise sharply during the late 1960’s; by 1970, it may be nearly three times the number at the beginning of the 1960 decade. Thus, new graduates with only the bachelor’s degree may face increasing competi tion for entry positions in mathematics in the late 1960’s. Nevertheless, graduates with advanced de grees and those with bachelor’s degrees who rank high in their class should continue to have excel lent employment opportunities in the profession. The training required of mathematics graduates also serves as an excellent foundation for employ ment in many occupations, including high school teaching and certain engineering, economics, and statistics jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Annual starting salaries in private industry for mathematicians with bachelor’s degrees were about $6,000 in 1962, according to the limited in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 142 formation available. New graduates with the mas ter’s degree received starting salaries about $500 to $1,000 a year higher. Yearly salaries for new graduates with Ph. D. degrees, most of whom usually have some experience, ranged from about $9,000 to $16,000 in 1962. In the Federal Government service in early 1963, mathematicians with the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at either $5,525 or $6,650 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning mathematicians who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree could start at $6,650 or $7,125; those with the Ph. D. degree could begin at $8,575 or $9,475. The provisions for salary increases, vacations, sick leave, pensions, life and health insurance, and other benefits are the same for mathematicians as for other civil service employees. (See section on Occupations in Government.) In colleges and universities, starting salaries for mathematicians with the Ph. D. degree who were employed as teachers in 1962 ranged from about $4,500 to $9,000 for 9 months of teaching. (See index for page number of statement on Col lege and University Teachers.) Mathematicians in educational institutions can sometimes supple ment their regular salaries with income from spe cial research projects, consulting work, and writ ing for publications. Most mathematicians can look forward to an increase in earnings as they gain experience. Ac cording to the National Science Foundation’s 1962 National Kegister of Scientific and Techni cal Personnel, the average (median) salary of mathematicians with 20 or more years’ experience was $13,000 a year, nearly twice that of mathema ticians with 1 year’s experience. Where To Go for More Information American Mathematical Society, 190 Hope St., Providence, R.I., 02906. Mathematical Association of America, University of Buffalo, Buffalo, N.Y., 14214. Statisticians (D.O.T. 0-36.51) Nature of Work The studies planned and conducted by statis ticians help natural and social scientists extend their knowledge and provide government and business officials with the statistical information needed in making major decisions. Statisticians use scientific methods to collect, analyze, and inter pret numerical data. Their prime objective is to obtain sufficient information on the subject being studied with a minimum expenditure of time and money. Statisticians specialize either in the application of statistical methods to a subject-matter field or in mathematical statistics. Applied statisticians use statistical methods to collect and anaylze data in a particular subject-matter field, such as eco nomics, agriculture, psychology, public health, demography, physics, or engineering. They may forecast population growth or economic condi tions, estimate crop yield, predict and evaluate the results of a new marketing program, or help engineers and scientists determine the best design for a jet airplane. Mathematical statisticians use mathematical techniques to design and improve statistical methods for obtaining and interpreting numerical information. They are primarily theoreticians, concerned with developing new statistical tools in areas such as probability theory, experimental de sign, and regression analysis. Unlike applied stat isticians, they usually do not specialize in a sub ject-matter field. However, they frequently work with applied statisticians in making statistical studies. Most statisticians are engaged in planning sur veys, designing experiments, or analyzing data. Those who plan surveys choose the source from which the data are to be collected, determine the type and size of the sample to be studied, and draw up the questionnaire or reporting form. They may also prepare instructions for the workers who will collect the data and for the statistical clerks who will code and tabulate the returns. Statisti cians who design experiments prepare mathemati cal models which can be tested to confirm or con tradict a particular theory. Those who are engaged MATHEMATICS AND RELATED FIELDS in analytical work interpret data already col lected and summarize their findings in tables, charts, and written reports. Some statisticians per form administrative functions in connection with statistical research programs. Others teach in col leges and universities—often combining research with teaching activities. 143 fare ; and Labor. Colleges and universities employ some applied statisticians and are a major source of employment for mathematical statisticians. Some statisticians are employed by State and lo cal governments, and nonprofit organizations. Others work for consulting firms or as independ ent statistical consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Courtesy of U.S. Department of the Navy Statisticians use complex data-recording systems in conducting studies Because statistics is a tool used in many differ ent fields, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish people who are primarily statisticians from those who are chiefly subject-matter specialists with only a limited knowledge of statistics. For exam ple, an applied statistician who works with data on economic conditions may have the title of economist instead of statistician, or a mathemati cal statistician engaged in applying probability theory to the development of new statistical methods may be classified as a mathematician. Where Employed Approximately 21,000 professional workers were employed as statisticians in 1962; nearly one third were women. The largest number of statisti cians are employed by private industry, mostly in market research, quality control, production and sales forecasting, and administration of sta tistical programs. Federal Government agencies also employ a sizable number of statisticians, pri marily in the Departments of Defense; Com merce; Agriculture; Health, Education, and Wel A bachelor’s degree with a major in statistics or mathematics is the minimum educational re quirement for many beginning positions in applied and mathematical statistics. For some beginning positions in applied statistics, however, a bache lor’s degree, with a major in economics or some other applied field and a minor in statistics, is acceptable preparation. A master’s degree in sta tistics or mathematics is required for many en trance positions in mathematical statistics and teaching, and is almost indispensable for promo tion to high-level positions in mathematical sta tistics. The Ph. D. degree is essential for ad vancement to top-level teaching positions and is an asset in obtaining high-ranking administrative positions and consulting work. Furthermore, for advancement in analytical and survey work, there is a trend toward requiring advanced academic training in the subject-matter field as well as in statistics. Relatively few colleges and universities offer training leading to a bachelor’s degree with a ma jor in statistics. However, most schools offer either a degree in mathematics or a sufficient num ber of courses in statistics to qualify graduates for beginning positions in statistics. Courses es sential for prospective statisticians include'college algebra, plane trigonometry, analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus, linear algebra, and at least one course in statistical methods. Other courses of importance to prospective stat isticians include sampling, correlation analysis, design of experiments, probability theory, and courses bearing on the use of computers. For many quality control positions, training in en gineering and in the application of statistical methods to manufacturing processes are desirable. For many market research, business analysis, and forecasting positions, courses in business adminis tration or a related field are helpful. 144 Graduate instruction in statistics was offered by approximately 25 colleges and universities in 1962. A bachelor’s degree with a good background in mathematics is the usual requirement for ad mission to these schools. In general, the student interested in applied work should attend a school in wdiich he can take advanced courses in statistics and carry out research projects in the subjectmatter field in which he is interested. Inexperienced statisticians with only the bache lor’s degree often spend much of their time in clerical work or its supervision on their first jobs. As they gain experience, statisticians usually move up to positions of greater technical and often supervisory responsibility. Those with exceptional ability and interest may advance to high-level supervisory or administrative positions. Among the personal qualifications needed by statisticians are a logical and inquiring mind, an interest and facility in mathematics, and the ability to translate practical problems into sta tistical terms. They should be able to express themselves clearly and concisely in order to work with scientists, business officials, and others who must use statistics but are not statisticians. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, Additional personnel will be needed not only in research and development work, but also for ex panded programs in such fields as social security, health, and education. Some statisticians will also be needed to fill positions in continuing programs which involve the collection and analysis of social and economic data of many kinds. Employment of st atisticians as college and uni versity teachers is also expected to rise through the 1960’s, primarily as a result of the overall increase in enrollments. Furthermore, it is antici pated that many colleges will offer additional courses in statistics, as the importance of statisti cal training in government, business, academic, and industrial research becomes even more widely recognized. In addition to the number needed to fill new positions, several hundred statisticians will be re quired each year to replace members of the pro fession who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Well qualified women statisticians should have favorable opportunities in all phases of statistical work. Opportunities for advancement for women statisticians will probably be best in teaching and in research positions in the social sciences. Employment Outlook The outlook is for substantial growth in employ ment of statisticians, both in the next few years and over the long run. Growing emphasis on modern statistical methods in conducting research and increasing use of electronic computers are major factors in the growing demand for statisti cians in private industry, government, and colleges and universities. The largest expansion in employment is ex pected to occur in private industry. Persons who have broad training in mathematics and statis tics, as well as a knowledge of engineering or the physical sciences, will be needed for quality con trol work in manufacturing and for work with scientists and engineers in research and develop ment activities, including space research. Business firms are also expected to rely more and more on statisticians in forecasting sales, analyzing busi ness conditions, modernizing their accounting pro cedures, and solving other management problems. Employment of statisticians in Federal Govern ment agencies will probably increase moderately. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for new college graduates em ployed as applied statisticians in private industry generally averaged between $5,000 and $5,500 a year in 1962, according to the limited information available. Starting salaries for mathematical stat isticians with the bachelor’s degree were usually somewhat higher. Salaries for beginning statisti cians with the master’s degree averaged between $600 and $1,200 a year more than those with only the bachelor’s degree. In the Federal Government service in early 1963, analytical and survey statisticians with the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at either $4,565 or $5,540 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning analytical and survey statisticians who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree could start at $5,540 or $6,675. Those with the Ph. D. degree could begin at $8,045 or $9,475. In the Federal Government, mathematical statisticians had somewhat higher starting salaries than analytical and survey statisticians. MATHEMATICS AND RELATED FIELDS 145 Statisticians employed by colleges and univer sities generally earn somewhat less than those em ployed by private industry and the Federal Government. Some indication of the salary levels of statisticians employed as teachers may be ob tained from the earnings data for college and university teachers as a group. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) In addition to their regular salaries, statisticians in educational institutions sometimes obtain income from outside research projects, consulting work, and writing for publications. Where To Go for More Information American Statistical Association, 810 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20006. Actuaries (D.O.T. 0-36.55) Nature of Work surance program, such as social security (old-age, survivors, and disability insurance) or life insur ance for veterans and members of the Armed Forces. Actuaries in State government positions are involved in the supervision and regulation of insurance companies and State retirement or pension systems, and may work on problems connected with unemployment insurance or work men’s compensation. Consulting actuaries per form services, on a fee basis, for private com panies, unions, and government agencies. They often set up employee pension and welfare plans and periodically make actuarial valuations of them. Actuaries are mathematically trained workers who are responsible for developing and keeping insurance and pension plans on a sound financial basis. Using mathematical methods and tech niques, they evaluate the probability of loss on whatever is to be insured. They develop and ana lyze statistical tables on mortality (death) and morbidity (sickness) rates. Actuaries are also con cerned with the frequency of injuries and with personal and property losses from fire, burglary, explosion, and other hazards, and with the result ing costs. Taking into consideration the estimates of payments to policyholders as well as estimates of their company’s future expenses and invest ment income, actuaries determine the premium Where Employed rates for each particular type of insurance policy. Approximately 2,000 actuaries were employed They may also analyze company earnings and in the United States in 1962. About four-fifths of prepare policy contract provisions. all actuaries work in the life insurance field and To perform their duties effectively, actuaries one-fifth in property and casualty insurance must keep abreast of general business trends and (which includes workmen’s compensation, automo legislative, health, social, and other developments bile, accident and health, and fire insurance). that may affect the soundness of insurance prac A large majority of all actuaries are employed tices. Because of their broad knowledge of the in by private insurance companies. The size of an surance field, actuaries frequently work on prob insurance company’s actuarial staff depends upon lems arising in several different departments of the volume and nature of its insurance work. their companies, such as the investment, under Large companies may employ as many as 50 to 100 writing, group insurance, and pension sales and whereas small companies may have only service departments. Those in executive positions actuaries, 1 or 2 actuaries on their staffs or may rely entirely may help to determine general company policy on consulting firms or rating bureaus (associations and may testify before public agencies on pro which supply actuarial data to member com posed legislation which would affect the insurance business or on the justification for intended panies) . Several hundred actuaries are employed by con changes in company premium rates or contract sulting firms or are in business for themselves. provisions. Actuaries employed by the Federal Government The Federal Government employs about 60 per usually deal with a particular Government in sons in actuarial positions, primarily in the De692-408 0 — 63------11 146 partment of Health, Education, and Welfare and the Veterans Administration. Some actuaries are employed by State government agencies, property and casualty insurance rating bureaus, and educa tional institutions. A few are employed by private firms other than insurance companies to admin ister private pension and welfare plans. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in mathemat ics is usually required for entry into actuarial work. Some new graduates with a major in such fields as economics or business administration and a minor in mathematics can qualify for be ginning actuarial positions. Although only a few colleges and universities offer training specifically designed for young people seeking actuarial ca reers, many institutions offer the necessary mathemathics courses, which include algebra, analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus, mathematical statistics, probability, and finite dif ferences. Other desirable courses include insurance law, economics, investments, accounting and other aspects of business administration, and English composition and speech. To gain full professional status, actuaries must pass a series of examinations, which cover general mathematics, specialized actuarial mathematics, and all phases of the insurance business. The be ginning examinations cover general mathematics, and it is desirable for the student to take these examinations while still in college. Success in passing these examinations helps the student de termine whether he has the ability to become an actuary, and those who pass have better oppor tunities for employment and a higher starting sal ary. The more advanced examinations, usually taken by those in junior actuarial positions, re quire extensive home study and experience in in surance work. It usually takes from 5 to 10 years after entering for a beginning actuary to com plete an entire series. The actuarial examinations for the life insur ance field are given'by the Society of Actuaries, and those in property and casualty insurance by the Casualty Actuarial Society. Associate mem bership is awarded after completion of part of the examination series. The designation of “Fellow” is conferred after successful completion of either OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, all 10 examinations given by the Society of Actu aries or the 8 examinations of the Casualty Actuarial Society. Besides mathematical ability, applicants for be ginning actuarial positions are likely to be evalu ated also on personal characteristics, such as abil ity to deal with people, leadership qualities, and interest in business problems. Preference is us ually given to applicants who have passed at least tvro of the actuarial examinations, and to those vTith some actuarial experience. This experience is provided in many insurance companies which hire and train college undergraduates during the summer months. A beginning actuary is usually rotated among different jobs in the actuarial department to learn the various actuarial operations and become ac quainted vTith different phases of insurance work. At first, the trainee may make calculations or tabulations for actuarial tables or for the annual statement. Later, he may supervise actuarial clerks and be concerned with correspondence and reports. Advancement to more responsible work as an assistant and later as associate or chief actuary depends largely upon on-the-job performance and the number of actuarial examinations success fully completed. Some actuaries, because of their broad knowledge of the insurance and related fields, qualify for administrative positions in other company activities, particularly in the underwrit ing, accounting, or investment departments. A sig nificant number of actuaries advance to top executive positions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for actuaries are ex pected to be very good throughout the 1960’s and over the long run. New graduates with the neces sary mathematical education who have passed some examinations of either professional society will be in particular demand. Employment of actuaries is expected to in crease in both the life and casualty insurance fields, primarily because of anticipated growth in the number and type of insurance policies and employee-benefit plans. (See chapter on Insurance Occupations.) More actuaries will be needed to solve the increasing number of problems arising from continuously changing and increasingly com MATHEMATICS AND RELATED FIELDS 147 plex insurance and pension coverage. The rapidly growing number of group life insurance plans and health and pension plans will require additional actuarial service. In the property and casualty in surance field, additional actuaries will be needed to make studies which are used in determining policy rate changes, and to justify these changes before State regulatory agencies. There will be continuing strong demand for actuaries capable of working with the electronic computers in wide spread use by large insurance companies. Besides actuaries needed to fill new positions, a few will have to be trained to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Employment opportunities will probably con tinue to be good for the few women who seek actuarial work. Advancement opportunities will also be good for women actuaries who complete the years of continuous training and study required to pass the actuarial examinations to gain full professional status. cording to the limited information available. Those who had passed some of the preliminary actuarial examinations or who had gained some experience in the summer programs offered by insurance companies usually received considera bly higher starting salaries. In the Federal Government service in early 1963, new graduates with the bachelor’s degree entering actuarial work could start at either $5,525 or $6,650 a year, depending on their college rec ords. (See chapter on Occupations in Govern ment.) Beginning actuaries can look forward to a marked increase in earnings as they pass the ex aminations of either Society and gain professional experience. Most Fellows of either the Society of Actuaries or the Casualty Actuarial Society earn over $12,000 a year. Many actuaries earn more than $18,000 a year and some in executive posi tions in large insurance companies earn over $25,000. Earnings and Working Conditions Where To Go for More Information Annual starting salaries of new college gradu ates entering actuarial work in insurance com panies were generally about $5,500 in 1962, ac Society of Actuaries, 208 South LaSalle St., Chicago, 111., 60604. Casualty Actuarial Society, 200 East 42d St., New York, N.Y., 10017. T EC H N IC IA N O C C U P A T IO N S Technicians make up one of the fastest grow ing occupational groups in the United States. In recent years, the needs of the Nation’s defense and space programs, added to those of an expanding and increasingly technical econ omy, have greatly intensified the demand not only for engineers and scientists but also for the technical workers who assist them. This chapter is concerned with these technicians who work with engineers and scientists, and with draftsmen and surveyors, also usually considered technicians. Information on technical occupations in the health field—including medical technologists, dental lab oratory technicians, medical X-ray technicians, and dental hygienists—is presented elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index for page numbers.) Engineering and Science Technicians (D.O.T. 0-50.20 through .99) Nature of Work The term “technician” has no generally ac cepted definition. It has been used by different employers to refer to workers in a great variety of jobs, with many different job titles and requir ing a wide range of education and training. In some cases, it has been applied to employees doing relatively routine work; in others, to persons per forming work requiring skills within a limited sphere; and again to persons wTho do complex w^ork of a highly technical nature as assistants to engineers and scientists. The workers’ job titles may be descriptive of their technical level (for example, engineering technician, biological aid, or junior engineer) or they may relate to the nature of the work (for example, ceramic analyst, pro duction analyst, tool designer, or time-study analyst). Some employers use the word “techni cian,” preceded by adjectives such as mechanical, electrical, electronics, or chemical, descriptive of areas of technology in wThich personnel are em ployed. As used here, the term “technician” refers to technical workers whose jobs require knowl edge and use of scientific and mathematical theory and specialized education or training in some aspect of technology or science, and who, as a rule, work directly with scientists and engineers. In general, the jobs are technical but more limited 148 than those of the engineer or scientist, and have a greater practical orientation. Many of these technician jobs require the ability to analyze and solve engineering and science problems and pre pare formal reports on experiments, tests, or other projects. Some require considerable aptitude in mathematics; others, the ability to visualize ob jects and to make sketches and drawings. Design jobs often require creative ability. Many techni cian jobs require some familiarity with one or more of the skilled trades, although not the ability to perform as a craftsman. Still others demand extensive knowledge of industrial machinery, tools, equipment, and processes. Some jobs held by these technicians are supervisory and require both technical knowledge and the ability to supervise people. Nearly all technician jobs, however, re quire the ability to communicate clearly, both orally and in writing. In carrying out their assignments, engineering and science technicians frequently use complex electronic and mechanical instruments, experi mental laboratory apparatus, and drafting instru ments. Almost all of the technicians w7hose jobs are described in this statement must be able to use engineering handbooks and computing devices such as the slide rule or calculating machine. Technicians wrork in virtually every aspect of engineering and scientific work. One of their larg est areas of employment is research, development, TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS and design work, in which they generally serve as direct supporting personnel to engineers or scien tists. In the laboratory, they conduct experiments or tests; set up, calibrate, and operate instru ments; and make calculations. They assist scien tists and engineers in developing experimental equipment and models by making drawings and sketches and, under the engineer’s direction, fre quently handle certain aspects of the design work. Technicians also work in jobs related to pro duction, usually following a course laid out by the engineer or scientists, but often without close supervision. They may aid in the various phases of production planning, such as working out specifications for materials and methods of manu facture. Sometimes technicians devise tests to in sure quality control of products, or make time and motion studies designed to improve produc tion flow and the efficiency of particular work operations. They may also perform liaison work between engineering and production or other departments. Technicians often do work that might other wise have to be done by engineers. They may ad vise on installation and maintenance problems, serve as technical sales or field representatives of manufacturers, or work as technical writers of specifications and manuals. (See statement on Technical Writers.) The following sections describe a number of areas of technology in which engineering and science technicians are trained and employed. Aeronautical Technology. Technicians special izing in this area of technology work with engi neers and scientists in many phases of the design and production of aircraft, helicopters, rockets, guided missiles and spacecraft, and of propulsion systems, controls, and aircraft structures. Many of these technicians aid engineers in preparing lay outs of aircraft and missile structures or equip ment installations by collecting information, mak ing calculations, and performing many other tasks. They work on projects involving stress analysis, aerodynamics, structural design, flight test evaluation, weight control, or propulsion problems. For example, under the direction of an engineer, a technician might estimate weight fac tors, centers of gravity, and other items affecting load capacity of an airplane or missile. Other technicians working on engineering projects pre 149 Courtesy of U.S. Department of the Navy Technician tests new heat-resistant coating for metals pare or check drawings for technical accuracy, practicability, and economy. Technicians sometimes help estimate the cost of the materials and labor needed to manufacture aircraft and missiles. They may also be responsi ble for liaison between the engineers who do the planning and development work and the workers who convert the engineers’ ideas into finished products. As an airplane or missile is built, the liaison technician checks it for conformance with specifications, keeps the engineer informed as to progress, and investigates any production engi neering problems that arise. He sometimes rec ommends minor changes in the design, the ma terials used, or the method of fabrication, which would expedite production of parts or assemblies. Other aeronautical technicians are employed as manufacturers’ field service representatives, serv ing as the link between their employers and the military services, commercial airlines, and other customers. Technicians with a flair for writing and illustrative drafting often prepare instruc tion manuals, bulletins, catalogs, and other tech nical materials. (See statements on Aeronautical Engineers and Airplane Mechanics, and chapter 150 on Occupations in Aircraft, Missile, and Space craft Manufacturing.) Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Technology. Technicians in this field often become specialists in one area of work, such as refrigera tion, and sometimes in a particular type of ac tivity, such as research and development, or design of layouts for heating, cooling, or refrigeration systems. In the manufacture of air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration equipment, technicians work in research and engineering departments, usually as aids to engineers and scientists. They may be as signed such jobs as devising methods for testing equipment or analyzing production methods. Technically trained personnel also assist in de signing the air-conditioning, heating, or refrigera tion systems for a particular office, store, or other location, and in preparing instructions for their installation. In designing the layout for an airconditioning or heating system, they must deter mine the cooling or heating requirements, decide what kind of equipment would be best suited for the job, and estimate costs. Technical sales work for equipment manufacturers is still another area of employment for technicians. In such work, they must be able to supply contractors who design and install systems with information on such technical subjects as installation, maintenance, operating costs, and expected performance of equipment. (See also statement on Refrigeration and AirConditioning Mechanics.) Chemical Technology. Technicians specializing in this area work mainly with chemists and chemi cal engineers in the development, production, sale, and utilization of chemical and related products and equipment. They apply their knowledge of the physical sciences and of apparatus and equipment to laboratory research or such work as the control of complicated chemical processes. The field of chemistry is so broad that chemical technicians often become specialists in the problems of a par ticular industry, such as food processing, or in a particular activity, such as quality control. Most chemical technicians work in research and development, testing, or other laboratory work, assisting chemists, other scientists, or engineers. Those helping to conduct experiments may make the computations and tabulate and analyze the results. In testing work, technicians make chemi OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK cal tests of materials to determine wdiether the materials meet specifications or whether particu lar substances are present and, if so, in what quan tities. They may, for example, analyze steel for carbon, phosphorous, and sulfur content, or water for the amount of silica, iron, and calcium present. They also perform experiments to determine the characteristics of substances such as the specific gravity and ash content of oil. Technicians em ployed in research or testing laboratories often as semble and use such apparatus and instruments as dilatometers (which measure the dilation of ex pansion of a substance), analytical balances, and centrifuges. Outside the laboratory, chemical technicians are sometimes employed to supervise various opera tions in the production of chemical products and as technical salesmen of chemicals and chemical equipment. (See also statements on Chemists and Chemical Engineers, and chapter on Occupa tions in the Industrial Chemical Industry.) Civil Engineering Technology. Technicians trained in this area assist civil engineers in per forming many of the tasks necessary in the plan ning and construction of highways, railroads, bridges, viaducts, dams, and other structures. Dur ing the planning stage, technicians may help in estimating costs, preparing specifications for ma terials, or participate in surveying, drafting, de tailing, or designing work. Once the actual con struction work has begun, they may assist the contractor or superintendent in scheduling con struction activities or inspecting the work for conformance with blueprints and specifications. Many persons trained in civil engineering tech nology become estimators, who prepare estimates of the costs, materials, and time necessary in the construction or repair of various structures. Some become highway inspectors, who may supervise the clearing of rights-of-way and the preparation of roads for surfacing, test the materials used, and inspect construction works at various stages. Others are draftsmen, surveyors, or specialists in other well-established technician jobs. (See also statements on Civil Engineers, Draftsmen, and Surveyors.) Electronics Technology. This field includes radio, radar, sonar, telemetering, television, tele phony, and other forms of communication; in dustrial and medical measuring, recording, in TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS dicating, and controlling devices; navigational equipment; missile and spacecraft guidance and control instruments; electronic computers; and many other types of equipment using vacuum tubes and semiconductor circuits. Because the field is so broad, technicians generally become specialists in one area—for example, communi cations—and often in a subdivision such as radio or telephony. They may also specialize in some aspect of industrial electronics—for example, in duction or dielectric heating, servomechanisms, automation controls, or ultrasonics. Technicians working with engineers and scien tists in the field of electronics need a strong back ground in electronics theory and mathematics to enable them to handle complex technical work above the level involved in routine operating and repair jobs. (For additional information on serv ice and repair jobs in the electronics field, see statement on Radio and Television Servicemen.) These electronics technicians may, for example, prepare or interpret layouts and other diagrams, develop and test experimental electronic units, or assist scientists and engineers in the design of electronic circuits. Their work often calls for use of engineering handbooks; oscilloscopes, signal generators, ohmmeters, multitesters, and other in struments ; and computing devices, including slide rules. Electronics technicians employed in research activities usually assist scientists or engineers in designing, testing, and modifying experimental electronic devices. They may devise practical solu tions to problems of design, select suitable ma terials, determine the best method of building a piece of equipment, or test and evaluate the oper ating characteristics of the equipment after it is built. They may sometimes be assigned to make necessary modifications in experimental equip ment. Electronics technicians working with engineers in manufacturing operations may help in design ing and setting up different types of testing equip ment and devising quality control and other tests for manufactured products. (See also chapters on Occupations in Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Manufacturing, and in Electronics Manufacturing.) Electronics technicians may also be employed in special maintenance and repair jobs where a 151 high degree of technical knowledge is needed. Electronics maintenance technicians employed by the Federal Aviation Agency, for example, keep radar and other electronic equipment in perfect working order for effective air traffic control. Persons with training and experience in electron ics may be employed also as broadcast technicians in the engineering departments of radio and tele vision broadcasting stations to operate and main tain the electronic equipment in the studio and at the transmitters. (For additional information on broadcast technicians, see chapter on Occupations in Radio and Television Broadcasting.) Industrial Technology. Technicians trained in this area are sometimes called industrial techni cians or production technicians. They assist in dustrial engineers on problems involving the effi cient use of personnel, materials, and machines in the production of goods or services. Their work includes preparing layout of machinery and equipment, planning the flow of work, and mak ing statistical studies and analyses of production costs to eliminate unnecessary expense. The indus trial technician may also assist the engineer by conducting time-and-motion studies, which in volve timing and analyzing the movements work ers make. In the course of their duties, many industrial technicians acquire experience which enables them to qualify for other jobs. For example, those ex pert in machinery and production methods may move into the field of industrial safety. Others who specialize in job analyses may become in volved later in the setting of job standards and in the interviewing, testing, hiring, and training of personnel. Still others may move into produc tion supervision. (See statements on Personnel Workers and Industrial Engineers.) Mechanical Technology. Mechanical technology is a broad term sometimes used to cover a large number of specialized fields, including automo tive technology, diesel technology, tool design, machine design, and production technology. Technicians trained in one of the above areas of technology often assist engineers in design and development work by making freehand sketches and rough layouts of proposed machinery and other equipment and parts. They help in determin ing whether a proposed product design change is practical and how much it will cost to produce. 152 They may also be called upon to solve particular design problems such as those involving toler ances, stress, strain, friction, and vibration. Planning and carrying out tests on experi mental machines and equipment for performance, durability, and efficiency is a large area of work for technicians. As part of the testing procedure, they record data, make computations, plot graphs, analyze results, and write reports. They sometimes make recommendations for changes in design to meet performance requirements. Their jobs often require the use of instruments, test equipment, and gages such as dynamometers, as well as the ability to prepare and interpret drawings. Some workers with training in mechanical tech nology are employed in manufacturing depart ments to help develop plans for testing and in specting machines and equipment, or to work with engineers in eliminating production problems. Some obtain jobs as technical salesmen. (See state ments on Mechanical Engineers, Automobile Mechanics, Manufacturers’ Salesmen, and Diesel Mechanics.) One of the better known specialties which may be grouped under mechanical engineering tech nology is that of tool designer. The tool designer designs tools and devices for the mass production of manufactured articles. He originates and pre pares sketches of the designs for cutting tools, jigs, dies, special fixtures, and other attachments used in machine operations. He may also make detailed drawings of these tools and fixtures, or supervise others in making them. Besides developing new tools, designers frequently redesign tools cur rently in use to improve their efficiency. The tool designer must have a knowledge of machine shop practice and of drafting, and a good background in advanced algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. He must also be familiar with the characteristics of the materials of which tools and fixtures are made. In addition, he needs a knowl edge of manufacturing procedures, and the ad vantages and disadvantages of various methods of production, so that he can design tools which will produce the article desired as efficiently and cheaply as possible. Machine drafting with some designing is an other major area of work often grouped under mechanical technology. The work of technicians OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK who are draftsmen is described elsewhere in this chapter. Other Areas of Technology. Many fields of work besides those described above offer oppor tunities for technicians with appropriate training. Those trained in metallurgical technology, for ex ample, work with metallurgists and metallurgical engineers in processing metals, minerals, and ce ramics and converting them into finished prod- Courtesy of National Aeronautics and Space Administration Technician checks out spacecraft payload ucts. Their jobs may include testing of metals and alloys to determine their physical properties, or working in research laboratories on such projects as developing new ways of treating and using metals and alloys. Technicians in the field of mathematics assist mathematicians, engineers, and scientists by doing computations involving the use of algebra, logarithms, trigonometric func tions, and higher mathematics. Those working in the field of biology assist biological scientists in conducting tests and experiments to gain knowl edge about living organisms and to apply this knowledge to the solution of practical problems, such as the development of new drugs and vac cines or new varieties of plants. Those trained in TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS agricultural technology work with agricultural scientists in improving farm products, the quality of foods, and soil conditions. Still other fields of work for technicians include cartography (map making), forestry technology, electrical technol ogy (power), gas turbine technology, optical tech nology, and petroleum technology. As industry becomes increasingly mechanized, new technical occupations continue to emerge. For example, instrumentation technology, a new and growing area of employment, has evolved from the introduction of more and more automatic con trols and precision measuring devices in manu facturing operations. In industrial plants and lab oratories, instruments are used to record data, to control and regulate the operation of machinery, and to measure time, weight, temperature, speeds of moving parts, mixtures, volume, flow, strain, and pressure. Technicians—who may have either specific training in instrumentation or training chiefly in electronics, mechanics, or hydraulics— work with the engineers and scientists who de velop these highly complex devices, and with those who use them for research and development work. (See also statement on Instrument Makers.) Another new area of work for technicians, which has resulted from recognition of the need for a more scientific approach toward the reduc tion of industrial hazards is safety technology. In the rapidly growing atomic energy field, in par ticular, technicians work with scientists and engi neers on problems of radiation safety, inspection, and decontamination. (See chapter on Occupa tions in the Atomic Energy Field.) 153 gories ; chiefly as engineering aids and technicians, electronic technicians, equipment specialists, cart ographic aids, meteorological technicians, physical science technicians, soil conservation aids, forestry technicians, and mathematics aids. Of these engi neering and science technicians, the largest num ber—nearly 30,000—worked for the Department of Defense. Together, the Departments of Agri culture, Commerce, and the Interior employed about 24,000 technicians, and the remainder were scattered among a number of other Government agencies. State government agencies employed about 40,000 engineering and science technicians in 1962, and local governments about 15,000. The remain der are employed by colleges and universities, mostly in university-operated research institutes, and by nonprofit organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young men and women who wish to prepare for careers as engineering and science technicians can obtain formal education for their work from a number of sources including technical insti tutes, junior colleges and community colleges, ex tension divisions of universities, colleges offering 2-year technical programs, some large compre hensive high schools, technical high schools, and vocational-technical high schools. Many engi neering and science students who have not com pleted all requirements for a bachelor’s degree, as well as some other persons with post-high school education in mathematics and science, are also able to qualify for technician jobs, providing they obtain some additional technical training and ex Where Employed perience. Persons often become qualified for engi An estimated 535,000 engineering and science neering and science technician jobs through ontechnicians, not including draftsmen and survey the-job training and experience, plus formal ors, were employed in 1962—about 12 percent were course work taken on a part-time basis either women. Nearly 400,000 of these technicians (about through classroom or correspondence courses. In three-fourths of the total) were employed by general, post-secondary school technical training private industry. The industries employing the is required for high-level engineering and science largest numbers of engineering and science tech technician jobs. Engineering and science technicians usually be nicians are electrical equipment, machinery, chem gin work as trainees or in the more routine posi icals, and aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. The Federal Government also employs sizable tions under the direct and constant supervision of numbers of engineering and science technicians. an experienced technician, scientist, or engineer. In 1962, Federal agencies had approximately As they gain experience they are given more re 70,000 employees in technician occupational cate sponsibility, often carrying out a particular as 154 signment under only general supervision. Techni cians may move into supervisory positions. Those with exceptional ability sometimes obtain addi tional formal training and are promoted to pro fessional engineering positions. The entrance requirements of schools specializ ing in preparing students for technical jobs are usually less rigid and standardized than those of 4-year colleges. For admittance to institutions of fering post-high school technical training, high school graduation is usually required. Some schools will admit students without a high school diploma, however, if they are able to pass special examinations and otherwise demonstrate their ability to perform work above the high school level. Since all the occupations considered in this chapter require basic training in mathematics and science, students interested in technical careers should obtain as good a background as possible in these subjects while in high school. A few technical institutes have arrangements for help ing students make up deficiencies in these subjects. Courses offered by schools specializing in posthigh school technical training are often of college level. Included is instruction on laboratory tech niques as well as courses in science, mathematics, and engineering, with subject matter related to the practical problems students will meet on the job. Students are taught the use of instruments and are also given instructions in the use of machinery and tools, more to give them a familiar ity with the equipment than to develop skills. Because of the variety of educational institu tions where training may be obtained and the dif ferences in the kind and level of training offered, persons seeking a technical education should use more than ordinary care in selecting a school. Information should be secured about accredita tion, professional recognition, the length of time the school has been in operation, instructional fa cilities, faculty qualifications, acceptability of credits, and the kinds of jobs obtained by the school’s graduates. Some of the types of educational institutions and other sources where young people can obtain training as technicians are: Technical Institutes. Technical institutes offer 1, 2, or 3 years of education above the high school level. Two years is the usual training period. Technical institute programs are usually specially OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, designed to place the graduate into some specific job or cluster of jobs immediately upon gradua tion, and with a minimum of on-the-job training. Their scope is more limited than that required to prepare a person for a career as a professional scientist or engineer. In general, the student re ceives intensive technical training but less theoret ical and general education than is provided by 4-year engineering and liberal arts colleges. Much emphasis is placed on laboratory and practical work in order to familiarize students with instru ments, equipment, and techniques used in indus try. Some schools offer cooperative programs under which a student spends part of his time in school and part in employment related to the occupation for wdiich he is preparing himself. It may take more than 2 years to complete the curriculum at a technical institute with a cooperative plan, but this type of program gives students valuable work experience, wThich often outweighs the disadvan tages of a longer training period. In addition, students participating in cooperative programs frequently earn enough to pay for at least a part of their educational expenses, and are often able to obtain higher starting salaries on their first jobs. Some technical institutes are operated as regu lar or extension divisions of colleges and univer sities. Others are separate institutions operated by States or municipalities, privately endowed insti tutions, and proprietary schools. Evening as well as day sessions are generally available in most technical institutes. Almost half of the students attending technical institutes in 1960 were enrolled part time in evening and spe cial classes. By attending evening classes, em ployed workers often become qualified for tech nician jobs. Some technical institutes give associate degrees which signify that the student has completed at least 2 years of college-level work. If the pro spective student desires eventually to obtain a bachelor’s degree from a 4-year college, he should investigate in advance whether his technical insti tute credits are transferable to the college of his choice. Junior Colleges and Community Colleges. Many junior and community colleges also prepare stu dents for technician occupations in industry and TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS government. Two years of post-high school educa tion is usually offered by such schools and it is common practice for them to award the degree of associate in arts or science upon completion of the 2-year program. Not all junior colleges are equipped to give technical training of the type described in this report. Some junior colleges offer courses equiva lent to those given in the freshman and sophomore years of 4-year colleges, in order that their gradu ates can go on into the junior year in a 4-year college; others offer 2-year terminal programs of the technical institute type. Many junior colleges award associate degrees at the completion of 2 years’ college level work. Junior college courses in technical fields are often planned around the employment needs of the industries in their locality. The training pro grams for prospective technicians therefore vary and may include highly specialized preparation in addition to general courses. Sometimes, the courses are designed to meet the specifications of one or two industries or even of a single plant. Many junior colleges are important adult edu cation centers with extensive night school pro grams. Through appropriate part-time study at selected junior colleges, as at technical institutes, workers may prepare themselves for engineering and science technician jobs. Training in Industry. Some large corporations conduct training programs to meet their need for technically trained personnel. This type of train ing is primarily technical and rarely includes any general studies. Instruction is given both through formal classes and through training on the job. Workers who are trained wholly on the job gen erally get less theoretical background than those who receive formal instruction. Other employers, aware of the need for tech nically trained workers but without training pro grams, often encourage their employees to attend classes in local schools or to enroll in correspond ence courses. Some large corporations reimburse their employees for tuition after they have com pleted courses satisfactorily. The workers are usu ally expected to take courses directly related to their work assignment, and are sometimes allowed to attend classes on the employer’s time. Training for some occupations in the technician category—tool designer and electronic technician, 155 for example—may be obtained through a formal apprenticeship. In addition to on-the-job training, supplementary education in mathematics and sci ence is provided. Persons interested in apprentice training may obtain further information from the local office of their State employment service, their State apprenticeship agency, the U.S. Bu reau of Apprenticeship and Training, or directly from employers, or the local labor union con cerned with the occupation they wish to learn. Other Training. Although most engineering and science technician jobs require post-high school education or the equivalent in experience, a few advanced technical and technical-vocational high schools, principally in large cities, offer pro grams which qualify their graduates for some technician entry jobs. Graduates of this type of school, however, often need supplementary train ing before they can progress to higher level posi tions. In recent years, as a result of the stimulus provided by title V III of the National Defense Education Act of 1958, public schools of this type have been putting a great deal of emphasis on developing curriculums to qualify young people for entry jobs in technician occupations. Many technical high schools have high admission re quirements and offer more thorough and ad vanced courses in mathematics, science, drafting, and laboratory work than are usually available in academic high schools. They sometimes offer a year of schooling beyond the 12th grade. Some have evening courses. These courses may be or ganized as formal technical programs to prepare technicians or may cover only a few subjects re lated to a particular area of work. Correspondence schools are an additional source of preparation for technicians. Success in such courses depends greatly on the ability of the stu dent to study by himself. The persons deriving the most benefit from such courses are those wdio wish to learn more about their jobs or wTho wish to ad vance to a better job in the same field by increas ing their theoretical and mathematical knowledge. Some correspondence school programs also offer residence work in which the student receives lab oratory and other practical training. In addition to the sources of training already discussed, many thousands of technicians are trained each year by the Armed Forces. The Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 156 Guard all train their own specialists. Some train ees are given intensive short courses; others re ceive extensive training of a year or more. Much of the training is transferable from military to civilian jobs and many of the technicians trained by the military establishments utilize their train ing in civilian employment after they leave the Armed Forces. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-qualified engineering and science technicians are expected to be very good throughout the remainder of the 1960’s, and continued expansion of the field is anticipated over the long run. In recent decades, technicians have been one of the fastest growing occupational groups, and there is every indication of continued rapid growth. As the employment of scientists and engineers continues to grow, in creasing numbers of technicians will be needed to assist them. In addition, more than 10,000 tech nicians will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The demand for engineering and science tech nicians will be greatest in research, development, design, and other work preceding the manufactur ing process. As products and the methods by which they are manufactured become more com plex, increasing numbers of technicians will prob ably also be required to assist engineers in such activities as production planning, maintaining li aison between production and engineering depart ments, and technical sales work. Underlying the increase in demand for techni cians are the general expansion of American in dustry and the increasing complexity of modern technology. The demands of the defense and space programs will also result in a growing need for workers in the technician category. In addition, the trend toward automation of industrial proc esses and the growth of new areas of work, such as that related to atomic energy, will probably add to the demand for technical personnel. Also of great importance to the expected growth in the employment of engineering and science technicians is the prospect of a continued high level of government and private expenditures for research and development in the years ahead. Ex penditures for research for defense and space pro grams in particular are expected to continue at a high level. Furthermore, many companies are es tablishing new research programs and strengthen ing existing ones to meet the strong competition in developing new consumer-oriented products and processes. Well qualified women technicians should con tinue to have favorable opportunities, chiefly in drafting jobs, in chemical and other laboratory work, and in computation and other work re quiring application of mathematics. Over the long run, it is likely that more women will be trained and find employment in these and other technician occupations. Earnings In general, a technician’s earnings depend upon his education, his technical specialty, and his work experience. Other important factors which in fluence his earnings are the type of firm for which he works, the kind of work he does, and the geo graphic location of his job. Annual starting salaries for graduates of posthigh school technical schools w^ere typically be tween $3,700 and $5,700 a year in industry in 1962. Young persons entering engineering and science technician jobs with less formal training generally earned somewhat less. In Federal Government agencies in early 1963, beginning engineering and science technicians were offered $3,820, $4,110, or $4,565, depending on the type of job vacancy and the applicant’s school ing and other qualifications. Some Federal Gov ernment agencies hire high school graduates and train them for technician jobs. Beginning salaries for these jobs ranged from $3,560 to $3,820 a year, depending on the individual’s high school courses and experience. Most technicians can look forward to an in crease in earnings as they gain experience. Studies of their graduates conducted by a number of technical schools in 1961 and 1962 showed most earned over $6,500 a year after about 5 years of experience. Where To Go for More Information General information on careers for engineering and science technicians may be obtained from: American Society for Engineering Education, Technical Institute Division, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111., 61801. TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS 157 Engineers’ Council for Professional Development, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. National Council of Technical Schools, 1507 M St. NW, Washington, D.C., 20005. Information on training opportunities may also be obtained from the Engineers’ Council for Pro fessional Development, a nationally recognized accrediting agency for engineering technology programs; the National Council of Technical Schools; and the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Di vision of Higher Education and/or Division of Vocational and Technical Education, Washington, D.C., 20202. State departments of education at each State capital also have information about approved technical institutes, junior colleges, and other edu cational institutions within the State offering posthigh school training for specific technical occupa tions. Other sources include: The American Association of Junior Colleges, 1777 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20036. National Home Study Council, 160118th St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20009. Draftsmen (D.O.T. 0-48.) Nature of Work In making a space capsule or an electric iron, a nuclear submarine or a television set, a bridge or a typewriter, manufacturing and construction companies need detailed plans giving dimensions and specifications for the entire object and each of its parts. The workers who draw these plans are draftsmen. Draftsmen translate the ideas, rough sketches, specifications, and calculations of engineers, archi tects, and designers into complete and accurate working plans which are used by skilled crafts- Courtesy of U.S. Department of the Interior Draftsman completes a detailed drawing men in making a product. Draftsmen may make calculations concerning the strength, reliability, and cost of materials, and check dimensions of parts and their relationship to each other. Through their drawings and specifications, they describe exactly what materials and processes skilled craftsmen are to use on a particular job. In developing their drawings, draftsmen use such instruments as compasses, dividers, protractors, and triangles, as well as machines that combine the functions of several devices. They may also use engineering handbooks and tables to assist in solving technical problems. Draftsmen are often classified according to the type of work they do or their level of responsi bility. Senior draftsmen use the preliminary in formation provided by engineers and architects to prepare design “layouts” (drawings made to scale of the object to be built). Detailers make drawings of each part shown on the layout, giving dimen sions, material, and any other information neces sary to make the detailed drawing clear and com plete. Checkers carefully examine drawings for errors in computing or in recording dimensions and specifications. Tracers make corrections and prepare drawings for reproduction by tracing them on transparent cloth, paper, or plastic film. Draftsmen may also specialize in a particular field such as mechanical, electrical, electronic, aeronautical, structural, and architectural draft ing. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK* 158 Where Employed An estimated 260,000 draftsmen were employed in 1962; about 6 percent were women. The large majority of draftsmen (approximately 230,000 in 1962) are employed in private industry, chiefly in manufacturing. The manufacturing industries em ploying the largest numbers are machinery; elec trical equipment; fabricated metal products; ord nance ; and aircraft, missile, and spacecraft. Sub stantial numbers are also employed by engineer ing and architectural consulting firms, construc tion and transportation companies, and public utilities. A number of draftsmen (more than 25,000 in 1962) work for Federal, State, and local govern ments. Of those employed by the Federal Govern ment, the large majority work for the Depart ments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Drafts men employed by State and local governments work chiefly for highway and public works de partments. A few thousand draftsmen are em ployed by colleges and universities and by non profit organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young persons interested in becoming drafts men can acquire the necessary training from tech nical institutes, junior and community colleges, ex tension divisions of universities, colleges offering special 2-year programs, vocational and technical high schools, and correspondence schools. Train ing may also be obtained through 3- or 4-year ap prenticeship programs or through on-the-job pro grams combined with part-time schooling. The prospective draftsman’s training, whether obtained in high school or post-high school draft ing programs, should include courses in mathe matics and physical sciences, as well as in mechani cal drawing and drafting. The study of shop prac tices and the learning of some shop skills are also helpful, since many higher level drafting jobs re quire a knowledge of manufacturing or construc tion methods. Many technical schools offer courses in structural design, strength of materials, and physical metallurgy. Young people with only high school drafting training usually start out as tracers; those with some formal post-high school technical training can often qualify as junior draftsmen. As drafts men gain skill and experience, they may advance to higher level positions as checkers, detailers, senior draftsmen, or design draftsmen, or super visors of other draftsmen. Some may become in dependent designers. Furthermore, some drafts men who take additional technical training are able to transfer to engineering positions. Qualifications for success as a draftsman in clude the ability to visualize objects of two or three dimensions and to do freehand drawing. Draftsmen should also have good eyesight and steady hands. Although artistic ability is not generally required, it may be very helpful in some specialized fields. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-trained draftsmen are expected to be favorable through out the remainder of the 1960’s, and the longer run outlook is for continued growth in the occupa tion. Prospects wTill be best for those with posthigh school drafting training. Well-qualified high school graduates who receive only high school drafting training, however, wfill also be in demand for some types of jobs. Employment of draftsmen is expected to rise as a result of the increasingly complex design prob lems of modern products and processes. As the engineering and scientific occupations grow, more draftsmen will be needed as supporting personnel. Moreover, the industries employing large num bers of draftsmen—in particular, the electrical equipment and aerospace industries—are expected to expand in the years ahead. On the other hand, photoreproduction of drawings and expanding use of newly developed electronic drafting equip ment are eliminating some routine tasks done by draftsmen and will probably bring about a reduc tion in the need for tracers. In addition to draftsmen needed to fill new posi tions, many will be required each year to replace those who retire, die, or move into other fields of work. Losses to the occupation from retirements and deaths alone were estimated to be approxi mately 4,000 during 1962. Earnings In private industry, the usual beginning salary for draftsmen wTas between $300 and $350 a month TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS 159 in 1962, according to the fragmentary data avail able. As they gain experience, draftsmen may move up to higher level positions with a substan tial increase in earnings. For example, the earn ings of experienced senior draftsmen averaged about $550 a month in early 1962. In the Federal Civil Service in early 1963, the entrance salary for high school graduates without work experience who were employed in traineedraftsman positions was $300 a month. For those with post-high school education or with some experience in drafting, entrance salaries were higher. The majority of experienced draftsmen working for the Federal Government earned be tween $385 and $560 in early 1963. Where To Go for More Information American Institute for Design and Drafting, 18465 James Couzens, Detroit, Mich., 48235. American Federation of Technical Engineers, 900 F St. NW, Washington, D.C., 20004. See also section on Where To Go for More In formation in the statement on Technicians. Surveyors (D.O.T. 0-64.) Nature of Work Surveyors have an important part in the plan ning and construction of highways, airfields, bridges, dams, and other structures. They pro vide necessary information on the measurements and physical characteristics of the construction site. They also locate land boundaries, assist in set ting land valuations, and collect information for maps, charts, and plats. The primary task of the surveyor is to deter mine the precise measurements and locations of elevations, points, lines, and contours on or near the earth’s surface, and the distances between points. As a rule, the surveyor is directly respon sible for the performance and accuracy of the survey. He plans the fieldwork, selects survey reference points, and determines the precise loca tion of the natural and manmade features of the Courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation survey region. He keeps records of the distances, transit to survey land surface directions, elevations, and other information dis Surveyors use plane table and features closed by the survey; makes mathematical calcula tions based on such information; verifies the ac theodolite, transit, level, altimeter, and telluromecuracy of the survey data; and prepares sketches, ter, at the points designated by the surveyor; maps, and reports. chainmen, who measure the distances between the In making his detailed measurements, the sur points, using a metal tape or surveyor’s chain; and veyor is assisted by a field party which he super rodmen, who use a level rod, stadia board, or vises and directs. A typical field party is usually range pole to assist in measuring elevations, dis made up of from three to six members in addition tances, and directions between selected points. to the surveyor (sometimes called the party Surveyors often specialize in one particular type chief). Included in the typical field party are of survey. Those doing highway surveys are con instrumentmeu, who set up, adjust, and operate cerned with establishing the points, grades, and a number of surveying instruments, including the lines needed for highway locations. Those carry 160 ing out land surveys locate boundaries of a par ticular tract of land, prepare maps, record plats of the land, and formulate legal descriptions of it for deeds, leases, and other documents. Survey ors engaged in geodetic surveys measure immense areas of land, sea, or space, taking into account the earth’s curvature and its geophysical characteris tics. Surveyors doing topographic surveys deter mine the elevations, depressions, and contours of an area, and indicate the location of distinguish ing surface features such as farms, buildings, forests, roads, and rivers. Surveyors working on photogrammetric surveys apply special stereo scopic plotting techniques to photographs taken from airplanes or ground stations in order to make topographic maps, and to locate and make precise measurements of the natural and manmade fea tures of an area. Surveyors also specialize in other types of surveys, such as gravity, magnetic, hydrographic, mine, oil-well directional, pipeline, con struction, or railroad. Many surveyors have job titles which identify their specialties, for example, highway surveyor or topographic surveyor. Where Employed An estimated 40,000 surveyors, of whom fewer than 4 percent were women, were employed in the United States in 1962. They were located in all parts of the country—in small towns as well as in large cities. About one-half of all surveyors work for Fed eral, State,- and local government agencies. Among the Federal Government agencies utilizing these workers are the U.S. Geological Survey and Bu reau of Land Management of the Department of the Interior, U.S. Coast and Goedetic Survey and Bureau of Public Roads of the Department of Commerce, Corps of Engineers of the Department of the Army, and Forest Service of the Depart ment of Agriculture. Surveyors in State and local government agencies are employed mainly by highway and sanitary engineering departments and by urban planning and redevelopment agen cies. A large number of surveyors work for con struction companies and for engineering and architectural consulting firms. A sizable number either work for or head surveying firms which conduct surveys on a fee or contract basis. The OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK remainder work in a variety of industries, includ ing crude petroleum and natural gas extraction, transportation, and electric light, power, and gas utilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The most common method of preparing for work as a surveyor is through a combination of courses in surveying and extensive on-the-job training in survey techniques and in the use of survey instruments. Colleges and universities hav ing civil engineering curriculums provide survey ing and related subjects as part of these curricu lums. A few other 4-year colleges, and some junior colleges, technical institutes, and vocational schools offer 1, 2, and 3-year programs in survey ing. In addition, extension courses in surveying are offered by many of these institutions. In most cases, the entrance requirement for surveying courses is high school graduation, preferably in cluding courses in algebra, geometry, trigonome try, calculus, drafting, and mechanical drawing. For the person seeking a professional career in the more specialized and highly technical survey ing areas such as geodesy, topography, or photogrammetry, a bachelor’s degree in engineering or the physical sciences, with emphasis on courses in the specific branch of surveying, is required. For advancement in the highly technical areas, graduate study is desirable. Young persons wfith some formal training in surveying usually start as instrumentmen. As they gain experience, they are usually given more re sponsibility and, after several years, may advance to surveyor. Persons with a high school diploma but without formal training or courses in sur veying may also enter the field, usually starting as rodmen. Prior employment, during the sum mer or at other times, with a construction firm or other employer engaged in surveying work is usually considered by employers in selecting young people for advancement. After several years of on-the-job experience and some formal courses in surveying, young persons may advance successively through the positions of chainman and instrumentman to that of surveyor or party chief. In many instances, promotion to these higher level positions is made on the basis of a written examination, as well as on experience. TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS More than 40 States require licensure or regis tration of land surveyors responsible for locating and describing land boundaries. In some States, applicants for licenses are expected to know other types of surveying in addition to land surveying. Requirements for licensing vary among the States, but in general include one of the following: Col lege graduation with 2 to 4 years’ experience, 6 years’ experience and passing of an examination, or completion of 10 years’ experience. In mid1962, approximately 14,000 land surveyors were registered. In addition, approximately 13,000 engi neers were registered to do land surveying, pri marily as part of their civil engineering duties; however, these workers are considered engineers rather than surveyors. In addition to the necessary training and ex perience, qualifications for success as a surveyor also include a strong liking for outdoor work. Sound health and good eyesight are also essential for most types of work. Since most surveyors must supervise and direct the work of other technical personnel, leadership qualities and the ability to get along with others are important. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for surveyors are expected to be favorable throughout the 1960’s, both in government and private industry. Pros pects will be best for people with college-level training in surveying. Qualified high school and college students will also continue to be sought for summer employment as rodmen and chainmen. Among the factors expected to contribute to the favorable employment outlook in both the short- and long-run is the increasing demand for surveying services created by a growing popula tion and an expanding economy. The rapid growth of urban areas and the enactment of new or re vised city zoning laws wull require additional sur veyors to locate boundary lines, and to lay out streets, shopping centers, schools, and recreation areas, as well as sites for electric, gas, water, and sewage facilities. Construction or improvement of the Nation’s roads and highways will require many new surveyors. Additional surveying per sonnel will also be needed in the preparation of topographic and other types of maps and charts, primarily for Federal and State Government 692-408 0 —63------12 161 agencies. Furthermore, surveyors with college de grees in geodesy will be needed to help track mis siles and spacecraft, and to assist in other space activities. Although new devices which reduce the time spent on surveys involving large stretches of land and surveys requiring extreme accuracy will con tinue to be introduced, they are not likely to af fect employment opportunities significantly. These devices will make it possible to carry out certain types of surveys—such as those of rugged mountain areas, swamps, and deserts—much more accurately and economically than in the past. However, the introduction of new instruments may make it necessary for many surveyors to ob tain additional training. Employment opportunities for women will con tinue to be limited, primarily because much of the surveyor’s work is strenuous. A few openings will be available for women with college degrees to make survey-related computations, analyze data, and prepare reports in offices. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government service, surveyors employed as field party chiefs received a starting salary of about $380 a month in early 1963. New college graduates with bachelor’s degrees qualify ing for Federal Government positions as geod esists could begin at approximately $460 or $555, depending on their college records. Graduates with bachelor’s degrees qualified for positions in topography and photogrammetry started at about $380 or $460 a month. In private industry, accord ing to the fragmentary data available, the usual beginning salary for surveyors w^as approximately $400 a month. Beginning salaries for instrumentmen in government (other than Federal) and industry were about $350 a month. Chainmen and rodmen started at about $250 to $300. Surveyors usually work an 8-hour day and 5-day week. However, they sometimes work longer hours during the summer months, when weather conditions are most suitable for surveying activi ties. The work of surveyors is active and sometimes strenuous. They may stand for long periods, and may walk long distances or climb mountains with heavy packs of instruments and equipment. Be 162 cause most of their work is done out of doors, sur veyors may be exposed to all types of weather conditions. Some duties, such as planning surveys, making photogrammetric measurements, prepar ing reports and computations, and drawing maps, are usually performed in an office. Where To Go for More Information General information on careers in surveying may be obtained from: OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Woodward Bldg., Washington, D.C., 20005. Information on the specialty of photogrammetry may be obtained from: American Society of Photogrammetry, 44 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Va., 22040. Further information on positions in the Federal Government is given in the chapter on Occupa tions in Government. (See index for page refer ence.) S O C IA L SCIEN CES The social sciences are concerned with the whole range of human society and its activities, from the origin of man to the latest election returns. Social scientists, however, generally specialize in one of several major fields, in each of which human be havior is studied from a different point of view. Anthropologists study primitive tribes, recon struct civilizations of the past and their history, and are concerned with the cultures and languages of all peoples. Economists analyze the factors which help or hinder man in satisfying his ma terial needs. Historians describe and interpret the events of the past. Political scientists are con cerned with the problems of government. Sociolo gists deal with the behavior and relationship of groups such as the family, the community, and minorities. Besides these basic social science fields, there are a number of closely related fields, some of which are covered in separate statements in this Handbook. (See statements on Geographers, Stat isticians, Psychologists, and Social Workers.) Between 50,000 and 60,000 people were profes sionally employed in the basic social sciences in 1962, according to rough estimates based on infor mation from a variety of sources. About 10 per cent of the total were women. Because of overlap ping among the basic social science fields and also with such related fields as business administra tion, foreign service work, and high school teach ing, it is extremely difficult to determine exactly the size of each social science profession. Econ omists, however, make up the largest group and anthropologists, the smallest. The majority of all social scientists are em ployed by colleges and universities. The Federal Government is the second largest employer, espe cially of political scientists and economists. Ex cept for economists, private industry employs comparatively few persons in professional social science positions, but there is a trend in a variety of industries toward hiring increasing numbers of college graduates who have majored in the social sciences as trainees for administrative and execu tive positions. Research councils and other non profit organizations provide an important source of employment for economists, political scientists, and sociologists. Employment Outlook Employment in the social sciences has been in creasing and is expected to grow rapidly during the remainder of the 1960’s, mainly because of the anticipated rise in college teaching positions. The reasons for this expected increase are discussed in the statement on College and University Teachers. (See index for page number.) A moderate rise in employment is also expected in government as a result of the growing reliance on social scientists for administrative as well as research assistance. Employment in government agencies is most af fected by changes in public policy. For example, more economists will be needed to handle research and administrative functions in connection with new programs established by Congress aimed at relieving unemployment. A moderate rise in em ployment in private industry and nonprofit or ganizations is also expected. In addition to person nel required for new positions, many hundreds of social scientists will be needed each year to replace those who leave the field because of retirement or death, or for other reasons. Social scientists with doctor’s degrees are likely to have excellent employment opportunities dur ing the 1960’s, in both teaching and nonteaching positions, barring a sharp rise in the proportion of college graduates majoring in the social sci ences. For those with less formal training, the employment situation will differ considerably among the several social science fields. These dif ferences are discussed in the sections which follow7. Earnings Average salaries for social scientists employed as instructors generally ranged from about $5,000 163 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, 164 to $6,500 a year in a majority of colleges and uni versities in 1962, according to data from a variety of sources. Generally, the positions paying sala ries near the top of this range required the Ph. D. degree or some experience and completion of all requirements for the Ph. D. degree except the doctoral dissertation. Average salaries of profes sors were 60 to 75 percent higher than those of instructors; in some very large universities, the difference was very much greater. Economists earned more, on the average, than other social scientists. Early in 1962, average salaries of econ omists in 30 large colleges and universities ranged from medians of $7,600 a year for assistant pro fessors to $13,000 for full professors. In the Federal Government, the beginning sal ary early in 1963 for social scientists with a bache lor’s degree was $4,565 a year. Those with a superior academic record or with a year of gradu ate training were eligible for positions at an an nual salary of $5,540. Starting salaries were higher for candidates with additional graduate training. The majority of experienced social scien tists in the Federal Government earned from about $9,500 to $14,000 a year; many with admin istrative responsibilities earned considerably more. In general, social scientists with the Ph. D. de gree earn substantially higher salaries than those with the master’s degree. Women social scientists usually earn substantially less than men of com parable age, experience, and level of education. Many social scientists have some income in ad dition to their regular salaries. Summer teaching is the principal source of such income in all fields, but consulting work is an important source of income for economists, political scientists, and sociologists. Income from royalties is a more com mon source of supplementary earnings for his torians. Social scientists regularly employed by colleges and universities are the group most likely to have additional earnings. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on employment oppor tunities in the social sciences and related fields is given in the following publications: Anthropology As A Career, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 20560. Price 20 cents. The Foreign Service Office, U.S. Department of State Publication 7533, Washington, D.C., 20520. Free. Overseas Assignments, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C., 20523. Free. Information on the respective branches of social science and on public administration may be ob tained from the following professional organiza tions : American Anthropological Association, 1530 P St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20005. American Economic Association, Northwestern University, Evanston, HI., 60201. American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, D.C., 20003. American Political Science Association, 1726 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.O., 20036. American Sociological Association, 1755 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20036. American Society for Public Administration, 6042 South Kimbark Ave., Chicago, 111., 60637. Anthropologists (D.O.T. 0-36.01) Nature of Work Anthropologists study primitive and civilized man—his origin, physical characteristics, customs, languages, traditions, material possessions, and social and religious beliefs and practices. Al though the smallest group of the social scientists, anthropologists cover the widest range of subject matter. Most anthropologists specialize in cultural an thropology—usually archeology or ethnology. Archeologists excavate the places wThere earlier civilizations are buried in order to reconstruct the history and customs of the people who once lived there, by studying the remains of homes, tools, clothing, ornaments, and other evidences of human life and activity. For example, archeolo gists are digging in the Pacific Coast area between northern Mexico and Ecuador to find evidences of trade and migration in the pre-Christian Era. Some archeologists are excavating ancient Mayan SOCIAL SCIENCES 165 cities in Mexico and restoring temples. Others are working in the river valley along the Rio Grande to salvage remnants of Indian villages and sites of early military forts and trading posts. Ethnolo gists may spend long periods living among primi tive tribes or in other communities, to learn their ways of life at first hand. The ethnologist takes detailed and comprehensive notes describing the report writing are the major activities of a sub stantial number of anthropologists, including a large proportion of those employed in govern ment and nonprofit organizations, as well as a good many in the teaching field. Others specialize in museum work, which generally combines man agement and administrative duties with field work and research on anthropological collections. A few are engaged primarily in consulting, nontechnical writing, or other activities. Where Employed Courtesy of Smithsonian Institution Anthropologists conduct research among W ai W ai Indians in British G uiana social customs, beliefs, and material possessions of the people, usually learning their language in the process. He may also make comparative studies of the cultures and societies of various groups. Some cultural anthropologists specialize in lin guistics, the scientific study of the sounds and structures of languages and of the historical rela tionships among languages. A few hundred people specialize as 'physical anthropologists. These anthropologists apply in tensive training in human anatomy and biology to the study of human evolution, and to the scien tific measurement of the physical differences among the races and groups of mankind. Because of their knowledge of body structure, physical an thropologists are occasionally employed as con sultants on such projects as the design of more comfortable space suits and cockpits for astro nauts. The principal function of anthropologists is college teaching, which in some schools may in clude the teaching of sociology or, less often, ge ography, as well as anthropology. Research and About 1,500 people were employed as anthro pologists in 1962. About a fifth of them were women—a higher proportion than in any other social science field. The great majority are em ployed in colleges and universities. The Federal Government employed a considerable number, mainly in museums, in Government-supervised areas such as parks, and in technical aid programs. The Government agencies which employed the largest number of anthropologists were the Smith sonian Institution and the National Park Service. Many other Government agencies, including the Departments of Defense and of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare, employed some members of the profession mainly as consultants. State and local government agencies also employed some anthro pologists, usually for museum work on health re search. A few were employed ill private industry and nonprofit organizations. Training and Other Qualifications Young people who are interested in careers in anthropology should obtain Ph. D. degrees. Col lege graduates with bachelor’s degrees can obtain only temporary positions and assistantships in the graduate departments where they are working for advanced degrees. A master’s degree, plus field experience, is sufficient for many beginning pro fessional positions, but promotion to top posi tions is generally reserved for those with the Ph. D. degree. In many colleges, and most uni versities, only anthropologists holding the Ph. D. degree can obtain a permanent teaching appoint ment. Some training in physical anthropology, arche ology, and ethnology is necessary for all anthro OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, 166 pologists. Courses in linguistics (the scientific study of language) are also valuable and are re quired for certain areas of work. A knowledge of mathematics is increasingly important since sta tistical methods and high speed computer tech nology are becoming more widely used in this field. Undergraduate students may begin their field training in archeology by arranging, through their university department, to accompany expedi tions as laborers. They may advance to supervi sory positions in charge of the digging or collec tion of material and may finally take charge of a portion of the work of the expedition. Beginning ethnologists and linguists (as well as experienced ones) usually do their fieldwork alone, without direct supervision. Most anthropologists base their doctoral dissertations on data collected through field research; they are, therefore, experienced fieldworkers by the time they obtain the Ph. D. degree. The choice of a graduate school is very impor tant, since the beginning anthropologist usually gets his first job through the university from which he receives his advanced degree. Students interested in museum work should select a school which can provide experience in an associated museum having anthropological collections. Simi larly, those interested in archeology should choose a university which offers opportunities for sum mer experience in archeological field work or should plan to attend an archeological field school elsewhere during their summer vacations. Employment Outlook Expanding employment opportunities for an thropologists are anticipated during the remain der of the 1960 decade. The number employed in colleges and universities will probably rise sub stantially. Employment outside the teaching field will also increase but at a much slower rate. Some of the additional opportunities will be in museums and archeological research programs. Others will be in the field of mental and public health, in other community survey work and in foreign af fairs. Hiring in other fields is likely to be limited largely to the replacement of personnel retiring or vacating their positions for other reasons. Anthropologists holding the doctorate will have very good employment opportunities throughout the 1960’s. Since the number of new Ph. D.’s is expected to remain below the demand during this period, employment opportunities will also be favorable for those w7ho have fulfilled all require ments for the Ph. D. degree except the disserta tion. Graduates wfith only the master’s degree, howrever, are likely to face persistent competition for professional positions in anthropology and may enter related fields of work. A few who meet certification requirements may qualify for high school teaching positions. Others may find jobs in public administration and in nonprofit organiza tions and civic groups, which prefer personnel wfith social science training as a general back ground. (Information on Earnings and Where To Go for More Information is given at the beginning of this chapter.) Economists (D.O.T. 0-36.11) Nature of Work Economists study man’s activities devoted to satisfying human wants. They are concerned with the problems which arise in utilizing limited re sources of land, raw materials, manpower, and manufactured products so as to meet, as wrell as possible, people’s many unsatisfied wants. In this connection, they may analyze the relation between the supply of and demand for goods and services, and the ways in which goods are exchanged, pro duced, distributed, and consumed. Some econo mists are concerned with such practical problems as the control of inflation, the prevention of de pression, and the development of farm, wage, tax, and tariff policies. Others develop theories to ex plain the causes of employment and unemploy ment or the ways in which international trade influences vrorld economic conditions. Still others are engaged in the collection and interpretation of data on a wide variety of economic problems. Economists are employed principally as teach ers in colleges and universities, as research work ers in government agencies and, to a lesser extent, SOCIAL SCIENCES in private industry and nonprofit research organi zations. Those employed as college teachers guide students in learning the basic principles and meth ods of economics and also frequently engage in writing, lecturing, or consulting activities. They do much of the research on basic problems in eco nomic theory and formulate many of the new theories and ideas which directly or indirectly in fluence economic thought in industry and govern ment. Most economists in the Federal Government are specialists in agricultural, business, labor, or fiscal economics, or in international trade and develop ment. They may plan and carry out studies in volving the collection of basic data in these fields, use these and other data to analyze the need for changes in government policy, assess the economic position of the Nation, write reports on their find ings, and sometimes present these reports before policymaking bodies. In addition, many people with training as economists are employed by the Federal Government as statisticians, foreign af fairs specialists, intelligence specialists, and in administrative and other positions where a back ground in economics is important. Economists employed by large business firms, including banks and other financial institutions do research and, in many cases, also have some ad ministrative and consultative duties. They may concentrate on problems relating to domestic busi ness conditions, markets and prices of company products, government policies affecting business, or international trade. Their main purpose is to provide management with information to be used in making decisions on problems such as the tim ing of new financing or the advisability of ex panding the company’s business by adding new lines of merchandise or by opening branch plants in new areas. Where Employed Economics is the largest of the basic social sci ence fields. About 20,000 people were employed primarily as economists in 1962. Of this number, about half were employed by colleges and uni versities; approximately a third worked for gov ernment agencies—chiefly Federal. A small but growing number are employed by private indus try and some serve in private research agencies 167 and community organizations. A few are selfemployed, acting as consultants, mainly to busi ness firms. Economist uses charts in explaining employment projections Economists are to be found in nearly all cities and university towns. The largest group, however, are in the Washington, D.C., area where most of those in the Federal Government are located. A good many American economists are employed in foreign countries, mainly by the U.S. Department of State and the Agency for International De velopment. Most economists in private industry are em ployed in the home offices of large corporations which are located chiefly in big cities—above all, New York City and Chicago. These two cities also have the largest concentrations of economists in nonprofit research organizations. Training and Other Qualifications All economists must have a thorough grounding in economic theory, economic history, and meth ods of economic analysis, including statistics. An increasing number of universities emphasize the value of mathematical methods of economic analy sis and require candidates for graduate courses in such methods to be well trained in mathematics, including calculus. A bachelor’s degree with a major in economics is sufficient for many beginning research jobs in government and private industry, although per sons employed in such jobs are not always re 168 garded as professional economists. In the Federal Government, candidates must have a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, accounting, or calculus for entrance positions. Since beginning jobs are ordinarily concerned mainly with the collection and compilation of data, a thorough knowledge of statistical proce dures as well as economics is usually required. Industrial and business firms often hire young people with the bachelor’s degree in economics as management trainees and rotate them through various departments to acquaint them with com pany activities. Whether or not the employee is finally assigned a job which makes specific use of his training in economics depends largely on the needs of the company. The master’s degree is generally required for appointment as a college instructor, though gradu ate assistantships may be awarded to outstanding students working toward their master’s degree. In many large colleges and universities, completion of all the requirements for the Ph. D. degree, ex cept the dissertation, is necessary for appointment to the position of instructor. In government or pri vate industry, economists with the master’s de gree can usually qualify for more responsible re search positions than are open to those with only the bachelor’s degree. The Ph. D. degree is required for a professor ship in a high-ranking college or university and is an asset in competing for other responsible posi tions in government, business, or private research organizations. Economists interested in overseas assignments wull find broad training in other social sciences, as wel as advanced training in economics, very help ful. For most positions with the U.S. Department of State and the Agency for International Devel opment, considerable experience is also required. The choice of a graduate school is very impor tant for people planning to become economists. Students interested in research should select schools which emphasize training in research methods and statistics and provide good research facilities, including opportunities for practical experience. Those who wish to work in the field of agricultural economics wTill find exceptional opportunities for part-time research work at State universities having agricultural experiment stations. Professors and chairmen of economics OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, departments do much of the placement of begin ning economists in teaching positions and in posi tions in industry and nonprofit research organiza tions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-qualified economists will continue to increase rapidly dur ing the remainder of the 1960’s, especially in the college teaching field. Colleges and universities will need hundreds of new instructors annually to handle rapidly increasing college enrollments and to fill positions vacated because of retirements, deaths, or transfers to other fields of work. In other fields of employment, opportunities are likely to increase more slowly. However, many economists are likely to be required annually to meet expansion and replacement needs in indus try, government, and nonprofit organizations. Private industry is expected to employ a growing number of economists, as businessmen become more accustomed to relying on scientific methods of analyzing business trends, forecasting sales, and planning purchasing and production operations. The growing interest in improving the quality of “economics” instruction in the Nation’s high schools may also contribute to the overall demand for economists. Employment of economists in State and Federal Government is likely to in crease somewhat to meet the needs of government and industry for more extensive data collection and analysis as a guide to policy planning. Economists with the doctorate are expected to have excellent opportunities for employment. The number of new Ph. D.’s is likely to be considera bly less than the number of new college instruc tors needed during the 1960’s. As a result, employ ment opportunities for economists with a master’s degree will also be very favorable, especially if they have good training in statistics and mathe matics. Those with only a bachelor’s degree will probably continue to find good opportunities for employment in government agencies, provided they have completed a substantial number of courses in economics and statistics. In other areas of employment, holders of the bachelor’s degree will continue to face considerable competition for employment as economists. (Information on Earn ings and Where To Go for More Information is given at the beginning of this chapter.) SOCIAL SCIENCES 169 Historians (D.O.T. 0-36.91) Nature of Work Historians study the records of the past and write books and articles describing and analyzing past events, institutions, ideas, and people. They may use their knowledge of the past to explain current events. They may specialize in the history of a specific country or region, or in a particular period of time—ancient, medieval, or modern—or in economic, cultural, military, or other phases of history. More historians specialize in either United States or modern European history than in any other field. Some are experts in such areas as the development of various types of transpor tation (trains, cars, aircraft); others in art, archi tecture, or other objects of historical interest. The number of specialties is constantly growing. The history of business and the relation between tech nological changes and other aspects of historical development are among the newest fields. Most historians are college teachers who also do some research, writing, and lecturing. Some, usually called archivists, specialize in identifying, preserving, and making available documentary materials of historical value. Others edit histori cal materials, prepare exhibits, write pamphlets and handbooks, and give talks for museums, spe cial libraries, and historical societies. A few serve as consultants to editors and publishers and pro ducers of materials for radio, television, and mo tion pictures. Historians employed in government mainly do research and administrative work in connection with research projects; they also pre pare studies, articles, and books. Where Employed An estimated 9,000 to 10,000 persons w^ere em ployed as historians in 1962. This estimate does not include high school history teachers, who are usually classified as teachers rather than as his torians although some have had considerable training in history. Approximately 80 percent of the historians were employed in colleges and universities. Slightly less than 10 percent were employed in Federal Government agencies, principally the Na tional Archives and the Departments of Defense, Interior, and State. Small but growing numbers were employed by other government organiza tions (State, local, and international), nonprofit foundations, research councils, special libraries, State historical societies, museums, and by large corporations. Since history is taught in all institutions of higher education, historians are found in all col lege communities. About half the historians in the Federal Government, including three-fourths of those working as archivists, are employed in Washington, D.C. Historians in other types of employment usually work in localities which have museums or libraries with collections adequate for historical research. Training and Other Qualifications Graduate education is usually necessary for qualification as a historian. The master’s degree in history is the minimum requirement for ap pointment to the position of college instructor, but in many colleges and universities, the Ph. D. degree is necessary for appointment. The doctor ate is essential for attaining high-level college teaching, research, and administrative positions in the field of history. Most historians in the Fed eral Government and in nonprofit organizations have a Ph. D. degree or the equivalent in training and experience. Although a bachelor’s degree with a major in history is sufficient training for some beginning jobs in Federal, State, and local governments, persons in such jobs may not be regarded as pro fessional historians. These beginning jobs are likely to be concerned with the collection of and preservation of historical data, so that a knowl edge of archival work is helpful. An undergradu ate major in history is considered helpful for jobs in international relations and journalism. Employment Outlook Employment of historians is expected to con tinue to increase substantially during the 1960 decade, chiefly in college teaching. Hundreds of new instructors will probably be needed annually OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK; 170 to teach new classes made necessary by expanding enrollments, and to replace those who retire, die, or leave for other types of work. The number of positions for historians in archival work is also expected to rise, though more slowly than the number in college teaching. Only a slight rise is foreseen in the number of historians in other types of work. Historians with doctorates are expected to have very good employment opportunities throughout the 1960 decade. Historians who have completed all the requirements for the Ph. D. except the dis sertation are also expected to have favorable op portunities. However, those with no work beyond the master’s degree will probably encounter con siderable competition for professional positions. College graduates with only the bachelor’s degree will find it difficult to obtain employment as pro fessional historians. On the other hand, history majors who meet certification requirements will find a good many openings in high school teach ing. Some will also be able to qualify as trainees in administrative and management positions in government agencies, nonprofit foundations, civic organizations and, more rarely, in private indus try. (Information on Earnings and Where To Go for More Information is given at the beginning of this chapter.) Political Scientists (D.O.T. 0-36.96) Nature of Work Political science is the study of government— what it is, what it does, and how and why. Politi cal scientists are interested in government at every level—local, county, State, regional, national, and international. Many political scientists specialize in public administration, in American Govern ment, or in international relations. Smaller num bers specialize in such fields as public law, history of political ideas, political parties, public opinion, and area studies. Political scientists are most frequently employed as college teachers, sometimes teaching other social sciences as well as political science. They may combine research, consultation, or administrative duties with their teaching. Some teach in foreign universities where they prepare students for ca reers in public administration and assist in the development of training programs for government personnel. A good many political scientists are engaged mainly in research. They may make sur veys of public opinion on political questions for private research organizations. They may make studies of proposed legislation for State or munici pal legislative reference bureaus or congressional committees to determine whether the legislation is well drafted and constitutional. They may analyze the operations of government agencies or special ize in foreign affairs research, either for govern ment or nongovernment organizations. Still others are engaged in administrative or managerial duties in all fields of work. For example, they may be employed as budget analysts, as personnel directors or assistants, as city planners or man agers, as legislative aids to congressmen, and as staff members of congressional committees. Where Employed Probably between 10,000 and 15,000 people were employed as political scientists in 1962, largely in colleges and universities or in government agencies. Fewer than 10 percent work for other types of employers such as municipal and other research bureaus, civic and taxpayers associations, and large business firms. Political scientists are employed in nearly every college in the United States, since courses in political science or government are widely taught. Most other political scientists are located in Wash ington, D.C., and in other large cities, or in State capitals. A good many are employed in overseas jobs, mainly by the U.S. Department of State, the Agency for International Development, and the U.S. Information Agency. Training and Other Qualifications Graduate training is generally required for pro fessional employment in political science. College graduates with a master’s degree in public ad ministration can qualify for various administra tive and research positions in government and in SOCIAL SCIENCES nonprofit research and civic organizations. Over 80 colleges and universities offer graduate degrees in public administration. The college programs cover a wide range of subjects—for example, in ternational administration, city planning, munici pal administration, criminal investigation, and social security administration. A majority of these schools provide field training, and many offer in ternships which enable the student to obtain ex perience in government work. A good many uni versities award graduate degrees in international relations, foreign service, and area studies, as well as political science in general. A master’s degree in any of these fields is very helpful in obtaining a position in a Federal Government agency con cerned with foreign affairs. However, for some Government jobs, such as those with the Agency for International Development, only persons with substantial experience (preferably in public ad ministration) are hired. Completion of all requirements for the Ph. D. degree, except the doctoral dissertation, is the usual prerequisite for appointment as a college in structor. The Ph. D. degree is generally required for advancement to the position of professor. Some young people with only a bachelor’s de gree in political science qualify as trainees in public relations or research work or in jobs, such as budget analyst, personnel assistant, or investi gator in government or industry. However, they must compete for these jobs with college gradu ates majoring in many other fields, particularly those with majors in business administration, ac counting, economics, and other social science specialties. A great many students with the bache lor’s degree in political science go on to study law; many others obtain graduate training in public administration, international relations, or other specialized branches of political science. Employment Outlook Employment of political scientists is expected to continue to increase rapidly during the 1960 dec 171 ade. The largest increase will be in colleges and universities. However, the number of political scientists in administrative jobs in government agencies will probably rise also because of a grow ing recognition of the value of specialized train ing. Government agencies concerned with foreign affairs will continue to employ a good many politi cal scientists. A slow growth is anticipated in em ployment of political scientists in private industry. No substantial change is foreseen in the number of political scientists in other types of work. Many more political scientists will be needed to fill positions vacated because of retirements, deaths, or transfers to other fields of work. Alto gether, colleges and universities may need 400 to 500 new political scientists annually during the 1960’s, both to fill new positions and to meet re placement needs. Government agencies will need several hundred more each year. Political scientists with the doctorate will find very good opportunities in college teaching and good chances for employment in other fields as well. Those who have completed all the require ments for the doctorate except the dissertation are also likely to find favorable opportunities in college teaching. Employment opportunities for others with the master’s degree will be more limited, but many openings will be available to them in Federal, State, and municipal government agencies; research bureaus; political organiza tions; and civic and welfare agencies. For new graduates with only the bachelor’s degree, op portunities for professional employment in the political science field will probably continue to be very limited. However, those planning to continue their studies in law, foreign affairs, journalism, and other related fields will find their political science background very helpful. Some who meet State certification requirements will enter high school teaching. (Information on Earnings and Where To Go for More Information is given at the beginning of this chapter.) OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 172 Sociologists (D.O.T. 0-36.31) Nature of Work Sociologists study the many groups which man forms—families, tribes, communities, villages, and States, and a great variety of social, religious, professional, business, and other organizations which have arisen out of living together. They study the behavior and interaction of these groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the in fluence of group activities on individual mem bers. Some sociologists are primarily concerned with the characteristics of particular kinds of social groups and institutions; others are more interested in the ways in which individuals are affected by groups to which they belong. Many sociologists specialize in the study of social organi zation, social psychology, or rural sociology. Others specialize in intergroup relations, family problems, social effects of urban living, popula tion studies, or analyses of public opinion. Some sociologists concentrate on research methodology or the conduct of surveys. Growing numbers are concerned with the application of sociological knowledge and methods in the areas of penology and correction, education, public relations in in dustry, and regional and community planning. Some specialize in medical sociology—studying the social factors which affect the fields of mental or public health or the problems of hospital ad ministration. The topics in which sociologists spe cialize are too many and varied to be fully listed here. Most sociologists are college teachers, but, as a rule, these teachers also do research work. In addition, many sociologists are employed full time in research by government agencies, research bureaus connected with universities, welfare agencies, other nonprofit organizations, and large companies. Sociological research may involve the collec tion of data (often through personal interviews), the preparation of case studies, testing, the con duct of statistical surveys, and laboratory ex periments. Sociologists may study individuals, families, or communities in an attempt to discover the causes of social problems—such as crime, ju venile delinquency, alcoholism, poverty, and de pendency—the normal pattern of family relations, or the different patterns of living in communities of varying types and sizes. They may collect and analyze data from official government sources to show the trends in population, including changes in age, sex, race, and other population character istics ; and also the extent of population movement among rural, suburban, and urban areas and among different geographic areas. Some so ciologists specialize in conducting surveys, either those which add to basic sociological knowledge or those in such applied fields as public opinion research, marketing, and advertising research. Still others are specialists in the use of mass communication facilities, including radio, televi sion, newspapers, magazines, and circulars. Sociologists are frequently administrators— supervising research projects or the operation of social agencies, including marriage and family clinics. Some people with sociological training are recreation workers, case workers, prison inmate classification officers, or probation and parole officers. Other sociologists act as consultants, ad vising on such diverse problems as the manage ment of hospitals for the mentally ill, the rehabili tation of juvenile delinquents, or the development of effective advertising programs to promote public interest in particular products. Where Employed It is roughly estimated that about 7,000 or 8,000 persons were professionally employed as sociolo gists in 1962. Numerous other persons were em ployed in positions requiring some training in this field, including many in social, recreation, and public health work. Approximately three-fourths of the sociologists —people in research and administrative positions, as w^ell as teachers—are employed in colleges and universities. About one-tenth are in Federal, State, local, or international government agencies; the remainder work in private industry, in welfare or other nonprofit organizations, or are selfemployed. Since sociology is taught in most institutions of higher learning, sociologists may be found SOCIAL SCIENCES in nearly all college communities. They are most heavily concentrated, however, in large colleges and universities which offer graduate training in sociology and opportunities for employment in research. Medical sociologists are most often em ployed on the teaching or research staff of medical colleges and graduate departments of public health and preventive medicine. They also find employment on hospital staffs and in State and municipal health departments. Rural sociologists most frequently work at State universities, be cause they are likely to have exceptional oppor tunities for research at the State agricultural ex periment stations attached to these universities. Some specialists in rural sociology and community development are employed in foreign countries, by U.S. Government agencies, and private founda tions. Training and Other Qualifications At least a master’s degree with a major in so ciology is usually required for employment as a sociologist. The Ph. D. degree is frequently re quired for employment in the better positions and virtually always for the most responsible posi tions. Young people with only a bachelor’s degree in sociology are not considered qualified for profes sional employment as sociologists, although they may be able to secure other jobs in this or related fields. They may get jobs as interviewers or as re search assistants working under close supervision. A good many are employed as case workers, counselors, recreation workers, or administrative assistants in public and private welfare agencies. As a rule, however, welfare agencies prefer per sons with specific training in social work. So ciology majors with sufficient training in statistics may obtain positions as beginning statisticians. Those who meet local certification requirements may enter high school teaching. Sociologists with master’s degrees may qualify for many administrative and research positions, provided they are trained in research methods and statistics. They may perform work requiring responsibility for specific portions of a survey or for the preparation of analyses and reports under general supervision. As they gain experience, they may advance to supervisory positions in both 173 public and private agencies. Sociologists with the master’s degree may also qualify for some college instructorships. Most colleges, however, will ap point as instructors only people with training beyond the master’s level—frequently the comple tion of all requirements for the Ph. D. degree ex cept the doctoral dissertation. Outstanding gradu ate students can often get teaching or research assistantships which will provide both financial aid and valuable experience. The Ph. D. degree is essential for attaining a professorship in most colleges or universities and is commonly required for directors of major re search projects, important administrative posi tions, or consultants. The choice of a graduate school is very impor tant for people planning to become sociologists. Students interested in research should select schools which emphasize training in research methods and statistics and provides opportunities to gain practical experience in research work. Professors and chairmen of sociology departments frequently aid in the placement of graduates. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for sociologists are expected to continue to increase substantially dur ing the remainder of the 1960’s. The majority of new positions will be in college teaching. Expand ing college enrollments will account for most of these new positions; however, some will result from the growing trend toward including so ciology courses in the curriculums of other profes sions, such as medicine, law, and education. Per haps as many as 300 new sociology teachers will be needed each year, on the average, to fill new posi tions and to replace college faculty members who leave the profession. A moderate rise in the num ber of sociologists in nonteaching fields is also anticipated. Sociologists well trained in research methods and advanced statistics will have the widest choice of jobs. Employment opportunities are expected to be better than average for research workers in rural sociology, community development, popu lation analysis, public opinion research, and in various branches of medical sociology. Employ ment opportunities will also increase markedly in 174 other applied fields, such as the study of juvenile delinquency and education. A few openings are anticipated in the new area of the sociology of law. The number of sociologists with the doctor’s degree is expected to rise less rapidly than demand during the remainder of the 1960’s. As a result, employment opportunities for both Ph. D.’s and those who have completed all requirements for the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK doctorate except the dissertation will probably be very good during this period. Inexperienced graduates with only the master’s degree—with the exception of those specifically trained in research methods—will probably continue to face consider able competition for positions as professional so ciologists. (Information on Earnings and Where To Go for More Information is given at the begin ning of this chapter.) TH E C L E R G Y The choice of the ministry, priesthood, or rab binate as one’s lifework involves considerations that do not influence to the same degree the selec tion of a career in most other occupations. When young people decide to become clergymen, they do so primarily because of their religious faith and their desire to help others. Nevertheless, it is important for them to know as much as possible about the profession and how to prepare for it, the kind of life it offers, and its needs for person nel. They should understand also that the civic, social, and recreational activities of clergymen are often influenced, and sometimes restricted, by the customs and attitudes of their community. The number of clergymen needed is broadly related to the size and geographic distribution of the Nation’s inhabitants and their participation in organized religious groups. These factors affect the number of churches and synagogues that are established and, thus, the number of pulpits to be filled. A sharp rise in church and synagogue mem bership has occurred since 1940. About 116 million people were members of organized religious groups in 1961—representing 63 percent of the total population, whereas in 1940, slightly less than half the population belonged to religious groups. In addition to those who serve congrega tions, many clergymen teach in seminaries and other educational institutions, serve as mission aries, and perform various other duties in meet ing their religious responsibilities. Young people considering a career as a clergy man should seek the counsel of a religious leader of their faith to aid them in evaluating their quali fications for the profession. Besides a desire to serve the spiritual needs of others and to lead them in religious activities, they will need a broad background of knowledge and the ability to speak and write clearly. Emotional stability is necessary, since a clergyman must be able to help others in times of stress. Furthermore, young people should know that clergymen are expected to be examples of high moral character. The amount of income clergymen receive de pends, to a great extent, on the size and financial status of the congregation they serve and usually is highest in large cities or in prosperous suburban areas. Earnings of clergymen, as of most other professional groups, usually rise with increased experience and responsibility. Most Protestant churches and a number of Jewish congregations provide their spiritual leaders with housing. Boman Catholic priests ordinarily live in the rectory of a parish church or are provided lodgings by the religious order to which they belong. Many clergymen receive allowances for transportation and other expenses necessary in their work. Clergymen often receive gifts or fees for officiat ing at special ceremonies such as weddings and funerals. In some cases, these gifts or fees are an important source of additional income; however, they are frequently donated to charity by the clergymen. Some churches establish a uniform fee for these services, which goes directly into the church treasury. More detailed information on the clergy in the three largest faiths in the United States—Protes tant, Koman Catholic, and Jewish—is given in the following statements which were prepared in co operation with leaders of these faiths. Information on the clergy in other faiths may be obtained directly from leaders of the respective groups. Numerous other church-related occupations— those of the missionary, teacher, director of youth organizations, director of religious education, editor of religious publications, music director, church secretary, recreation leader, and many others—offer interesting and satisfying careers. In addition, opportunities to w^ork in connection with religious activities are present in many other occupations. Clergymen or educational di rectors of local churches or synagogues can pro vide information on the church-related occupa tions and other areas offering opportunities for religious service. 175 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 176 Protestant Clergymen (D.O.T. 0-08.) Nature of Work Protestant clergymen lead their congregations in worship services and may administer the rites of baptism, confirmation, and Holy Communion. They prepare and deliver sermons and give other talks, instruct people who are to be received into membership of the church, perform marriages, and conduct funerals. They counsel individuals who seek guidance, visit the sick and shut-in, com fort those who are bereaved, and serve their church members in many other ways. Protestant ministers may also write articles for publication and engage in interfaith, community, civic, educational, and recreational activities sponsored by or related to the interests of the church. A few clergymen teach in seminaries, colleges, and universities. The types of worship services which ministers conduct differ among Protestant denominations and also among congregations within a denomina tion; in some denominations, ministers follow a traditional order of worship, whereas in others they adapt the services to different occasions. Most of these services include Bible reading, hymn sing ing, prayers, and a sermon. Bible reading by a member of the congregation and individual testi monials may constitute a large part of the service in some denominations. Ministers serving small congregations generally work on a close personal basis with their parish ioners. Those serving large congregations usu ally have greater administrative responsibilities and spend considerable time working with com mittees, church officers, and staff, besides per forming their other duties. They may have one or more associates or assistants who share specific aspects of the ministry, such as a Minister of Education who assists in educational programs for different age groups. Where Employed In 1961, about 225,000 people were serving as ministers of churches, composing over 225 Protes tant denominations or other groups. In addition, thousands of ordained clergymen were in other occupations—many closely related to the ministry. The greatest number of clergymen are affiliated with the four largest groups of churches— Baptist, Methodist, Lutheran, and Presbyterian— to which about 7 out of every 10 of the 64 million Protestant church members belong. Most minis ters serve individual congregations; some are en gaged in missionary activities in the United States and in foreign countries; others serve as chaplains in the Armed Forces, in hospitals, and in other institutions; still others teach in educa tional institutions, engage in other religious ed ucational work, or are employed in social welfare and related agencies. Less than 5 percent of all ministers are women; however, about 80 denomi nations ordain women. In addition, in some denominations an increasing number of women who have not been ordained are serving as pastors’ assistants. All cities and most towns have one or more Protestant churches with a full-time minister. The majority of ministers are located in cities and towns. Many others live in less densely populated areas where each may serve the religious needs of two or more congregations in different communi ties. A larger proportion of Protestants than members of other faiths live in rural areas. Training and Other Qualifications The educational preparation required for entry into the ministry has a wider range than that for most professions. Some religious groups have no formal educational requirements, and others or dain persons who have received varying amounts of training in liberal arts colleges, Bible colleges, or Bible institutes. An increasingly large number of denominations, however, require a 3-year course of professional study in theology following college graduation. After completion of such a course in a theological school, the degree of bachelor of di vinity or sacred theology is awarded. Eighty-one of the many theological institutions in the Nation in early 1963 were accredited by the American Association of Theological Schools. Accredited institutions admit only students who have received the bachelor’s degree^ or its equiva THE CLERGY, lent, from an approved college. In addition, cer tain character and personality qualifications must be met, and endorsement by the religious group to which the applicant belongs is required. The American Association of Theological Schools recommends that preseminary studies be concen trated in the liberal arts. Although courses in English, philosophy, and history are considered especially important, the pretheological student should take courses also in the natural and social sciences, religion, and foreign languages. The standard curriculum recommended for accredited theological schools divides the course of studies into four major fields: Biblical, historical, theo logical, and practical. There is a trend toward adding more courses in psychology, pastoral coun seling, sociology, religious education, administra tion, and other studies of a practical nature. Many accredited schools require that students gain ex perience in church work under the supervision of a faculty member or experienced minister. Some institutions offer the master of theology and the doctor of theology degrees to students com pleting 1 or more years of additional study. In general, each large denomination has its own school or schools of theology which reflect its par ticular interests and needs; however, many of these schools are open to students from various denominations. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and graduate training covering a wide range of theological points of view. Among the personal qualifications which most denominations seek in a candidate for the ministry are a deep religious conviction, a sense of dedica tion to Christian service, a genuine concern for and love of people, a wholesome personality and high moral and ethical standards, and a vigorous and creative mind. Because of the demands of the ministry, good health is a valuable asset. Persons who have met denominational quali fications for the ministry are usually ordained following graduation from a seminary. In denomi nations which do not require seminary training, clergymen are ordained at various appointed times. Clergymen often begin their careers as pastors of small congregations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Protestant clergymen in many of the larger denominations—especially those groups which have a well-defined church 692-408 0—63------13 177 organization—often are requested to serve in positions of great administrative and denomina tional responsibility. Outlook Shortages of Protestant ministers have persisted for many years and are likely to continue through out the middle and late 1960’s. However, not all Protestant denominations will have equal diffi culty in filling vacant pulpits. Some denomina tions will probably have a sufficient number of people who are qualified to serve as ministers. Generally, those denominations which require many years of formal training to qualify for the ministry are having the greatest difficulty in fill ing the needs of all their churches, and this situa tion is likely to persist. The number of students graduated annually from Protestant theological schools probably will not be sufficient to replace the thousands of ministers who retire or die each year, to meet the needs of newly established con gregations, and to supply assistant ministers where needed. Many congregations—mainly those in rural areas—did not have a full-time ordained minister in 1963. Some had to rely on the services of theo logical students or lay persons or shared the services of a pastor with another congregation. Many large congregations were unable to fill openings for assistant ministers. In addition, or dained ministers were being sought for teaching positions; to serve in foreign missions, in relief work, and in religious educational activities; as chaplains in the Armed Forces; and in universi ties, hospitals, penitentiaries, and other institu tions. Over the long run, the total number of min isters needed by Protestant churches will probably become larger as a result of the expected increase in population and in the number of congregations. The greatest expansion is anticipated in the sub urbs of large cities. The increasing opportunities for ministers in fields such as television and radio, youth and family relations work, the cam pus ministry, and religious activities including chaplaincies in institutions and industry, also point toward a need for additional clergymen. Replacement of those removed from the ranks by death, retirement, or other causes will also require OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, 178 an ever-increasing number of newly trained min isters. Where To Go for More Information Young people who wish to enter the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guidance worker. Additional information on both the ministry and other church-related occupations are also available from many denomi national offices. Information on admission require ments may be obtained directly from each theo logical school. Roman Catholic Priests (D.O.T. 0-08.) Nature of Work Roman Catholic priests attend the spiritual, moral, and educational needs of the members of their Church. Their duties include offering the Sacrifice of the Mass; hearing confessions; ad ministering the Sacraments; visiting and comfort ing the sick; conducting funeral services and consoling survivors; counseling those in need of guidance; and assisting the poor. Priests give religious instruction at Mass in the form of a sermon. They have numerous other responsibili ties to assure that all laws of the Church are fulfilled. Priests spend long hours performing services for the Church and the community. Their day usually begins with morning meditation and Mass and may end with an evening visit to the local hospital or the hearing of confessions. In addi tion, each day priests spend several hours in prayer and reading their breviaries. Many of them serve on Church committees or in civic or ganizations and assist in community projects. Various societies that carry on charitable and so cial programs also depend upon priests for direc tion. Although all priests have the same powers ac quired through ordination by a bishop, they are classified in two main categories—diocesan and religious—by reason of their way of life and the type of work to which they are assigned. Diocesan priests (sometimes called secular priests) gen erally work as individuals in the parishes to which they are assigned by the bishop of their diocese. Religious priests are members of religious orders —for example Jesuits, Dominicans, or Franciscans —and generally work as members of a community in specialized activities, such as teaching or mis sionary work, assigned to them by the superiors of the orders to which they belong. Both religious and secular priests hold teaching and administrative posts in the Catholic semi naries, universities and colleges, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large proportion of the institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas secular priests are primarily concerned with the parochial schools attached to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The members of religious orders do most of the missionary work conducted by the Catholic Church in this country and in the for eign field. Where Employed About 56,000 priests served 43 million Catholics in the United States in 1962. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural communities; however, the majority are in heav ily populated metropolitan areas, where most of the Catholic population is located. Catholics are concentrated in the Northeast and the Great Lakes regions, with smaller concentrations in California, Texas, and Louisiana. A large num ber of priests are located in communities near Catholic educational and other institutions. Many are stationed throughout the world as missionar ies. Others travel constantly on missions to local parishes throughout the country. Some priests serve as chaplains with the Armed Forces or in hospitals or other institutions. Training and Other Qualifications The course of study for the priesthood takes at least 8 years after graduation from high school. Most students take this training in theological THE CLERGY seminaries—first, in a minor seminary (usually for 2 years), then in a major seminary which offers 6 years of advanced training. In 1962, about 46,000 students, known as seminarians were enrolled in 545 seminaries in the United States. High school graduates with the desired scholastic background —an academic course, including Latin—can com plete the minor seminary in 2 years and then ad vance to the major seminary. Elementary school graduates may enter the minor seminary where they complete their high school work before tak ing the 2 years of college level work. Courses in clude Christian doctrine, Latin, Greek, English, at least one other modern language, rhetoric and elocution, history, geography, bookkeeping, mathematics, natural sciences, and Gregorian chant. At the major seminary, the first 2 years are de voted to the study of philosophy, scripture, church history, and the natural sciences as related to reli gion. During the remaining 4 years, the course of study includes sacred scripture; apologetics; dog matic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics; church history; liturgy; and canon law. Diocesan and religious priests attend different major semi naries, where slight variations in the training re flect the differences in the type of work expected of them as priests. During the later years of his seminary course, the candidate receives from his bishop a succession of orders culminating in his ordination to the priesthood. Most postgraduate work in theology is taken either at Catholic University of America (Wash ington, D.C.) or at the ecclesiastical universities in Rome. Many priests also do graduate work at other universities in fields unrelated to theology. Priests are commanded by the law of the Catholic Church to continue their studies, at least infor mally, after ordination. Young men are never denied entry into semi naries because of lack of funds. In seminaries for secular priests, the bishop may make arrangements for loans to the students. Those in religious semi naries are often financed by contributions of benefactors. Among the qualities considered most desirable in candidates for the Catholic priesthood are a love of and concern for people, a deep religious 179 conviction, a desire to spread the Gospel of Christ, at least average intellectual ability, capacity to speak and write correctly, and more than average skill in working with people. Candidates for the priesthood must understand that priests are not permitted to marry and are dedicated to a life of chastity. The first assignment of a newly ordained secu lar priest is usually that of assistant pastor or curate. Newly ordained priests of religious orders are assigned to the specialized duties for which they are trained. OuHook A growing number of priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual and educational needs of the rising number of Catho lics in the Nation. Although the number of semi narians has increased steadily in recent years, the number of ordained priests is not sufficient to fill the needs of newly established parishes and ex panding colleges and other Catholic institutions, and to replace priests who die. Priests usually continue at their work longer than persons in other professions, but the varied demands and long hours create a need for young priests to assist the older ones. Also, an increasing number of priests have been serving in many diverse areas— for example, in religious radio, newspaper, and television work, labor-management mediation and in foreign posts, particularly in countries with a shortage of priests. Continued expansion of such activities, in addition to the expected further growth in Catholic population, will require a steady increase in the number of priests, both in the next few years and over the long run. Where To Go for More Information Young men interested in entering the priest hood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priest. Additional information regarding different religious orders and the secular priest hood, as well as a list of the various seminaries which prepare students for the priesthood, may be obtained from Diocesan Directors of Vocations, or from the diocesan chancery office. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, 180 Rabbis (D.O.T. 0-08.) Nature of Work Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their con gregations and teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradition. They conduct daily services and hold special services on the Sabbath and on holidays. Rabbis are customarily available at all times for counsel to members of their congrega tions, other followers of Judaism, and the com munity at large. Many of the rabbis’ functions— preparing and delivering sermons, performing wedding ceremonies, visiting the sick, conducting funeral services, comforting the bereaved, help ing the poor, supervising religious education pro grams, engaging in interfaith activities, assuming community responsibilities, and counseling indi viduals—are similar to those performed by clergy men of other faiths. Rabbis may also write for religious and lay publications, and teach in theo logical seminaries, colleges, and universities. Rabbis serve congregations affiliated with 1 of the 3 branches of American Judaism—Orthodox (traditional), Conservative, or Reform (liberal). Regardless of their particular point of view, all Hebrew congregations preserve the substance of Jewish religious worship. The congregations differ in the extent to which they follow the traditional form of worship—for example, in the wearing of head coverings or in the use of Hebrew as the lan guage of prayer, or in the use of music. Because of these differences, the format of the worship service and therefore the ritual that the rabbis use may vary even among congregations belonging to the same branch of Judaism. Where Employed About 4,600 rabbis served the 5y2 million fol lowers of the Jewish faith in this country in 1962. Most are Orthodox rabbis; the rest are about equally divided between the Conservative and Reform branches of Judaism. Most rabbis act as the spiritual leaders of individual congregations; some serve as chaplains in the Armed Forces, in hospitals, and in other institutions; others teach either full or part time in educational institutions; and others are employed in social welfare agencies and in religious education work for such organiza tions as the Hillel Foundation. Although rabbis serve Jewish communities throughout the Nation, they are concentrated in those States wdiich have sizable Jewish popula tions, particularly, New York, California, Penn sylvania, New Jersey, Illinois, and Massachusetts. Training and Ofher Qualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must complete the prescribed course of study at a Jewish theological seminary. Entrance and training requirements depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary is associated. The Hebrew Union College -Jewish Institute of Religion (Reform) and The Jewish Theological Seminary of America (Con servative) are the only seminaries that train rabbis for their respective branches of Judaism. Both schools require the completion of a 4-year college course, as well as prior preparation in Jewish studies, for admission to the rabbinic pro gram leading to ordination. Although 5 years are normally required to complete the rabbinic course at the Reform seminary, exceptionally well-pre pared students can shorten this period of study to a minimum of 3 years. The course at the Con servative seminary can be completed in 4 years if the student has a strong background in Jewish studies; otherwise, the course may take as long as 6 years. About 15 seminaries train Orthodox rabbis. These schools have programs of various lengths, all leading to ordination. At one of the larger Orthodox seminaries, well-qualified students who are college graduates may complete the rabbinic program in 3 years; however, students who are not college graduates may spend a longer period at this seminary and complete the requirements for the bachelor’s degree at the same time they are pursuing the rabbinic course. Most Orthodox semi naries, however, do not require a college degree to qualify for ordination. In general, the curriculums of Jewish theologi cal seminaries provide students with a comprehen sive grasp of all aspects of Jewish knowledge, in THE CLERGY eluding the Bible and Talmud. Other courses include Jewish history, theology, pastoral psy chology, and public speaking. The Reform semi nary places less emphasis on the study of Talmud and offers a broad course of study that includes such subjects as human relations and Jewish reli gious education. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in such fields as Biblical and Talmudic research. All Jewish theological semi naries make scholarships and loans available to students. Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as leaders of small congregations, as assistants to experienced rabbis, or as chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, the pulpits of large and well-established synagogues and temples are filled by experienced rabbis. The choice of a career as a rabbi should, of course, be made on the basis of a fervent belief in the religious teachings and practices of Judaism and of a desire to serve the religious needs of others. In addition to having high moral and ethical values, the prospective rabbi should have good judgment and be intelligent and able to write and speak effectively. Outlook The number of rabbis in this country will prob ably not be sufficient to meet the needs of all congregations and other organizations desiring their services in the middle and late 1960’s. In the early years of the decade, many congregations —especially those located in States where there 181 are relatively few persons of the Jewish faith— were unable to secure the spiritual leadership of a full-time ordained rabbi and had to rely on the services of senior theological students and lay readers. Rabbis were also being sought to lead the many new congregations which had been or ganized in and around New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and Boston—where the majority of the Jewish population is concentrated. The recent increases in Jewish religious affilia tion and in the number of synagogues and temples seem likely to continue. Furthermore, an increas ing demand for rabbis to work with social welfare and other organizations connected with the Jewish faith is anticipated. Although the number of students graduating annually from the Jewish theological seminaries is expected to increase also, there will probably not be enough new graduates to replace the rabbis who retire or die, and to fill the openings which will be created by the formation of new congrega tions. Immigration, once an important source of supply of rabbis, is no longer significant. In fact, graduates of American seminaries are now in de mand for Jewish congregations in other countries. Where To Go for More Information Young people who are interested in entering the rabbinate should seek the guidance of a rabbi. Additional information on how to prepare for service in the rabbinate of a particular branch of Judaism, including school admission require ments, may be obtained from each theological school. BUSINESS A D M IN IS T R A T IO N A N D R ELA T ED P R O FESSIO N S People employed in the field of business ad ministration are a large group and an extremely important one. The success or failure of a business enterprise probably depends more on how well its managers do their job than it does on anything else. Business managers are also one of the fastest growing groups in the country. Between 1958 and 1962, the number of salaried management work ers increased more than three times as fast as the number of workers in all nonagricultural occupa tions combined. In 1962, there were about Sy2 million people in salaried management positions with private firms. In addition, many more thousands were employed as supervisors, and as engineers and other pro fessional specialists whose work involved mana gerial responsibilities. Many management workers are college gradu ates who have taken their major courses in the field of business and commerce. In recent years the graduates in this field have exceeded 50,000 an nually and have accounted for close to 15 percent of all bachelor’s degrees awarded. This major field is second only to teacher training in numbers of degrees awarded, and exceeds those granted in such large fields as engineering, law, and medicine. Chart 19 shows the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded in business and commerce since 1920. Management workers do the same kinds of things that the owner of a small business does for himself to keep his business running, but on a much bigger scale. The man who runs a small television repair service, for example, may at tempt to attract new customers through advertise ments in local papers. The workers in charge of advertising household appliances produced by a large manufacturing company may use newspaper advertisements also, but their firm’s advertisements are likely to be bigger and more elaborate and pub182 CHART 19 BACHELORS DEGREES GRANTED IN BUSINESS AND COMMERCE Thousands of Degrees Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. lished in newspapers throughout the country. Their company’s products will probably be ad vertised also through radio, television, and other channels. Similarly, the small businessman has, at most, only a few employees to direct, whereas the personnel workers in a large corporation must consider the welfare and productiveness of thou sands of employees. At the top of the management ladder are the corporation presidents, vice presidents, and other company officials. These people set company goals, coordinate company activities, and make the ma jor decisions which establish company wide poli cies. In small companies, they may also carry through with the plans which they develop, tak- BU SIN ESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS 183 CHART 20 SAM PLE O R G A N IZ A T IO N CHART O F A LA RG E M AN UFACTU RIN G C O M P A N Y ...... Controller VICE PRESIDENT-, FINANCE N T reasurer VICE PRESIDENTPERSONNEL AND INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS Personnel Manager Industrial Relations Manager Production Mdnager Plant Engineer VICE PRESIDENTPRODUCTION Purchasing Manager BOARD OF DIRECTORS Traffic Manager PRESIDENT VICE PRESIDENT. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT VICE PRESIDENT MARKETING AND SALES Research Manager Systems and procedures Auditing Budget Taxes General accounting Works accounting Payroll Employee selection, placement, and training Wage and salary administration Labor relations Employee benefits __J Production control Quality control Methods Standards Design Plant layout Raw materials Machinery Storekeeping Surplus disposal Routing Rates Transportation Claims - YJ Research and design ~ f \ Experimental operations Product Development Manager Sales Manager ^Regional sales --{District sales [Plant sales Market Re search Manager [Consumer surveys -"<Sales forecasting •New plant location Advertising Manager VICE PRESIDENT. PUBLIC RELATIONS Director of Public Relations VICE PRESIDENTLEGAL AFFAIRS Chief Counsel [Product advertising J Space and time I buying (newspapers, magazines, radio,STV> Public information Stockholder relations Community relations Speech,editorial, and publications . services Corporate legal affairs Employee legal problems Patents Copyrights OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK; 184 ing direct charge of the work done in connection with store displays, financial reports, employee recreational activities, or other projects. In large corporations, however, the plans and policies de veloped by officials at the top are more likely to be carried out with the assistance of management workers in subordinate positions—the middlelevel managers who direct the work of sales, accounting, personnel, engineering, and other de partments. (See chart 20 illustrating how man agement functions might be organized within a large company.) Companies with branch plants and chain stores, have middle-level managers in charge of these operations as well. Some compan ies also have many supervisory positions which involve management responsibilities. Middle-level managers, as well as supervisors in positions of this kind, are responsible for keeping the units under their direction operating at peak efficiency and in accordance with the broad policies estab lished for the company as a whole. At the bottom of the management ladder are the beginners who are gaining experience which may later qualify them for management positions. Many are college graduates who have been re cruited because their ability, personality traits, and training make them promising candidates for managerial work. Such trainees are placed usually in jobs where they have particularly good oppor tunities to become acquainted with the firm’s busi ness activities and policies. Some work as assist ants to people in management positions, while others are given job assignments which are changed periodically so that they may have an opportunity to learn all phases of their employer’s business operations. A limited number go through formal executive trainee programs. The number of companies with formal manage ment-trainee programs is still relatively small. Most people enter administrative jobs only after several years of work experience, often with the same employer but in work unrelated to manage ment. This kind of experience gives the managerto-be an opportunity to acquire the knowledge of business practices and problems he will need. It also enables his employer to observe whether he possesses the maturity, judgment, and leadership qualities which are essential if he is to be effective in planning and directing company activities. Today, more and more employers are seeking to develop the qualities which make for successful management through company-sponsored training programs open to carefully selected groups of employees. Increasing dependence on trained management specialists plus the economic growth which is an ticipated point towards the likelihood that em ployment in this field of work will expand very considerably during the middle and late 1960’s. In addition, new management-related occupations, such as hospital administrator and urban planner, are developing which will absorb certain manage ment and planning functions formerly handled by others. Openings for newcomers will arise also because of the need to fill positions which become vacant as management workers retire or leave their jobs for other reasons. Altogether, the number of management positions in private in dustry which will have to be filled can be expected to reach 150,000 or more per year during the period 1963-70. Most of them will be filled by people who have already acquired a substantial amount of experience in other phases of their em ployer’s operations or by outsiders with work ex perience related to the positions to be filled. Op portunities for many young people to start on the road to a career in business management will be provided, however, as the entry jobs farther down on the ladder are vacated by people who move up to better positions. Accountants (D.O.T. 0-01.) Nafure of Work Accounting is the second largest field of pro fessional employment for men. In 1962, approxi mately 450,000 accountants and auditors were engaged in professional accounting work, includ ing more than 75,000 certified public accountants (CPA’s) who had passed rigorous examinations and met educational and experience requirements prescribed by law in their State. Fewer than 10 percent of all accountants, and 2 percent of the CPA’s, were women. B U SIN ESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS Accountants compile and analyze business rec ords and prepare financial reports, such as profit and loss statements, balance sheets, cost studies, and tax reports. The major fields of employment are public, private, and government accounting. Public accountants are independent practitioners who work on a fee basis for any business enter prise or individual wishing to use their serv ices. Private accountants, often referred to as industrial or management accountants, handle the financial records of particular business firms for which they work on a salary basis. Government accountants work on the financial records of government agencies or audit the records of private business organizations and individuals whose dealings are subject to government regula tion. Accountants in any field of employment may specialize in such areas as auditing, tax work, cost accounting, budgeting and control, or sys tems and procedures. Public accountants are likely to specialize in auditing—that is, in reviewing financial records and reports and giving opinions as to their reliability. They also advise clients on tax matters and other financial and accounting problems. Most private accountants do cost or other management accounting. Sometimes they specialize in tax work or in internal auditing— that is, examining and appraising financial sys tems and management control procedures in their companies. Many accountants in the Federal Gov ernment are employed as Internal Revenue agents, investigators, and bank examiners, as well as in regular accounting positions. Where Employed More than half of all accountants do private accounting work for the business and industrial firms where they are employed. Perhaps a third are engaged in public accounting as proprietors, partners, or employees of independent accounting firms. About 10 percent work for Federal, State, and local government agencies. Accountants are employed wherever business, industrial, or governmental organizations are located. The majority, however, work in large metropolitan centers where there is a particularly heavy concentration of public accounting firms and central offices of large business organizations. 185 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training in accounting can be obtained in uni versities, 4-year colleges, junior colleges, account ing and private business schools, and correspond ence schools. Graduates of all these institutions are included in the ranks of successful account ants. However, a bachelor’s degree with a major in accounting or a closely related field is always an asset; for the better positions, especially in public accounting, it may be required. Candidates with a master’s degree in accounting, as well as college training in other business and liberal arts subjects, are preferred by some large public accounting firms. For beginning accounting positions the Federal Government requires 4 years of college training (including 24 semester hours in account ing) or an equivalent combination of education and experience. Some previous work experience can be of great value also in qualifying for pri vate employment. A number of colleges offer stu dents an opportunity to get such experience through internship programs conducted in co operation with public accounting or business firms. All States require that anyone practicing in the State as a “certified public accountant” hold a certificate issued by the State board of account ancy. Well over half the States also restrict the title “public accountant” to those who are licensed or registered. Requirements for licensing and registration vary considerably from one State to another, and information on these requirements should be obtained directly from the board of accountancy in the State where the student plans to practice. Before the CPA certificate is issued, at least 2 years of public accounting experience, or its equivalent, is required in nearly all States. The States of New York, New Jersey, Florida, South Dakota, Connecticut, and Hawaii also re quire CPA candidates to be college graduates. Similar requirements will become effective in six more States during 1965, and in a number of addi tional States before the end of the decade. All States use the CPA examination provided by the American Institute of Certified Public Account ants. In recent years, more than 9 out of 10 suc cessful CPA candidates have been college gradu ates. Inexperienced accountants usually begin with fairly routine work. Junior public accountants 186 may be assigned to counting cash, verifying ad ditions, or performing other detailed work. They usually advance to semi-senior positions in 2 or 3 years and to senior positions within another 2 or 3 years. In the larger firms, those successful in dealing with top executives in industry may even tually become supervisors, managers, or partners or transfer to executive positions in private ac counting. Many become independent practitioners. Beginners in private accounting may start as ledger or cost clerks, timekeepers, junior internal auditors, or, occasionally, as trainees for technical and executive positions. They may rise to chief plant accountant, chief cost accountant, senior in ternal auditor, or manager of internal auditing, depending on their specialty, and some become controllers, treasurers, and even corporation presi dents. In the Federal Government, beginners are hired as trainees and are usually promoted in a year or so. Although advancement may be rapid for able accountants, those with inadequate aca demic preparation are likely to be assigned to routine jobs and find themselves handicapped in obtaining promotion. Accountants who want to get to the top in their profession usually find it necessary to continue their study of accountancy and related problems —even though they may have already obtained college degrees or CPA certificates. Even ex perienced accountants may spend many hours in study and research, in order to keep abreast of legal and business developments which affect their work. For example, more and more accountants are studying computer operation and programing methods so as to adapt accounting procedures to new methods of processing business data. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for accountants, which were excellent at the beginning of 1963, are expected to continue to be very good for the re mainder of the 1960’s. As many as 10,000 ac countants may be needed annually during this period to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Provided there is no major drop in the general level of business activity, at least as many more will be needed each year to fill new positions. Demand for college-trained ac countants will rise faster than demand for people OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK; without this broad background of training, be cause of the increasing complexity of business and its accounting requirements. Graduates of private business and accounting schools, however, should also have good job prospects during this period. Over the long run, accounting employment is expected to expand rapidly because of several factors, including the greater use of accounting information in business management; complex and changing tax systems; the growth in size and number of business corporations which are re quired to provide financial reports to stockhold ers ; and the increasing use of accounting services by small business organizations. Highly trained accountants will be in even greater demand as con sultants to business managers in projects such as planning new recordkeeping systems and account ing procedures for use with electronic data-processing equipment. Increasing numbers of women will be engaged in professional accounting, though most public accounting firms will probably remain reluctant to employ them—because of tradition and prefer ences expressed by individual clients, and because some types of travel and factory assignments are considered better suited to men than to women. However, those women who rank high among college graduates with accounting majors and who secure the CPA certificate will, in time, un doubtedly break down these barriers. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for new college graduates averaged about $6,000 a year late in 1962, accord ing to a private survey of over 100 large busi ness organizations actively recruiting college seniors for accounting positions. Smaller firms, especially the small CPA firms, generally pay somewhat lower rates. Salaries of senior account ants with about 5 years’ experience are generally about 50 percent higher than starting salaries; salaries of those with 10 years’ experience are likely to be about twice as high as the beginning rate. Many certified public accountants who were in supervisory positions or were self-employed earned between $10,000 and $25,000 a year, accord ing to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. A few who are partners in very large public accounting firms may earn as much as BU SIN ESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS $100,000 a year. Chief accountants in other than public accounting firms averaged between $10,000 and $15,000 a year. In major industrial corpora tions, chief internal auditors earned from $18,000 to $28,000 a year, according to the limited data available. Those in managerial accounting posi tions, such as controllers and financial vice presi dents, earned much more. In the Federal Civil Service, the entrance salary for junior accountants and auditors was $4,565 in early 1963. Some candidates with su perior academic records could qualify for a start ing salary of $5,540. Many experienced account ants in the Federal Government made between $9,000 and $10,000 a year, and some, with ad ministrative responsibilities, earned $13,000 or more in 1963. Public accountants are likely to work especially long hours under heavy pressure during the tax season. They do most of their work in their clients’ offices, and sometimes do a considerable amount of traveling in order to serve distant clients. A few private and government accountants also do a great deal of traveling and work irregular hours, but the majority remain in one office and work be 187 tween 35 and 40 hours a week, under the same general conditions as their fellow office workers. Where To Go for More Information Information, particularly on CPA’s and on the aptitude and achievement tests now given in many high schools and colleges and by many public ac counting firms, may be obtained from: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 666 Fifth Ave., New Fork, N.Y., 10019. Further information on specialized fields of ac counting may be obtained from: National Association of Accountants, 505 Park Ave., New York, N.Y., 10022. Financial Executives Institute, 2 Park Ave., New York, N.Y., 10016. The Institute of Internal Auditors, Inc., 120 Wall St., New York, N.Y., 10005. A leaflet describing accounting as a career may be obtained free from: The American Accounting Association, School of Commerce, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., 53700. Advertising Workers (D.O.T. 0-81. and 0-06.94) Nature of Work Through advertisements published in news papers and magazines, broadcast on the radio, shown on television, displayed on billboards, sent through the mail, or even written in smoke in the sky, businessmen try to reach potential customers and persuade them to buy their products. Adver tising workers, who plan and prepare these ad vertisements and get them before the public, are employed by many kinds of organizations. The largest groups are employed by advertising agen cies, which prepare and handle advertising for other firms on a commission or service fee basis. The remainder work for manufacturing com panies, stores, and other organizations having products and services to sell; for firms in the ad vertising media business, such as publishers, broadcasters, and outdoor advertising and direct mail organizations; and for printers, engravers, art studies, product and package designers, or other firms which provide services to advertisers and advertising agencies. In 1962, about 125,000 men and women were em ployed in professional or other positions requiring considerable knowledge of advertising, according to an estimate by the Advertising Federation of America. This total includes executives responsi ble for planning and overall supervision; copy writers who write the text; artists who prepare the illustrations; layout specialists who put copy and illustrations into the most attractive arrange ment possible; administrative and technical work ers who see to the satisfactory reproduction of the “ads” ; and salesmen who sell advertising space in publications or time on radio or television pro grams. In a very small advertising organization, one person may do all these things. Large or ganizations employ specialists for research, copywriting, and layout work, and sometimes have staff members who specialize in writing copy for 188 particular kinds of products or for one type of media such as radio, popular magazines, or direct mail. The specialized occupations most commonly found in advertising work are described next. Advertising managers head the advertising de partments of manufacturing companies and other advertisers and of newspapers and other media. Since most businesses use the services of advertis ing agencies to handle all or part of their adver tising programs, the company’s advertising man ager works mostly on policy questions—for example, the type of advertising, the size of the advertising budget, and the agency to be em ployed. He then works with the agency in plan ning and carrying through the program. He may also supervise the preparation of special sales brochures, display cards, and other promotional materials. The advertising manager of a newspaper, radio station, or other advertising medium is chiefly con cerned with selling advertising time or space; his functions are similar to those of the sales manager in other businesses. Account executives are employed in advertising agencies to handle relations between the agency and its clients. An account executive studies the client’s sales and advertising problems, develops a plan to meet the client’s needs, and gets his ap proval of the proposed program. Account execu tives must be able to sell ideas and maintain good relations with clients. They must know how to write copy and use artwork, even though they usually call on copywriters and artists to carry out their ideas and suggestions. Some advertising agencies have account super visors who oversee the work of the account execu tives. In others, account executives are directly responsible to agency heads. Advertising copywriters create the headlines, slogans, and text that attract buyers. They collect information about the products and the people who might use them. They use their knowledge of psychology and writing techniques to prepare copy especially suited for readers or listeners and for the type of advertising medium to be used. Copywriters may specialize in copy that appeals to housewives, businessmen, scientists, or engineers —or even in copy which deals with specific prod ucts such as lipsticks or washing machines. In advertising agencies, copywriters work closely OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Account executive and copywriter discuss advertising copy with client with account executives, though they may be under the supervision of a copy chief. Media directors (or space buyers and time buy ers) are employed by advertisers or advertising agencies to determine where and when advertising should be carried in order to reach the largest group of prospective buyers at the least cost. They must have a vast amount of information about the cost of advertising in all media and the relative size and type of the reading or listening audience which can be reached in various parts of the country by specific publications, broadcast ing stations, and other media. Research directors and their assistants assemble and analyze information needed for effective ad vertising programs. They study the possible uses of the product, its advantages and disadvantages, compared with competing products, and the best ways of reaching potential purchasers. Such workers may make special surveys of the buying habits and motives of customers or may try out sample advertisements to find the most convinc ing selling theme or most efficient media for car rying the advertising message. The research director is an important executive in advertising organizations. More information on this occupa tion is contained in the statement on Marketing Research Workers. (See index for page number.) Production managers and their assistants ar range to have the final copy and art work con verted into printed form. They deal with print BU SIN ESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS ing, engraving, and other firms involved in the reproduction of advertisements. The production manager must have a thorough knowledge of various printing processes, typography, photog raphy, paper, inks, and related technical materials and processes. Artists and layout men are part of a key creative group in advertising work. They work closely with advertising managers, copywriters, and other ad vertising personnel in planning advertisements. More information about this group appears in the separate statements on Commercial Artists and on Photographers. (See index for page numbers.) Where Employed Perhaps a third of all advertising workers are employed in advertising agencies; more than half of these agency workers are employed in the New York City and Chicago metropolitan areas. How ever, there are many independent agencies in other cities, and many leading agencies operate branch offices outside the major centers. Large numbers of advertising workers em ployed by other types of employers—especially by advertising service and media firms—are also located in the New York and Chicago metropoli tan areas. However, many are found in smaller cities throughout the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers, in hiring advertising trainees, prefer college graduates with liberal arts training or majors in marketing, journalism, or business administration. However, there is no typical edu cational background for success in advertising. Some successful advertising people have had no college training; others started in such varied oc cupations as engineer, teacher, chemist, artist, or salesman. Most advertising jobs require a flair for lan guage, both spoken and written. Since every as signment requires individual handling, a liking for problem-solving is also very important. Ad vertising personnel should have a great interest in people and things, to help them sell their ideas to their superiors, to advertisers, and to the public. They must be able to accept criticism and to gain important points with tact. 189 Young people planning to enter the advertising field should get experience in copywriting or other work for their school publications and, if possible, through summer jobs in selling, interviewing, or other work connected with marketing research services. Some large advertising organizations re cruit outstanding college graduates and train them through programs which cover all aspects of ad vertising work. Most beginners, however, have to locate their own jobs by applying directly to possible employers. Young men sometimes begin as mail clerks, or as messengers and runners who pick up and deliver messages and proofs for de partments and agency clients. Some start as as sistants in research or production work or as space or time salesmen. A few begin as junior copy writers. In most advertising organizations, women begin as secretaries or, if they have the required education, as research assistants. The best avenue of entrance to advertising work for women is through advertising departments in retail stores. Employees with initiative, drive, and talent may progress from beginning jobs to creative, research, or managerial work. For management positions, they should have experience in all phases of the advertising business including some work with advertising agencies, media, and advertisers. Copywriters and account executives can usually look forward to rapid advancement, if they dem onstrate exceptional ability in dealing with clients, since the success of an advertising organization depends on satisfied advertisers. Many of these workers prefer to remain in their own specialties and for them advancement can be to more respon sible work at increased pay. Some topflight copy writers and account executives set up their own agencies. Employment Outlook Young people who are very well qualified by experience and aptitude for advertising work will find good employment opportunities for the re mainder of the 1960’s. Those who are only moder ately well qualified may find the advertising field a hard one to enter and an even harder one in wdiich to advance. Employment in advertising is expected to in crease moderately during the remainder of the 1960 decade and over the long run because of anticipated increases in the volume of advertising. Among the factors that will contribute to the de OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 190 mand for advertising workers are the overall growth of industry, the development of new prod ucts and services, and the increase in competition among producers of industrial and consumer goods. The growth in self-service in retail stores will also necessitate more advertising since, in the absence of salespeople, firms will find it increas ingly important to advertise to attract customers to their products. In addition to those needed to fill new positions, several thousand advertising workers will be needed each year to replace those who transfer to other types of work, or who re tire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. The greatest demand is likely to occur in advertising agencies, since the present trend is for advertis ers to turn over more and more of their advertis ing work to agencies. The increase in employment of advertising workers in firms outside the agency field will probably be at a slower rate. As in the past, openings will occur in many cities and towns throughout the country, but are likely to be most numerous in New York City. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for beginning advertising workers ranged from $60 to $115 a week in 1962, according to limited information available. The higher salaries were most frequently paid in very large firms recruiting outstanding college grad uates, and the lower salaries in stores and small advertising agencies. Salaries of workers above the trainee level are also likely to be highest in the very large firms, according to a private survey. In advertising agencies doing a yearly business of $2 million or less, the annual salaries of copywriters ranged from $3,200 to $12,800 in early 1962; account executives’ salaries ranged from $4,500 to $16,500 a year. In agencies doing an annual business of $10 million or more, salaries ranged from $4,500 to $24,000 for copywriters and from $12,500 to $25,000 for account executives. Salaries reported for copy chiefs, account supervisors, and other top executive personnel were usually, but not always, substantially vhigher. According to another pri vate survey, earnings of advertising managers in firms other than advertising agencies generally ranged from $7,000 to $21,000 annually. The wide spread in salaries reflects the great difference in experience, function, talent, and degree of respon sibility among workers with the same job title. Advertising workers frequently work under great pressure. Working hours are extremely ir regular, because publication deadlines must be met and last minute changes are not uncommon. Peo ple in creative jobs often work evenings and weekends to finish important assignments. At the same time, advertising offers a satisfying career to people who enjoy variety, excitement, and a constant challenge to their creative ability and who can meet the competition. The copywriter and the artist have the satisfaction of seeing their work in print or hearing it over the radio, even though they remain unknown to the public at large. Where To Go for More Information Advertising Federation of America, 655 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y., 10021. American Association of Advertising Agencies, 420 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y., 10017. Industrial Traffic M anagers (D.O.T. 0-97.66) Nature of Work Traffic managers and their assistants arrange for transportation of raw materials, equipment, and finished products to and from industrial and business firms. It is their job to see that raw ma terials purchased and finished products sold are shipped in a way that will insure prompt and safe delivery and at the same time keep costs as low as possible. After taking into consideration the kind and amount of goods to be shipped, the time when delivery is needed, and other factors, they choose the type of transportation—water, highway, rail, air, or pipeline—the route, and finally the particu lar carrier, or transportation company, which wTould be best to use for each shipment. (Traffic managers employed by railroads, airlines, truck BUSIN ESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS ing firms, and other transportation companies, who are chiefly concerned with attracting business to their firms, are not covered by this statement.) The duties of industrial traffic managers and their assistants range from routine tasks, such as checking freight bills, to major planning and policymaking matters, such as deciding whether the company should buy and operate its own fleet of trucks. Other duties include ascertaining the freight classifications and rates which apply to goods shipped, routing and tracing shipments, ar ranging with carriers for transportation services, preparing bills of lading and other shipping docu ments, and handling claims for lost or damaged goods. In addition, traffic managers are responsi ble for maintaining records not only of shipments but also of freight rates, commodity classifications, and applicable government regulations. Some times traffic managers are responsible for the packaging of shipments and for their companies’ warehouse facilities and transportation equip ment. In small companies, or in firms without separate traffic departments, arrangements for transport ing incoming goods may be made by the purchas ing department—those for outgoing shipments, by personnel in the sales department. Employees who handle transportation arrangements in such firms must have a broad knowledge of the trans portation field, but usually they do not have the title “traffic manager.” Since many aspects of transportation are sub ject to Federal, State, and local government regu lations, traffic managers and their assistants must know about these and any other legal matters which apply to their companies’ shipping opera tions. Some traffic managers represent their com panies before ratemaking and regulatory bodies— such as the Interstate Commerce Commission, State Commissions, and local traffic bureaus—to request or oppose changes in rates, commodity classifications, or types of service provided by car riers. Where Employed Altogether, about 15,000 persons held jobs as industrial traffic managers in 1962. The majority were employed by manufacturing firms, although 191 Industrial traffic managers often must arrange a combination of transportation facilities to ship goods some worked for stores and other types of estab lishments. A few traffic managers are in business for themselves, acting as consultants on transpor tation problems for various clients. Most traffic managers are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although it is still possible for persons with a high school education to qualify for traffic man ager positions on the basis of previous experience, a college education is becoming increasingly im portant for those who want a career in this field. For some kinds of work, college training may be required. For example, in order to argue cases before the U.S. Government’s Interstate Com merce Commission, a traffic manager must meet certain “qualification standards” which generally include at least 2 years of college training. In selecting college graduates for trainee positions, some employers prefer to hire graduates of schools of business administration who have majored in transportation; others prefer persons with degrees in liberal arts who have had courses in transpor tation, management, economics, statistics, market ing, or commercial law. The first jobs of new traffic department employ ees are often in shipping rooms, where they gain experience in routing shipments and preparing bills of lading and other shipping forms, or in general traffic offices, where they may do clerical 192 work such as filing schedules of freight rates and calculating freight charges. After gaining experi ence in various routine tasks, employees may be advanced to more technical work such as analyz ing rates and transportation statistics. After fur ther experience, a competent worker may ad vance to a supervisory position, such as super visor of rates and routes. For the most competent, promotion to assistant manager, and eventually to manager, is possible. Workers in traffic departments may prepare themselves for advancement by participating in company-sponsored training programs, by taking courses in colleges, universities, and vocational schools, or by attending seminars sponsored by various private organizations. A mark of pro fessional status and recognition in traffic manage ment work is “certified” membership in the Amer ican Society of Traffic and Transportation, Inc., which can be acquired by successfully completing the Society’s examinations and meeting certain experience requirements. Employment Outlook A steady increase in employment in this occupa tion can be expected during the 1960’s. Some large companies will probably follow the example al ready set by many corporations and reorganize their shipping and receiving activities into sepa rate traffic departments with traffic managers in charge. In other companies, newT transportation jobs will probably be located in purchasing or sales departments and thus have different job titles. Among the factors expected to contribute to the longrun growth in this field are the increasing emphasis in many industries on efficient manage ment of transportation activities and the trend toward procuring raw materials and finished products from more and more remote places and distributing them to increasingly wider markets. Since transportation costs are a major factor in the price of many items, companies are becoming increasingly concerned with economies in ship ping. Undoubtedly, there will be strong demand for specialists who know how to classify products so as to obtain the lowest possible freight rates, choose the carriers which are best able to handle OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK each shipment, and otherwise protect their com panies from excessive shipping expenses. Although college training will probably be em phasized increasingly for entry jobs, experience and demonstrated ability in the fields just indi cated will remain the most important factors in qualifying for promotion, especially to high-level traffic management positions. Earnings and Working Conditions Young men with college degrees who started as business trainees in the traffic departments of large industrial firms often received annual sala ries of about $5,500 in 1962, according to the limited data available. Beginners with less school ing, however, usually received lower salaries. Earnings of experienced traffic managers are related generally to their companies’ sales volume and transportation costs. The average (median) salary of traffic managers in companies with trans portation costs totaling less than $500,000 annu ally was about $8,500 in 1960, according to the limited information available. In companies where transportation costs ranged between $4 million and $10 million, the average was approximately $15,000. In firms where these costs are still higher, some traffic executives earned considerably more than $20,000. Traffic department employees usually work the standard workweek of their companies—generally from 35 to 40 hours. Those in particularly respon sible jobs may have to spend some time outside regular working hours preparing reports, attend ing meetings, and traveling to hearings before State and Federal regulatory agencies. Where To Go for More Information) Young people interested in careers in industrial traffic management may consult with members of local traffic and transportation associations or they may write to: The Associated Traffic Clubs of America, 4914 Bethesda Aye., Washington, D.C., 20014. For information on the requirements for certi fication by the American Society of Traffic and Transportation, Inc., write to: American Society of Traffic and Transportation, Inc., 22 West Madison St., Chicago, 111., 60602. BU SIN ESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS 193 Marketing Research Workers (D.O.T. 0-36.11) Nature of Work Marketing research workers are factfinders for businessmen. They seek out, analyze, and inter pret the many different kinds of information which business executives need in order to make effective plans, such as those concerned with ex panding operations, enlarging sales, improving methods of distributing goods and services, and increasing profits. Marketing researchers prepare reports and recommendations to help manage ment make decisions on such widely differing problems as forecasting sales; estimating the po tential demand for a new product; selecting a brand name, package, or design; choosing a new plant location; price setting, revising salaries and commissions of salesmen; deciding whether to move goods by rail, truck, or other methods of transportation; and determining the kinds of ad vertising likely to attract the most business. In investigating these and other problems, they con sider expected changes in population, income levels, and consumer credit policies, or other sub jects pertinent to marketing policies. Practically all marketing research starts with the collection of facts from published materials, from the firm’s own records, and from specialists on the subject under investigation. Research work ers analyzing the fluctuations in a company’s sales, for example, may first study sales records in a number of different cities, to determine periodical changes in sales volume. They may then compare these changes with changes in population, income levels, the size of the company’s sales force, and the amounts spent by the company for advertising in each city and, from these comparisons, discover the reasons for changes in the volume of sales. Other marketing research workers may study changes in the quantity of company goods on store shelves, or take inventories of products stocked in warehouses, or make door-to-door sur veys to learn how many company products are already used in households. Marketing research is often concerned with the personal opinions of the people who are using company products or who might be likely to use them in the future. For example, a survey in tended to help management decide on the design 692-408 O— 6i -14 Marketing research workers plan a survey and pricing of a new line of cooking utensils may involve the use of a questionnaire to learn from a limited number of housewives the price they would be willing to pay and their preferences in such things as the color and size of the utensil and type of handle. A survey of this kind is usually carried on under the supervision of marketing research workers who specialize in research on consumer goods— that is, merchandise sold to the general public. In planning the survey, the marketing research worker may get help from a statistician in select ing a group (or “sample”) of individuals to be interviewed, in order to be certain that the opin ions obtained from them will be representative of the opinions held by the many other potential customers. He may also consult a specialist in “motivational research”—an expert in framing questions that will produce reliable information about the motives that lead people to make the purchases they do. When the investigation gets underway, the marketing research worker may supervise a number of interviewers who call on housewives to obtain answers to the questions. He may also direct the work of the office employees who tabulate and analyze the information col lected. His report summarizing the survey findings may also include other information that company officials need in making decisions about the new line. 194 Marketing research surveys concerned with products used by business and industrial firms may be conducted somewhat differently from con sumer goods surveys. Because research on some industrial products requires interviewers with a technical knowledge of the product involved, the interviews are often conducted by the marketing research worker himself (or by several research workers, if the survey is a particularly extensive one). In his interviews, the marketing research worker not only tries to get opinions about the proposed product, but keeps on the lookout for possible new ways of adapting it to industrial needs. He must, therefore, be a specialist both in marketing research and in the industrial uses of the product involved. Where Employed An estimated 10,000 to 15,000 people were em ployed full time as marketing research workers in 1962. This number included research assistants and others in junior positions, wdio helped ex perienced analysts collect information and pre pare reports, as well as research supervisors and directors. The majority of these workers were men; positions held by women were, for the most part, at the junior professional levels. In addition to these marketing research work ers, a limited number of other professional em ployees (statisticians, economists, psychologists, and sociologists) and several thousand clerical workers (clerks who coded and tabulated survey returns, typists, and others) were employed full time in this field. Thousands of other workers, many of them women, were employed on a parttime or temporary basis as survey interviewers. The great majority of the interviewers and a large proportion of the professional and clerical work ers were employed on large-scale research projects dealing with consumer goods. Among the principal employers of marketing research workers are manufacturing companies and independent advertising and marketing re search organizations which do this kind of work for clients on a contract basis. Marketing research workers are also employed by very large stores, radio and television firms, and newspapers, and some work for university research centers, govern ment agencies, and other organizations which pro vide information for businessmen. Marketing re OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK search organizations range in size from one-man enterprises to large firms with hundreds of em ployees. The largest number of marketing research workers are in New York City, where many ma jor advertising and independent marketing re search organizations are located and where many large manufacturers have their central offices. The second largest concentration is in Chicago. How ever, marketing research workers are employed in many other cities as well—wherever there are central offices of large manufacturing and sales organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many people go into marketing research after having worked in other kinds of research jobs or having been employed in work related to the field of marketing. University teachers with experience in teaching marketing research or statistics are often chosen by employers to head new market ing research departments. A college degree is usually required of people hired as trainees in marketing research. Market ing, statistics, English composition, speech, psy chology, and economics are among the courses considered most valuable as preparation for this field of work. Candidates for some marketing research positions need specialized training in engineering or other technical subjects, or a sub stantial amount of sales experience and a thorough knowledge of the company’s products. A knowl edge of electronic data-processing procedures is becoming important because of the growdng use of electronic computers in sales forecasting, distribu tion, cost analysis, and other aspects of marketing research. Graduate training may be necessary for some kinds of work—for example, motiva tional research or sampling and other statistical work connected with large-scale surveys. Trainees in marketing research usually start as research assistants or junior analysts. At first, they are likely to do a great deal of clerical work, such as copying information from published sources, editing and coding questionnaires, and tabulating results of questionnaires returned in surveys. They also learn how to conduct inter views and to write reports on survey findings. After a few years of experience, assistants and junior analysts may advance to higher level posi- BU SINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS tions, with responsibility for specific marketing research projects or to supervisory positions. An exceptionally able individual may eventually be come marketing research director or vice president in charge of marketing and sales. Marketing research workers must have excep tional ability in recognizing and defining problems and imagination and ingenuity in applying mar keting research techniques to their solution. Above all, this work calls for the ability to analyze in formation and to write reports which will con vince management of the significance of the information. Employment Outlook College graduates who are well trained in mar keting research methods and statistics are likely to find very good job opportunities throughout the rest of the 1960’s. Most of the openings ex pected to occur each year in this relatively small field of work will result from the need to replace people who retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. Competition for top jobs is expected to be keen because of the growing supply of experienced people in the field. Over the long run, the demand for marketing research services is expected to increase as the constant stream of new products sharpens compe tition for customers. Business managers will find it increasingly important to obtain the best in formation possible for appraising marketing situ ations and planning marketing policies. As mar keting research techniques improve and more statistical data accumulate, company officials are likely to turn to marketing research workers for information and advice with increasing frequency. It is anticipated, therefore, that existing market ing research organizations will expand and that, many new marketing research departments and new independent research firms will be set up. 195 Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for marketing research train ees ranged from about $375 to $450 a month in 1962, according to the limited data available. People with master’s degrees in related fields usu ally started at higher salaries. Earnings are substantially higher for experi enced marketing research workers who attain po sitions with considerable responsibility. For ex ample, in 1959, earnings of marketing research directors averaged about $10,000 yearly in firms with fewer than 1,000 employees and about $14,000 in firms with more than 1,000 employees. In a few very large firms, their average earnings ex ceeded $25,000 a year. Women in marketing re search positions tend to earn less than men in com parable positions, and relatively few women advance to the top jobs. Marketing research workers usually work in modern, centrally located offices. Some, especially those employed by independent research firms, do a considerable amount of traveling in connection with their work. They frequently work under pressure and for long hours to meet deadlines. Nevertheless, marketing research offers an op portunity for interesting and varied work to the individual who enjoys a challenging job. Where To Go for More Information Information about specialized types of market ing research is contained in a report entitled “Se lecting Marketing Research Services” wdiich may be obtained from : Small Business Administration, Washington, D.C., 20416. Additional information on marketing research may be obtained from: American Marketing Association, 27 East Monroe St., Chicago, 111., 60603. Personnel Workers (D.O.T. 0-39.81 through .88 and 0-68.70 through .78) Nature of Work Personnel workers are responsible for helping their employers hire good workers and assign them to work they can do effectively. Personnel workers may develop recruiting and hiring pro cedures, interview job applicants, and select and recommend the ones they consider best qualified for the openings to be filled. Some of these work ers keep personnel records and prepare reports based on these records. In addition, they may OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 196 counsel employees, deal with disciplinary prob lems, classify jobs, plan wage and salary scales for different positions, develop safety programs, and conduct research in personnel methods. Em ployee training, the administration of retirement and other employee benefit plans, and labor rela tions—including negotiating agreements with un ions—are also important aspects of their work. (Personnel workers in schools are discussed in the statement on School Counselors elsewhere in this Handbook.) Many personnel jobs require only limited con tact with people, whereas others involve frequent contact with employees, union representatives, job applicants, and other people in and outside the company. Business organizations with large personnel de partments employ personnel workers with many different levels of responsibility. Usually, the de partment is headed by an executive with the title of Personnel Director; other titles sometimes used are Industrial Delations Director, Labor Re lations Director, or Employee Relations Director. The director formulates policy, advises other com pany officials on personnel matters, and adminis ters his department. Within the department, supervisors and various personnel specialists—in labor relations, wage administration, training, safety, job classification, and other aspects of the personnel program—may be responsible for the work of staff assistants and clerical employees. Small business organizations employ relatively few personnel workers. Sometimes one person may be responsible for all the personnel activities and may have other duties as well. Personnel workers do much the same kind of work in Federal, State, and local government agencies as in large business firms, and the person nel departments in government agencies are or ganized in much the same way as in private firms. Government personnel workers, however, spend considerably more time in activities related to classifying jobs than do personnel workers in private industry. Also, it is more common in gov ernment for personnel staffs to include people who devise, administer, and score the competitive ex aminations which are given to job applicants. Where Employed Personnel workers are employed in nearly all kinds of business enterprises and government agencies. The total number employed in early 1963 was estimated to be nearly 100,000. Well over half of all personnel workers are employed by private firms. The second largest number are em ployed by Federal, State, and local government agencies. A third and considerably smaller group of personnel workers are in business for them selves, often as management consultants or labor relations experts. In addition, a number of profes sionally trained personnel workers are employed in colleges and universities as teachers of person nel administration, labor relations, and similar subjects. Most personnel workers are employed in large cities and in the highly industrialized sections of the country. About two-thirds of all personnel workers are men. Many women, however, are em ployed in personnel positions in organizations which employ large numbers of workers—for ex ample, in department stores, telephone companies, very large companies, and government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Personnel director explains organization members chart to his staff A college education is becoming increasingly important for entrance into personnel work. In many companies and government agencies, new graduates are hired for junior personnel positions and then provided in-service training through programs to acquaint them with their employers’ operations, policies, and problems. Other compa nies prefer to fill their personnel positions by BU SINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS transferring people who already have firsthand knowledge of company operations—employees in administrative, sales, and other types of positions. A large number of the people now in personnel work who are not college graduates entered the field in this way. College courses which provide good preparation for personnel work include personnel manage ment, business administration, applied psychol ogy, statistics, labor economics, political science, sociology, English, and public speaking. Many employers in private industry prefer college graduates with the specialized training provided by a major in personnel administration, while some prefer graduates with a general business ad ministration background. Other employers con sider a well-rounded liberal arts education the most desirable preparation for personnel work. Young people interested in personnel work in government are often advised to major in public administration, political science, or personnel ad ministration; however, those with other college majors are also eligible for personnel positions in government. For some positions, more specialized training may be necessary. Jobs involving testing or em ployee counseling often require a bachelor’s de gree with a major in psychology and sometimes a graduate degree in this field. An engineering degree may be desirable for work dealing with time studies or safety standards, and a degree with a major in industrial relations may be help ful for work involving labor relations. A back ground in accounting or law may be useful for positions concerned with wages, or pension and other employee benefit plans. Some college graduates, when starting out in personnel work, learn what they need to know about their employer’s operations and specific per sonnel procedures by taking part in formal train ing programs. Others begin as assistants to ex perienced personnel workers and learn on the job. After such initial training, they may be advanced to higher level work with responsibility for inter viewing applicants, classifying jobs, and for other aspects of the personnel program. Eventually, after they have gained experience, those with ex ceptional ability may perhaps be promoted to executive positions such as that of personnel di rector. Personnel workers sometimes advance also 197 by transferring to other organizations with larger personnel programs or from a middle-rank posi tion in a big corporation to the top job in the personnel department of a smaller one. Personal qualities regarded as important for success in personnel work include the ability to speak and write effectively and more than aver age skill in working with people of all levels of intelligence and experience. In addition, the pro spective personnel worker should be the kind of person who can see the employee’s point of view as well as the employer’s, and be able to give ad vice which is in the best interest of both. A liking for detail, a high degree of persuasiveness, and a pleasing personality are also important in this field of work. Employment Outlook A moderate number of opportunities for college graduates to enter personnel work is expected during the rest of the 1960’s. However, competi tion for entry into professional positions is likely to be keen in many parts of the country. In gen eral, employment prospects will probably be best for college graduates with specialized training in the field. Opportunities for young people to ad vance to personnel positions from production, clerical, or subprofessional jobs will be limited. Employment in personnel work is expected to expand gradually over the long run. As employ ment rises in many fields of work, there will be a need for more personnel workers to carry on re cruiting, recordkeeping, and related activities. Moreover, many employers are coming to recog nize the importance of the “human factor” and to depend more heavily on the services of trained personnel workers to handle their employee rela tions. Employment in some specialized areas of personnel work is particularly likely to rise. Wider use will probably be made of psychological tests; employee training programs are likely to be expanded and adapted to new problems; the need for labor relations experts to handle rela tionships with unions will probably continue to increase. The growth of employee services, safety programs, pension and other benefit plans, and personnel research is also likely to continue. The expected increase in demand for' trained workers should extend throughout tihe personnel field, al OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 198 though it is likely to be most rapid in some spe cialized areas. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning salaries averaged about $5,500 in 1962 for men college graduates employed by large companies, according to reports from college placement directors. According to a national sur vey covering more than 1,800 job analysts, aver age annual salaries of job-analyst trainees em ployed in private industry were about $6,100 in early 1962. Experienced job analysts who were responsible for very difficult kinds of work earned $9,700 a year, on the average. According to the same survey which covered nearly 3,800 directors of personnel, the average annual salary reported for directors wdio worked in companies employing between 250 and 750 workers wTas $8,800; those who worked in very large companies averaged over $15,000 a year. Some top personnel and in dustrial relations executives in very large corpo rations earned considerably more. In the Federal Government, inexperienced graduates with bachelor’s degrees started at $4,565 a year in early 1963; those with exceptionally good academic records, began at $5,540. The entrance salary for graduates with master’s degrees was usually $5,540 also, although for a few especially well-qualified people in this group it was $6,675. The salaries paid many Federal Government per sonnel workers with administrative responsibili ties and several years of experience in the field were around $11,000 a year; some of these person nel workers, in charge of personnel for major de partments of the Federal Government, earned $16,000 or more a year. Employees in personnel offices generally work 35 to 40 hours a week. During a period of intensive recruitment, or at the time of a strike or other emergency, they may work much longer. As a rule, personnel workers are paid for holidays and vaca tions and share in the same retirement plans and other employee benefits as do all professional em ployees in the organizations where they work. Where To Go for More Information General information on personnel work as a career may be obtained by writing to : The American Society for Personnel Administration, Kellogg Center, East Lansing, Mich., 48823. Information about government careers in per sonnel work may be obtained from: Public Personnel Association, 1313 East 60th St., Chicago, 111., 60637. Public Relations Workers (D.O.T. 0-06.97) Nature of Work Public relations workers are responsible for developing and maintaining public opinion fa vorable to the organizations which use their services. It is their job to be informed about the attitudes and opinions of customers, employees, and other groups which are important to the interests of their employers. They use the results of their investigations to help management build favorable public opinion. Public relations workers often provide informa tion about their employers’ business for publica tion in newspapers and magazines, for broadcast ing over radio and television, and for use by other channels of communication. They plan the kind of publicity which they believe will be most ef fective, contact the people who may be interested in using it, and prepare and assemble the needed material. Many news items in the daily papers, human interest stories in popular magazines, and pamphlets giving information about the company, its services or industrial processes, and job op portunities have their start at public relations workers’ desks. These workers may also play an important part in arranging speaking engage ments for company officials, and sometimes write speeches for them to deliver. Often they partici pate actively in community affairs, serving as their employers’ representatives during safety cam paigns and other community projects; or they may arrange plant tours for visiting businessmen, school pupils, and other groups. Showing a film at a school assembly, staging a beauty contest, calling a press conference, and planning a conven BU SINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS tion may all be a part of a public relations work er’s job. All public relations workers tailor their pro grams to their employers’ particular needs. In a business firm, the public relations worker is usu ally concerned with his employer’s relationships with employees, civic organizations, and other community groups, as well as with such matters as promoting sales and with legislation. Some public relations workers—for example, the press agent who handles publicity for an in dividual and the man who is in charge of a limited public relations program for a university, fraternal organization, or small business firm— may handle all aspects of the work. They make their own contacts with outsiders, do their own planning and research, prepare their own ma terial for publication, and otherwise carry out plans which have been decided on. Such public relations workers may be top-level officials or they may occupy positions farther down the man agement ladder. They may combine their public relations duties with responsibility for advertis ing or other managerial work. In large firms with extensive public relations programs, staffs assigned to this work sometimes number 100 or more, and several levels of mana gerial responsibility may be involved. Responsi bility for developing plans and policies may be shared between a vice president or other top ex ecutive who is responsible for the final decisions and the director (or manager) of a public rela tions department. In addition to the public rela tions department’s writers, research workers, and other professional and clerical employees, there may be specialists in different kinds of public rela tions work—in preparing material for publication in the daily press, for example, or in writing re ports sent to stockholders. Where Employed In 1962, there were an estimated 50,000 public relations workers in managerial and supervisory positions and probably an equal number in nonsupervisory jobs. The number in jobs at the top (directors) was probably no more than a few thousand. Most public relations workers are men. An increasing number of women are entering public relations work, however, particularly in 199 department stores, hospitals, hotels, and restau rants. The majority of public relations workers are employed by manufacturing firms, stores, public utilities, trade and professional associations, and labor unions. Others are in consulting firms which provide counsel and other kinds of public rela tions services to clients on a fee basis. In 1962, there were about 1,500 public relations consulting firms, as well as a number of advertising agencies which offered public relations services; and there were about 5,000 corporations which either used the services of consulting firms or had public rela tions staffs of their own. Employment in public relations work tends to be concentrated in big cities where press services and other communications facilities are readily available and where large corporations and trade, professional, and other associations have their headquarters. More than half of the consulting firms are either in New York City or in Los An geles, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college education is generally regarded as the best preparation for public relations work, al though employers differ in the specific type of college background they require of applicants. Some prefer graduates with majors in English, journalism, or public relations; others prefer can didates with a background in science or some other field related to the firm’s business activities. Among the college subjects considered desirable as preparation for a career in public relations are journalism, economics and other social sciences, business administration, psychology, public speak ing, literature, and physical sciences. Extracur ricular activities which may provide students with some valuable experience include writing or other work connected with school publications, partici pation in student government activities, and parttime or summer employment in selling, public relations, or related fields of work. Among the personal qualifications usually con sidered important for work in this field are initiative, drive, the ability to express thoughts clearly and simply—both in writing and orally —and creativity. Fresh ideas are so important to effective public relations work that some experts in this field spend all of their time providing ideas 200 and planning programs but take no active part in carrying out the programs. In selecting new em ployees, many employers prefer people who have had some previous work experience, particularly in journalism or some related field. Some companies—particularly those with large public relations programs for which they recruit and hire young men with outstanding college records as public relations trainees—have formal training programs for new employees. In other companies, new workers learn by working on the job under the guidance of experienced staff mem bers. Beginners often start out maintaining files of material about the company and its activities, scanning newspapers and magazines for appropri ate articles to clip, and doing the research needed in order to assemble information for speeches and pamphlets. After gaining experience, they may be given progressively more difficult assignments, such as writing press releases, speeches, and ar ticles for publication. Promotion to supervisory and managerial positions may come as the worker demonstrates ability to handle more difficult and creative assignments. The most skilled public relations work—initiating and developing plans and maintaining the outside contacts which are so important in a successful program—is usually in the hands of the director of the department and his most experienced staff members. Some experienced public relations workers eventually open their own consulting firms, while others move on to better positions with other employers. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities are expected to ex pand moderately in this field during the rest of the 1960’s. In addition to the new jobs created, as expanding business firms require the services of more public relations specialists, other openings will occur because of the need to replace workers who retire or leave their positions for other reasons. Many of the positions which will have to be filled during the coming years will call for ex perienced public relations workers. They are likely to be filled mainly by people who have al ready done research, prepared material for publi cation, or handled other public relations assign ments. As workers with this kind of experience are moved up to fill the public relations jobs that OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK become available, however, they will leave job vacancies farther down the line which will afford newcomers a chance to start and ^ain experience in the field. Jobs at the top are limited in number, however, and competition for them is keen. Earnings and Working Conditions Most trainees in public relations work in 1962 received starting salaries of about $5,000 to $7,000 a year, according to the limited data available. The highest starting salaries were paid chiefly to beginners who were employed by consulting firms in major cities and who were exceptionally wellqualified from the standpoint of educational back ground and previous work experience. The salaries of experienced public relations workers are generally highest in large companies, where public relations programs are likely to be more extensive than elsewhere. According to the most recent information available (1959), the average (median) salary for privately employed public relations directors or managers was about $19,000 a year in firms with an annual sales volume of more than $200 million and about $12,000 in those with a sales volume of less than $100 million. Top officials such as vice presidents in charge of public relations earned from $25,000 to $50,000 a year or more. Many consulting firms employ fairly large staffs of exerienced public relations spe cialists and often pay salaries which are some what higher than the salaries paid public rela tions workers in other business organizations. In social welfare agencies and universities, salary levels tend to be somewhat lower. The workweek for public relations workers is usually the same as for other officials in their organizations—35 to 40 hours. Irregular hours and overtime may often be necessary, however, to meet deadlines, prepare or deliver speeches, attend meetings and community functions, and make trips out of town. Sometimes, because of the nature of their regular assignments or because of special events, they may be on call on a round-the-clock basis with the workweek stretching to 6 or 7 days instead of the usual 5. Where To Go for More Information Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 375 Park Aye., New York, N.Y., 10022. BU SIN ESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS 201 Purchasing Agents (D.O.T. 0-91.60) Nature of Work Purchasing agents and their assistants buy the raw materials, machinery, supplies, and services required by companies and organizations to carry on their operations. They are responsible for obtaining items and services at the lowest cost consistent with good quality and for seeing that supplies are on hand when needed. The head of the purchasing department is usually called a purchasing agent, but he may have the title of vice president—purchasing, procurement or purchasing officer, director or manager of purchasing, or buyer. (“Buyers” in retail stores—people who select and purchase merchandise for resale to individual customers— are not included in this report.) In a large firm, the head of the purchasing department directs the work of a staff including assistant purchasing agents and various types of clerical workers. Each purchasing assistant may be assigned to a broad area; one person may be responsible for buying raw materials; another, factory machinery; and another, office supplies. Others may specialize in buying certain items—for example, steel, lumber, cotton, or oil. The purchasing agent receives order forms or requisitions from the various departments of the company. These requisitions list and describe needed items and include such information as required quantities and delivery dates. Since the agent can usually purchase from many sources, his main job is to select the seller who offers the best value. To do this, the agent or his staff mem bers must consider many factors, such as the exact specifications for the required items, price, qual ity, quantity discounts, transportation cost, and delivery time. Much of the information is ob tained by comparing listings in catalogs and trade journals and by telephoning various suppliers, but the purchasing agent also meets with salesmen to examine sample goods, watch demonstrations of equipment, and discuss items to be purchased. Sometimes, suppliers are invited to bid on large orders, and the purchasing agent selects the lowest bidder who meets requirements with respect to the specifications set up for the goods and date of delivery. It is important for purchasing agents to develop good working relations with their suppliers, in order to get “rush” orders accepted, arrange for favorable terms of payment, and receive other considerations such as special packaging and prompt adjustment service. They must also work closely with personnel in various departments of their own company. For example, they frequently discuss product specifications with company engineers or discuss shipment handling problems with employees in the shipping and receiving, storage, or traffic departments. Where Employed Purchasing agent discusses new product's design with other staff members before buying parts Well over half of the approximately 100,000 purchasing agents and closely related types of buyers employed in 1960 were in manufacturing industries. Large numbers were employed in gov ernment agencies-—Federal, State, and local—and in wholesale and retail trade. Public utili ties, transportation companies, and institutions (schools, colleges, universities, and hospitals), each employed substantial numbers of purchasing 202 agents and assistants. Even the smallest in dustries employed some purchasing personnel. Most purchasing agents work in firms that have fewer than 10 employees in the purchasing depart ment. Some large firms, however, may have a hundred or more specialized buyers. Probably fewer than 10 percent of all purchasing agents and closely related types of buyers are women. Government agencies, hospitals, restaurants, and textile firms are the principal employers of women purchasing agents. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although employers differ greatly in the qualifications required for purchasing personnel, it is evident that a college degree is becoming increasingly important for promotion to a highlevel purchasing position. Many employers prefer graduates of schools of business administration or engineering who have had courses in account ing, economics, and purchasing. A few require graduate training in business administration. On the other hand, many firms give great weight to experience with the company and select pur chasing workers from among their own personnel. Regardless of previous training and experience, the beginner in the purchasing field must spend considerable time learning about his company’s operations and purchasing procedures. Some companies provide classroom-type instruction and on-the-job training. The beginner may be assigned to the storekeeper’s section to learn about opera tions such as keeping inventory records, filling out forms to initiate purchases of additional stock, or providing proper storage facilities. He may then work with an experienced buyer to learn about types of goods purchased, prices, and sources of supply. Following the initial training period, the trainee may become a junior buyer of standard catalog items. After he gains experience in the various aspects of purchasing and dem onstrates ability to exercise good judgment and accept responsibility, he may be promoted to assistant buyer or assistant purchasing agent, and then to full-fledged purchasing agent. In large companies, purchasing agents or heads of pur chasing departments may become vice presidents with overall responsibility for purchasing, ware housing, traffic, and related functions. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Opportunities are expected to be good during the rest of the 1960’s for well-qualified young people to enter and advance in purchasing occupations. Demand is expected to be strong for graduates of schools of business administration, who have had courses in purchasing. Demand is also expected to be above average for graduates with a good background in engineering and science to fill jobs in purchasing departments of firms that manufacture complex machinery, chemicals, and other technical products. Graduates with degrees from liberal arts colleges will be able to obtain trainee positions in many types of firms. Outstanding persons who do not have a college education will continue to be promoted from clerical, sales, and other types of jobs, but their opportunities for advancement to high-level pur chasing jobs will tend to decrease. They will also be at a competitive disadvantage for jobs which involve the development of scientific methods for materials management or purchasing-related activities such as inventory control, including the use of electronic data-processing equipment. Some of the major factors which point toward a rising demand for purchasing agents and their assistants over the long run, are: The continuing increase in the size of business and manufacturing firms, the development of new products and new sources of supply (including foreign markets), and the ever-increasing complexity and speciali zation of business functions. Competition among manufacturers for new, improved, and less costly goods, raw materials, and services will further direct the attention of top management to the importance of the purchasing function. Many job opportunities will result from the need to replace personnel who retire, transfer to other jobs, or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning annual salaries for men college graduates hired as trainees in purchasing departments of large firms averaged about $5,500 in early 1962. According to the most recent information available (1959), average (median) annual salaries of experienced purchasing agents ranged BU SIN ESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS from $8,400 in firms with an annual volume of purchases under $3 million to $15,300 in firms with purchases amounting to more than $30 million. Some top purchasing executives earned $25,000 to $50,000. Employees in purchasing departments usually work the standard workweek of the company— generally from 35 to 40 hours a week. In addition, purchasing agents may spend time outside the regular hours to attend meetings, prepare reports, visit suppliers’ plants, or travel. Purchasing 203 department employees usually receive the same holidays, vacations, and various benefits as other workers in the company. Where To Go for More Information Young people interested in a career in pur chasing may consult members of local purchasing associations, or they may write to : National Association of Purchasing Agents, 11 Park PL, New York, N.Y., 10007. TH E PERFO RM IN G A R TS The performing arts include music, acting, and the dance. The interest in and attraction of ca reers in this field are so great that the number of first-rate artists seeking employment is generally much larger than the number of full-time employ ment opportunities available. As a result, many performers supplement their incomes by teaching, and others have to work much of the time in different types of occupations. The difficulty of earning a living as a performer is one of the facts young people should bear in mind in considering an artistic career. They should, therefore, consider the possible advan tages of making their art a hobby rather than a field of work. Aspiring young artists must usually spend many years in intensive training and practice before they are ready for public per formances. A person needs not only great natural talent but also determination, a willingness to work long and hard, and an overwhelming inter est in his chosen field—a love for it so great that, despite all obstacles he would rather work in it than in any other occupation. The statements which follow this introduction give detailed information on the instrumental musician, singer, actor, and dancer as performing artists and in related work. Many men and women with an interest and talent in music are also employed as directors of church choirs or school choruses or as orchestra or band conductors. A few with great creative talent work chiefly as composers of music. Other musicians arrange or adapt melodies for orchestras or bands; still others (copyists) copy parts for individual instruments from the musical scores written by arrangers. Similarly, a few people with ballet training and originality work as choreographers, who design new ballets or other types of dance performances, and some are dance directors. Another small field of employment, to which people with executive ability and a knowledge of acting and of produc tion problems can sometimes progress, is that of directing or producing stage, television, or motion picture productions. Musicians and Music Teachers (D.O.T. 0-24.12 and 0-24.31) Nature of Work Professional musicians—whether they play the piano, violin, or trumpet in a symphony orchestra, dance band, or “jazz combo”—have behind them many years of study and intensive practice. Although most musicians play only one in strument, many are qualified to play two or more—for example, the saxophone and clarinet, oboe and English horn, or piano and organ. As a rule, musicians also specialize in either classical or popular music; only a few play both types professionally. In a symphony orchestra, 85 to 100 or more musicians play together under the direction of a conductor. About half the musicians in the orchestra play the strings—violins, violas, cellos, 204 and double basses. Smaller numbers play the brass—trombones, trumpets, French horns, and tubas; and the wroodwinds—oboes, flutes, piccolos, clarinets, English horns, and bassoons; and a few play the drums, cymbals, and other percussion instruments. Usually the orchestra also has among its members a pianist and one or two harpists. Each orchestra player has attained great technical skill in playing his particular instrument, and they play together with great precision. The musicians in the “first chairs”—the leading play ers of each kind of instrument—are especially fine artists and can play any solos called for by the parts for their instruments. Musicians trained in classical music also play in opera and theater orchestras and for other THE PERFORMING ARTS 205 kinds of performances needing orchestral accom paniments. Some form small groups—a string quartet or a*trio (made up of a violinist, a cellist, and a pianist, for example)—which give concerts of chamber music. Many pianists serve as accom panists for vocal or instrumental soloists or choral groups or provide background music in res taurants or other places. Most organists play in churches, often directing the choir as well as playing the organ. A very few exceptionally brilliant and well known musicians—chiefly pian ists and violinists—become concert artists, giving their own concerts and appearing as soloists with symphony orchestras. Orchestras, chamber music groups, and individual artists often make recordings. Musicians who specialize in popular music usually play the trumpet, trombone, clarinet, saxo phone, or one of the “rhythm'5 instruments—the piano, string bass, drums, or guitar. Dance bands using these instruments play in nightclubs, res taurants, and at special parties. The best known bands and solo performers sometimes give con certs and perform on television. They also make recordings. Many musicians, in addition to their work as performers, give private lessons in their own studios or in pupils’ homes. More than half of the people primarily employed as instrumental musicians (estimated at about 100,000 in 1962) teach in the Nation’s schools and colleges and are seldom, if ever, paid for performing. These teachers may be members of the faculty of music schools or conservatories or of colleges which offer instruction in instrumental music. Some are music teachers in elementary or secondary schools where they direct vocal and instrumental music pro' - if I4 [4 - » 1 | L Musicians in dance bands must usually work nights and weekends grams, teach music appreciation, and may also give group instruction on an instrument. In addition to the people primarily employed as musicians or music teachers, thousands of qualified instrumentalists have other full-time jobs and only occasionally are paid for work in the field of music. Most of these part-time musicians belong to dance bands which are hired to play at private parties or for other special occasions. Many of those with a background in classical music play occasionally in an orchestra or for other per formances, or do some part-time teaching.' Where Employed Most professional musicians work in large cities, principally in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles, where most of the Nation’s entertain ment activities are concentrated. In addition, sizable numbers work in Baltimore, Boston, Cin cinnati, Cleveland, Minneapolis, Philadelphia, Rochester, San Francisco, and other cities which have major symphony orchestras or music schools and conservatories. Music teachers in elementary and secondary schools, as well as in colleges and universities, are employed all over the country. Moreover, just about every town and city has at least one private music teacher, usually a pianist. Dance bands and civic orchestras are also located in many communities, although in the smaller towns, their members are usually only part-time musicians with other regular jobs. A few* musicians v*ere employed in hospitals, to work in the field of music therapy, and some worked in music libraries and other places. Training and Other Qualifications Most people who become professional musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. Boys and girls often get* their first introduction to instrumental music through group instruction in piano, violin, trombone, and other instruments offered in many elementary schools and high schools. They can also take music lessons from private teachers or in the preparatory department of a music conservatory. To achieve a career as a performer of classical music or as a music teacher, young people need intensive training—either through private study with an accomplished artist, or in a college or 206 university with a strong music program, or in a conservatory of music. They need to acquire not only great technical skill but also a thorough knowledge of music, and they must learn how to interpret music. Before a young person can qualify for advanced study in a music conserv atory, it is frequently necessary to have an audition. Many of the teachers in these schools are accomplished artists who will undertake the training only of promising young musicians. An audition is sometimes required also for admission to the department or school of music of a college or university. However, the emphasis on talent as a performer is less for young people preparing to be music teachers than for those preparing only for careers as performers. Many conservatories of music and college and university schools of music offer 4-year programs leading to a bachelor’s degree in music education. Students who complete these programs can qual ify for the State certificate required for elemen tary and secondary school positions. Conservato ries and collegiate music schools frequently award also the degree of bachelor of music to students who major in instrumental or vocal music. The 4-year program leading to this degree provides not only training as a performer but also a broad background in musical history and theory, to gether with some liberal arts courses. Advanced degrees are usually required for college teaching positions, but exceptions may be made for especially well-qualified artists. Musicians who play jazz and other popular music also must be skilled in their instrument and have an understanding of and feeling for that style of music. As a rule, when young, they take lessons with private teachers and then seize all opportunities, beginning while they are still in high school, to play in amateur or professional performances. Some groups of young people form their own small dance bands. As they gain experience and become known, the players may have opportunities to audition for other local bands and, still later, for the better known bands and orchestras. Employment Outlook As a field of employment, instrumental music has been overcrowded for many years, and it is expected to remain so throughout the 1960’s. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Opportunities for concerts and recitals are not numerous enough to provide adequate employment for all the pianists, violinists, and other instru mentalists qualified as concert artists. Competition is usually keen for positions which afford some stability of employment—for example, jobs with major orchestras and teaching positions in conservatories and colleges and universities. Because of the ease with which a musician can enter private music teaching, the number of music teachers has been and will probably continue to be more than sufficient to give instruction to all the young people seeking lessons. Though many opportunities for single and short-term engage ments playing popular music in night clubs, theaters, and other places can be expected, the supply of qualified musicians seeking such jobs is likely to remain greater than the demand. On the other hand, a shortage of highly qualified church organists and choir masters may persist in many communities during the next few years; firstclass, experienced accompanists and well trained, outstanding players of stringed instruments, including violin, viola, cello, and double bass, are likely to remain relatively scarce; and public school systems will probably continue to need more, fully qualified music teachers and supervisors. Employment opportunities for performers are not expected to increase over the long run. Although the number of civic orchestras in smaller communities has been growing steadily, many of these orchestras provide only part-time employ ment for musicians who work chiefly as teachers or in other occupations. Moreover, the openings created by the establishment of these orchestras have been more than offset by the decline in opportunities in the theater and other places, which has resulted, in part, from the greatly increased use of recorded music. The employment outlook in music education, for people who are well-qualified as both musi cians and as teachers, is considerably brighter than for performers. A great increase in the numbers of young people of high school and college age will take place during the 1960’s. Moreover, the number of schools with music programs is growing steadily, and interest in music as an avocation is also rising, as evidenced by the increasing sales of musical instruments. Thus over the long run, a THE PERFORMING ARTS 207 fairly rapid increase can be expected in the em ployment of elementary andv secondary school music teachers and also in the teaching staffs of college and university music schools and conserva tories of music. Earnings and Working Conditions Musicians who were members of the 26 major symphony orchestras in the United States in 1962, had a very wide range of earnings—from a low of $1,600 for the season, to $10,000 and higher. According to the American Symphony Orchestras League, Inc., the average of the salaries paid to musicians by these orchestras was about $4,500 for the season. Those who played in dance bands were paid from $60 to $300 per week in 1962, according to the'limited information available. Symphony orchestras had relatively short seasons, generally ranging from 22 to 32 weeks a year. Instrumen talists who were members of small ensembles reportedly received as much as $200 per concert. Concert soloists have the highest earnings of all musicians, but they have to deduct the cost of expensive clothes, travel, and management and coaching fees from their earnings. The amount they receive for a performance depends to a large extent on their professional reputations. The salaries of public school music teachers are determined by the salary schedule adopted for all teachers. (See statements on Elementary and Secondary School Teachers.) However, they frequently supplement their earnings by giving private music lessons and taking church positions. Earnings from private teaching are very uncertain and vary according to the musician’s reputation, the number of teachers in.the locality, the number of students desiring lessons, the economic status of the community, and other factors. Musicians who are performers customarily work at night and on weekends. They must also spend considerable time in regular daily practice and in rehearsing new scores. Most private teaching is done in the late afternoon, on Saturdays, and sometimes in the evening. Performers may have relatively long periods of unemployment between jobs and, thus, the overall level of their earnings is generally lower than that in many other occupations. Moreover, performers do not usually work steadily for one employer. Consequently, fewTperformers can qualify for un employment compensation, and they seldom have either sick leave or vacations with pay. Most musicians who play professionally belong to the American Federation of Musicians (AFLCIO). Concert soloists also belong to the Ameri can Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. (AFL-CIO). Where To Go for More Information Information about wages, hours of work, and working conditions for professional musicians is available from: American Federation of Musicians (AFL-CIO), 425 Park Ave., New York, N.Y., 10022. Information about employment opportunities for church musicians, as well as the requirements for certification of organists and choir masters, may be secured from: American Guild of Organists, 630 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y., 10020. A list of accredited schools of music is avail able from: National Association of Schools of Music, Knox College, Galesburg, 111., 61401. Further information about music teaching in elementary and secondary schools is available from: Music Educators National Conference, The National Education Association of the United States, 120116th St. NW, Washington, D.C., 20036. Information about employment opportunities with symphony orchestras may be obtained from: The American Symphony Orchestra League, Inc., Symphony Hill, P.O. Box 66, Vienna, Va., 22180. Singers and Singing Teachers (D.O.T. 0-24.00 through 0-24.05) Nature of Work Professional singing is an art which requires not only a fine voice, but also a highly developed technique and a broad knowledge of music. The pinnacle of a singing career is to become an opera and concert star. The tiny group of famous artists 208 who have reached this height sing leading roles with the major opera companies, go on concert tours in the United States and other countries, and often make recordings. Somewhat larger num bers of singers obtain secondary roles in operas and engagements as soloists in oratorios and other types of performances. A much larger group— probably the majority of all professional singers of classical music—are soloists in churches or synagogues. Some singers also become members of opera and musical comedy choruses or other professional choral groups. Singers who specialize in popular music have a style of singing so different from that of singers of classical music that the two groups have little in common technically. Although most popular music singers have some vocal training, many of them rely on their personalities to a much greater extent than do singers of classical music to help them “put a song across.” Popular music singers perform in musical shows of all kinds—in the movies, on the stage, on radio and television, and in nightclubs and other entertainment places. They may be employed as featured singers with a dance band; or they may sing with other vocal ists in small groups such as trios or quartets. The best known popular music singers make many recordings. Since most singers of both classical and popu lar music have only part-time or irregular em ployment as singers, they often have full-time jobs of other types and sing only in the evenings or on weekends. Some—chiefly singers of serious music—give private voice lessons. A sizable num ber of singers with the necessary qualifications are employed in elementary and secondary schools, where they teach music appreciation courses and lead choruses. Others give voice training or direct choral or opera theater groups in music conserva tories or in colleges and universities with schools or departments of music. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK singers, including those who specialize in folk and country music, for both “live” performances and recordings. Persons trained as singers who teach music in elementary and secondary schools and in colleges, universities, and conservatories of music are employed throughout the country. Op portunities for part-time employment, chiefly as church singers, are to be found in small towns as well as in big cities. Training and Other Qualifications Young people who want to perform profession ally as singers of serious, or classical, music should acquire a broad background in music, including its theory and history. The ability to dance is also very helpful since singers who perform in musical comedies and other shows are frequently required to dance as well as to sing. In addition, boys and girls interested in a singing career should start piano lessons at an early age. As a rule, voice training should not begin until after the individ ual has matured physically, although young boys who sing in church choirs receive some training before their voices change. Moreover, because of the work and expense involved in serious voice training—which often continues for years after the singer’s professional career has started—it is important that a prospective singer audition be fore a competent voice teacher to determine whether professional training is warranted. Young people can prepare for careers as singers of classical music by enrolling in a music con servatory, a school or department of music con- Where Employed Probably not more than 75,000 to 80,000 people were earning the major part of their incomes from singing engagements or vocal teaching in 1962. Opportunities for singing engagements are mainly in New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago— the Nation’s chief entertainment centers. Nash ville, Tenn., is a major place of employment for Professional singers may also be required to dance THE PERFORMING ARTS nected with a college or university, or by taking private voice lessons. Before students are ad mitted to music conservatories or to college- or university-connected schools or departments of music, they may have to audition before a faculty member who may be a well-known artist. These schools provide not only voice training but other training necessary for understanding and inter preting music, including music-related training in foreign languages, and sometimes dramatic training. After completing a 4-year course of study, a graduate may be awarded either the de gree of Bachelor of Music or Bachelor of Science (in music) or Bachelor of Fine Arts. Young singers who plan to teach music in public elementary or secondary schools need at least a bachelor’s degree with a major in music education and must meet their State certification require ments for teachers. Such training is available in over 500 colleges and universities throughout the country. College teachers are usually required to have a master’s degree and sometimes a doctor’s degree, but exceptions may be made for especially well-qualified artists. Although voice training is an asset for singers of popular music, many with untrained voices have had successful careers. The typical popular song does not demand that the voice be developed to cover as wide a range on the musical scale as is required for classical music, and the lack of a powerful voice may be overcome by using a micro phone. Young singers of popular songs may become known by participating in amateur and paid per formances in their communities. These engage ments may lead to employment with local dance bands, and possibly later with well-known ones. In addition to musical ability, it often takes an outstanding personality, an attractive appearance, good contacts, and good luck to achieve a singing career. Furthermore, a career in this art is often relatively short, since it depends on a good voice and public acceptance of the artist, both of which may be affected by age. Employment Outlook The employment situation for singers will prob ably remain highly competitive during the re mainder of the 1960’s. Competition among popular 692—408 0 —63------15 209 singers will continue to be especially keen. A great number of single-job openings are likely to occur in the entertainment field—the opera and concert stage, the movies, the theater, nightclubs, radio and television, dance bands, and other places— but not enough to provide steady employment for all qualified singers. The great majority of pro fessional singers, therefore, will probably have to supplement their incomes by working part time as singing teachers or in other jobs. The demand for church singers is expected to expand because of the continued growth in number of religious congregations, but most of these openings will probably be filled either by part-time singers who have steady employment in other fields or by volunteers. Little growth in overall employment oppor tunities for performers is likely over the long run. The use of recorded music has practically replaced the “live” singer on radio; also, the num ber of television performances given by singers is, and will probably continue to be, limited. How ever, there is a growing demand for singers to record commercials for both radio and television advertising. The outlook for singers who can meet State certification requirements for positions as music teachers or who can qualify for college teaching will be considerably brighter than for performers. As school enrollments increase, the demand for music teachers in the Nation’s ele mentary and secondary schools is expected to grow and some increased employment of music teachers can be expected in colleges and universities also, since enrollments in schools and departments of music in these institutions are likely to rise along with the increase expected in college enrollments generally. In addition, music teachers will be needed to replace those who will transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Earnings and Working Conditions Most professional singers have relatively modest earnings. For example, soloists with church choirs received about $25 per service, or its equivalent each month, in 1962, according to the limited in formation available. Singers employed by dance bands and in motion pictures earned as much as $200 per week. In contrast, the relatively few wellknown singers in the field earn considerably more OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, 210 than these amounts. A concert soloist, opera star, or a top recording artist of popular music may command more than $1,000 for a single perform ance. The salaries of public school music teachers are determined by the salary schedule adopted for all teachers in their school system. Private music teachers charge fees which vary greatly, depend ing on the teacher’s reputation, the economic status of the families in the community, and other factors. Singers generally work at night and on week ends. School teachers have regular working hours, and private voice teachers can usually give les sons at their own convenience. Work in the enter tainment field is seasonal, and few performers have steady jobs. Singers who perform professionally on the con cert stage or in opera belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those who sing on radio or television or who make phonograph re cordings are members of the American Federa tion of Television and Radio Artists; singers in the variety and night club field belong to the American Guild of Variety Artists; those who sing in musical comedy and operettas belong to the Actors’ Equity Association; and those who sing in the movies belong to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc. All of these unions are branches of the Associated Actors and Artistes of America (AFL-CIO). Where To Go for More Information Information about wages, hours of work, and working conditions for performers is available from the unions which organize singers in the various entertainment media. Information about accredited schools and de partments of music may be obtained from: National Association of Schools of Music, Knox College, Galesburg, 111., 61401. Further information about music teaching in elementary and secondary schools is available from: Music Educators National Conference, The National Education Association of the United States, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20036. Actors and Actresses (D.O.T. 0-02.11, .15, and .41) Nature of Work Making a character come to life before an audi ence is a job which has great glamour and fasci nation for many people. It is also hard and de manding work, requiring special talent and involving many difficulties and uncertainties. Only a very few of the nearly 20,000 actors and actresses in the United States have achieved rec ognition as stars—on the stage, in motion pictures, or on television or radio. A somewhat larger num ber are well-known, experienced performers, who are frequently cast in supporting roles. The great majority, however, are struggling for a toehold in the profession, glad to pick up small parts when ever and wherever they can. New actors generally start in “bit” parts, where they have only a few lines to speak. If successful, they may progress to larger supporting roles, of which there are several in most plays. The actors who have minor parts in stage productions may also serve as understudies for the principals. If a leading player must miss a performance, the un derstudy has a chance to demonstrate his acting ability and attract attention to his qualifications for important roles. When a play is being prepared for production, the cast spends many hours in rehearsal. Actors who prepare for roles either on the stage or in the movies must memorize their lines and know the cues—the last words or action, by another actor which are the signal to come on stage, make an exit, or begin speaking. Radio actors typically read their parts. They have to be especially skilled in expressing character and emotion through the voice, since this is their sole means of creating an impersonation for their audience. Besides the actors with speaking parts, “extras” who have no lines to deliver are used in almost every motion picture. In spectacular productions, the number of extras who take part in crowd scenes is often very large. 211 THE PERFORMING ARTS Some actors find jobs as dramatic coaches or become directors of stage, television, radio, or motion picture productions. A few are engaged in teaching in schools of acting or in the drama de partments of colleges and universities. Where Employed The legitimate stage and motion pictures, in cluding films made especially for television, are probably the largest fields of employment for actors, although “live” television and radio also employ actors intermittently. In the winter, most employment opportunities on the stage are in New York. In the summer months, however, stock companies in suburban and resort areas are an equally large field of em ployment. There are also a small but growing number of winter stock companies in southern resort areas. In addition, many cities now have community or “little” theaters, which provide opportunities for local talent as well as for pro fessional actors and actresses from New York and other centers. Plays that go “on the road,” moving from city to city, are normally produced A successful actor must have outstanding talent, interest, and determination in New York, and the casts are therefore selected from actors located there. Although employment opportunities in motion pictures and film television are centered in Holly wood, a few studios are on Long Island, N.Y., and some in other parts of the country. In addition, many films are shot on location, providing em ployment for “extras” who live in the area. In live television and radio, most opportunities for actors are at the headquarters of the main net works—in New York, Los Angeles, and, to a lesser extent, Chicago. Some local television and radio stations occasionally employ actors. Training and Other Qualifications Since an actor learns largely through practice, young people aspiring to acting careers should get as much amateur acting experience as possible by taking part in high school and college plays or working with little theaters and other acting groups in their home towns. Formal training in acting may also be helpful. Such training can be obtained at special schools of the dramatic arts, chiefly in New York, or at the High School of Performing Arts which is part of that city’s school system. The dramatic arts are also taught in over 400 colleges and uni versities. A college degree is becoming increas ingly necessary for an acting career. Because col lege drama curriculums usually include courses in liberal arts subjects, speech, pantomime, play production, and the history of the drama, as well as practical courses in acting, the actor develops an appreciation of the great plays, old and new, and a greater understanding of the roles he may be called on to play. Graduate degrees in the fine arts or in drama are necessary for college teaching positions. Outstanding talent for acting and great inter est and determination are essential for success in the theater. Ability to memorize, a good speaking voice, good health, and the physical stamina to work long hours are necessary. Ability to sing and dance is an asset, and is becoming increasingly important for an acting career. In all media, whether the legitimate stage, mo tion pictures, radio, or television, the best way to start is to make use of local opportunities and to build on the basis of such experience. Many ac tors who are successful in local dramatic produc 212 tions eventually try to appear on the New York stage. Inexperienced actors usually find it ex tremely difficult to obtain employment in New York or Hollywood. Although motion picture pro ducers do give some screen tests to inexperienced applicants, only an infinitesimal proportion of the many thousands of people taking these tests enter the movies in this way. The motion picture field is an especially difficult one to enter, and employ ment is often a result of previous successful ex perience on the Broadway stage. To become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by Central Casting, a no-fee agency which works with the Screen Extras Guild and supplies all extras to the major movie studios in Holly wood. Applicants are accepted only when the num ber of people of a particular type on the list— for example, athletic young men, old ladies, or small children—is below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of the total number of applicants have succeeded in be ing listed. Extras have very little, if any, oppor tunity to advance to speaking roles in the movies. The length of an actor’s working life depends largely on his skill and versatility. Great actors and actresses can go on almost indefinitely. Sup porting players also may have opportunities to portray roles in which age is not a disadvantage. On the other hand, for many members of the pro fession, employment opportunities become increas ingly limited during and past middle age. This is especially true of those who become typed in romantic, youthful roles. Employment Outlook The overcrowding which has existed in the acting field for many years is expected to persist. In the legitimate theater and also in motion pic tures and radio and television, job applicants out number by many times the jobs available. More over, most actors have employment in their profession for only a small part of the year. With the development first of motion pictures, then of radio, then of TV, employment opportuni ties for actors in the theater have been more and more reduced. The recent growth of summer stock companies has somewhat increased the em ployment of actors in the summer months, but the numbers of New York stage productions, of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK motion pictures, and of radio shows requiring actors have been declining. Although a motion picture production may use a very large number of actors, they are employed only while the picture is being filmed, and the films are widely distributed and may be used for years. Radio uses few actors. The number of filmed TV dramas and commercials using actors is increasing, but not nearly enough to offset the decline in the other media. Moreover, television stations often broadcast “taped” dramas rather than live productions, and, like motion picture films, these tapes may be widely distributed and used for a long time. Taped TV plays give em ployment to actors for only one performance, whereas live dramas may give employment for sev eral performances. One possibility for future growth in the legiti mate theater lies in the establishment of yearround professional acting companies in more cities. The number of communities with such act ing groups is growing. Further increases are likely also in the employment of actors on tele vision. In the acting field as a whole, however, employment opportunities are not expected to in crease, and may well decrease somewhat, over the next decade. The number of new entrants to the profession is expected to outnumber employment opportunities that may generally become avail able. Even highly talented young people are likely to face great competition and economic difficulties in the profession. Earnings and Working Conditions Actors and actresses employed in the legitimate theater belong to the Actors’ Equity Association. If employed in motion pictures, including televi sion films, they belong to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or to the Screen Extras Guild, Inc. If em ployed in “live” television or radio, they belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. These unions and the show producers sign basic collective bargaining agreements which set minimum salaries, hours of work, and other con ditions of employment. In addition, each actor enters into a separate contract which may provide for higher salaries than those specified in the basic agreement. The minimum weekly salary for actors in large New York theaters w^as $117.50 in mid-1963. Those appearing in small “off-Broadway” theaters had THE PERFORMING ARTS 213 considerably lower rates. For shows on the road, the minimum rate was $150 a week. For rehearsal time, it was $97.50 a week in Broadway shows and much lower in small “off-Broadway” theaters. All minimum salaries are adjusted upward according to increases in the cost of living as reflected in the Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumer Price Index. Motion picture actors and actresses had a mini mum daily rate of about $100 in mid-1962. For extras, the minimum rate was about $25 a day. Actors on network television received a minimum program fee of $155 for a single half-hour pro gram, and 10 hours of rehearsal time; actors on radio received $49.60 for a half-hour performance, 1 rehearsal hour included. Those with contracts for longer programs or a series of programs re ceived relatively lower rates. In all fields, many well-known actors and ac tresses have salary rates above the minimums. The salaries of the few top stars are many times the figures cited. On the other hand, because of the frequent periods of unemployment characteristic of this profession, annual earnings are low for all but a very few of the best known performers. Eight performances amount to a week’s w^ork on the legitimate stage and any additional per formances are paid for as overtime. The basic workweek after the opening of a show is 36 hours, including limited time for rehearsals. Prior to the opening, however, the workweek is usually longer to allow enough time for rehearsals. Evening w^ork is, of course, a regular part of a stage actor’s life. Rehearsals may be held late at night and over weekends and holidays. Traveling over the week end is often necessary when plays are on the road. Some actors are covered by a pension fund and a growing number have hospitalization insurance to which their employers contribute, but very few have paid vacations or sick leave. Most actors get little if any unemployment compensation, since they seldom have enough employment in any State to meet the eligibility requirements. Consequently, when a show closes, they often have to take any kind of casual work obtainable while they are waiting for another role. Where To Go for More Information American Federation of Television and Radio Artists, 724 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y., 10019. Screen Actors Guild, Inc., 7750 Sunset Blvd., Hollywood, Calif., 90046. Screen Extras Guild, Inc., 723 North Western Ave., Hollywood, Calif., 90029. Dancers (D.O.T. 0-45, 11 through .51) Nature of Work Dancing is an ancient and worldwide art, hav ing many different forms. Dancers may perform in classical ballet or modern dance, in dance adap tations for musical shows, in folk dances, or in tap and other popular kinds of dancing. In the classical ballet, movements are based on certain conventional or stylized “positions,” and women dance “en pointe” (on the very tips of their toes). The effect sought is one of effortless grace. In modern dance, movements are much more varied but are nonetheless carefully' planned and exe cuted to follow a pattern. In all types of dance productions, most of the performers dance together as a chorus. However, a group of selected dancers may do special num bers, and a very few do solo work. The number of ballerinas and other top artists is, of course, much smaller still. Many dancers combine teaching with their stage work or teach full time in schools of the ballet or in colleges and universities. A few dancers have become choreographers, who create new ballets or dance routines. Others are dance directors and train the dancers in new productions. This statement does not include instructors of ballroom and other social dancing. Where Employed In 1962, there were about 20,000 dancers and dancing teachers in the United States. It is esti mated that over half of them were teaching in private schools of the dance and in schools and colleges. Most of the other dancers were pri marily performers on the stage, screen, and tele vision. A few trained in dance therapy were em 214 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ployed by hospitals to work in this new field used in the treatment of mental disorders. Dancing teachers are located chiefly in large cities, but almost every town and city has its school of the dance. The great majority of per forming dancers are in New York City, Los An geles, Las Vegas, and Chicago. Training and Other Qualifications The traditional way of preparing for a dancing career is to begin serious training in a professional school by age 12 or earlier. Girls wishing to be come ballet dancers should begin taking lessons at the age of 8. In either case, 2 or 3 years of prior preparation is needed before the young girl should start dancing “en pointe.” Professional ballet training typically takes from 10 to 12 lessons per week for 11 or 12 months in the year, and many additional hours of practice. The length of the training period depends on the student’s ability and physical development, but most dancers have their professional audition by age 17 or 18. The selection of the professional dancing school is important for two reasons. First, the school must use expert judgment in setting the pace of training since too early and too severe exercise can permanently damage the legs and feet. Second, the school’s connections with producers may help the students in obtaining employment on the stage, screen or television. Because of the strenuous training program in the professional schools, the general education received by students in these schools is not likely to exceed the legal minimum. However, really great performing artists have to be more than technicians. Many people competent to judge therefore believe that a dancer’s education should include such subjects as music, literature, and his tory to aid him in his interpretations of dramatic episodes and of music. Approximately 70 colleges and universities confer bachelor’s degrees on stu dents who have majored in physical education and have concentrated on the dance, and some give graduate degrees, the M.A. and Ph. D. A few col leges and conservatories of music also award de grees (usually in the fine arts) to qualified stu dents who major in the dance. Labanotation, which is the method of writing dance routines and is comparable to writing an orchestral score, is Physical vitality is necessary fo ra dancing career one of the advanced courses taught. Knowledge of this is especially important to choreographers. A college education is an advantage in obtain ing employment in teaching professional dancing or in choreography. However, the girls who post pone their first audition until graduation compete at a disadvantage with younger girls for openings in classical ballet. On the other hand, they can compete successfully for openings in modern dance performances which do not generally re quire a proficiency in toe dancing. For teaching in the professional schools, experi ence as a performer is usually necessary; in col leges and conservatories, graduate degrees are generally required, but often experience as a per former may be substituted. Maturity and a broad educational background are also important for teaching positions. Excellent health and unusual physical vitality are necessary for a dancing career. Height and body build should not vary much from the aver age. Good feet with normal arches are required. These physical qualifications must be accompanied by unusual talent for dancing. For women dancers, employment in ballet com panies is very difficult to obtain after the age of 30, except for a few outstanding stars. Women past 25 are rarely hired for Broadway shows un less they have already had experience in such THE PERFORMING ARTS productions. Men who are ballet dancers, and men and women who perform in modern dance productions, can usually continue somewhat longer. After the employable age as performers has passed, some dancers teach in schools of the ballet in colleges, or conservatories, or establish their own schools. The few who become choreog raphers or dance directors can continue working as long as people in most other occupations do. Employment Outlook The keen competition and irregular employ ment experienced in this profession for many years are likely to persist. The supply of trained dancers has always exceeded the demand, which has been decreasing year after year. The number of stage productions has decreased because of the competition of the motion picture industry, which in turn has been adversely affected by television. Very few stage shows have a run of 26 weeks or more, and many “fold” after the first week. On the other hand, there is a growing trend toward using professional dancers at industrial exhibitions, such as auto shows. Also, a few new professional dance companies are being developed around the coun try. Nevertheless, employment opportunities for dance performers will remain limited. The num ber of musical shows produced for the stage and motion pictures, will probably continue to decline. Although television will offer some additional employment opportunities, technical problems must be solved before this medium can be fully satisfactory for large-scale dance productions. Civic and community dance groups are increasing in number and opportunities for dancers will ex pand as these develop into professional groups. Most of the openings for dance performers in the years ahead, however, will stem from the need to replace dancers who leave the field. The employment outlook for dancers who have the personal and educational qualifications for teaching will be much better than for those trained only as performers. The growing interest in the dance as one of the fine arts is contributory to the demand for teachers of dancing. The increase in college enrollments will be another factor which will tend to enlarge teaching opportunities. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) Men dancers face less competition for employ ment than do women dancers, since fewer men 215 than women seek dancing as a career and nearly equal numbers are needed. Earnings and Working Conditions Dancers who perform professionally are mem bers of one of the unions affiliated with the Asso ciated Actors and Artistes of America (AFLCIO). The American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc., is the union to which dancers belong who perform in opera ballets, classical ballet, and modern dance. Dancers may also belong to other unions depending upon the field in which they perform. (See statement on Singers and Singing Teachers.) Minimum salary rates, hours of work, and other conditions of employment are specified in basic agreements signed by the unions and the producers. In addition, the separate contract signed by each dancer with the producer of the show has to be at least as favorable in the matter of salary, hours of work, and working conditions as the basic agreement. The minimum salary for dancers in ballet and other stage productions was $110 a week, as of mid-1962. The minimum rate for rehearsal time was $80 a week, except in small ballet companies which provided $60 for a rehearsal week. When a show goes on tour, salaries are increased, since dancers pay their own hotel bills. The employer pays the cost of first-class transportation. If a dancer signs a contract for a brief appearance— for instance, for a performance on television or a few days’ work in a movie—the minimum rate is higher, relative to time worked. However, this difference is offset by the brevity of the engage ment and the long period likely to be spent wait ing for the next one. A few performers, of course, have much higher salaries. For principals, chore ographers, and stars, salaries in stage productions ranged from $200 to over $2,000 per week in 1962. Because most dancers are employed as perform ers only a small part of the year, their annual earnings are much less than would be expected from these weekly rates. According to union rec ords, about half of all dancers employed in 1962 earned less than $3,000 from all professional per formances on the stage, in motion pictures, and on television. Only about 3 percent earned more than $10,000. Some dancers qualified to teach in the technical schools of the ballet are able to com bine this work with engagements as performers. 216 A much greater number have to supplement their incomes by working in offices, waiting on tables, or babysitting, wdiile waiting for a new contract. Salaries of teachers in the technical schools of the ballet vary with the location and prestige of the school. Dancers employed as teachers in col leges and universities are paid on the same basis as other faculty members. (See statement on Col lege and University Teachers.) During a rehearsal week, the normal workweek is 30 hours. During a performance week, the nor mal workweek consists of eight performances plus 12 hours for rehearsal. Extra compensation is paid for hours worked outside the normal work week. Most stage performances are, of course, in the evening, and rehearsals may require very long hours, often on weekends and holidays. When shows are on the road, traveling over the week end is often required. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Dancers are entitled to some paid sick leave and to various health and welfare benefits provided by their unions and to which the employers contrib ute. Where To Go for More Information Information on colleges and universities and conservatories of music which provide for a ma jor in the dance, or some courses in the dance, and details on the types of courses, and other pertinent information may be obtained from the Dance Directory, 1963 edition, compiled by the American Association for Health, Physical Edu cation and Recreation, a division of the National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Wash ington, D.C., 20036. Information on hours, earnings, and working conditions may be obtained directly from the un ions which organize dancers in the various enter tainment media. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Architects (D.O.T. 0-03.10) Nature of Work Architects plan buildings and other structures and supervise their construction. Their goal is to design structures which are safe, useful, and pleasing in appearance. When an architect receives a commission for a building, he meets with the client to discuss the purpose, requirements, and cost limitations of the structure as well as the client’s preferences as to style and plan. Subsequently, the architect must make hundreds of decisions, taking into account not only the requirements of the building, but also local and State building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other ordinances. For example, in planning a school, the architect must decide, among other things, the amount of corridor and staircase space required to enable students to move easily from one class to another; the type and arrangement of storage space; and the location, size, and interior arrangements of the classrooms, laboratories, lunchroom, gymnasium, and adminis trative offices. The architect draws preliminary plans of the structure and submits them to the client for his approval. Alterations suggested by the client may be incorporated in the final design, which includes floor plans as well as details of the interior and exterior of the building. The final design is then translated into working drawings, which show’ the exact dimensions of every part of the structure and the location of the plumbing, heating, elec trical, air-conditioning, and other equipment. Con sulting engineers usually prepare detailed supple mentary drawings of the structural, plumbing, heating, and electrical work. Engineers’ draw ings are coordinated with the architect’s work ing drawings, and specifications are prepared list ing the construction materials to be used, the equipment, and, in some cases, the furnishings. Architect compares drawings with model of new housing development The architect then assists his client in selecting a building contractor and may also aid in drawing up the contract between client and contractor and act as the client’s advisor and representative in dealings with the contractor. As construction pro ceeds, the architect makes periodic inspections to make certain that the design is not altered and that the materials specified in the contract are used. The architect’s work is not completed until the project is finished, all required tests are made, and guarantees are received from the contractor. Most self-employed architects plan and design a wide variety of structures, ranging from homes to churches, hospitals, office buildings, and air ports. A few specialize in one particular type of structure. When working on large-scale projects or for large architectural firms, architects fre quently specialize in one phase of the work, such as design, specification writing, or construction supervision. 217 218 Where Employed An estimated 27,000 registered (licensed) archi tects were employed in the United States in 1962. In addition, several thousand people were work ing in positions requiring a knowledge of archi tecture. Less than 3 percent of all architects are women. Approximately half of all architects are selfemployed, either practicing individually or as partners. Most of the others work for architectural firms. Some w^ork for engineers, builders, real estate firms, and for other businesses with large construction programs. A small number are em ployed by government agencies, often in fields such as city and community planning and urban redevelopment. Another small group are full-time teachers in schools of architecture. Members of the profession are located in all parts of the country, primarily in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license for the practice of architecture is re quired by law in all States and the District of Columbia. In general, the purpose of these laws is to insure that work which may affect life, health, or property is done by qualified architects. Re quirements for admission to the licensing exam ination are set by the individual States. These generally include graduation from an accredited professional school followed by 3 years of prac tical experience in an architect’s office. As a sub stitute for formal training, most States accept longer periods of practical experience (usually 10 to 12 years) for admission to the licensing exam ination. In 1962, professional training in architecture was offered by 72 colleges and universities in the United States, 52 of which were accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board. The great majority of these schools offered a 5year curriculum leading to the bachelor of archi tecture degree. Many architectural schools also offer graduate education leading to the master’s degree, and a few schools offer the Ph. D. degree. Although graduate training is not essential for the practice of architecture, it is often desirable for research and teaching positions. Most schools of architecture admit qualified high school graduates who meet the entrance re OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK quirements of the liberal arts college with wdiich the school of architecture is associated. Some schools require 1 or 2 years of preprofessional education, followed by 3 or 4 years of architectural training. In general, architectural schools prefer that students’ preparation include mathematics, science, social studies, language, and art. Training or ability in both freehand drawing and drafting are helpful, though not a requirement for enter ing a course in architecture. A typical curriculum includes not only architec tural courses but also other subjects—usually English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, soci ology, and economics. Some examples of technical and professional courses in the curriculum are: Architectural design, structural theory, working drawings, specification writing, graphic presenta tion, freehand drawing, the history of architec ture, professional ethics, and business practices. Success in the profession requires an unusual combination of abilities—a capacity to master technical problems, a gift for artistic creation, and a flair for business and for human relations. To determine their interests and potentialities, young people should, if possible, spend some time in an architect’s office before entering architectural school. Students are also encouraged to w^ork for architects or for building contractors during sum mer vacations to gain some knowledge of practical problems. The new graduate usually begins as a junior draftsman in an architectural firm, where he is assigned to making drawings and models of build ing projects or to the drafting of details in the working drawings. As he gains experience, he is given more complex wurk. After several years, he may progress to chief or senior draftsman, with responsibility for all the major details of a set of working drawings. Some architects become job captains with the responsibility for a full set of working drawings and for the supervision of other draftsmen. Others become designers or construc tion supervisors, or branch off into the field of specification writing. An employee who is par ticularly valued by his firm may be designated an associate and may receive, in addition to his sal ary, a share of the profits. Usually, however, the architect’s goal is to establish his own practice. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for architects are expected to be very good throughout the 1960’s, and continued growth in their employment is an ticipated over the long run. Most architects work on nonresidential projects —office buildings, stores, schools, hospitals, and the like—and the volume of such construction is expected to expand considerably. Residential con struction, a growing area of work for architects, will also increase. Moreover, the increasing size and complexity of modern nonresidential build ings, as well as homeowners’ growing awareness of the value of architects’ services, are likely to bring about a greater demand for architectural plan ning. Urban redevelopment and city and commun ity planning projects, other growing areas of em ployment for architects, are also expected to increase considerably in the years ahead. (See statement on Urban Planners.) Expanding col lege enrollments will create a need for additional teachers. In addition to new positions created by the ris ing demand for architectural services, more than 500 openings are likely to arise each year owing to retirement and death of experienced architects. Along with the anticipated growth of employ ment, a rise in the number of architectural gradu ates is likely to occur. Assuming that graduations in this field follow the trend expected in college graduations as a whole, the number of architec tural degrees awarded each year during the mid dle and late 1960’s should be considerably greater than the 1,800 degrees awarded in 1961. However, many architectural graduates utilize their train ing in fields such as sales and administration and 219 do not enter the profession. Thus, those who choose to enter the field should have favorable employment opportunities through the 1960’s, at least. The outlook for women architects, although less favorable than for men, is nonetheless expected to be good. Women who are good draftsmen will probably be able to obtain employment readily. However, very few women are able to establish themselves in private practice. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for architectural school gradu ates were generally between $80 and $100 a week in mid-1962, according to available information. Draftsmen with 3 or more years’ experience earned up to $160 a week; job captains, specifica tion writers, and other senior employees usually earned $150 to $200 a week. Senior employees often receive yearly bonuses in addition to their salaries. After architects have become well established in private practice, they generally earn much more than high-paid salaried employees of architectural firms. The range in their incomes is very wide, however. Some architects with many years of ex perience and good reputations earn well over $25,000 a year, while many who have not become well known have very low incomes. Young archi tects just starting their own practices may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income. Where To Go for More Information The American Institute of Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20006. Commercial Artists (D.O.T. 0-44.) Nature of Work Artwork designed to attract the attention of readers and to stimulate their interest in par ticular products and ideas is found in most news papers, magazines, and other publications. These illustrations used in advertisements and editorial features are prepared by commercial artists who also work on television commercials and movie cartoons, industrial and other films, fashion illus trations, greeting card and book illustrations and design, packaging, wallpaper and textile designs, and do many other kinds of artwork. They may also design and illustrate displays, posters, and direct mail advertising. Commercial artists usu ally carry out artistic ideas that are created by others. 220 Some artists do routine but essential tasks such as “pasting-up”—cutting and pasting together the basic parts of an advertisement or other art work. The majority are “general boardmen” who spend nearly all their time over the drawing board —sketching, lettering, retouching photographic prints, preparing charts and maps, cartooning, or performing other art assignments. Still other artists work as letterers, executing appropriate lettering either freehand or with the use of me chanical aids, or as illustrators who make sketches and drawings. Layout men plan the selection and arrangement of illustrations and lettering and determine color and other elements of design. Art directors and designers develop visual ideas for art programs, submitting ideas in rough form to layout men to be further developed. Directors and designers also buy the artwork of photographers, illustrators, letterers, and other artists for use in their programs and often supervise an art staff. Where Employed An estimated 50,000 commercial artists were employed in early 1963; about one-fourth were women. Most commercial artists are employed in big cities, such as New York, Chicago, Philadel phia, Los Angeles, and Detroit, where the largest users of commercial art are to be found. Some, however, are employed in nearly every city. Most commercial artists are employed as staff artists on a regular salaried basis by advertising agencies, commercial art studios, advertising de partments of large companies, printing and pub lishing firms, textile companies, television and motion picture studios, department stores, sign shops, mail-order houses, greeting card compa nies, and a variety of other business organizations. Many work as freelance artists, selling their art work to any available customers—chiefly to the same kinds of organizations that employ salaried artists. Some salaried commercial artists also do freelance work in their spare time. A number of commercial artists work for Federal Government agencies, principally in the Defense Department. A few teach in art schools. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK commercial art, but it is essential that these quali ties be supplemented by specialized training in the techniques of commercial and applied art. In addition, extensive educational training in the fine arts—painting, sculpture, or architecture— and in academic studies provides a good founda tion not only for obtaining employment as a commercial artist but especially for qualifying for promotions to higher level jobs. The most widely accepted training for commer cial art is the instruction given in art schools or institutes that specialize in commercial and ap plied art. To enter art school, a high school edu cation is usually, but not always, required. Some schools admit only those applicants who demon strate talent by submitting acceptable work sam ples. The course of study, which may include some academic work, generally takes 2 or 3 years, and a certificate is awarded on graduation. A growing number of art schools, particularly those in or connected with universities, require 4 or more years of study and confer a bachelor’s degree— commonly the bachelor of fine arts (B.F.A.) de gree. In these schools, commercial art instruction is supplemented by courses in such liberal arts Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Artistic ability and good taste are the most im portant qualifications for success in the field of Artistic ability is a basic qualification for commercial art work OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS subjects as English tod history. Some limited training in commercial art may also be obtained through courses offered by public vocational high schools, or through private home-study schools, and through practical experience on the job, but supplemental training is often needed for ad vancement. The first year in art school may be devoted primarily to the study of fundamentals—perspec tive, design, color harmony, composition, and use of pencil, crayon, pen and ink, and other art media. Subsequent study generally includes draw ing from life, advertising layout, lettering, typog raphy, illustration, and highly specialized courses in the student’s particular field of interest. Accomplished draftsmanship, imagination, and artistic judgment concerning the harmony of color and line are basic requirements for a suc cessful career in commercial art. The various spe cialties, however, differ in some of the specific abilities required. For example, letterers and re touchers must be able to do precise and detailed work requiring excellent coordination, whereas illustrators and designers need imagination, a distinctive art style, and, in most cases, the ability to draw well. Some experience with photography is useful to those interested in art direction or design jobs. For commercial artists engaged in freelance work, the ability to sell both ideas and finished work to employers or clients is very im portant. Art directors need a strong educational background not only in art and business practices, but also in general liberal arts subjects. Beginning commercial artists usually need some on-the-job training before they can qualify for other than strictly routine work. Advancement is based largely on the individual’s artistic talent, creative ability, and education. After considerable experience, many commercial artists leave salaried employment for freelance work. Often commercial artists assemble their best artwork into a folder, or “portfolio,” to use in dis playing their work to others. A good up-to-date portfolio is essential in obtaining initial employ ment and freelance assignments as well as in changing jobs. Employment Outlook Employment and advancement opportunities for talented and well-trained commercial artists in 221 most kinds of work are expected to be good throughout the rest of the 1960’s. Young people with only average ability and little specialized training, however, will encounter competition for beginning jobs and will have limited opportunity for advancement. The demand for commercial artists varies with the kind of specialization: For example, opportunities for illustrators, except those who are well known and have a unique style, are declining, largely because of increasing use of photography in advertising and editorial features. Demand is steady for mechanical lettering and for paste-up artists, but jobs for designers, art direc tors, and layout men are few in number, much sought after, and open only to highly talented and creative artists. A moderate increase in employment of com mercial artists is expected over the long run. The upward trend in business expenditures for all kinds of visual advertising will be reflected in a growing demand for commercial artists. Televi sion graphics (including animations) and pack aging design are expected to continue to be sources of expanding employment opportunities. Demand for other forms of art such as poster and window displays, greeting cards, and movie cartoons will probably create employment for an increasing number of artists. In addition, the growing field of industrial design is expected to need more artists who are qualified to work with engineering concepts. (See statement on Industrial Design ers.) Generally, the effect of a serious economic down turn would be a reduction in advertising budgets and a decrease in employment of commercial ar tists. During minor business recessions, however, the policy of many companies is to advertise their products more vigorously, thus increasing the use of advertising art. Women with exceptional artistic talent will con tinue to find employment in all aspects of com mercial art work, but particularly in the textile industry and as fashion illustrators in department stores. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning commercial artists typically earned between $50 and $85 a week, in late 1962, accord ing to limited data available. Talented artists with strong educational backgrounds and a good port OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK* 222 folio, however, sometimes started at higher sala ries. After a few years of experience, qualified artists may expect to earn $100—$150 or more a week. Art directors, designers, executives, wellknown freelance illustrators, and others in top positions generally have much higher earnings, many beyond $15,000 a year. The earnings of freelance artists have an espe cially wide range, since they are affected by such factors as the amount of artwork sold, the price that the individual artist receives for his work, and the nature of the work he performs. For ex ample, a recent private survey indicates that a freelancer may receive from $25 for a single black and white fashion sketch to $750 for a figure in full color with a background; from $1,000 to $4,000 for a color cover for a national magazine; or from $75 to $250 for a book jacket. Sometimes freelance artists are paid for their services by the hour; letterers may be paid from $7 to $10 a word. Salaried commercial artists generally work 35 to 40 hours a week, but sometimes they must work additional hours and under a considerable amount of pressure in order to meet deadlines. Freelance artists usually have irregular working hours. Where To Go for More Information Information on art training and employment trends is available from: National Society of Art Directors, Art Education Chairman, 115 East 40th St., New York, N.Y., 10016. A list of schools offering highly specialized education in art and design is available from: National Association of Schools of Art, 50 Astor PI., New York, N.Y., 10003. Foresters (D.O.T. 0-35.07) Nature of Work Forests are one of America’s greatest natural re sources, covering more than one-third of the land area of the country. Foresters manage, protect, and develop these valuable properties and their related resources. They estimate the amount and value of timber in a forest area, plan and super vise the harvesting and cutting of trees, purchase and sell trees and timber, and carry out reforesta tion activities (renewing the forest cover by seed ing or planting). Foresters also safeguard forests from fire, destructive animals and insects, and diseases. Some foresters are responsible for wild life protection, soil conservation, and watershed control as well as for the management of camps, parks, and grazing land. Foresters may specialize in one of several areas, such as timber management, fire control, forest economics, recreation, wildlife management, range management, arboriculture, and soil conservation. Some of these areas of work are becoming recog nized as distinct professions. Foresters may also specialize in a particular activity, such as research, writing and editing, extension work (providing information about forestry practice to farmers, logging companies, and the public), and college and university teaching. Where Employed An estimated 20,000 persons were employed as foresters or as specialists in closely related fields in the United States in 1962. The largest group, about 7,500, were employed by the Federal Govern ment, mainly by the Forest Service of the Depart ment of Agriculture. Some were employed by other Federal agencies, including the Department of the Interior, the Department of Defense, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. State govern ments employed nearly 3,000 foresters, and a few hundred were employed by local governments. Almost 7,000 foresters were employed in private industry in 1962, mainly by pulp and paper, lumber, logging, and milling companies. Approxi mately 1,000 foresters were managers of their own land, were in business for themselves as con sultants, or were employed by consulting firms. Colleges and universities employed about 1,000 foresters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in forestry is the usual minimum educational requirement for young persons seeking careers in forestry. An ad OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS vanced degree is generally required for teaching or research positions. Education in forestry leading to a bachelor’s or higher degree was offered in 1962 by 43 colleges or universities. The curriculums in most of these schools include specialized forestry courses in five essential areas: (1) Silviculture (methods of growing and improving forest crops); (2) forestprotection (primarily from fire, insects, and disease); (3) forest management (the application of business methods and technical forestry princi ples to the operation of a forest property); (4) forest economics (study of the factors affecting the supply of and the demand for forest products); and (5) forest utilization (the harvesting and marketing of the forest crop and other forest resources). The curriculums also include courses in mathematics, science, engineering, economics, and the humanities. In addition, the great ma jority of colleges require that students spend one summer in a camp operated by the college. For estry students are also encouraged to work other summers in jobs that will give them firsthand experience in forest or conservation work. Beginning positions for forestry graduates of ten involve performing routine duties under the supervision of higher level foresters. As they gain experience and are given more responsibility, foresters may advance to positions such as that of branch forester, district ranger, forest supervisor, and managing forester. Qualifications for success in forestry include an enthusiasm for outdoor work and the ability to meet and deal effectively with people. Many jobs also require physical stamina and a willingness to work in isolated areas. 223 are becoming increasingly aware of the profita bility of improved forestry and logging practices, and are applying new techniques for utilizing the entire forest crop and for cutting trees in forests once regarded as unprofitable for timber opera tions. In addition, competition from metal, plas tics, and other materials is expected to stimulate further research to develop new and improved wood products. The Federal Government is likely to offer in creasing employment opportunities for foresters in the years ahead, mainly in the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture. Among the major factors expected to contribute to this ex pansion are the growing amount of timber cut on Federal lands, the trend toward more scientific management of these lands, and expanding pro grams in areas such as recreation, watershed management, range management, and wildlife protection. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for forestry gradu ates are expected to be favorable throughout the remainder of the 1960’s. There will be particular need for well-qualified personnel with advanced degrees for college teaching positions and for re search in areas such as forestry genetics, fire be havior and control, and forest products utilization. Private and industrial owners of timberland are expected to offer increasing numbers of employ ment opportunities to foresters, primarily because of anticipated growth in the demand for wood and wood products. The forest products industries Forester selects tree for removal to allow more sunlight for other trees OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 224 State government agencies should also offer additional employment opportunities for forest ers. Forest fire control, protection against insects and diseases, provision of technical advice to own ers of private forest lands, and other FederalState cooperative programs are usually channeled through State organizations. Growing demands for recreation facilities in forest lands are likely to result in expansion of State parks and other recreation areas. In addition to new positions created by the ris ing demand for foresters, a few hundred openings will arise each year owing to retirements, deaths, and transfers out of the profession. The longrun outlook is for continued growth in the profession. The country’s growing popula tion and rising living standards will tend to in crease the demand for lumber, paper, and other major forest products. In addition, the application of scientific management practices to forest lands, both public and private, is expected to expand. Moreover, occupational fields closely related to forestry, such as wood utilization, wildlife man agement, watershed management, forest recrea tion, soil conservation, and range management, have grown rapidly in the recent past and should continue to grow, thus creating many new posi tions for foresters in both government and private industry. Opportunities for women in forestry will prob ably continue to be limited, largely because of the strenuous physical requirements of much of the work. The few women presently employed in forestry are engaged chiefly in research and edu cation work, and future opportunities for women are also likely to be primarily in these fields. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government in early 1963, in experienced foresters with the bachelor’s degree could start at either $4,565 or $5,540 a year, de pending on their college record. Those with the bachelor’s degree and 1 or 2 years of graduate work could begin at $5,540, $6,675, or $8,045; those with the Ph. D. degree, at $8,045 or $9,475. Annual salaries of beginning foresters with bachelor’s degrees employed by private industry were typically between $4,800 and $6,000 in early 1963, according to the Society of American Forest ers. Starting salaries of new graduates with mas ter’s degrees were usually between $6,000 and $7,000 a year. Those with doctor’s degrees usually received starting salaries of more than $7,000. Beginning salaries of foresters employed by State governments varied widely, but were roughly comparable with those paid by private industry and the Federal Government. In colleges and universities, salaries of forestry teachers were generally the same as those paid other faculty members. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) Foresters in educa tional institutions sometimes supplement their salaries with income from consulting, lecturing, and writing books and articles. As part of his regular duties, the forester must spend considerable time out of doors under all kinds of weather conditions. Many foresters put in extra hours in travel and in emergency duty such as firefighting. Foresters, particularly those in beginning jobs, are often required to travel for extended periods of time. Where To Go for More Information Society of American Foresters, 425 Mills Bldg., 17th and Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C., 20006. U.S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. American Forest Products Industries, Inc., 1816 N St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20036. Geographers (D.O.T. 0-36.93) Nature of Work Geographers seek knowledge about the distribu tion throughout the world of people and natural resources. They study the activities of people— where they live, why they are located there, and how they earn a living. They also study the physi cal characteristics of the earth, such as its terrain, minerals, soils, water, vegetation, and climate, and attempt to relate the earth’s physical char acteristics to the location and activities of people. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Most geographers are engaged in college and university teaching and/or research. Their re search may include the study and analysis of the distribution of soils, vegetation, land forms, cli mate, and mineral and water resources, sometimes utilizing surveying and meteorological instru ments. They also analyze political organizations, transportation systems, and a broad range of other activities. Some geographers spend much time in field study, in preparing and interpreting statis tics, and in analyzing aerial photographs and other data collected in the field. Many construct and interpret maps, graphs, and diagrams. Most geographers specialize in one of the several main branches of geography. Those working in economic geography deal with the geographic dis tribution of economic activities—including manu facturing, mining, farming, trade, and communi cations. Regional geography is concerned with all the physical, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of a particular region or area, which may range in size from a river basin or an island, to a State, a country, or even a continent. Political geography is the study of geographic factors affecting national and international poli cies and events. Urban geography, a relatively new and growing field for geographers, is concerned 225 with the study of cities, and with community planning. (See statement on Urban Planners.) Specialists in physical geography study the earth’s physical characteristics. Geographers in the field of cartography are concerned with the design and construction of maps, as well as the compilation of data for them. Relatively few professional workers in the field of geography have the title of geographer. Many have job titles which describe their specialization such as map cataloger, cartographer, or regional analyst. Others have titles relating to the subject matter of their study, such as photointelligence specialist or climatological analyst. Still others have titles such as community planner, market or business analyst, or intelligence specialist. Where Employed Geography is a relatively small field of employ ment. Only about 2,500 geographers were em ployed in the United States in mid-1962; about 10 percent were women. About two-thirds of all geographers are em ployed by colleges and universities. Those teach ing in institutions which do not have separate de partments of geography usually are assigned to departments of geology, economics, or other physi cal or social sciences. The Federal Government employs about 400 geographers, mostly in the Washington, D.C., area. Among the major agencies employing these workers are the Departments of Defense, the In terior, Commerce, Agriculture, and State, and the Library of Congress. State and local gov ernments also employ a number of geographers, mostly on city and State planning and develop ment commissions. Most of the small but growing number of ge ographers employed by private industry work for map companies, textbook publishers, travel agencies, manufacturing firms, chain stores, and marketing research organizations. A few geogra phers work for scientific foundations and other nonprofit organizations and research institutes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Geographer uses curved ruler on globe to measure distance 692—408 0 — 63------16 The minimum educational requirement for be ginning positions in geography is a bachelor’s 226 degree with a major in the field. For most posi tions in research and teaching, and for advance ment in many other types of work, graduate train ing is required. Undergraduate training in geography is offered by many colleges and universities. In 1962, bache lor’s degrees in geography were awarded by more than 150 institutions. Undergraduate study usu ally provides a general introduction to geographic knowledge and research methods and often in cludes some field studies. Typical courses offered are principles of geography, physical geography, weather and climate, economic geography, politi cal geography, urban geography, and regional courses, such as geography of North America, Western Europe, the U.S.S.R., and Asia. Courses in cartography and map interpretation are also offered, since the drawing, analysis, and under standing of maps are an important part of the geographer’s work. Advanced degrees in geography are offered by a relatively small number of schools; in 1962, master’s degrees were awarded by about 60 in stitutions and Ph. D. degrees by about 30. A bachelor’s degree with a major in geography is the usual requirement for admittance to a gradu ate department of geography. However, most universities will admit otherwise well-qualified students with bachelor’s degrees in such fields as economics, forestry, geology, or history. Re quirements for advanced degrees include geogra phic field and laboratory work, as well as classroom studies, library research, and thesis preparation. New graduates with only the bachelor’s degree in geography find employment mainly in positions connected with mapmaking, either in government or private industry. Some obtain positions as re search or teaching assistants in educational in stitutions while studying for advanced degrees. Others enter beginning positions in the planning field. Those with the master’s degree can qualify for some teaching and research positions in col leges and universities and for many research posi tions in government and private industry. The Ph. D. degree is usually required for high-level posts in college teaching and research and may be necessary for advancement to top-level positions in other activities. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, Employment Outlook The outlook is for a moderate growth in em ployment of geographers throughout the re mainder of the 1960’s and over the longer run. There will be a particular need for geographers with graduate degrees to fill research and teach ing positions in colleges and universities and re search jobs in industry and government. Those with advanced training in fields such as economics or law, in addition to a degree in geography, will also be in demand. Colleges and universities are expected to offer the greatest number of employment opportunities during the 1960’s, primarily owing to anticipated increases in total college enrollments. Expanding interest in foreign countries, and growing aware ness of the value of geography training in several other fields of work, such as in the foreign service, should also result in increased enrollments in geography and in a need for additional teachers at the college level. A growing demand for geography teachers in secondary schools is also anticipated. Employment of geographers in government positions is also likely to increase. The Federal Government will need additional personnel in positions related to area development and re gional and urban planning; resource manage ment; planning, construction, and interpretation of maps; and in intelligence work. State govern ment employment of geographers will probably expand also, particularly in such areas as con servation, highway planning, and city, community, and regional planning and development. The number of geographers employed in pri vate industry is also expected to rise. Market re search work, in which many of these geographers are engaged, should continue its rapid growth. Opportunities should also increase in private area planning and development work. Since geography is a relatively small field, job openings, resulting from growth in the profes sion and the need to replace workers who retire or otherwise leave the profession, are not expected to be numerous in any one year. However, unless the number of persons receiving degrees in the field should grow far beyond current expectations, well-trained geographers, particularly those with advanced degrees, should have good employment opportunities through the 1960’s. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Employment prospects for women geographers will be best in teaching, especially in junior col leges, women’s colleges, and in the larger coeduca tional institutions. Government agencies should also offer some opportunities, mainly in mapping work. However, because of the field work re quired for most geographic positions, opportuni ties for women will be somewhat less favorable than for men. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government, in early 1963, geographers with the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at $4,565 or $5,540 a year, depending on their college record. Inexperienced geographers with 1 or 2 years of graduate train ing could start at $5,540 or $6,675; and those with the Ph. D. degree, at $8,045. In colleges and universities, annual starting salaries for well-trained geographers—those with the Ph. D. or with all the requirements for the 227 doctorate except the thesis—were usually between $6,000 and $8,000 in 1962, according to the limited information available. (For further information, see statement on College and University Teach ers. ) Geographers in educational institutions often have an opportunity to earn income from other sources, such as consulting work, special research projects, and publication of books and articles. Working conditions of most geographers are similar to those of other teachers and office work ers. Geographic research sometimes requires ex tensive travel, in foreign countries as well as in the United States. The geographers engaged in such projects are frequently away from home for long periods, at times living and working under somewhat primitive conditions. Where To Go for More Information Association of American Geographers, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20036. Home Economists (D.O.T. 0-12.10 through .36) Nafure of Work Improving products, services, and practices that affect the comfort and well-being of the family is the primary aim of home economists. These pro fessional workers must have a broad knowledge of the field or be specialists in a particular area such as food, clothing and textiles, housing, home equipment, child care, household management, or family economics. The largest single group of home economists are teachers, mainly in secondary schools. They conduct courses which include such areas of home economics content as food, nutrition, clothing, tex tiles, child development, family relations, homefurnishings and equipment, household economics and home management. The nature of much of the work done by home economists who are second ary school teachers is similar to that described in the statement on Secondary School Teachers, else where in this Handbook. (See index for page num ber.) In addition, they may help students and their parents with homemaking problems, sponsor chapters of Future Homemakers of America, and conduct many related activities. Teachers in adult education programs help homemakers to increase their understanding of family relations, and to improve their homemaking methods and skills. College teachers not only prepare students for professional careers in home economics, but also help prepare young people for homemaking. Col lege teachers, who may combine research with teaching, often specialize in one particular area of home economics. Home economists employed by private business firms and trade associations help to promote the development, use, and care of specific home prod ucts. They may do research and test products; prepare advertisements and booklets with instruc tional materials; plan, prepare, and present pro grams for radio and television; serve as consult ants ; give lectures and demonstrations before the public; and conduct classes for workers, salesmen, and appliance servicemen. They may study con sumer needs, help manufacturers translate these needs into desirable products, and provide miscel laneous consumer services. Home economists who OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, 228 work for food manufacturers do an important part of their work in test kitchens—developing new recipes, improving present products, or help ing to create new products. They may also publi cize the nutritional value of specific foods. Homeservice workers employed by utility companies often give advice on kitchen planning and laundry problems, in addition to describing the operation and benefits of products and services. Home econo mists employed by manufacturers of kitchen and laundry equipment may work with engineers on product development and also devise plans for product uses. Those engaged in communications work for magazines, newspapers, radio and tele vision stations, advertising and public relations agencies, trade associations and other organiza tions, usually plan, write and edit articles and ad vertisements and supervise the preparation of photographs designed to tell homemakers about home products and services. Their work may in clude product testing and analysis, work in re search laboratories or test kitchens, and the study of consumer buying habits. Still other home econo mists in business organizations hold positions with Courtesy of U.S. Department of Agriculture Home economist does research on food freezing methods dress-pattern companies, department stores, in terior design studios, and other firms involved in designing, manufacturing, and selling products for the home. A small number of home economists are employed in such businesses as financial in stitutions, giving customers advice on spending, saving, and budgeting. Others work for moving companies, as consultants on family moving prob lems and for chain food stores, providing food and household information to consumers. A few experienced home economists work as freelance consultants. Home economists are engaged in research work in laboratories and offices of the Federal Govern ment, State agricultural experiment stations, col leges, universities, and private organizations. The largest single group works for the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture conducting research on food and nutrition, textiles and clothing, . housing, household equipment, or household economics. Some make surveys of farm families and their buying and spending habits and then develop budget guides. Others perform laboratory tests to determine the effect of different methods of cooking on nutritive value, flavor, tenderness, or volume of a food. A few in other Federal agencies are engaged in research on space travel; for ex ample, working on problems of meeting food needs in outer space. Home economists employed in the Cooperative Extension Services of the State land-grant col leges conduct adult education programs for women (both rural and urban) and 4-H Club pro grams for girls. Through these programs, exten sion workers help families to use home economics research findings in such areas as home manage ment, consumer education, family relations, and nutrition. Home economists employed on social-welfare programs by State, county, city, and private wel fare agencies may act as advisers and consultants in the development of budget standards and also give homemaking advice. They may work as home making counselors and consultants, helping handi capped homemakers and their families adjust to physical limitations by changing the arrange ments in the home and revising methods of work. Other home economists in welfare agencies super vise or train workers engaged in homemaker serv OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ices which provide temporary or part-time help to households disrupted by illness. Where Employed Altogether, about 85,000 persons were employed in home economics occupations in 1962. However, this figure includes 26,000 dietitians and approxi mately 5,000 extension workers whose work is discussed in separate statements on Dietitians and Agricultural Extension workers. (See index for page numbers.) Nearly 50,000 home economists were teachers. Approximately 35,000 were pri marily secondary school teachers, and about 10,000 were “primarily adult education instructors; how ever, a good many of these teachers taught both secondary school and adult education classes; In addition, there were nearly 3,500 college and uni versity teachers. The remainder taught in elemen tary schools or were child development and family relations specialists teaching in kindergartens, nursery schools, recreation centers, and other institutions. About 5,000 or 6,000 home economists were in private business firms and associations. Several hundred were primarily research workers, and a smaller group participated in social welfare programs as advisers, consultants, and training supervisors. A few were self-employed. Although home economics is generally consid ered a woman’s field, a growing number of men are employed in home economics positions. Most men specialize in foods and institution management, though some are in the family relations and child development field, in applied arts, and in other areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Approximately 450 colleges and universities offer training leading to a bachelor’s degree in home economics, which qualifies graduates for most entry positions in the field. A master’s or doctor’s degree is required for college teaching, for certain research and supervisory positions, for work as an extension specialist or supervisor and for some jobs in the nutrition field. The undergraduate curriculum in home eco nomics provides students with a strong back ground in science and liberal arts and also includes courses in each of the areas of home economics. Advanced courses in chemistry and nutrition are 229 important for those wishing to specialize in foods and nutrition; science and statistics for research work; and journalism for advertising, public relations work, and all other work in the com munications field. In order to teach home eco nomics in a high school, it is necessary to complete the professional education courses and other re quirements for a teacher’s certificate in the State in which one wishes to teach. A few scholarships especially designated for undergraduates in this field are available, as well as scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships for graduate study. Although colleges and uni versities offer most of these financial grants, some are provided by government agencies, research foundations, businesses, and the American Home Economics Association. Home economists must be able to work with people of various living standards and back grounds and should have a capacity for leadership, with ability to inspire cooperation. Good groom ing, poise, and an interest in people are also es sential, particularly when dealing with the public. Employment Outlook Home economists are expected to have very good employment opportunities throughout the re mainder of the 1960’s. In early 1963, experienced home economists with graduate training to fill administrative, college teaching, and extension specialist positions were in especially strong de mand. Graduates with the bachelor’s degree were also being sought to fill entry positions, mainly as teachers in secondary schools. In most States, not enough home economics graduates were enter ing and remaining in home economics occupations to satisfy the demand for these workers in teach ing and other fields. Some young women who study home economics do not enter employment in the field but become full-time homemakers. Others work professionally for only a short time before marriage but often return to part-time or full time employment after their children are in school. The demand for home economists to fill teaching positions in secondary schools and in colleges and universities will be the principal factor in the longrun growth in employment in this field. In addition, the need for more home economists in research is expected to increase with the continued interest in using scientific methods for improving OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 230 various home products and services. Employers in many business establishments are also likely to be come increasingly aware of the contributions that can be made by professionally trained home econo mists and will probably hire more of them to promote home products and to act as consultants to customers. Replacement needs will undoubtedly continue to be high in this field. There will be many opportunities for part-time teachers in adult education programs as more women utilize such programs to improve their homemaking skills for personal reasons and to obtain positions requiring such training. Earnings and Working Conditions Home economics teachers in public schools gen erally receive the same salaries as other teachers, as most school districts have a single-salary sched ule, graduated by education and experience. In school districts with 100,000 or more pupils, the average (median) salary of beginning teachers with a bachelor’s degree was $4,700 for the school year 1962-63, according to a National Education Association survey; in districts with 50,000 to 99,999 enrollment, starting salaries averaged $4,600, and in districts with 25,000 to 49,999 enrollment, $4,400. Annual beginning salaries of home economists employed by business firms generally ranged from about $4,000 to $5,700, according to the limited data available in late 1962. Earnings of home economists with 5 years of experience usually ranged from $5,000 to $7,000 and top executives from $7,200 to $14,000 a year. According to a sur vey by the American Home Economics Associa tion, the average (median) salary of home econo mists engaged in college and university teaching was $7,000 a year in 1962; 1 in 8 earned between $10,000 and $15,000 a year. In the cooperative ex tension service, salaries of county home demonstra tion agents averaged about $6,800 per year and those of State specialists, $8,400 per year in early 1963. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for inexperienced workers with a bachelor’s degree in home economics was $4,565 in early 1963. For those with additional education and experience, salaries ranged from $5,540 to over $16,000 a year, depending upon the type of position and level of responsibility. Many home economists work a regular 40-hour week or less. Those in teaching and extension work, however, frequently work longer hours as they are expected to be available for evening lec tures, demonstrations, and other work falling outside the regularly scheduled hours. Most home economists receive such fringe benefits as paid vacation, sick leave, retirement pay, and insurance benefits. Where To Go for More Information A list of schools granting degrees in home eco nomics is available from the Home Economics Education Branch, Office of Education, U.S. De partment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 20202. Additional information about home economists and graduate scholarships may be obtained from: American Home Economics Association, 1600 20th St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20009. Industrial Designers (D.O.T. 0-46.88) Nature of Work Industrial designers combine technical knowl edge of materials, machines, and methods of pro duction with artistic talent to improve the ap pearance and functional design of machine-made products. Since the public has a wide choice of selection of styles in products, particularly radios, television sets, automobiles, refrigerators, and furniture, a primary objective of the industrial designer is to design or redesign his employer’s product to compete favorably with similar goods. As a first step in designing, the industrial de signer spends time on historical research on the product or related products. He examines the nature of the competition in today’s market and the ways in which the product may be used. Then, he sketches a variety of alternative solutions, which are examined from many points of view. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS For example, the designer may consult engineers, production supervisors, and the sales and market research staff for their opinions as to the prac ticability of producing a newly designed product, or changing the design of an old product, and as to the sales potential of the proposed designs. After the most suitable design is selected by com pany officials, a model may be made by the de signer. The first model of a new design is often made of clay so that it can be altered easily to reflect modifications in design. The final or work ing model, which may be produced by machinists, patternmakers, or other highly skilled craftsmen, is usually made of the material to be used in the finished product. If the model is finally approved, it is adopted and put into production. Industrial designers may also be called upon to do related types of work of an artistic nature. For example, they may design containers and packages, prepare small exhibits for display pur poses, or design the entire layout for industrial fairs. Some also design the layout of the interior of special purpose commercial buildings, such as gasoline stations and supermarkets. Industrial designers employed by a manufac turing company usually find their work limited to the one or few products made by their employer; many senior designers, however, are now given a free hand to engage in long-range planning which may lead to the development of a new product. Designers who work as consultants to more than one industrial firm, either as freelance designers or as members of consulting firms, may plan and design a great variety of products. Industrial designer sketches changes in auto body design 231 Where Employed Fewer than 10,000 industrial designers were employed in early 1963. The great majority worked for large manufacturing companies and in design consulting firms; of the remainder, the greatest number did freelance work or combined salaried employment with freelance work. Some also worked for architects, and a few were on the staffs of firms of interior designers. Industrial designers employed by consulting firms are located mainly in large cities. Those em ployed by industrial firms are most often found in the manufacturing plants of their companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The completion of a course of study in indus trial design—in an art school, an art department of a university, or a technical college—is the usual requirement for entering this field of work. People from other areas, however, notably engi neering and architecture, often qualify as indus trial designers if they have appropriate experi ence and artistic talent. Formal education in industrial design at the college or university level usually takes at least 4 years to complete, though a few schools require 5 years of study. These schools award the bache lor’s degree in industrial design or fine arts; some of these schools also award the master’s degree for advanced study in the field. Some schools, usu ally private art schools or those associated with large art museums, offer a 3-year course of study in industrial design which leads to a diploma. Entrance to the course of study in industrial design is limited, with rare exceptions, to quali fied high school graduates; in addition, art schools and colleges may require students to present sketches and other examples of their artistic abil ity. Some schools require students to complete their freshman year or sophomore year before they select an industrial design major. Industrial design curriculums differ considera bly among schools. Some schools stress the engi neering and technical aspects of the field, whereas others give students a strong cultural background in art. Nevertheless, all industrial design curricu lums include at least one course in two-dimen sional design (color theory, spatial organization, etc.) and one in general three-dimensional design OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 232 (abstract sculpture and art structures), including a substantial amount of studio practice in the ac tual design of three-dimensional products. In the studio course, students learn to make working drawings and models with clay, wood, plaster, and other easily worked materials. In schools that have the necessary machinery, students gain experience in making models of their designs while learning to use metalworking and woodworking machin ery. Some schools, principally those with a tech nical emphasis, require the completion of courses in basic engineering and in the composition of ma terials. All schools which offer 4- or 5-year courses leading to a bachelor’s degree also include academic subjects, such as English, history, and science, in their curriculums. Creative ability, skill in drawing, and the abil ity to predict consumer needs are among the most important personal qualifications needed by young people aspiring to work in this field. A mechanical interest is also important. Applicants for jobs will find it helpful to have previously assembled a “portfolio” which demonstrates their skill in de signing and their creative talent. Since industrial designers are frequently required to work cooper atively with engineers and other staff members, ability to work and communicate well with others is important. Young people who plan to do in dustrial design on a consulting basis should, in addition, have a knowledge of business practices, as well as sales ability. New graduates of industrial design courses fre quently start as assistants to other designers. They are usually given relatively simple assignments which do not involve making structural changes in the product. As they gain experience, designers may be assigned to supervisory positions with major responsibility for the design of a product or a group of products. Those who have the neces sary funds, as well as established reputations in the field, may open their own consulting firms. Employment Outlook Employment in this relatively small occupation is expected to expand moderately during the rest of the 1960’s. Employers will be actively seeking applicants with a college degree and outstanding talent. Some employment opportunities will also arise each year from the need to replace designers who retire or leave the field for other reasons. Although these vacated positions are likely to be filled by promoting designers’ assistants, such promotions result in openings at the entry level. Over the long run, employment in the field of industrial designing will continue to expand. Rapid obsolescence of military and commercial equipment and the rising population will increase the demand for newly designed products. As in the past, manufacturers will strive to capture their share of this market through creating new products, by improving the design of existing ones, and by changing package designs and other wise modernizing the appearance and use of their products. Small companies will probably make in creasing use of services offered by industrial de sign consulting firms in order to compete more effectively with larger firms. All of these factors, combined with rising per capita income, will con tribute to long-term growth in the employment of industrial designers. However, as in the past, new entrants trained specifically in industrial design ing are likely to encounter keen competition for beginning jobs from persons with engineering, architectural, and related educational back grounds and who have artistic and creative talent as well. Also, since personnel needs in this pro fession are closely related to general business con ditions, any downturn in the economy would tend to affect adversely the employment outlook for industrial designers. Earnings Starting salaries of inexperienced industrial designers employed by manufacturing firms ranged from $90 to $125 a week in early 1963, according to the limited information available. Beginning salaries of those employed by consult ing firms were usually lower. Salaries of experi enced industrial designers vary greatly, depending on individual ability, size and type of firm in which employed, and other factors. According to scattered reports, those with several years of ex perience earned salaries ranging from $6,000 to $12,000 on the average, in early 1963. Some large manufacturing firms paid $25,000 or more to ex perienced and talented designers. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Earnings of industrial designers who own their consulting firms, alone or as members of a part nership, may fluctuate markedly from year to year. In recent years, earnings of most consultants ranged between $12,000 and $20,000 a year, with a few outstanding industrial designers making as much as $200,000 a year. 233 Where To Go for More Information American Society of Industrial Designers, 15 East 48th St., New York, N.Y., 10017. Industrial Designers’ Institute, 441 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y., 10022. National Association of Schools of Art, 50 Astor PI., New York, N.Y., 10003. Interior Designers and Decorators (D.O.T. 0-43.40) Nature of Work Interior designers and decorators plan the se lection and arrangement of furniture, draperies, floor coverings, and decorations for homes and other structures, such as offices, stores, hotels, theaters, clubs, schools, and even ships and air craft. They may work on the interior settings used for motion pictures and television. Their plans are intended to achieve both an artistic and functional effect. Interior designers who plan the space and other interior design for their clients most often work on large projects—an entire office building, for example—and plan the complete layout of the rooms within the space allowed by the exterior walls and other framework. When their plans have been completed, the architect for the struc ture usually checks them against his blueprints to assure compliance with building requirements and to solve any structural problems. Some interior designers also design the furniture and accessories to be used in interiors and then arrange for their manufacture. Many designers and decorators have their own establishments, where they sell some or all of the merchandise with which they work. Some work alone, or with one assistant; others have a large staff, sometimes including salespeople. Many of the larger department and furniture stores have special departments with interior decorators in charge to advise customers on deco rating plans. One of the main functions of such departments is to help sell the stores’ merchandise, although the decorators are usually permitted to use materials not carried by the stores when this is essential to their decorating plans. In addition to customers, department store decorators may ad- Interior decorator checks to determine client's preference in furnishings vise the stores’ buyers and executives concerning style and color trends in interior furnishings. As a rule, designers and decorators work di rectly with clients to determine their preferences and needs in furnishings; on large assignments, they may submit sketches or water color render ings in perspective of their plans, along with cost estimates. After the client approves both the plans and cost estimates, arrangements are made for the purchase of the furnishings; for the super vision of the work of painters, floor finishers, cabinet makers, carpet layers, and other crafts men ; and for the installation and arrangement of furnishings. 234 Where Employed About 10,000 men and women were engaged in interior design and decoration in 1962. The ma jority were located in large cities and their sub urbs—areas in which decorating services are widely used. In recent years, large department and furniture stores have become increasingly important sources of employment for professional decorators. Some designers and decorators have regular jobs wTith hotel and restaurant chains. Others are employed by architects, antique deal ers, office furniture stores, industrial designers, furniture and textile manufacturers or other manufacturers in the interior furnishings field, or by periodicals that feature articles on homefurnishings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training in interior design and decora tion is becoming increasingly important for en trance into this field of work, although many present members of the profession achieved suc cess without such training. Most department stores, well-established design and decorating firms, and other major employers will accept only well-trained people for beginning jobs. Usually, the minimum educational requirement is comple tion of either a 2- or 3-year course at a recognized art school or institute specializing in interior decorating and design or a 4-year college course leading to a bachelor of fine arts degree, with a major in interior design and decoration. The course of study in interior design and decoration usually includes the principles of design, history of art, freehand and mechanical drawing, paint ing, the study of the essentials of architecture as they relate to interiors, design of furniture and exhibitions, and study of various materials, such as woods and fabrics. In addition, courses in sales manship, business arithmetic, and other business subjects are of great value. Membership in either the American Institute of Interior Designers of the National Society of In terior Designers is a recognized mark of achieve ment in this profession. For such membership a decorator must usually have completed 4 years of education or more beyond high school, with major emphasis on training in design, and also have had OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK several years of experience, including responsi bility for supervision of all aspects of decorating contracts. New graduates with art training usually serve a training period, either with decorating firms, in department stores, or in the firm of an established designer. They may act as a receptionist, as a shopper with the task of matching materials or finding accessories, or as a stockroom assistant, assistant decorator, or junior designer. In most instances, from 1 to 3 years of on-the-job training is required before a trainee is considered eligible for advancement to the job of decorator. Begin ners who do not obtain trainee jobs often work as salespeople for fabric, lamp, or other interior furnishings concerns, to gain experience both in dealing with customers and to become familiar with the merchandise. This experience often makes it easier to obtain trainee jobs with a decorating firm or department; it may also lead to a career in merchandising. Decorators with ability and considerable ex perience may be advanced to head of the decorat ing department or to other supervisory positions in department stores or large decorating firms. Experienced decorators may open their own decorating establishments or move into positions as interior furnishings coordinators in department stores. Artistic talent, imagination, and good business judgment are probably the personal qualities most important for success in this field. Employment Outlook Talented art school or college graduates with a major in interior design and decoration will probably have good opportunities for employment during the remainder of the 1960 decade. Young people without formal training or real aptitude for the work will, however, find it increasingly difficult to gain a foothold in the field. A slow but steady increase in employment of interior designers and decorators is anticipated over the long run. Factors that will contribute to this expansion are population growth, larger expenditures for home and office furnishings, the increasing availability of well-designed furnish ings at moderate prices, and a growing recogni tion among middle-income families of the value OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS of decorators’ services. In addition to newly cre ated jobs, some openings will arise each year as workers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Department and furniture stores will continue to employ an increasing number of trained decora tors. These stores are also expected to share in the growing volume of decorating work for commer cial establishments and public buildings, formerly handled almost entirely by independent decora tors. This development will result in increased opportunities for salaried employment of decora tors. As in the past, however, a sharp downturn in general economic conditions would adversely affect employment opportunities in this field. Many women will continue to find employment opportunities in this field. Mature women with suitable educational and personal qualifications should be able to compete successfully, since some clients do not have confidence in youthful appear ing decorators. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning salaries ranged from $65 to $85 a week in 1962 for art school or college graduates with formal training in interior design and deco ration, according to limited data available. Many interior decorators with experience in this field earn only moderate incomes—from $4,000 to 235 $5,000 a year. Other decorators who are well known in their localities may earn up to $12,000 or more. Designers and decorators whose talents are nationally recognized may earn more than $25,000 yearly. Decorators in business for themselves have an especially wide range of earnings; their profits are related to factors such as the volume of busi ness, their prestige as a decorator, economic level of their clients, and their own business compe tence. Decorators in the employ of others also have variable earnings, since few of them are paid straight salaries; some receive salaries plus com missions which usually range from 5 to 10 percent of the value of their sales; others receive com missions only, which may be as much as one-third of the value of their sales. Hours of work for decorators and designers are sometimes long and irregular. They usually adjust their workday to suit the needs of their clients, meeting with them during the evenings or on weekends, when necessary. Where To Go for More Information American Institute of Interior Designers, 673 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y., 10022. National Society of Interior Designers, Inc., Suite 700,157 West 57th St., New York, N.Y., 10019. Landscape Architects (D.O.T. 0-03.20) Nature of Work Landscape architects plan the arrangement of outdoor areas for people to use and enjoy. Parks, gardens, scenic roads, housing projects, campuses, and country clubs reflect the skill of these archi tects in designing landscapes that are both useful and pleasing. Because of their knowledge of site planning, landscape architects may serve many types of clients, such as a school board planning a new high school, a manufacturer wishing to fit a factory into a suburban area attractively, a homeowner wishing to improve his grounds, a Government agency desiring a master plan for a military site, a city preparing to build an airport, or a real estate firm embarking on a new suburban development. The landscape architect may plan the entire arrangement of a site and supervise the grading, construction, and planting required to carry out the plan. Whether he performs all or only part of these services on a particular project, however, depends on the client’s wishes and the available funds. A landscape architect begins to plan a site by studying the nature and purpose of the client’s project and the various types of structures needed. Next, he studies the site itself, observing and map ping such features as the slope of the land and 236 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tectural or engineering firms; others were em ployed by landscape contractors or nurseries, and a few taught in colleges and universities. Landscape architects are found in every State and in many small towns as well as big cities. The largest numbers are in the most highly populated States. California, with a large population, a highper capita income, and a mild climate, has more landscape architects than any other State. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Landscape architects may plan the entire site for an area redevelopment project the position of existing buildings and trees. He also considers the views, the parts of the site that will be sunny or shaded at different times of day, the structure of the soil, existing utilities, and many other factors. Then, after consultation with the architect and engineer working on the project, he draws up preliminary plans for the develop ment of the site. After the client approves the preliminary plans, working drawings are made which show all existing and proposed features, such as buildings, roads, walks, terraces, grading, and drainage structures in planted areas. The landscape architect outlines in detail the methods of constructing such features as walks and ter races and draws up lists of materials to be used. Landscape contractors are then invited to submit bids for the work. Firms of landscape architects usually handle a wide variety of assignments. Some, however, spe cialize in such projects as parks and playgrounds, campuses, hotels and resorts, shopping centers, roads, or public housing. Where Employed About 4,000 landscape architects were employed in early 1963. The majority were in business for themselves or worked for other landscape archi tects in private firms. Most of the remainder— about a third of all landscape architects—were employed by government agencies concerned with public housing, city planning, or parks and recre ational areas. Some were on the staffs of archi A bachelor’s degree from a college or university which offers professional training in landscape architecture is usually the minimum requirement for entering the profession. Such training is of fered in at least 20 colleges and universities, of which 16 have been accredited by the American Society of Landscape Architects. The curriculum for the bachelor’s degree requires 4 to 5 years of study, depending on the institution. A few uni versities also offer master’s degrees in landscape architecture. Entrance requirements for the landscape archi tecture course are usually the same as those for admission to the liberal arts college of the same university. Some schools also require completion of a high school course in mechanical or geo metrical drawing, and most schools advise high school students to take courses in art and more mathematics than the minimum required for col lege entrance. Courses in design, including architecture and drawing as well as landscape design, constitute over half of the typical curriculum in landscape architecture. Other major fields of study are civil engineering and horticulture. In addition, courses in English, science, the social sciences, and mathe matics are usually required. A bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture provides a good back ground for graduate work in city planning. Young people who plan to become landscape architects should be interested in both art and nature, for the profession demands a talent for design and an understanding of plant life, as well as technical ability. Successful practice as an in dependent landscape architect also requires a good business sense and the ability to deal with people. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Working for landscape architects or landscape contractors during summer vacations will help the student to discover what phases of landscape architecture interest him most and may enable him to get a better than average job and salary upon graduation. New^ graduates usually begin as junior drafts men assigned to tracing drawings and other sim ple drafting work. As their skill increases, they progress to more responsible work. After 2 or 3 years, they can usually advance to positions as senior draftsmen, qualified to carry a design through all its stages from preliminary sketches to finished working drawings. Experienced drafts men often handle other aspects of landscape archi tects’ work also, such as preparing specifications and detailing methods of construction. Employees who demonstrate ability for all phases of work may become associates of the firm; landscape ar chitects who progress this far often open their own offices. A license is required for the independent prac tice of landscape architecture in six States—Cali fornia, New York, Virginia, Georgia, Oregon, and Louisiana. Candidates for the licensing examina tion are required to have 6 to 8 years’ experience, or a degree from an accredited school of landscape architecture plus 2 to 4 years’ experience. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for graduates with professional training in landscape architecture are expected to be good for the remainder of the 1960’s. In the long run, the profession will proba bly continue to expand, as a result of the con tinued growth of metropolitan areas with their needs for parks and recreational areas, the grow ing population’s requirements for outdoor recre ational facilities, the continued increase in public construction (including public housing), and the rising interest in city and regional planning. Op portunities for landscape architects may increase sharply if developers of new residential and com mercial areas continue to offer planned recrea tional facilities and landscaping to compete with existing areas. In some parts of the country, the expected in crease in homeownership, coupled with rising per 237 capita incomes and living standards, will also spur the demand for landscape architects. These fac tors are likely to have much less effect in some other areas (especially the northern and eastern parts of the country) where homeowners generally choose the services of landscape gardeners and nurserymen instead of landscape architects. Women can enter training for landscape archi tecture. They represent about 10 to 15 percent of all landscape architects (but only about 1 percent of the Nation’s registered architects). Welltrained and competent women landscape archi tects can look forward to interesting and worth while careers in the profession, chiefly as specialists in garden and planting design. Earnings and Working Conditions In early 1963, starting salaries in private indus try for new graduates in landscape architecture ranged from about $90 to $130 a week, accordingto the limited information available. The rela tively higher salaries generally were paid to graduates who had gained experience in summer jobs in landscape architecture firms. Some firms started inexperienced landscape architects at about $75 a week and advanced them to higher salaries after a few months’ experience. Experi enced persons employed by private firms typically earned from $7,000 to $8,000 a year, though it was not unusual for especially well-qualified people to receive annual salaries of $10,000 or more. Landscape architects in independent practice often earn more than salaried employees with con siderable experience, but their earnings vary widely and may fluctuate from year to year. In recent years, earnings for this segment of the pro fession have tended to range from $6,000 to $15,000 a year, with some people of exceptional . ability and established reputation making $25,000 or more a year. The annual entrance salary for newly graduated landscape architects in the Federal Civil Service was either $5,365 or $6,465 in early 1963, depend ing on their qualifications. The salary schedule also provides for periodic increases above this amount. A large majority of experienced land scape architects in the Federal Government earn $8,045 or more a year; a few earn $15,000 or more. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, 238 Salaried employees in both the government and in landscape architectural firms usually work regular hours. Self-employed persons often work long hours, especially in the planting season. Sala ried employees in private firms may also work overtime in the seasonal rush periods. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on the profession and a list of colleges and universities offering ac credited courses of study in landscape architec ture may be obtained from: American Society of Landscape Architects, Inc., 2000 K St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20006. Lawyers (D.O.T. 0-22.) Nature of Work Lawyers (attorneys) advise clients on their legal rights and obligations and, when necessary, represent them in courts of law. In addition, they negotiate settlements out of court and represent clients before quasi-judicial or administrative agencies of the government. They may act as trustees, guardians, or executors. Government at torneys play a large part in developing and ad ministering Federal and State laws and programs; they prepare drafts of proposed legislation, estab lish law enforcement procedures, and argue cases. Some lawyers serve as judges in Federal, State, and local courts. Others are primarily engaged in teaching, research, writing, or administrative activities. The great majority of practicing lawyers are engaged in general practice, handling all kinds of legal work for clients. However, a significant number practice in a particular branch of the law —for example, corporation, criminal, labor, pat ent, real estate, tax, or international law. Some attorneys devote themselves entirely to trying cases in the courts. Others never appear in court but spend all their time in such activities as draw ing up wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, and other legal documents, conducting out-of-court negotiations, and doing the investigative and other legal work necessary to prepare for trials. Many people with legal training are not em ployed as lawyers but are.in other occupations where they can use their knowledge of law. They may, for example, be FBI agents, insurance ad justers, tax collectors, probation officers, credit investigators, or claims examiners. A legal back ground is also a valuable asset to people seeking public office. Where Employed Of the approximately 250,000 lawyers employed in 1961, three-fourths were in private practice. Ap proximately 60 percent of the private practition ers were in practice by themselves, about 30 per cent were in partnerships, and the remainder— less than 10 percent—worked for other lawyers or law firms. The greatest number of salaried attorneys are employed by government agencies. In 1961, the Federal Government employed approximately 13,000 attorneys, chiefly in the Department of Justice, the Department of Defense, and the Veterans Administration. About 8,300 attorneys held positions with city or county governments, and 4,300 were employed by State governments. Nearly 8,200 held judicial positions. The second largest number of salaried lawyers are employed by private companies, including large manufacturing firms, banks, insurance com panies, real estate firms, and public utilities. Most of the remainder teach in law schools. Some law yers in salaried legal positions also have an in dependent practice; others do legal work on a part-time basis while primarily employed in an other occupation. Although lawyers pratice in all parts of the country, most of them are in cities and in the States with the greatest population. In 1961, for example, nearly one-third of all lawyers were in New York City, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, Boston, Detroit, Philadelphia, and Cleve land. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Before a lawyer can practice in the courts of any State he must be admitted to the bar of that OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS State. In all States applicants must pass a written examination; a few States waive this requirement, however, for graduates of their own in-State law schools. Other usual requirements are U.S. citizen ship and good moral character. If a lawyer has been admitted to the bar in one State, he can usu ally be admitted to practice in another State with out taking an examination, provided he meets the State’s standards of good moral character and has a specified amount of legal experience. The right to practice before Federal courts and agencies is controlled by special rules of each court or agency. To qualify for the bar examinations in the majority of States, an applicant must have com pleted a minimum of 3 years of college work and, in addition, must be a graduate of a law school approved by the American Bar Association or the proper State authorities. Some States will accept study in a law office instead of, or in combination with, study in a law school—though this method of training is now rare. A few States will accept study of the law wholly in a law office; two States will accept study of the law by correspondence. A number of States require registration and ap proval by the State Board of Examiners before students enter law school or during the early years of legal study. In a few States, candidates must complete a period of clerkship in a law office before they are admitted to the bar examination. As a rule, it takes 6 years of full-time study after high school to complete the required college and law school work. The most usual preparation for becoming a lawyer is 3 years of college study followed by 3 years in law school. Some law schools, particularly if they have a 4-year, full time curriculum, may accept students after 2 years of college work. On the other hand, an increasing number of law schools are requiring applicants to have a college degree. Law schools seldom specify the college subjects which must be included in students’ prelegal education. However, courses in English, history, economics, and other social sciences, logic, and public speaking are all im portant for prospective lawyers. In general, their college background should be broad enough to give them an understanding of society and its in stitutions. Students interested in a particular as pect of the law may find it helpful to take related courses; for example, engineering and science courses would be useful to the prospective patent 238 attorney, and accounting would be useful to the future tax lawyer. Of the 159 law schools in existence in 1962, 134 were approved by the American Bar Association and the others—chiefly night schools—were ap proved by State authorities only. A substantial number of full-time law schools have night divi sions designed to meet the needs of part-time stu dents; some law schools have only night classes. Four years of part-time study is usually required to complete the night-school curriculum. In 1962, about one-quarter of all law students were en rolled in evening classes. The first 2 years of law school are generally de voted to fundamental courses such as contracts, criminal law, and property. In the third year, stu dents may elect courses in specialized fields such as tax, labor, or corporation law. Practical ex perience is often obtained by participating in legal aid activities sponsored by the school, in the school’s practice court where the students con duct trials under the supervision of experienced lawyers, and by writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. Upon graduation, the degree of bachelor of laws (LL.B.) is awarded by most schools, although a few confer the degree of juris doctor (J.D.). Advanced study is often desirable for those planning to specialize in one branch of the law or to engage in research and law-school teaching. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried posi tions, although some go into independent practice immediately after passing the bar examination. Young salaried attorneys usually act as assistants (law clerks) to experienced lawyers. Initially, their work is limited to research such as checking points of law; they rarely see a client or argue a case in court. After several years of progressively responsible salaried employment, during which time they can obtain experience and funds and become well known, many lawyers go into practice for themselves. Employment Outlook Graduates from widely recognized law schools and those in the top 10 percent of their classes will have favorable employment prospects throughout the 1960’s. They are expected to have good opportunities for obtaining salaried posi tions with well-known law firms, on legal staffs 240 of corporations and government agencies, and as law clerks to judges. Graduates of the less wellknown schools and those who graduate with lower scholastic ratings are likely to experience some difficulty in finding salaried positions as lawyers. However, numerous opportunities will be avail able for law school graduates to enter a variety of other types of salaried positions requiring a knowledge of law. Law graduates will also be in demand as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces for legal assignments. Young attorneys who open their own law offices after being admit ted to the bar will, as in most other independent professions, generally face a period of low earn ings while they build up their practice. Prospects for establishing a new practice will probably continue to be best in small towns and expanding suburban areas. In such communities, competition with other lawyers is likely to be less than in big cities; also, office rent and other busi ness costs may be somewhat lower, and young lawyers may find it easier to become known to potential clients. On the other hand, opportunities for salaried employment will be limited largely to big cities where the chief employers of legal talent—government agencies, law firms, and big corporations—are concentrated. For able and wellqualified lawyers, good opportunities to advance will be available in both salaried employment and private practice. Although the majority of employment oppor tunities for new lawyers will continue to arise from the need to replace those who retire, die, or otherwise leave the field, a gradual increase in the legal profession is expected over the long run. Most of the growth will result from the continu ing expansion of business activity and population. In addition, the increased use of legal services by low- and middle-income groups will add to the long-term growth in demand for lawyers. The growing complexity of business and government activities is expected to create a steadily expand ing demand for lawyers who have extensive ex perience in fields such as corporation, patent, administrative, labor, and international law. Opportunites for women lawyers, who com prised less than 3 percent of the profession in 1961, will probably continue to be limited for some time to come. More than half of all women OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK, lawyers are employed in salaried positions, a few are in practice for themselves. Many women law yers hold positions, not as attorneys, but in oc cupations requiring a knowledge of law. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government, the annual starting salary for attorneys who had passed the bar was either $5,540 or $6,675 in early 1963, depending on the applicant’s qualifications. Attorneys employed in beginning salaried positions with manufactur ing and other business firms had an average salary of approximately $6,550 a year in early 1962. Beginning salaries for young lawyers are gen erally highest in large law firms and Federal agen cies. Those working for small law offices or en gaged in legal aid work usually receive the lowest salaries. The beginning lawyer in practice for himself may make little more than his expenses during the first few years and may add to his total income by engaging in other part-time employment. Lawyers’ earnings usually rise with increased experience. Those employed on a salaried basis receive increases as they demonstrate their ability to assume greater responsibilities. Incomes of law yers in private practice usually grow as their practices develop. Private practitioners who are partners in law firms generally have greater aver age incomes than those who practice alone. Lawyers often work long hours and under con siderable pressure when a case is being tried. In addition, they must keep abreast of the latest laws and court decisions. However, since lawyers in private practice are able to determine their own hours and workload, many stay in practice until well past the usual retirement age. Where To Go for More Information The specific requirements for admission to the bar in a particular State may be obtained from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the secretary of the Board of Bar Examiners at the State capital. Information on law schools and on law as a career is available from: The American Bar Association, 1155 East 60th St., Chicago, 111., 60637. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 241 Librarians (D.O.T . 0-23.) Nature of Work Librarians select, acquire, and organize collec tions of books, pamphlets, manuscripts, periodi cals, dippings, and reports and assist readers in their use. In many libraries, they also make avail able organized collections of phonograph records, maps, slides, pictures, tapes, films, and film strips. Their duties include analyzing the reading inter ests and information needs of people served by the library and developing a collection of materi als to meet those requirements, preparing a catalog to serve as a guide to the collection, and aiding readers in securing information or reading materi als. Librarians may also review and abstract published and unpublished materials, prepare bibliographies, advise schools or business organi zations on sources of information for research, provide library services for community projects, publicize library services, and plan and operate information storage and retrieval systems. In a small library, a librarian may perform a great variety of tasks. In a large organization, each librarian may perform only a single function or may specialize in a subject matter area, such as science, business, the arts, or medicine. Librarians may be classified according to the types of libraries in which they are employed: Public libraries, school libraries, college and uni versity libraries, and special libraries. In each of these, there are two principal kinds of library work—reader services and technical services. Those who perform reader services, for example, reference librarians and children’s librarians, work directly with the public. Catalogers and others who perform technical services usually have no contact with readers. Public librarians serve all kinds of readers— children, students, teachers, research workers, and others. The professional staff of a large public library system may include the chief librarian, an assistant chief, and several division heads, who plan and coordinate the work of the entire system and perform other administrative duties. Such a system may also include librarians who supervise branch libraries, and other librarians who are specialists in certain areas. The duties of some of 692-408 0 —63------17 A growing number of librarians are men these specialists are briefly described in the para graph which follows. Acquisition librarians have responsibility for the purchase of books and other library materials that are selected by staff members; they may also acquire materials by exchange or gift. Catalogers classify books under various subjects and other wise describe them so they may be identified through card catalogs. Reference librarians aid readers in their search for information—answer ing specific questions or suggesting sources of information about broad subjects. Children's li brarians plan and direct special programs for children, including preschool children. Their du ties include instructing children in the use and content of the library, giving talks on books, and maintaining contact with schools and community organizations. Often they conduct a regular story hour at the library and sometimes on radio or tele vision. Adult services librarians may select materi- 242 als for and advise mature readers. They are often asked to suggest reading materials or to plan and conduct educational programs on such topics as community development, public affairs, creative arts, problems of the aging, or home and family life. Young adult services librarians may select books and materials for young people, and guide them in the use of these materials. They may ar range book or film discussion groups, concerts of recorded popular and classical music, and other programs related to the interests of young adults. They may also help to coordinate the services of the school libraries and the local public library. Bookmobile librarians take library materials to people who live in areas where other public library services are nonexistent or inadequate. School librarians work with pupils as well as with teachers and school supervisors concerned with planning the curriculum. They prepare lists of printed and audiovisual materials on certain subjects; meet with faculty members to select ma terials for school programs and select, order, and organize library materials. They instruct students in the use of the library and visit classrooms to acquaint students with library materials relating to the subjects being taught. Many school librar ians are employed by school district central offices as supervisors to plan and coordinate library ser vices for the entire school system, as catalogers, and as librarians to administer professional li braries for teachers. Very large high schools may employ several professional librarians, each re sponsible for a special aspect of the library program or for special subject materials. College and university librarians work with students, faculty members, and research workers, in general reference work or in a particular field of interest, such as law, medicine, economics, or music. In addition, they may teach one or more classes in the use of the library. Some specialize in acquisition and cataloging. A few librarians, who are employed in university research projects, operate documentation centers, sometimes using computers and other modern devices to record and retrieve specialized information. Special librarians serve in libraries maintained by commercial and industrial firms, such as phar maceutical companies, banks, and advertising agencies; professional and trade associations; government agencies; and other types of organiza OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tions. These librarians plan, acquire, organize, and catalog collections designed to provide intensive coverage of information resources about subjects of special interest to the organization. The special librarian utilizes his extensive knowledge of the subject matter, as well as library science, in build ing up library resources, advising and assisting library users, abstracting, and routing available materials. Literature searching and the prepara tion of summaries, translations, bibliographies, and special reports are among the major duties of special librarians. Some special librarians develop coding and programing techniques for using electronic and electromechanical informa tion storage devices. Where Employed Nearly 60,000 people were employed as full-time professional librarians in 1962, according to the U.S. Office of Education. According to the same source, an additional 15,000 to 20,000 other people were working as librarians; of these some were working part time and others were not regarded as “professional” librarians. School librarians and public librarians each accounted for about onethird of the full-time employed professional group. Librarians in colleges and universities and those employed in special libraries (including libraries in government agencies), each accounted for about one-sixth of the total. A small number of librarians were employed, as teachers and ad ministrators in schools of library science. About 85 percent of all librarians are women. The proportion of men is rising however; in re cent years nearly 25 percent of the college gradu ates who earned a degree in library science were men. Men are more frequently employed than women in executive and administrative positions in large library systems and in special libraries concerned with science and technology. Most librarians work in cities and towns. Those attached to bookmobile units serve widely scat tered population groups mostly in suburban or rural areas. Increasingly, rural libraries are being organized into systems with centralized reference and technical services. The headquarters for these library organizations are frequently in the largest town or the governmental seat of the region or county served. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To qualify as a professional librarian, one must ordinarily have completed a course of study in a library school. This usually means 5 years of col lege—four to meet requirements for a bachelor’s degree and a fifth year or more of specialized study in library science, after which the master’s degree is conferred. A growing proportion of the persons in administrative and other high-level library positions have such training. A Ph. D. degree is an advantage to those who plan a teach ing career in library schools or who aspire to a top administrative post, particularly in a college or university library or in a large school library system. In 1962, there were 31 graduate schools in the United States which were accredited by the Amer ican Library Association. Approximately 70 other institutions also conferred library science degrees at either the undergraduate or graduate level or both. Many other colleges offer courses within their 4-year undergraduate programs which pre pare students for some types of library work. Entrance requirements to graduate schools of library science commonly include: (1) Graduation from an accredited 4-year college or university, (2) a good undergraduate record, and (3). a read ing knowledge of a foreign language. Some schools also require introductory undergraduate courses in library science. Most library schools emphasize the importance of a liberal arts under graduate program with a major selected from one of the following: Social sciences, physical and biological sciences, the arts, or comparative literature. Special librarians must have extensive knowl edge of the subject with which their work will deal, as well as training in library science. In libraries devoted to scientific information, the librarian must know one or more languages well. Subject matter specialists in other libraries may also be required to know foreign languages. Many students attend library schools under cooperative work-study programs, combining their academic program with practical work ex perience in a library. To aid the student in arrang ing his work-study schedule, many schools have adopted the policy of offering all courses every semester. Scholarships for training in library science are available from certain State and Fed 243 eral funds and from library schools, as well as from a number of the large libraries and library associations. School librarians must be certified in all States as having met the requirements for both librar ians and teachers. Certification of public librar ians is required in 22 States and is optional in 11 other States. Other requirements, based on differ ent combinations of education and experience, are sometimes established by local, county, or State authorities. In the Federal Government, comple tion of a 4-year college course, including at least 24 hours of library science or the equivalent in experience, is required for beginning positions; candidates with a year of graduate work in library science are eligible for appointment to a higher grade. In addition to an appropriate educational back ground, a person interested in becoming a librar ian should have above-average intelligence, an interest in people, an attraction to books, intel lectual curiosity, an ability to express himself clearly, a desire to search for and use recorded materials, and an ability to work harmoniously with others. Experienced librarians may advance to admin istrative positions or to specialized work. Promo tion to these higher positions may be limited, however, to those who have completed graduate training in library school, or to those who have had specialized training and experience. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for trained librarians is expected to be excellent for the remainder of the 1960 decade. A nationwide shortage of trained librarians was reported in early 1963, by library schools, associations, the U.S. Office of Education, and other sources. This situation is expected to persist despite the anticipated rise in the number of library school graduates. Thus, it appears that employment opportunities will exist in most parts of the country and in all types of libraries. The greatest shortage areas will probably continue to be in cataloging, children’s work, school libraries, extension work, and in special library services. As long as there is a shortage of fully trained librarians, persons who have only a bachelor’s degree with a major in library science, as well as some college graduates who have had little or no 244 library training, will continue to find employment opportunities in libraries. Many part-time posi tions will also be available for persons trained in library work. Retired librarians should be able to find employment and short-term positions as consultants, as substitutes for librarians during vacation periods, or in other types of library work. Jobs for library assistants will also be avail able for college students or other persons inter ested in gaining library experience. Over the long run, the demand for full pro fessional librarians to meet the requirements of a growing and increasingly well-educated popula tion will be intensified by the vast and continuing expansion in the volume and variety of materials which must be processed for reader use. Also, because of the ever-increasing demands upon highlevel executives in business and industry, manage ment will tend to rely more heavily on the serv ices of special librarians to keep abreast of new developments. The extension of Federal aid to rural libraries will further increase the demand for librarians. Improved standards for school and college libraries and the expanding student popu lation will also necessitate the employment of a growing number of fully trained librarians. Fur thermore, as new methods of storing and retriev ing information by means of computer equipment are developed, demand will increase for librar ians who are specialists in this area. Especially well-qualified librarians will probably continue to find some opportunities for employment in American libraries overseas. Several thousand librarians will also be needed each year to fill positions vacated by young women who leave their jobs to take care of their families, and to replace librarians who transfer to other types of work, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions The annual average starting salary of new li brary school graduates was $5,365 in 1961, accord ing to a private survey. Specialists with extensive experience earned up to $15,000 or more. Degree of responsibility and technical skill required, as well as geographical location, size, and type of library are important factors which determine librarians’ salaries. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In the Federal Government, the annual en trance salary for librarians with a bachelor’s de gree was $4,565 in early 1963; for those with a master’s degree it was $5,540. Many in supervisory and administrative positions earned salaries rang ing from about $11,000 to $16,000, and a few earned more. Annual starting salaries of special librarians with a master’s degree in library science generally ranged from $5,200 to $6,000 in 1962, according to the Special Libraries Association. Head librar ians in special libraries earned salaries which ranged from about $8,000 in business libraries to $10,000 and over in science libraries. Scientific information-retrieval specialists earned as much as $15,000 annually. The annual salaries of library directors in col leges and universities averaged $7,300 in private institutions and $10,000 in public institutions in 1962, according to the U.S. Office of Education. A few in large universities earned as much as $20,000. In junior colleges, average salaries of library directors ranged from $5,400 in private institutions to $7,300 in public institutions. School librarians usually have the same pay scale as teachers. The typical workweek for librarians is 5 days and from 35 to 40 hours. The work schedule of public and college librarians may include some Saturday, Sunday, and evening work. School li brarians generally have the same workday sched ule as classroom teachers. A 40-hour week during normal business hours is common for government and other special librarians. The usual paid vacation after a year’s service is 3 to 4 weeks. Vacations may be longer in school libraries, and somewhat shorter in those operated by business and industry. Many librarians are covered by sick leave; life, health, and accident insurance; and pension plans. Where To Go for More Information Additional information, particularly on accred ited schools, certification requirements, and schol arships or loans may be obtained from: American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 111., 60611. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Information on requirements and placement of special librarians may be obtained from: Special Libraries Association, 31 East 10th St., New York, N.Y., 10003. Additional information on employment oppor tunities for librarians and about library develop ment may be obtained from: 245 Library Services Branch, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 20202. Individual State library agencies can furnish information on scholarships available through their offices, on requirements for certification, as well as general information about career prospects in their regions. State boards of education can furnish information on certification requirements and job opportunities for school librarians. Newspaper Reporters (D.O.T. 0-06.71) Nature of Work Newspaper reporters gather information on current events and write stories for publication in daily or weekly newspapers. They interview people, review public records, observe events, and do research. As a rule, reporters take brief notes while collecting facts and write their stories upon return to the office. Sometimes, to meet deadlines, they telephone their stories to “dictationists” or give the information by phone to other staff mem bers known as “rewrite men,” who write the stories for them. Large dailies frequently assign some reporters^ to “beats,” such as police stations or the courts, to cover news originating in these places, whereas other local news is handled by general assignment reporters. News on certain subjects, such as sports, politics, science, and religion, is dealt with, to an increasing extent, by specialists in these fields. Reporters on small newspapers get broad experi ence ; they not only cover all aspects of local news but may also take photographs, write headlines, lay out inside pages, and even write editorials. On the smallest weeklies, they may also solicit advertisements, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. Newspaper reporting is only one of several oc cupations open to young people trained in journa lism. Persons with this background may also work for magazines, trade, business, and labor publications, and other periodicals; for radio and television stations, advertising agencies, and pub lic relations firms; and for government agencies. These related activities are not covered in this statement. Reporters preparing news stories in city room Where Employed ^ OQO An estimated 25,000-^ifpM® newspaper report ers were employed in the United States in 1962. The majority worked for daily newspapers; most of the others worked for weekly papers. In addi tion, some reporters were employed by press serv ices and newspaper syndicates. Reporters work in cities and towns of all sizes throughout the country. Of the approximately 1,800 daily and 9,000 weekly newspapers, the great majority are in medium-size towns, often in the suburbs of large cities. Large numbers of report ers, however, are in cities, since big city dailies employ many reporters, wdiereas a small-town paper generally employs only a few. 246 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although talented writers with little or no academic training beyond high school sometimes become reporters, an increasing number of news papers will consider only applicants with a col lege education. Some editors prefer those with a degree in journalism; others consider a degree in liberal arts equally desirable. Professional training leading to a bachelor’s de gree in journalism can be obtained in more than 150 colleges; about 100 of these have separate de partments or schools of journalism. The typical undergraduate journalism curriculum is offered during the junior and senior years of college and is divided about equally between cultural and pro fessional subjects. Students preparing to become newspaper reporters take professional subjects such as reporting, copyreading, editing, feature writing, and the history of journalism. A number of ‘schools award the master’s degree in journal ism, but only a few offer programs leading to the doctor’s degree in this field. Young people who wish to prepare for news paper work through a liberal arts course should take English including specialized courses in writing, as well as such subjects as sociology, political science, economics, history, and psy chology. Those who look forward to becoming technical writers or to reporting in a special field such as science should concentrate course work in their subject matter areas to the maximum extent possible. (See Handbook statement on Technical Writers.) Those without college training usually qualify by gaining experience on rural, small town, or suburban papers. Writing ability is fundamental to success in this field. Other personal characteristics of importance are a “nose for news,” persistence, initiative, re sourcefulness, an accurate memory, and the phys ical stamina necessary for an active and often fast-paced life. Skill in typing is useful since re porters often type their own news stories. In beginning jobs on small papers, a knowledge of news photography is also valuable. Many beginners start on weekly or small daily newspapers. Some outstanding college graduates, how.ever, are hired directly for reporting positions by papers that prefer to train them on-the-job. Others, also usually college graduates, start on large city papers as copy boys, acting as messen OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK gers or office boys. They may be promoted to reporting jobs as they gain experience and as openings arise. In competing for regular positions, it is helpful to have had experience as a “stringer”—one who covers the news in a particular area of the com munity for a newspaper and is paid on the basis of the stories printed. Experience on a high school or college newspaper may also be helpful in ob taining employment. Beginning reporters are first assigned to such work as summarizing speeches, covering civic and club meetings, writing obituaries, interviewing visitors to the community, and covering police court proceedings and minor new-s events. As they gain experience, they may advance to covering more important developments or to a “beat” or special subject. Reporters with extensive experi ence may become rewrite men or copy editors. Newspapermen also progress to reporting jobs with larger papers or with press services and newspaper syndicates. Some experienced reporters advance to positions such as columnists, corre spondent, editor, or to top executive positions or become publishers, but these positions represent the top of the field and competition for them is keen. Other reporters transfer to related fields such as advertising, radio, television, or public relations. Employment Outlook Well-qualified beginners with writing talent will have good employment opportunities in the middle and late 1960’s. In early 1963, newspaper editors were actively seeking young reporters with exceptional talent. Other beginners, however, were facing keen competition for jobs, especially on large city dailies, and wTill probably continue to do so. In addition to seeking young reporters with exceptional talent, editors w7ere also looking for reporters who were qualified to handle news about atomic energy, military developments, labor, and other highly specialized or technical subjects. Weekly or daily newspapers located in small towns and suburban areas will continue to offer the most opportunities for beginners to enter newspaper reporting. Openings continually arise on these papers as young people gain experience and transfer to reporting jobs on larger news papers or to other types of work. Moreover, the OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS number of newspapers in suburban areas is in creasing, and many of the existing ones are ex panding their staffs to satisfy the need for more detailed community news. Preference in employ ment on small papers is likely to be given to beginning reporters who are able to help with photography and other specialized aspects of newspaper work and who are acquainted with the community. Large city dailies will also provide openings for inexperienced people with a good educational background as well as a flair for writing to enter as reporter trainees, and a number of opportuni ties will continue to be available for young people to enter as copy boys and advance to reporting jobs. In addition to jobs in newspaper reporting, newT college graduates with journalism training will find numerous openings in related fields, such as advertising, public relations, trade and technical publishing, radio, and television. The broad field of mass communication, wdiich has grown rapidly in recent years, will continue to expand through out the 1960 decade. Factors pointing toward con tinuing expansion include rising levels of educa tion and income; increasing expenditures for newspaper, radio, and television advertising; and a growing number of trade and technical journals and various types of company publications. News papers will share in this growth. Employment of reporters is expected to increase, although not as fast as employment in some related areas. The greatest number of job openings will continue to arise from the need to replace reporters who are promoted to editorial or other positions, transfer to other fields of work, retire, or leave the pro fession for other reasons. Special opportunities for women will continue to be found in reporting on such subjects as so ciety news, food, fashions, clubs, and beauty cul ture for the women’s section of newspapers. Many women reporters, however, have the same types of job assignments as men. Earnings and Working Conditions Many daily newspapers have negotiated con tracts with the American Newspaper Guild which set minimum wages based on experience and pro 247 vide for annual salary increases. Papers with Guild contracts often pay salaries higher than the minimum rates called for in their contracts. Par ticularly successful, experienced reporters on city dailies may earn more than $200 a week. In early 1963, the minimum starting salaries on most daily newspapers with Guild contracts ranged from $60 to $98 a week for reporters with no previous experience. On a few small dailies, the Guild minimum starting salaries were less than $65 a week; on a few large dailies, Guild minimum rates for beginning reporters ranged between $95 and $110 a week. Young people starting as copy boys earn less than new reporters—minimum Guild rates for copy boys with some experience ranged from about $46 to slightly more than $80 a week. On most dailies, minimum Guild rates for re porters with some experience (usually for those with 4 to 7 years) ranged from about $113 to $165 a week in early 1963. Contract minimums for ex perienced reporters on a few small dailies were less than $115 a week; on a few large dailies they were from $165 to $175 a week. Newspaper reporters on big city papers fre quently work 7 or 7% hours a day, 5 days a week; most other reporters generally work an 8-hour day, 40-hour week. Many of those employed by morning papers start work in the afternoon and finish about midnight. City papers pay overtime rates for work performed after the regularly scheduled workday or for more than 40 hours of work a week; they often provide various employee benefits such as paid vacations, group insurance, and pensions. Where To Go for More Information Information about opportunities with daily newspapers may be obtained from: American Newspaper Publishers Association, 750 Third Ave., New York, N.Y., 10017. Information on opportunities in the newspaper field as well as a list of scholarships, fellowships, assistantships, and loans available at colleges and universities, may be obtained from: The Newspaper Fund, Inc., 44 Broad St., New York, N.Y., 10004. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 248 Sigma Delta Chi, 35 East Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111., 60601. Information on union wage rates is available from: American Newspaper Guild, Research Department, 1126 16th St. NW, Washington, D.C., 20036. Names and locations of all daily newspapers and a list of departments and schools of journalism are published in the Editor & Publisher Interna tional Yearbook, available in most large news paper offices and public libraries. Photographers (D.O.T. 0-56.01 through .31) Nature of Work Photography is both an artistic and a technical occupation, involving much more than taking clear pictures of people or views. Some photog raphers produce pictures which are so beautifully composed, otherwise artistic, and striking that they are recognized as works of fine art. Skillful portrait photographers take pictures which are not only natural looking and attractive, but express the personality of the individual. In tak ing pictures for advertising and other commercial purposes, the photographer has to understand how the picture is to be used and plan to take it in such a way as to achieve the desired effect. Photo graphing sports and other news events also calls for special photographic skills, as do other branches of photographic work. In taking pictures, photographers use a variety of cameras—miniature (35 mm.), still, motion picture, and others. The cameras may be equipped with telescopic, wide-angle, or other special lenses and with different types of light filters, to enable the photographer to get the particular effects desired in each picture. Photographers also utilize many kinds of film and must know which to use for each type of picture, lighting condition, camera, and filter. When taking pictures indoors or after dark, they use lighting equipment—flash bulbs for some pictures, flood and other special lights and reflectors for others. In addition, photographers must understand and be able to carry through the chemical and other processing by which pictures are developed, enlarged, and printed. In small shops and photographic depart ments, the photographer often has to do all this technical work. This may be required also in large studios, but, as a rule, such studios employ photo graphic technicians to do the needed technical work. The techniques involved in taking motion pictures differ greatly from those used in still photography and, therefore, most photographers restrict themselves to one field or the other. Many professional photographers specialize. The most common specialties are portrait work, commercial photography, and industrial photog raphy. Portrait photographers work in their own studios, though they also go to people’s homes and other places to take pictures. Commercial photog raphers generally take pictures for use in adver tising real estate, furniture, food, apparel, and other items, but they may also do other kinds of photographic work. Industrial photographers work for a single firm or company, mainly taking pictures that are used in company publications and for advertising company products or services. They may take motion pictures of workers on the job and of equipment and machinery operating at high speed to simplify work methods or to improve the production process. Other photo- Skillful portrait photographers capture the individual's personality OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS graphic specialties include press photography (photo journalism that combines a “nose for news” with photographic ability); aerial photography; educational photography (preparing slides, film strips, and movies for use in the classroom); and scientific photography (taking pictures for use in scientific research or technical journals). Some photographers write for trade and technical publications, teach photography in schools and colleges, act as representatives of photographic equipment manufacturers, manage photofinishing establishments, sell photographic equipment and supplies, produce documentary films, or do freelance work. Where Employed About 55,000 photographers were employed in 1962. Roughly half of them worked in portrait or commercial studios—many in business for them selves, the rest as salaried employees. In addition, sizable numbers were employed in industry; some worked for Federal, State, and local government agencies; and others operated camera stores or worked on the staffs of newspapers and magazines. Still others worked as freelance photographers, taking pictures of many kinds and selling them to advertisers, magazines, and other customers. Photographers w^ork in all parts of the country, in small towns as well as large cities. They are, however, mainly concentrated in States which are heavily populated—New York, Pennsylvania, California, Ohio, and Illinois—and which also have great numbers of businesses and industrial establishments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement After graduating from high school, young people may prepare for work as professional photographers through 2 or 3 years of on-the-job training in a portrait or commercial studio. A trainee generally starts by working in the dark room, where he learns how to develop and print film and to do other related work such as making enlargements. Later, he may set up lights and cameras or otherwise assist an experienced photog rapher in taking pictures. Photographic training can also be obtained in many colleges and universities, trade schools, and technical institutes, or by taking correspondence school courses. 249 Several colleges and universities offer 4-year curriculums leading to a bachelor’s degree with a major in photography. These curriculums include liberal arts courses as well as courses in professional photography. A few institutions have 2-year curriculums leading to a certificate or an associate degree in photography. Training in design, at art schools or institutes, is also useful, although these schools usually do not provide the technical training for camera work. (See state ment on Commercial Artists.) The kind and amount of training obtained greatly influence the kind of photographic work for which a young person can qualify. Amateur photographic experience may be helpful to the young person considering entry jobs in this field. Considerable formal post-high school training, plus some photographic experience, is usually needed to enter the fields of industrial, news, or scientific photography. Photographic work in scientific and engineering research generally re quires an engineering background as well as skill in photography. The prospective photographer should have manual dexterity and some artistic ability. In ad dition, a pleasant personality, the ability to put people at ease, and a good business sense are needed by photographers who expect to go into business for themselves. Imagination and original ity are particularly important for those aspiring to careers in commercial photography or freelance work. For press photography, a knowledge of news values and the ability to act quickly are important. Beginning photographers often work in estab lished studios until they accumulate the capital and experience needed to start their own businesses, although some open their own portrait or commercial studios immediately after com pleting their training. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities are expected to be favorable through the middle and late 1960’s for talented and well-trained photographers. Such photographers should find work readily in most parts of the country. People with less ability and training are likely to encounter keen competition and also to have limited chances of advancement. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 250 The greatest number of job openings will stem from the need to replace those photographers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The portrait and commercial fields of photog raphy were crowded in 1962, and this situation is likely to persist. These fields may be easily entered, since a photographer can go into business for him self without a large financial investment. More over, the available supply of portrait and com mercial photographers is continually enlarged by people who are employed in other occupations but who take pictures in their spare time. On the other hand, a strong demand existed for industrial photographers and other specialists with a thor ough knowledge of photography as well as some training in a technical or scientific field. Over the long run, a moderate increase in employment of photographers is expected, with the growth in population. The movement of families to the suburbs will create some opportu nities for photographers to open portrait studios in the new shopping centers. Other factors which point toward more employment opportunities for photographers are the more widespread produc tion of film strips and motion pictures for use of business and industry, civic organizations, and government; and increasing use of photographers in research and development in the missile and other scientific fields. The employment of indus trial photographers is expected to rise at a more rapid rate than that of either portrait or commer cial photographers. Advertising photography, on the other hand, may decline somewhat over the next few years, unless the popular magazines—the chief users of this kind of photography—return to a higher level of sales. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning photographers generally earned from $60 to $80 a week in 1962, according to limited information from various private sources. Many photographers with established reputations earned much more. For newspaper photographers without previous experience and employed on daily newspapers having contracts with the American Newspaper Guild, minimum salaries were usually between $60 and $98 weekly. Min imum rates for photographers with some experi ence (usually 4 to 6 years) ranged from $113 to about $165 a week on most dailies organized by the Guild. Photographers with an engineering back ground who work with engineers and scientists usually receive beginning salaries of from $6,000 to $8,000 a year. The entrance salary for inexpe rienced photographers in the Federal Civil Service was $3,665 a year; for those with at least 1 year of routine photographic experience, it was $3,925 a year. In addition, the salary schedule provides for periodic increases above this amount. Most experienced photographers in the Federal Government earn $4,565 or more a year; only a few earn over $10,000 annually. Self-employed photographers generally earn more than salaried workers, but their earnings are greatly affected by business conditions, their workweek, and many other factors. Photographers with salaried jobs usually work the standard 5-day, 40-hour week and receive benefits such as paid holidays, vacations, and sick leave. Photographers in business for themselves frequently work longer hours, especially during their busy seasons. Working conditions are generally pleasant. Freelance, press, and commer cial photographers may be required to travel frequently. Where To Go for More Information Information about photography as a career, as well as a list of schools of photography, is avail able from: Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 151 West Wisconsin Ave., Milwaukee, Wis., 53203. Programers (D.O.T. 0-69.981) Nature of Work The occupation of programer is one of the very newest—as new as the electronic computer. Cortiputers, although sometimes called “mechani cal brains,” can only follow carefully prepared instructions as to what they are to do on each job. The programer prepares these step-by-step instructions. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS A computer not only makes mathematical calculations at fantastic speeds but stores many thousands of facts in its “memory” which it later uses to carry out its work. Because of their enor mous speed and other capacities, computers are used for a great deal of work (or “data process ing”) which might otherwise require the time of many employees. They handle such varied assign ments as making up payrolls, controlling produc tion machinery in factories, and regulating the movement of trains. They have been used for work which otherwise would not be attempted on the same scale because of the time involved—an alyzing masses of information about operating costs and potential markets, for example, in order to enable business firms to decide on the most advantageous location for a new plant; and they have accomplished things that would otherwise be impossible—such as controlling the flight of a missile by instantaneously correcting deviations from the planned course. Still other “problems” for which computers have been used include studying the structure of chemical compounds, designing aircraft and missiles, doing legal research, and translating books into Braille for the blind. Every problem processed on a computer must first be carefully analyzed so that plans can be made for processing the data in the most efficient manner. In some cases, this work is done by an experienced programer; in others, it is done by specialists known as methods analysts, project planners, or systems analysts. Once general plans have been completed, the programer is ready to start writing the “pro gram,” or detailed plan for processing the data on the computer. Exactly how he does this depends on the nature of the problem being programed. The mathematical calculations involved in prepar ing a payroll, for example, are very different from those required in most kinds of scientific and technical work. The programing techniques are also very different. Special techniques are required also in writing programing “aids” which reduce the amount of detail associated with programing. Because of these differences, many programers are specialists in certain types of work. Under most circumstances, the programer starts preparing instructions for a computer by confer 251 ring with professional staff members and other officials in his organization who are in a position to furnish him with detailed information about the subject matter of the problem. If the computer is to be used to make up a payroll, for example, he first determines which facts must be used in order to calculate each employee’s paycheck and he finds out the exact form in which these facts—wage rates, hours worked, deductions to be made, and other payroll information—are entered on the company’s records. This done, he makes a flow chart, or diagram, showing the order in which the computer must perform each operation, and for each operation he prepares detailed instructions. These instructions, once they have been trans ferred to the computer’s memory, tell the machine exactly what to do with all of the facts and figures associated with the problem. The pro gramer is also responsible for preparing an instruction sheet for the console operator to follow when the program is run on the computer. (The Programer prepares a flow chart 252 work of the console operator is described in the chapter on Clerical and Related Occupations. See index for page number.) The final step in programing is “debugging”— that is, checking on whether the instructions have been correctly written and will produce the desired information. A program is usually debugged in two steps. First, the programer takes a sample of the data to be processed and reviews step by step just what will happen as the computer follows the series of instructions which make up the program. Then, after he has revised the instructions to take care of any difficulties that have appeared, he completes the testing by making a trial run on the computer. The console operator sometimes helps with this part of the debugging process. A comparatively simple program can be made ready for a computer within a very few days. A program which deals with a complex problem or is designed to produce many different kinds of information may require a year or more of preparation—sometimes by a large number of programers. On involved problems, several pro gramed at different levels of responsibility often work as a team, under the supervision of a senior programer. Where Employed No exact figures are available on the number of programers. Industry spokesmen estimated the total employed full time in this work in 1962 at more than 50,000. In addition, a great many workers spend part of their time programing. A considerable number of these are engineers, scientists, economists, accountants, and other professional workers, whose programing duties require specialized training in other fields or else are incidental to other major job responsibilities. Programers are employed chiefly in metropoli tan centers wThere large business organizations and government agencies are located. A great many work for insurance companies, public utilities, wholesale and retail establishments, and manufac turing firms of almost every kind. A considerably smaller number are government employees doing work related either to scientific and technical problems or to the processing of the vast amount OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of paperwork which must be handled in many government offices. In addition, a growing number of programers are employed in service centers which furnish computer and programing services to business firms and other organizations on a fee basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most programers are chosen for their jobs because they are judged to have an aptitude for the work and have had training or experience related to the problems to be programed. As a rule, they learn the programing techniques they will need only after they are hired for this work. The special abilities most sought after are similar in all kinds of programing, but requirements with respect to education and experience may be very different, depending on the nature of the problems with which the programer will be dealing. For example, some people in this occupation are college graduates with degrees in engineering, whereas others have had years of experience in such work as accounting or inventory control. In selecting programers, employers look for people with an aptitude for logical thinking and the exacting kind of analysis which is part of the job. Prospective programers are often required to take special tests which indicate whether they possess the high degree of reasoning ability required. In addition, programers should have a great deal of patience and persistence and be able to work with extreme accuracy, follow instructions carefully, and express themselves clearly in writ ing and orally. Ingenuity and imagination are very desirable traits, since programers often have to work out new ways of arriving at solutions to problems. Practically all organizations which use their computers for scientific and engineering work require their programers to be college graduates with degrees in engineering, physics, or mathe matics. Graduate degrees may be required for some positions; for almost all, an applicant who has no college training is at a severe disadvantage. Employers who use computers to process business records generally place somewhat less emphasis on the need for college training. Many regard previous experience in related work—in machine tabulation, for example, or in payroll OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS work or accounting—equally important and fill many of their programer positions by promoting qualified employees with such experience. How ever, when they find it necessary to hire outsiders, an increasing number give preference to appli cants with education beyond high school. They regard college courses in the general field of elec tronic data processing, or in accounting, business administration, engineering, and mathematics as especially good preparation. Entrance requirements for jobs in the Federal Government are approximately the same as those in private industry. For practically all entry programer positions in the Government, persons hired must have a college degree, preferably with training in mathematics, or else they must have had the equivalent of such preparation in previous work experience. Young people interested in programing jobs can acquire some of the necessary skills at a steadily increasing number of technical schools, colleges, and universities. The instruction available ranges from home study and extension courses to work in computer technology at the graduate level. Courses in computer programing are also open to students in a few city high schools. High school and post-high school instruction does not entirely eliminate the need for on-the-job training, how ever. Since technological changes are continually taking place in this field and each type of computer has its own special programing require ments, training is usually necessary even in the case of experienced “oldtimers” who change from one job to another. Most programers starting out on the job attend training classes for a few weeks and then, as they work on minor programing assignments, continue with further specialized training. A year or more of experience is usually necessary before a pro gramer can handle all aspects of his job without close supervision. Once he becomes skilled at it, his prospects for further advancement are good. An experienced and capable programer in an organization, employing several people in this occupation may move up to a senior job with supervisory responsibilities. Promotion to a position as methods analyst may also be possible. Still other programers may advance to man agement positions with their firms. 253 Employment Outlook Many thousands of new jobs will become avail able each year during the remainder of the 1960’s. Employment in enterprises of all kinds is ex pected to rise, with a particularly sharp increase in firms which use computers to process business records or to control manufacturing processes. Some industry spokesmen have estimated that, by 1970, the number of programers will be at least four times what it was in 1962. The field can be expected to offer excellent opportunities for women as well as for men. Over the long run, employment is expected to continue rising rapidly—as it has ever since the mid-1950’s when computers ceased to be a rarity. Despite the many changes and improvements which have already taken place, computer technology is still in a comparatively early stage of development. Undoubtedly further changes will render computers even more useful to business and government and, as this happens, the number of computer installations will increase and many more programers will be needed. The rise in employment may well be accom panied by changes in the nature of the work done by programers because of changes which can be expected in computer technology. Already, some of the time-consuming and routine work associated with writing a program is being eliminated by innovations such as “ automatic programing,” the use of programs and parts of programs stored in libraries for future use, and other advances in techniques and in equipment. In the future, the task of preparing a program may thus develop into two quite different types of work—one requiring a highly trained and experienced specialist responsible for preliminary analysis and planning and for developing pro grams for specialized computer applications; the other requiring an employee who will work primarily as a technician on the detailed machine instructions which comprise the program. These changes may alter training requirements. For some kinds of programing assignments, undergraduate and graduate study is likely to become in creasingly important. For other work, programers may no longer need the kind of technical knowledge now required; there is some evidence, for example, that 2 years of intensive training at the post-high school level, with emphasis on OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 254 higher mathematics and physics, may provide sufficient background to enable programers to handle some kinds of assignments in scientific and engineering fields. The new jobs that are created will provide most of the openings for programers in the years ahead. However, other openings will result as pro gramers advance to more responsible positions or leave their jobs to enter other types of employ ment. Because this is still a small occupation which includes many comparatively young workers, few positions are likely to become vacant because of retirement or death. Earnings and Working Conditions Average salaries for programers employed by business firms ranged from $5,000 a year for beginners in 1962, to about $8,000 for experienced programers, according to a private survey which covered over 500 companies in all parts of the country. For programers with supervisory duties, the averages ranged up to $10,000 a year, arid for systems analysts, still higher. The survey indicated substantial differences in the salaries of the lowest and highest paid individuals in the same kinds of positions, however—differences which were prob ably due to the kind of data processed, the kind of computer used, and the industry involved and its location. The salaries paid programers in engi neering installations, for example, were generally somewhat higher than in other kinds of firms. In some metropolitan areas, according to limited information available, many highly skilled pro gramers earn considerably more than $10,000 a year. Federal Government salaries for programers are comparable with those in private industry. The great majority earn between $5,500 and $12,000 a year. The minimum entrance salary for beginners was $4,565 a year in early 1963 and top salaries paid experienced programers responsible for complex programing or supervisory and administrative work ranged up to $15,000 or more a year. The standard workweek for programers is usually the same—35 to 40 hours—as the work week for other professional and office workers. Unlike many computer console and peripheral equipment operators who work on a 2- or 3-shift basis, programers usually work only during the day. Occasionally evening or weekend work may be necessary—for example, when it proves particularly difficult to “debug” a program. Work places are usually modern offices, welllighted and air conditioned. Employers recognize the desirability of providing better-than-average work surroundings insofar as possible, because programers working under such conditions can concentrate more readily on the very exacting kind of analysis which is an essential part of their job. Where To Go for More Information Additional information about the occupation of programer and about high school and post-high school training facilities may be obtained from : Data Processing Management Association, 524 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111., 60068. A list of reading materials on career opportu nities in programing may be obtained from: Association for Computing Machinery, 211 East 43d St., New York, N.Y., 10016. School counselors may obtain a copy of the pamphlet Careers in Electronic Data Processing, which has been prepared by the National Science Teachers Association and provides information on the occupation of programer from: Project on Information Processing, Box 201, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, N.J., 07087. Psychologists (D.O.T. 0-36.21 through .26) Nature of Work Psychologists seek to understand people and explain their actions. They study the behavior of individuals and groups and often help individuals to achieve satisfactory personal adjustments. Their work includes varied activities such as teaching in colleges and universities, counseling individuals, planning and conducting training programs for workers, doing research, advising on psychological methods and theories, and admin OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS istering psychology programs in hospitals, clinics, research laboratories, and other places. Psychologists may obtain information in several ways about people’s capacities, traits, and behavior. They may interview and observe in dividuals, develop and use tests and rating scales, study personal histories, and conduct controlled experiments. In addition, psychologists often conduct surveys, either orally or by circulating questionnaires. Some of their work is of a highly statistical nature. Since no one person can know all there is to know about behavior,, psychologists usually specialize in one of the many interrelated branches of the profession. Clinical psychologists are the largest group of specialists. Generally, they work in mental hospitals or clinics and are concerned mainly with problems of maladjusted or disturbed people. They interview patients, give diagnostic tests, and provide individual and group psycho therapy. Other specialties in psychology include experimental psychology (the study of basic learning and motivation); developmental psychol ogy (the study of special age groups such as young children, teenagers, and the aged); social psychol ogy (the study of the social forces that affect in dividuals and groups) ; comparative psychology (sometimes called animal psychology); physio logical psychology (the relationship of behavior to physiological processes); counseling psychol ogy (helping people achieve satisfactory personal, social, educational, or occupational adjustments); educational psychology (the study of educational processes); industrial psychology (developing techniques for selecting and training workers and improving worker motivation and morale); and engineering psychology (the study of manmachine and other complex system relationships). 255 of the total. Government agencies—Federal, State, and local—employ the second largest group. Within the Federal Government, the agencies which have the most psychologists are the Vet erans Administration, the Department of Defense, and the Public Health Service of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Many psychologists also work for elementary and secondary schools, for private industry, and for nonprofit foundations, hospitals, and clinics. A small number are in independent practice, and some serve as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces and the Public Health Service. In addition to positions with the title “psychologist,” many personnel and administrative jobs are filled by persons trained in psychology. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, the master’s degree with a major in psychology is the minimum educational require ment for professional employment in the field. Psychologists with this degree can qualify for jobs such as assisting in the administration and inter pretation of psychological tests, collecting and analyzing statistical data, assisting in research experiments, and performing routine administra tive duties. In addition, they may teach in colleges, assist in counseling students or handicapped per sons, or—if they have had previous teaching ex perience—act as school psychologists or counselors. Where Employed The places where psychologists work range from college classrooms to hospital wards and from research laboratories to business offices. Most are employed in large cities and in university towns, but some are on the staffs of institutions located in rural areas. Altogether, between 25,000 and 30,000 psychologists were professionally employed in early 1963. Colleges and universities employ the largest number of psychologists—more than one-third Courtesy of National Institutes of Health Psychologist uses the "Psychomet" to measure individual's reaction speed 256 (See statements on school counselors and rehabili tation counselors.) Because of the current shortage of psychologists, applicants with only a bachelor’s degree with a major in psychology may be hired for certain jobs in work related to psychology or other fields where training in psychology is helpful. The Ph. D. is needed for many entrance posi tions and is becoming increasingly important for advancement. Psychologists with doctorates are eligible for the more responsible research, clinical, and counseling positions, as well as for the higher level positions in colleges and universities, and in Federal and State programs. At least 1 year of full-time graduate study is needed to earn the master’s degree, and most stu dents take longer. For the Ph. D. degree, a total of 4 or 5 years of graduate work is usually re quired. In clinical or counseling psychology, the requirements for the Ph. D. degree generally in clude 1 year of internship or supervised experi ence. The American Board of Examiners in Profes sional Psychology offers diplomas in the special ties of clinical, counseling, and industrial psy chology to those with outstanding educational records and experience who can pass the required examinations. Some universities require an undergraduate major in psychology for admission to graduate work in that field. Others prefer students with a broader educational preparation, including not only some basic psychology courses but also courses in the biological and physical sciences, statistics, and mathematics. Many graduate students receive financial help from universities and other sources in the form of fellowships, scholarships, or part-time employ ment. Several Federal agencies provide funds to graduate students, generally through the educa tional institution giving the training. The Veter ans Administration offers a large number of predoctoral traineeships, during which time the students receive payments. The Public Health Service of the U.S. Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare supports doctoral study in psy chology by providing funds for predoctoral and postdoctoral traineeships and research fellow ships. In addition, the National Science Founda tion and the U.S. Office of Education offer large OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK programs of financial aid, including fellowships, grants, and loans. Psychologists desiring to enter independent practice must meet certification or licensing re quirements in an increasing number of States. In early 1963, the following 21 States had such requirements: Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Minne sota, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, and Washington. Employment Outlook Employment Opportunities for psychologists with doctor’s degrees will probably continue to be excellent throughout the middle and late 1960’s. Psychologists with master’s degrees are likely to be in considerable demand but their opportunities for full professional employment will be less fa vorable than for those with the Ph. D. degree. In early 1963, the American Psychological Associa tion estimated that there were many more vacan cies than there were qualified psychologists to fill them. A great shortage of clinical psychologists existed in State mental hospitals and mental hy giene clinics; psychologists were being sought to fill vacancies in both elementary and secondary schools; and a number of openings in research, clinical, and counseling positions were reported by several agencies of the Federal Government. Continued rapid expansion of this profession is likely, particularly in view of the increasing em phasis on comprehensive community mental health centers. A large increase is anticipated in the number of psychologists employed by State agencies. Cur rently understaffed mental hospitals and mental hygiene clinics will need many clinical, counseling, social, and physiological psychologists. Prisons, training schools, and other State institutions are expected to use psychologists more extensively in the future. Increasing awareness of the need for testing and counseling children, plus growing school en rollments, are expected to increase the employ ment of psychologists in both elementary and secondary schools. In colleges and universities, more psychologists will be needed in student per sonnel work, as well as in teaching. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) The trend OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS toward greater use of psychological techniques by private industry is likely to continue, thereby creating new openings for experimental, in dustrial, personnel, and human engineering specialists. Many openings for psychologists with Ph. D. de